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who sang i'll be there for you friends | I 'll Be There for You (the Rembrandts song) - wikipedia
"I 'll Be There for You '' is a song recorded by the American duo The Rembrandts. It is best known as the theme song to the American sitcom Friends, which premiered during 1994 and ended in 2004. The song was also released as the first single from the group 's third studio album LP.
"I 'll Be There for You '' was co-written by Friends producers David Crane and Marta Kauffman, Kauffman 's husband, composer Michael Skloff, and songwriter Allee Willis, along with Phil Sōlem and Danny Wilde, both of the Rembrandts. It is strongly influenced by The Beatles, especially reminiscent of the "I Feel Fine '' guitar riff, and is also highly reminiscent of The Monkees ' "Pleasant Valley Sunday. ''
The original theme, which is under one minute long, was later re-recorded as a three - minute pop song. After Nashville program director Charlie Quinn, along with radio announcer and music director Tom Peace, looped the original short version into a full - length track and broadcast it on radio station WYHY, it became so popular that they had to re-record it. "Our record label said we had to finish the song and record it. There was no way to get out of it, '' lead singer Phil Sōlem said.
In the United States, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart for eight weeks. When the single was released 1995, it peaked at # 3 on the UK Singles Chart in the United Kingdom and at # 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States as the flipside to "This House Is Not a Home ''. It also peaked at # 1 on the U.S. Top 40 Mainstream and Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks charts.
The song was the most successful in Canada where it peaked at number 1 for 5 consecutive weeks.
In April 2004, the song was ranked at # 15 on Blender magazine 's list of the "50 Worst Songs Ever ''.
"I 'll Be There for You '' has been included on the following compilation albums:
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what is the original source of energy for biofuels | Biofuel - wikipedia
A biofuel is a fuel that is produced through contemporary biological processes, such as agriculture and anaerobic digestion, rather than a fuel produced by geological processes such as those involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as coal and petroleum, from prehistoric biological matter.
Biofuels can be derived directly from plants, or indirectly from agricultural, commercial, domestic, and / or industrial wastes. Renewable biofuels generally involve contemporary carbon fixation, such as those that occur in plants or microalgae through the process of photosynthesis. Other renewable biofuels are made through the use or conversion of biomass (referring to recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant - derived materials). This biomass can be converted to convenient energy - containing substances in three different ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion. This biomass conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form. This new biomass can also be used directly for biofuels.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the United States and in Brazil. Current plant design does not provide for converting the lignin portion of plant raw materials to fuel components by fermentation.
Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel - powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe.
In 2010, worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters (28 billion gallons US), up 17 % from 2009, and biofuels provided 2.7 % of the world 's fuels for road transport. Global ethanol fuel production reached 86 billion liters (23 billion gallons US) in 2010, with the United States and Brazil as the world 's top producers, accounting together for about 90 % of global production. The world 's largest biodiesel producer is the European Union, accounting for 53 % of all biodiesel production in 2010. As of 2011, mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level and in 29 states or provinces. The International Energy Agency has a goal for biofuels to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050 to reduce dependence on petroleum and coal. The production of biofuels also led into a flourishing automotive industry, where by 2010, 79 % of all cars produced in Brazil were made with a hybrid fuel system of bioethanol and gasoline.
There are various social, economic, environmental and technical issues relating to biofuels production and use, which have been debated in the popular media and scientific journals.
"First - generation '' or conventional biofuels are biofuels made from food crops grown on arable land. With this biofuel production generation, food crops are thus explicitly grown for fuel production, and not anything else. The sugar, starch, or vegetable oil obtained from the crops is converted into biodiesel or ethanol, using transesterification, or yeast fermentation.
Second generation biofuels are fuels manufactured from various types of biomass. Biomass is a wide - ranging term meaning any source of organic carbon that is renewed rapidly as part of the carbon cycle. Biomass is derived from plant materials, but can also include animal materials.
Whereas first generation biofuels are made from the sugars and vegetable oils found in arable crops, second generation biofuels are made from lignocellulosic biomass or woody crops, agricultural residues or waste plant material (from food crops but they have already fulfilled their food purpose). The feedstock used to generate second - generation biofuels should grow on lands which can not be used to effectively grow food and their growing should not consume lots of water or fertilizer. The feedstock sources include grasses, jatropha and other seed crops, waste vegetable oil, municipal solid waste and so forth.
This has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage is that, unlike with regular food crops, no arable land is used solely for the production of fuel. The disadvantage is that unlike with regular food crops, it may be rather difficult to extract the fuel. For instance, a series of physical and chemical treatments might be required to convert lignocellulosic biomass to liquid fuels suitable for transportation.
From 1978 to 1996, the US NREL experimented with using algae as a biofuels source in the "Aquatic Species Program ''. A self - published article by Michael Briggs, at the UNH Biofuels Group, offers estimates for the realistic replacement of all vehicular fuel with biofuels by using algae that have a natural oil content greater than 50 %, which Briggs suggests can be grown on algae ponds at wastewater treatment plants. This oil - rich algae can then be extracted from the system and processed into biofuels, with the dried remainder further reprocessed to create ethanol. The production of algae to harvest oil for biofuels has not yet been undertaken on a commercial scale, but feasibility studies have been conducted to arrive at the above yield estimate. In addition to its projected high yield, algaculture -- unlike crop - based biofuels -- does not entail a decrease in food production, since it requires neither farmland nor fresh water. Many companies are pursuing algae bioreactors for various purposes, including scaling up biofuels production to commercial levels. Prof. Rodrigo E. Teixeira from the University of Alabama in Huntsville demonstrated the extraction of biofuels lipids from wet algae using a simple and economical reaction in ionic liquids.
Similarly to third - generation biofuels, fourth - generation biofuels are made using non-arable land. However, unlike third - generation biofuels, they do not require the destruction of biomass. This class of biofuels includes electrofuels and photobiological solar fuels. Some of these fuels are carbon - neutral. The conversion of crude oil from the plant seeds into useful fuels is called transesterification.
The following fuels can be produced using first, second, third or fourth - generation biofuel production procedures. Most of these can even be produced using two or three of the different biofuel generation procedures.
Biologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol, and less commonly propanol and butanol, are produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation of sugars or starches (easiest), or cellulose (which is more difficult). Biobutanol (also called biogasoline) is often claimed to provide a direct replacement for gasoline, because it can be used directly in a gasoline engine.
Ethanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide, particularly in Brazil. Alcohol fuels are produced by fermentation of sugars derived from wheat, corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, molasses and any sugar or starch from which alcoholic beverages such as whiskey, can be made (such as potato and fruit waste, etc.). The ethanol production methods used are enzyme digestion (to release sugars from stored starches), fermentation of the sugars, distillation and drying. The distillation process requires significant energy input for heat (sometimes unsustainable natural gas fossil fuel, but cellulosic biomass such as bagasse, the waste left after sugar cane is pressed to extract its juice, is the most common fuel in Brazil, while pellets, wood chips and also waste heat are more common in Europe) Waste steam fuels ethanol factory -- where waste heat from the factories also is used in the district heating grid.
Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed with gasoline to any percentage. Most existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15 % bioethanol with petroleum / gasoline. Ethanol has a smaller energy density than that of gasoline; this means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work. An advantage of ethanol (CH 3CH 2OH) is that it has a higher octane rating than ethanol - free gasoline available at roadside gas stations, which allows an increase of an engine 's compression ratio for increased thermal efficiency. In high - altitude (thin air) locations, some states mandate a mix of gasoline and ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric pollution emissions.
Ethanol is also used to fuel bioethanol fireplaces. As they do not require a chimney and are "flueless '', bioethanol fires are extremely useful for newly built homes and apartments without a flue. The downsides to these fireplaces is that their heat output is slightly less than electric heat or gas fires, and precautions must be taken to avoid carbon monoxide poisoning.
Corn - to - ethanol and other food stocks has led to the development of cellulosic ethanol. According to a joint research agenda conducted through the US Department of Energy, the fossil energy ratios (FER) for cellulosic ethanol, corn ethanol, and gasoline are 10.3, 1.36, and 0.81, respectively.
Ethanol has roughly one - third lower energy content per unit of volume compared to gasoline. This is partly counteracted by the better efficiency when using ethanol (in a long - term test of more than 2.1 million km, the BEST project found FFV vehicles to be 1 -- 26 % more energy efficient than petrol cars, but the volumetric consumption increases by approximately 30 %, so more fuel stops are required).
With current subsidies, ethanol fuel is slightly cheaper per distance traveled in the United States.
Biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe. It is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to fossil / mineral diesel. Chemically, it consists mostly of fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) esters (FAMEs). Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soy, rapeseed, jatropha, mahua, mustard, flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp, field pennycress, Pongamia pinnata and algae. Pure biodiesel (B100, also known as "neat '' biodiesel) currently reduces emissions with up to 60 % compared to diesel Second generation B100.
Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine when mixed with mineral diesel. In some countries, manufacturers cover their diesel engines under warranty for B100 use, although Volkswagen of Germany, for example, asks drivers to check by telephone with the VW environmental services department before switching to B100. B100 may become more viscous at lower temperatures, depending on the feedstock used. In most cases, biodiesel is compatible with diesel engines from 1994 onwards, which use ' Viton ' (by DuPont) synthetic rubber in their mechanical fuel injection systems. Note however, that no vehicles are certified for using pure biodiesel before 2014, as there was no emission control protocol available for biodiesel before this date.
Electronically controlled ' common rail ' and ' unit injector ' type systems from the late 1990s onwards may only use biodiesel blended with conventional diesel fuel. These engines have finely metered and atomized multiple - stage injection systems that are very sensitive to the viscosity of the fuel. Many current - generation diesel engines are made so that they can run on B100 without altering the engine itself, although this depends on the fuel rail design. Since biodiesel is an effective solvent and cleans residues deposited by mineral diesel, engine filters may need to be replaced more often, as the biofuel dissolves old deposits in the fuel tank and pipes. It also effectively cleans the engine combustion chamber of carbon deposits, helping to maintain efficiency. In many European countries, a 5 % biodiesel blend is widely used and is available at thousands of gas stations. Biodiesel is also an oxygenated fuel, meaning it contains a reduced amount of carbon and higher hydrogen and oxygen content than fossil diesel. This improves the combustion of biodiesel and reduces the particulate emissions from unburnt carbon. However, using pure biodiesel may increase NO - emissions
Biodiesel is also safe to handle and transport because it is non-toxic and biodegradable, and has a high flash point of about 300 ° F (148 ° C) compared to petroleum diesel fuel, which has a flash point of 125 ° F (52 ° C).
In the USA, more than 80 % of commercial trucks and city buses run on diesel. The emerging US biodiesel market is estimated to have grown 200 % from 2004 to 2005. "By the end of 2006 biodiesel production was estimated to increase fourfold (from 2004) to more than '' 1 billion US gallons (3,800,000 m).
In France, biodiesel is incorporated at a rate of 8 % in the fuel used by all French diesel vehicles. Avril Group produces under the brand Diester, a fifth of 11 million tons of biodiesel consumed annually by the European Union. It is the leading European producer of biodiesel.
Methanol is currently produced from natural gas, a non-renewable fossil fuel. In the future it is hoped to be produced from biomass as biomethanol. This is technically feasible, but the production is currently being postponed for concerns of Jacob S. Gibbs and Brinsley Coleberd that the economic viability is still pending. The methanol economy is an alternative to the hydrogen economy, compared to today 's hydrogen production from natural gas.
Butanol (C 9OH) is formed by ABE fermentation (acetone, butanol, ethanol) and experimental modifications of the process show potentially high net energy gains with butanol as the only liquid product. Butanol will produce more energy and allegedly can be burned "straight '' in existing gasoline engines (without modification to the engine or car), and is less corrosive and less water - soluble than ethanol, and could be distributed via existing infrastructures. DuPont and BP are working together to help develop butanol. E. coli strains have also been successfully engineered to produce butanol by modifying their amino acid metabolism.
Green diesel is produced through hydrocracking biological oil feedstocks, such as vegetable oils and animal fats. Hydrocracking is a refinery method that uses elevated temperatures and pressure in the presence of a catalyst to break down larger molecules, such as those found in vegetable oils, into shorter hydrocarbon chains used in diesel engines. It may also be called renewable diesel, hydrotreated vegetable oil or hydrogen - derived renewable diesel. Green diesel has the same chemical properties as petroleum - based diesel. It does not require new engines, pipelines or infrastructure to distribute and use, but has not been produced at a cost that is competitive with petroleum. Gasoline versions are also being developed. Green diesel is being developed in Louisiana and Singapore by ConocoPhillips, Neste Oil, Valero, Dynamic Fuels, and Honeywell UOP as well as Preem in Gothenburg, Sweden, creating what is known as Evolution Diesel.
In 2013 UK researchers developed a genetically modified strain of Escherichia coli (E. Coli), which could transform glucose into biofuel gasoline that does not need to be blended. Later in 2013 UCLA researchers engineered a new metabolic pathway to bypass glycolysis and increase the rate of conversion of sugars into biofuel, while KAIST researchers developed a strain capable of producing short - chain alkanes, free fatty acids, fatty esters and fatty alcohols through the fatty acyl (acyl carrier protein (ACP)) to fatty acid to fatty acyl - CoA pathway in vivo. It is believed that in the future it will be possible to "tweak '' the genes to make gasoline from straw or animal manure.
Straight unmodified edible vegetable oil is generally not used as fuel, but lower - quality oil has been used for this purpose. Used vegetable oil is increasingly being processed into biodiesel, or (more rarely) cleaned of water and particulates and then used as a fuel.
As with 100 % biodiesel (B100), to ensure the fuel injectors atomize the vegetable oil in the correct pattern for efficient combustion, vegetable oil fuel must be heated to reduce its viscosity to that of diesel, either by electric coils or heat exchangers. This is easier in warm or temperate climates. MAN B&W Diesel, Wärtsilä, and Deutz AG, as well as a number of smaller companies, such as Elsbett, offer engines that are compatible with straight vegetable oil, without the need for after - market modifications.
Vegetable oil can also be used in many older diesel engines that do not use common rail or unit injection electronic diesel injection systems. Due to the design of the combustion chambers in indirect injection engines, these are the best engines for use with vegetable oil. This system allows the relatively larger oil molecules more time to burn. Some older engines, especially Mercedes, are driven experimentally by enthusiasts without any conversion, a handful of drivers have experienced limited success with earlier pre - "Pumpe Duse '' VW TDI engines and other similar engines with direct injection. Several companies, such as Elsbett or Wolf, have developed professional conversion kits and successfully installed hundreds of them over the last decades.
Oils and fats can be hydrogenated to give a diesel substitute. The resulting product is a straight - chain hydrocarbon with a high cetane number, low in aromatics and sulfur and does not contain oxygen. Hydrogenated oils can be blended with diesel in all proportions. They have several advantages over biodiesel, including good performance at low temperatures, no storage stability problems and no susceptibility to microbial attack.
Bioethers (also referred to as fuel ethers or oxygenated fuels) are cost - effective compounds that act as octane rating enhancers. "Bioethers are produced by the reaction of reactive iso - olefins, such as iso - butylene, with bioethanol. '' Bioethers are created by wheat or sugar beet. They also enhance engine performance, whilst significantly reducing engine wear and toxic exhaust emissions. Though bioethers are likely to replace petroethers in the UK, it is highly unlikely they will become a fuel in and of itself due to the low energy density. Greatly reducing the amount of ground - level ozone emissions, they contribute to air quality.
When it comes to transportation fuel there are six ether additives: dimethyl ether (DME), diethyl ether (DEE), methyl teritiary - butyl ether (MTBE), ethyl ter - butyl ether (ETBE), ter - amyl methyl ether (TAME), and ter - amyl ethyl ether (TAEE).
The European Fuel Oxygenates Association (EFOA) credits methyl Ttertiary - butyl ether (MTBE) and ethyl ter - butyl ether (ETBE) as the most commonly used ethers in fuel to replace lead. Ethers were introduced in Europe in the 1970s to replace the highly toxic compound. Although Europeans still use bio-ether additives, the US no longer has an oxygenate requirement therefore bio-ethers are no longer used as the main fuel additive.
Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes. It can be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. The solid byproduct, digestate, can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer.
Biogas can be recovered from mechanical biological treatment waste processing systems. Landfill gas, a less clean form of biogas, is produced in landfills through naturally occurring anaerobic digestion. If it escapes into the atmosphere, it is a potential greenhouse gas.
Farmers can produce biogas from manure from their cattle by using anaerobic digesters.
Syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and other hydrocarbons, is produced by partial combustion of biomass, that is, combustion with an amount of oxygen that is not sufficient to convert the biomass completely to carbon dioxide and water. Before partial combustion, the biomass is dried, and sometimes pyrolysed. The resulting gas mixture, syngas, is more efficient than direct combustion of the original biofuel; more of the energy contained in the fuel is extracted.
Syngas may be burned directly in internal combustion engines, turbines or high - temperature fuel cells. The wood gas generator, a wood - fueled gasification reactor, can be connected to an internal combustion engine.
Syngas can be used to produce methanol, DME and hydrogen, or converted via the Fischer - Tropsch process to produce a diesel substitute, or a mixture of alcohols that can be blended into gasoline. Gasification normally relies on temperatures greater than 700 ° C.
Lower - temperature gasification is desirable when co-producing biochar, but results in syngas polluted with tar.
Examples include wood, sawdust, grass trimmings, domestic refuse, charcoal, agricultural waste, nonfood energy crops, and dried manure.
When solid biomass is already in a suitable form (such as firewood), it can burn directly in a stove or furnace to provide heat or raise steam. When solid biomass is in an inconvenient form (such as sawdust, wood chips, grass, urban waste wood, agricultural residues), the typical process is to densify the biomass. This process includes grinding the raw biomass to an appropriate particulate size (known as hogfuel), which, depending on the densification type, can be from 1 to 3 cm (0.4 to 1.2 in), which is then concentrated into a fuel product. The current processes produce wood pellets, cubes, or pucks. The pellet process is most common in Europe, and is typically a pure wood product. The other types of densification are larger in size compared to a pellet and are compatible with a broad range of input feedstocks. The resulting densified fuel is easier to transport and feed into thermal generation systems, such as boilers.
Sawdust, bark and chips are already used for decades for fuel in industrial processes; examples include the pulp and paper industry and the sugar cane industry. Boilers in the range of 500,000 lb / hr of steam, and larger, are in routine operation, using grate, spreader stoker, suspension burning and fluid bed combustion. Utilities generate power, typically in the range of 5 to 50 MW, using locally available fuel. Other industries have also installed wood waste fueled boilers and dryers in areas with low - cost fuel.
One of the advantages of solid biomass fuel is that it is often a byproduct, residue or waste - product of other processes, such as farming, animal husbandry and forestry. In theory, this means fuel and food production do not compete for resources, although this is not always the case.
A problem with the combustion of solid biomass fuels is that it emits considerable amounts of pollutants, such as particulates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Even modern pellet boilers generate much more pollutants than oil or natural gas boilers. Pellets made from agricultural residues are usually worse than wood pellets, producing much larger emissions of dioxins and chlorophenols.
A derived fuel is biochar, which is produced by biomass pyrolysis. Biochar made from agricultural waste can substitute for wood charcoal. As wood stock becomes scarce, this alternative is gaining ground. In eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, for example, biomass briquettes are being marketed as an alternative to charcoal to protect Virunga National Park from deforestation associated with charcoal production.
There are international organizations such as IEA Bioenergy, established in 1978 by the OECD International Energy Agency (IEA), with the aim of improving cooperation and information exchange between countries that have national programs in bioenergy research, development and deployment. The UN International Biofuels Forum is formed by Brazil, China, India, Pakistan, South Africa, the United States and the European Commission. The world leaders in biofuel development and use are Brazil, the United States, France, Sweden and Germany. Russia also has 22 % of world 's forest, and is a big biomass (solid biofuels) supplier. In 2010, Russian pulp and paper maker, Vyborgskaya Cellulose, said they would be producing pellets that can be used in heat and electricity generation from its plant in Vyborg by the end of the year. The plant will eventually produce about 900,000 tons of pellets per year, making it the largest in the world once operational.
Biofuels currently make up 3.1 % of the total road transport fuel in the UK or 1,440 million litres. By 2020, 10 % of the energy used in UK road and rail transport must come from renewable sources -- this is the equivalent of replacing 4.3 million tonnes of fossil oil each year. Conventional biofuels are likely to produce between 3.7 and 6.6 % of the energy needed in road and rail transport, while advanced biofuels could meet up to 4.3 % of the UK 's renewable transport fuel target by 2020.
Biofuels are different from fossil fuels in regard to greenhouse gases but are similar to fossil fuels in that biofuels contribute to air pollution. Burning produces airborne carbon particulates, carbon monoxide and nitrous oxides. The WHO estimates 3.7 million premature deaths worldwide in 2012 due to air pollution. Brazil burns significant amounts of ethanol biofuel. Gas chromatograph studies were performed of ambient air in São Paulo, Brazil, and compared to Osaka, Japan, which does not burn ethanol fuel. Atmospheric Formaldehyde was 160 % higher in Brazil, and Acetaldehyde was 260 % higher.
The Environmental Protection Agency has acknowledged in April 2007 that the increased use of bio-ethanol will lead to worse air quality. The total emissions of air pollutants such as nitrogen oxides will rise due the growing use of bio-ethanol. There is an increase in carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels to produce the biofuels as well as nitrous oxide from the soil, which has most likely been treated with nitrogen fertilizer. Nitrous oxide is known to have a greater impact on the atmosphere in relation to global warming, as it is also an ozone destroyer.
There are various social, economic, environmental and technical issues with biofuel production and use, which have been discussed in the popular media and scientific journals. These include: the effect of moderating oil prices, the "food vs fuel '' debate, food prices, poverty reduction potential, energy ratio, energy requirements, carbon emissions levels, sustainable biofuel production, deforestation and soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, impact on water resources, the possible modifications necessary to run the engine on biofuel, as well as energy balance and efficiency. The International Resource Panel, which provides independent scientific assessments and expert advice on a variety of resource - related themes, assessed the issues relating to biofuel use in its first report Towards sustainable production and use of resources: Assessing Biofuels. "Assessing Biofuels '' outlined the wider and interrelated factors that need to be considered when deciding on the relative merits of pursuing one biofuel over another. It concluded that not all biofuels perform equally in terms of their impact on climate, energy security and ecosystems, and suggested that environmental and social impacts need to be assessed throughout the entire life - cycle.
Another issue with biofuel use and production is the US has changed mandates many times because the production has been taking longer than expected. The Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) set by congress for 2010 was pushed back to at best 2012 to produce 100 million gallons of pure ethanol (not blended with a fossil fuel).
In the EU, the revised renewable energy directive calls for a complete ban on first - generation biofuels. Particularly fuels made from such oils such as palm oil and soy oil are being targeted.
Many of the biofuels that were being supplied in 2008 (using the first - generation biofuel production procedure) have been criticised for their adverse impacts on the natural environment, food security, and land use. In 2008, the Nobel - prize winning chemist Paul J. Crutzen published findings that the release of nitrous oxide (N O) emissions in the production of biofuels means that overall they contribute more to global warming than the fossil fuels they replace. In 2008, the challenge was to support biofuel development, including the development of new cellulosic technologies, with responsible policies and economic instruments to help ensure that biofuel commercialization is sustainable. Responsible commercialization of biofuels represented an opportunity to enhance sustainable economic prospects in Africa, Latin America and Asia. Now, biofuels in the form of liquid fuels derived from plant materials are entering the market, driven by the perception that they reduce climate gas emissions, and also by factors such as oil price spikes and the need for increased energy security.
According to the Rocky Mountain Institute, sound biofuel production practices would not hamper food and fibre production, nor cause water or environmental problems, and would enhance soil fertility. The selection of land on which to grow the feedstocks is a critical component of the ability of biofuels to deliver sustainable solutions. A key consideration is the minimisation of biofuel competition for prime cropland.
Some scientists have expressed concerns about land - use change in response to greater demand for crops to use for biofuel and the subsequent carbon emissions. The payback period, that is, the time it will take biofuels to pay back the carbon debt they acquire due to land - use change, has been estimated to be between 100 and 1000 years, depending on the specific instance and location of land - use change. However, no - till practices combined with cover - crop practices can reduce the payback period to three years for grassland conversion and 14 years for forest conversion.
A study conducted in the Tocantis State, in northern Brazil, found that many families were cutting down forests in order to produce two conglomerates of oilseed plants, the J. curcas (JC group) and the R. communis (RC group). This region is composed of 15 % Amazonian rainforest with high biodiversity, and 80 % Cerrado forest with lower biodiversity. During the study, the farmers that planted the JC group released over 2193 Mg CO, while losing 53 - 105 Mg CO sequestration from deforestation; and the RC group farmers released 562 Mg CO, while losing 48 - 90 Mg CO to be sequestered from forest depletion. The production of these types of biofuels not only led into an increased emission of carbon dioxide, but also to lower efficiency of forests to absorb the gases that these farms were emitting. This has to do with the amount of fossil fuel the production of fuel crops involves. In addition, the intensive use of monocropping agriculture requires large amounts of water irrigation, as well as of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides. This does not only lead to poisonous chemicals to disperse on water runoff, but also to the emission of nitrous oxide (NO) as a fertilizer byproduct, which is three hundred times more efficient in producing a greenhouse effect than carbon dioxide (CO).
Converting rainforests, peatlands, savannas, or grasslands to produce food crop -- based biofuels in Brazil, Southeast Asia, and the United States creates a "biofuel carbon debt '' by releasing 17 to 420 times more CO than the annual greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions that these biofuels would provide by displacing fossil fuels. Biofuels made from waste biomass or from biomass grown on abandoned agricultural lands incur little to no carbon debt.
In addition to crop growth requiring water, biofuel facilities require significant process water.
Research is ongoing into finding more suitable biofuel crops and improving the oil yields of these crops. Using the current yields, vast amounts of land and fresh water would be needed to produce enough oil to completely replace fossil fuel usage. It would require twice the land area of the US to be devoted to soybean production, or two - thirds to be devoted to rapeseed production, to meet current US heating and transportation needs.
Specially bred mustard varieties can produce reasonably high oil yields and are very useful in crop rotation with cereals, and have the added benefit that the meal left over after the oil has been pressed out can act as an effective and biodegradable pesticide.
The NFESC, with Santa Barbara - based Biodiesel Industries, is working to develop biofuels technologies for the US navy and military, one of the largest diesel fuel users in the world. A group of Spanish developers working for a company called Ecofasa announced a new biofuel made from trash. The fuel is created from general urban waste which is treated by bacteria to produce fatty acids, which can be used to make biofuels. Before its shutdown, Joule Unlimited was attempting to make cheap ethanol and biodiesel from a genetically modified photosynthetic bacterium.
As the primary source of biofuels in North America, many organizations are conducting research in the area of ethanol production. The National Corn - to - Ethanol Research Center (NCERC) is a research division of Southern Illinois University Edwardsville dedicated solely to ethanol - based biofuel research projects. On the federal level, the USDA conducts a large amount of research regarding ethanol production in the United States. Much of this research is targeted toward the effect of ethanol production on domestic food markets. A division of the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), has also conducted various ethanol research projects, mainly in the area of cellulosic ethanol.
Cellulosic ethanol commercialization is the process of building an industry out of methods of turning cellulose - containing organic matter into fuel. Companies, such as Iogen, POET, and Abengoa, are building refineries that can process biomass and turn it into bioethanol. Companies, such as Diversa, Novozymes, and Dyadic, are producing enzymes that could enable a cellulosic ethanol future. The shift from food crop feedstocks to waste residues and native grasses offers significant opportunities for a range of players, from farmers to biotechnology firms, and from project developers to investors.
As of 2013, the first commercial - scale plants to produce cellulosic biofuels have begun operating. Multiple pathways for the conversion of different biofuel feedstocks are being used. In the next few years, the cost data of these technologies operating at commercial scale, and their relative performance, will become available. Lessons learnt will lower the costs of the industrial processes involved.
In parts of Asia and Africa where drylands prevail, sweet sorghum is being investigated as a potential source of food, feed and fuel combined. The crop is particularly suitable for growing in arid conditions, as it only extracts one seventh of the water used by sugarcane. In India, and other places, sweet sorghum stalks are used to produce biofuel by squeezing the juice and then fermenting into ethanol.
A study by researchers at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) found that growing sweet sorghum instead of grain sorghum could increase farmers incomes by US $40 per hectare per crop because it can provide fuel in addition to food and animal feed. With grain sorghum currently grown on over 11 million hectares (ha) in Asia and on 23.4 million ha in Africa, a switch to sweet sorghum could have a considerable economic impact.
Several groups in various sectors are conducting research on Jatropha curcas, a poisonous shrub - like tree that produces seeds considered by many to be a viable source of biofuels feedstock oil. Much of this research focuses on improving the overall per acre oil yield of Jatropha through advancements in genetics, soil science, and horticultural practices.
SG Biofuels, a San Diego - based jatropha developer, has used molecular breeding and biotechnology to produce elite hybrid seeds that show significant yield improvements over first - generation varieties. SG Biofuels also claims additional benefits have arisen from such strains, including improved flowering synchronicity, higher resistance to pests and diseases, and increased cold - weather tolerance.
Plant Research International, a department of the Wageningen University and Research Centre in the Netherlands, maintains an ongoing Jatropha Evaluation Project that examines the feasibility of large - scale jatropha cultivation through field and laboratory experiments. The Center for Sustainable Energy Farming (CfSEF) is a Los Angeles - based nonprofit research organization dedicated to jatropha research in the areas of plant science, agronomy, and horticulture. Successful exploration of these disciplines is projected to increase jatropha farm production yields by 200 - 300 % in the next 10 years.
A group at the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow, in a 2008 paper, stated they had isolated large amounts of lipids from single - celled fungi and turned it into biofuels in an economically efficient manner. More research on this fungal species, Cunninghamella japonica, and others, is likely to appear in the near future. The recent discovery of a variant of the fungus Gliocladium roseum (later renamed Ascocoryne sarcoides) points toward the production of so - called myco - diesel from cellulose. This organism was recently discovered in the rainforests of northern Patagonia, and has the unique capability of converting cellulose into medium - length hydrocarbons typically found in diesel fuel. Many other fungi that can degrade cellulose and other polymers have been observed to produce molecules that are currently being engineered using organisms from other kingdoms, suggesting that fungi may play a large role in the bio-production of fuels in the future (reviewed in).
Microbial gastrointestinal flora in a variety of animals have shown potential for the production of biofuels. Recent research has shown that TU - 103, a strain of Clostridium bacteria found in Zebra feces, can convert nearly any form of cellulose into butanol fuel. Microbes in panda waste are being investigated for their use in creating biofuels from bamboo and other plant materials. There has also been substantial research into the technology of using the gut microbiomes of wood - feeding insects for the conversion of lignocellulotic material into biofuel.
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who does jerome's voice on family guy | Kevin Michael Richardson - wikipedia
Kevin Michael Richardson (born October 25, 1964) is an American actor and voice artist who has portrayed a multitude of characters in animated series and video games. He is known for his distinctively deep voice and has been playing mostly villainous characters since the 1990s. For voicing the Joker in The Batman (2004 -- 2008), he was nominated for two Daytime Emmy Awards.
A classically trained actor and a native of the Bronx, New York, Richardson first gained recognition as one of only eight U.S. high school students selected for the National Foundation for the Arts ' "Arts ' 82 '' program. As a result of this, he earned a scholarship to Syracuse University and a spot on a PBS special directed by John Houseman.
Richardson has usually portrayed villainous characters due to his deep and powerful voice. In 1995, he obtained his first voice role; Mayor Tilton on the animated TV version of The Mask.
His credits include Captain Gantu in Lilo & Stitch and its franchise, Shnitzel in the Chowder pilot (and was later replaced by John DiMaggio), Goro in Mortal Kombat, the second voice of Skulker on Danny Phantom, Sarevok in the Baldur 's Gate series, Jolee Bindo in Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic, Crunch Bandicoot in the Crash Bandicoot games, Tartarus from Halo 2, Chairman Drek in Ratchet & Clank, Antauri in Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go!, Openly Gator from Queer Duck, Doctor Payne and others on The Proud Family, Dark Laser on The Fairly OddParents, Maurice from The Penguins of Madagascar, Slam Tasmanian and Tech E. Coyote on Loonatics Unleashed and the voice of Exile in the 1990s animated series Road Rovers. Richardson also replaced Keith David as the voice of Tombstone on The Spectacular Spider - Man. He provided a character voice set for Icewind Dale: Heart of Winter and Icewind Dale II. He was the voice of Heihachi in the PlayStation 2 game Soul Calibur II, though he is listed in the role as Victor Stone. He also voiced Stump Smash and Tree Rex in Skylanders: Swap Force, Skylanders: Trap Team and Skylanders: SuperChargers.
In 2001, he voiced Barney Rubble in the animated movie The Flintstones: On the Rocks. In 2003, he voiced Trigon in the animated series Teen Titans. Trigon is a demonic overlord and the father of Raven. In 2004, he became the first African - American to voice the Joker in the Kids WB animated series, The Batman, a role for which he was twice nominated for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in a Children 's Series. In 2006, he appeared in the comedy Clerks II in which he plays a cop who notices the words "Porch Monkey 4 Life '' written on the back of Randal Graves ' work jacket. In 2008, he did the voice of Bishop for Wolverine and the X-Men. Later, he did the voice of Nick Fury on The Super Hero Squad Show.
He often plays characters based on comedian Bill Cosby, such as on Family Guy ("Brian Does Hollywood ''), where Stewie is a contestant on the comedian 's Kids Say the Darndest Things; as Cosby himself on The Boondocks and playing the role of Numbuh 5 's father Mr. Lincoln, who is also a homage of Cosby on Codename: Kids Next Door. His most frequent role on Family Guy is as Jerome, Lois 's ex-boyfriend. He also voiced Cleveland Brown, Jr., Lester Krinklesac and numerous others on The Cleveland Show. He currently voices Principal Brian Lewis on American Dad!.
Richardson 's voice roles (in 2011) include Panthro in the 2011 Thundercats series, Martian Manhunter on Young Justice, and Bulkhead, one of the Autobots in Transformers: Prime.
He played Kilowog in Green Lantern: Rise of the Manhunters, the video game sequel to the live - action film Green Lantern, and later reprised the role in Green Lantern: The Animated Series.
Richardson was nominated for Voice Actor of the Year by Behind the Voice Actors in 2012 and in 2013.
In 2015, Richardson provided the voice of a Nigerian king on The Simpsons episode "The Princess Guide ''. Later, he provided the voice of Judge Michaels in Tyler Perry 's first animated film Madea 's Tough Love.
Richardson married his wife in May 2006 and they have two children.
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who sings the song baby i'm amazed by you | Amazed - wikipedia
March 22, 1999 (country radio)
"Amazed '' is a song written by Marv Green, Aimee Mayo, and Chris Lindsey. It was recorded by the American country music group Lonestar and was released in March 1999 as the second single from their third studio album Lonely Grill (1999). Lonestar 's version is their longest - lasting number one single and biggest hit, spending eight weeks at the top of the Billboard country chart. A remix of the song was released in December 1999, and reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 2 on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks charts in 2000. The song has sold over 1,650,000 digital copies in the US as of February 2016.
Only five years after Lonestar 's "Amazed '' topped the Billboard Hot 100 did another country song top the chart, as Carrie Underwood 's "Inside Your Heaven '' debuted at number one on the Hot 100 in 2005. "Amazed '' and "Inside Your Heaven '' are the only country songs in the 2000s decade to hit number one on the Hot 100.
Since the release of the original, the song has been covered by Bonnie Tyler, Duncan James, and Fady Maalouf, all of whom have released their respective versions as singles. Ben Mills, Boyz II Men and Shane Filan of Westlife have included covers in their respective albums. On The Sing - Off (season 4, episode 3), judge Shawn Stockman, of Boyz II Men fame, mentioned that the song had been offered to them first, and they decided to turn it down.
"Amazed '' is in the key of A ♭ major with a vocal range from F3 to A ♭ 4.
A review in Billboard was mostly favorable, praising Richie McDonald 's lead vocals for "perfectly convey (ing) the tenderness and wonder felt in a loving relationship '' but saying that some of the lyrics were "a little too clichéd ''.
Lonestar 's rendition is the second single from their 1999 album Lonely Grill. The song reached number one on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks and remained there for eight consecutive weeks until it was knocked off by Single White Female by Chely Wright. With this accomplishment, it set a record for the longest run at number one on the country chart since Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems was initiated in 1990. This run was later tied by Alan Jackson and Jimmy Buffett 's 2003 single "It 's Five O'Clock Somewhere '', which spent eight non-consecutive weeks at number one. "Amazed '' spent 41 weeks on the country singles chart, giving it the second - longest chart run of any country single in the 1990s. In addition, the single crossed over into the pop airwaves entering the Billboard Hot 100 at number 81. It peaked at number 24 on before falling off the Hot 100. It had sold 1,628,000 digital copies in the US as of December 2015.
"Amazed '' was then remixed for pop radio (a tactic commonly used to present country - leaning songs to mainstream audiences) and the new mix 's popularity prompted the single to re-enter the Hot 100 at number 45. On this second chart run, it hit number one on March 4, 2000. In doing so, it became the first new country song to top the pop charts since Kenny Rogers 's and Dolly Parton 's 1983 duet "Islands in the Stream ''. It also made Lonestar the first country band to place a song in the top ten of the Hot 100 year - end countdown. All remixes of the song made the single spend a combined total of 55 weeks in the Hot 100, and 41 weeks on Hot Country Singles & Tracks.
Only five years after "Amazed '' topped the Billboard Hot 100 did another country song top the chart, as Carrie Underwood 's "Inside Your Heaven '' debuted at number one on the Hot 100, in June 2005. "Amazed '' and "Inside Your Heaven '' are the only country songs in the 2000s decade to hit number one on the Hot 100.
In the United Kingdom, Lonestar 's version of "Amazed '' reached a peak of number 21 and spent 22 weeks in the charts. It spent 17 weeks in the top 40 without ever breaking into the top 20.
Trey Fanjoy directed the music video for Lonestar 's rendition. It was released in July 1999. It alternates between shots of the band performing the song in a dark room, and a model making seductive poses. The model is portrayed by Sunny Mabrey. The original music video uses the album version for country channels; a second video was created from the footage for the song 's pop remix and served to international and pop stations.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
"Amazed '' was the third and final single released from Future Past, the debut album of Duncan James, the former member of the English boy band Blue. It was released in the UK on March 12, 2007, but was withdrawn just days later, following James ' being dropped from his record label due to poor sales of his previous singles and album. The single was also released in some European countries, such as Germany, where it peaked at number 181 on the German Singles Chart.
In 2008, the runner up of the fifth season of Deutschland sucht den Superstar, the German version of Pop Idol, the Lebanese - German singer Fady Maalouf released a cover version of the song as his second single release immediately after the big success of his debut single "Blessed ''. The song also appears in his debut Blessed album 's double CD rerelease, titled Blessed: New Edition.
Maalouf 's version was a hit in Germany where it reached number 26 in the German Singles Chart. It was also released in Austria, reaching number 52 in the Austrian Singles Chart.
In 2014, country music duo Haley & Michaels co-wrote their debut single "Just Another Love Song '' with Lonestar lead vocalist Richie McDonald. The song makes lyrical reference to "Amazed '', and features McDonald singing its chorus.
Discography
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why were so many ships in pearl harbor | Attack on Pearl Harbor - wikipedia
Coordinates: 21 ° 22 ′ N 157 ° 57 ′ W / 21.367 ° N 157.950 ° W / 21.367; - 157.950
Major Japanese tactical victory; precipitated the entrance of the United States into World War II
Southeast Asia
Southwest Pacific
North America
Japan
Manchuria
The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii Territory, on the morning of December 7, 1941. The attack, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor, led to the United States ' entry into World War II. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI, and as Operation Z during its planning.
Japan intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions they planned in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. Over the next seven hours there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the U.S. - held Philippines, Guam and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong.
The attack commenced at 7: 48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (18: 18 UTC). The base was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese aircraft (including fighters, level and dive bombers, and torpedo bombers) in two waves, launched from six aircraft carriers. All eight U.S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four sunk. All but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service and went on to fight in the war. The Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer. 188 U.S. aircraft were destroyed; 2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Important base installations such as the power station, dry dock, shipyard, maintenance, and fuel and torpedo storage facilities, as well as the submarine piers and headquarters building (also home of the intelligence section), were not attacked. Japanese losses were light: 29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, and 64 servicemen killed. One Japanese sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured.
The surprise attack came as a profound shock to the American people and led directly to the American entry into World War II in both the Pacific and European theaters. The following day, December 8, the United States declared war on Japan, and several days later, on December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. The U.S. responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which had been fading since the Fall of France in 1940, disappeared.
There were numerous historical precedents for unannounced military action by Japan, but the lack of any formal warning, particularly while negotiations were still apparently ongoing, led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to proclaim December 7, 1941, "a date which will live in infamy ''. Because the attack happened without a declaration of war and without explicit warning, the attack on Pearl Harbor was later judged in the Tokyo Trials to be a war crime.
War between Japan and the United States had been a possibility that each nation had been aware of (and developed contingency plans for) since the 1920s, though tensions did not begin to grow seriously until Japan 's 1931 invasion of Manchuria. Over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all - out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland; the "Southern Operation '' was designed to assist these efforts.
From December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre (the International Military Tribunal of the Far East concluded that more than 200,000 Chinese non-combatants were killed in indiscriminate massacres, though other estimates have ranged from 40,000 to more than 300,000) swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the United States, the United Kingdom, and France provided loan assistance for war supply contracts to China.
In 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in an effort to control supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline to Japan, which was perceived by Japan as an unfriendly act. The U.S. did not stop oil exports to Japan at that time in part because prevailing sentiment in Washington was that such an action would be an extreme step that Japan would likely consider a provocation, given Japanese dependence on U.S. oil.
Early in 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved the Pacific Fleet to Hawaii from its previous base in San Diego and ordered a military buildup in the Philippines in the hope of discouraging Japanese aggression in the Far East. Because the Japanese high command was (mistakenly) certain that any attack on the UK 's Southeast Asian colonies, including Singapore, would bring the U.S. into war, a devastating preventive strike appeared to be the only way to avoid U.S. naval interference. An invasion of the Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. The U.S. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with a 40,000 - man elite force. This was opposed by Douglas MacArthur, who felt that he would need a force ten times that size, and was never implemented. By 1941, U.S. planners anticipated abandonment of the Philippines at the outbreak of war and orders to that effect were given in late 1941 to Admiral Thomas Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet.
The U.S. ceased oil exports to Japan in July 1941, following Japanese expansion into French Indochina after the Fall of France, in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption. This in turn caused the Japanese to proceed with plans to take the Dutch East Indies, an oil - rich territory. On August 17, Roosevelt warned Japan that the U.S. was prepared to take steps against Japan if it attacked "neighboring countries ''. The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource - rich, European - controlled colonies of Southeast Asia.
Japan and the U.S. engaged in negotiations during the course of 1941 in an effort to improve relations. During these negotiations, Japan offered to withdraw from most of China and Indochina when peace was made with the Nationalist government, adopt an independent interpretation of the Tripartite Pact, and not to discriminate in trade provided all other countries reciprocated. Washington rejected these proposals. Japanese Prime Minister Konoye then offered to meet with Roosevelt, but Roosevelt insisted on coming to an agreement before any meeting. The U.S. ambassador to Japan repeatedly urged Roosevelt to accept the meeting, warning that it was the only way to preserve the conciliatory Konoye government and peace in the Pacific. His recommendation was not acted upon. The Konoye government collapsed the following month when the Japanese military refused to agree to the withdrawal of all troops from China.
Japan 's final proposal, on November 20, offered to withdraw their forces from southern Indochina and not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia provided that the U.S., the UK, and the Netherlands ceased aiding China and lifted their sanctions against Japan. The American counter-proposal of November 26 (November 27 in Japan) (the Hull note) required Japan to evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with Pacific powers. However the day before the Hull Note was delivered, on November 26 in Japan, the main Japanese attack fleet left port for Pearl Harbor.
Preliminary planning for an attack on Pearl Harbor to protect the move into the "Southern Resource Area '' (the Japanese term for the Dutch East Indies and Southeast Asia generally) had begun very early in 1941 under the auspices of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, then commanding Japan 's Combined Fleet. He won assent to formal planning and training for an attack from the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff only after much contention with Naval Headquarters, including a threat to resign his command. Full - scale planning was underway by early spring 1941, primarily by Rear Admiral Ryūnosuke Kusaka, with assistance from Captain Minoru Genda and Yamamoto 's Deputy Chief of Staff, Captain Kameto Kuroshima. The planners studied the 1940 British air attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto intensively.
Over the next several months, pilots were trained, equipment was adapted, and intelligence was collected. Despite these preparations, Emperor Hirohito did not approve the attack plan until November 5, after the third of four Imperial Conferences called to consider the matter. Final authorization was not given by the emperor until December 1, after a majority of Japanese leaders advised him the "Hull Note '' would "destroy the fruits of the China incident, endanger Manchukuo and undermine Japanese control of Korea. ''
By late 1941, many observers believed that hostilities between the U.S. and Japan were imminent. A Gallup poll just before the attack on Pearl Harbor found that 52 % of Americans expected war with Japan, 27 % did not, and 21 % had no opinion. While U.S. Pacific bases and facilities had been placed on alert on many occasions, U.S. officials doubted Pearl Harbor would be the first target; instead, they expected the Philippines would be attacked first. This presumption was due to the threat that the air bases throughout the country and the naval base at Manila posed to sea lanes, as well as to the shipment of supplies to Japan from territory to the south. They also incorrectly believed that Japan was not capable of mounting more than one major naval operation at a time.
The Japanese attack had several major aims. First, it intended to destroy important American fleet units, thereby preventing the Pacific Fleet from interfering with Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Malaya and to enable Japan to conquer Southeast Asia without interference. Second, it was hoped to buy time for Japan to consolidate its position and increase its naval strength before shipbuilding authorized by the 1940 Vinson - Walsh Act erased any chance of victory. Third, to deliver a blow to America 's ability to mobilize its forces in the Pacific, battleships were chosen as the main targets, since they were the prestige ships of any navy at the time. Finally, it was hoped that the attack would undermine American morale such that the U.S. government would drop its demands contrary to Japanese interests, and would seek a compromise peace with Japan.
Striking the Pacific Fleet at anchor in Pearl Harbor carried two distinct disadvantages: the targeted ships would be in very shallow water, so it would be relatively easy to salvage and possibly repair them; and most of the crews would survive the attack, since many would be on shore leave or would be rescued from the harbor. A further important disadvantage -- this of timing, and known to the Japanese -- was the absence from Pearl Harbor of all three of the U.S. Pacific Fleet 's aircraft carriers (Enterprise, Lexington, and Saratoga). IJN top command was so imbued with Admiral Mahan 's "Decisive battle '' doctrine -- especially that of destroying the maximum number of battleships -- that, despite these concerns, Yamamoto decided to press ahead.
Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war also meant other targets in the harbor, especially the navy yard, oil tank farms, and submarine base, were ignored, since -- by their thinking -- the war would be over before the influence of these facilities would be felt.
On November 26, 1941, a Japanese task force (the Striking Force) of six aircraft carriers -- Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū, Hiryū, Shōkaku, and Zuikaku -- departed northern Japan en route to a position northwest of Hawaii, intending to launch its 408 aircraft to attack Pearl Harbor: 360 for the two attack waves and 48 on defensive combat air patrol (CAP), including nine fighters from the first wave.
The first wave was to be the primary attack, while the second wave was to attack carriers as its first objective and cruisers as its second, with battleships as the third target. The first wave carried most of the weapons to attack capital ships, mainly specially adapted Type 91 aerial torpedoes which were designed with an anti-roll mechanism and a rudder extension that let them operate in shallow water. The aircrews were ordered to select the highest value targets (battleships and aircraft carriers) or, if these were not present, any other high value ships (cruisers and destroyers). First wave dive bombers were to attack ground targets. Fighters were ordered to strafe and destroy as many parked aircraft as possible to ensure they did not get into the air to intercept the bombers, especially in the first wave. When the fighters ' fuel got low they were to refuel at the aircraft carriers and return to combat. Fighters were to serve CAP duties where needed, especially over U.S. airfields.
Before the attack commenced, two reconnaissance aircraft launched from cruisers Chikuma and Tone were sent to scout over Oahu and Maui and report on U.S. fleet composition and location. Reconnaissance aircraft flights risked alerting the U.S., and were not necessary. U.S. fleet composition and preparedness information in Pearl Harbor was already known due to the reports of the Japanese spy Takeo Yoshikawa. A report of the absence of the U.S. fleet in Lahaina anchorage off Maui was received from the fleet submarine I - 72. Another four scout planes patrolled the area between the Japanese carrier force (the Kidō Butai) and Niihau, to detect any counterattack.
Fleet submarines I - 16, I - 18, I - 20, I - 22, and I - 24 each embarked a Type A midget submarine for transport to the waters off Oahu. The five I - boats left Kure Naval District on November 25, 1941. On December 6, they came to within 10 nmi (19 km; 12 mi) of the mouth of Pearl Harbor and launched their midget subs at about 01: 00 on December 7. At 03: 42 Hawaiian Time, the minesweeper Condor spotted a midget submarine periscope southwest of the Pearl Harbor entrance buoy and alerted the destroyer Ward. The midget may have entered Pearl Harbor. However, Ward sank another midget submarine at 06: 37 in the first American shots in the Pacific Theater. A midget submarine on the north side of Ford Island missed the seaplane tender Curtiss with her first torpedo and missed the attacking destroyer Monaghan with her other one before being sunk by Monaghan at 08: 43.
A third midget submarine, Ha - 19, grounded twice, once outside the harbor entrance and again on the east side of Oahu, where it was captured on December 8. Ensign Kazuo Sakamaki swam ashore and was captured by Hawaii National Guard Corporal David Akui, becoming the first Japanese prisoner of war. A fourth had been damaged by a depth charge attack and was abandoned by its crew before it could fire its torpedoes. Japanese forces received a radio message from a midget submarine at 00: 41 on December 8 claiming damage to one or more large warships inside Pearl Harbor.
In 1992, 2000, and 2001, Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory 's submersibles found the wreck of the fifth midget submarine lying in three parts outside Pearl Harbor. The wreck was in the debris field where much surplus U.S. equipment was dumped after the war, including vehicles and landing craft. Both of its torpedoes were missing. This correlates with reports of two torpedoes fired at the light cruiser St. Louis at 10: 04 at the entrance of Pearl Harbor, and a possible torpedo fired at destroyer Helm at 08: 21.
The attack took place before any formal declaration of war was made by Japan, but this was not Admiral Yamamoto 's intention. He originally stipulated that the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the United States that peace negotiations were at an end. However, the attack began before the notice could be delivered. Tokyo transmitted the 5000 - word notification (commonly called the "14 - Part Message '') in two blocks to the Japanese Embassy in Washington. Transcribing the message took too long for the Japanese ambassador to deliver it on schedule; in the event, it was not presented until more than an hour after the attack began. (In fact, U.S. code breakers had already deciphered and translated most of the message hours before he was scheduled to deliver it.) The final part is sometimes described as a declaration of war. While it was viewed by a number of senior U.S government and military officials as a very strong indicator negotiations were likely to be terminated and that war might break out at any moment, it neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations. A declaration of war was printed on the front page of Japan 's newspapers in the evening edition of December 8, but not delivered to the U.S. government until the day after the attack.
For decades, conventional wisdom held that Japan attacked without first formally breaking diplomatic relations only because of accidents and bumbling that delayed the delivery of a document hinting at war to Washington. In 1999, however, Takeo Iguchi, a professor of law and international relations at International Christian University in Tokyo, discovered documents that pointed to a vigorous debate inside the government over how, and indeed whether, to notify Washington of Japan 's intention to break off negotiations and start a war, including a December 7 entry in the war diary saying, "(O) ur deceptive diplomacy is steadily proceeding toward success. '' Of this, Iguchi said, "The diary shows that the army and navy did not want to give any proper declaration of war, or indeed prior notice even of the termination of negotiations... and they clearly prevailed. ''
In any event, even if the Japanese had decoded and delivered the 14 - Part Message before the beginning of the attack, it would not have constituted either a formal break of diplomatic relations or a declaration of war. The final two paragraphs of the message read:
Thus the earnest hope of the Japanese Government to adjust Japanese - American relations and to preserve and promote the peace of the Pacific through cooperation with the American Government has finally been lost.
The first attack wave of 183 planes was launched north of Oahu, led by Commander Mitsuo Fuchida. Six planes failed to launch due to technical difficulties. It included:
As the first wave approached Oahu, it was detected by the U.S. Army SCR - 270 radar at Opana Point near the island 's northern tip. This post had been in training mode for months, but was not yet operational. The operators, Privates George Elliot Jr. and Joseph Lockard, reported a target. But Lieutenant Kermit A. Tyler, a newly assigned officer at the thinly manned Intercept Center, presumed it was the scheduled arrival of six B - 17 bombers from California. The Japanese planes were approaching from a direction very close (only a few degrees difference) to the bombers, and while the operators had never seen a formation as large on radar, they neglected to tell Tyler of its size. Tyler, for security reasons, could not tell the operators of the six B - 17s that were due (even though it was widely known).
As the first wave planes approached Oahu, they encountered and shot down several U.S. aircraft. At least one of these radioed a somewhat incoherent warning. Other warnings from ships off the harbor entrance were still being processed or awaiting confirmation when the attacking planes began bombing and strafing. Nevertheless, it is not clear any warnings would have had much effect even if they had been interpreted correctly and much more promptly. The results the Japanese achieved in the Philippines were essentially the same as at Pearl Harbor, though MacArthur had almost nine hours warning that the Japanese had already attacked Pearl Harbor.
The air portion of the attack began at 7: 48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (3: 18 a.m. December 8 Japanese Standard Time, as kept by ships of the Kido Butai), with the attack on Kaneohe. A total of 353 Japanese planes in two waves reached Oahu. Slow, vulnerable torpedo bombers led the first wave, exploiting the first moments of surprise to attack the most important ships present (the battleships), while dive bombers attacked U.S. air bases across Oahu, starting with Hickam Field, the largest, and Wheeler Field, the main U.S. Army Air Forces fighter base. The 171 planes in the second wave attacked the Army Air Forces ' Bellows Field near Kaneohe on the windward side of the island, and Ford Island. The only aerial opposition came from a handful of P - 36 Hawks, P - 40 Warhawks, and some SBD Dauntless dive bombers from the carrier Enterprise.
In the first wave attack, about eight of the forty - nine 800 kg (1760 lb) armor - piercing bombs dropped hit their intended battleship targets. At least two of those bombs broke up on impact, another detonated before penetrating an unarmored deck, and one was a dud. Thirteen of the forty torpedoes hit battleships, and four torpedoes hit other ships. Men aboard U.S. ships awoke to the sounds of alarms, bombs exploding, and gunfire, prompting bleary - eyed men to dress as they ran to General Quarters stations. (The famous message, "Air raid Pearl Harbor. This is not drill. '', was sent from the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, the first senior Hawaiian command to respond.) The defenders were very unprepared. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip in the open to prevent sabotage, guns unmanned (none of the Navy 's 5 "/ 38s, only a quarter of its machine guns, and only four of 31 Army batteries got in action). Despite this low alert status, many American military personnel responded effectively during the attack. Ensign Joe Taussig Jr., aboard Nevada, commanded the ship 's antiaircraft guns and was severely wounded, but continued to be on post. Lt. Commander F.J. Thomas commanded Nevada in the captain 's absence and got her under way until the ship was grounded at 9: 10 a.m. One of the destroyers, Aylwin, got underway with only four officers aboard, all ensigns, none with more than a year 's sea duty; she operated at sea for 36 hours before her commanding officer managed to get back aboard. Captain Mervyn Bennion, commanding West Virginia, led his men until he was cut down by fragments from a bomb which hit Tennessee, moored alongside.
The second planned wave consisted of 171 planes: 54 B5Ns, 81 D3As, and 36 A6Ms, commanded by Lieutenant - Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki. Four planes failed to launch because of technical difficulties. This wave and its targets comprised:
The second wave was divided into three groups. One was tasked to attack Kāne ʻohe, the rest Pearl Harbor proper. The separate sections arrived at the attack point almost simultaneously from several directions.
Ninety minutes after it began, the attack was over. 2,008 sailors were killed and 710 others wounded; 218 soldiers and airmen (who were part of the Army until the independent U.S. Air Force was formed in 1947) were killed and 364 wounded; 109 marines were killed and 69 wounded; and 68 civilians were killed and 35 wounded. In total, 2,403 Americans died and 1,178 were wounded. Eighteen ships were sunk or run aground, including five battleships. All of the Americans killed or wounded during the attack were non-combatants, given the fact there was no state of war when the attack occurred.
Of the American fatalities, nearly half were due to the explosion of Arizona 's forward magazine after it was hit by a modified 16 - inch (410 mm) shell.
Already damaged by a torpedo and on fire amidships, Nevada attempted to exit the harbor. She was targeted by many Japanese bombers as she got under way and sustained more hits from 250 lb (113 kg) bombs, which started further fires. She was deliberately beached to avoid blocking the harbor entrance.
California was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. The crew might have kept her afloat, but were ordered to abandon ship just as they were raising power for the pumps. Burning oil from Arizona and West Virginia drifted down on her, and probably made the situation look worse than it was. The disarmed target ship Utah was holed twice by torpedoes. West Virginia was hit by seven torpedoes, the seventh tearing away her rudder. Oklahoma was hit by four torpedoes, the last two above her belt armor, which caused her to capsize. Maryland was hit by two of the converted 16 '' shells, but neither caused serious damage.
Although the Japanese concentrated on battleships (the largest vessels present), they did not ignore other targets. The light cruiser Helena was torpedoed, and the concussion from the blast capsized the neighboring minelayer Oglala. Two destroyers in dry dock, Cassin and Downes were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel bunkers. The leaking fuel caught fire; flooding the dry dock in an effort to fight fire made the burning oil rise, and both were burned out. Cassin slipped from her keel blocks and rolled against Downes. The light cruiser Raleigh was holed by a torpedo. The light cruiser Honolulu was damaged, but remained in service. The repair vessel Vestal, moored alongside Arizona, was heavily damaged and beached. The seaplane tender Curtiss was also damaged. The destroyer Shaw was badly damaged when two bombs penetrated her forward magazine.
Of the 402 American aircraft in Hawaii, 188 were destroyed and 159 damaged, 155 of them on the ground. Almost none were actually ready to take off to defend the base. Eight Army Air Forces pilots managed to get airborne during the attack and six were credited with downing at least one Japanese aircraft during the attack: 1st Lt. Lewis M. Sanders, 2nd Lt. Philip M. Rasmussen, 2nd Lt. Kenneth M. Taylor, 2nd Lt. George S. Welch, 2nd Lt. Harry W. Brown, and 2nd Lt. Gordon H. Sterling Jr. Sterling was shot down by Lt. Fujita over Kaneohe Bay and is listed as Body Not Recovered (not Missing In Action). Lt. John L. Dains was killed by friendly fire returning from a victory over Kaawa. Of 33 PBYs in Hawaii, 24 were destroyed, and six others damaged beyond repair. (The three on patrol returned undamaged.) Friendly fire brought down some U.S. planes on top of that, including five from an inbound flight from Enterprise. Japanese attacks on barracks killed additional personnel.
At the time of the attack, nine civilian aircraft were flying in the vicinity of Pearl Harbor. Of these, three were shot down.
Fifty - five Japanese airmen and nine submariners were killed in the attack, and one was captured. Of Japan 's 414 available planes, 29 were lost during the battle (nine in the first attack wave, 20 in the second), with another 74 damaged by antiaircraft fire from the ground.
Several Japanese junior officers including Fuchida and Genda urged Nagumo to carry out a third strike in order to destroy as much of Pearl Harbor 's fuel and torpedo storage, maintenance, and dry dock facilities as possible. Genda, who had unsuccessfully advocated for invading Hawaii after the air attack, believed that without an invasion three strikes were necessary to disable the base as much as possible. The captains of the other five carriers in the task force reported they were willing and ready to carry out a third strike. Military historians have suggested the destruction of these shore facilities would have hampered the U.S. Pacific Fleet far more seriously than the loss of its battleships. If they had been wiped out, "serious (American) operations in the Pacific would have been postponed for more than a year ''; according to Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, later Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet, "it would have prolonged the war another two years. '' Nagumo, however, decided to withdraw for several reasons:
At a conference aboard Yamato the following morning, Yamamoto initially supported Nagumo. In retrospect, sparing the vital dockyards, maintenance shops, and oil depots meant the U.S. could respond relatively quickly to Japanese activities in the Pacific. Yamamoto later regretted Nagumo 's decision to withdraw and categorically stated it had been a great mistake not to order a third strike.
Seventeen ships were damaged or lost in the attack, of which fourteen were repaired and returned to service.
After a systematic search for survivors, formal salvage operations began. Captain Homer N. Wallin, Material Officer for Commander, Battle Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet, was immediately ordered to lead salvage operations. "Within a short time I was relieved of all other duties and ordered to full time work as Fleet Salvage Officer. ''
Around Pearl Harbor, divers from the Navy (shore and tenders), the Naval Shipyard, and civilian contractors (Pacific Bridge and others) began work on the ships that could be refloated. They patched holes, cleared debris, and pumped water out of ships. Navy divers worked inside the damaged ships. Within six months, five battleships and two cruisers were patched or refloated so they could be sent to shipyards in Pearl Harbor and on the mainland for extensive repair.
Intensive salvage operations continued for another year, a total of some 20,000 man - hours under water. Oklahoma, while successfully raised, was never repaired, and capsized while under tow to the mainland in 1947. Arizona and the target ship Utah were too heavily damaged for salvage, though much of their armament and equipment was removed and put to use aboard other vessels. Today, the two hulks remain where they were sunk, with Arizona becoming a war memorial.
In the wake of the attack, 15 Medals of Honor, 51 Navy Crosses, 53 Silver Stars, four Navy and Marine Corps Medals, one Distinguished Flying Cross, four Distinguished Service Crosses, one Distinguished Service Medal, and three Bronze Star Medals were awarded to the American servicemen who distinguished themselves in combat at Pearl Harbor. Additionally, a special military award, the Pearl Harbor Commemorative Medal, was later authorized for all military veterans of the attack.
The day after the attack, Roosevelt delivered his famous Infamy Speech to a Joint Session of Congress, calling for a formal declaration of war on the Empire of Japan. Congress obliged his request less than an hour later. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, even though the Tripartite Pact did not require it. Congress issued a declaration of war against Germany and Italy later that same day. The UK actually declared war on Japan nine hours before the U.S. did, partially due to Japanese attacks on Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong, and partially due to Winston Churchill 's promise to declare war "within the hour '' of a Japanese attack on the United States.
The attack was an initial shock to all the Allies in the Pacific Theater. Further losses compounded the alarming setback. Japan attacked the Philippines hours later (because of the time difference, it was December 8 in the Philippines). Only three days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the battleships Prince of Wales and Repulse were sunk off the coast of Malaya, causing British Prime Minister Winston Churchill later to recollect "In all the war I never received a more direct shock. As I turned and twisted in bed the full horror of the news sank in upon me. There were no British or American capital ships in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific except the American survivors of Pearl Harbor who were hastening back to California. Over this vast expanse of waters Japan was supreme and we everywhere were weak and naked ''.
Throughout the war, Pearl Harbor was frequently used in American propaganda.
One further consequence of the attack on Pearl Harbor and its aftermath (notably the Niihau incident) was that Japanese American residents and citizens were relocated to nearby Japanese - American internment camps. Within hours of the attack, hundreds of Japanese American leaders were rounded up and brought to high - security camps such as Sand Island at the mouth of Honolulu harbor and Kilauea Military Camp on the island of Hawaii. Eventually, more than 110,000 Japanese Americans, nearly all who lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps, but in Hawaii, where the 150,000 - plus Japanese Americans composed over one - third of the population, only 1,200 to 1,800 were interned.
The attack also had international consequences. The Canadian province of British Columbia, bordering the Pacific Ocean, had long had a large population of Japanese immigrants and their Japanese Canadian descendants. Pre-war tensions were exacerbated by the Pearl Harbor attack, leading to a reaction from the Government of Canada. On February 24, 1942, Order - in - Council P.C. no. 1486 was passed under the War Measures Act allowing for the forced removal of any and all Canadians of Japanese descent from British Columbia, as well as the prohibiting from them returning to the province. On 4 March, regulations under the Act were adopted to evacuate Japanese - Canadians. As a result, 12,000 were interned in interior camps, 2,000 were sent to road camps and another 2,000 were forced to work in the prairies at sugar beet farms.
The Japanese planners had determined that some means was required for rescuing fliers whose aircraft were too badly damaged to return to the carriers. The island of Niihau, only 30 minutes flying time from Pearl Harbor, was designated as the rescue point.
The Zero flown by Petty Officer Shigenori Nishikaichi of Hiryu was damaged in the attack on Wheeler, so he flew to the rescue point on Niihau. The aircraft was further damaged on landing. Nishikaichi was helped from the wreckage by one of the native Hawaiians, who, aware of the tension between the United States and Japan, took the pilot 's maps and other documents. The island 's residents had no telephones or radio and were completely unaware of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Nishikaichi enlisted the support of three Japanese - American residents in an attempt to recover the documents. During the ensuing struggles, Nishikaichi was killed and a Hawaiian civilian was wounded; one collaborator committed suicide, and his wife and the third collaborator were sent to prison.
The ease with which the local ethnic Japanese residents had apparently gone to the assistance of Nishikaichi was a source of concern for many, and tended to support those who believed that local Japanese could not be trusted.
Admiral Hara Tadaichi summed up the Japanese result by saying, "We won a great tactical victory at Pearl Harbor and thereby lost the war. '' To a similar effect, see Isoroku Yamamoto 's alleged "sleeping giant '' quote.
While the attack accomplished its intended objective, it turned out to be largely unnecessary. Unbeknownst to Yamamoto, who conceived the original plan, the U.S. Navy had decided as far back as 1935 to abandon ' charging ' across the Pacific towards the Philippines in response to an outbreak of war (in keeping with the evolution of Plan Orange). The U.S. instead adopted "Plan Dog '' in 1940, which emphasized keeping the IJN out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to Australia, while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany.
Fortunately for the United States, the American aircraft carriers were untouched by the Japanese attack; otherwise the Pacific Fleet 's ability to conduct offensive operations would have been crippled for a year or more (given no diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the elimination of the battleships left the U.S. Navy with no choice but to rely on its aircraft carriers and submarines -- the very weapons with which the U.S. Navy halted and eventually reversed the Japanese advance. While six of the eight battleships were repaired and returned to service, their relatively low speed and high fuel consumption limited their deployment, and they served mainly in shore bombardment roles (their only major action being the Battle of Surigao Strait in October 1944). A major flaw of Japanese strategic thinking was a belief that the ultimate Pacific battle would be fought by battleships, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan. As a result, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded battleships for a "decisive battle '' that never happened.
The Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war meant that they neglected Pearl Harbor 's navy repair yards, oil tank farms, submarine base, and old headquarters building. All of these targets were omitted from Genda 's list, yet they proved more important than any battleship to the American war efforts in the Pacific. The survival of the repair shops and fuel depots allowed Pearl Harbor to maintain logistical support to the U.S. Navy 's operations, such as the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway. It was submarines that immobilized the Imperial Japanese Navy 's heavy ships and brought Japan 's economy to a virtual standstill by crippling the transportation of oil and raw materials: by the end of 1942, import of raw materials was cut to half of what it had been, "to a disastrous ten million tons '', while oil import "was almost completely stopped ''. Lastly, the basement of the Old Administration Building was the home of the cryptanalytic unit which contributed significantly to the Midway ambush and the Submarine Force 's success.
Ever since the Japanese attack, there has been debate as to how and why the United States had been caught unaware, and how much and when American officials knew of Japanese plans and related topics. Military officers including Gen. Billy Mitchell had pointed out the vulnerability of Pearl to air attack. At least two Naval War games, one in 1932 and another in 1936, proved that Pearl was vulnerable to such an attack. Admiral James Richardson was removed from command shortly after protesting President Roosevelt 's decision to move the bulk of the Pacific fleet to Pearl Harbor. The decisions of military and political leadership to ignore these warnings has contributed to conspiracy theories. Several writers, including journalist Robert Stinnett and former United States rear admiral Robert Alfred Theobald, have argued that various parties high in the U.S. and British governments knew of the attack in advance and may even have let it happen or encouraged it in order to force the U.S. into war via the so - called "back door ''. However, this conspiracy theory is rejected by mainstream historians.
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
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what is the name of train station in florence | Firenze Santa Maria Novella railway station - wikipedia
Firenze Santa Maria Novella (in English Florence Santa Maria Novella) or Stazione di Santa Maria Novella is a terminus railway station in Florence, Italy. The station is used by 59 million people every year and is one of the busiest in Italy.
It is at the northern end of the Florence -- Rome direttissima, which was completed on 26 May 1992 and the southern end of the Bologna -- Florence Direttissima, opened on 22 April 1934. A new high speed line to Bologna opened on 13 December 2009. The station is also used by regional trains on lines connecting to: Pisa, Livorno (Leopolda railway); Lucca, Viareggio (Viareggio -- Florence railway); Bologna (Bologna -- Florence railway) and Faenza (Faentina railway).
The station was inaugurated on 3 February 1848 to serve the railway to Pistoia and Pisa, and was initially called Maria Antonia (from the name of the railway, named in honour of Princess Maria Antonia of the Two Sicilies); it was much closer to the Santa Maria Novella church than the current station. It was renamed after the church after the unification of Italy.
In 1932 through a number of newspaper editorials, published in La Nazione, Florence 's main daily, Romano Romanelli a reputed and influential Florentine sculptor, criticized the original project by the Architect Mazzoni for the new Firenze Santa Maria Novella railway station. A constructive debate resulted in the final choice of the project sponsored by the Architect Marcello Piacentini and designed by Gruppo Toscano.
The station was designed in 1932 by a group of architects known as the Gruppo Toscano (Tuscan Group) of which Giovanni Michelucci and Italo Gamberini, Berardi, Baroni, Lusanna were among the members; the building was constructed between 1932 and 1934. The plan of the building, as seen from above, looks as if it were based on the fascio littorio, the symbol of Benito Mussolini 's National Fascist Party, many documents give this explanation, but, that shape was forced by the pre-existing station. The "blade '' represented by the first two - passenger tracks and the postal ones were in fact the extension of the 1861 alignment which included the tracks of the line from Livorno.
The building is a prime example of Italian modernism, but has little to do with the Italian Rationalism movement, being more strongly influenced by the Viennese architecture of Loos and Hoffman, with perhaps a nod to Wright; but it is the building 's complete originality that makes it outstanding. The competition to design the station was controversial but the approval by Mussolini of the Gruppo Toscano project was hailed as an official acceptance of modernity. The station was designed to replace the aging Maria Antonia Station, one of the few example of architecture by I.K. Brunel in Italy, and to serve as a gateway to the city centre.
The Gruppo Toscano was only responsible for the main frontal building of the station. The heating plant, platforms, other facilities and details such as benches were all designed in a contrasting style by the official Ministry of Communications architect, Angiolo Mazzoni. The benches and baggage shelves illustrated on this page were not part of the Gruppo Toscano project. Outside and adjacent to the station is also Michelucci 's white marble Palazzina Reale di Santa Maria Novella, built to host the Royal family on visits to Florence.
While it is of a ' modern ' design, the use of pietra forte for the station 's stone frontage was intended to respond to and contrast with the nearby Gothic architecture of the church of Santa Maria Novella. The interior of the station features a dramatic metal and glass roof with large skylights over the main passenger concourse, which is aligned perpendicular to the tracks and acts as a pedestrian street connecting one side of the city with the other. The skylights span the passenger concourse without any supporting columns, giving a feeling of openness and vast space and reinforcing the convergence of all the public functions of the station on the passenger concourse.
Near platform # 16 there is a statue and a memorial plaque in remembrance of the train loads of Jewish people who were deported from Italy to Nazi concentration camps during World War II.
The station is served by the following services:
Media related to Firenze Santa Maria Novella at Wikimedia Commons
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how long was the boston bomber on the run | Boston Marathon bombing - wikipedia
On April 15, 2013, two homemade bombs detonated 12 seconds and 210 yards (190 m) apart at 2: 49 p.m., near the finish line of the annual Boston Marathon, killing three people and injuring several hundred others, including 16 who lost limbs.
On April 18, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) released images of two suspects, who were later identified as Kyrgyz - American brothers Dzhokhar Tsarnaev and Tamerlan Tsarnaev. The brothers killed an MIT policeman, kidnapped a man in his car, and had a shootout with the police in nearby Watertown, during which two officers were severely injured, one of whom died a year later. Tamerlan Tsarnaev was shot several times, and his brother ran him over while escaping in the stolen car; Tamerlan died soon after.
An unprecedented manhunt for Dzhokhar Tsarnaev ensued on April 19, with thousands of law enforcement officers searching a 20 - block area of Watertown; residents of Watertown and surrounding communities were asked to stay indoors, and the transportation system and most businesses and public places closed. Around 6: 00 p.m., a Watertown resident discovered Dzhokhar hiding in a boat in his backyard. He was shot and wounded by police before being taken into custody.
During questioning, Dzhokhar alleged that he and his brother were motivated by extremist Islamist beliefs and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, that they were self - radicalized and unconnected to any outside terrorist groups, and that he was following his brother 's lead. He said they learned to build explosive devices from an online magazine of the al - Qaeda affiliate in Yemen. He also said they had intended to travel to New York City to bomb Times Square. On April 8, 2015, he was convicted of 30 charges, including use of a weapon of mass destruction and malicious destruction of property resulting in death. Two months later, he was sentenced to death.
The 117th annual Boston Marathon was run on Patriots ' Day, April 15, 2013. At 2: 49 p.m. EDT (18: 49 UTC), two bombs detonated about 210 yards (190 m) apart at the finish line on Boylston Street near Copley Square. The first exploded outside Marathon Sports at 671 -- 673 Boylston Street at 2: 49: 43 p.m. At the time of the first explosion, the race clock at the finish line showed 04: 09: 43, reflecting the elapsed time since the Wave 3 start at 10: 40 a.m. The second bomb exploded at 2: 49: 57 p.m., about 12 seconds later and one block farther west at 755 Boylston Street. The explosions took place nearly three hours after the winner crossed the finish line, but with more than 5,700 runners yet to finish.
The blasts blew out windows on adjacent buildings but did not cause any structural damage. Runners continued to cross the line until 2: 57 p.m., 8 minutes after the explosions.
Rescue workers and medical personnel, on hand as usual for the marathon, gave aid as additional police, fire, and medical units were dispatched, including from surrounding cities as well as private ambulances from all over the state. The explosions killed 3 civilians and injured an estimated 264 others, who were treated at 27 local hospitals. At least 14 people required amputations, with some suffering traumatic amputations as a direct result of the blasts.
Police, following emergency plans, diverted arriving runners to Boston Common and Kenmore Square. The nearby Lenox Hotel and other buildings were evacuated. Police closed a 15 - block area around the blast site; this was reduced to a 12 - block crime scene on April 16. Boston police commissioner Edward F. Davis recommended that people stay off the streets.
Dropped bags and packages, abandoned as their owners fled from the blasts, increased uncertainty as to the possible presence of more bombs. There were false reports of more bombs. An unrelated electrical fire at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library in nearby Dorchester was initially feared to be a bomb.
The airspace over Boston was restricted, and departures halted from Boston 's Logan International Airport. Some local transit service was halted as well.
The Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency suggested people trying to contact those in the vicinity use text messaging instead of voice calls because of crowded cellphone lines. Cellphone service in Boston was congested but remained in operation, despite some local media reports stating that cell service was shut down to prevent cell phones from being used as detonators.
The American Red Cross helped concerned friends and family receive information about runners and casualties. The Boston Police Department also set up a helpline for people concerned about relatives or acquaintances to contact and a line for people to provide information. Google Person Finder activated their disaster service under Boston Marathon Explosions to log known information about missing persons as a publicly viewable file.
Due to the closure of several hotels near the blast zone, a number of visitors were left with nowhere to stay; many Boston - area residents opened their homes to them.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation led the investigation, assisted by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, the Central Intelligence Agency, the National Counterterrorism Center, and the Drug Enforcement Administration, and they named two official suspects. It was initially believed by some that North Korea was behind the attack after escalating tensions and threats with the U.S.
United States government officials stated that there had been no intelligence reports which indicated that such a bombing would take place. Representative Peter King, a member of the House Intelligence Committee, said: "I received two top secret briefings last week on the current threat levels in the United States, and there was no evidence of this at all. ''
The father of the suspects claimed that the FBI had been watching his family, and that they questioned his sons in Cambridge, Massachusetts five times in relation to possible explosions on the streets of Boston.
Evidence found near the blast sites included bits of metal, nails, ball bearings, black nylon pieces from a backpack, remains of an electronic circuit board, and wiring. A pressure cooker lid was found on a nearby rooftop. Both of the improvised explosive devices were pressure cooker bombs manufactured by the bombers. Authorities confirmed that the brothers used bomb - making instructions found in Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula 's Inspire magazine. After the suspects were identified, The Boston Globe reported that Tamerlan purchased fireworks from a fireworks store in New Hampshire.
On April 19, the FBI, West New York Police Department, and Hudson County Sheriff 's Department seized computer equipment from the apartment of the Tamerlans ' sister, located in West New York, New Jersey. On April 24, the FBI and the Department of Homeland Security reported that their investigators had reconstructed the bombs, and believed that they had been triggered by remote controls used for toy cars.
Jeff Bauman was immediately adjacent to one of the bombs and lost both legs; he wrote while in the hospital: "Bag, saw the guy, looked right at me ''. He later gave a detailed description which enabled the photo to be identified and circulated quickly.
At 5: 20 p.m. on April 18, the FBI released images of two suspects carrying backpacks, asking the public 's help in identifying them. The FBI said that they were doing this in part to limit harm to persons wrongly identified by news reports and on social - media. As seen on video, the suspects stayed to observe the chaos after the explosions, then walked away casually. The public sent authorities a deluge of photographs and videos, which were scrutinized by both authorities and online public social networks.
A few hours after the photos were released, the Tsarnaev brothers shot Sean A. Collier of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Police Department six times in an attempt to steal his gun, which they could not get out because of the holster 's retention system. Collier, aged 27, was seated in his police car near the Stata Center (Building 32) on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology campus. He died soon after.
The brothers then carjacked a Mercedes - Benz M - Class SUV in the Allston - Brighton neighborhood of Boston. Tamerlan took the owner hostage and told him that he was responsible for the Boston bombing and for killing a police officer. Dzhokhar followed them in the green Honda, later joining them in the Mercedes - Benz. Interrogation later revealed that the brothers "decided spontaneously '' that they wanted to go to New York and bomb Times Square.
The Tsarnaev brothers forced the hostage to use his ATM cards to obtain $800 in cash. They transferred objects to the Mercedes - Benz and one brother followed it in their Honda Civic, for which an all - points bulletin was issued. The car 's owner and hostage was Chinese national Dun Meng, referred to as "Danny '' in early reports. He escaped while the Tsarnaev brothers stopped at a gas station and ran across the street to another gas station, asking the clerk to call 911. His cell phone remained in the vehicle, allowing the police to focus their search on Watertown.
Shortly after midnight on April 19, Watertown police officer Joseph Reynolds identified the brothers in the Honda Civic and the stolen SUV. A gunfight followed between the brothers and police arriving at the scene on the 100 block of Laurel St. An estimated 200 to 300 rounds of ammunition were fired and at least one further bomb and several "crude grenades '' were thrown.
According to Watertown Police Chief Edward Deveau, the brothers had an "arsenal of guns. '' Tamerlan ran out of ammunition and threw his empty pistol at an officer, who tackled him with help from another officer. Tamerlan 's younger brother Dzhokhar then drove the stolen SUV toward Tamerlan and police who unsuccessfully tried to drag Tamerlan out of his path; the car ran over Tamerlan and dragged him a short distance down the street. Dzhokhar abandoned the car half a mile away and fled on foot. Tamerlan Tsarnaev died at 1: 35 a.m. at a Boston hospital.
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority Police Officer Richard H. Donohue Jr. was also critically wounded but survived. Boston Police Department officer Dennis Simmonds was injured by a hand grenade and died April 10, 2014. Fifteen other officers were also injured. A later report by Harvard Kennedy School 's Program on Crisis Leadership concluded that lack of coordination among police agencies had put the public at excessive risk during the shootout.
Only one firearm was recovered at the scene, a Ruger 9 mm pistol with a defaced serial number.
The men were identified via registration records on their Honda at the scene, as two brothers whose family had immigrated to the United States seeking political asylum around 2002: 26 - year - old Tamerlan Tsarnaev and 19 - year - old Dzhokhar "Jahar '' Tsarnaev. The FBI released additional photos of the two during the Watertown incident. Early on April 19, Watertown residents received reverse 911 calls asking them to stay indoors. On the morning of April 19, Governor Patrick asked residents of Watertown and adjacent cities and towns to "shelter in place ''. Somerville residents also received a reverse - 911 call with orders to shelter in place.
A 20 - block area of Watertown was cordoned off and residents were told not to leave their homes or answer the door, as officers scoured the area in tactical gear. Helicopters circled the area and SWAT teams in armored vehicles moved through in formation, with officers going door to door. On the scene were the FBI, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, the Department of Homeland Security, the National Guard, the Boston and Watertown Police departments, and the Massachusetts State Police. The show of force was the first major field test of the interagency task forces created in the wake of the September 11 attacks.
The entire public transit network and most Boston taxi services were suspended, as was Amtrak service to and from Boston. Logan International Airport remained open under heightened security. Universities, schools, many businesses, and other facilities were closed as thousands of law enforcement personnel participated in the door - to - door manhunt in Watertown, as well as following up other leads, including at the house that the brothers shared in Cambridge. Seven improvised explosive devices were recovered by bomb squads.
The brothers ' father spoke from his home in Makhachkala, Dagestan, encouraging his son to: "Give up. Give up. You have a bright future ahead of you. Come home to Russia. '' He continued, "If they killed him, then all hell would break loose. '' On television, Dzhokhar 's uncle from Montgomery Village, Maryland, pleaded with him to turn himself in.
David Henneberry, a Watertown resident outside the search area, noticed that the tarp was loose on his parked boat on the evening of April 19, two hours after the shelter - in - place order had been lifted. He then saw a body lying inside the boat in a pool of blood. Authorities surrounded the boat and a police helicopter verified movement through a thermal imaging device. The person inside the boat started poking at the tarp, and police shot at the boat.
According to Boston Police Commissioner Ed Davis and Watertown Police Chief Deveau, Dzhokhar Tsarnaev was shooting at police from inside the boat, "exchanging fire for an hour ''. A subsequent report indicated that the firing lasted for a shorter period of time. The suspect was found to have no weapon when he was captured. He was arrested at 8: 42 p.m. and taken to Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, where he was listed in critical condition with gunshot wounds to the head, neck, legs, and hand.
Initial reports that the neck wound represented a suicide attempt were contradicted by his being unarmed. The situation was chaotic according to a police source quoted by the Washington Post, and the firing of weapons occurred during "the fog of war ''. A subsequent review by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts provided this more specific summary: "One officer fired his weapon without appropriate authority in response to perceived movement in the boat, and surrounding officers followed suit in a round of ' contagious fire ', assuming they were being fired on by the suspect. Weapons continued to be fired for several seconds until on scene supervisors ordered a ceasefire and regained control of the scene. The unauthorized shots created another dangerous crossfire situation ''.
United States Senators Kelly Ayotte, Saxby Chambliss, Lindsey Graham, and John McCain, and Representative Peter T. King suggested that Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, a U.S. citizen, should be tried as an unlawful enemy combatant rather than as a criminal, potentially preventing him from obtaining legal counsel. Others said that doing so would be illegal, including prominent American legal scholar and lawyer Alan Dershowitz, and would jeopardize the prosecution. The government decided to try Dzhokhar in the federal criminal court system and not as an enemy combatant.
Dzhokhar was questioned for 16 hours by investigators but stopped communicating with them on the night of April 22 after Judge Marianne Bowler read him a Miranda warning. Dzhokhar had not previously been given a Miranda warning, as federal law enforcement officials invoked the warning 's public safety exception. This raised doubts whether his statements during this investigation would be admissible as evidence and led to a debate surrounding Miranda rights.
On April 22, 2013, formal criminal charges were brought against Tsarnaev in the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts during a bedside hearing while he was hospitalized. He was charged with use of a weapon of mass destruction and with malicious destruction of property resulting in death. Some of the charges carry potential sentences of life imprisonment or the death penalty. Tsarnaev was judged to be awake, mentally competent, and lucid, and he responded to most questions by nodding. The judge asked him whether he was able to afford an attorney and he said no; he was represented by the Federal Public Defender 's office. On April 26, Dzhohkar Tsarnaev was moved from Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center to the Federal Medical Center at Fort Devens, about 40 miles (64 km) from Boston. FMC Devens is a federal prison medical facility at a former Army base where he was held in solitary confinement at a segregated housing unit with 23 - hour - per - day lockdown.
On July 10, 2013, Tsarnaev pleaded not guilty to 30 charges in his first public court appearance, including a murder charge for MIT police officer Sean Collier. He was back in court for a status hearing on September 23, and his lawyers requested more time to prepare their defense. On October 2, Tsarnaev 's attorneys asked the court to lift the special administrative measures (SAMs) imposed by Attorney General Holder in August, saying that the measures had left Tsarnaev unduly isolated from communication with his family and lawyers, and that no evidence suggested that he posed a future threat.
Jury selection began on January 5, 2015 and was completed on March 3, with a jury consisting of eight men and 10 women (including six alternates). The trial began on March 4 with Assistant U.S. Attorney William Weinreb describing the bombing and painting Dzhokhar as "a soldier in a holy war against Americans '' whose motive was "reaching paradise ''. He called the brothers equal participants.
Defense attorney Judy Clarke admitted that Dzhokhar Tsarnaev had placed the second bomb and was present at the murder of Sean Collier, the carjacking of Dun Meng, and the Watertown shootout, but she emphasized the influence that his older brother had on him, portraying him as a follower. Between March 4 and 30, prosecutors called more than 90 witnesses, including bombing survivors who described losing limbs in the attack, and the government rested its case on March 30. The defense rested as well on March 31, after calling four witnesses.
Tsarnaev was found guilty on all 30 counts on April 8. The sentencing phase of the trial began April 21, and a further verdict was reached on May 15 recommending that he be put to death. Tsarnaev was sentenced to death on June 24, after apologizing to the victims.
According to FBI interrogators, Dzhokhar and his brother were motivated by Islamic beliefs but "were not connected to any known terrorist groups '', instead learning to build explosive weapons from an online magazine published by al - Qaeda affiliates in Yemen. They further alleged that "(Dzhokhar and) his brother considered suicide attacks and striking (the Boston Pops Fireworks Spectacular) on the Fourth of July; but ultimately decided to use pressure cooker bombs (capable of remote detonation) and other IEDs. '' Fox News reported that the brothers "chose the prestigious race as a ' target of opportunity '... (after) the building of the bombs came together more quickly than expected ''.
Dzhokhar said that he and his brother wanted to defend Islam from the U.S., accusing the U.S. of conducting the Iraq War and War in Afghanistan against Muslims. A CBS report revealed that Dzhokhar had scrawled a note with a marker on the interior wall of the boat where he was hiding; the note stated that the bombings were "retribution for U.S. military action in Afghanistan and Iraq '', and called the Boston victims "collateral damage '', "in the same way innocent victims have been collateral damage in U.S. wars around the world. '' Photographs of the note were later used in the trial.
Some political science and public policy writers suggest that Islam may have played a secondary role in the attacks. These writers theorize that the primary motives might have been sympathy towards the political aspirations in the Caucasus region and Tamerlan 's inability to become fully integrated into American society. According to the Los Angeles Times, a law enforcement official said that Dzhokhar "did not seem as bothered about America 's role in the Muslim world '' as his brother Tamerlan had been. Dzhokhar identified Tamerlan as the "driving force '' behind the bombing, and said that his brother had only recently recruited him to help.
Some journalists and Dzhokhar Tsarnaev 's defense attorney have suggested that the FBI may have recruited or attempted to recruit Tamerlan Tsarnaev as an informant.
Tamerlan Tsarnaev was born in 1986 in the Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, North Caucasus. Dzhokhar was born in 1993 in Kyrgyzstan, although some reports say that his family claims that he was born in Dagestan. The family spent time in Tokmok, Kyrgyzstan, and in Makhachkala, Dagestan. They are half Chechen through their father Anzor, and half Avar through their mother Zubeidat. They never lived in Chechnya, yet the brothers identified themselves as Chechen.
The Tsarnaev family immigrated to the United States in 2002 where they applied for political asylum, settling in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Tamerlan Tsarnaev attended Bunker Hill Community College but dropped out to become a boxer. His goal was to gain a place on the U.S. Olympic boxing team, saying that, "unless his native Chechnya becomes independent '', he would "rather compete for the United States than for Russia ''. He married U.S. citizen Katherine Russell on July 15, 2010 in the Masjid Al Quran Mosque in the Dorchester section of Boston; she was pregnant with their daughter. While initially quoted in a student magazine as saying, "I do n't have a single American friend. I do n't understand them, '' a later FBI interview report documents Tamerlan stating it was a misquote, and that most of his friends were American. He had a history of violence, including an arrest in July 2009 for assaulting his girlfriend.
The brothers were Muslim; Tamerlan 's aunt stated that he had recently become a devout Muslim. Tamerlan became more devout and religious after 2009, and a YouTube channel in his name linked to Salafist and Islamist videos. The FBI was informed by the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) in 2011 that he was a "follower of radical Islam. '' In response, the FBI interviewed Tamerlan and his family and searched databases, but they did not find any evidence of "terrorism activity, domestic or foreign. '' During the 2012 trip to Dagestan, Tamerlan was reportedly a frequent visitor at a mosque on Kotrova Street in Makhachkala, believed by the FSB to be linked with radical Islam. Some believe that "they were motivated by their faith, apparently an anti-American, radical version of Islam '' acquired in the U.S., while others believe that the turn happened in Dagestan.
At the time of the bombing, Dzhokhar Tsarnaev was a student at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth with a major in marine biology. He became a naturalized U.S. citizen on September 11, 2012. Tamerlan 's boxing coach reported to NBC that the young brother was greatly affected by Tamerlan and admired him.
Tamerlan was previously connected to the triple homicide in Waltham, Massachusetts on the evening of September 11, 2011, but he was not a suspect at the time. Brendan Mess, Erik Weissman, and Raphael Teken were murdered in Mess 's apartment. All had their throats slit from ear to ear with such great force that they were nearly decapitated. The local district attorney said that it appeared that the killer and the victims knew each other, and that the murders were not random. Tamerlan Tsarnaev had previously described murder victim Brendan Mess as his "best friend. '' After the bombing and subsequent revelations of Tsarnaev 's personal life, the Waltham murders case was reexamined in April 2013 with Tsarnaev as a new suspect. Both ABC and The New York Times have reported that there is strong evidence which implicates Tsarnaev in this triple homicide.
Some analysts claim that the Tsarnaev 's mother Zubeidat Tsarnaeva is a radical extremist and supporter of jihad who influenced her sons ' behavior. This prompted the Russian government to warn the U.S. government on two occasions about the family 's behavior. Both Tamerlan and his mother were placed on a terrorism watch list about 18 months before the bombing took place.
On April 15, several people who were near the scene of the blast were taken into custody and questioned about the bombing, including a Saudi man whom police stopped as he was walking away from the explosion; they detained him when some of his responses made them uncomfortable. Law enforcement searched his residence in a Boston suburb, and the man was found to have no connection to the attack. An unnamed U.S. official said, "he was just at the wrong place at the wrong time. ''
On the night of April 18, two men riding in a taxi in the vicinity of the shootout were arrested and released shortly thereafter when police determined that they were not involved in the Marathon attacks. Another man was arrested several blocks from the site of the shootout and was forced to strip naked by police who feared that he might have concealed explosives. He was released that evening after a brief investigation determined that he was an innocent bystander.
On May 22, the FBI interrogated Ibragim Todashev in Orlando, Florida, who was a Chechen from Boston. During the interrogation, he was shot and killed by an FBI agent who claimed that Todashev attacked him. The New York Times quoted an unnamed law enforcement official as saying that Todashev had confessed to a triple homicide and had implicated Tsarnaev, as well. Todashev 's father claims that his son is innocent and that federal investigators are biased against Chechens and made up their case against him.
Robel Phillipos (19) was a U.S. citizen of Ethiopian descent living in Cambridge who was arrested and faced with charges of knowingly making false statements to police. He graduated from high school in 2011 with Dzhokhar Tsarnaev. Dias Kadyrbayev (19) and Azamat Tazhayakov (20) were natives of Kazakhstan living in the U.S. They were Dzhokhar Tsarnaev 's roommates in an off - campus housing complex in New Bedford, Massachusetts at which Tsarnaev had sometimes stayed.
Phillipos, Kadyrbayev, Tazhayakov, and Tsarnaev entered the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth in the fall of 2011 and knew each other well. After seeing photos of Tsarnaev on television, the three men traveled to his dorm room where they retrieved a backpack and laptop belonging to Tsarnaev. The backpack was discarded, but police recovered it and its contents in a nearby New Bedford landfill on April 26. During interviews, the men initially denied visiting the dorm room but later admitted their actions.
Kadyrbayev and Tazhayakov were arrested by police at the off - campus housing complex during the night of April 18 -- 19. An unidentified girlfriend of one of the men was also arrested, but all three were soon released.
Kadyrbayev and Tazhayakov were re-arrested in New Bedford on April 20 and held on immigration - related violations. They appeared before a federal immigration judge on May 1 and were charged with overstaying their student visas. That same day, Kadyrbayev and Tazhayakov were charged criminally with:
willfully conspir (ing) with each other to commit an offense against the United States... by knowingly destroying, concealing, and covering up objects belonging to Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, namely, a backpack containing fireworks and a laptop computer, with the intent to impede, obstruct, and influence the criminal investigation of the Marathon bombing.
Kadyrbayev and Tazhayakov were indicted by a federal grand jury on August 8, 2013 on charges of conspiracy to obstruct justice for helping Dzhokhar Tsarnaev dispose of a laptop computer, fireworks, and a backpack after the bombing. Each faced up to 25 years in prison and deportation if convicted. Tazhayakov was convicted of obstruction of justice and conspiracy on July 21, 2014.
Kadyrbayev pleaded guilty to obstruction charges on August 22, 2014, but sentencing was delayed pending the U.S. Supreme Court 's ruling in Yates v. United States. Kadyrbayev was sentenced to six years in prison in June 2015.
Tazhayakov pleaded not guilty and went to trial, arguing that "Kadyrbayev was the mastermind behind destroying the evidence and that Tazhayakov only ' attempted obstruction. ' '' Jurors returned a guilty verdict against him, however, and he was sentenced to 42 months in prison in June 2015, which equated to three and a half years. Judge Douglas Woodlock gave a lighter sentence to Tazahayakov than to Kadyrbayev, who was viewed as more culpable. Tazhayakov was released in May 2016 and subsequently deported.
Phillipos was arrested and faced charges of knowingly making false statements to police. He was released on $100,000 bail and placed under house confinement with an ankle monitor. He was convicted on October 28, 2014, on two charges of lying about being in Tsarnaev 's dorm room. He later acknowledged that he had been in the room while two friends removed a backpack containing potential evidence relating to the bombing.
Phillipos faced a maximum sentence of eight years ' imprisonment on each count. In June 2015, U.S. District Judge Douglas P. Woodlock sentenced him to three years in prison. Phillipos filed an appeal, but his sentence was upheld in court on February 28, 2017.
A federal indictment was unsealed against Khairullozhon Matanov on May 30, 2014, charging him with "one count of destroying, altering, and falsifying records, documents, and tangible objects in a federal investigation, specifically information on his computer, and three counts of making materially false, fictitious, and fraudulent statements in a federal terrorism investigation. '' Matanov bought dinner for the two Tsarnaev brothers 40 minutes after the bombing. After the Tsarnaev brothers ' photos were released to the public, Matanov viewed the photos on the CNN and FBI websites before attempting to reach Dzhokhar, and then tried to give away his cell phone and delete hundreds of documents from his computer. Prosecutors said that Matanov attempted to mislead investigators about the nature of his relationship with the brothers and to conceal that he shared their philosophy of violence.
Matanov was originally from Kyrgyzstan. He came to the U.S. in 2010 on a student visa, and later claimed asylum. He attended Quincy College for two years before dropping out to become a taxicab driver. He was living in Quincy, Massachusetts at the time of his arrest, and was a friend of Tamerlan Tsarnaev.
In March 2015, Matanov pleaded guilty to all four counts. In June 2015, he was sentenced to 30 months in prison.
Three civilians were killed in the bombing: Krystle Marie Campbell (29), a restaurant manager from Medford, Massachusetts; Lü Lingzi (Chinese: 吕 令子) (23), a Chinese national and Boston University graduate student from Shenyang, Liaoning; and 8 - year old Martin William Richard from the Dorchester neighborhood of Boston, who was killed by the second bomb.
Sean A. Collier (27) was ambushed in his police car on April 18, at about 10: 48 p.m. He was an MIT police officer, and had been with the Somerville Auxiliary Police Department from 2006 to 2009. He died from multiple gunshot wounds from the bombers.
Boston Police Department officer Dennis Simmonds died on April 10, 2014 -- nearly a year later -- as a result of injuries which he sustained from a hand grenade during the Watertown shootout.
According to the Boston Public Health Commission, 264 civilians were treated at 27 local hospitals. Eleven days later, 29 remained hospitalized, one in critical condition. Many victims had lower leg injuries and shrapnel wounds, which indicated that the devices were low to the ground. At least 16 civilians lost limbs, at the scene or by amputation in a hospital, and three lost more than one limb.
Doctors described removing "ball - bearing type '' metallic beads a little larger than BBs and small carpenter - type nails about 0.5 to 1 inch (1 to 3 cm) long. Similar objects were found at the scene. The New York Times cited doctors as saying that the bombs mainly injured legs, ankles, and feet because they were low to the ground, instead of fatally injuring abdomens, chests, shoulders, and heads. Some victims had perforated eardrums.
MBTA police officer Richard H. Donohue Jr. (33) was critically wounded during a firefight with the bombers just after midnight on April 19. He lost almost all of his blood, and his heart stopped for 45 minutes, during which time he was kept alive by cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The Boston Globe reported that Donohue may have been accidentally shot by a fellow officer.
Marc Fucarile lost his right leg and received severe burns and shrapnel wounds. He was the last victim released from hospital care on July 24, 2013.
Law enforcement, local and national politicians, and various heads of state reacted quickly to the bombing, generally condemning the act and expressing sympathies for the victims.
The One Fund Boston was established by Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick and Boston mayor Thomas Menino to make monetary distributions to bombing victims. The Boston Strong concert at the TD Garden in Boston on May 30, 2013 benefitted the One Fund, which ultimately received more than $69.8 million in donations. A week after the bombing, crowd funding websites received more than 23,000 pledges promising more than $2 million for the victims, their families, and others affected by the bombing. The Israel Trauma Coalition for Response and Preparedness sent six psychologists and specialists from Israel to help Boston emergency responders, government administrators, and community people develop post-terrorist attack recovery strategies.
Numerous sporting events, concerts, and other public entertainment were postponed or cancelled in the days following the bombing. The MBTA public transit system was under heavy National Guard and police presence and it was shut down a second time April 19 during the manhunt.
In the days after the bombing, makeshift memorials began to spring up along the cordoned - off area surrounding Boylston Street. The largest was located on Arlington Street, the easternmost edge of the barricades, starting with flowers, tokens, and T - shirts. In June, the Makeshift Memorial located in Copley Square was taken down and the memorial objects located there were moved to the archives in West Roxbury for cleaning, fumigation, and archiving.
Boston University established a scholarship in honor of Lü Lingzi, a student who died in the bombing. University of Massachusetts Boston did the same in honor of alumna and bombing victim Krystle Campell. MIT also established a scholarship and erected a sculpture (unveiled on April 29, 2015), both in memory of MIT Police officer Sean Collier.
One study conducted by the Institute for Public Service at Suffolk University in Boston, Massachusetts, records the mental health and emotional response of various survivors, for three years following the bombing. In doing so, it reviews the kinds of aid that were available in local hospitals and gives advice as to how an individual or community may be healed.
This study also mentions that after realizing the under coverage of people in the city being killed or injured on a daily basis, the city of Boston "applied for and received a grant from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation to be part of their 100 resilient cities network and to develop a cross cutting resilience strategy ''.
President Barack Obama addressed the nation after the attack. He said that the perpetrators were still unknown, but that the government would "get to the bottom of this '' and that those responsible "will feel the full weight of justice ''. He ordered flags to half - mast until April 20 on all federal buildings as "a mark of respect for the victims of the senseless acts of violence perpetrated on April 15, 2013 in Boston, Massachusetts. ''
Moments of silence were held at various events across the country, including at the openings of the New York Stock Exchange, NASDAQ, and NYMEX on the day after the bombing. Numerous special events were held, including marathons and other runs.
The bombing was denounced and condolences were offered by many international leaders as well as leading figures from international sport. Security measures were increased worldwide in the wake of the attack.
In China, users posted condolence messages on Weibo in response to the death of Lü Lingzi. Chris Buckley of The New York Times said "Ms. Lu 's death gave a melancholy face to the attraction that America and its colleges exert over many young Chinese. '' Laurie Burkitt of The Wall Street Journal said "Ms. Lu 's death resonates with many in China '' due to the one - child policy.
Organizers of the London Marathon, which was held six days after the Boston bombing, reviewed security arrangements for their event. Hundreds of extra police officers were drafted in to provide a greater presence on the streets, and a record 700,000 spectators lined the streets. Runners in London observed a 30 - second silence in respect for the victims of Boston shortly before the race began, and many runners wore black ribbons on their vests. Organisers also pledged to donate US $3 to a fund for Boston Marathon victims for every person who finished the race.
Organizers of the 2013 Vancouver Sun Run, which was held on April 21, 2013, donated $10 from every late entry for the race to help victims of the bombing at the Boston Marathon. Jamie Pitblado, vice-president of promotions for The Vancouver Sun and The Province, said the money would go to One Fund Boston, an official charity that collected donations for the victims and their families. Sun Run organizers raised anywhere from $25,000 to $40,000. There were over 48,000 participants, many dressed in blue and yellow (Boston colors) with others wearing Boston Red Sox caps.
Petr Gandalovic, ambassador of the Czech Republic, released a statement after noticing much confusion on Facebook and Twitter between his nation and the Chechen Republic. "The Czech Republic and Chechnya are two very different entities -- the Czech Republic is a Central European country; Chechnya is a part of the Russian Federation. ''
Security was also stepped up in Singapore in response to online threats made on attacking several locations in the city - state and the Singapore Marathon in December. Two suspects were investigated and one was eventually arrested for making false bomb threats.
The Russian government said special attention would be paid to security at upcoming international sports events in Russia, including the 2014 Winter Olympics. According to the Russian embassy in the U.S., President Vladimir Putin condemned the bombing as a "barbaric crime '' and "stressed that the Russian Federation will be ready, if necessary, to assist in the U.S. authorities ' investigation. '' He urged closer cooperation of security services with Western partners but other Russian authorities and mass media blamed the U.S. authorities for negligence as they warned the US of the Tsarnaevs. Moreover Russian authorities and mass media since the spring of 2014 blame USA for politically motivated false information about lack of response from Russian authorities after subsequent U.S. requests. As proof a letter from the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) was shown to the members of an official U.S. Congressional delegation to Moscow during their visit. This letter with information about Tsarnaev (including his biography details, connections and phone number) had been sent from FSB to FBI and CIA during March 2011.
Republican U.S. Senators Saxby Chambliss and Richard Burr reported that Russian authorities had separately asked both the FBI (at least twice: during March and November 2011) and the CIA (September 2011) to look carefully into Tamerlan Tsarnaev and provide more information about him back to Russia. Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) secretly recorded phone conversations between Tamerlan Tsarnaev and his mother (they vaguely and indirectly discussed jihad) and sent these to the FBI as evidence of possible extremist links within the family. However, while Russia offered US intelligence services warnings that Tsarnaev planned to link up with extremist groups abroad, an FBI investigation yielded no evidence to support those claims at the time. In addition, subsequent U.S. requests for additional information about Tsarnaev went unanswered by the Russians.
On April 19, 2013, the press - secretary of the head of the Chechen Republic, Ramzan Kadyrov, issued a statement that, inter alia, read: "The Boston bombing suspects have nothing to do with Chechnya ''. On the same day, Kadyrov was reported by The Guardian to have written on Instagram:
Any attempt to make a link between Chechnya and the Tsarnaevs, if they are guilty, is in vain. They grew up in the U.S., their views and beliefs were formed there. The roots of evil must be searched for in America. The whole world must battle with terrorism. We know this better than anyone. We wish recover (sic) to all the victims and share Americans ' feeling of sorrow.
Akhmed Zakayev, head of the secular wing of the Chechen separatist movement, now in exile in London, condemned the bombing as "terrorist '' and expressed condolences to the families of the victims. Zakayev denied that the bombers were in any way representative of the Chechen people, saying that "the Chechen people never had and can not have any hostile feelings toward the United States and its citizens. ''
The Mujahideen of the Caucasus Emirate Province of Dagestan, the Caucasian Islamist organization in both Chechnya and Dagestan, denied any link to the bombing or the Tsarnaev brothers and stated that it was at war with Russia, not the United States. It also said that it had sworn off violence against civilians since 2012.
In the Turkistan Islamic Party 's Turkestan Al - Islamiyya magazine, Issue 13, the Rohingya cleric Abu Dhar ' Azzam (Abu Dhar Al - Burmi) congratulated the Tsarnaev brothers on their terrorist attack in the Boston Marathon bombing, saying, "In the very house of unbelief, two Chechen brothers destroyed the infidels ' fortresses on April 16, 2013. During the (ensuing) search (by the authorities for the perpetrators), the elder brother died as a martyr in the field of glory and honor, Allah willing. The younger brother, Dzokhar, remained, and told his dear nation: ' We did this operation as revenge for what America does in Palestine, Iraq, and Afghanistan. ' He did n't mention his homeland Chechnya, since this jihad is a jihad of (an entire) nation, not (a campaign) for the liberation of a single land... The Muslims ' lands are one and their honor is one. ''
During the manhunt for the perpetrators of the bombing, Governor Deval Patrick said "we are asking people to shelter in place. '' The request was highly effective; most people stayed home, causing Boston, Watertown, and Cambridge to come to a virtual standstill. According to Time magazine, "media described residents complying with a ' lockdown order, ' but in reality the governor 's security measure was a request. '' Scott Silliman, emeritus director of the Center on Law, Ethics and National Security at Duke Law School, said that the shelter - in - place request was voluntary.
The shelter - in - place directive was criticized by some commentators. Michael Cohen of The Observer said that Americans have little experience with daily terrorism compared to some countries and "are more primed to... assume the absolute worst. '' Cohen wrote that it was not the first time dangerous murderers have been on the loose in a large American city (citing Christopher Dorner in 2013 and the Beltway sniper attacks in 2002), but noted that "lockdown '' measures were not used in those cases. Former congressman and presidential candidate Ron Paul, criticized what he described as a "military - style takeover of parts of Boston '' during the investigation and wrote that "this unprecedented move should frighten us as much or more than the attack itself. ''
Haaretz 's Chemi Salev wrote that "in terms of cost - benefit analysis, from the evil terrorist 's point of view, the Boylston Street bombings and their aftermath can only be viewed as a resounding triumph '' since the "relatively amateurish '' terrorists managed to intimidate a vast number of people and got a maximum amount of publicity. Responding to Salev in The New York Times, Ross Douthat commented that the massive manhunt operation might deter other amateur terrorists, but not hard - core terrorists such as Mohammed Atta. Douthat argued that out - of - the - ordinary measures can only be used when terrorism itself is out - of - the - ordinary: if attacks started to occur more often, people would not be as willing to comply with shelter - in - place commands, yet once a terrorist has been hunted with such an operation, it is hard to justify why such measures should not be taken the next time.
The National Lawyers Guild and some news outlets questioned the constitutionality of the door - to - door searches conducted by law enforcement officers looking for Dzhokhar Tsarnaev.
On the afternoon of the bombing, the New York Post reported that a suspect, a Saudi Arabian male, was under guard and being questioned at a Boston hospital. That evening, Boston Police Commissioner Ed Davis said that there had not been an arrest. The Post did not retract its story about the suspect, leading to widespread reports by CBS News, CNN, and other media that a Middle Eastern suspect was in custody. The day after the bombing, a majority of outlets were reporting that the Saudi was a witness, not a suspect.
The New York Post on its April 18 front page showed two men, and said they were being sought by the authorities. The two were not the ones being sought as suspects. They were a 17 - year - old boy and his track coach. The boy, from Revere, Massachusetts, turned himself over to the police immediately and was cleared after a 20 - minute interview in which they advised him to deactivate his Facebook account. New York Post editor Col Allan stated, "We stand by our story. The image was emailed to law enforcement agencies yesterday afternoon seeking information about these men, as our story reported. We did not identify them as suspects. '' The two were implied to be possible suspects via crowdsourcing on the websites Reddit and 4chan.
Several other people were mistakenly identified as suspects. Two of those wrongly identified as suspects on Reddit were a 17 - year - old track star and Sunil Tripathi, a Brown University student missing since March. Tripathi was found dead on April 23 in the Providence River.
On April 17, the FBI released the following statement:
Contrary to widespread reporting, no arrest has been made in connection with the Boston Marathon attack. Over the past day and a half, there have been a number of press reports based on information from unofficial sources that has been inaccurate. Since these stories often have unintended consequences, we ask the media, particularly at this early stage of the investigation, to exercise caution and attempt to verify information through appropriate official channels before reporting.
The decision to release the photos of the Tsarnaev brothers was made in part to limit damage done to those misidentified on the Internet and by the media, and to address concerns over maintaining control of the manhunt.
A film about the Boston Marathon bombing and subsequent manhunt, Patriots Day, was released in December 2016. Another film, Stronger, which chronicles survivor Jeff Bauman, was released in September 2017.
Congressional hearings
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when do the new york giants play football | New York Giants - wikipedia
National Football League (1925 -- present)
Dark blue, red, white
League championships (8)
Conference championships (11)
Division championships (16)
The New York Giants are a professional American football team based in the New York metropolitan area. The Giants compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) East division. The team plays its home games at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey, which it shares with the New York Jets in a unique arrangement. The Giants hold their summer training camp at the Quest Diagnostics Training Center at the Meadowlands Sports Complex.
The Giants were one of five teams that joined the NFL in 1925, and is the only one of that group still existing, as well as the league 's longest - established team in the Northeastern United States. The team ranks third among all NFL franchises with eight NFL championship titles: four in the pre -- Super Bowl era (1927, 1934, 1938, 1956) and four since the advent of the Super Bowl (Super Bowls XXI (1986), XXV (1990), XLII (2007), and XLVI (2011)), along with more championship appearances than any other team, with 19 overall appearances. Their championship tally is surpassed only by the Green Bay Packers (13) and Chicago Bears (9). Throughout their history, the Giants have featured 28 Hall of Fame players, including NFL Most Valuable Player (MVP) award winners Mel Hein, Frank Gifford, Y.A. Tittle, and Lawrence Taylor.
To distinguish themselves from the professional baseball team of the same name, the football team was incorporated as the "New York National League Football Company, Inc. '' in 1929 and changed to "New York Football Giants, Inc. '' in 1937. While the baseball team moved to San Francisco after the 1957 season, the football team continues to use "New York Football Giants, Inc. '' as its legal corporate name, and is often referred to by fans and sportscasters as the "New York Football Giants ''. The team has also acquired several nicknames, including "Big Blue '', the "G - Men '', and the "Jints '', an intentionally mangled contraction seen frequently in the New York Post and New York Daily News, originating from the baseball team when they were based in New York. Additionally, the team as a whole is occasionally referred to as the "Big Blue Wrecking Crew '', even though this moniker primarily and originally refers to the Giants defensive unit during the 80s and early 90s (and before that to the Los Angeles Dodgers baseball teams of the late 1970s and early 1980s).
The team 's heated rivalry with the Philadelphia Eagles is the oldest of the NFC East rivalries, dating all the way back to 1933, and has been called the best rivalry in the NFL in the 21st century.
The Giants played their first game as an away game against All New Britain in New Britain, Connecticut, on October 4, 1925. They defeated New Britain 26 -- 0 in front of a crowd of 10,000. The Giants were successful in their first season, finishing with an 8 -- 4 record.
In its third season, the team finished with the best record in the league at 11 -- 1 -- 1 and was awarded the NFL title. After a disappointing fourth season (1928) owner Mara bought the entire squad of the Detroit Wolverines, principally to acquire star quarterback Benny Friedman, and merged the two teams under the Giants name.
In 1930, there were still many who questioned the quality of the professional game, claiming the college "amateurs '' played with more intensity than professionals. In December 1930, the Giants played a team of Notre Dame All Stars at the Polo Grounds to raise money for the unemployed of New York City. It was also an opportunity to establish the skill and prestige of the pro game. Knute Rockne reassembled his Four Horsemen along with the stars of his 1924 Championship squad and told them to score early, then defend. Rockne, like much of the public, thought little of pro football and expected an easy win. But from the beginning it was a one - way contest, with Friedman running for two Giant touchdowns and Hap Moran passing for another. Notre Dame failed to score. When it was all over, Coach Rockne told his team, "That was the greatest football machine I ever saw. I am glad none of you got hurt. '' The game raised $100,000 for the homeless, and is often credited with establishing the legitimacy of the professional game for those who were critical. It also was the last game the legendary Rockne ever coached; he was killed in an airplane crash on March 31, 1931.
In a 14 - year span from 1933 to 1947, the Giants qualified to play in the NFL championship game 8 times, winning twice. During this period the Giants were led by Hall of Fame coach Steve Owen, and Hall of Fame players Mel Hein, Red Badgro and Tuffy Leemans. The period also featured the 1944 Giants, which are ranked as the # 1 defensive team in NFL history, "... a truly awesome unit ''. They gave up only 7.5 points per game (a record that still stands) and shut out five of their 10 opponents, though they lost 14 - 7 to the Green Bay Packers in the 1944 NFL Championship Game. The famous "Sneakers Game '' was played in this era where the Giants defeated the Chicago Bears on an icy field in the 1934 NFL Championship Game, while wearing sneakers for better traction. The Giants played the Detroit Lions to a scoreless tie on November 7, 1943. To this day, no NFL game played since then has ended in a scoreless tie. The Giants were particularly successful from the latter half of the 1930s until the United States entry into World War II. They added their third NFL championship in 1938 with a 23 -- 17 win over the Green Bay Packers.
They did not win another league title until 1956, the first year the team began playing at Yankee Stadium in the Bronx borough of New York City. Aided by a number of future Pro Football Hall of Fame players such as running back Frank Gifford, linebacker Sam Huff, and offensive tackle Roosevelt Brown, as well as all - pro running back Alex Webster. The Giants ' 1956 championship team not only included players who would eventually find their way to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, but a Hall of Fame coaching staff, as well. Head coach Jim Lee Howell 's staff had Vince Lombardi coaching the offense and Tom Landry coaching the defense. From 1958 to 1963, the Giants played in the NFL Championship Game five times, but failed to win. Most significantly, the Giants played the Colts in the 1958 NFL Championship Game, which is considered a watershed event in the history of the NFL. The game, which the Giants lost in overtime 23 -- 17, is often called "The Greatest Game Ever Played '' and is considered one of the most important events in furthering the NFL 's popularity. The following year, they lost the championship to the Colts again, giving up a 9 - 7 4th quarter lead en route to a 31 -- 16 loss. Both the 1961 and 1962 championship game matched the Giants up against the Green Bay Packers, with the Giants losing both 37 - 0 and 16 - 7 respectively. In 1963, led by league MVP quarterback Y.A. Tittle, who threw a then - NFL record 36 touchdown passes, the Giants advanced to the NFL Championship Game, where they lost to the Bears 14 -- 10 for their third consecutive championship loss, as well as their fifth loss in the title game in 6 years.
From 1964 to 1978, the Giants registered only two winning seasons and no playoff appearances. With players, such as Tittle and Gifford approaching their mid 30s, the team declined rapidly, finishing 2 -- 10 -- 2 in 1964. They rebounded with a 7 -- 7 record in 1965, before compiling a league - worst 1 -- 12 -- 1 record, and allowing more than 500 points on defense in 1966. During the 1969 preseason, the Giants lost their first meeting with the New York Jets, 37 -- 14, in front of 70,874 fans at the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut. Following the game, Wellington Mara fired coach Allie Sherman, and replaced him with former Giants fullback Alex Webster.
In 1967, the team acquired quarterback Fran Tarkenton from the Minnesota Vikings. Despite having several respectable seasons with Tarkenton at quarterback, including a 7 -- 7 finish in 1967 and 9 -- 5 in 1970, the Giants traded him back to the Vikings after a 4 -- 10 finish in 1971. Tarkenton would go on to lead the Vikings to three Super Bowls and earn a place in the Hall of Fame, while the Giants suffered through one of the worst stretches in their history, winning only 23 games from 1973 to 1979. Before the 1976 season, the Giants tried to revive a weak offense by replacing retired RB Ron Johnson with future Hall of Fame fullback Larry Csonka, but Csonka was often injured and ineffective during his 3 years in New York. The 1977 season featured a roster that included three rookie quarterbacks.
The Giants were allowed to play their home games at the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut in 1973 and 1974, and at Shea Stadium (home of the Mets and Jets) in 1975, due to the renovation of Yankee Stadium. They finally moved into their own dedicated state - of - the - art stadium in 1976, when they moved into Giants Stadium at the Meadowlands in East Rutherford, New Jersey. One of the low points during this period was the play known as the "Miracle at the Meadowlands '', which occurred in 1978. With the Giants trying to kill the clock and secure a win against the Philadelphia Eagles, offensive coordinator, Bob Gibson, chose to call a running play. This resulted in "The Fumble '' by QB Joe Pisarcik that was returned for a game - winning touchdown by the Eagles ' Herman Edwards.
The Giants ' front office operations were complicated by a long - standing feud between Wellington Mara and his nephew, Tim Mara. Jack Mara had died in 1965, leaving his share of the club to his son Tim. Wellington and Tim 's personal styles and their visions for the club clashed, and eventually they stopped talking to each other. Commissioner Rozelle intervened and appointed a neutral general manager, George Young, allowing the club to operate more smoothly. The feud became moot on February 20, 1991, when Tim Mara sold his shares in the club to Preston Robert Tisch.
In 1979, the Giants began the steps that would, in time, return them to the pinnacle of the NFL. These included the drafting of quarterback Phil Simms in 1979, and linebacker Lawrence Taylor in 1981. In 1981, Taylor won the NFL 's Defensive Rookie of the Year and Defensive Player of the Year awards and the Giants made the playoffs for the first time since 1963. One of the few bright spots during this time was the team 's excellent linebackers, who were known as the Crunch Bunch. After the strike - shortened 1982 season, in which they finished 4 -- 5, head coach Ray Perkins resigned to take over the same position at the University of Alabama. In a change that would prove crucial in the coming years, he was replaced by the team 's defensive coordinator, Bill Parcells.
In 1983, Bill Parcells was promoted to head coach from defensive coordinator. One of his first moves was to change his starting quarterback, sitting the injury - prone and struggling Phil Simms (who had missed the entire 1982 season with an injury) and electing instead to go with Scott Brunner, who had gone 4 - 5 as the starter in place of Simms in the strike - shortened previous season. Parcells went as far as to demote Simms to the third string position, promoting Jeff Rutledge over Simms to be Brunner 's backup. Parcells later said the move was a mistake and one he "nearly paid for dearly '' as the team finished with a 3 -- 12 -- 1 record and his job security was called into question.
In the offseason the Giants released Brunner and named Simms the starter. The move paid off as the team won nine games and returned to the playoffs. After beating the Los Angeles Rams in the Wild Card Round, the Giants prepared for a showdown against top - seeded San Francisco. The 49ers defeated the Giants 21 -- 10 in the Divisional Round.
The 1985 Giants compiled a 10 -- 6 record and avenged their loss against San Francisco by beating them in the Wild Card round 17 -- 3. However, they again lost in the Divisional Round, this time to the eventual Super Bowl champion Bears, by a score of 21 -- 0. However, the following season would end with the Giants winning their first Super Bowl championship.
After 9 -- 7 and 10 -- 6 finishes in 1984 and 1985 respectively, the Giants compiled a 14 -- 2 record in 1986 led by league MVP and Defensive Player of the Year Lawrence Taylor and the Big Blue Wrecking Crew defense. As of 2017, this is the Giants ' best regular season record since the NFL began playing 16 - game seasons in 1978. After clinching the top seed in the NFC, the Giants defeated the 49ers 49 -- 3 in the divisional round of the NFC playoffs and the Redskins 17 -- 0 in the NFC championship game, advancing to their first Super Bowl, Super Bowl XXI, against the Denver Broncos at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena. Led by MVP Simms who completed 22 of 25 passes for a Super Bowl record 88 % completion percentage, they defeated the Broncos 39 -- 20, to win their first championship since 1956. In addition to Phil Simms and Lawrence Taylor, the team was led during this period by head coach Bill Parcells, tight end Mark Bavaro, running back Joe Morris, and Hall of Fame linebacker Harry Carson.
The Giants struggled to a 6 -- 9 record in the strike - marred 1987 season, due largely to a decline in the running game, as Morris managed only 658 yards behind an injury - riddled offensive line. The early portion of the 1988 season was marred by a scandal involving Lawrence Taylor. Taylor had abused cocaine and was suspended for the first four games of the season for his second violation of the league 's substance abuse policy. Despite the controversy, the Giants finished 10 -- 6, and Taylor recorded 15.5 sacks after his return from the suspension. They surged to a 12 -- 4 record in 1989, but lost to the Los Angeles Rams in their opening playoff game when Flipper Anderson caught a 47 - yard touchdown pass to give the Rams a 19 -- 13 overtime win.
In 1990, the Giants went 13 -- 3 and, at the time, set an NFL record for fewest turnovers in a season (14). They defeated the San Francisco 49ers, who were attempting to win the Super Bowl for an unprecedented third straight year, 15 -- 13 at San Francisco and then defeated the Buffalo Bills 20 -- 19 in Super Bowl XXV.
Following the 1990 season, Parcells resigned as head coach and was replaced by the team 's offensive - line coach Ray Handley. Handley served as coach for two disappointing seasons (1991 and 1992), which saw the Giants fall from Super Bowl champions to an 8 -- 8 record in 1991 and a 6 -- 10 record in 1992. He was fired following the 1992 season, and replaced by former Denver Broncos ' coach Dan Reeves. In the early 1990s, Simms and Taylor, two of the stars of the 1980s, played out the last seasons of their careers with steadily declining production. The Giants experienced a resurgent season with Reeves at the helm in 1993 however, and Simms and Taylor ended their careers as members of a playoff team.
The Giants initially struggled in the post Simms / Taylor era. After starting 3 -- 7 in 1994, the Giants won their final six games to finish 9 -- 7 but missed the playoffs. Quarterback Dave Brown received heavy criticism throughout the season. Brown performed poorly the following two seasons, and the Giants struggled to 5 -- 11 and 6 -- 10 records. Reeves was fired following the 1996 season.
In 1997, the Giants named Jim Fassel, who had spent the previous season as offensive coordinator of the Arizona Cardinals, as their 16th head coach. Fassel named Danny Kanell the team 's starting quarterback. The Giants finished the 1997 season with a record of 10 -- 5 -- 1 and qualified for the playoffs for the first time in four years. However, they lost in the Wild Card round to the Vikings at home. The following year, the Giants began the season 4 -- 8 before rallying to finish the season 8 -- 8. One of the notable games of that season was a win over the eventual Super Bowl champion Denver Broncos in week 15, giving the Broncos their first loss of the season after starting 13 -- 0.
Before the 1999 season, the Giants signed ex-Carolina Panthers quarterback Kerry Collins. Collins was the first - ever draft choice of the expansion Carolina Panthers in 1995, and led the Panthers to the NFC Championship game in his second season. However, problems with alcohol, conflicts with his teammates and questions about his character led to his release from the Panthers. The Giants finished the season with a 7 -- 9 record, Fassel 's first losing season as head coach.
In 2000, the Giants were looking to make the playoffs for the first time in three seasons. The Giants started the season 7 -- 2, but suffered back - to - back home losses to St. Louis and Detroit to make their record 7 -- 4 and call their playoff prospects into question. At a press conference following the Giants ' loss to Detroit, Fassel guaranteed that "this team is going to the playoffs ''. The Giants responded, winning the rest of their regular season games to finish the season 12 -- 4 and clinch the top seed in the NFC. In the Divisional Round, the Giants beat the Philadelphia Eagles 20 -- 10 at home to qualify for the NFC Championship Game, in which they defeated the Minnesota Vikings 41 -- 0. They advanced to play the Baltimore Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV. Though the Giants went into halftime down only 10 -- 0, the Ravens dominated the second half. Their defense harassed Kerry Collins all game long, resulting in Collins completing only 15 of 39 passes for 112 yards and 4 interceptions. The Ravens won the game 34 -- 7.
After a disappointing 7 -- 9 record in 2001, the Giants finished the 2002 season with a record of 10 -- 6, qualifying for the playoffs as a wild card. This set up a meeting with the San Francisco 49ers in Candlestick Park in the Wild Card round. The Giants built up a sizable lead throughout the game, and led 38 -- 14 with 4: 27 left in the third quarter. However, San Francisco rallied to win the game by one point, with the final score of 39 -- 38.
After a dismal 2003 season in which the Giants finished with a 4 -- 12 record, Jim Fassel was released by the Giants. His head coaching record with the Giants during this time was 58 -- 53 -- 1.
In 2004, three years after their last Super Bowl appearance, Fassel was replaced by Tom Coughlin. Although Collins had several solid seasons as the Giants quarterback, he experienced his share of struggles. In 2004, the Giants completed a draft day trade for University of Mississippi quarterback Eli Manning. Manning became the team 's starting quarterback in the middle of the 2004 season, taking over for Kurt Warner. During the three - year period from 2004 to 2006, Tom Coughlin 's Giants compiled a 25 -- 23 regular season record and two appearances in the Wild Card Round -- both losses (to the Carolina Panthers in 2005 and to the Philadelphia Eagles in 2006.) and spawned intense media scrutiny concerning the direction of the team. During this period in their history, standout players included defensive end Michael Strahan, who set the NFL single season record in sacks in 2001, and running back Tiki Barber, who set a team record for rushing yards in a season in 2005. Barber retired at the end of the 2006 season.
Going into 2007, the Giants had made the playoffs in back - to - back seasons. In 2007, the Giants became the third NFL franchise to win at least 600 games when they defeated the Atlanta Falcons 31 -- 10 on Monday Night Football. For the 2007 season, the NFL scheduled the Giants ' road game against the Miami Dolphins on October 28 in London 's Wembley Stadium; this was the first NFL regular - season game to be played outside of North America. The Giants defeated the Dolphins, 13 -- 10. The Giants finished 10 -- 6, and became NFC Champions after defeating the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Dallas Cowboys, and Green Bay Packers in the NFC Playoffs. They set a record for most consecutive road wins in a single season with 10 (a streak which ended with a loss to the Cleveland Browns during week 6 of the 2008 season).
The Patriots (18 -- 0) entered the Super Bowl undefeated and were 12 point favorites going into game weekend. The Giants defeated the Patriots 17 -- 14 in Super Bowl XLII, aided by the famous "Manning to Tyree '' pass. On this famous play, Manning escaped the grip of several Patriots defensive linemen, stepped up in the pocket, and heaved the ball down the middle of the field to a double covered David Tyree. With Rodney Harrison, a Patriots defensive back, all over Tyree, David managed to hold on to the ball by holding it on his helmet until he fell to the ground. This catch set up a Manning to Plaxico Burress touchdown pass in the back of the end zone to put the Giants in the lead. It was the third biggest upset by betting line in Super Bowl history (the Baltimore Colts were favored by 17 over the New York Jets in Super Bowl III, and the St. Louis Rams were favored by 14 over the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVI). Co-owner John Mara described it as "the greatest victory in the history of this franchise, without question ''.
The Giants began the 2008 NFL season with a record of 11 -- 1, but lost three of their last four regular season games partially due to a self - inflicted gunshot wound to wide receiver Plaxico Burress. However, the Giants still won the NFC East with a record of 12 -- 4, and clinched the number one seed in the NFC after beating the Carolina Panthers for home field advantage and a first - round bye. In the Divisional Round of the playoffs, the Giants lost 23 -- 11 to the Philadelphia Eagles at home.
In 2009, the Giants opened a new training complex, the Timex Performance Center, also located in the Meadowlands. After starting 5 -- 0 in the 2009 season, New York lost to the likewise undefeated New Orleans Saints at the Superdome 48 -- 27, beginning a four - game losing streak, in which they lost to the Arizona Cardinals 24 -- 17, the San Diego Chargers 21 -- 20 and the Philadelphia Eagles 40 -- 17. The streak was broken with a 34 -- 31 overtime victory against the Falcons. On Thanksgiving night, they lost to the Denver Broncos 26 -- 6. The Giants next beat the division leading Cowboys. A week later, with a record of 7 -- 5, they lost to the Philadelphia Eagles, 45 -- 38. On December 27, the Giants lost to the Carolina Panthers 41 -- 9 in their final game at Giants Stadium, and were eliminated from playoff eligibility. The Giants finished the season 8 -- 8.
Following the season, the Giants fired first - year defensive coordinator Bill Sheridan, and replaced him with the former Buffalo Bills interim head coach, Perry Fewell. The Giants defense finished 13th overall under Sheridan, giving up 324.9 yards per game, and the final two losses of the season against Carolina and Minnesota, in which the Giants gave up 85 points, ultimately led to the firing.
In 2010, the Giants moved from Giants Stadium into MetLife Stadium, then known as the "New Meadowlands Stadium ''. They won against the Panthers in the very first game at the New Meadowlands, but then lost to the Colts in the second "Manning Bowl '', so - called due to Eli Manning 's brother Peyton playing for the Colts. The Giants dropped one game to the Tennessee Titans before going on a five - game winning streak, beating the Bears, Houston Texans, Lions, Cowboys, and Seattle Seahawks. Before long, the Giants were 6 -- 2, but lost two straight to division foes: to the Cowboys 33 -- 20 at home, and to the Eagles on the road, putting the G - Men in 2nd place in the NFC East at 6 -- 4. In first place was the Eagles, but at December 19 they were both tied for first place at 8 -- 4, setting up a match for first place. The Giants were at home, and led 24 -- 3 over the Eagles at halftime. The score was 31 -- 10 with 5: 40 left in the game, but Michael Vick led the Eagles to three touchdown drives to tie the game up at 31 with 40 seconds left. After a Giants three - and - outs, Matt Dodge punted the ball to DeSean Jackson, who returned it for a touchdown, concluding the Giants ' epic collapse. The next game, the Giants lost to the eventual Super Bowl Champion Green Bay Packers 45 -- 17, and at 9 -- 6, they faced the Redskins. They had to win and have the Packers lose in order to get into the playoffs. The Giants won 17 -- 14, but the Packers beat the Bears 10 -- 3, so the Giants missed out on the playoffs again, ending a collapse in which the Giants went 4 -- 4 in their last eight games.
During the 2011 preseason, the Giants lost Kevin Boss, Steve Smith, Rich Seubert, Keith Bulluck, Derek Hagan, and Pro Bowl center Shaun O'Hara to free agency. However, the season also saw the emergence of second - year wide receiver Victor Cruz and second - year tight end Jake Ballard. The Giants opened their season with a 28 -- 14 loss to the Washington Redskins at FedEx Field on the 10th anniversary of the September 11th attacks. However, the Giants secured a 6 -- 2 record by the midpoint of the season, including road victories over the Philadelphia Eagles and the New England Patriots. The latter victory ended the Patriots ' NFL record home - game winning streak, after a touchdown pass from Manning to Jake Ballard with 15 seconds left in the game.
However, the Giants then suffered a four - game losing streak, including road losses against the resurgent San Francisco 49ers and the New Orleans Saints and home losses to the Eagles and the then - undefeated Green Bay Packers, to make their record 6 -- 6 entering December. The Giants broke their losing streak with a tightly contested 37 -- 34 road victory over the Cowboys on December 11, but lost at home to the Washington Redskins the following week to make their record 7 -- 7 with a Christmas Eve showdown against their crosstown rival New York Jets the following week. The Giants won, 29 -- 14, and knocked the Eagles out of playoff contention, to set up a Week 17 home game against the Cowboys in which the winner would clinch the NFC East while the loser would be eliminated from playoff contention. The game was flexed into Sunday Night Football. The Giants defeated the Cowboys, 31 -- 14, and clinched the NFC East title and the fourth seed in the playoffs. Wide receiver Victor Cruz finished the regular season with 1,536 receiving yards, breaking the Giants franchise record previously held by Amani Toomer.
On January 8, 2012 in the first round of the playoffs the Giants defeated the Atlanta Falcons 24 -- 2. After giving up an early safety in the first half, QB Eli Manning threw for three consecutive touchdowns. RBs Ahmad Bradshaw and Brandon Jacobs combined for 172 yards rushing, a season - high for the Giants. With the victory, the Giants advanced to the second round against the top - ranked Green Bay Packers.
On January 15, 2012, the Giants defeated the Green Bay Packers 37 -- 20. Eli Manning threw for 330 yards and 3 touchdowns, two of which to wide receiver Hakeem Nicks. This earned the Giants a spot in the NFC Championship Game on January 22, 2012, against the San Francisco 49ers. They won this game 20 -- 17, in overtime, with Tynes scoring the winning field goal as he did four years earlier in the same game against the Packers.
The New York Giants won Super Bowl XLVI against the New England Patriots with a score of 21 -- 17. The winning touchdown was preceded by a 38 - yard reception by receiver Mario Manningham. As in Super Bowl XLII, Eli Manning was Super Bowl MVP, defeating the New England Patriots for a second time in the Super Bowl.
Ahmad Bradshaw scored the game - winning touchdown by falling into the end zone. The Patriots were allowing Bradshaw to get the touchdown so they would get the ball with some time remaining. When Eli Manning handed the ball to Bradshaw, he told him not to score. Bradshaw was about to fall down at the 1 - yard line but his momentum carried him in, thus the "reluctant touchdown. ''
As was the case in each of their four previous Super Bowl appearances, the Giants trailed at halftime. They are the only team in NFL history to have more than two second half, come - from - behind, Super Bowl victories (4). The Pittsburgh Steelers, who accomplished the feat in Super Bowl X and Super Bowl XIV, are the only other team to do it more than once.
The Giants began the 2012 season with a home loss to the Cowboys, but rebounded to finish October with a 6 -- 2 record and on a four - game winning streak that included a 26 -- 3 road victory against the eventual NFC champion San Francisco 49ers. Following the arrival of Hurricane Sandy in the Northeastern United States, the Giants lost back - to - back games against the Steelers and Bengals to fall to 6 -- 4. Despite impressive blowout home victories over the Packers, Saints and Eagles, the Giants finished the season 9 -- 7 and out of the playoffs. The Redskins won the division with a 10 -- 6 record, only to lose to the Seahawks 24 -- 14 in Wild Card Weekend. QB Eli Manning, DE Jason Pierre - Paul, WR Victor Cruz, and G Chris Snee represented the Giants at the Pro Bowl.
The 2013 New York Giants season began with hope that the Giants could become the first team to play in the Super Bowl in their home stadium, as MetLife Stadium was scheduled to host Super Bowl XLVIII that February. However, the Giants ' playoff hopes took a massive hit when they lost the first six games of the season. They rebounded to win the next four games in a row to improve to 4 -- 6, but lost a critical home game to the Cowboys on a last - minute field goal. They finished the season 7 -- 9 and with a losing record for the first time since 2004. The Giants drafted rookie wide receiver Odell Beckham Jr. in the 2014 NFL Draft, who would later go on to win the AP Offensive Rookie of the Year award. However, the Giants missed the playoffs for a third straight season, finishing with a 6 -- 10 record. The 2015 New York Giants season was another disappointing campaign, as the Giants showcased a struggling defense and several late - game collapses. The Giants finished the season with a 6 -- 10 record and missed the playoffs.
On January 14, 2016, the Giants announced that Ben McAdoo would become the team 's head coach. He replaced Tom Coughlin, who had resigned the previous week. The Giants turned it around in 2016, ending their five - year playoff drought. The Giants later lost to the Green Bay Packers 38 -- 13 in the Wild Card round.
After having high expectations due to their 11 -- 5 record in 2016, the Giants had an unexpected 0 -- 5 start to the season, before pulling a massive upset versus the Broncos at Sports Authority Field at Mile High for their first win of the season. However, during the Week 5 game against the Los Angeles Chargers, Odell Beckham Jr. fractured his fibula, an injury that ended his season. During the same game, the Giants also lost wide receivers Brandon Marshall and Dwayne Harris to season - ending injuries. The season was also marred by suspensions of Dominique Rodgers - Cromartie and Janoris Jenkins. The Giants finished the 2017 season with a 3 - 13 record, marking the first time since 1983 in which the Giants finished the regular season with three or less wins.
The Giants earned the second overall pick in the 2018 NFL Draft with the second lowest winning percentage during the 2017 season, and used it to pick Saquon Barkley from Penn State.
Season by season timeline of the New York Giants franchise including the team name, changes of Home Field, Postseason Championships Seasons, and coaches throughout the years.
The Giants have won a total of eight League Championships: 1927, 1934, 1938, 1956, 1986, 1990, 2007 and 2011. The first four of those championships came in the pre-Super Bowl era. New York 's eight championships put them third among all active and defunct NFL teams, trailing only the Green Bay Packers (13) and the Chicago Bears (9).
Before the Super Bowl was instituted, the Giants won four officially recognized NFL championships.
The Giants have won four Super Bowls, tied with Green Bay for the fifth most behind only Dallas, San Francisco and New England (all with 5), and Pittsburgh (6).
The Giants have won five NFC Championship Games, including two in overtime in 2007 and 2011.
With over 80 years of team history, the Giants have used numerous uniforms and logos, while maintaining a consistent identity. The Giants ' logos include several incarnations of a giant quarterback preparing to throw a football, a lowercase "ny '', and stylized versions of the team nickname.
Giants ' jerseys are traditionally blue or red (or white with blue or red accents), and their pants alternate between white and gray. Currently, the Giants wear home jerseys that are solid blue with white block numbering, white pants with five thin blue / gray / red / gray / blue stripes on the pant legs, and solid blue socks. For this they gained their most renowned nickname, "Big Blue ''. For road uniforms, they wear a white jersey with red block numbering and red "Northwestern '' stripes on the sleeves, gray pants with three thin non-contiguous red / blue / red stripes on the pant legs, and solid red socks. The Giants ' current helmet is metallic blue with white block numbers, which are frontally mounted and base mounted on either side of a red stripe running down the center or frontally mounted and base mounted on the red center stripe itself. The Giants, along with the Pittsburgh Steelers, are one of only two teams in the National Football League to have the players ' uniform numbers on both the front and back of the helmets. The helmet is adorned on both sides with the stylized white lower case "ny '' logo and features a gray facemask. The home uniforms are generally similar to the design used from 1966 to 1974, but with some slight elements from the 1956 -- 1961 uniforms. The road uniforms are essentially a modernization of the design used from 1956 to 1961. Additionally, the Giants had a third jersey until the 2009 season, which recalled the Giants ' solid red home jerseys from the early 1950s: a solid red alternate with white block numbers. These jerseys were used a total of four times, but have since been retired. They were used once in 2004 against the Philadelphia Eagles and in three consecutive years -- 2005, 2006, and 2007 -- against the Dallas Cowboys.
The Giants have had a long and, at times, turbulent financial history. The team was founded by Tim Mara with an investment of US $ 500 in 1925 and became one of the first teams in the then five - year - old NFL. To differentiate themselves from the baseball team of the same name, they took the name "New York Football Giants '', which they still use as their legal corporate name.
Although the Giants were successful on the field in their initial seasons, their financial status was a different story. Overshadowed by baseball, boxing, and college football, professional football was not a popular sport in 1925. The Giants were in dire financial straits until the 11th game of the season when Red Grange and the Chicago Bears came to town, attracting over 73,000 fans. This gave the Giants a much needed influx of revenue, and perhaps altered the history of the franchise. The following year, Grange and his agent formed a rival league and stationed a competing team, led by Grange, in New York. Though the Giants lost $50,000 that season, the rival league folded and was subsumed into the NFL. Following the 1930 season, Mara transferred ownership of the team over to his two sons to insulate the team from creditors, and by 1946, he had given over complete control of the team to them. Jack, the older son, controlled the business aspects, while Wellington controlled the on - field operations. After their initial struggles the Giants financial status stabilized, and they led the league in attendance several times in the 1930s and 1940s.
By the early 1960s, the Giants had firmly established themselves as one of the league 's biggest attractions. However, rather than continuing to receive their higher share of the league television revenue, the Mara sons pushed for equal sharing of revenue for the benefit of the entire league. Revenue sharing is still practiced in the NFL today, and is credited with strengthening the league. After their struggles in the latter half of the 1960s and the entire 1970s, the Giants hired an outsider, George Young, to run the football operations for the first time in franchise history. The Giants ' on - field product and business aspects improved rapidly following the move.
In 1991, Tim Mara, grandson of the founder, was struggling with cancer and sold his half of the team to Bob Tisch for a reported $80 million. This marked the first time in franchise history the team had not been solely owned by the Mara family. In 2005, Wellington Mara, who had been with the team since its inception in 1925 when he worked as a ball boy, died at the age of 89. His death was followed two weeks later by the death of Tisch. In 2015, Wellington 's widow and Giants co-owner Ann died due to complications from a head injury suffered in a fall. She was 85 years old.
In 2010, MetLife Stadium opened, replacing Giants Stadium. The new stadium is a 50 / 50 partnership between the Giants and Jets, and while the stadium is owned by the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority on paper, the two teams jointly built the stadium using private funds, and administer it jointly through New Meadowlands Stadium Corporation. The Giants had previously planned a $300 million renovation to the Meadowlands, before deciding in favor of the new stadium which was originally estimated to cost approximately $600 million, before rising to an estimated cost of one billion dollars. One advantage gained by owning the stadium is that the teams saved considerable money in tax payments. The teams leased the land from the state at a cost of $6.3 million per year. The state paid for all utilities, including the $30 million needed to install them.
The Giants are owned and operated by John Mara and Steve Tisch. Forbes magazine estimated the value of the team in 2012 to be $1.3 billion. This ranks the New York Giants as the fourth most valuable franchise in the NFL and the ninth most valuable professional sports franchise in the world. The value has steadily increased from $288 million in 1998, to their current value. The magazine estimated their revenue in 2006 at $182 million, of which $46 million came from gate receipts. Operating income was $26.9 million, and player salary was $102 million. Current major sponsors include Gatorade, Anheuser Busch, Toyota, and Verizon Wireless. Recent former sponsors include Miller Brewing and North Fork Bank. Luxury suites, retail and game day concessions at the new stadium are provisioned and operated by global hospitality giant Delaware North. The team 's average ticket price is $72.
The Giants draw their fans from the New York metropolitan area. Since their move to New Jersey in 1976, fans from each state have claimed the team as their own. In January 1987, shortly before the team won Super Bowl XXI, then New York City mayor Ed Koch labeled the team "foreigners '' and said they were not entitled to a ticker - tape parade in New York City. On February 5, 2008, the city, under mayor Michael Bloomberg, threw a ticker tape parade in honor of the Giants ' Super Bowl XLII victory at the Canyon of Heroes in lower Manhattan. New York City held another ticker tape parade on February 7, 2012, in honor of the Giants ' Super Bowl XLVI victory. According to a team spokesman, in 2001, 52 percent of the Giants ' season ticket - holders lived in New Jersey. Most of the remaining ticket holders lived in New York State with some coming from other states.
Through the lean years of the 1960s and 1970s the Giants, in spite of a 17 - year - long playoff drought, still accumulated a 20 - year - long waiting list for season tickets. It has been estimated that the Giants have a waiting list of 135,000 people, the largest of any North American professional sports franchise.
The rivalry between the New York Giants and the Philadelphia Eagles is one of the oldest in the NFL, dating back to 1933. The two teams have frequently fought for playoff contention, NFC East titles, and respect. While the Giants have dominated this rivalry throughout most of its history, the series began to even in the 1980s, with the series lead to the Eagles 22 -- 21 through the 1990s and 2000s. The Giants lead the series 84 -- 82 -- 2. The two teams have met four times in the postseason, with each team winning two games. Three of those four playoff meetings were held in the 2000s decade. New York City and Philadelphia have a strong geographic rivalry, as seen in other professional sports such as the Mets - Phillies rivalry in Major League Baseball, and the Flyers - Rangers and Devils - Flyers rivalries in the National Hockey League.
The Giants have an old and storied rivalry with the Redskins, dating back to 1932. While this rivalry is typically given less significance than the rivalries with the Eagles and Cowboys, there have been periods of great competition between the two. In the 1980s the Giants and Redskins clashed as both struggled against each other for division titles and even Super Bowl Championships. Most notable among these is the 1986 NFC Championship game in which the Giants defeated the Redskins 17 -- 0 to earn their first ever trip to the Super Bowl. Wellington Mara always felt this was the Giants oldest and truest rival, and after passing away in 2005, the Giants honored their longtime owner by defeating the Redskins 36 -- 0 at home. The Giants lead this series 100 -- 68 -- 4. The Giants 100 wins against the Redskins are the most wins against another franchise in NFL history.
The Giants have maintained a fierce divisional rivalry with the Dallas Cowboys since the Cowboys first began play in 1960. The two teams have a combined nine Super Bowl victories between them, and have played many games in which the NFC East title was at stake. The rivalry is unique among professional sports as it is the only divisional rivalry between sports teams from New York City and Dallas, partially due to the large distance between the two cities. The Cowboys lead the regular season series 64 -- 45 -- 2, while the Giants hold the lone playoff victory between the two teams, held at the conclusion of the 2007 season.
Despite never being in the same division, the Giants and 49ers have developed a heated rivalry over the years. The two teams have met eight times in the playoffs (including two NFC Championship Games, both won by New York) since 1982, which is the most of any two teams in that span. The overall series is tied 16 -- 16, as is the postseason series, 4 -- 4.
The Giants and Jets for many years had the only intracity rivalry in the NFL, made even more unusual by sharing a stadium. They have met annually in the preseason since 1969. Since 2011, this meeting has been known as the "MetLife Bowl '', after the naming sponsor of the teams ' stadium. Regular season matchups between the teams occur once every four years, as they follow the NFL scheduling formula for interconference games. Since the two teams play each other so infrequently in the regular season, some, including players on both teams, have questioned whether the Giants and Jets have a real rivalry. A memorable regular season game was in 1988, when the Giants faced off against the Jets in the last game of the season, needing a victory to make the playoffs. The Jets played spoiler, however, beating the Giants 27 -- 21 and ruining the latter 's playoff hopes. A different scenario unfolded during the penultimate regular season game of 2011 as the "visiting '' Giants defeated the Jets 29 -- 14. The victory simultaneously helped eliminate the Jets from playoff contention and propel the Giants to their own playoff run and eventual win in Super Bowl XLVI. The Giants lead the overall regular season series 8 -- 5 and have won five of the past six meetings.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated October 27, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 9 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
In the Pro Football Hall of Fame, the Giants boast the second-most enshrined members with 29. Tim Mara, Mel Hein, Pete Henry, Cal Hubbard and Jim Thorpe were a part of the original class of inductees in 1963, while Defensive End Michael Strahan, the most recent Giant inducted, was a part of the Class of 2014. Numerous members, including Larry Csonka, Ray Flaherty, Joe Guyon, Pete Henry, Arnie Herber, Cal Hubbard, Tom Landry, Don Maynard, Hugh McElhenny, and Jim Thorpe were at one time associated with the New York Giants, but they were inducted largely based on their careers with other teams.
The New York Giants unveiled their own Ring of Honor on October 3, 2010 during halftime of their Sunday Night Football matchup with the Chicago Bears. John Mara had long wished to create a Giants Ring of Honor and Hall of Fame to honor Giants who helped the franchise achieve each of their championships, and the building of MetLife Stadium resulted in the realization of that ambition. The organization had an inaugural induction class of 30 including players, coaches, owners and executives that have had a great impact on the organization. While the entire list of inductees was not revealed until the actual induction, the organization did confirm about a week before the ceremony that Phil Simms, Bill Parcells, Michael Strahan, Tiki Barber, Frank Gifford and Pete Gogolak would all be inducted.
→ Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs
As of 2010, the Giants ' flagship radio station is WFAN, with games simulcast on WFAN - FM as of November 2012. Beginning in 2012, the Giants became WFAN 's top priority during the entire football season; prior to that, games that conflicted with late season New York Mets baseball games in September and early October were moved to other CBS Radio owned stations. This arrangement only lasted for 2012, and the Mets received priority again in 2013. WFAN acquired the rights to New York Yankees games for 2014, and thus the Giants ' schedule will be in conflict with them for the foreseeable future. When there is an overlap, Giants games are carried by WFAN 's sister station, WCBS - AM.
Bob Papa on play - by - play and Carl Banks on color commentary are the Giants ' radio broadcast team, with Howard Cross as the sideline reporter. When Papa is unavailable to call games Chris Carrino, WFAN 's lead broadcaster for the Brooklyn Nets, substitutes for him. Games are carried over the New York Giants Radio Network over various stations in New York, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and (as of 2010) Mississippi.
Preseason telecasts not seen nationally air in the area on WNBC, with WWOR - TV serving as an overflow station for when WNBC is airing other programming such as the Summer Olympic Games. Papa and Banks call these games on television, with studio host Paul Dottino as Papa 's substitute. WPIX - TV or WABC - TV will also air any Giants broadcast that is carried by ESPN, as per the local carriage rules (WABC - TV corporate parent, The Walt Disney Company, holds an 80 % majority ownership stake in ESPN, and has a right of first refusal for these telecasts). Thursday Night Football games exclusive to NFL Network are carried locally by the producing network 's O&O, either WCBS - TV or WNBC.
The Giants ' public address announcer at MetLife Stadium is Jim Hall, who for years was Bob Sheppard 's substitute at Yankee Stadium due to their very similar voices. Hall took over the Giants PA job after Sheppard elected to leave the position in 2005 to focus solely on his Yankee Stadium duties.
WFAN has produced the Giants ' radio broadcasts since 1995, but has not always aired them on the station. For 1995, then - Giants flagship WOR continued to carry the games as they had for the previous two seasons. In 1996 the games were simulcast on WFAN and WOR, which caused some conflict as at the time, WFAN was the radio flagship of the New York Jets as well. To remedy the situation, beginning the next year WFAN moved the Giants ' radio broadcasts to the FM dial and sister station WNEW - FM, where they remained until the end of the 1999 season. In 2000 WFAN lost the Jets ' radio contract to WABC and the Giants moved back to WFAN where they have been ever since.
The Giants ' longtime radio home was WNEW, where games aired from the mid-1950s until 1993 when the station was bought by Bloomberg L.P. and changed its format. Marty Glickman teamed with Al DeRogatis for a long stretch beginning in the early 1960s on WNEW. Chip Cipolla and later Sam Huff joined Glickman after DeRogatis left to join Curt Gowdy on NBC. After the WNEW split, games began airing on WOR. Glickman moved to the crosstown Jets in 1973 and was succeeded by Marv Albert. Jim Gordon succeeded Albert in 1977, beginning an 18 - year tenure as the Giants ' play - by - play voice. Meanwhile, Dick Lynch took over as color analyst in 1976 and continued in that role through 2007, with his last game being Super Bowl XLII, and retired following the season due to his advancing leukemia, which took his life in September 2008.
Eventually Gordon and Lynch were joined by Karl Nelson, a former lineman for the Giants. Gordon and Nelson were fired after the 1994 season, after which Papa took over the play - by - play (after being studio host) and led a two - man booth with Lynch. Dave Jennings joined the broadcast team in 2002 following his firing by the Jets, with whom he had worked since his 1987 retirement from the NFL. Jennings was moved to the pregame show after the 2006 season and was replaced by Carl Banks, leaving broadcasting altogether in 2008 due to his ongoing battle with Parkinson 's disease that he lost in 2013.
After WFAN began airing games Richard Neer served as pregame and postgame host. He was replaced by Sid Rosenberg, who was in turn fired by the station due to troubles and replaced by Chris Carlin. Carlin left in 2008 to focus full - time on his duties as SNY studio host and Rutgers athletics radio voice and was replaced by WWOR sports reporter and former WFAN host Russ Salzberg, who cohosted with Roman Oben after Jennings left. WEPN Giants beat reporter Paul Dottino was hired by WFAN to host the pregame show for 2009 and continues to be a part of the program. Anita Marks has hosted the pre - and post - game shows since 2010, co-hosting with Dottino for home games and Oben for away games.
The Giants were carried on the DuMont Network, then CBS (New York 's Channel 2) in the early TV days of the NFL, when home games were blacked out within a 75 - mile radius of New York City. Chris Schenkel was their play - by - play announcer in that early era when each team was assigned its own network voice on its regional telecasts. At the time, there were few if any true national telecasts until the NFL championship game, which was carried by NBC. Schenkel was joined by Jim McKay, later Johnny Lujack through the 1950s and the early 1960s. As Giants players retired to the broadcast booth in the early and 1960s, first Pat Summerall, then Frank Gifford took the color analyst slot next to Schenkel. As the 1970 merger of the NFL and AFL approached, CBS moved to a more generic announcer approach and Schenkel was off the broadcasts.
Giants regular - season Sunday telecasts moved to Fox when that network took over NFC telecasts in 1994 and are carried locally by WNYW.
WCBS - TV and WPIX were previously home to Giants preseason telecasts in the 1990s, with WPIX serving as the Giants ' (and Jets ') long time preseason home. After the NFC rights were lost by CBS, the Giants followed the conference 's broadcast rights to WNYW. WWOR became the Giants ' flagship TV station in the late ' 90s, and stayed so up until WNBC took over rights in 2005.
When the Giants first moved to WNYW, Mike Breen was their preseason play - by - play man. Sam Rosen was the television voice for some time afterward, except for two years when Curt Menefee (then of WNYW) was the voice. When the games moved to WWOR, Rosen regained the position and held it until 2004. Former Giant receiver Phil McConkey became the early season analyst after his retirement and stayed in the booth for many years.
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when did the forst cell phone come out | Mobile phone industry in the United States - Wikipedia
The mobile phone industry in the United States is covered in this article. Mobile phones are commonly referred to as smartphones or cell phones.
There are four major operators in the United States that offer nationwide wireless services. Two of these (AT&T and T - Mobile) provide service using the GSM standard, while the other two (Verizon and Sprint) primarily use CDMA. All four also operate networks using LTE standard for their 4G services.
The Federal Communications Commission is the main regulator of the mobile phone industry in the United States. Qualcomm is the inventor of and main contributor to cdmaOne and CDMA2000 mobile phone standards.
U.S. based producers:
International producers:
While it is "mobile phone '' in British English, it is "cell phone '' in American English. The term "cell phone '', short for "cellular phone '' came into the day - to - day American English vocabulary during the 1980s when the mobile phone companies had to distinguish their mobile phone that can be carried from one cell to another, each controlled by a land - based antenna, from the earlier Improved Mobile Telephone Service phones. In Wikipedia, "mobile phone '' is more often used because it can be used across various technologies.
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when did gateway arch become a national park | Gateway Arch National Park - wikipedia
Official website
The Gateway Arch National Park, formerly known as the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial until 2018, is an American national park located in St. Louis, Missouri, near the starting point of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The Gateway Arch and its immediate surroundings were initially designated as a national memorial by executive order 7523 on December 21, 1935, and redesignated as a national park in 2018. The park is maintained by the National Park Service (NPS).
The park was established to commemorate:
The memorial consists of a 91 - acre (36.8 ha) park along the Mississippi River on the site of the earliest buildings of St. Louis; the Old Courthouse, a former state and federal courthouse that saw the origins of the Dred Scott case; the 140,000 sq ft (13,000 m) museum at the Gateway Arch; and most notably the Gateway Arch, a steel catenary arch that has become the definitive icon of the city.
The Gateway Arch, known as the "Gateway to the West '', is the tallest structure in Missouri. It was designed by Finnish - American architect Eero Saarinen and structural engineer Hannskarl Bandel in 1947 and built between 1963 and October 1965. It stands 630 feet (192 m) tall and 630 feet (192 m) wide at its base. The legs are 54 feet (16.5 m) wide at the base, narrowing to 17 feet (5.2 m) at the arch. There is a unique tram system to carry passengers to the observation room at the top of the arch.
The Old Courthouse is built on land originally deeded by St. Louis founder Auguste Chouteau. It marks the location over which the arch reaches. Its dome was built during the American Civil War and is similar to the dome on the United States Capitol which was also built during the Civil War. It was the site of the local trials in the Dred Scott case.
The courthouse is the only portion of the memorial west of Interstate 44. To the west of the Old Courthouse is a Greenway between Market and Chestnut Streets which is only interrupted by the Civil Courts Building which features a pyramid model of the Mausoleum of Mausolus (which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) on its roof. When the Civil Courts building was built in the 1920s, the Chouteau family sued to regain the property belonging to the Old Courthouse because it had been deeded in perpetuity to be a courthouse.
Underneath the Arch is a visitor center, entered from a circular entryway facing the Old Courthouse. Within the center, a project to rebuild the Museum at the Gateway Arch was completed in July 2018. The new museum features exhibits on a variety of topics including westward expansion and the construction of the arch, all told through a St. Louis lens. Tucker Theater, finished in 1968 and renovated 30 years later, has about 285 seats and shows a documentary (Monument to the Dream) on the Arch 's construction. A second theater was added in 1993 but removed in 2018 as part of the CityArchRiver renovation project. Also located in the visitor center are a gift shop and cafe.
The memorial was developed largely through the efforts of St. Louis civic booster Luther Ely Smith who first pitched the idea in 1933, was the long - term chairman of the committee that selected the area and persuaded Franklin Roosevelt in 1935 to make it a national park service unit after St. Louis passed a bond issue to begin building it, and who partially financed the 1947 architectural contest that selected the Arch.
In the early 1930s the United States began looking for a suitable memorial for Thomas Jefferson (the Washington Monument and the newly built Lincoln Memorial were the only large Presidential memorials at the time).
Shortly after Thanksgiving in 1933 Smith who had been on the commission to build the George Rogers Clark National Historical Park in Indiana, was returning via train when he noticed the poor condition of the original platted location of St. Louis along the Mississippi. He thought that the memorial to Jefferson should be on the actual location that was symbolic of one of Jefferson 's greatest triumphs -- the Louisiana Purchase.
The originally platted area of St. Louis was the site of:
Almost all of the historic buildings associated with this period had been replaced by newer buildings. His idea was to raze all of the buildings in the original St. Louis platted area and replace it with a park with "a central feature, a shaft, a building, an arch, or something which would symbolize American culture and civilization. ''
Smith pitched the idea to Bernard Dickmann who quickly assembled a meeting of St. Louis civic leaders on December 15, 1933 at the Jefferson Hotel and they endorsed the plan and Smith became chairman of what would become the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial Association (a position he would hold until 1949 with a one - year exception).
The Commission then defined the area, got cost estimates of $30 million to buy the land, clear the buildings and erect a park and monument. With promises from the federal government (via the United States Territorial Expansion Memorial Commission) to join if the City of St. Louis could raise money.
The area to be included in the park was bounded by the Eads Bridge / Washington Avenue on the north and Poplar Street on the south, the Mississippi River on the east and Third Street (now Interstate 44) on the west. The Old Courthouse, just west of Third Street, was added in 1940.
The only building in this area not included was the Old Cathedral, which is on the site of St. Louis first church and was opposite the home of St. Louis founder Auguste Chouteau. The founders of the city were buried in its graveyard (but were moved in 1849 to Bellefontaine Cemetery during a cholera outbreak).
Taking away 40 blocks in the center of St. Louis was bitterly fought by some sources -- particularly the St. Louis Post-Dispatch. On September 10, 1935, the voters of St. Louis approved a $7.5 million bond issue to buy the property. Local architect Louis Le Beaume provided a preliminary design proposal for the site that included multiple museums, fountains, and obelisks.
The buildings were bought for $7 million by the federal government via Eminent domain and was subject to considerable litigation but were ultimately bought at 131.99 percent of assessed valuation. Roosevelt inspected the memorial area on October 14, 1936 during the dedication of the St. Louis Soldiers Memorial. Included in the party was then Senator Harry S. Truman.
The land was to be cleared by 1942. Among the buildings razed was the "Old Rock House '' 1818 home of fur trader Manuel Lisa (now occupied by the stairs on the north side of the Arch) and the 1819 home of original St. Louis pioneer Jean Pierre Chouteau at First and Washington.
The architectural competition for a monument was delayed by World War II. Interest in the monument was fed after the war as it was to be the first big monument in the post-World War II era.
The estimated cost of the competition was $225,000 and Smith personally donated $40,000. Civic leaders held the nationwide competition in 1947 to select a design for the main portion of the Memorial space.
Architect Eero Saarinen won this competition with plans for a 590 - foot (180 m) catenary arch to be placed on the banks of the Mississippi River. However, these plans were modified over the next 15 years, placing the arch on higher ground and adding 40 feet (12 m) in height and width.
The central architectural feature at the base of the arch is the Old Courthouse, which was once the tallest building in Missouri and has a dome similar to the United States Capitol and was placed on the building during the American Civil War at the same time as that on the U.S. Capitol.
Saarinen developed the shape with the help of architectural engineer Hannskarl Bandel. It is not a pure inverted catenary. Saarinen preferred a shape that was slightly elongated and thinner towards the top, a shape that produces a subtle soaring effect, and transfers more of the structure 's weight downward rather than outward at the base.
When Saarinen won the competition, the official notification was sent to "E. Saarinen '', thinking it to be the architect 's father Eliel Saarinen, who had also submitted an entry. The family celebrated with a bottle of champagne, and two hours later an embarrassed official called to say the winner was, in fact, the younger Saarinen. The elder Saarinen then broke out a second bottle of champagne to celebrate his son 's success.
Among the five finalists was local St. Louis architect Harris Armstrong.
Land for the memorial was formally dedicated on June 10, 1950 by Harry S. Truman. However the Korean War began and the project was put on hold.
On June 23, 1959, work begins on covering railroad tracks that cut across the memorial grounds.
On February 11, 1961, excavation began, and that September 1, Saarinen died. On February 12, 1963, the first stainless steel triangle that formed the first section of the arch was set in place on the south leg.
On October 28, 1965, it was completed, costing approximately $15 million to build. The adjacent park was designed by landscape architect Dan Kiley. Along with all other historical areas of the National Park Service, the memorial was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. Vice President Hubert Humphrey and Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall dedicated the Arch on May 25, 1968.
In 1984, Congress authorized the enlargement of the Memorial to include up to 100 acres (40 ha) on the east bank of the Mississippi River in East St. Louis, Illinois. Funds were authorized to begin land acquisition, but Congress placed a moratorium upon NPS land acquisitions in fiscal year 1998. The moratorium continued into the 21st century, with expansion becoming less likely because of the construction of a riverboat gambling facility and related amenities.
During the Great Flood of 1993, Mississippi flood waters reached halfway up the Grand Staircase on the east.
In 1999, the Arch tram queue areas were renovated at a cost of about $2.2 million. As well, the Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site in St. Louis County, Missouri, was put under the jurisdiction of the Superintendent of the Memorial.
The arch was featured on the Missouri state quarter in 2003.
In 2007 St. Louis Mayor Francis Slay and former Missouri Senator John Danforth asked the National Park Service to create a more "active '' use of the grounds of the memorial and model it on Millennium Park in Chicago including the possibility of restaurants, fountains, ice skating, swimming, and other activities. The National Park Service was not in favor of the plan noting that the only other overt development pressure on national park property has been at the Jackson Hole Airport in Grand Teton National Park
For most of its life, the Memorial was largely separated from the rest of Downtown St. Louis by a sunken section of I - 70 (now I - 44 with the rerouting of I - 70 over a new bridge), but in 2014, a lid was installed over the highway, creating the foundation for a park connecting downtown with the Memorial grounds. In November 2015, Saarinen 's original master plan was brought to fruition. Building of the Gateway Arch Connector linking the Old Courthouse with the grounds of the Arch was completed. This design, and other design components were imagined by Michael Van Valkenburg Associates. In September 2010 Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates won a design contest to "re-envision the visitor experience '' of the grounds. The project, originally planned for completion in 2015 to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the opening of the Arch, is now due to be completed in 2018. It includes:
The entire project is now scheduled for a 2018 completion, an update to Kiener Plaza due in 2017, completion of the new museum in 2018 and improvements to the Old Courthouse ending the work.
In 2016, many ash trees on the grounds were removed to preemept damage from emerald ash borers. Prior to the work of CityArchRiver, there were 1,800 trees on the grounds. There are now a total of 4,200.
The $380 million project was funded both privately and publicly. The public funding, provided largely by Proposition P, totaled $159 million. The remaining $221 were secured via fundraising efforts of Gateway Arch Park foundation.
The United States Congress approved the Gateway Arch National Park Designation Act in early 2018 to re-designate the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial as the Gateway Arch National Park. U.S. President Donald Trump signed the act into law on February 22, 2018.
Lower south tram queue area
The Arch from the west, looking east over Luther Ely Smith Square
The sign at the top of the observation deck.
The St. Louis Arch as seen from the lawn.
As seen from Laclede 's Landing
Arch at dawn
The Old Cathedral as viewed from top of Arch
South entrance to the arch
At night as seen from Illinois
Gateway Arch from below
Looking west from the observatory
A closeup view of South Pond, one of the two ponds inside Gateway Arch National Park
An aerial view of North Pond, one of the two ponds inside Gateway Arch National Park, as seen from the observation deck atop the Arch
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is president higher than prime minister in singapore | Prime Minister of Singapore - wikipedia
The Prime Minister of the Republic of Singapore (Malay: Perdana Menteri Republik Singapura; Chinese: 新加坡 共和国 总理, pinyin: Xīnjiāpō gònghéguó zǒnglǐ; Tamil: சிங்கப்பூர் குடியரசின் பிரதமர், Ciṅkappūr kuṭiyaraciṉ piratamar) is the head of the government of the Republic of Singapore, and the most powerful person in Singapore 's politics. The President of Singapore appoints as Prime Minister a Member of Parliament (MP) who, in his or her opinion, is most likely to command the confidence of a majority of MPs. In practice, the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the majority party in the legislature.
Under the Constitution, executive power is vested in the President. However, the Constitution also vests "general direction and control of the government '' in the Cabinet. The President is almost always bound to act on the advice of the Cabinet or any minister acting under Cabinet authority. Thus, in practice, most of the actual work of governing is done by the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
The office of Prime Minister dates back to 1959 and was appointed at first by the Governor of Singapore then the Yang di - Pertuan Negara (vice-regal head of state), when Singapore achieved self - governance as the State of Singapore within the British Empire. The title of Prime Minister remained unchanged after the merger with the Federation of Malaya, Sarawak and North Borneo, while Singapore was a state in the Federation of Malaysia from 1963 to 1965, and after independence in 1965.
The late Mr Lee Kuan Yew was the first prime minister of Singapore from 1959 to 1990. Lee was succeeded by Goh Chok Tong and was conferred the title of Senior Minister in the Prime Minister 's Office. Goh retired on 12 August 2004 and was succeeded by Lee Kuan Yew 's son Lee Hsien Loong. Goh was appointed Senior Minister, and the elder Lee Minister Mentor. Lee and Goh resigned in 2011.
The role of Deputy Prime Minister is the second highest post and senior Cabinet Minister in Singapore. The holder will sometimes assume the role of Acting Prime Minister when the PM is temporarily absent. Since the mid-1980s, Singapore has usually had two Deputy Prime Ministers at a time. Only Ong Teng Cheong and Tony Tan served under more than one Prime Minister during their time as Deputy Prime Minister. In the cabinet of Goh Chok Tong in the 1990s to 2004, President Tony Tan and Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong were the deputy prime ministers too. Currently, the deputy prime ministers in office are Mr Teo Chee Hean and Mr Tharman Shanmugaratnam.
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where do you go to get tattoos removed | Tattoo removal - wikipedia
Tattoo removal has been performed with various tools since the start of tattooing. While tattoos were once considered permanent, it is now possible to remove them with treatments, fully or partially. Before the development of laser tattoo removal methods, common techniques included dermabrasion, TCA (Trichloroacetic acid, an acid that removes the top layers of skin, reaching as deep as the layer in which the tattoo ink resides), salabrasion (scrubbing the skin with salt), cryosurgery and excision which is sometimes still used along with skin grafts for larger tattoos. Some early forms of tattoo removal included the injection or application of wine, lime, garlic or pigeon excrement. Tattoo removal by laser was performed with continuous - wave lasers initially, and later with Q - switched lasers, which became commercially available in the early 1990s. Today, "laser tattoo removal '' usually refers to the non-invasive removal of tattoo pigments using Q - switched lasers. Typically, black and other darker - colored inks can be removed completely.
A poll conducted in January 2012 by Harris Interactive reported that 1 in 7 (14 %) of the 21 % of American adults who have a tattoo regret getting one. The poll did n't report the reasons for these regrets, but a poll that was done 4 years prior reported that the most common reasons were "too young when I got the tattoo '' (20 %), "it 's permanent '' and "I 'm marked for life '' (19 %), and "I just do n't like it '' (18 %). An earlier poll showed that 19 % of Britons with tattoos suffered regret, as did 11 % of Italians with tattoos. Surveys of tattoo removal patients were done in 1996 and 2006 and provided more insight. Of those polled, the patients who regretted their tattoos typically obtained their tattoos in their late teens or early twenties, and were evenly distributed by gender. Among those seeking removals, more than half reported that they "suffered embarrassment ''. A new job, problems with clothes, and a significant life event were also commonly cited as motivations. Extravagant motives include tattooing your ex-husband's or wife 's name. Angelina Jolie, Eva Longoria, Marc Anthony and Denise Richards are some of the celebrities that got this kind of tattoo removed.
The choice to get a tattoo that is later regretted is related to the end - of - history illusion, in which teenagers and adults of all ages know that their tastes have changed regularly over the years before the current moment, but believe that their tastes will somehow not continue to grow and mature in the future. As a result, they wrongly believe that any tattoo that appeals to them today will always appeal to them in the future.
Some wearers decide to cover an unwanted tattoo with a new tattoo. This is commonly known as a cover - up. An artfully done cover - up may render the old tattoo completely invisible, though this will depend largely on the size, style, colors and techniques used on the old tattoo and the skill of the tattoo artist. Covering up a previous tattoo necessitates darker tones in the new tattoo to effectively hide the older, unwanted piece. Many tattoos are too dark to cover up and in those cases patients may receive laser tattoo removal to lighten the existing ink to make themselves better candidates for a cover up tattoo.
Tattoo removal is most commonly performed using lasers that break down the ink particles in the tattoo. The broken - down ink is then fought off by the immune system, mimicking the natural fading that time or sun exposure would create. All tattoo pigments have specific light absorption spectra. A tattoo laser must be capable of emitting adequate energy within the given absorption spectrum of the pigment to provide an effective treatment. Certain tattoo pigments, such as yellows and fluorescent inks are more challenging to treat than darker blacks and blues, because they have absorption spectra that fall outside or on the edge of the emission spectra available in the tattoo removal laser. Recent pastel coloured inks contain high concentrations of titanium dioxide which is highly reflective. Consequently, such inks are difficult to remove since they reflect a significant amount of the incident light energy out of the skin.
Widely considered the gold standard treatment modality to remove a tattoo, laser tattoo removal requires repeat visits. The newer Q - switched lasers are said by the National Institutes of Health to result in scarring only rarely and are usually used only after a topical anesthetic has been applied. Areas with thin skin will be more likely to scar than thicker - skinned areas. There are several types of Q - switched lasers, and each is effective at removing a different range of the color spectrum. Lasers developed after 2006 provide multiple wavelengths and can successfully treat a much broader range of tattoo pigments than previous individual Q - switched lasers. Unfortunately the dye systems used to change the wavelength result in significant power reduction such that the use of multiple separate specific wavelength lasers remains the gold standard.
The energy density (fluence), expressed as joules / cm, is determined prior to each treatment as well as the spot size and repetition rate (hertz). To mitigate pain the preferred method is simply to cool the area before and during treatment with a medical - grade chiller / cooler and to use a topical anesthetic. During the treatment process, the laser beam passes harmlessly through the skin, targeting only the ink resting in a liquid state within. While it is possible to see immediate results, in most cases the fading occurs gradually over the 7 -- 8 week healing period between treatments.
Experimental observations of the effects of short - pulsed lasers on tattoos were first reported in the late 1960s. In 1979 an argon laser was used for tattoo removal in 28 patients, with limited success. In 1978 a carbon dioxide laser was also used, but generally caused scarring after treatments.
In the early 1980s, a new clinical study began in Canniesburn Hospital 's Burns and Plastic Surgery Unit, in Glasgow, Scotland, into the effects of Q - switched ruby laser energy on blue / black tattoos. Further studies into other tattoo colours were then carried out with various degrees of success. Research at the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow also showed that there was no detectable mutagenicity in tissues following irradiation with the Q - switched ruby laser. This essentially shows that the treatment is safe, from a biological viewpoint, with no detectable risk of the development of cancerous cells.
It was not until the late 1980s that Q - switched lasers became commercially practical with the first marketed laser coming from Dermalase Limited, Glasgow. One of the first American published articles describing laser tattoo removal was authored by a group at Massachusetts General Hospital in 1990.
Tattoos consist of thousands of particles of tattoo pigment suspended in the skin. While normal human growth and healing processes will remove small foreign particles from the skin, tattoo pigment particles are permanent because they are too big to be removed. Laser treatment causes tattoo pigment particles to heat up and fragment into smaller pieces. These smaller pieces are then removed by normal body processes.
Laser tattoo removal is a successful application of the theory of selective photothermolysis (SPTL). However, unlike treatments for blood vessels or hair the mechanism required to shatter tattoo particles uses the photomechanical effect. In this situation the energy is absorbed by the ink particles in a very short time, typically nanoseconds. The surface temperature of the ink particles can rise to thousands of degrees but this energy profile rapidly collapses into a shock wave. This shock wave then propagates throughout the local tissue (the dermis) causing brittle structures to fragment. Hence tissues are largely unaffected since they simply vibrate as the shock wave passes. For laser tattoo removal the selective destruction of tattoo pigments depends on four factors:
Q - switched lasers are the only commercially available devices that can meet these requirements.
Although they occur infrequently, mucosal tattoos can be successfully treated with Q - switched lasers as well.
A novel method for laser tattoo removal using a fractionated CO2 or Erbium: YAG laser, alone or in combination with Q - switched lasers, was reported by Ibrahimi and coworkers from the Wellman Center of Photomedicine at the Massachusetts General Hospital. This new approach to laser tattoo removal may afford the ability to remove colors such as yellow and white, which have proven to be resistant to traditional Q - switched laser therapy.
Several colors of laser light (quantified by the laser wavelength) are used for tattoo removal, from visible light to near - infrared radiation. Different lasers are better for different tattoo colors. Consequently, multi-color tattoo removal almost always requires the use of two or more laser wavelengths. Tattoo removal lasers are usually identified by the lasing medium used to create the wavelength (measured in nanometers (nm)):
Pulsewidth or pulse duration is a critical laser parameter. All Q - switched lasers have appropriate pulse durations for tattoo removal.
Spot size, or the width of the laser beam, affects treatment. Light is optically scattered in the skin, like automobile headlights in fog. Larger spot sizes slightly increase the effective penetration depth of the laser light, thus enabling more effective targeting of deeper tattoo pigments. Larger spot sizes also help make treatments faster.
Fluence or energy density is another important consideration. Fluence is measured in joules per square centimeter (J / cm2). It is important to be treated at high enough settings to fragment tattoo particles.
Repetition rate helps make treatments faster but is not associated with any treatment effect. Faster treatments are usually preferred because the pain ends sooner.
Complete laser tattoo removal requires numerous treatment sessions, typically spaced at least seven weeks apart. Treating more frequently than seven weeks increases the risk of adverse effects and does not necessarily increase the rate of ink absorption. Anecdotal reports of treatments sessions at four weeks leads to more scarring and dischromia and can be a source of liability for clinicians. At each session, some but not all of the tattoo pigment particles are effectively fragmented, and the body removes the smallest fragments over the course of several weeks or months. The result is that the tattoo is lightened over time. Remaining large particles of tattoo pigment are then targeted at subsequent treatment sessions, causing further lightening. The number of sessions and spacing between treatments depends on various parameters, including the area of the body treated, skin color and effectiveness of the immune system. Tattoos located on the extremities, such as the ankle, generally take longest. As tattoos fade clinicians may recommend that patients wait many months between treatments to facilitate ink resolution and minimize unwanted side effects.
The amount of time required for the removal of a tattoo and the success of the removal varies with each individual and their immune system function. Factors influencing this include: skin type, location, color, amount of ink, scarring or tissue change, layers of ink, immune system function and circulation. Factors under the individuals control are more time between treatments, nutrition, stress, sleep, exercise and fluid levels. In the past health care providers would simply guess on the number of treatments a patient needed which was rather frustrating to patients. A predictive scale, the "Kirby - Desai Scale '', was developed by Dr. Will Kirby and Dr. Alpesh Desai, dermatologists with specialization in tattoo removal techniques, to assess the potential success and number of treatments necessary for laser tattoo removal, provided the medical practitioner is using a Q - switched Nd: YAG (neodymium - doped yttrium aluminium garnet) laser incorporating selective photothermolysis with six weeks between treatments.
The Kirby - Desai Scale assigns numerical values to six parameters: skin type, location, color, amount of ink, scarring or tissue change, and layering. Parameter scores are then added to yield a combined score that will show the estimated number of treatments needed for successful tattoo removal. Experts recommend that the Kirby - Desai scale be used by all laser practitioners prior to starting tattoo removal treatment to help determine the number of treatments required for tattoo removal and as a predictor of the success of the laser tattoo removal treatments. Prior to 2009, clinicians had no scientific basis by which to estimate the number of treatments needed to remove a tattoo and the use of this scale is now standard practice in laser tattoo removal.
Certain colors have proved more difficult to remove than others. In particular, this occurs when treated with the wrong wavelength of laser light is used. Some have postulated that the reason for slow resolution of green ink in particular is due to its significantly smaller molecular size relative to the other colours. Consequently, green ink tattoos may require treatment with 755 nm light but may also respond to 694 nm, 650 nm and 1064 nm. Multiple wavelengths of light may be needed to remove colored inks.
One small Greek study showed that the R20 method -- four passes with the laser, twenty minutes apart -- caused more breaking up of the ink than the conventional method without more scarring or adverse effects. However, this study was performed on a very small patient population (12 patients total), using the weakest of the QS lasers, the 755 nm Alexandrite laser. One of the other main problems with this study was the fact that more than half of the 18 tattoos removed were not professional and amateur tattoos are always easier to remove. Proof of concept studies are underway, but many laser experts advise against the R20 method using the more modern and powerful tattoo removal lasers available at most offices as an increase in adverse side effects including scarring and dischromia is likely. Patients should inquire about the laser being used if the R20 treatment method is offered by a facility as it is usually only offered by clinics that are using the weak 755 nm Alexandrite as opposed to the more powerful and versatile devices that are more commonly used. Moreover, dermatologists offering the R20 method should inform patients that it just one alternative to proven protocols and is not a gold standard treatment method to remove tattoos.
There are a number of factors that determine how many treatments will be needed and the level of success one might experience. Age of tattoo, ink density, color and even where the tattoo is located on the body, all play an important role in how many treatments will be needed for complete removal. However, a rarely recognized factor of tattoo removal is the role of the client 's immune response. The normal process of tattoo removal is fragmentation followed by phagocytosis which is then drained away via the lymphatics. Consequently, it 's the inflammation resulting from the actual laser treatment and the natural stimulation of the hosts 's immune response that ultimately results in removal of tattoo ink; thus variations in results are enormous.
Laser tattoo removal is uncomfortable - many patients say it is worse than getting the tattoo. The pain is often described to be similar to that of hot oil on the skin, or a "snap '' from an elastic band. Depending on the patient 's pain threshold, and while some patients may forgo anesthesia altogether, most patients will require some form of local anesthesia. Pre-treatment might include the application of an anesthetic cream under occlusion for 45 to 90 minutes or cooling by ice or cold air prior to the laser treatment session. A better method is complete anesthesia which can be administered locally by injections of 1 % to 2 % lidocaine with epinephrine.
A simple, new technique (published in March 2014) which helps to reduce the pain sensation felt by patients has been described by MJ Murphy He used a standard microscope glass slide pressed against the tattooed skin and fired the laser through the glass. Results on 31 volunteers showed a significant reduction of up to 50 % in pain alongside a reduction in blistering and punctate bleeding. This technique represents the simplest and most effective method to reduce the pain sensation using a non-invasive procedure.
Immediately after laser treatment, a slightly elevated, white discoloration with or without the presence of punctuate bleeding is often observed. This white color change is thought to be the result of rapid, heat - formed steam or gas, causing dermal and epidermal vacuolization. Pinpoint bleeding represents vascular injury from photoacoustic waves created by the laser 's interaction with tattoo pigment. Minimal edema and erythema of adjacent normal skin usually resolve within 24 hours. Subsequently, a crust appears over the entire tattoo, which sloughs off at approximately two weeks post-treatment. As noted above, some tattoo pigment may be found within this crust. Post-operative wound care consists of simple wound care and a non-occlusive dressing. Since the application of laser light is sterile there is no need for topical antibiotics. Moreover, topical antibiotic ointments can cause allergic reactions and should be avoided. Fading of the tattoo will be noted over the next eight weeks and re-treatment energy levels can be tailored depending on the clinical response observed.
About half of the patients treated with Q - switched lasers for tattoo removal will show some transient changes in the normal skin pigmentation. These changes usually resolve in 6 to 12 months but may rarely be permanent.
Hyperpigmentation is related to the patient 's skin tone, with skin types IV, V and VI more prone regardless of the wavelength used. Twice daily treatment with hydroquinones and broad - spectrum sunscreens usually resolves the hyperpigmentation within a few months, although, in some patients, resolution can be prolonged.
Hypopigmentation is more commonly observed in darker skin tones. It is more likely to occur with higher fluence and more frequent treatments. Sometimes lighter skin exhibits hypopigmentation after a series of treatments. Allowing more time between treatments reduces chances of hypopigmentation. Since it is more likely to see hypopigmentation after multiple treatments, some practitioners suggest waiting a few additional weeks, after a few sessions. Usually treatment stops until hypopigmentation resolves in a matter of months.
Transient textural changes are occasionally noted but often resolve within a few months; however, permanent textural changes and scarring very rarely occur. If a patient is prone to pigmentary or textural changes, longer treatment intervals are recommended. Additionally, if a blister or crust forms following treatment, it is imperative that the patient does not manipulate this secondary skin change. Early removal of a blister of crust increases the chances of developing a scar. Additionally, patients with a history of hypertrophic or keloidal scarring need to be warned of their increased risk of scarring.
Local allergic responses to many tattoo pigments have been reported, and allergic reactions to tattoo pigment after Q - switched laser treatment are also possible. Rarely, when yellow cadmium sulfide is used to "brighten '' the red or yellow portion of a tattoo, a photoallergic reaction may occur. The reaction is also common with red ink, which may contain cinnabar (mercuric sulphide). Erythema, pruritus, and even inflamed nodules, verrucose papules, or granulomas may present. The reaction will be confined to the site of the red / yellow ink. Treatment consists of strict sunlight avoidance, sunscreen, interlesional steroid injections, or in some cases, surgical removal. Unlike the destructive modalities described, Q - switched lasers mobilize the ink and may generate a systemic allergic response. Oral antihistamines and anti-inflammatory steroids have been used to treat allergic reactions to tattoo ink.
Studies of various tattoo pigments have shown that a number of pigments (most containing iron oxide or titanium dioxide) change color when irradiated with Q - switched laser energy. Some tattoo colors including flesh tones, light red, white, peach and light brown containing pigments as well as some green and blue tattoo pigments, changed to black when irradiated with Q - switched laser pulses. The resulting gray - black color may require more treatments to remove. If tattoo darkening does occur, after 8 weeks the newly darkened tattoo can be treated as if it were black pigment.
Very rarely, non Q - switched laser treatments, like CO2 or Argon lasers, which are very rarely offered these days, can rupture blood vessels and aerosolize tissue requiring a plastic shield or a cone device to protect the laser operator from tissue and blood contact. Protective eyewear may be worn if the laser operator chooses to do so.
With the mechanical or salabrasion method of tattoo removal, the incidence of scarring, pigmentary alteration (hyper - and hypopigmentation), and ink retention are extremely high.
The use of Q - switched lasers could very rarely produce the development of large bulla. However, if patients follow post care directions to elevate, rest, and apply intermittent icing, it should minimize the chances of bulla and other adverse effects. In addition, health care practitioners should contemplate the use of a cooling device during the tattoo removal procedure. While the infrequent bulla development is a possible side effect of Q - switched laser tattoo removal, if treated appropriately and quickly by the health care practitioner, it is unlikely that long term consequences would ensue.
Although laser treatment is well known and often used to remove tattoos, unwanted side effects of laser tattoo removal include the possibility of discoloration of the skin such as hypopigmentation (white spots, more common in darker skin) and hyperpigmentation (dark spots) as well as textural changes - these changes are usually not permanent when the Nd: YAG is used but it is much more likely with the use of the 755 nm Alexandrite, the 694 nm Ruby and the R20 method. Very rarely, burns may result in scarring but this usually only occurs when patients do n't care for the treated area properly. Occasionally, "paradoxical darkening '' of a tattoo may occur, when a treated tattoo becomes darker instead of lighter. This occurs most often with white ink, flesh tones, pink, and cosmetic make - up tattoos.
Some tattoo pigments contain metals that could theoretically break down into toxic chemicals in the body when exposed to light. This has not yet been reported in vivo but has been shown in laboratory tests. Laser removal of traumatic tattoos may similarly be complicated depending on the substance of the pigmenting material. In one reported instance, the use of a laser resulted in the ignition of embedded particles of firework debris.
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Further reading
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name the country which has no cinema theatres | List of movie theater chains - wikipedia
This is a list of movie theater chains across the world. The chains are listed alphabetically by continent and then by country.
The National Association of Theatre Owners (NATO) is the largest exhibition trade organization in the world. According to their figures, the top 4 chains represent almost half of the theater screens in North America. NATO states that the number of U.S. movie screens as of December 2014 are 39,356 indoor screens on 5,463 sites and 656 Drive - In screens on 393 sites. In 2016 this number had increased to a total of 40,174 screens, 39,579 of them indoor screens.
There are 400 movie theaters in Bangladesh. Some notable movie theaters are -
In 2014 there were 5,813 movie theaters in China and 299 cinema chains, with 252 classified as "rural '' and 47 as "urban ''.
Eos Cinemas is clearly focused towards tier 2 and tier 3 cities. Eos Cinemas aims to maintain this unprecedented growth and solidify its position as one of the leading players in the cinema exhibition and entertainment industry. It has many multiplex in Madhya Pradesh like in Shahdol and Satna and in Chhattisgarh.
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the 19th century british anthropologist who defined culture as a complex whole is | Edward Burnett Tylor - wikipedia
Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (2 October 1832 -- 2 January 1917) was an English anthropologist, the founder of cultural anthropology.
Tylor 's ideas typify 19th - century cultural evolutionism. In his works Primitive Culture (1871) and Anthropology (1881), he defined the context of the scientific study of anthropology, based on the evolutionary theories of Charles Lyell. He believed that there was a functional basis for the development of society and religion, which he determined was universal. Tylor maintained that all societies passed through three basic stages of development: from savagery, through barbarism to civilization. Tylor is considered by many to be a founding figure of the science of social anthropology, and his scholarly works helped to build the discipline of anthropology in the nineteenth century. He believed that "research into the history and prehistory of man... could be used as a basis for the reform of British society. ''
Tylor reintroduced the term animism (faith in the individual soul or anima of all things and natural manifestations) into common use. He regarded animism as the first phase of development of religions.
He was born in 1832, in Camberwell, London, and was the son of Joseph Tylor and Harriet Skipper, part of a family of wealthy Quakers who owned a London brass factory. His elder brother, Alfred Tylor, became a geologist.
He was educated at Grove House School, Tottenham, but due to the deaths of Tylor 's parents during his early adulthood he never gained a university degree. After his parents ' deaths, he prepared to help manage the family business, but had to set this plan aside when he developed symptoms consistent with the onset of tuberculosis (TB). Following advice to spend time in warmer climes, Tylor left England in 1855, travelling to Mexico. The experience proved to be an important and formative one, sparking his lifelong interest in studying unfamiliar cultures.
During his travels, Tylor met Henry Christy, a fellow Quaker, ethnologist and archaeologist. Tylor 's association with Christy greatly stimulated his awakening interest in anthropology, and helped broaden his inquiries to include prehistoric studies.
Tylor 's first publication was a result of his 1856 trip to Mexico with Christy. His notes on the beliefs and practices of the people he encountered were the basis of his work Anahuac: Or Mexico and the Mexicans, Ancient and Modern (1861), published after his return to England. Tylor continued to study the customs and beliefs of tribal communities, both existing and prehistoric (based on archaeological finds). He published his second work, Researches into the Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilization, in 1865. Following this came his most influential work, Primitive Culture (1871). This was important not only for its thorough study of human civilisation and contributions to the emergent field of anthropology, but for its undeniable influence on a handful of young scholars, such as J.G. Frazer, who were to become Tylor 's disciples and contribute greatly to the scientific study of anthropology in later years.
Tylor was appointed Keeper of the University Museum at Oxford in 1883, and, as well as serving as a lecturer, held the title of the first "Reader in Anthropology '' from 1884 to 1895. In 1896 he was appointed the first Professor of Anthropology at Oxford University. He was involved in the early history of the Pitt Rivers Museum, although to a debatable extent.
The word evolution is forever associated in the popular mind with Charles Darwin 's Theory of Evolution, which professes, among other things, that man as a species developed diachronically from some ancestor among the Primates who was also ancestor to the Great Apes, as they are popularly termed, and yet this term was not a neologism of Darwin 's. He took it from the cultural milieu, where it meant etymologically "unfolding '' of something heterogeneous and complex from something simpler and more homogeneous. Herbert Spencer, a contemporary of Darwin, applied the term to the universe, including philosophy and what Tylor would later call culture. This view of the universe was generally termed evolutionism, while its exponents were evolutionists.
In 1871 Tylor published Primitive Culture, becoming the originator of cultural anthropology. His methods were comparative and historical ethnography. He believed that a "uniformity '' was manifest in culture, which was the result of "uniform action of uniform causes. '' He regarded his instances of parallel ethnographic concepts and practices as indicative of "laws of human thought and action. '' He was an evolutionist. The task of cultural anthropology therefore is to discover "stages of development or evolution. ''
Evolutionism was distinguished from another creed, diffusionism, postulating the spread of items of culture from regions of innovation. A given apparent parallelism thus had at least two explanations: the instances descend from an evolutionary ancestor, or they are alike because one diffused into the culture from elsewhere. These two views are exactly parallel to the tree model and wave model of historical linguistics, which are instances of evolutionism and diffusionism, language features being instances of culture.
Two other classifications were proposed in 1993 by Upadhyay and Pandey, Classical Evolutionary School and Neo Evolutionary School, the Classical to be divided into British, American, and German. The Classical British Evolutionary School, primarily at Oxford University, divided society into two evolutionary stages, savagery and civilization, based on the archaeology of John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury. Upadhyay and Pandey list its adherents as Robert Ranulph Marett, Henry James Sumner Maine, John Ferguson McLennan, and James George Frazer, as well as Tylor. Marett was the last man standing, dying in 1943. By the time of his death, Lubbock 's archaeology had been updated. The American School, beginning with Lewis Henry Morgan, was likewise superseded, both being replaced by the Neoevolutionist School, beginning with V. Gordon Childe. It brought the archaeology up - to - date and tended to omit the intervening society names, such as savagery; for example, Neolithic is both a tool tradition and a form of society.
There are some other classifications. Theorists of each classification each have their own criticisms of the Classical / Neo Evolutionary lines, which despite them remains the dominant view. Some criticisms are in brief as follows. There is really no universality; that is, the apparent parallels are accidental, on which the theorist has imposed a model that does not really fit. There is no uniform causality, but different causes might produce similar results. All cultural groups do not have the same stages of development. The theorists are arm - chair anthropologists; their data is insufficient to form realistic abstractions. They overlooked cultural diffusion. They overlooked cultural innovation. None of the critics claim definitive proof that their criticisms are less subjective or interpretive than the models they criticise.
Tylor 's notion is best described in his most famous work, the two - volume Primitive Culture. The first volume, The Origins of Culture, deals with ethnography including social evolution, linguistics, and myth. The second volume, Religion in Primitive Culture, deals mainly with his interpretation of animism.
On the first page of Primitive Culture, Tylor provides a definition which is one of his most widely recognised contributions to anthropology and the study of religion:
Culture or Civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
Also, the first chapter of the work gives an outline of a new discipline, science of culture, later known as culturology.
Unlike many of his predecessors and contemporaries, Tylor asserts that the human mind and its capabilities are the same globally, despite a particular society 's stage in social evolution. This means that a hunter - gatherer society would possess the same amount of intelligence as an advanced industrial society. The difference, Tylor asserts, is education, which he considers the cumulative knowledge and methodology that takes thousands of years to acquire. Tylor often likens primitive cultures to "children '', and sees culture and the mind of humans as progressive. His work was a refutation of the theory of social degeneration, which was popular at the time. At the end of Primitive Culture, Tylor writes, "The science of culture is essentially a reformers ' science. ''
In 1881 Tylor published a work he called Anthropology, one of the first under that name. In the first chapter he uttered what would become a sort of constitutional statement for the new field, which he could not know and did not intend at the time:
"History, so far as it reaches back, shows arts, sciences, and political institutions beginning in ruder states, and becoming in the course of ages, more intelligent, more systematic, more perfectly arranged or organized, to answer their purposes. ''
The view was a restatement of ideas first innovated in the early 1860s. The theorist perhaps most influential on Tylor was John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury, innovator of the terminology, "Paleolithic '' and "Neolithic. '' A prominent banker and British liberal Parliamentarian, he was imbued with a passion for archaeology. The initial concepts of prehistory were his. Lubbock 's works featured prominently in Tylor 's lectures and in the Pitt Rivers Museum subsequently.
A term ascribed to Tylor was his theory of "survivals ''. His definition of survivals is
processes, customs, and opinions, and so forth, which have been carried on by force of habit into a new state of society different from that in which they had their original home, and they thus remain as proofs and examples of an older condition of culture out of which a newer has been evolved.
"Survivals '' can include outdated practices, such as the European practice of bloodletting, which lasted long after the medical theories on which it was based had faded from use and been replaced by more modern techniques. Critics argued that he identified the term but provided an insufficient reason as to why survivals continue. Tylor 's meme - like concept of survivals explains the characteristics of a culture that are linked to earlier stages of human culture.
Studying survivals assists ethnographers in reconstructing earlier cultural characteristics and possibly reconstructing the evolution of culture.
Tylor argued that people had used religion to explain things that occurred in the world. He saw that it was important for religions to have the ability to explain why and for what reason things occurred in the world. For example, God (or the divine) gave us sun to keep us warm and give us light. Tylor argued that animism is the true natural religion that is the essence of religion; it answers the questions of which religion came first and which religion is essentially the most basic and foundation of all religions. For him, animism was the best answer to these questions, so it must be the true foundation of all religions. Animism is described as the belief in spirits inhabiting and animating beings, or souls existing in things. To Tylor, the fact that modern religious practitioners continued to believe in spirits showed that these people were no more advanced than primitive societies. For him, this implied that modern religious practitioners do not understand the ways of the universe and how life truly works because they have excluded science from their understanding of the world. By excluding scientific explanation in their understanding of why and how things occur, he asserts modern religious practitioners are rudimentary. Tylor perceived the modern religious belief in God as a "survival '' of primitive ignorance. He claimed the contemporary belief in God to be a survival, because science could explain the phenomena previously justified by religion.
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who sang the song going to san francisco | San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair) - wikipedia
"San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair) '' is an American pop music song, written by John Phillips of The Mamas & the Papas, and sung by Scott McKenzie. The song was produced and released in May 1967 by Phillips and Lou Adler, who used it to promote their Monterey International Pop Music Festival held in June of that year.
John Phillips played guitar on the recording and session musician Gary L. Coleman played orchestra bells and chimes. The bass line of the song was supplied by session musician Joe Osborn. Hal Blaine played drums. The song became one of the best - selling singles of the 1960s in the world, reaching the fourth position on the US charts and the number one spot on the UK charts. In New Zealand the song spent five weeks at number one, and in Germany it was six weeks at number one.
McKenzie 's version of the song has been called "the unofficial anthem of the counterculture movement of the 1960s, including the Hippie, Anti-Vietnam War and Flower power movements. ''
"... local authorities in Monterey were starting to get cold feet over the prospect of their town being overrun by hippies. To smooth things over, Phillips wrote a song, "San Francisco (Be Sure To Wear Flowers In Your Hair). ''
Phillips reported writing the song in about 20 minutes.
The song, which tells the listeners, "If you 're going to San Francisco, be sure to wear some flowers in your hair '', is credited with bringing thousands of young people to San Francisco, California, during the late 1960s.
Released on May 13, 1967, the song was an instant hit. By the week ending July 1, 1967, it reached the number four spot on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US, where it remained for four consecutive weeks. Meanwhile, the song rose to number one in the UK Singles Chart, and most of Europe. The single is purported to have sold over seven million copies worldwide. In Central Europe, young people adopted "San Francisco '' as an anthem for freedom, and it was widely played during Czechoslovakia 's 1968 Prague Spring uprising.
The song has been featured in several films, including Frantic, The Rock, and Forrest Gump. It was also played occasionally by Led Zeppelin as part of the improvised section in the middle of "Dazed and Confused ''. U2 's Bono also led the audience in singing this song during their PopMart performances in the San Francisco Bay Area on June 18 and 19, 1997. New Order covered the song on July 11, 2014, at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco.
The Bee Gees song "Massachusetts '' is a reaction to this song. The Bee Gees ' song is about someone who has been to San Francisco but is now homesick for Massachusetts.
The song was featured in the final story scene of the 2016 game Watch Dogs 2.
2 successive missions in Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, namely "Are You Going To San Fierro? '' and "Wear Flowers in Your Hair '' are inspired by the song.
French singer Johnny Hallyday recorded the song in French, with the title "San Francisco ''. His version reached number five in Wallonia (French Belgium) in 1967.
7 '' single Philips B 370.454 F (1967)
7 '' EP Philips 437.380 BE (1967)
Bovic Shamar sang a cover in pidgin English, released by African Fiesta Sukisa as Sukisa 88b in 1967.
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what happens at the end of the first avengers | The Avengers (2012 film) - wikipedia
Marvel 's The Avengers (classified under the name Marvel Avengers Assemble in the United Kingdom and Ireland), or simply The Avengers, is a 2012 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team of the same name, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sixth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was written and directed by Joss Whedon and features an ensemble cast that includes Robert Downey Jr., Chris Evans, Mark Ruffalo, Chris Hemsworth, Scarlett Johansson, and Jeremy Renner as the titular Avengers team, alongside Tom Hiddleston, Clark Gregg, Cobie Smulders, Stellan Skarsgård, and Samuel L. Jackson. In the film, Nick Fury, director of the spy agency S.H.I.E.L.D., recruits Tony Stark, Captain America, the Hulk, and Thor to form a team that must stop Thor 's brother Loki from subjugating Earth.
The film 's development began when Marvel Studios received a loan from Merrill Lynch in April 2005. After the success of the film Iron Man in May 2008, Marvel announced that The Avengers would be released in July 2011. With the signing of Johansson in March 2009, the film was pushed back for a 2012 release. Whedon was brought on board in April 2010 and rewrote the original screenplay by Zak Penn. Production began in April 2011 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, before moving to Cleveland, Ohio, in August and New York City in September. The film was converted to 3D in post-production.
The Avengers premiered on April 11, 2012, at Hollywood 's El Capitan Theatre and was released in the United States on May 4, 2012. The film received positive reviews from critics, as well as numerous awards and nominations including Academy Award and BAFTA nominations for achievements in visual effects. It set or tied numerous box office records, including the biggest opening weekend in the United States and Canada. The Avengers grossed over $1.5 billion worldwide and became the third - highest - grossing film of all time, as well as the highest - grossing film of 2012. It is the first Marvel production to generate $1 billion in ticket sales. Two sequels, titled Avengers: Age of Ultron and Avengers: Infinity War, were released in May 2015 and April 2018, respectively, while an untitled third sequel is scheduled for release in 2019.
The Asgardian Loki encounters the Other, the leader of an extraterrestrial race known as the Chitauri. In exchange for retrieving the Tesseract, a powerful energy source of unknown potential, the Other promises Loki an army with which he can subjugate Earth. Nick Fury, director of the espionage agency S.H.I.E.L.D., and his lieutenant Agent Maria Hill arrive at a remote research facility during an evacuation, where physicist Dr. Erik Selvig is leading a research team experimenting on the Tesseract. Agent Phil Coulson explains that the object has begun radiating an unusual form of energy. The Tesseract suddenly activates and opens a wormhole, allowing Loki to reach Earth. Loki takes the Tesseract and uses his scepter to enslave Selvig and a couple of other agents, including Clint Barton, to aid him in his getaway.
In response to the attack, Fury reactivates the "Avengers Initiative ''. Agent Natasha Romanoff is sent to Calcutta to recruit Dr. Bruce Banner to trace the Tesseract through its gamma radiation emissions. Coulson visits Tony Stark to have him review Selvig 's research, and Fury approaches Steve Rogers with an assignment to retrieve the Tesseract.
In Stuttgart, Barton steals iridium needed to stabilize the Tesseract 's power while Loki causes a distraction, leading to a brief confrontation with Rogers, Stark, and Romanoff that ends with Loki 's surrender. While Loki is being escorted to S.H.I.E.L.D., Thor, his adoptive brother, arrives and frees him, hoping to convince him to abandon his plan and return to Asgard. After a confrontation with Stark and Rogers, Thor agrees to take Loki to S.H.I.E.L.D. 's flying aircraft carrier, the Helicarrier. Upon arrival, Loki is imprisoned while Banner and Stark attempt to locate the Tesseract.
The Avengers become divided, both over how to approach Loki and the revelation that S.H.I.E.L.D. plans to harness the Tesseract to develop weapons as a deterrent against hostile extraterrestrials. As the group argues, Barton and Loki 's other possessed agents attack the Helicarrier, disabling one of its engines in flight and causing Banner to transform into the Hulk. Stark and Rogers work to restart the damaged engine, and Thor attempts to stop the Hulk 's rampage. Romanoff reluctantly fights Barton, and knocks him unconscious, breaking Loki 's mind control. Loki escapes after killing Coulson and ejecting Thor from the airship, while the Hulk falls to the ground after attacking a S.H.I.E.L.D. fighter jet. Fury uses Coulson 's death to motivate the Avengers into working as a team. Stark and Rogers realize that for Loki, simply defeating them will not be enough; he needs to overpower them publicly to validate himself as ruler of Earth. Loki uses the Tesseract, in conjunction with a device Selvig built, to open a wormhole above Stark Tower to the Chitauri fleet in space, launching his invasion.
Rogers, Stark, Romanoff, Barton, and Thor rally in defense of New York City, the wormhole 's location. Banner arrives and transforms into the Hulk, and together the Avengers battle the Chitauri while evacuating civilians. The Hulk finds Loki and beats him into submission. Romanoff makes her way to the wormhole generator, where Selvig, freed from Loki 's mind control, reveals that Loki 's scepter can be used to shut down the generator. Meanwhile, Fury 's superiors from the World Security Council attempt to end the invasion by launching a nuclear missile at Midtown Manhattan. Stark intercepts the missile and takes it through the wormhole toward the Chitauri fleet. The missile detonates, destroying the Chitauri mothership and disabling their forces on Earth. Stark 's suit runs out of power, and he falls back through the wormhole just as Romanoff closes it. Stark goes into freefall, but the Hulk saves him from crashing into the ground. In the aftermath, Thor returns Loki and the Tesseract to Asgard, while Fury expresses confidence that the Avengers will return if and when they are needed.
In a mid-credits scene, the Other confers with his master about the failed attack on Earth. In a post-credits scene, the Avengers eat in silence at a shawarma restaurant.
Gwyneth Paltrow and Maximiliano Hernández reprise their roles from previous films as Pepper Potts and Jasper Sitwell, respectively. Paul Bettany returns to voice J.A.R.V.I.S. Frequent Whedon collaborator Alexis Denisof portrays the Other, and Damion Poitier portrays his master, Thanos (unnamed in the film), in a post-credit scene. Powers Boothe and Jenny Agutter appear as members of the World Security Council. Avengers co-creator Stan Lee has a cameo appearance in a news report. Harry Dean Stanton cameos as a security guard, and Polish film director Jerzy Skolimowski appears as Georgi Luchkov, Romanoff 's interrogator. Enver Gjokaj, who later went on to play Agent Daniel Sousa in the series Agent Carter, appears as a police officer.
-- Joss Whedon, director of The Avengers, about the film.
Ideas for a film based on the Avengers began in 2003, with Avi Arad, the CEO of Marvel Studios, first announcing plans to develop the film in April 2005, after Marvel Enterprises declared independence by allying with Merrill Lynch to produce a slate of films that would be distributed by Paramount Pictures. Marvel discussed their plans in a brief presentation to Wall Street analysts; the studio 's intention was to release individual films for the main characters -- to establish their identities and familiarize audiences with them -- before merging the characters together in a crossover film. Screenwriter Zak Penn, who wrote The Incredible Hulk (2008), became attached to the film in 2006, and was hired by Marvel Studios to write the film in June 2007. In the wake of the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike, Marvel negotiated with the Writers Guild of America to ensure that it could create films based on its comic book counterparts, including Captain America, Ant - Man and The Avengers. After the successful release of Iron Man (2008) in May, the company set a July 2011 release date for The Avengers. In September 2008, Marvel Studios reached an agreement with Paramount -- an extension of a previous partnership -- which gave the company distribution rights for five future Marvel films.
Casting began in October 2008 with Downey 's signing. Though Don Cheadle was also reported to be reprising his Iron Man 2 role of War Machine for The Avengers, he later stated that he did not think the character would appear in the film. At the same time, two major prospects occurred for Marvel: Jon Favreau was brought in as an executive producer for the film, and the company signed a long - term lease with Raleigh Studios to produce three other big - budget films -- Iron Man 2, Thor (2011), and Captain America: The First Avenger (2011) -- at their Manhattan Beach, California complex. Lou Ferrigno, who voiced Hulk in The Incredible Hulk, stated that he would be involved in the film. In February 2009, Samuel L. Jackson signed a nine - picture deal with Marvel Entertainment to play Nick Fury in Iron Man 2 and other films. In September 2009, Edward Norton, who played Bruce Banner in The Incredible Hulk stated that he was open to returning in the film. The next month, executive producer Jon Favreau stated that he would not direct the film, but would "definitely have input and a say ''. Favreau also expressed concerns, stating, "It 's going to be hard, because I was so involved in creating the world of Iron Man, and Iron Man is very much a tech - based hero, and then with Avengers you 're going to be introducing some supernatural aspects because of Thor... (Mixing) the two of those works very well in the comic books, but it 's going to take a lot of thoughtfulness to make that all work and not blow the reality that we 've created ''. In March 2009, actress Scarlett Johansson replaced Emily Blunt in portraying Natasha Romanoff in Iron Man 2, a deal that subsequently attached her to The Avengers. The following day, Marvel announced that the film 's release date had been pushed back to May 4, 2012, almost a full year later. Chris Hemsworth and Tom Hiddleston joined the film 's cast in June, returning as Thor and Loki, respectively.
In July 2009, Penn talked about the crossover process, stating, "My job is to kind of shuttle between the different movies and make sure that finally we 're mimicking that comic book structure where all of these movies are connected... There 's just a board that tracks ' Here 's where everything that happens in this movie overlaps with that movie '... I 'm pushing them to do as many animatics as possible to animate the movie, to draw boards so that we 're all working off the same visual ideas. But the exigencies of production take first priority ''. At first, Penn tried to reduce Thor 's role in the script because he had doubts about the character 's ability to succeed on film. He changed his mind once Hemsworth was cast as Thor.
In January 2010, Marvel Studios chief Kevin Feige was asked if it would be difficult to meld the fantasy of Thor with the high - tech science fiction in Iron Man and The Avengers. "No, '' he said, "because we 're doing the Jack Kirby / Stan Lee / Walt Simonson / J. Michael Straczynski Thor. We 're not doing the blow - the - dust - off - of - the - old - Norse - book - in - your - library Thor. And in the Thor of the Marvel Universe, there 's a race called the Asgardians. And we 're linked through this Tree of Life that we 're unaware of. It 's real science, but we do n't know about it yet. The ' Thor ' movie is about teaching people that ''. In March, it was reported that Penn had completed the first draft of the script, and that Marvel editor - in - chief Joe Quesada and Avengers comic - book writer Brian Michael Bendis had received copies. Also in March, Chris Evans accepted an offer to play Captain America in three films including The Avengers.
By April 2010, Joss Whedon was close to completing a deal to direct the film and to rework Penn 's script, and was officially announced in July 2010. On the hiring, Arad stated: "My personal opinion is that Joss will do a fantastic job. He loves these characters and is a fantastic writer... It 's part of his life so you know he is going to protect it... I expect someone like him is going to make the script even better ''. Feige added, "I 've known Joss for many years. We were looking for the right thing and he came in and met on it... we want (ed) to find a director that 's on the verge of doing something great, as we think Joss is. '' Whedon stated at the 2010 San Diego Comic - Con International, that what drew him to the film is that he loves how "these people should n't be in the same room let alone on the same team -- and that is the definition of family ''.
When Whedon received Penn 's draft, he told Feige he felt the studio did not "have anything '' and they should "pretend this draft never happened ''. Part of Whedon 's issue was the lack of character connections in Penn 's draft, which necessitated Whedon to begin "at square one ''. Whedon went on to write a five page treatment of his plan for the film, and created the tagline "Avengers: Some Assembly Required '', riffing on the "Avengers Assemble '' slogan from the comic books. Marvel quickly began working to sign Whedon to write and direct, only stipulating that he include the Avengers against Loki, a battle among the heroes in the middle, a battle against the villains at the end, and he get the film done for its May 2012 release. The script would go through "a lot of insane iterations of what might be '' according to Whedon. Whedon explained there was a point when it was not certain Johansson would star in the film, so he "wrote a huge bunch of pages starring The Wasp. '' He also was "worried that one British character actor ((Hiddleston)) was not enough to take on Earth 's mightiest heroes, and that we 'd feel like we were rooting for the overdog. So I wrote a huge draft with Ezekiel Stane, Obadiah Stane 's son, in it. '' Once all of the actors were "locked in place the movie stayed on mission. '' Whedon noted that the characters used do not have the same issue, unlike the X-Men. He felt "these guys just do n't belong together '' before realizing their interactions could be like The Dirty Dozen (1967). Whedon also referenced Dr. Strangelove (1964), The Abyss (1989), His Girl Friday (1940), and Black Hawk Down (2001). Whedon would ultimately share final screenplay credit with Penn, though Whedon noted he "fought '' for sole credit and was "very upset about it. '' Penn felt the two "could have collaborated more, but that was not his choice. He wanted to do it his way, and I respect that. ''
The casting process continued into much of 2010, with the additions of Jeremy Renner, Mark Ruffalo, and Clark Gregg. Ruffalo replaced Edward Norton, whom Marvel declined to have back. "We have made the decision to not bring Ed Norton back to portray the title role of Bruce Banner in The Avengers, '' stated Feige. "Our decision is definitely not one based on monetary factors, but instead rooted in the need for an actor who embodies the creativity and collaborative spirit of our other talented cast members. The Avengers demands players who thrive working as part of an ensemble, as evidenced by Robert, Chris H, Chris E, Samuel, Scarlett, and all of our talented casts. We are looking to announce a name actor who fulfills these requirements, and is passionate about the iconic role in the coming weeks. '' In response, Norton 's agent Brian Swardstrom decried Feige 's statement, calling it "purposefully misleading '' and an "inappropriate attempt to paint our client in a negative light ''. In October 2014, Norton claimed it was his own decision never to play Hulk again because he "wanted more diversity '' with his career, and did not want to be associated with only one character.
In August 2010, it was reported that Paramount Pictures and Marvel Studios were planning to start shooting in February. Simultaneously, it was declared that the film would be shot in 3D, although Mark Ruffalo later tweeted that this was not the case. In October 2010, Grumman Studios in Bethpage, New York and the Steiner Studios in Brooklyn, New York City, were announced as filming locations, with set construction slated to begin in November, but as Whedon later explained, "Originally we were supposed to be in Los Angeles, then for a short period we were supposed to be in New York, and then somehow we ended up in Albuquerque. '' Also that October, Walt Disney Studios agreed to pay Paramount at least $115 million for the worldwide distribution rights to Iron Man 3 and The Avengers. The deal also allowed Paramount to continue to collect the 8 percent box office fee it would have earned for distributing the film and a marquee credit -- placement of the company 's production logo on marketing materials and the film 's opening titles. As a result, the onscreen production credit reads "Marvel Studios presents in association with Paramount Pictures '' though the film is solely owned, distributed, financed, and marketed by Disney. Paramount 's Epix retained pay TV rights.
In December 2010, Governor of New Mexico Bill Richardson and Marvel Studios Co-president Louis D'Esposito announced The Avengers would film primarily in Albuquerque, New Mexico, with principal photography scheduled for April through September 2011. Parts of the film were also scheduled to be shot in Michigan, but a plan to film in Detroit ended after Governor Rick Snyder issued a budget proposal that would eliminate a film tax incentive. Three months later in March, Governor of Ohio John Kasich announced before Mayor Frank G. Jackson 's State of the City address that The Avengers would film in Cleveland.
Concept illustrator and designer of Iron Man 's Mark VII armor Phil Saunders stated that "Joss Whedon was looking for something that had the ' cool ' factor of the suitcase suit (from Iron Man 2), while still being a fully armored, heavy duty suit that could take on an army in the final battle. '' To that end, Saunders borrowed ideas that had been proposed in Iron Man 2 as well as some ideas that had been abandoned in Iron Man and merged them together in a modular suit that has big ammo packets on the arms and a backpack. The Science & Entertainment Exchange also provided science consultation for the film.
Casting reached its final stages the following year. In February 2011, Cobie Smulders acquired the role of Maria Hill, after participating in screen tests conducted by Marvel for the role of a key S.H.I.E.L.D. member, who Samuel L. Jackson described as Nick Fury 's sidekick. Over the successive months, the film 's cast expanded to include Stellan Skarsgård, Paul Bettany, and Gwyneth Paltrow. Paltrow was cast at Downey 's insistence; prior to this, Whedon had not intended the film to include supporting characters from the heroes ' individual films, commenting, "You need to separate the characters from their support systems in order to create the isolation you need for a team. ''
Principal photography began on April 25, 2011, in Albuquerque, New Mexico, with the working title Group Hug. In June 2011, stuntman Jeremy Fitzgerald injured his head while attempting a stunt involving a 30 - foot fall from a building after getting hit by an arrow. A Marvel spokesperson later told TMZ.com that despite the injury, Fitzgerald recovered and continued working on set. The following month, secondary filming took place about an hour outside Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in the Butler area. A chase sequence was also shot in Worthington, Pennsylvania at Creekside Mushroom Farms, the world 's largest single - site mushroom farm, which provided 150 miles of abandoned limestone tunnels 300 feet below the ground for filming.
Production relocated to Cleveland, Ohio in August 2011, where filming transpired over a period of four weeks. The city 's East 9th Street was chosen as a double for New York City 's 42nd Street to be used in climactic battle scenes. Army Reserve soldiers assigned to the Columbus, Ohio - based 391st Military Police Battalion provided background action during the battle scenes in Cleveland. Staff Sergeant Michael T. Landis stated the use of real soldiers made the scenes more realistic and helped portray the military in a more positive light, explaining that, "It 's easy for us to make on - the - spot corrections to tactics and uniforms, the director actually took our recommendation on one scene and let us all engage the enemy as opposed to only the gunners in the trucks engaging ''. Filming also took place in the large vacuum chamber at the NASA Plum Brook Station near Sandusky, Ohio. The station 's Space Power Facility was used to portray a S.H.I.E.L.D. research facility. A series of explosions were filmed at the Chevrolet powertrain plant in Parma, Ohio as part of the battle sequence that began in Cleveland. Scenes from the film were also shot on Public Square and the Detroit -- Superior Bridge. Public Square 's southwest quadrant was turned into Stuttgart, Germany, for filming.
Principal photography concluded in New York City, where filming occurred over two days. Filming locations in New York City included Park Avenue and Central Park. For scenes taking place in Manhattan, visual effects supervisor Jake Morrison shot aerial footage for over three days to use as background plates, elaborating that his main objective was to "get as much aerial work in as possible for the audience to see the big expanses, the wide establishing shots, while also making sure that the effects work does n't look too computer generated ''. "We 're getting much better at making entirely computer - generated environments, '' Morrison explained, "but there is no substitute for starting with a real image and adding what you need. ''
Cinematographer Seamus McGarvey stated that he composed the frame with a 1.85: 1 aspect ratio to cope with the varying heights of the main characters, explaining that "shooting 1.85: 1 is kind of unusual for an epic film like this, but we needed the height in the screen to be able to frame in all the characters like Hulk, Captain America and Black Widow, who is much smaller. We had to give them all precedence and width within the frame. Also, Joss (Whedon) knew the final battle sequence was going to be this extravaganza in Manhattan, so the height and vertical scale of the buildings was going to be really important. '' The film was McGarvey 's first venture shooting with a digital camera, the Arri Alexa. The Canon EOS 5D Mark II and Canon EOS 7D digital SLR cameras were used for some shots, and high - speed shots were captured on 35 mm film with the Arriflex 435. About his visual approach, McGarvey remarked, "Joss and I were keen on having a very visceral and naturalistic quality to the image. We wanted this to feel immersive and did not want a ' comic book look ' that might distance an audience with the engagement of the film. We moved the camera a lot on Steadicam, cranes and on dollies to create kinetic images; and we chose angles that were dramatic, like low angles for heroic imagery. ''
In December 2011, Disney announced that the film would be converted to 3D. Said Whedon, "I 'm not a big fan of extreme long lens, talky movies -- I like to see the space I 'm in and relate to it, so 3D kinda fits my aesthetic anyway. And the technology has advanced so far in the past couple years. '' Whedon also said that "there definitely are movies that should n't be in 3D '' but "The Avengers is n't obnoxiously 3D. There 's no, ' Oh look, we 're going to spend 20 minutes going through this tunnel because it 's in 3D! ' And no one is pointing at the screen the entire time. But it 's an action movie. Things tend to hurtle toward the screen anyway ''. In January 2012, it was reported that the film would be digitally remastered for IMAX 3D and open in IMAX theaters on May 4, 2012, the same day it opens in regular theaters. The film 's IMAX release follows Marvel 's IMAX releases of Iron Man 2 and Thor.
In a May 2012 interview, Whedon said that it was his decision to include Thanos in a post-credits scene, although the character is not identified in the film. "He for me is the most powerful and fascinating Marvel villain. He 's the great grand daddy of the badasses and he 's in love with Death and I just think that 's so cute. For me, the greatest Avengers (comic book) was Avengers Annual # 7 (1977) that Jim Starlin did followed by Marvel Two - in - One Annual # 2 (1977) that contained the death of Adam Warlock. Those were some of the most important texts and I think underrated milestones in Marvel history and Thanos is all over that, so somebody had to be in control and had to be behind Loki 's work and I was like ' It 's got to be Thanos. ' And they said ' Okay ' and I 'm like ' Oh my God! ' '' An additional coda involving the Avengers eating shawarma was shot on April 12, 2012, a day after the world premiere. Evans wore a prosthetic jaw while filming the scene to cover the beard he had grown. Shawarma sales in Los Angeles, St. Louis, and Boston reportedly skyrocketed in the days following the film 's release. Whedon stated the inspiration for the shawarma scene came from the events surrounding the filming of the scene where Fred dies in Wesley 's arms in the Angel episode, "A Hole in the World ''. After filming the scene, Whedon and actors Amy Acker and Denisof, who portrayed Fred and Wesley, respectively, "went out for drinks and ended up just sitting around quietly, exhausted from the day 's events, '' which Whedon then mimicked in the scene for the film.
The film contains more than 2,200 visual effects shots completed by 14 companies: Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), Weta Digital, Scanline VFX, Hydraulx, Fuel VFX, Evil Eye Pictures, Luma Pictures, Cantina Creative, Trixter, Modus FX, Whiskytree, Digital Domain, The Third Floor and Method Design. ILM was the lead vendor and shared responsibility for creating many of the film 's key effects, including the Helicarrier, the New York cityscape, digital body doubles, Iron Man and the Hulk. To create the on - screen Hulk, Ruffalo performed in a motion - capture suit on set with the other actors while four motion - capture HD cameras (two full body, two focused on his face) captured his face and body movements. Jeff White, ILM 's visual effects supervisor, said, "We really wanted to utilize everything we 've developed the last 10 years and make it a pretty spectacular Hulk. One of the great design decisions was to incorporate Mark Ruffalo into the look of him. So, much of Hulk is based on Ruffalo and his performance, not only in motion capture and on set, but down to his eyes, his teeth, and his tongue. ''
ILM digitally recreated the vast majority of the New York cityscape used in the film. In total, ILM artists rendered an area of about ten city blocks by about four city blocks. To do this, ILM sent out a team of four photographers to take pictures of the area in a shoot that lasted 8 weeks. Tyson Bidner, the New York location manager on the film, helped by securing the rights to almost every building 's likeness in the area ILM needed. Disney and Sony Pictures agreed for OsCorp Tower from The Amazing Spider - Man to be included in the film, but the idea was dropped because much of the skyline had already been completed.
Weta Digital took over duties for animating Iron Man during the forest duel from ILM. Guy Williams, Weta 's visual effects supervisor, said, "We shared assets back and forth with ILM, but our pipelines are unique and it 's hard for other assets to plug into it. But in this case, we got their models and we had to redo the texture spaces because the way we texture maps is different. '' Williams said the most difficult part was re-creating Iron Man 's reflective metal surfaces.
Scanline VFX completed the reveal shots of the Helicarrier, from the moment Black Widow and Captain America arrive on the carrier deck to the point where it lifts off. Evil Eye Pictures composited digital backgrounds into shots filmed against a greenscreen for scenes taking place inside the Helicarrier. Colin Strause of Hydraulx said, "We did the opening ten minutes of the movie, other than the opening set - up in space '' including Loki 's arrival on Earth and subsequent escape from the S.H.I.E.L.D. base. Luma Pictures worked on shots featuring the Helicarrier 's bridge and incorporated the graphic monitor displays that were developed by Cantina Creative. Fuel VFX completed shots taking place in and around Tony Stark 's penthouse at Stark Tower. Digital Domain created the asteroid environment, where Loki encounters The Other. Method Design in Los Angeles created the film 's closing credits. Steve Viola, creative director at Method Design, said, "This piece was a two - minute, self - contained main on end sequence created entirely in CG. For each of the shots in the sequence, we designed, modeled, textured, and lit all of the environments and many of the foreground objects. We received assets from Marvel to include in the piece, then heavily re-modeled and re-surfaced them to create a post-battle macro sequence. We also designed a custom typeface for the Main Title of The Avengers as well as 30 credits set in - scene. ''
In November 2011, Marvel announced that Alan Silvestri, who scored Captain America: The First Avenger, would write and compose the score for The Avengers. Silvestri said, "I 've worked on films where there have been a number of stars and certainly worked on films where there have been characters of equal weight in terms of their level of importance and profile in the film, but this one is somewhat extreme in that regard because each of these characters has their own world and it 's a very different situation. It 's very challenging to look for a way to give everyone the weight and consideration they need, but at the same time the film is really about the coming together of these characters, which implies that there is this entity called the Avengers which really has to be representative of all of them together. '' Silvestri developed the score with the London Symphony Orchestra at Abbey Road Studios in London, England. Whedon said, "The score is very old - fashioned, which is why (Silvestri) was letter - perfect for this movie because he can give you the heightened emotion, the (Hans Zimmer) school of ' I 'm just feeling a lot right now! ' but he can also be extraordinarily cue and character specific, which I love. ''
In March 2012, American alternative rock band Soundgarden announced through its Facebook page that its song "Live to Rise '' would be included on the film 's soundtrack. Additionally, the Indian rock band Agnee released a music video for its single "Hello Andheron '', which serves as the theme song for the film 's Indian release. Hollywood Records released the soundtrack concept album inspired by the film, Avengers Assemble, on May 1, 2012, the same day as the score.
In February 2012, Disney announced that the film 's title would be changed in the United Kingdom to avoid confusion with the British TV series of the same name, as well as its 1998 film adaptation. This led to confusion over the film 's actual title. Empire magazine reported that the film would be titled Marvel Avengers Assemble while The Hollywood Reporter said that it would be called simply Avengers Assemble. Marvel 's UK website refers to the film as Marvel 's Avengers Assemble, although David Cox of The Guardian, in arguing that it was one of the worst film titles ever, considered this to be an error in the production notes, albeit grammatically clearer. According to the British Board of Film Classification and the Irish Film Classification Office, the title is Marvel Avengers Assemble. Frank Lovece in FilmFestivalTraveler.com addressed the discrepancy, writing, "The Avengers -- formally titled Marvel 's The Avengers onscreen, though no apostrophe - s appears on the posters... '' Producer Kevin Feige said there are only two words in the UK title, one more than in the U.S. title, and stated that "decisions like that are n't made lightly and there are lots of marketing research, lawyers and things that get into the mix on it ''.
The film 's world premiere was April 11, 2012, at Hollywood 's El Capitan Theatre. The Avengers closed the 11th Annual Tribeca Film Festival with a screening on April 28, 2012. The film received an expanded one - week theatrical push for the 2012 U.S. Labor Day weekend, increasing the number of theaters from 123 to 1,700.
The film was promoted at the 2010 San Diego Comic - Con International, during which a teaser trailer narrated by Samuel L. Jackson was shown followed by an introduction of the cast. In June 2011, Marvel Studios announced that it would not hold a panel at the 2011 San Diego Comic - Con International after studio executives decided it was not prepared to compete with its own past and fan expectations with filming still in production. In July 2011, a teaser trailer that was meant to be the post-credits scene of Captain America: The First Avenger was briefly leaked online. Entertainment Weekly speculated it came from a preview screening and described the footage as "shaky, fuzzy, flickering and obviously filmed on a cell phone ''.
In August 2011, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios and Marvel Studios presented a look at Walt Disney Studios ' upcoming film slate, which included The Avengers, at the D23 Expo in Anaheim, California. The presentation featured footage from the film and appearances by the cast members. Later in August, Disney dismissed Marvel 's executive vice president of worldwide marketing, vice president of worldwide marketing and manager of worldwide marketing to bring their functions in - house.
In October 2011, Marvel Studios held a presentation at the New York Comic Con that featured new footage and a panel discussion including producer Kevin Feige and several cast members. The first full - length trailer was also released in October. Comic Book Resources said, "The two - minute teaser handily establishes the movie 's premise '' and is "heavy on the assembling, but fans are also treated to plenty of action, as well glimpses (sic) of Iron Man 's new armor and, best of all, the new take on the Incredible Hulk. Naturally, Robert Downey Jr. 's Tony Stark gets the best lines ''. However, The Hollywood Reporter called it, "Awesome. Or it would be if we had n't seen all of this before and expected every single thing that we saw in the trailer ''. The trailer, which debuted exclusively on iTunes Movie Trailers, was downloaded over 10 million times in its first 24 hours, breaking the website 's record for the most - viewed trailer. This record was surpassed by the trailer for The Dark Knight Rises, which was downloaded more than 12.5 million times in its first 24 hours. The trailer received 20.4 million views in the 24 hours after it debuted. A second full - length trailer was released on iTunes in February 2012, reaching a record 13.7 million downloads in 24 hours. The theatrical trailers of The Avengers appeared with many films, including Mission: Impossible -- Ghost Protocol, 21 Jump Street and The Hunger Games.
In January 2012, Marvel Studios held a global Twitter chat. The 30 - minute live tweeting event featured writer / director Joss Whedon, cast members Samuel L. Jackson, Tom Hiddleston and Clark Gregg and a 10 - second tease of the 30 - second Super Bowl commercial that would air during Super Bowl XLVI in February. According to the Los Angeles Times, Disney paid an estimated $4 million for the 30 - second spot. On May 1, 2012, executives from Marvel Studios, along with actors Tom Hiddleston and Clark Gregg, rang the opening bell of the New York Stock Exchange in honor of the film 's theatrical release.
In December 2011, Marvel announced that an eight - issue comic - book prelude to the film, written by Christopher Yost and Eric Pearson with art by Luke Ross and Daniel HDR, would be released in March 2012. In February 2012, Marvel announced the release of a second limited series comic book tie - in, Black Widow Strikes written by Fred Van Lente, who wrote Captain America: First Vengeance, the comic - book prequel to Captain America: The First Avenger. The story is set between Iron Man 2 and The Avengers and follows Black Widow as she runs down some loose ends from Iron Man 2. Additionally, the title Avengers Assemble was launched in March 2012, written by Brian Michael Bendis with art by Mark Bagley and features the same Avengers line - up as the film battling a new incarnation of the supervillain team Zodiac.
Paul Gitter, Marvel Entertainment 's president of consumer products, commented that the build - up to the film helped strengthen retail partnerships: "Retailers have been less tolerant with (intellectual property) films, so we decided that if we started on this coordinated strategy several years ago, retailers would give us shelf space throughout the years and we would have a more sustainable position in the marketplace ''.
In September 2011, set photos of Robert Downey Jr. driving a new model Acura were published online. An Acura spokesperson later released a statement confirming the company 's involvement with the film, "As you may know, Acura has been in the Marvel Comics Universe films as the official car of their fictional law enforcement agency called S.H.I.E.L.D. That relationship continues for The Avengers. The open - top sports car that was photographed yesterday is a one - off, fictional car that was made just for the movie and will not be produced. That said, as you may also know, our CEO has said publicly that we are studying the development of a new sportscar, but we ca n't say any more about it at this time. '' In December 2011, Acura announced that a new NSX styled along the lines of the concept built for The Avengers would be unveiled at the 2012 North American International Auto Show. A series of 10 S.H.I.E.L.D. SUVs, based on the Acura MDX with modifications by Cinema Vehicle Services, were also made for the film.
In February 2012, it was announced that Marvel has partnered with fragrance company JADS to promote The Avengers with character - based fragrances. The announcement was just ahead of the Toy Industry Association 's annual February exhibition, where representatives held a sampling booth of the products. Other promotional partners include bracelet - maker Colantotte, Dr Pepper, Farmers Insurance, Harley - Davidson, Hershey, Land O'Frost lunchmeats, Oracle, Red Baron pizza, Symantec, Visa and Wyndham Hotels & Resorts. In total, Marvel and its parent - company Disney secured an estimated $100 million in worldwide marketing support for the film. Notable exclusions include Baskin - Robbins, Burger King and Dunkin ' Donuts, who had partnered with Marvel in the past when their films were distributed by Paramount; Disney does not generally promote through fast food outlets.
A video game based on the film was planned for concurrent release. The game was to be a first - person shooter / brawler for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii U, and Microsoft Windows and published by THQ, with THQ Studio Australia developing the console versions and Blue Tongue Entertainment the PC version. After THQ closed both studios, the game was cancelled. Intellectual property rights for an Avengers video game reverted to Marvel, which said it was exploring potential publishing and licensing opportunities.
In May 2012, Ubisoft and Marvel Entertainment announced that they were partnering to develop a motion - controlled game titled Marvel Avengers: Battle for Earth for the Wii U and Xbox 360 Kinect. The game was inspired by the "Secret Invasion '' storyline and features 20 different characters. Marvel also announced a four - chapter mobile game titled Avengers Initiative, with one chapter focusing on each of Hulk, Captain America, Thor and Iron Man.
The film was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu - ray Disc, Blu - ray 3D, DVD and digital download on September 25, 2012 in the United States and as early as August 29, 2012 in various international markets. Producer Kevin Feige said the Blu - ray features a new Marvel One - Shot titled Item 47 and "a number of deleted scenes and a few storylines that fell by the wayside during the editing process '' including "a few more scenes with the S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Maria Hill, played by Cobie Smulders '' and "some slightly different versions of Maria Hill and Nick Fury 's interaction with the World Security Council ''.
The film was also collected in a 10 - disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase One -- Avengers Assembled '' which includes all of the Phase One films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. It was released on April 2, 2013. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment will release the film on Ultra HD Blu - ray on August 14, 2018.
Some fans have criticized the UK DVD and Blu - ray release for omitting Joss Whedon 's audio commentary, and for altering the scene involving Phil Coulson 's death from the film 's theatrical version. Disney 's UK division said the "less graphic depiction of Agent Coulson 's confrontation with Loki '' occurred because "(e) ach country has its own compliance issues relative to depictions of violence. Unfortunately, another region 's elements were inadvertently used to create the UK in - home release ''.
Upon its first week of release on home media in the U.S., the film topped the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert chart, which tracks overall disc sales, as well as the dedicated Blu - ray Disc sales chart with 72 % of unit sales coming from Blu - ray, a record for a new release in which both the DVD and Blu - ray formats were released simultaneously.
The Avengers grossed $623.4 million in the United States and Canada and $895.5 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $1.519 billion. It became the third - highest - grossing film worldwide as well as the highest - grossing 2012 film, the highest - grossing comic - book adaptation, the highest - grossing superhero film and the highest - grossing film ever released by Walt Disney Studios, at the time of its release. The film 's worldwide opening of $392.5 million was the fourth - largest. The Avengers also became the fifth film distributed by Disney and the twelfth film overall to earn more than $1 billion. It reached this milestone in 19 days, matching the record for speed previously set by Avatar and Deathly Hallows -- Part 2. Its grosses exceeded its estimated $220 million production cost 12 days after its release. It was the first Marvel production to generate $1 billion in ticket sales.
The film became the third - highest - grossing film, the highest - grossing 2012 film, the highest - grossing film distributed by Disney, the highest - grossing superhero film and the highest - grossing film based on comics. It opened Friday, May 4, 2012, on around 11,800 screens across 4,349 theaters, and earned $80.8 million, marking the second - biggest opening and second - biggest single - day gross. The film 's Friday gross included an $18.7 million midnight run, a record for a superhero film Without midnight grosses, the film earned the largest opening - day gross ($62.1 million). It also set a Saturday - and Sunday - gross record ($69.6 million and $57.1 million respectively). In total, it earned a total of $207,438,708 for its debut weekend, setting an opening - weekend record, including an IMAX opening - weekend record of $15.3 million and a record for opening - weekend grosses originating from 3D showings ($108 million). The opening - weekend audience was evenly split among those under and over the age of 25, with 60 % of the audience male, 55 % couples, 24 % families and 21 % teenagers. Earning $103.1 million on its second weekend, the film set a record for the largest second - weekend gross. Other records set by the film include the biggest weekend per - theater average for a wide release ($47,698 per theater), the fastest film to reach $100 million and each additional $50 million through $550 million, and the largest cumulative gross through every day of release until, and including, its forty - third day (with the exception of its first day). It remained in first place at the box office for three consecutive weekends. The film set a record for the highest monthly share, with its $532.5 million total (through May 31, 2012) accounting for 52 % of the total earnings at the box office during May.
The following are records set by the film upon its theatrical release.
While eight films have reached $100 million after two days, the film 's gross by the end of the second day exceeded all of them.
The film became the third - highest - grossing film, the highest - grossing Disney - distributed film, the highest - grossing 2012 film, and the highest - grossing superhero film. It opened Wednesday, April 25, 2012, in 10 countries, earning $17.1 million. It opened in 29 more countries on April 26 and 27, earning $73.1 million in three days. Through Sunday, April 29, it earned an opening - weekend total of $185.1 million from 39 countries. It was in first place at the box office for four consecutive weekends. The film set opening - day records in New Zealand, Malaysia and Iceland, a single - day record in the Philippines, as well as both single - and opening - day records in Singapore and in Thailand. It also earned the second - highest - grossing opening day in Australia ($6.2 million), behind Deathly Hallows -- Part 2, in Mexico, in the Philippines and in Vietnam. It set opening - weekend records in many territories, including Mexico, Brazil, Ecuador, Bolivia, Taiwan, the Philippines, Hong Kong, the United Arab Emirates, Argentina, Peru and Central America. It also earned the second largest five - day opening in Australia ($20.2 million).
In the UK, Ireland and Malta, the film earned £ 2.5 million ($4.1 million) on its opening day and £ 15.8 million ($25.7 million) during the weekend, setting an opening - weekend record for a superhero film. It became the market 's highest - grossing superhero film. In Latin America, it became the highest - grossing film ($207 million) and the first film to earn more than $200 million. It also became the highest - grossing film in the Philippines, in Singapore and in Indonesia.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92 % approval rating with an average rating of 8 / 10 based on 330 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Thanks to a script that emphasizes its heroes ' humanity and a wealth of superpowered set pieces, The Avengers lives up to its hype and raises the bar for Marvel at the movies. '' On Metacritic, the film achieved an average score of 69 out of 100 based on 43 reviews, signifying "generally favorable reviews ''. CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare "A + '' grade.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave a positive review of the film, remarking, "It 's clamorous, the save - the - world story is one everyone 's seen time and again, and the characters have been around for more than half a century in 500 comic book issues. But Whedon and his cohorts have managed to stir all the personalities and ingredients together so that the resulting dish, however familiar, is irresistibly tasty again. '' To Rolling Stone journalist Peter Travers, the film epitomized an exceptional blockbuster. "It 's also the blockbuster, '' Travers said, "I saw in my head when I imagined a movie that brought together the idols of the Marvel world in one shiny, stupendously exciting package. It 's Transformers with a brain, a heart and a working sense of humor. '' Justin Chang of Variety wrote, "Like a superior, state - of - the - art model built from reconstituted parts, Joss Whedon 's buoyant, witty and robustly entertaining superhero smash - up is escapism of a sophisticated order, boasting a tonal assurance and rich reserves of humor that offset the potentially lumbering and unavoidably formulaic aspects of this 143 - minute team - origin story. '' Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times complimented the film 's frenetic pace, while Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times commented that it "provides its fans with exactly what they desire. Whether it is exactly what they deserve is arguable ''. Conversely, A.O. Scott of The New York Times believed that "while The Avengers is hardly worth raging about, its failures are significant and dispiriting. The light, amusing bits can not overcome the grinding, hectic emptiness, the bloated cynicism that is less a shortcoming of this particular film than a feature of the genre. ''
The performances of several cast members was a frequent topic in the critiques. In particular, Mark Ruffalo 's portrayal of Dr. Bruce Banner / the Hulk was well received by commentators. Joe Neumaier opined that his performance was superior to the rest of the cast; "Ruffalo is the revelation, turning Banner into a wry reservoir of calm ready to become a volcano. '' Similarly, The New Yorker 's Anthony Lane proclaimed Ruffalo 's acting to be one of the film 's highlights -- alongside Downey. The Village Voice 's Karina Longworth concluded: "Ruffalo successfully refreshes the Hulk myth, playing Banner as an adorably bashful nerd - genius who, in contrast to the preening hunks on the team, knows better than to draw attention to himself. '' Travers asserted that the actor resonated a "scruffy warmth and humor '' vibe, while Turan felt that he surpassed predecessors Edward Norton and Eric Bana in playing the character. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "the smartest thing the filmmakers did was to get Mark Ruffalo to play Bruce Banner as a man so sensitive that he 's at war, every moment, with himself. (The film finally solves the Hulk problem: He 's a lot more fun in small doses.) ''
Referring to Downey, Joe Morgenstein of The Wall Street Journal -- despite complimenting Downey 's performance -- favored his work in Iron Man over his acting in The Avengers: "His Iron Man is certainly a team player, but Mr. Downey comes to the party with two insuperable superpowers: a character of established sophistication -- the industrialist / inventor Tony Stark, a sharp - tongued man of the world -- and his own quicksilver presence that finds its finest expression in self - irony. '' Neumaier praised Evans, stating that he accurately conveyed his character 's internal conflicts.
Commentators appreciated the character development and dialogue. Associated Press reviewer Christy Lemire wrote that the script "sparkles as brightly as the special effects; these people may be wearing ridiculous costumes but they 're well fleshed - out underneath. '' Scott suggested that certain parts of the film permeated a charm that he felt was similar to the western film Rio Bravo (1959). Longworth felt that while Whedon 's script demonstrated the backstory of the characters, the film does not explore it "in a substantive way ''.
The Avengers has garnered numerous awards and nominations, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects and a British Academy Film Award nomination for Best Special Visual Effects. The film has also been nominated for three Critics ' Choice Movie Awards, thirteen People 's Choice Awards (winning three), eleven Teen Choice Awards (winning two), six Saturn Awards (winning four), and six VES Awards (winning two), as well as the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation Long Form.
A sequel, titled Avengers: Age of Ultron, written and directed by Whedon, was released on May 1, 2015. Much of the cast returns, with the addition of Elizabeth Olsen as Scarlet Witch, Aaron Taylor - Johnson as Quicksilver, Paul Bettany as Vision, and James Spader as Ultron.
Avengers: Infinity War was directed by Anthony and Joe Russo, from a script by Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely, and was released on April 27, 2018. Much of the cast from the first two films return, with additional cast and characters joining from other MCU films, with Josh Brolin appearing as Thanos.
An untitled film, again directed by the Russo brothers from a script by Markus and McFeely, is scheduled for release on May 3, 2019.
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when does andi mack come on in january | List of Andi Mack episodes - wikipedia
Andi Mack is an American comedy - drama television series created by Terri Minsky that premiered on Disney Channel on April 7, 2017. The series stars Peyton Elizabeth Lee, Joshua Rush, Sofia Wylie, Asher Angel, Lilan Bowden, and Lauren Tom.
As Andi Mack celebrates her 13th birthday, she gets a surprise visit from her sister, Bex, who announces she will be moving back in with their parents, Celia and Ham. Andi is thrilled about the news and wants to know what Bex has been up to. Bex shares a box of her memories with Andi, though before she does, Celia warns her about the secrets inside it which she does not want Andi to know. Bex later discovers Andi is infatuated with a boy named Jonah Beck and arranges to have her be with him, which includes a frisbee lesson with him. Jonah realizes how good Andi becomes and wants her to join the frisbee team at school, but as she decides whether to do so, she discovers he has a girlfriend named Amber. Feeling humiliated, Andi gets upset at Bex, who tells her it is okay not to be perfect. Andi feels better after Jonah texts her. Meanwhile, against Celia 's warning, Bex shows Andi a picture hidden deep inside the box which shows Andi as a baby and Bex holding her; Andi finds out the truth about her sister, who is really her mother. This infuriates Celia and Ham, but they know they must come to terms with this revelation. After taking time to process this huge change in her life, Andi eventually becomes curious about who her father is, but Bex is not ready to tell her yet. It prompts Andi to take the box to see whether her father 's picture is inside it.
Andi tells her friends, Cyrus and Buffy, that she has joined the school frisbee team with Jonah, but has yet to tell them about the more important, life - changing discovery concerning her and Bex. While hanging with Andi in her shack, Cyrus and Buffy come across the picture of Bex with the newborn Andi, concluding Bex has a "secret baby '', but not knowing that baby is Andi. Meanwhile, Bex tries to fit in at dinner when Andi, Celia and Ham play a memory game during the meal. Andi tries to impress Jonah by giving him a bracelet she made, a gesture which upsets Amber as she sees the two together. Later, when Cyrus and Buffy keep harping about the secret baby, Andi reveals to them that she is the secret baby while also telling them that Amber is wearing the bracelet she gave to Jonah. Both Andi and Amber stare at each other for several minutes, diverting the attention away from the secret baby talk. Cyrus and Buffy eventually get back to Andi 's revelation and have some questions about it.
Guest stars: Stoney Westmoreland as Ham, Emily Skinner as Amber, Anson Bagley as Gus
Since the revelation that Bex is Andi 's mother, Celia still does not want Andi to call her by different grandmother names. After seeing Mrs. Devlin is the librarian at Andi 's school, and recalling that has not changed since she went there, Bex encourages Andi into watching scary movies, which Celia has kept Andi from experiencing. That evening, Andi watches a movie called Shhh!, with Bex there in case she gets too scared, though Bex ends up falling asleep. The movie indeed scares Andi so much, that the next day, she falls asleep in class and receives detention, which prevents her from attending her first Space Otters frisbee match with Jonah. Andi finds out detention is held in the library with Mrs. Devlin, whose "shhh '' to quiet her winds up re-triggering her frightened state from the movie. Meanwhile, Buffy joins the track and field relay team and her obsession with winning becomes costly. Later, as Bex goes through a box of things from her youth, and Andi learns more about her, Andi also stumbles across a picture of someone from Bex 's past whom she believes to be her father.
After Andi questions Bex about the identify of the man in the photo she found, Bex is hesitant and continues to avoid discussion about Andi 's father. Cyrus reveals the truth about Bex being Andi 's mother to his mother, who later spreads the word across town. Andi receives supportive comments from Jonah and a lot of students at her school, while Celia has an even harder time coping with this fact after her neighbor calls her "grandma '', which leads her and Ham to take time away from home. In their absence, Bex persuades Andi to have her first party at the house. The party is attended by Andi 's schoolmates, Jonah, and even Amber. It turns bad when Amber wants to know who Andi 's real father is and asks Andi to reveal him to the guests, causing Andi to retreat to the Andi Shack. As Bex starts to talk to Andi, Cyrus warns them that Celia and Ham have returned, and the partygoers are told to leave. During the confrontation, Celia is angered at what happened and walks off without saying anything. Ham sends Andi to bed while he helps Bex clean up. As Andi heads to her bedroom, Ham comments to Bex that they came home upon the Neighborhood Watch contacting them about party music that normally does not come from their home. When Bex tells him that Andi is persistent with questions about her father, Ham tells Bex that the man who fathered Andi knows she exists because he told him.
Bex is shocked that Ham informed Andi 's father about Andi, but Ham made it clear that he needed to know and Andi needs to know about him. When Andi later questions Ham about her father, however, she gets no information. Although Ham has given Bex the email address of Andi 's father, all that comes out of any communication is "hey ''.
Meanwhile, Jonah sets up Cyrus on a date with a girl named Iris, as part of a double date with Jonah and Amber. However, it goes sour when Cyrus gets sick on a carnival ride.
Buffy gets into trouble at school over her curly hair and is told by the vice-principal to change it. This leads to her not hanging out with Andi, who starts asking questions after she sees Buffy and Bex talking at the Fringe. It boils over when Andi sees the two in the bathroom at home, but she finds out none of what is going on is about her. Buffy reveals to Andi that she messed up her hair while using a flatiron to straighten it and she went to Bex to have her hair fixed, since Buffy 's mother is overseas.
Andi later gives Bex a lesson on how to properly throw a frisbee. After Bex lets one fly, Andi goes to retrieve it and then sees Amber with a guy, but it is not Jonah.
Guest stars: Stoney Westmoreland as Ham, Emily Skinner as Amber, Molly Jackson as Iris
Andi is faced with telling Jonah about seeing Amber with another guy, and after she does, Jonah tells her he will be okay. When she later receives texts to see him at his school locker, Andi rushes to meet him, but also confronts Amber, who actually sent out the texts from Jonah 's phone and makes her to be a liar. Hurt by Amber 's treatment, Andi questions whether she should be talking to Jonah, even though he feels bad about what happened. She is so hurt, that she wants to stay home from school and gets help from Cyrus and Buffy to make her sick.
Meanwhile, Celia sees Bex is becoming more responsible around the house and later notices her working at the Fringe. Celia also notices Brittany, whom Bex babysat years ago, is Bex 's boss.
While running track, Buffy meets a familiar face from Andi 's party, Marty, who informs her that she is the fastest runner at school, for a girl. She finds herself in competition with Marty, who has the school 's overall fastest time.
As Andi, Bex and Celia argue over Andi 's going to school, they hear the doorbell. Bex answers to find a man at the door; it is Andi 's father, Bowie. Bex introduces the two, informing them of their relationship, and they look at each other in surprise.
Bowie is excited to know his daughter, Andi, by spending the day with her, but Celia reminds them it is a school day. Bowie manages to get Andi excused from school, right after she learns from Cyrus and Buffy that Jonah and Amber have broken up, and Jonah approaches her with news she hopes is good. When Cyrus and Buffy later realize Andi is not around, they text her to ask where she is and what Jonah told her, but Andi is wondering as much about Jonah and asks her friends to find out. They end up meddling instead, with Cyrus convincing Jonah to follow his heart, despite his insecurities from the break - up, hoping it will lead him to Andi. Meanwhile, Bowie makes the most of his day with Andi, but when she worries about Jonah, Bowie drives her back to school. After she discovers Jonah and Amber have reconciled, she asks Cyrus and Buffy how this could happen, but the two keep silent about their involvement. Andi also tells them she spent the day with her father, while feeling guilty about cutting their day short, realizing he had only the one day, since he is a traveling musician. After Andi talks with Bex about Bowie and learns more about their relationship, the two discover Bowie in Andi 's shack.
Bowie decides to delay joining his 40 - city tour with the Renaissance Boys to be with Andi and Bex, but Celia allows him to stay at the Mack house for only two days. During his extended stay, Bowie meets Andi 's friends at school and her teammates on the Space Otters. He records a video with them in it and asks Andi about the boy she keeps talking about, but she feels uncomfortable about her father being around her all the time. On the other hand, Celia is having a change of heart about Bowie after he cooks one of her mother 's recipes. Bex and Bowie later have a serious talk at the place the two were last together before their split, with Bowie wanting to be in Andi and Bex 's lives more; Bex assures him that he is already a part of their lives. Meanwhile, Cyrus gets offended over a text from Jonah which called him "girly ''. Buffy works on making Cyrus more like a man, but when Cyrus later asks Jonah about the text, Jonah tells him that auto - correct messed up the text and he really meant to send "gnarly ''.
Bowie starts to realize he has overstayed his welcome after Andi catches him in her bedroom on her computer and wants him not to invade her privacy. When Bex looks at Andi 's computer, she sees the video that Bowie made and gets emotional. That prompts Andi to take a look as well and to talk with Bowie afterward, only to find him gone.
Andi misses Bowie, and Bex helps to cheer her up. The two buy a variety of vintage clothes, which Celia disapproves and causes her to start questioning Bex 's being back home. After enjoying quality time with Bex, Andi begins to wonder why her mother left home at the time of her birth, and while Bex does not reveal any details to Andi, things come out at home when Celia suggests that Bex moves out.
Meanwhile, Andi is concerned after Jonah passes her in the hallway at school without saying anything. She talks to him to find things are still okay between them. She also offers to help him come up with something for Amber 's birthday, including how to express his emotions on her birthday card, but Andi is taken aback when Jonah thinks of her as a "pal '' instead of something more.
Buffy 's competitive nature hits a new low when she discovers one of her track shoes is missing and assumes Marty stole it. She retaliates by taking Marty 's shoes and inflicting water damage on them. As for the missing shoe, Cyrus reveals it was in his mother 's car, coming out of Buffy 's bag during one of her rides home with him.
The episode concludes with Andi and Bex moving into a new apartment.
Andi and Bex struggle with adjusting to their new home, and problems with the electricity and appliances are making matters worse. Andi has been removed from the home she has known for 13 years, and it is taking a toll, from issues about her laundry and the warm meals to her ability to work on her art. With her crafting supplies in the Andi Shack, she and Bex head back to the Mack house to retrieve them. Celia and Ham notice the two and are willing to welcome them back into their home, but Bex stands by her decision to move out, though she does apologize to Celia for taking Andi without giving her any notice. Ultimately, as Andi 's mother, Bex begins to realize what is best for Andi and allows her to go back to Celia and Ham. After Celia returns Andi to be in her new home with Bex, Andi starts to embrace Bex as her mother.
Meanwhile, Cyrus wonders where he stands with Iris, thinking their relationship is over. Intending to spend the day at a sporting event with her, Jonah and Amber, he winds up going with just Jonah after Buffy declines to be his date and the other girls think he has moved on.
A new principal, Dr. Metcalf, takes over at Andi 's school. He meets Andi, Cyrus and Buffy, and tells Andi her leggings violate the school 's dress code. Unaware at first about this dress code, the three eventually object to it when they see all the clothing prohibited. With Bex 's help, they stage a protest at the school, with the participating students wearing prison outfits. As this is also happening on picture day, Cyrus gets concerned over how he will look, but Buffy convinces him to go with what they are wearing. Jonah reminds Andi about the team picture for the Space Otters, but when she shows up, he does not see her in the team 's uniform and tells her to change into it. With Jonah so focused on the picture, Andi quickly realizes his indifference to her standing up to the dress code -- a fight she wins after negotiating with Dr. Metcalf about making the policy more reasonable. Andi and her friends later find out the school will redo picture day in light of the protest.
Andi and Jonah have a more serious talk about what has happened, leading her to quit the Space Otters. She stands up to Jonah, wanting him to stop asking her to do things for him. When Jonah asks if they are still friends, Andi responds, "Were we ever? ''
Guest star: Oliver Vaquer as Dr. Metcalf
Jonah is feeling down following Andi 's quitting the Space Otters and all but ignoring him after their talk. Even Amber can not cheer him up, with her friend Kip belittling the sport he loves. Cyrus encourages Jonah to talk to Andi, but when it appears Jonah will have a chance to do so in the school hallway, he notices Andi 's excitement about Bowie 's return instead. Jonah becomes so depressed that he cancels the Space Otters practice. This also leads to his unequivocal break - up with Amber.
Meanwhile, Buffy gives Marty a new pair of shoes, her way of apologizing for what she did to his old ones, though Marty has wanted her to actually say she is sorry. They set a time to race each other to resolve who is faster, but when they worry about how they will react to the result, they call the race off.
Andi discovers the reason Bowie came back is tied to Bex, whom he noticed in pictures across several stops on his tour with the Renaissance Boys. Andi arranges for her parents to have a romantic evening, and she also hears a song Bowie wrote for Bex. The next morning, Andi asks Bex how the evening went and hopes the two will get back together, but Bex tells Andi it is unlikely because Bowie 's unpredictability makes him inclined not to stay in one place. When Andi talks to Bowie, she realizes his feelings for Bex have changed little over the years, but Bowie agrees with what Bex told Andi. Still, there is hope when Andi sees Bowie unexpectedly take a ring out of one of the blazers he is trying on at a vintage store.
Guest stars: Emily Skinner as Amber, Trent Garrett as Bowie, Garren Stitt as Marty, CJ Strong as Kip
Andi talks to Bowie about proposing to Bex, while Cyrus introduces his girlfriend Iris to Andi and Buffy, and Jonah invites Andi, Cyrus and Buffy to a pizza party for the Space Otters. At first, Andi does not want to go to the party, but later changes her mind after talking with Bex. Following the party, Jonah reveals to Andi that he broke up with Amber for good, though Andi had some idea prior to the party when he returned the bracelet she made for him. Andi gives Jonah back the bracelet and gets serious about being with him.
While Cyrus is happy about seeing Andi and Jonah together again, as well as having Iris as his girlfriend, he reveals to Buffy that he is also unhappy. He confides in her that he is jealous because of his feelings for Jonah.
Bowie comes over to Andi and Bex 's apartment with a pizza and, with Andi 's help, finally asks Bex to marry him. Bex 's response is simply "um... '', but Andi is hopeful she will eventually say yes. Later, while at work, Bex receives another pizza from Bowie, who is also hopeful she will accept his proposal.
As Andi and her friends discover Amber as a waitress at The Spoon, Andi tells Buffy about how that is making her uncomfortable but also how nervous she is around Jonah. Buffy thinks Andi is not ready for a serious relationship yet. While the two are talking, Jonah is with Amber outside, which further upsets Andi. Although Jonah says nothing is going on, Buffy warns him not to hurt Andi, causing him to leave the diner. Andi later talks to Jonah and wants their relationship to grow without Amber standing in the way.
After having some time to think about Bowie 's proposal, Bex reveals to Andi that she is not going to marry him.
Andi is disappointed about Bex saying no to Bowie 's marriage proposal and wants Bex to tell Bowie as soon as possible, as he is unaware. With the approach of the Chinese New Year, and Andi and Bex 's aunt Mei and cousin Ronald coming over to Celia 's house, the news will have to wait. Andi invites Jonah to the new year event, but his not understanding the customs puts Celia on edge, as well as the idea of Andi even having a boyfriend. Meanwhile, Celia wants to show Mei that she can successfully host a Chinese New Year feast and is quite appreciative of Bowie 's contributions for the occasion. After Bowie announces that he may have some good news to share, Celia uses the opportunity to make the event special, until Andi hints to Bowie what she already knows and announces to the rest that Bex and Bowie are not getting married. Bowie is saddened by this and leaves.
With track season over, Buffy decides to sign up to play basketball, though the school 's team consists only of men. After some practice with Marty, Buffy lets him know how confident she is of making the team, despite her actually being nervous. She feels she needs to outperform the men to secure a spot.
Andi continues to be upset that Bex let Bowie go, but when finding something to eat, she rediscovers that picture which Bex tore up, making her even more upset. She wants to know whether the person in that picture is the reason behind Bex 's decision not to marry Bowie.
Andi grows suspicious when Amber starts having a normal conversation with her. Jonah tells Andi that Amber just wants to be friends, but Andi thinks Amber has not gotten over Jonah. Andi, Cyrus and Buffy try another hangout place to avoid Amber at The Spoon.
Meanwhile, Buffy and Marty go through tryouts to make the basketball team, but Buffy gets annoyed by TJ, the team 's captain. Despite feeling she will not make the team because of him, Buffy shares the good news with Andi and Cyrus when she does. Marty fails to make the team but is happy for Buffy.
Cyrus and Iris spend an evening together at her house and watch a movie. Things appear to go all right until he kisses her, after which he feels embarrassed by the way it happened and decides to leave.
Andi finds out more about the man in the picture Bex tore up, an ex-boyfriend named Gabriel. Bex has trouble letting him go and tells Andi he is the reason she is insecure about marrying anyone, including Bowie. Andi helps Bex find closure with Gabriel by placing his picture with those of her other ex-boyfriends in her box of memories, which leads to them taking out Bowie 's picture.
Guest stars: Emily Skinner as Amber, Garren Stitt as Marty, Molly Jackson as Iris, Luke Mullen as TJ
Celia informs Andi and Bex about a closet clean - out at the Mack house, which happens to be on the anniversary of a day Bex wishes had never happened -- the day she left 13 years earlier. Both Bex and Celia tell their versions of the story behind that day to Andi, which are completely different. Bex eventually reveals that her leaving was tied to Andi 's first word as a baby, "mama '', which was directed at Celia. Upon hearing that, Andi feels regret that she caused Bex to leave. Bex tells Andi that her decision was for the best as she wanted her to be happy, and Celia is thankful for the sacrifice Bex made to ensure Andi would be raised in a stable environment.
Meanwhile, Jonah teaches Cyrus how to skateboard, but when Cyrus is unable to control the skateboard 's movement, he ends up getting hurt and going to the hospital. Buffy becomes a friend to her neighbor Millie through a community service project she is doing for school.
Later, Celia reveals to Bex that the clean - out was about more than their opportunity to reconcile about that day 13 years ago. She plans to sell the house and leaves it to Bex to tell Andi, news which will devastate her particularly because of AndiShack. Bex delays saying anything about it to Andi.
After overhearing part of a phone conversation Amber is having with her father, Andi decides to spend time with her by inviting her to a sleepover. Having warned Andi before about Amber by comparing her to a snake in one story, Buffy relays another story to Andi about a frog and a scorpion, and compares Amber to the scorpion -- leading to the term "snorpion ''. At the sleepover, Amber tells Andi that her father lost his job, which is why she is working at The Spoon. With Andi enjoying Amber 's company, the two decide to sneak out to an amusement park, where Amber convinces Andi to ride the ferris wheel. When Amber sees a call from Jonah on Andi 's phone, she becomes furious and leaves Andi stranded. This lands Andi in police custody, and Bex and Bowie are left to discipline her after they get home, though Andi ends up deciding her punishment when they can not come up with one. Meanwhile, Buffy is upset over her teammates not giving her the ball during a basketball game. When she confronts TJ about what she needs to do to change this, she realizes he simply does not want her on the team at all. Also, Bex is working toward her cosmetology certification.
Guest stars: Emily Skinner as Amber, Trent Garrett as Bowie, Luke Mullen as TJ
Andi is nervous about holding hands with Jonah at school, but just as she is about to, the principal, Dr. Metcalf, splits the students into two separate groups, with Andi and Cyrus in group A, and Buffy and Jonah in group B. When Andi figures out that her group has luxuries while Jonah 's group struggles over what they are dealt, she decides to switch groups and encourages the rest in her group to do the same, despite Dr. Metcalf 's order for the two groups to stay separate. After chaos ensues in the cafeteria over cookies, Dr. Metcalf ends his exercise, getting across to the students that what group they belong in does not give them any advantage or disadvantage. He also asks them how he decided what group they went to, and while Andi contends it was random, she realizes his selections were alphabetically based. The school day ends with Andi and Jonah both holding hands, though Jonah admits having sweaty palms like Andi. When Andi returns home, Bex finally tells her that Celia and Ham are selling the house. The news devastates Andi, prompting her to return to AndiShack.
To help Andi take her mind off of Celia and Ham 's plans to sell the Mack house, Jonah asks her on a date by inviting her to a virtual reality arcade. Buffy is also invited, but she brings Marty with her so she does not feel like a third wheel, making the occasion a double date, even though the two are not really dating. During his virtual reality adventure, Jonah slips and gets hurt. When Jonah refuses Andi 's aid, she worries that he is upset with her after she briefly laughed at his mishap. Andi continues to worry and feels Jonah is avoiding her when she later gets no response to her texts. Despite Jonah denying that he is upset with her after she asked him twice, Andi turns to Bex, who tells her to ask a third time. Andi becomes frustrated waiting for Jonah at school, but when she finally has the chance, she trips and falls as she approaches him to ask the question again. Jonah briefly laughs but assures Andi that he is not upset with her. Meanwhile, Buffy feels comfortable being just friends with Marty but finds out he wants more in their relationship. Also, Cyrus asks Bex for her opinion about a screenplay he has written, but Bex 's hesitation to tell him the truth about the script has him setting his sights on making the movie.
Guest stars: Garren Stitt as Marty, Chelsea T. Zhang as Brittany
Andi decorates her shack with numerous paper cranes, hoping Celia and Ham will notice and change their mind about selling the house. While talking with Celia, Andi springs a deal of coming over to the house more often, news which delights Celia to the point of allowing Andi to choose her breakfast or dance to loud music. Celia even invites Andi to a tape tunnel exhibit which has her missing school and worrying Bex. When Ham finds out the true reason Andi has been spending more time at the house, he wonders why Celia did not fill him in, but when Bex comes up with a better idea to save Andi Shack, and Celia and Ham explain their plans of seeing the world, Andi begins to accept that selling the house may not be a bad idea. It turns out Celia and Ham need more time to decide where they will live, so they postpone selling the house.
Meanwhile, Buffy is asked by her math teacher to tutor a failing student. She bails when she discovers it is TJ, but as he is in jeopardy of being kicked off the basketball team, she will help him if, in return, he starts passing the ball to her during games. Also, Cyrus struggles with getting his chocolate chip muffin at school, but as another concession to Buffy, TJ gives Cyrus tips on claiming it.
After Andi, Bex and Celia have fun at a dance class Celia is taking, the three stop at The Spoon. Just as they are about to order some food, Andi sees Jonah enter the diner with a girl named Natalie.
Andi finds out from Jonah that Natalie heads the ultimate frisbee team for another school in town, but is wary after Jonah says that Natalie is "just a friend ''. Amber warns Andi that while she was dating Jonah, he used the same words to refer to Andi. Buffy and Cyrus spy on both Jonah and Natalie at a gathering with "Furious George '', one of the top ultimate discheads in the world, but can not find anything that would make the two more than just friends. Meanwhile, Andi and Jonah have plans to go on a school trip to a Grease singalong, which Buffy and Cyrus are also attending, but Andi learns Jonah has been asked to take part in a video with Natalie and "Furious George '', though Jonah says he can get out of it. Unsure whether he does, Andi races over to where the video is being shot, only to hear from Natalie that Jonah is going to the singalong, so she races back to catch the bus, which she almost misses.
Bex meets a woman named Miranda, who works at the same plant nursery Bowie does. When Miranda decides she wants to ask Bowie out and wonders how much Bex knows about him, Bex appears supportive, yet uncomfortable.
Guest stars: Emily Skinner as Amber, Trent Garrett as Bowie, Shelby Simmons as Natalie, Chloe Hurst as Miranda
While Andi and Bowie are having breakfast at The Spoon, Andi discovers from Bowie 's driver 's license that it is his birthday. Bowie does not want to make a big deal out of it, but Andi wants to throw him a huge surprise party at Celia and Ham 's place. She has Bex work out the details, while she attends a Renaissance Festival for most of the day with her friends. Bex sees Bowie at work and tries to get him to Celia and Ham 's for a "plant emergency '', but Bowie realizes she is trying to get him to the surprise party. Bex finds out the reason Bowie is not in a celebrating mood, as his father 's birthday was on the same day but he died three years ago. Despite this, Bex encourages Bowie to come to the party for Andi 's sake. He does and has a wonderful time, but he is greatly touched after Andi calls him "dad '' for the first time.
Meanwhile, Buffy shows Jonah her competitive side in arm wrestling, where he also matches quite well, and later at the Renaissance Festival, they square off in a medieval - style tug o ' war, which ends in a draw. Also, Cyrus tries to tell Iris about his true feelings for her, with Iris figuring out he does not like her like a girlfriend; the two are okay being just friends.
While Andi, Bex and Bowie are playing miniature golf, Bowie receives a phone call and Andi wonders who he is talking to. Sensing the body language from both of her parents, Andi is sure Bowie is seeing someone and tries to get information about it. Eventually, she finds out Bowie is dating Miranda and wants to meet her, but Bowie says it is too soon. Andi later has second thoughts about seeing Miranda because it may be too much for her to have possibly another parent - figure. When Andi and Bex go miniature golfing again, by themselves, Andi spots Bowie with Miranda and a little girl, whom she deduces is Miranda 's daughter. Meanwhile, Cyrus is tapped by Dr. Metcalf to make an orientation video for new students of Jefferson Middle School and has Jonah film him, but Cyrus gets nervous in front of the camera. Also, Buffy 's tutoring TJ gets nowhere as she realizes he is having difficulty even with basic math.
Guest stars: Trent Garrett as Bowie, Luke Mullen as TJ, Chloe Hurst as Miranda, Eden Grace Redfield as Morgan
Andi notices Jonah is not wearing the bracelet she gave him because it is falling apart. She offers to fix it, but Jonah tells her "no rush ''. After Celia and Ham sense something is wrong with Andi, Celia has Andi consult the I Ching and discovers her hexagram is one of a serious nature; Andi is left to interpret what that means.
Bex receives her cosmetology certificate and delivers the speech at her graduation. Celia and Ham attend the ceremony, and while Bex is shocked they are there after telling Andi not to invite them, she is pleased when they say they are proud of her.
Cyrus prepares for his bar mitzvah and has Jonah look over his wardrobe of suits. TJ is desperate to get his math homework done ahead of a basketball game, by attempting to cheat when he asks Buffy to do it for him. At the basketball game, TJ continues his stubbornness of not passing the ball to Buffy, but when he finally does, Buffy gets a huge surprise from her mother, who is briefly home from a tour of duty and appears at the game.
After Andi fixes the bracelet, Jonah tells her that it represents the two being "boyfriend '' and "girlfriend '', and he does not want to wear it because he is not into labels. This devastates Andi, and after she reflects on what Jonah has done for her, she feels they were never together in the first place.
Andi continues to be troubled by Jonah when he avoids her during Cyrus ' bar mitzvah and party. Cyrus tells Andi that Jonah has not actually broken up with her, but she feels otherwise. Andi also finds out Cyrus ' secret concerning Jonah, which only Buffy had known.
Later at the party, Andi, Cyrus and Buffy see a fortune teller and discover one thing about each of their futures. Buffy is the most disturbed about what she finds out and hopes it will not come true, about her mother being deployed again. After Buffy confirms her mother is home for a while, she returns to the fortune teller, who reminds her about the whole vision, which suggests she is moving.
Andi wonders about having a real boyfriend, and her fortune indicates she will. Although she is set on talking to Jonah right away, she starts spending time with Walker, an artist at the party who gives her a beautiful caricature he has drawn of her. Jonah becomes jealous, not knowing who this guy is, and when he asks Buffy and Cyrus about him, they have no clue either. After Andi and Jonah finally talk about what is going on, with Andi saying her feelings for him have changed, Jonah suffers a panic attack. After the party, Jonah comes over to Andi 's place and despite his opposition to labels, he asks her if she will be his girlfriend, to which she replies, "um... ''.
Meanwhile, Bowie works on discussing Miranda with both Andi and Bex. Despite his new relationship, he tells Andi, in writing he jotted down on a napkin during the party, that he could live without the "universe '', but not her.
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list of hospitals in dubai with email address | List of hospitals in the United Arab Emirates - wikipedia
This is a list of hospitals in the U.A.E. They are categorized by emirate and whether they are federal government, local government or private hospitals.
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need and importance of gender equality in hindi | Gender equality - wikipedia
Gender equality, also known as sexual equality, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision - making; and the state of valuing different behaviors, aspirations and needs equally, regardless of gender.
"Gender equality, equality between men and women, entails the concept that all human beings, both men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities and make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles and prejudices. Gender equality means that the different behaviour, aspirations and needs of women and men are considered, valued and favoured equally. It does not mean that women and men have to become the same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female. Gender equity means fairness of treatment for women and men, according to their respective needs. This may include equal treatment or treatment that is different but which is considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations and opportunities. ''
Gender equality is the goal, while gender neutrality and gender equity are practices and ways of thinking that help in achieving the goal. Gender parity, which is used to measure gender balance in a given situation, can aid in achieving gender equality but is not the goal in and of itself. Gender equality is more than equal representation, it is strongly tied to women 's rights, and often requires policy changes. As of 2017, the global movement for gender equality has not incorporated the proposition of genders besides women and men, or gender identities outside of the gender binary.
UNICEF says gender equality "means that women and men, and girls and boys, enjoy the same rights, resources, opportunities and protections. It does not require that girls and boys, or women and men, be the same, or that they be treated exactly alike. ''
On a global scale, achieving gender equality also requires eliminating harmful practices against women and girls, including sex trafficking, femicide, wartime sexual violence, and other oppression tactics. UNFPA stated that, "despite many international agreements affirming their human rights, women are still much more likely than men to be poor and illiterate. They have less access to property ownership, credit, training and employment. They are far less likely than men to be politically active and far more likely to be victims of domestic violence. ''
As of 2017, gender equality is the fifth of seventeen sustainable development goals of the United Nations. Gender inequality is measured annually by the United Nations Development Programme 's Human Development Reports.
Christine de Pizan, an early advocate for gender equality, states in her 1405 book The Book of the City of Ladies that the oppression of women is founded on irrational prejudice, pointing out numerous advances in society probably created by women.
The Shakers, an evangelical group, which practiced segregation of the sexes and strict celibacy, were early practitioners of gender equality. They branched off from a Quaker community in the north - west of England before emigrating to America in 1774. In America, the head of the Shakers ' central ministry in 1788, Joseph Meacham, had a revelation that the sexes should be equal. He then brought Lucy Wright into the ministry as his female counterpart, and together they restructured the society to balance the rights of the sexes. Meacham and Wright established leadership teams where each elder, who dealt with the men 's spiritual welfare, was partnered with an eldress, who did the same for women. Each deacon was partnered with a deaconess. Men had oversight of men; women had oversight of women. Women lived with women; men lived with men. In Shaker society, a woman did not have to be controlled or owned by any man. After Meacham 's death in 1796, Wright became the head of the Shaker ministry until her death in 1821.
Shakers maintained the same pattern of gender - balanced leadership for more than 200 years. They also promoted equality by working together with other women 's rights advocates. In 1859, Shaker Elder Frederick Evans stated their beliefs forcefully, writing that Shakers were "the first to disenthrall woman from the condition of vassalage to which all other religious systems (more or less) consign her, and to secure to her those just and equal rights with man that, by her similarity to him in organization and faculties, both God and nature would seem to demand ''. Evans and his counterpart, Eldress Antoinette Doolittle, joined women 's rights advocates on speakers ' platforms throughout the northeastern U.S. in the 1870s. A visitor to the Shakers wrote in 1875:
The Shakers were more than a radical religious sect on the fringes of American society; they put equality of the sexes into practice. They demonstrated that equality was achievable and how to achieve it.
In wider society, the movement towards gender equality began with the suffrage movement in Western cultures in the late - 19th century, which sought to allow women to vote and hold elected office. This period also witnessed significant changes to women 's property rights, particularly in relation to their marital status. (See for example, Married Women 's Property Act 1882.)
Since World War II, the women 's liberation movement and feminism have created a general movement towards recognition of women 's rights. The United Nations and other international agencies have adopted several conventions which promote gender equality. These conventions have not been uniformly adopted by all countries, and include:
Such legislation and affirmative action policies have been critical to bringing changes in societal attitudes. A 2015 Pew Research Center survey of citizens in 38 countries found that majorities in 37 of those 38 countries said that gender equality is at least "somewhat important, '' and a global median of 65 % believe it is "very important '' that women have the same rights as men. Most occupations are now equally available to men and women, in many countries.
Similarly, men are increasingly working in occupations which in previous generations had been considered women 's work, such as nursing, cleaning and child care. In domestic situations, the role of Parenting or child rearing is more commonly shared or not as widely considered to be an exclusively female role, so that women may be free to pursue a career after childbirth. For further information, see Shared earning / shared parenting marriage.
Another manifestation of the change in social attitudes is the non-automatic taking by a woman of her husband 's surname on marriage.
A highly contentious issue relating to gender equality is the role of women in religiously orientated societies. Some Christians or Muslims believe in Complementarianism, a view that holds that men and women have different but complementing roles. This view may be in opposition to the views and goals of gender equality.
In addition, there are also non-Western countries of low religiosity where the contention surrounding gender equality remains. In China, a cultural preference for a male child has resulted in a shortfall of women in the population. The feminist movement in Japan has made many strides which resulted in Rethe Gender Equality Bureau, but Japan still remains low in gender equality compared to other industrialized nations.
The notion of gender equality, and of its degree of achievement in a certain country, is very complex because there are countries that have a history of a high level of gender equality in certain areas of life but not in other areas. Indeed, there is a need for caution when categorizing countries by the level of gender equality that they have achieved. According to Mala Htun and Laurel Weldon "gender policy is not one issue but many '' and:
Not all beliefs relating to gender equality have been popularly adopted. For example, topfreedom, the right to be bare breasted in public, frequently applies only to males and has remained a marginal issue. Breastfeeding in public is now more commonly tolerated, especially in semi-private places such as restaurants.
It is the vision that men and women should be treated equally in social, economic and all other aspects of society, and to not be discriminated against on the basis of their gender. Gender equality is one of the objectives of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. World bodies have defined gender equality in terms of human rights, especially women 's rights, and economic development.
There has been criticism from some feminists towards the political discourse and policies employed in order to achieve the above items of "progress '' in gender equality, with critics arguing that these gender equality strategies are superficial, in that they do not seek to challenge social structures of male domination, and only aim at improving the situation of women within the societal framework of subordination of women to men, and that official public policies (such as sate policies or international bodies policies) are questionable, as they are applied in a patriarchal context, and are directly or indirectly controlled by agents of a system which is for the most part male. One of the criticisms of the gender equality policies, in particular, those of the European Union, is that they disproportionately focus on policies integrating women in public life, but do not seek to genuinely address the deep private sphere oppression.
A further criticism is that a focus on the situation of women in non-Western countries, while often ignoring the issues that exist in the West, is a form of imperialism and of reinforcing Western moral superiority; and a way of "othering '' of domestic violence, by presenting it as something specific to outsiders - the "violent others '' - and not to the allegedly progressive Western cultures. These critics point out that women in Western countries often face similar problems, such as domestic violence and rape, as in other parts of the world. They also cite the fact that women faced de jure legal discrimination until just a few decades ago; for instance, in some Western countries such as Switzerland, Greece, Spain, and France, women obtained equal rights in family law in the 1980s. Another criticism is that there is a selective public discourse with regard to different types of oppression of women, with some forms of violence such as honor killings (most common in certain geographic regions such as parts of Asia and North Africa) being frequently the object of public debate, while other forms of violence, such as the lenient punishment for crimes of passion across Latin America, do not receive the same attention in the West. It is also argued that the criticism of particular laws of many developing countries ignores the influence of colonialism on those legal systems. There has been controversy surrounding the concepts of Westernization and Europeanisation, due to their reminder of past colonialism, and also due to the fact that some Western countries, such as Switzerland, have been themselves been very slow to give women legal rights. There have also been objections to the way Western media presents women from various cultures creating stereotypes, such as that of ' submissive ' Asian or Eastern European women, a stereotype closely connected to the mail order brides industry. Such stereotypes are often blatantly untrue: for instance women in many Eastern European countries occupy a high professional status. Feminists in many developing countries have been strongly opposed to the idea that women in those countries need to be ' saved ' by the West. There are questions on how exactly should gender equality be measured, and whether the West is indeed "best '' at it: a study in 2010 found that among the top 20 countries on female graduates in the science fields at university level most countries were countries that were considered internationally to score very low on the position of women 's rights, with the top 3 being Iran, Saudi Arabia and Oman, and only 5 European countries made it to that top: Romania, Bulgaria, Italy, Georgia and Greece.
There has been criticism that international law, international courts, and universal gender neutral concepts of human rights are at best silent on many of the issues important to women and at worst male centered; considering the male person to be the default. Excessive gender neutrality can worsen the situation of women, because the law assumes women are in the same position as men, ignoring the biological fact that in the process of reproduction and pregnancy there is no ' equality ', and that apart from physical differences there are socially constructed limitations which assign a socially and culturally inferior position to women - a situation which requires a specific approach to women 's rights, not merely a gender neutral one. In a 1975 interview, Simone de Beauvoir talked about the negative reactions towards women 's rights from the left that was supposed to be progressive and support social change, and also expressed skepticism about mainstream international organizations.
In 2010, the European Union opened the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) in Vilnius, Lithuania to promote gender equality and to fight sex discrimination.
Gender equality is part of the national curriculum in Great Britain and many other European countries. Personal, Social and Health Education, religious studies and Language acquisition curricula tend to address gender equality issues as a very serious topic for discussion and analysis of its effect in society.
A large and growing body of research has shown how gender inequality undermines health and development. To overcome gender inequality the United Nations Population Fund states that, "Women 's empowerment and gender equality requires strategic interventions at all levels of programming and policy - making. These levels include reproductive health, economic empowerment, educational empowerment and political empowerment. ''
UNFPA says that "research has also demonstrated how working with men and boys as well as women and girls to promote gender equality contributes to achieving health and development outcomes. ''
Social constructs of gender (that is, cultural ideals of socially acceptable masculinity and femininity) often have a negative effect on health. The World Health Organization cites the example of women not being allowed to travel alone outside the home (to go to the hospital), and women being prevented by cultural norms to ask their husbands to use a condom, in cultures which simultaneously encourage male promiscuity, as social norms that harm women 's health. Teenage boys suffering accidents due to social expectations of impressing their peers through risk taking, and men dying at much higher rate from lung cancer due to smoking, in cultures which link smoking to masculinity, are cited by the WHO as examples of gender norms negatively affecting men 's health. The World Health Organization has also stated that there is a strong connection between gender socialization and transmission and lack of adequate management of HIV / AIDS.
Violence against women is a technical term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women. This type of violence is gender - based, meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly because they are women, or as a result of patriarchal gender constructs. Violence and mistreatment of women in marriage has come to international attention during the past decades. This includes both violence committed inside marriage (domestic violence) as well as violence related to marriage customs and traditions (such as dowry, bride price, forced marriage and child marriage).
According to some theories, violence against women is often caused by the acceptance of violence by various cultural groups as a means of conflict resolution within intimate relationships. Studies on Intimate partner violence victimization among ethnic minorities in the United Studies have consistently revealed that immigrants are a high - risk group for intimate violence.
In countries where gang murders, armed kidnappings, civil unrest, and other similar acts are rare, the vast majority of murdered women are killed by partners / ex-partners. By contrast, in countries with a high level of organized criminal activity and gang violence, murders of women are more likely to occur in a public sphere, often in a general climate of indifference and impunity. In addition, many countries do not have adequate comprehensive data collection on such murders, aggravating the problem.
In some parts of the world, various forms of violence against women are tolerated and accepted as parts of everyday life.
In most countries, it is only in more recent decades that domestic violence against women has received significant legal attention. The Istanbul Convention acknowledges the long tradition of European countries of ignoring this form of violence.
In some cultures, acts of violence against women are seen as crimes against the male ' owners ' of the woman, such as husband, father or male relatives, rather the woman herself. This leads to practices where men inflict violence upon women in order to get revenge on male members of the women 's family. Such practices include payback rape, a form of rape specific to certain cultures, particularly the Pacific Islands, which consists of the rape of a female, usually by a group of several males, as revenge for acts committed by members of her family, such as her father or brothers, with the rape being meant to humiliate the father or brothers, as punishment for their prior behavior towards the perpetrators.
Richard A. Posner writes that "Traditionally, rape was the offense of depriving a father or husband of a valuable asset -- his wife 's chastity or his daughter 's virginity ''. Historically, rape was seen in many cultures (and is still seen today in some societies) as a crime against the honor of the family, rather than against the self - determination of the woman. As a result, victims of rape may face violence, in extreme cases even honor killings, at the hands of their family members. Catharine MacKinnon argues that in male dominated societies, sexual intercourse is imposed on women in a coercive and unequal way, creating a continuum of victimization, where women have few positive sexual experiences. Socialization within rigid gender constructs often creates an environment where sexual violence is common. One of the challenges of dealing with sexual violence is that in many societies women are perceived as being readily available for sex, and men are seen as entitled to their bodies, until and unless women object.
The importance of women having the right and possibility to have control over their body, reproduction decisions, and sexuality, and the need for gender equality in order to achieve these goals are recognized as crucial by the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing and the UN International Conference on Population and Development Program of Action. The World Health Organization (WHO) has stated that promotion of gender equality is crucial in the fight against HIV / AIDS.
Maternal mortality is a major problem in many parts of the world. UNFPA states that countries have an obligation to protect women 's right to health, but many countries do not do that. Maternal mortality is considered today not just an issue of development but also an issue of human rights.
The right to reproductive and sexual autonomy is denied to women in many parts of the world, through practices such as forced sterilization, forced / coerced sexual partnering (e.g. forced marriage, child marriage), criminalization of consensual sexual acts (such as sex outside marriage), lack of criminalization of marital rape, violence in regard to the choice of partner (honor killings as punishment for ' inappropriate ' relations). The sexual health of women is often poor in societies where a woman 's right to control her sexuality is not recognized.
Adolescent girls have the highest risk of sexual coercion, sexual ill health, and negative reproductive outcomes. The risks they face are higher than those of boys and men; this increased risk is partly due to gender inequity (different socialization of boys and girls, gender based violence, child marriage) and partly due to biological factors.
Family planning is the practice of freely deciding the number of children one has and the intervals between their births, particularly by means of contraception or voluntary sterilization. Abortion is the induced termination of pregnancy. Abortion laws vary significantly by country. The availability of contraception, sterilization and abortion is dependent on laws, as well as social, cultural and religious norms. Some countries have liberal laws regarding these issues, but in practice it is very difficult to access such services due to doctors, pharmacists and other social and medical workers being conscientious objectors. Family planning is particularly important from a women 's rights perspective, as having very many pregnancies, especially in areas where malnutrition is present, can seriously endanger women 's health. UNFA writes that "Family planning is central to gender equality and women 's empowerment, and it is a key factor in reducing poverty ''.
Family planning is often opposed by governments who have strong natalist policies. During the 20th century, such examples have included the aggressive natalist policies from communist Romania and communist Albania. State mandated forced marriage was also practiced by some authoritarian governments as a way to meet population targets: the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia systematically forced people into marriages, in order to increase the population and continue the revolution. By contrast, the one child policy of China (1979 - 2015) included punishments for families with more than one child and forced abortions. Some governments have sought to prevent certain ethnic or social groups from reproduction. Such policies were carried out against ethnic minorities in Europe and North America in the 20th century, and more recently in Latin America against the Indigenous population in the 1990s; in Peru, President Alberto Fujimori (in office from 1990 to 2000) has been accused of genocide and crimes against humanity as a result of a sterilization program put in place by his administration targeting indigenous people (mainly the Quechuas and the Aymaras).
Human rights organizations have expressed concern about the legal impunity of perpetrators of crimes against women, with such crimes being often ignored by authorities. This is especially the case with murders of women in Latin America. In particular, there is impunity in regard to domestic violence.
Women are often, in law or in practice, unable to access legal institutions. UN Women has said that: "Too often, justice institutions, including the police and the courts, deny women justice ''. Often, women are denied legal recourse because the state institutions themselves are structured and operate in ways incompatible with genuine justice for women who experience violence.
"Harmful traditional practices '' refer to forms of violence which are committed in certain communities often enough to become cultural practice, and accepted for that reason. Young women are the main victims of such acts, although men can be affected. They occur in an environment where women and girls have unequal rights and opportunities. These practices include, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights:
Son preference refers to a cultural preference for sons over daughters, and manifests itself through practices such as sex selective abortion; female infanticide; or abandonment, neglect or abuse of girl - children.
Abuses regarding nutrition are taboos in regard to certain foods, which result in poor nutrition of women, and may endanger their health, especially if pregnant.
The caste system in India which leads to untouchability (the practice of ostracizing a group by segregating them from the mainstream society) often interacts with gender discrimination, leading to a double discrimination faced by Dalit women. In a 2014 survey, 27 % of Indians admitted to practicing untouchability.
Traditional customs regarding birth sometimes endanger the mothers. Births in parts of Africa are often attended by traditional birth attendants (TBAs), who sometimes perform rituals that are dangerous to the health of the mother. In many societies, a difficult labour is believed to be a divine punishment for marital infidelity, and such women face abuse and are pressured to "confess '' to the infidelity.
Tribal traditions can be harmful to males; for instance, the Satere - Mawe tribe use bullet ants as an initiation rite. Men must wear gloves with hundreds of bullet ants woven in for ten minutes: the ants ' stings cause severe pain and paralysis. This experience must be completed twenty times for boys to be considered "warriors ''.
Other harmful traditional practices include marriage by abduction, ritualized sexual slavery (Devadasi, Trokosi), breast ironing and widow inheritance.
UNFPA and UNICEF regard the practice of female genital mutilation as "a manifestation of deeply entrenched gender inequality. It persists for many reasons. In some societies, for example, it is considered a rite of passage. In others, it is seen as a prerequisite for marriage. In some communities -- whether Christian, Jewish, Muslim -- the practice may even be attributed to religious beliefs. ''
An estimated 125 million women and girls living today have undergone FGM in the 29 countries where data exist. Of these, about half live in Egypt and Ethiopia. It is most commonly carried out on girls between infancy and 15 years old.
Early marriage, child marriage or forced marriage is prevalent in parts of Asia and Africa. The majority of victims seeking advice are female and aged between 18 and 23. Such marriages can have harmful effects on a girl 's education and development, and may expose girls to social isolation or abuse.
The 2013 UN Resolution on Child, Early and Forced Marriage calls for an end to the practice, and states that "Recognizing that child, early and forced marriage is a harmful practice that violates abuses, or impairs human rights and is linked to and perpetuates other harmful practices and human rights violations, that these violations have a disproportionately negative impact on women and girls (...) ''. Despite a near - universal commitment by governments to end child marriage, "one in three girls in developing countries (excluding China) will probably be married before they are 18. '' UNFPA states that, "over 67 million women 20 - 24 year old in 2010 had been married as girls. Half were in Asia, one - fifth in Africa. In the next decade 14.2 million girls under 18 will be married every year; this translates into 39,000 girls married each day. This will rise to an average of 15.1 million girls a year, starting in 2021 until 2030, if present trends continue. ''
Bride price (also called bridewealth or bride token) is money, property, or other form of wealth paid by a groom or his family to the parents of the bride. This custom often leads to women having reduced ability to control their fertility. For instance, in northern Ghana, the payment of bride price signifies a woman 's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control face threats, violence and reprisals. The custom of bride price has been criticized as contributing to the mistreatment of women in marriage, and preventing them from leaving abusive marriages. UN Women recommended its abolition, and stated that: "Legislation should (...) State that divorce shall not be contingent upon the return of bride price but such provisions shall not be interpreted to limit women 's right to divorce; State that a perpetrator of domestic violence, including marital rape, can not use the fact that he paid bride price as a defence to a domestic violence charge. ''
The custom of bride price can also curtail the free movement of women: if a wife wants to leave her husband, he may demand back the bride price that he had paid to the woman 's family; and the woman 's family often can not or does not want to pay it back, making it difficult for women to move out of violent husbands ' homes.
Promoting gender equality is seen as an encouragement to greater economic prosperity. Female economic activity is a common measure of gender equality in an economy.
Gender discrimination often results in women obtaining low - wage jobs and being disproportionately affected by poverty, discrimination and exploitation. A growing body of research documents what works to economically empower women, from providing access to formal financial services to training on agricultural and business management practices, though more research is needed across a variety of contexts to confirm the effectiveness of these interventions.
Gender biases also exist in product and service provision. The term "Women 's Tax '', also known as "Pink Tax '', refers to gendered pricing in which products or services marketed to women are more expensive than similar products marketed to men. Gender - based price discrimination involves companies selling almost identical units of the same product or service at comparatively different prices, as determined by the target market. Studies have found that women pay about $1,400 a year more than men due to gendered discriminatory pricing. Although the "pink tax '' of different goods and services is not uniform, overall women pay more for commodities that result in visual evidence of feminine body image.
Since the 1950s, social scientists as well as feminists have increasingly criticized gendered arrangements of work and care and the male breadwinner role. Policies are increasingly targeting men as fathers as a tool of changing gender relations. Shared earning / shared parenting marriage, that is, a relationship where the partners collaborate at sharing their responsibilities inside and outside of the home, is often encouraged in Western countries.
Western countries with a strong emphasis on women fulfilling the role of homemakers, rather than a professional role, include parts of German speaking Europe - parts of Germany, Austria and Switzerland; as well as the Netherlands and Ireland.
A key issue towards insuring gender equality in the workplace is the respecting of maternity rights and reproductive rights of women. Different countries have different rules regarding maternity leave, paternity leave and parental leave. Another important issue is ensuring that employed women are not de jure or de facto prevented from having a child. In some countries, employers ask women to sign formal or informal documents stipulating that they will not get pregnant or face legal punishment. Women often face severe violations of their reproductive rights at the hands of their employers; and the International Labour Organization classifies forced abortion coerced by the employer as labour exploitation. Other abuses include routine virginity tests of unmarried employed women.
The degree to which women can participate (in law and in practice) in public life varies by culture and socioeconomic characteristics. Seclusion of women within the home was a common practice among the upper classes of many societies, and this still remains the case today in some societies. Before the 20th century it was also common in parts of Southern Europe, such as much of Spain.
Women 's freedom of movement continues to be legally restricted in some parts of the world. This restriction is often due to marriage laws. In some countries, women must legally be accompanied by their male guardians (such as the husband or male relative) when they leave home.
The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) states at Article 15 (4) that:
In addition to laws, women 's freedom of movement is also restricted by social and religious norms. Restrictions on freedom of movement also exist due to traditional practices such as baad, swara, or vani.
In many parts of the world, girls ' access to education is very restricted. In developing parts of the world women are often denied opportunities for education as girls and women face many obstacles. These include: early and forced marriages; early pregnancy; prejudice based on gender stereotypes at home, at school and in the community; violence on the way to school, or in and around schools; long distances to schools; vulnerability to the HIV epidemic; school fees, which often lead to parents sending only their sons to school; lack of gender sensitive approaches and materials in classrooms. According to OHCHR, there have been multiple attacks on schools worldwide during the period 2009 - 2014 with "a number of these attacks being specifically directed at girls, parents and teachers advocating for gender equality in education ''. The United Nations Population Fund says:
Women are underrepresented in most countries ' National Parliaments. The 2011 UN General Assembly resolution on women 's political participation called for female participation in politics, and expressed concern about the fact that "women in every part of the world continue to be largely marginalized from the political sphere ''. Only 22 percent of parliamentarians globally are women and therefore, men continue to occupy most positions of political and legal authority. As of November 2014, women accounted for 28 % of members of the single or lower houses of parliaments in the European Union member states.
In some Western countries women have only recently obtained the right to vote.
In 2015, 61.3 % of Rwanda 's Lower House of Parliament were women, the highest proportion anywhere in the world, but worldwide that was one of only two such bodies where women were in the majority, the other being Bolivia 's Lower House of Parliament. (See also Gender equality in Rwanda).
Equal rights for women in marriage, divorce, and property / land ownership and inheritance are essential for gender equality. The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has called for the end of discriminatory family laws. In 2013, UN Women stated that "While at least 115 countries recognize equal land rights for women and men, effective implementation remains a major challenge ''.
The legal and social treatment of married women has been often discussed as a political issue from the 19th century onwards. Until the 1970s, legal subordination of married women was common across European countries, through marriage laws giving legal authority to the husband, as well as through marriage bars. In 1978, the Council of Europe passed the Resolution (78) 37 on equality of spouses in civil law. Switzerland was one of the last countries in Europe to establish gender equality in marriage, in this country married women 's rights were severely restricted until 1988, when legal reforms providing for gender equality in marriage, abolishing the legal authority of the husband, come into force (these reforms had been approved in 1985 by voters in a referendum, who narrowly voted in favor with 54.7 % of voters approving). In the Netherlands, it was only in 1984 that full legal equality between husband and wife was achieved - prior to 1984 the law stipulated that the husband 's opinion prevailed over the wife 's regarding issues such as decisions on children 's education and the domicile of the family.
In the United States, a wife 's legal subordination to her husband was fully ended by the case of Kirchberg v. Feenstra, 450 U.S. 455 (1981), a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held a Louisiana Head and Master law, which gave sole control of marital property to the husband, unconstitutional.
There have been and sometimes continue to be unequal treatment of married women in various aspects of everyday life. For example, in Australia, until 1983 a husband had to authorize an application for an Australian passport for a married woman. Other practices have included, and in many countries continue to include, a requirement for a husband 's consent for an application for bank loans and credit cards by a married woman, as well as restrictions on the wife 's reproductive rights, such as a requirement that the husband consents to the wife 's acquiring contraception or having an abortion. In some places, although the law itself no longer requires the consent of the husband for various actions taken by the wife, the practice continues de facto, with the authorization of the husband being asked in practice.
Although dowry is today mainly associated with South Asia, the practice has been common until the mid-20th century in parts of Southeast Europe.
Laws regulating marriage and divorce continue to discriminate against women in many countries. In Iraq husbands have a legal right to "punish '' their wives, with paragraph 41 of the criminal code stating that there is no crime if an act is committed while exercising a legal right. In the 1990s and the 21st century there has been progress in many countries in Africa: for instance in Namibia the marital power of the husband was abolished in 1996 by the Married Persons Equality Act; in Botswana it was abolished in 2004 by the Abolition of Marital Power Act; and in Lesotho it was abolished in 2006 by the Married Persons Equality Act. Violence against a wife continues to be seen as legally acceptable in some countries; for instance in 2010, the United Arab Emirates Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right to physically discipline his wife and children as long as he does not leave physical marks. The criminalization of adultery has been criticized as being a prohibition, which, in law or in practice, is used primarily against women; and incites violence against women (crimes of passion, honor killings).
Gender stereotypes arise from the socially approved roles of women and men in the private or public sphere, at home or in the workplace. In the household, women are typically seen as mother figures, which usually places them into a typical classification of being "supportive '' or "nurturing ''. Women are expected to want to take on the role of a mother and take on primary responsibility for household needs. Their male counterparts are seen as being "assertive '' or "ambitious '' as men are usually seen in the workplace or as the primary breadwinner for his family. Due to these views and expectations, women often face discrimination in the public sphere, such as the workplace.
A gender role is a set of societal norms dictating the types of behaviors which are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of femininity and masculinity, although there are exceptions and variations.
The way women are represented in the media has been criticized as perpetuating negative gender stereotypes. The exploitation of women in mass media refers to the criticisms that are levied against the use or objectification of women in the mass media, when such use or portrayal aims at increasing the appeal of media or a product, to the detriment of, or without regard to, the interests of the women portrayed, or women in general. Concerns include the fact that all forms of media have the power to shape the population 's perceptions and portray images of unrealistic stereotypical perceptions by portraying women either as submissive housewives or as sex objects. The media emphasizes traditional domestic or sexual roles that normalize violence against women.
According to a study, the way women are often portrayed by the media can lead to: "Women of average or normal appearance feeling inadequate or less beautiful in comparison to the overwhelming use of extraordinarily attractive women ''; "Increase in the likelihood and acceptance of sexual violence ''; "Unrealistic expectations by men of how women should look or behave ''; "Psychological disorders such as body dysmorphic disorder, anorexia, bulimia and so on ''; "The importance of physical appearance is emphasized and reinforced early in most girls ' development. '' Studies have found that nearly half of females ages 6 -- 8 have stated they want to be slimmer. (Striegel - Moore & Franko, 2002) ".
While in many countries, the problem lies in the lack of adequate legislation, in others the principal problem is not as much the lack of a legal framework, but the fact is that most women do not know their legal rights. This is especially the case as many of the laws dealing with women 's rights are of recent date. This lack of knowledge enables to abusers to lead the victims (explicitly or implicitly) to believe that their abuse is within their rights. This may apply to a wide range of abuses, ranging from domestic violence to employment discrimination. The United Nations Development Programme states that, in order to advance gender justice, "Women must know their rights and be able to access legal systems ''.
The 1993 UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women states at Art. 4 (d) (...) "States should also inform women of their rights in seeking redress through such mechanisms ''. Enacting protective legislation against violence has little effect, if women do not know how to use it: for example a study of Bedouin women in Israel found that 60 % did not know what a restraining order was; or if they do n't know what acts are illegal: a report by Amnesty International showed in Hungary, in a public opinion poll of nearly 1,200 people in 2006, a total of 62 % did not know that marital rape was an illegal (it was outlawed in 1997) and therefore the crime was rarely reported. Ensuring women have a minim understanding of health issues is also important: lack of access to reliable medical information and available medical procedures to which they are entitled hurts women 's health.
Gender mainstreaming is described as the public policy of assessing the different implications for women and men of any planned policy action, including legislation and programmes, in all areas and levels, with the aim of achieving gender equality. The concept of gender mainstreaming was first proposed at the 1985 Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi, Kenya. The idea has been developed in the United Nations development community. Gender mainstreaming "involves ensuring that gender perspectives and attention to the goal of gender equality are central to all activities ''.
According to the Council of Europe definition: "Gender mainstreaming is the (re) organization, improvement, development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender equality perspective is incorporated in all policies at all levels and at all stages, by the actors normally involved in policy - making. ''
An integrated gender mainstreaming approach is "the attempt to form alliances and common platforms that bring together the power of faith and gender - equality aspirations to advance human rights. '' For example, "in Azerbaijan, UNFPA conducted a study on gender equality by comparing the text of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women with some widely recognized Islamic references and resources. The results reflect the parallels between the Convention and many tenets of Islamic scripture and practice. The study showcased specific issues, including VAW, child marriage, respect for the dignity of women, and equality in the economic and political participation of women. The study was later used to produce training materials geared towards sensitizing religious leaders. ''
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i believe in one god the father almighty prayer | English versions of the Nicene Creed - wikipedia
The Nicene Creed, composed in part and adopted at the First Council of Nicaea (325) and revised with additions by the First Council of Constantinople (381), is a creed that summarizes the orthodox faith of the Christian Church and is used in the liturgy of most Christian Churches. This article endeavors to give the text and context of English - language translations.
I believe in one God, the Father almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible.
I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Only Begotten Son of God, born of the Father before all ages. God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father; through him all things were made. For us men and for our salvation he came down from heaven,
and by the Holy Spirit was incarnate of the Virgin Mary, and became man.
For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate, he suffered death and was buried, and rose again on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures. He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead and his kingdom will have no end.
I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son, who with the Father and the Son is adored and glorified, who has spoken through the prophets.
I believe in one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church. I confess one Baptism for the forgiveness of sins and I look forward to the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come. Amen.
The International Consultation on English Texts published an English translation of the Nicene Creed, first in 1970 and then in successive revisions in 1971 and 1975. These texts were adopted by several churches. The Roman Catholic Church in the United States, which adopted the 1971 version in 1973, and the Catholic Church in other English - speaking countries, which in 1975 adopted the version published in that year, continued to use them until 2011. The 1975 version was included in the 1979 Episcopal Church (United States) Book of Common Prayer, though with one variation: in the line "For us men and for our salvation '', it omitted the word "men '':
We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen.
We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one Being with the Father. Through him all things were made. For us and for our salvation he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end.
We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son. With the Father and the Son he is worshiped and glorified. He has spoken through the Prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.
The English Language Liturgical Consultation (ELLC), the successor body to ICET, published in 1988 the book Praying Together, which included a revision of the 1975 ICET text. Variations of this text are gaining acceptance among mainline Protestant churches: it is used by the Methodist Church with little if any change, and by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Other denominations use it with modifications that vary between the churches: see, for instance, the discussion within The ELLC Texts: A Survey of Use and Variation, which does not include recent use of the ELLC text by the ELCA in Evangelical Lutheran Worship (2006).
The translation for use in Mass of the Roman Rite is found in the Order of Mass. It begins "Credo '' - "I believe '' - and is a personal (not congregational) affirmation of faith. The Nicene Creed as found on the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops website is as follows:
I believe in one God,
the Father almighty,
maker of heaven and earth,
of all things visible and invisible.
I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ,
the Only Begotten Son of God,
born of the Father before all ages.
God from God, Light from Light,
true God from true God,
begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father;
through him all things were made.
For us men and for our salvation
he came down from heaven,
and by the Holy Spirit was incarnate of the Virgin Mary,
and became man.
For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate,
he suffered death and was buried,
and rose again on the third day
in accordance with the Scriptures.
He ascended into heaven
and is seated at the right hand of the Father.
He will come again in glory
to judge the living and the dead
and his kingdom will have no end.
I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life,
who proceeds from the Father and the Son,
who with the Father and the Son is adored and glorified,
who has spoken through the prophets.
I believe in one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church.
I confess one Baptism for the forgiveness of sins
and I look forward to the resurrection of the dead
and the life of the world to come. Amen.
An explanation of the Creed can be found in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.
The Ruthenian Catholic Church, a sui iuris Eastern Catholic Church, uses a text which was previously found on their website but has now been archived.
It is as follows:
I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Creator of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, the only - begotten, born of the Father before all ages. Light from light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, one in essence with the Father; through whom all things were made. For us and for our salvation, he came down from heaven and was incarnate from the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, and became man. He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and was buried. He rose on the third day according to the scriptures. He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father, and he is coming again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end. And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Creator of Life, who proceeds from the Father. Together with the Father and the Son he is worshiped and glorified; he spoke through the prophets. In one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church. I profess one baptism for the remission of sins. I expect the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come. Amen.
The text used by the Coptic Orthodox Church:
In truth we believe in one God, God the Father the Pantocrator, maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible. We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all ages. Light of light, true God of true God, begotten not made, consubstantial with the Father, by whom all things came into being. This is he, who for us humans and our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and of the Virgin Mary, and became human. And he was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, suffered and was buried. And he rose from the dead on the third day according to the Scriptures. He ascended into the heavens and sits at the right hand of the Father. And he is also coming in his glory to judge the living and the dead, whose kingdom shall have no end. Yes, we believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father. With the Father and the Son, we co-worship him and we co-glorify him, who spoke by the prophets. And in one holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. We confess one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the age to come. Amen.
The text used by the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church may be found at their website.
The text used by the Orthodox Church in America may be found at their website.
The text used by the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America may be found at their website.
The text used by the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America may be found at their website.
The text used by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia is:
The 1979 Book of Common Prayer of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America version has the 1975 ecumenical (ICET) version (see above). The version in the Church of England 's Common Worship of 2000 is the 1988 ecumenical (ELLC) version. The Anglican Church of Canada 's Book of Alternative Services (1985) uses the 1975 ICET version, but unusually, it omits the Filioque ("and the Son '') phrase in accordance with the 1978 Lambeth Conference Statement, and the Anglican - Orthodox Joint Doctrinal Commission. But in many churches of the Anglican Communion the version in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer is still the one in use:
The version in Evangelical Lutheran Worship (2006) of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) is the 1988 ecumenical (ELLC) version. But the Lutheran Service Book (2006) of the Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod (LCMS) and the Lutheran Church -- Canada (LCC) uses that of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer with slight changes, substituting the word "Christian '' for "catholic '' and modernizing the spelling of the word "apostolic '', with changes in capitalization of this and other words, and with "Holy Spirit '' in place of "Holy Ghost ''.
The Trinity Hymnal of 1990, published by the Presbyterian Church in America and the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, contains a translation which is used by those denominations and some others.
The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) uses a slightly different version as subscribed in their Book of Confessions.
While working towards the 1975 ecumenical text given above, the International Consultation on English Texts (ICET) published a version, which the Roman Catholic Church in the United States adopted in its English version of the Roman Missal, in use from 1973 to 2011.
"One in Being with the Father '' (1973), which, when spoken, could be confused with "one, in being with the Father '', was replaced in the 1975 version by "of one Being with the Father ''.
"He was born of the Virgin Mary, and became man '' was altered in 1975 to "He became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man '': neither Greek "σαρκωθέντα '' nor Latin "incarnatus '' means "born '', and the 1973 text linked hominization ("became man '') with birth ("he was born '').
"He suffered, died, and was buried '' was replaced in 1975 by "he suffered death and was buried '': "παθόντα '' in Greek and "passus '' in Latin are indicative of a suffering demise; but the 1973 text inserted an extra verb, "died '', not present in the original Greek or Latin.
A translation of the 381 version may also be found in Kelly 's Early Christian Creeds.
Translations by John Haddon Leith may be found in his 1982 book Creeds of the Churches.
Note the linking of "under Pontius Pilate '' with "suffered '', not with "was crucified ''.
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when do the new episodes of steven universe come out | List of Steven Universe episodes - Wikipedia
Steven Universe is an American animated television series created by Rebecca Sugar for Cartoon Network. The series revolves around Steven Universe (voiced by Zach Callison), who protects his hometown of Beach City alongside Garnet (voiced by Estelle), Amethyst (voiced by Michaela Dietz) and Pearl (voiced by Deedee Magno), three magical alien guardians known as the Crystal Gems. The series was renewed for a fourth and fifth season in March 2016.
As of May 29, 2017, 128 regular 11 - minute episodes of Steven Universe have aired over the course of the series, plus two special double - length 22 - minute episodes. Episodes have variously been broadcast once a week (most recently on Friday nights), or in blocks of five new episodes in the course of a week, which are marketed as "Stevenbombs '', the latest of which aired from May 8 -- 11, 2017.
The following lists are ordered according to the list on the official website of the series, which reflects the intended watching order of the creators. While similar to the original broadcast order, three episodes from the first season were not broadcast until the second season.
The supervising director for this season is Ian Jones - Quartey.
All six digital shorts combined make up one full production code of season 2 (1031 - 058).
All five of these shorts combined make up one full production code of season 4.
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who tells the story in a rose for emily | A Rose for Emily - wikipedia
"A Rose for Emily '' is a short story by American author William Faulkner, first published in the April 30, 1930, issue of The Forum. The story takes place in Faulkner 's fictional city, Jefferson, Mississippi, in the fictional southern county of Yoknapatawpha. It was Faulkner 's first short story published in a national magazine.
Faulkner described his reasoning for the title "A Rose For Emily '' as an allegorical title; this woman had undergone a great tragedy, and for this Faulkner pitied her. And as a salute, he handed her a rose. The word rose in the title has multiple meanings to it. The rose may be seen as Homer, interpreting the rose as a dried rose. Homer 's body could be the dried rose, such as one that is pressed between the pages of a book, kept in perfect condition as Emily did with Homer 's body. The "Rose '' also represents secrecy. Roses have been portrayed in Greek legends as a gift of secrecy and of confidentiality, known as sub rosa, introducing that the "Rose '' is a symbol of silence between the narrator and Miss Emily, the narrator keeps Emily 's secrets until her death.
The story opens with a brief first - person account of the funeral of Emily Grierson, an elderly Southern woman whose funeral is the obligation of their small town. It then proceeds in a non-linear fashion to the narrator 's recollections of Emily 's archaic and increasingly strange behavior throughout the years. Emily is a member of a family of the antebellum Southern aristocracy. After the Civil War, the family falls into hard times. She and her father, the last two of the clan, continue to live as if in the past; Emily 's father refuses for her to marry. Her father dies when Emily is about the age of 30, which takes her by surprise. She refuses to give up his corpse, and the townspeople write it off as her grieving process. The townspeople pity Emily not only after her father 's death, but also during his life when he would n't let Emily marry.
After her father 's death, the only person seen moving about Emily 's home is a Black man, serving as Emily 's butler, going in and out with a market basket. Although Emily did not have a strong relationship with her community, she did give art lessons to young children within her town. The townspeople even referred to her as Miss Emily as a sign of the respect that they had for her. With the acceptance of her father 's death, Emily somewhat revives, even changing the style of her hair and becomes friendly with Homer Barron. He is a Northern laborer who comes to town shortly after Mr. Grierson 's death. The connection surprises some of the community while others are glad she is taking an interest. However, Homer claims that he is not a marrying man, but a bachelor. Emily shortly buys arsenic from a druggist in town, telling him that it will be used to kill rats. However, the townspeople are convinced that she will use it to poison herself. Emily 's distant cousins are called into town by the minister 's wife to supervise Miss Emily and Homer Barron. Homer leaves town for some time, reputedly to give Emily a chance to get rid of her cousins, and returns three days later after the cousins have left. Homer is never seen again.
Despite these turnabouts in her social status, Emily continues to behave haughtily, as she had before her father died. Her reputation is such that the city council finds itself unable to confront her about a strong smell that has begun to emanate from the house. Instead, they decide to send men to her house under the cover of darkness to sprinkle lime around the house, after which the smell dissipates. The mayor of the town, Colonel Sartoris, made a gentleman 's agreement to overlook her taxes as an act of charity, though it was done under a pretense of repayment towards her father to assuage Emily 's pride after her father had died. Years later, when the next generation has come to power, Emily insists on this informal arrangement, flatly refusing that she owes any taxes; the council declines to press the issue. Emily has become a recluse: she is never seen out of the house, and only rarely accepts people into it. The community comes to view her as a "hereditary obligation '' on the town, who must be humored and tolerated.
The funeral is a large affair; Emily had become an institution, so her death sparks a great deal of curiosity about her reclusive nature and what remains of her house. After she is buried, a group of townsfolk enter her house to see what remains of her life there. The door to her upstairs bedroom is locked; some of the townsfolk kick in the door to see what has been hidden for so long. Inside, among the possessions that Emily had bought for Homer, lies the decomposed corpse of Homer Barron on the bed; on the pillow beside him is the indentation of a head and a single strand of gray hair, indicating that Emily had slept with Homer 's corpse.
Emily Grierson - The main character of the story. Emily 's father kept her from seeing suitors and controlled her social life, essentially keeping her in isolation until his death, when she is 30 years old. Her struggle with loss and attachment is the impetus for the plot, driving her to kill Homer Barron, the man that is assumed to have married her. Because no man has ever been able to stay with her before, Emily poisons and kills Homer. She sees murder as the only way to keep Homer with her permanently, and she treats him as if he is her husband even after she kills him. This is shown by her keeping his clothes in the room, keeping his engraved wedding items on the dresser, and even sleeping with him, all act that normal married couples do. Her act of murdering Homer also displays her obstinate nature. Emily deals in absolutes throughout the story. She refuses to pay her taxes because she did n't have to pay them when her father was alive. She has her servant Tobe follow the same patterns, such as his grocery errands. She kills Homer to ensure that he will never leave her. By the end of the story, Emily 's story is seen as a tragedy rather than an atrocity because of what her character has gone through.
Homer Barron - Emily 's romantic interest. He is later found dead and decomposed in Emily 's bedroom after her funeral. He initially enters the story as a foreman for a road construction project occurring in the town. He is soon seen to be with Emily in her Sunday carriage rides, and it is soon expected for them to be married. Homer differs from the rest of the town because he is a Northerner. The story takes place in the South shortly after the Civil War, and while Homer is not necessarily unwelcome to the town, he does stand out. This, along with the fact that he is seemingly courting Emily, sets him apart from all of the other characters in the story. It is because he is an outlier that Emily becomes attracted to him. It is generally unknown if Homer reciprocates the romantic feelings Emily has for him. Recently the topic of whether or not Homer is homosexual has been discussed and whether or not it factors into the story.
The Narrator - An unnamed member (s) of the town who watched the events of Emily 's life unfold in its entirety. The story is presented to the reader in an non-chronological order; this suggests that the story is being patched together by multiple people. Some parts of the story are repeated, such as Homer 's disappearance, the idea that Emily and Homer will get married, and Emily 's refusal to pay taxes, also indicating that the narrator is a voice for the town. Though the townspeople disprove of most of Emily 's actions, such as refusing to pay her taxes and purchasing poison, nobody intervenes.
Colonel Sartoris - The former mayor who remitted Emily 's taxes. While he is in the story very little, his decision to remit Emily 's taxes lead to her refusal to pay them ever again, contributing to her stubborn personality. The reason for Sartoris remitting her taxes is never given, only that he told Emily it was because her father loaned the money to the town.
Mr. Grierson - Emily 's father, the patriarchal head of the Grierson family. His control over Emily 's personal life prohibited her from romantic involvement. The reason for his refusal to let Emily court men is not explained in the story. It could be that he is overprotective because he loves Emily too much. It could be because he believes that there is not a man good enough to marry his daughter. It could be that he is set in his ways and does not want Emily to become distracted from her societal duties. Whatever the reason, Mr. Grierson shapes the person that Emily becomes. His decision to have her taxes remitted allows her to think that she does not have to pay taxes ever again. His decision to lie to her about the reason for her taxes being remitted makes her ignorant and unwilling to accept any explanations or reasons for paying. His decision to bar all men from her life drive her to kill the first man she is attracted to and can be with, Homer Barron, in order to keep him with her permanently.
The cousins - Emily 's extended relatives from Alabama. They come to town during Emily 's courting of Homer Barron to check on Emily 's well - being. They are thought of as even more uptight and stuffy than Emily by the townspeople. They are called in to prevent Emily and Homer from marrying; however they are later sent back home so that the two can be wed. There seems to be some type of dispute between Emily and the cousins, indicated by them living far away from Emily and the fact that they did not go to Emily 's father 's funeral.
Tobe - Emily 's cook / gardener, who is also very likely her secret keeper. During the years of Emily 's isolation, he provides no details of her life to the townspeople and promptly disappears directly following her death. He became old and stooped from all of his work while Emily grew large and immobile. This could suggest that he resented Emily, or at the very least disliked working for her, as he does not mourn her or stay for her funeral.
Faulker tells this story in a series of flashbacks and stretches the story out over decades. It starts with the announcement of Emily 's death, an event that has the entire town talking. This leads the reader to assume that she was an important figure in the town. As Fassler says in his article "The Key, '' "Clearly, this lady who died unmarried was of importance to everyone. And yet the town itself is eventually divided, '' and we see that division with the events depicted in between the announcement at the beginning and the revelation at the end are told out of order, making the reader analyze the story more closely than if it was told chronologically. Based on the townspeople 's thoughts of Emily displayed in this section, the reader discovers that the town was not dreading Emily 's death; on the other hand, it was somewhat welcomed. Emily stuck out from the rest of the town as a figure stuck in the past, desperately trying to cling to old traditions and and ways of life. With her passing on, the town can finally be free of this remnant, being wholly set in the present. Had the story been told in a linear fashion, this understanding would have been lost, something Faulkner knew and incorporated into the story. By presenting the story in terms of present and past events, he could examine how they influence each other. In terms of mathematical precision, time moves on and what exists is only the present. In terms of the more subjective time, time moves on but memories can exist no matter how much time changes. Those memories stay unhindered. Through this Faulkner could analyze the depth at which Miss Emily could change as a character. If Faulkner presented the story in a linear fashion, the chances of the reader sympathizing with Emily would be far less. By telling the story out of order, the reader sees Emily as a tragic product of her environment rather than a twisted necrophiliac.
"A Rose for Emily '' discusses many dark themes that characterized the Old South and Southern Gothic fiction.
The story explores themes of death and resistance to change; they reflect the decaying of the societal tenants of the South in the 1930s. Emily Grierson had been oppressed by her father for most of her life and had n't questioned it because that was her way of living. Likewise, the antiquated traditions of the south (often harmful, such as in the treatment of black people) had remained acceptable, as that was their way of living. Once her father had passed, Emily, in denial, refused to give his corpse up for burial -- this shows her inability to functionally adapt to change. When the present mayor and aldermen insist Miss Emily pay the taxes which she had been exempted from, she refuses and continues to live in her house. Miss Emily 's stubborn insistence that she "pays no taxes in Jefferson '' and her mistaking the new mayor for Colonel Sartoris brings into question whether her acts of resistance are a conscious act of defiance or a result of a decayed mental stability. The reader is only shown Emily from an external perspective, we can not ascertain whether she acts in a rational manner or not. The death of Homer, if interpreted as having been a murder, can be seen in the context of the North - South clash. Homer, notably a northerner, is not one for the tradition of marriage. In the framework that his death was not an accident, but a murder on the part of Emily, Homer 's rejection of the marriage can be seen as the North 's rejection of Southern tradition. The South ends its relations with the North in retaliation. Emily continuing to sleep next to Homer 's body can be seen as the south holding on to an ideal that is no longer feasible.
Control and its repercussions is a persistent theme throughout the story. Emily 's father was an intimidating and manipulative figure, keeping her from experiencing life in her own terms. She was never able to grow, learn, live her life, start a family, and marry the one she truly loved. Even after Emily 's father died, his presence and impact on his daughter was still apparent. Discussing Emily and her father, the townspeople said "We had long thought of them as a tableau, Miss Emily a slender figure in white in the background, her father a spraddled silhouette in the foreground, his back to her and clutching a horsewhip, the two of them framed by the back - flung front door. ''. Emily is portrayed as small and powerless, placed behind the overbearing frame of her father. She wears white, a symbol of innocence and purity. Emily falls victim to the ruling hand of her father and to her place in the society: she has to uphold the noblesse oblige to which she was born into. In this way, her father 's influence remains after he has passed. This control leads to Emily 's isolation, both externally and internally imposed. Emily is alone, yet always being watched by the townspeople; she is both apart from and a part of the community. Her position prevents her from ever finding happiness.
The power of death is a consistent theme throughout the story. Emily herself is portrayed as a "skeleton '' that is both "small and spare '' which is representative of the fact that she emanates death. When it comes to death itself, Emily is in denial and most of that feeling has to do with her loneliness. After her father dies, she keeps his corpse for three days and refuses to admit that he is dead. The reader also sees this with the corpse of Homer Barron, except she is the one who inflicts death upon him. She poisons him and keeps him locked away in her room; she did not want to lose the only other person she had ever loved, so she made his stay permanent. These examples show that the power of death triumphs everything, including "poor Emily '', herself.
Floyd C. Watkins wrote about the structure of "A Rose for Emily '' in "Modern Language Notes ''. Watkins claims that this is Faulkner 's best story and is among the best American writers of this time period. Faulkner had to carefully dissect his sections, bringing importance to every aspect of Miss Emily 's life, but Watkins sees this as a "structural problem '' but later goes on to rave about the symmetry of this short story. Watkins enjoys this story in its entirety, and is impressed by Faulkner 's ordering, as building suspense was an important aspect in the response.
This critical response by John Skinner explores the interpretations of Faulkner 's short story in detail while reviewing the importance of over analyzing a piece of literary work. William Faulkner published this story in the 1930s, Skinner had published his critical response in 1985. More than 40 years has passed and people are still ignoring his claim; "A Rose for Emily '' should not be interpreted any further. The characters and theme of this tale have been scrutinized by many. There have been numerous interpretations for what Miss Emily stands for; Skinner gives examples of scholars including S.W.M. Johnson "Emily represented a refusal to submit to, or even concede, to the inevitability of change ''. Whereas William Going pictures Emily as a rose, "the treasured memory of the confederate veterans ''. The point of view according to Skinner, is of immediate relevance to the story as the chief character, the narrator tells the chronology of the story. This narrator gives approximately "round figures '' for the important events of the accounts. Yet the exact chronology is of little relevance to the overall importance of the story itself. John Skinner states that Faulkner should be taken literally, appreciate his formal subtlety in his works.
Alice Petry introduces a different type of critical response that is not focused on the usual subjects. Rather, she focuses on the complex and provocative language. For example, Hall discusses how the sentence, "Thus she passed from generation to generation - dear, inescapable, impervious, tranquil and perverse '' has been considered misleading, but is in fact strategically placed to provide foreshadowing and unification of plot. The five descriptive words used in the sentence each correspond to one of the five parts in the order they are seen. For example, the adjective "inescapable '' corresponds to Part II, to the incident of the strange smell coming from Miss Emily 's home. Faulkner 's placement of these adjectives at the end of Part IV serves as an important unifying sentence that connects all five parts to each other.
Jim Barloon of the University of St. Thomas wrote about an idea introduced to him by his students, that Homer was homosexual, possibly providing another reason for his murder. He proposes that Emily did not kill Homer because of her own insecurities, but also because he did not reciprocate her romantic feelings. Thus, she could have murdered him out of affection as well as spite. Whether or not this theory is correct, it proves that the story is still being closely analyzed decades after it was written. As Barloon states in his article, "Positing that Homer Barron is gay not only raises a new set of questions but transforms (the story), or at least our perspective of it. ''
The psychology of Emily Grierson has been analyzed countless times, with many people reaching the conclusion that she was mentally ill, and from that point, the reasons why. Though many different diagnoses have been made, the most common can be summarized as follows by Nicole Smith in her psychological analysis of the character: "It is reasonable to propose that Miss Emily developed (schizophrenia) as a response to the demanding conditions in which she was living as a Southern woman from an aristocratic family. '' This has been thought to represent just how unbearable life in the old South could be, not only for a person similar to Emily, but to the people around them as well. A contributing factor to this point would be change. The story is an allegory for the change that the South dealt with after the Civil War, with Emily representing the resistance of that change. This is shown in the story through Emily 's conflicts with the town and her refusal of cooperation. Tuncay Tezcan in his analysis of the story states: "It represents the numerous conflicts in the main character 's life, illustrating the effect of social change on the individual. ''
There has been much discussion over the title of the story. Why have a rose for Emily? At that time, giving a rose to a woman was common if they had been through a great tragedy. Emily 's tragedy is her environment, changing quickly and with volatility, causing her to cling to the past in hopes of stopping the change from occurring. This has a deep impact on her mental state, driving her to extreme acts such as murdering Homer and then sleeping with his corpse for years. The town does nothing to stop these events, merely entertain the idea. Terry Heller writes in his analysis of the story that the town, "(chose) to deal with an idea of Emily, rather than with Emily herself; they are different in that they have different ideas of her and, therefore, approach her... differently. '' With nobody willing to help her, Emily died a broken person, and for that Faulkner gave her a rose, in sympathy of her ending.
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when was the first mobile phone invented and by who | History of mobile phones - wikipedia
The history of mobile phones covers mobile communication devices that connect wirelessly to the public switched telephone network.
While the transmission of speech by radio has a long history, the first devices that were wireless, mobile, and also capable of connecting to the standard telephone network are much more recent. The first such devices were barely portable compared to today 's compact hand - held devices, and their use was clumsy.
Along with the process of developing a more portable technology, and a better interconnections system, drastic changes have taken place in both the networking of wireless communication and the prevalence of its use, with smartphones becoming common globally and a growing proportion of Internet access now done via mobile broadband.
Before the devices existed that are now referred to as mobile phones or cell phones, there were some precursors. In 1908, a Professor Albert Jahnke and the Oakland Transcontinental Aerial Telephone and Power Company claimed to have developed a wireless telephone. They were accused of fraud and the charge was then dropped, but they do not seem to have proceeded with production. Beginning in 1918, the German railroad system tested wireless telephony on military trains between Berlin and Zossen. In 1924, public trials started with telephone connection on trains between Berlin and Hamburg. In 1925, the company Zugtelephonie AG was founded to supply train telephony equipment and, in 1926, telephone service in trains of the Deutsche Reichsbahn and the German mail service on the route between Hamburg and Berlin was approved and offered to first - class travelers.
Fiction anticipated the development of real world mobile telephones. In 1906, the English caricaturist Lewis Baumer published a cartoon in Punch magazine entitled "Forecasts for 1907 '' in which he showed a man and a woman in London 's Hyde Park each separately engaged in gambling and dating on wireless telephony equipment. Then, in 1926, the artist Karl Arnold created a visionary cartoon about the use of mobile phones in the street, in the picture "wireless telephony '', published in the German satirical magazine Simplicissimus.
The Second World War made military use of radio telephony links. Hand - held radio transceivers have been available since the 1940s. Mobile telephones for automobiles became available from some telephone companies in the 1940s. Early devices were bulky, consumed high power, and the network supported only a few simultaneous conversations. Modern cellular networks allow automatic and pervasive use of mobile phones for voice and data communications.
In the United States, engineers from Bell Labs began work on a system to allow mobile users to place and receive telephone calls from automobiles, leading to the inauguration of mobile service on 17 June 1946 in St. Louis, Missouri. Shortly after, AT&T offered Mobile Telephone Service. A wide range of mostly incompatible mobile telephone services offered limited coverage area and only a few available channels in urban areas. The introduction of cellular technology, which allowed re-use of frequencies many times in small adjacent areas covered by relatively low powered transmitters, made widespread adoption of mobile telephones economically feasible.
In the USSR, Leonid Kupriyanovich, an engineer from Moscow, in 1957 - 1961 developed and presented a number of experimental pocket - sized communications radio. The weight of one model, presented in 1961, was only 70 g and could fit on a palm. However, in the USSR the decision at first to develop the system of the automobile "Altai '' phone was made.
In 1965, the Bulgarian company "Radioelektronika '' presented a mobile automatic phone combined with a base station at the Inforga - 65 international exhibition in Moscow. Solutions of this phone were based on a system developed by Leonid Kupriyanovich. One base station, connected to one telephone wire line, could serve up to 15 customers.
The advances in mobile telephony can be traced in successive generations from the early "0G '' services like MTS and its successor Improved Mobile Telephone Service, to first - generation (1G) analog cellular network, second - generation (2G) digital cellular networks, third - generation (3G) broadband data services to the state - of - the - art, fourth - generation (4G) native - IP networks.
In 1949, AT&T commercialized Mobile Telephone Service. From its start in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1946, AT&T introduced Mobile Telephone Service to one hundred towns and highway corridors by 1948. Mobile Telephone Service was a rarity with only 5,000 customers placing about 30,000 calls each week. Calls were set up manually by an operator and the user had to depress a button on the handset to talk and release the button to listen. The call subscriber equipment weighed about 80 pounds (36 kg)
Subscriber growth and revenue generation were hampered by the constraints of the technology. Because only three radio channels were available, only three customers in any given city could make mobile telephone calls at one time. Mobile Telephone Service was expensive, costing 15 USD per month, plus 0.30 to 0.40 USD per local call, equivalent to about 176 USD per month and 3.50 to 4.75 per call in 2012 USD.
In the UK, there was also a vehicle - based system called "Post Office Radiophone Service, '' which was launched around the city of Manchester in 1959, and although it required callers to speak to an operator, it was possible to be put through to any subscriber in Great Britain. The service was extended to London in 1965 and other major cities in 1972.
AT&T introduced the first major improvement to mobile telephony in 1965, giving the improved service the obvious name of Improved Mobile Telephone Service. IMTS used additional radio channels, allowing more simultaneous calls in a given geographic area, introduced customer dialing, eliminating manual call setup by an operator, and reduced the size and weight of the subscriber equipment.
Despite the capacity improvement offered by IMTS, demand outstripped capacity. In agreement with state regulatory agencies, AT&T limited the service to just 40,000 customers system wide. In New York City, for example, 2,000 customers shared just 12 radio channels and typically had to wait 30 minutes to place a call.
Radio Common Carrier or RCC was a service introduced in the 1960s by independent telephone companies to compete against AT&T 's IMTS. RCC systems used paired UHF 454 / 459 MHz and VHF 152 / 158 MHz frequencies near those used by IMTS. RCC based services were provided until the 1980s when cellular AMPS systems made RCC equipment obsolete.
Some RCC systems were designed to allow customers of adjacent carriers to use their facilities, but equipment used by RCCs did not allow the equivalent of modern "roaming '' because technical standards were not uniform. For example, the phone of an Omaha, Nebraska -- based RCC service would not be likely to work in Phoenix, Arizona. Roaming was not encouraged, in part, because there was no centralized industry billing database for RCCs. Signaling formats were not standardized. For example, some systems used two - tone sequential paging to alert a mobile of an incoming call. Other systems used DTMF. Some used Secode 2805, which transmitted an interrupted 2805 Hz tone (similar to IMTS signaling) to alert mobiles of an offered call. Some radio equipment used with RCC systems was half - duplex, push - to - talk LOMO equipment such as Motorola hand - helds or RCA 700 - series conventional two - way radios. Other vehicular equipment had telephone handsets and rotary dials or pushbutton pads, and operated full duplex like a conventional wired telephone. A few users had full - duplex briefcase telephones (radically advanced for their day)
At the end of RCC 's existence, industry associations were working on a technical standard that would have allowed roaming, and some mobile users had multiple decoders to enable operation with more than one of the common signaling formats (600 / 1500, 2805, and Reach). Manual operation was often a fallback for RCC roamers.
In 1969 Penn Central Railroad equipped commuter trains along the 360 kilometres (220 mi) New York - Washington route with special pay phones that allowed passengers to place telephone calls while the train was moving. The system re-used six frequencies in the 450 MHz band in nine sites.
In the UK, Channel Islands and elsewhere the "Rabbit '' phone system was briefly used, being a hybrid of "cell '' base stations and handsets. One major limitation was that you had to be less than 300 feet (closer with buildings) from a base due to power limitations on a portable device. With modern technology a similar variant is being considered for Apple 's new 4G "smart watch '' so they can be used in large events in a broadly similar way to a femtocell.
In Europe, several mutually incompatible mobile radio services were developed.
In 1966 Norway had a system called OLT which was manually controlled. Finland 's ARP, launched in 1971, was also manual as was the Swedish MTD. All were replaced by the automatic NMT, (Nordic Mobile Telephone) system in the early 1980s.
In July 1971 Readycall was introduced in London by Burndept after obtaining a special concession to break the Post Office monopoly to allow selective calling to mobiles of calls from the public telephone system. This system was available to the public for a subscription of £ 16 month. A year later the service was extended to two other UK towns.
West Germany had a network called A-Netz launched in 1952 as the country 's first public commercial mobile phone network. In 1972 this was displaced by B - Netz which connected calls automatically.
In December 1947, Douglas H. Ring and W. Rae Young, Bell Labs engineers, proposed hexagonal cells for mobile phones in vehicles. At this stage, the technology to implement these ideas did not exist, nor had the frequencies been allocated. Two decades would pass before Richard H. Frenkiel, Joel S. Engel and Philip T. Porter of Bell Labs expanded the early proposals into a much more detailed system plan. It was Porter who first proposed that the cell towers use the now - familiar directional antennas to reduce interference and increase channel reuse (see picture at right) Porter also invented the dial - then - send method used by all cell phones to reduce wasted channel time.
In all these early examples, a mobile phone had to stay within the coverage area serviced by one base station throughout the phone call, i.e. there was no continuity of service as the phones moved through several cell areas. The concepts of frequency reuse and handoff, as well as a number of other concepts that formed the basis of modern cell phone technology, were described in the late 1960s, in papers by Frenkiel and Porter. In 1970 Amos E. Joel, Jr., a Bell Labs engineer, invented a "three - sided trunk circuit '' to aid in the "call handoff '' process from one cell to another. His patent contained an early description of the Bell Labs cellular concept, but as switching systems became faster, such a circuit became unnecessary and was never implemented in a system.
A cellular telephone switching plan was described by Fluhr and Nussbaum in 1973, and a cellular telephone data signaling system was described in hipatitas by Hachenburg et al.
The first fully automated mobile phone system for vehicles was launched in Sweden in 1956. Named MTA (Mobiltelefonisystem A), it allowed calls to be made and received in the car using a rotary dial. The car phone could also be paged. Calls from the car were direct dial, whereas incoming calls required an operator to locate the nearest base station to the car. It was developed by Sture Laurén and other engineers at Televerket network operator. Ericsson provided the switchboard while Svenska Radioaktiebolaget (SRA) and Marconi provided the telephones and base station equipment. MTA phones consisted of vacuum tubes and relays, and weighed 40 kilograms (88 lb). In 1962, an upgraded version called Mobile System B (MTB) was introduced. This was a push - button telephone, and used transistors and DTMF signaling to improve its operational reliability. In 1971 the MTD version was launched, opening for several different brands of equipment and gaining commercial success. The network remained open until 1983 and still had 600 customers when it closed.
In 1958 development began on a similar system for motorists in the USSR. The "Altay '' national civil mobile phone service was based on Soviet MRT - 1327 standard. The main developers of the Altay system were the Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications (VNIIS) and the State Specialized Project Institute (GSPI). In 1963 the service started in Moscow, and by 1970 was deployed in 30 cities across the USSR. Versions of the Altay system are still in use today as a trunking system in some parts of Russia.
In 1959 a private telephone company in Brewster, Kansas, USA, the S&T Telephone Company, (still in business today) with the use of Motorola Radio Telephone equipment and a private tower facility, offered to the public mobile telephone services in that local area of NW Kansas. This system was a direct dial up service through their local switchboard, and was installed in many private vehicles including grain combines, trucks, and automobiles. For some as yet unknown reason, the system, after being placed online and operated for a very brief time period, was shut down. The management of the company was immediately changed, and the fully operable system and related equipment was immediately dismantled in early 1960, not to be seen again.
In 1966, Bulgaria presented the pocket mobile automatic phone RAT - 0, 5 combined with a base station RATZ - 10 (RATC - 10) on Interorgtechnika - 66 international exhibition. One base station, connected to one telephone wire line, could serve up to six customers ("Radio '' magazine, 2, 1967; "Novosti dnya '' newsreel, 37, 1966).
One of the first successful public commercial mobile phone networks was the ARP network in Finland, launched in 1971. Posthumously, ARP is sometimes viewed as a zero generation (0G) cellular network, being slightly above previous proprietary and limited coverage networks.
Prior to 1973, mobile telephony was limited to phones installed in cars and other vehicles. Motorola was the first company to produce a handheld mobile phone. On April 3, 1973, Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher and executive, made the first mobile telephone call from handheld subscriber equipment, placing a call to Dr. Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs, his rival. The prototype handheld phone used by Dr. Cooper weighed 1.1 kilograms (2.4 lb) and measured 23 by 13 by 4.5 centimetres (9.1 by 5.1 by 1.8 in). The prototype offered a talk time of just 30 minutes and took 10 hours to re-charge.
John F. Mitchell, Motorola 's chief of portable communication products and Cooper 's boss in 1973, played a key role in advancing the development of handheld mobile telephone equipment. Mitchell failed to push Motorola into developing wireless communication products that would be small enough to use anywhere and participated in the design of the cellular phone.
Newer technology has been developed and rolled out in a series of waves or generations. The "generation '' terminology only became widely used when 3G was launched, but is now used retroactively when referring to the earlier systems.
First automatic analogue cellular systems deployed were NTT 's system first used in Tokyo in 1979, later spreading to the whole of Japan, and NMT in the Nordic countries in 1981.
The first analogue cellular system widely deployed in North America was the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS). It was commercially introduced in the Americas in 13 October 1983, Israel in 1986, and Australia in 1987. AMPS was a pioneering technology that helped drive mass market usage of cellular technology, but it had several serious issues by modern standards. It was unencrypted and easily vulnerable to eavesdropping via a scanner; it was susceptible to cell phone "cloning '' and it used a Frequency - division multiple access (FDMA) scheme and required significant amounts of wireless spectrum to support.
On 6 March 1983, the DynaTAC 8000X mobile phone launched on the first US 1G network by Ameritech. It cost $100 m to develop, and took over a decade to reach the market. The phone had a talk time of just thirty - five minutes and took ten hours to charge. Consumer demand was strong despite the battery life, weight, and low talk time, and waiting lists were in the thousands.
Many of the iconic early commercial cell phones such as the Motorola DynaTAC Analog AMPS were eventually superseded by Digital AMPS (D - AMPS) in 1990, and AMPS service was shut down by most North American carriers by 2008.
In February 1986 Australia launched its Cellular Telephone System by Telecom Australia. Peter Reedman was the first Telecom Customer to be connected on 6 January 1986 along with five other subscribers as test customers prior to the official launch date of 28 February.
In the 1990s, the ' second generation ' mobile phone systems emerged. Two systems competed for supremacy in the global market: the European developed GSM standard and the U.S. developed CDMA standard. These differed from the previous generation by using digital instead of analog transmission, and also fast out - of - band phone - to - network signaling. The rise in mobile phone usage as a result of 2G was explosive and this era also saw the advent of prepaid mobile phones.
In 1991 the first GSM network (Radiolinja) launched in Finland. In general the frequencies used by 2G systems in Europe were higher than those in America, though with some overlap. For example, the 900 MHz frequency range was used for both 1G and 2G systems in Europe, so the 1G systems were rapidly closed down to make space for the 2G systems. In America the IS - 54 standard was deployed in the same band as AMPS and displaced some of the existing analog channels.
In 1993, IBM Simon was introduced. This was possibly the world 's first smartphone. It was a mobile phone, pager, fax machine, and PDA all rolled into one. It included a calendar, address book, clock, calculator, notepad, email, and a touchscreen with a QWERTY keyboard. The IBM Simon had a stylus you used to tap the touch screen with. It featured predictive typing that would guess the next characters as you tapped. It had applications, or at least a way to deliver more features by plugging a PCMCIA 1.8 MB memory card into the phone. Coinciding with the introduction of 2G systems was a trend away from the larger "brick '' phones toward tiny 100 -- 200 grams (3.5 -- 7.1 oz) hand - held devices. This change was possible not only through technological improvements such as more advanced batteries and more energy - efficient electronics, but also because of the higher density of cell sites to accommodate increasing usage. The latter meant that the average distance transmission from phone to the base station shortened, leading to increased battery life while on the move.
The second generation introduced a new variant of communication called SMS or text messaging. It was initially available only on GSM networks but spread eventually on all digital networks. The first machine - generated SMS message was sent in the UK on 3 December 1992 followed in 1993 by the first person - to - person SMS sent in Finland. The advent of prepaid services in the late 1990s soon made SMS the communication method of choice among the young, a trend which spread across all ages.
2G also introduced the ability to access media content on mobile phones. In 1998 the first downloadable content sold to mobile phones was the ring tone, launched by Finland 's Radiolinja (now Elisa). Advertising on the mobile phone first appeared in Finland when a free daily SMS news headline service was launched in 2000, sponsored by advertising.
Mobile payments were trialed in 1998 in Finland and Sweden where a mobile phone was used to pay for a Coca - Cola vending machine and car parking. Commercial launches followed in 1999 in Norway. The first commercial payment system to mimic banks and credit cards was launched in the Philippines in 1999 simultaneously by mobile operators Globe and Smart.
The first full internet service on mobile phones was introduced by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 1999.
As the use of 2G phones became more widespread and people began to use mobile phones in their daily lives, it became clear that demand for data (such as access to browse the internet) was growing. Further, experience from fixed broadband services showed there would also be an ever - increasing demand for greater data speeds. The 2G technology was nowhere near up to the job, so the industry began to work on the next generation of technology known as 3G. The main technological difference that distinguishes 3G technology from 2G technology is the use of packet switching rather than circuit switching for data transmission. In addition, the standardization process focused on requirements more than technology (2 Mbit / s maximum data rate indoors, 384 kbit / s outdoors, for example).
Inevitably this led to many competing standards with different contenders pushing their own technologies, and the vision of a single unified worldwide standard looked far from reality. The standard 2G CDMA networks became 3G compliant with the adoption of Revision A to EV - DO, which made several additions to the protocol while retaining backwards compatibility:
All these were put in place to allow for low latency, low bit rate communications such as VoIP.
The first pre-commercial trial network with 3G was launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in the Tokyo region in May 2001. NTT DoCoMo launched the first commercial 3G network on 1 October 2001, using the WCDMA technology. In 2002 the first 3G networks on the rival CDMA2000 1xEV - DO technology were launched by SK Telecom and KTF in South Korea, and Monet in the US. Monet has since gone bankrupt. By the end of 2002, the second WCDMA network was launched in Japan by Vodafone KK (now Softbank). European launches of 3G were in Italy and the UK by Three / Hutchison group, on WCDMA. 2003 saw a further eight commercial launches of 3G, six more on WCDMA and two more on the EV - DO standard.
During the development of 3G systems, 2.5 G systems such as CDMA2000 1x and GPRS were developed as extensions to existing 2G networks. These provide some of the features of 3G without fulfilling the promised high data rates or full range of multimedia services. CDMA2000 - 1X delivers theoretical maximum data speeds of up to 307 kbit / s. Just beyond these is the EDGE system which in theory covers the requirements for 3G system, but is so narrowly above these that any practical system would be sure to fall short.
The high connection speeds of 3G technology enabled a transformation in the industry: for the first time, media streaming of radio (and even television) content to 3G handsets became possible, with companies such as RealNetworks and Disney among the early pioneers in this type of offering.
In the mid-2000s (decade), an evolution of 3G technology began to be implemented, namely High - Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA). It is an enhanced 3G (third generation) mobile telephony communications protocol in the High - Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family, also coined 3.5 G, 3G+ or turbo 3G, which allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity. Current HSDPA deployments support down - link speeds of 1.8, 3.6, 7.2 and 14.0 Mbit / s.
By the end of 2007, there were 295 million subscribers on 3G networks worldwide, which reflected 9 % of the total worldwide subscriber base. About two thirds of these were on the WCDMA standard and one third on the EV - DO standard. The 3G telecoms services generated over $120 billion of revenues during 2007 and at many markets the majority of new phones activated were 3G phones. In Japan and South Korea the market no longer supplies phones of the second generation.
Although mobile phones had long had the ability to access data networks such as the Internet, it was not until the widespread availability of good quality 3G coverage in the mid-2000s (decade) that specialized devices appeared to access the mobile web. The first such devices, known as "dongles '', plugged directly into a computer through the USB port. Another new class of device appeared subsequently, the so - called "compact wireless router '' such as the Novatel MiFi, which makes 3G Internet connectivity available to multiple computers simultaneously over Wi - Fi, rather than just to a single computer via a USB plug - in.
Such devices became especially popular for use with laptop computers due to the added portability they bestow. Consequently, some computer manufacturers started to embed the mobile data function directly into the laptop so a dongle or MiFi was n't needed. Instead, the SIM card could be inserted directly into the device itself to access the mobile data services. Such 3G - capable laptops became commonly known as "netbooks ''. Other types of data - aware devices followed in the netbook 's footsteps. By the beginning of 2010, E-readers, such as the Amazon Kindle and the Nook from Barnes & Noble, had already become available with embedded wireless Internet, and Apple had announced plans for embedded wireless Internet on its iPad tablet devices later that year.
By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth - intensive applications like streaming media. Consequently, the industry began looking to data - optimized 4th - generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard (offered in the U.S. by Sprint) and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.
One of the main ways in which 4G differed technologically from 3G was in its elimination of circuit switching, instead employing an all - IP network. Thus, 4G ushered in a treatment of voice calls just like any other type of streaming audio media, utilizing packet switching over Internet, LAN or WAN networks via VoIP.
Before a universal charger standard was agreed upon in the late 2000s users needed an adaptor which was often the same brand as their phone to recharge the battery.
As of 14 June 2007, all new mobile phones applying for a license in China are required to use a USB port as a power port for battery charging. This was the first standard to use the convention of shorting D+ and D −.
In September 2007, the Open Mobile Terminal Platform group (a forum of mobile network operators and manufacturers such as Nokia, Samsung, Motorola, Sony Ericsson, and LG) announced that its members had agreed on Micro-USB as the future common connector for mobile devices.
The GSM Association (GSMA) followed suit on 17 February 2009, and on 22 April 2009, this was further endorsed by the CTIA -- The Wireless Association, with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) announcing on 22 October 2009 that it had also embraced the Universal Charging Solution as its "energy - efficient one - charger - fits - all new mobile phone solution, '' and added: "Based on the Micro-USB interface, UCS chargers will also include a 4 - star or higher efficiency rating -- up to three times more energy - efficient than an unrated charger. ''
In June 2009, many of the world 's largest mobile phone manufacturers signed an EC - sponsored Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), agreeing to make most data - enabled mobile phones marketed in the European Union compatible with a common External Power Supply (common EPS). The EU 's common EPS specification (EN 62684: 2010) references the USB Battery Charging Specification and is similar to the GSMA / OMTP and Chinese charging solutions. In January 2011, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) released its version of the (EU 's) common EPS standard as IEC 62684: 2011.
As well as the now - common cellular phone, there is also the very different approach of connecting directly from the handset to an Earth - orbiting satellite. Such mobile phones can be used in remote areas out of reach of wired networks or where construction of a cellular network is uneconomic.
The Inmarsat system is the oldest, originally developed in 1979 for safety of life at sea, and uses a series of satellites in geostationary orbits to cover the majority of the globe. Several smaller operators use the same approach with just one or two satellites to provide a regional service. An alternative approach is to use a series of low Earth orbit satellites much closer to Earth. This is the basis of the Iridium and Globalstar satellite phone services.
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when does the cytological process that results in genetic recombination take place | Chromosomal crossover - wikipedia
Chromosomal crossover (or crossing over) is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes that results in recombinant chromosomes during sexual reproduction. It is one of the final phases of genetic recombination, which occurs in the pachytene stage of prophase I of meiosis during a process called synapsis. Synapsis begins before the synaptonemal complex develops and is not completed until near the end of prophase I. Crossover usually occurs when matching regions on matching chromosomes break and then reconnect to the other chromosome.
Crossing over was described, in theory, by Thomas Hunt Morgan. He relied on the discovery of the Belgian Professor Frans Alfons Janssens of the University of Leuven who described the phenomenon in 1909 and had called it "chiasmatypie ''. The term chiasma is linked if not identical to chromosomal crossover. Morgan immediately saw the great importance of Janssens ' cytological interpretation of chiasmata to the experimental results of his research on the heredity of Drosophila. The physical basis of crossing over was first demonstrated by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931.
The linked frequency of crossing over between two gene loci (markers) is the crossing - over value. For fixed set of genetic and environmental conditions, recombination in a particular region of a linkage structure (chromosome) tends to be constant and the same is then true for the crossing - over value which is used in the production of genetic maps.
There are two popular and overlapping theories that explain the origins of crossing - over, coming from the different theories on the origin of meiosis. The first theory rests upon the idea that meiosis evolved as another method of DNA repair, and thus crossing - over is a novel way to replace possibly damaged sections of DNA. The second theory comes from the idea that meiosis evolved from bacterial transformation, with the function of propagating diversity.
Crossing over and DNA repair are very similar processes, which utilize many of the same protein complexes. Recombinases and primases lay a foundation of nucleotides along the DNA sequence. One such particular protein complex that is conserved between processes is RAD51, a well conserved recombinase protein that has been shown to be crucial in DNA repair as well as cross over. Several other genes in D. melanogaster have been linked as well to both processes, by showing that mutants at these specific loci can not undergo DNA repair or crossing over. Such genes include mei - 41, mei - 9, hdm, spnA, and brca2. This large group of conserved genes between processes supports the theory of a close evolutionary relationship. Furthermore, DNA repair and crossover have been found to favor similar regions on chromosomes. In an experiment using radiation hybrid mapping on wheat 's (Triticum aestivum L.) 3B chromosome, crossing over and DNA repair were found to occur predominantly in the same regions. Furthermore, crossing over has been correlated to occur in response to stressful, and likely DNA damaging, conditions
The process of bacterial transformation also shares many similarities with chromosomal cross over, particularly in the formation of overhangs on the sides of the broken DNA strand, allowing for the annealing of a new strand. Bacterial transformation itself has been linked to DNA repair many times. The second theory comes from the idea that meiosis evolved from bacterial transformation, with the function of propagating genetic diversity.. Thus, this evidence suggests that it is a question of whether cross over is linked to DNA repair or bacterial transformation, as the two do not appear to be mutually exclusive. It is likely that crossing over may have evolved from bacterial transformation, which in turn developed from DNA repair, thus explaining the links between all three processes.
Meiotic recombination may be initiated by double - stranded breaks that are introduced into the DNA by exposure to DNA damaging agents or the Spo11 protein. One or more exonucleases then digest the 5 ' ends generated by the double - stranded breaks to produce 3 ' single - stranded DNA tails (see diagram). The meiosis - specific recombinase Dmc1 and the general recombinase Rad51 coat the single - stranded DNA to form nucleoprotein filaments. The recombinases catalyze invasion of the opposite chromatid by the single - stranded DNA from one end of the break. Next, the 3 ' end of the invading DNA primes DNA synthesis, causing displacement of the complementary strand, which subsequently anneals to the single - stranded DNA generated from the other end of the initial double - stranded break. The structure that results is a cross-strand exchange, also known as a Holliday junction. The contact between two chromatids that will soon undergo crossing - over is known as a chiasma. The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral structure which can be ' pulled ' by other recombinases, moving it along the four - stranded structure.
The MSH4 and MSH5 proteins form a hetero - oligomeric structure (heterodimer) in yeast and humans. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae MSH4 and MSH5 act specifically to facilitate crossovers between homologous chromosomes during meiosis. The MSH4 / MSH5 complex binds and stabilizes double Holliday junctions and promotes their resolution into crossover products. An MSH4 hypomorphic (partially functional) mutant of S. cerevisiae showed a 30 % genome wide reduction in crossover numbers, and a large number of meioses with non exchange chromosomes. Nevertheless, this mutant gave rise to spore viability patterns suggesting that segregation of non-exchange chromosomes occurred efficiently. Thus in S. cerevisiae proper segregation apparently does not entirely depend on crossovers between homologous pairs.
The grasshopper Melanoplus femur - rubrum was exposed to an acute dose of X-rays during each individual stage of meiosis, and chiasma frequency was measured. Irradiation during the leptotene - zygotene stages of meiosis (that is, prior to the pachytene period in which crossover recombination occurs) was found to increase subsequent chiasma frequency. Similarly, in the grasshopper Chorthippus brunneus, exposure to X-irradiation during the zygotene - early pachytene stages caused a significant increase in mean cell chiasma frequency. Chiasma frequency was scored at the later diplotene - diakinesis stages of meiosis. These results suggest that X-rays induce DNA damages that are repaired by a crossover pathway leading to chiasma formation.
In most eukaryotes, a cell carries two versions of each gene, each referred to as an allele. Each parent passes on one allele to each offspring. An individual gamete inherits a complete haploid complement of alleles on chromosomes that are independently selected from each pair of chromatids lined up on the metaphase plate. Without recombination, all alleles for those genes linked together on the same chromosome would be inherited together. Meiotic recombination allows a more independent segregation between the two alleles that occupy the positions of single genes, as recombination shuffles the allele content between homologous chromosomes.
Recombination results in a new arrangement of maternal and paternal alleles on the same chromosome. Although the same genes appear in the same order, some alleles are different. In this way, it is theoretically possible to have any combination of parental alleles in an offspring, and the fact that two alleles appear together in one offspring does not have any influence on the statistical probability that another offspring will have the same combination. This principle of "independent assortment '' of genes is fundamental to genetic inheritance. However, the frequency of recombination is actually not the same for all gene combinations. This leads to the notion of "genetic distance '', which is a measure of recombination frequency averaged over a (suitably large) sample of pedigrees. Loosely speaking, one may say that this is because recombination is greatly influenced by the proximity of one gene to another. If two genes are located close together on a chromosome, the likelihood that a recombination event will separate these two genes is less than if they were farther apart. Genetic linkage describes the tendency of genes to be inherited together as a result of their location on the same chromosome. Linkage disequilibrium describes a situation in which some combinations of genes or genetic markers occur more or less frequently in a population than would be expected from their distances apart. This concept is applied when searching for a gene that may cause a particular disease. This is done by comparing the occurrence of a specific DNA sequence with the appearance of a disease. When a high correlation between the two is found, it is likely that the appropriate gene sequence is really closer.
Crossovers typically occur between homologous regions of matching chromosomes, but similarities in sequence and other factors can result in mismatched alignments. Most DNA is composed of base pair sequences repeated very large numbers of times. These repetitious segments, often referred to as satellites, are fairly homogenous among a species. During DNA replication, each strand of DNA is used as a template for the creation of new strands using a partially - conserved mechanism; proper functioning of this process results in two identical, paired chromosomes, often called sisters. Sister chromatid crossover events are known to occur at a rate of several crossover events per cell per division in eukaryotes. Most of these events involve an exchange of equal amounts of genetic information, but unequal exchanges may occur due to sequence mismatch. These are referred to by a variety of names, including non-homologous crossover, unequal crossover, and unbalanced recombination, and result in an insertion or deletion of genetic information into the chromosome. While rare compared to homologous crossover events, these mutations are drastic, affecting many loci at the same time. They are considered the main driver behind the generation of gene duplications and are a general source of mutation within the genome.
The specific causes of non-homologous crossover events are unknown, but several influential factors are known to increase the likelihood of an unequal crossover. One common vector leading to unbalanced recombination is the repair of double - strand breaks (DSBs). DSBs are often repaired using non-homologous end joining, a process which involves invasion of a template strand by the DSB strand (see figure below). Nearby homologous regions of the template strand are often used for repair, which can give rise to either insertions or deletions in the genome if a non-homologous but complementary part of the template strand is used. Sequence similarity is a major player in crossover -- crossover events are more likely to occur in long regions of close identity on a gene. This means that any section of the genome with long sections of repetitive DNA is prone to crossover events.
The presence of transposable elements is another influential element of non-homologous crossover. Repetitive regions of code characterize transposable elements; complementary but non-homologous regions are ubiquitous within transposons. Because chromosomal regions composed of transposons have large quantities of identical, repetitious code in a condensed space, it is thought that transposon regions undergoing a crossover event are more prone to erroneous complementary match - up; that is to say, a section of a chromosome containing a lot of identical sequences, should it undergo a crossover event, is less certain to match up with a perfectly homologous section of complementary code and more prone to binding with a section of code on a slightly different part of the chromosome. This results in unbalanced recombination, as genetic information may be either inserted or deleted into the new chromosome, depending on where the recombination occurred.
While the motivating factors behind unequal recombination remain obscure, elements of the physical mechanism have been elucidated. Mismatch repair (MMR) proteins, for instance, are a well - known regulatory family of proteins, responsible for regulating mismatched sequences of DNA during replication and escape regulation. The operative goal of MMRs is the restoration of the parental genotype. One class of MMR in particular, MutSβ, is known to initiate the correction of insertion - deletion mismatches of up to 16 nucleotides. Little is known about the excision process in eukaryotes, but E. coli excisions involve the cleaving of a nick on either the 5 ' or 3 ' strand, after which DNA helicase and DNA polymerase III bind and generate single - stranded proteins, which are digested by exonucleases and attached to the strand by ligase. Multiple MMR pathways have been implicated in the maintenance of complex organism genome stability, and any of many possible malfunctions in the MMR pathway result in DNA editing and correction errors. Therefore, while it is not certain precisely what mechanisms lead to errors of non-homologous crossover, it is extremely likely that the MMR pathway is involved.
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when did the only way is essex first start | The Only Way Is Essex - wikipedia
The Only Way Is Essex (often abbreviated as TOWIE / ˈtaʊi /) is a British reality television series based in Brentwood, England. It shows "real people in modified situations, saying unscripted lines but in a structured way. '' The show is filmed just a few days in advance. It is narrated by Denise van Outen, who is from Basildon, Essex. The show has been described as Britain 's answer to The Hills and Jersey Shore.
Each series lasts six weeks, airing on Wednesdays and Sundays at 10pm on ITV2 from 2010 to 2014, although it was announced in February 2014 that the show would be moved to ITV2 's sister channel ITVBe when the channel launches. The first series consisted of 10 episodes and ran for 30 minutes, with a Christmas special following later in the year. Due to popularity, the show was extended to 45 - minute episodes and renewed for a year 's airing. On 22 May 2011, the series won the Audience Award at the 2011 BAFTA Awards. The 12th series was the last to air on ITV2 before the show moved to ITV 's new channel, ITVBe in October 2014.
On 13 March 2016, ITVBe aired a one - off documentary hosted by former cast member Mark Wright discussing the history of the show. Celebrities as well as cast members past and present united to talk about the popularity of the show, the fame the cast members have achieved from appearing in the series as well as the influence it has had on the economy.
On 28 February 2017, with the announcement of the cast for the show 's twentieth series it was confirmed that instead of the usual three series per year, ITVBe would only be airing two series, but with more episodes.
On 21 December 2017, it was announced that a further two series had been commissioned for 2018. It was also confirmed that the series will only air once a week unlike past series which aired twice a week. It was also announced that episode running times would be increased from 50 minutes to 60 minutes.
The first series of the show began airing on 10 October 2010 and concluded on 10 November 2010, consisting of 10 episodes. Due to the success of the series, a Christmas special aired the same year on 24 December 2010. This series was heavily centered on the love triangle of Mark Wright, Lauren Goodger, and Lucy Mecklenburgh. This was the only series to feature cast members Candy Jacobs and Michael Woods. Mark also appeared alongside fellow cast members Amy Childs, James Argent, Nanny Pat and Sam Faiers on Alan Carr: Chatty Man on 21 February 2011 to discuss the first series and also confirmed a second series.
The second series began airing on 20 March 2011 and concluded on 4 May 2011. Due to the popularity of the first series, the second series consisted of 14 episodes. Before the series aired, the cast filmed a four - minute music video that was screened on ITV2; dance duo LMFAO remixed their hit single "I 'm in Miami Bitch '' and replaced it with "I 'm in Essex Girl ''. This series saw the departure of Amy Childs off screen and introduced new characters Joey Essex, Gemma Collins, Chloe Sims, Debbie Douglass, Carol Wright and Mick Norcross.
The third series began airing on 24 September 2011 and concluded on 9 November 2011, consisting of 14 episodes. As well as being the first series to feature new cast members Mario Falcone, Dino and Georgio Georgiades, Billi Mucklow and Cara Kilbey, this series saw the departures of original cast members Mark Wright, Harry Derbidge, Kirk Norcross and Maria Fowler. A second Christmas special aired on 20 December. The cast of the third series (excluding Wright and Norcross) covered the Wham! single "Last Christmas ''; the official video premiered on ITV2 in November and the single peaked at number 32 on the UK Singles Chart.
The fourth series began airing on 29 January 2012 and concluded on 29 February 2012, consisting of 10 episodes. On 25 January, the show was nominated for "Most Popular Reality Programme '' at the National Television Awards. The series was the last to feature Dino and Georgio Georgiades but included the arrival of new cast members Ricky Rayment, Bobby - Cole Norris, James "Diags '' Bennewith, Georgia Dorsett, Tom Kilbey, Little Chris Drake and Charlie King. Mick Norcross returned to the series for the first time without his son Kirk. This was also the first series where the opening scenes changed to include silhouettes of the current characters, with the theme tune playing on the background.
The fifth series began airing on 15 April 2012 and yet again ran for 10 episodes concluding on 27 May 2012. The series included just one new cast member as Danni Park - Dempsey made her first appearance. It was also the last to include Georgina Dorsett who left after just two series. Shortly after the series, an hour - long special entitled The Only Way Is Marbs, set in the holiday destination of Marbella, aired on 13 June 2012. Tinchy Stryder made a guest appearance in the episode.
The sixth series started airing from 22 July 2012 and concluded on 22 August 2012. Lauren Goodger confirmed that this series would be her last and she departed at the end of the series. Former cast member Mark Wright, who last appeared in Series 3, made a cameo in the eighth episode, but did not have a speaking part.
The seventh series started airing from 30 September 2012 with all of the cast from the previous series returning apart from Lauren Goodger, and original cast member Kirk Norcross returning to the series after departing in Series 3. This made him the first cast member to return to the show. The series was renewed for two further series in August 2012, set to air sometime in 2013. On 13 November 2012 it was confirmed that three festive specials would air in December including a live episode, a first for the show. The live episode was met with numerous negative reviews, with Digital Spy commenting that it just did n't work and was complete car crash TV with it not making much sense. On 14 December 2012 it was confirmed that former cast member Mark Wright would return for a cameo appearance in the 2012 Christmas special. Original cast member Lydia Bright, Tom Kilbey, and Cara Kilbey all left after this series, and it was the first to include Danny Walia and Jasmin Walia, who had previously made a cameo in the first Christmas special of the show.
The eighth series started airing from 24 February 2013 and saw the introduction of several new cast members including James Locke, Dan Osborne, Jack Bennewith and Abi Clarke. Twin sisters Amy and Sally Broadbent were also confirmed to have joined the cast however after two episodes, Lucy Mecklenburgh announced on Twitter that they had been used by the show to create storylines and had been dropped from the cast. The series saw the departures of numerous long serving cast members such as Kirk Norcross, Debbie Douglas and Mick Norcross, Billi Mucklow and Danni Park - Dempsey who all announced their departures midway through the series.
The ninth series began airing from 2 June 2013 with two The Only Way Is Marbs specials and concluded after 12 episodes on 10 July 2013. On 24 May 2013 it was revealed that Gary Lineker 's brother, Wayne Lineker, had joined the cast. However he only appeared in two episodes. The series was the first to include new cast members Ferne McCann and Charlie Sims, and was the last to include Charlie King. It also featured the one off return of Lydia Bright, who had previously featured in the show from Series 1 through to 7.
The tenth series began with two - hour long The Only Way Is Vegas specials on 6 and 9 October 2013, as confirmed by ITV Press Centre on 25 September 2013. The regular tenth series followed running from 13 October to 13 November 2013. Ahead the series finale it was confirmed that Joey Essex would make his final appearance. As well as being the last series to include Joey, Abi, and Little Chris also made their final appearances during this series. Elliott Wright, Lewis Bloor and Danni Armstrong all made their first appearances in this series. A third Christmas special aired on 11 December 2013 and was Lucy Mecklenburgh 's final episode.
The eleventh series started airing from 23 February 2014 consisting of 12 episodes, ending on 2 April 2014. This series was the first to include Fran Parman, Grace Andrews and Georgia Kousoulou but was the last to feature original cast member Sam Faiers as she departed to focus on her health. Mark Wright also made another cameo appearance during this series, and it also included the return of Lydia Bright who made a full - time return to the series during the series finale.
The twelfth series began on 22 June 2014 with two The Only Way Is Marbs specials followed by 10 regular episodes, concluding on 30 July 2014. Original cast member Harry Derbidge made a full - time return to this series, however he was axed at the end of the series and did not return for the thirteenth. It was also the final series to feature Grace Andrews but first to include Vas J. Morgan. Mario Falcone was also absent during this series following a suspension.
The thirteenth series, the first to air on new channel ITVBe, began on 8 October 2014 with two The Only Way Is Ibiza specials, followed by 10 regular episodes, concluding on 16 November 2014, with the 2014 Christmas special following a month later on 10 December 2014. The new channel also launched on 8 October 2014. Because of this, the first episode of The Only Way Is Ibiza featured a live after party straight after the episode hosted by Mark Wright and narrator of the show Denise van Outen. Mario Falcone returned to the series following his suspension. This was the final series to feature long running cast member Tom Pearce, and the only series to include Georgia "George '' Harrison. Tommy "Mal '' Mallet also made his first appearance during this series. George later went onto appear in Love Island in 2017.
The fourteenth series began on 22 February 2015 and consisted of thirteen episodes ending on 5 April 2015. Original cast member Arg returned to the show after his suspension during the thirteenth series. After the launch of the new series, Mark Wright returned to host another live after party. The series includes the final appearances of Charlie Sims and Dan Osborne, but the first for Dan Edgar, Chloe Lewis and Jake Hall.
The fifteenth series launched on 14 June 2015 with two Marbella specials. It is the third series to feature on ITV 's new channel ITVBe. As well as confirming the new launch date, it was confirmed that ITV had renewed the show for a further six series, taking it to series 21. Ahead of the series it was announced that cast member Ricky Rayment had taken a short break from the show but would be back, however he did not return. It was also confirmed that Mario Falcone had been suspended from the show for the second time, this time after promoting slimming pills on social media. He returned to the show during the fourth episode.
The sixteenth series began on 4 October 2015. This is the first series to be included under the new contract which was confirmed on 3 June 2015, renewing the show for a further six series. Ahead of the series, it was announced that cast member Gemma Collins had quit the show. She had appeared on the show since the second series. For the Essexmas special, Gemma Collins, Mario Falcone and Lauren Goodger each made a brief return to the show. This was the last series to feature Nanny Pat who died on 16 December 2015, and Lauren Pope who made her exit during the series.
The seventeenth series began on 28 February 2016. Ahead of the series, it was announced that Jess Wright, who had appeared on the show since the first series had quit. It was also confirmed that Ferne McCann would be taking a break from the series. It will be the first series to include new cast members Chloe Meadows, Courtney Green, and Chris and Jon Clark. Jon previously appeared on ITV2 's Love Island. This series will also feature the show 's 200th episode. Despite previously announcing that she 'd quit the show, Gemma Collins appeared in this series. On 9 March 2016, it was announced that former Ex on the Beach star and Celebrity Big Brother housemate Megan McKenna has joined the cast and would be making her debut during the 200th episode. However, Megan previously made a brief appearance on the first Essexmas special in 2010 where she originally auditioned for Jess Wright 's new girl group. On 13 March 2016, ahead of the show 's milestone 200th episode, a special episode titled "The Power of TOWIE '' aired hosted by Mark Wright, where cast past and present united to discuss the show 's history.
The eighteenth series began on 17 July 2016 with a The Only Way is Mallorca special. Ahead of the series it was announced that cast member Jake Hall had quit the show having appeared since the fourteenth series. Despite quitting the show at the end of the sixteenth series, Jess Wright made a one - off appearance to support Bobby over the loss of his dog. It was also the first series not to include long - running cast member Lewis Bloor, who quit during the previous series. New cast member Amber Dowding joined the show for this series. Love Island winners Nathan Massey and Cara De La Hoyde also made guest appearances during the ninth episode of the series. This was the final series to include Billie Faiers after it was announced she had quit the show, as well as Mike Hassini, who did not return for the nineteenth series.
The nineteenth series began on 9 October 2016 with a The Only Way Is Marbs special. Ahead of the series it was confirmed that former cast member Lauren Goodger would be making her return to the series having previously appeared during the first to the sixth series, and then again during the 2015 Essexmas special. This is the first series not to include Billie Faiers, after it was announced she had quit the show. It includes the first appearances of new cast members Ben Shenel and Ercan Ramadan. Mario Falcone and Frankie Essex also made a surprise one - off return to the series during the final episode of the series to celebrate Chloe Sims 's 35th birthday. Love Island winners Nathan Massey and Cara De La Hoyde both made another guest appearance during the eighth episode. Original cast member James Argent was also absent for most of this series due to him taking a break from the show. A further two Essexmas specials aired in December 2016, where Danni announced her departure from the series.
The twentieth series began on 5 March 2017 with the cast heading to Tenerife, and concluded on 3 May 2017 after eighteen episodes, making this the longest series to date. Ahead of the series it was announced that James Argent had taken a break from the series having only appeared in the first half of the previous series. It was also announced that Mario Falcone, Jamie Reed and Charlie King would all be returning to the series. Lauren Pope also made a return to the series during the final episode, and Fran Parman also made a brief return during this episode. This was the first series to include new cast members Amber Turner, Myles Barnett, Yazmin Oukhellou, Jack Rigden, Jordan Brook and Jade Lewis. This was the final series to include cast members Ben Shenel and Ercan Ramadan, as well as Kate Wright who announced her departure ahead of the final episode.
The twenty - first series began on 10 September 2017 with the cast heading to Marbella, and concluded after seventeen episodes on 5 November 2017, making it the second longest series to date after it was confirmed that the lengths of each series would be extended. Ahead of the series it was announced that James Argent would be returning to the series following his break from the show. It was also confirmed that after making brief appearances during the previous series, Lauren Pope and Mario Falcone would be returning to the series as a full - time cast member. With this announcement, it was revealed that Mike Hassini would also be returning to the series having previously left the show after the eighteenth series. Former cast member Elliott Wright also made an appearance during the second episode of the series, whilst Vas J Morgan also returned to the show mid-way through the series. This was also the first series to include new cast members Ruby Lacey and Taylor Barnett. Former cast member Danielle Armstrong also made a brief return to the series, appearing in the Halloween special episode airing on 29 October 2017. During the series it was announced that Carol Wright had quit the show. A further Essexmas episode aired on 17 December 2017.
The twenty - second series is expected to begin in March 2018 with the cast heading to Barcelona. The series was confirmed on 21 December 2017, when it was announced that a further two series had been commissioned for 2018. It was also confirmed that the series will only air once a week unlike past series which aired twice a week. It was also announced that episode running times would be increased from 50 minutes to 60 minutes. Ahead of the series, it was confirmed that a number of cast members had been axed including Chris Clark, Amber Dowding, Mike Hassini, Jordan Brooks, Jack Rigden and Ruby Lacey. As well as this, Mario Falcone also confirmed that he would n't be returning to the show. New cast members for this series include Dean Ralph and Jordan Wright, who both previously appeared in the seventh series of Ex on the Beach, as well as Clelia Theodorou and Shelby Tribble.
This is a list of main and supporting cast members currently appearing in the show. From series 1 -- 3, the main cast received star billing in the opening credits and were credited by their first names.
As well as appearing in The Only Way Is Essex, some of the cast members have competed in other reality TV shows including Celebrity Big Brother, I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!, Let 's Sing and Dance, Splash!, Dancing on Ice, Celebrity Super Spa, The Jump, Tumble, Strictly Come Dancing, Get Your Act Together, Celebrity MasterChef, Dance Dance Dance and Love Island.
The genre of "scripted reality '' has attracted much criticism for a lack of authenticity, or indeed outright deception (see article on reality television).
The show has been criticised for its negative and stereotypical representation of Essex, and there have been a number of complaints to ITV2. Some Essex residents felt it was not a true representation of the area and the people who live there. Kirk Norcross responded to this criticism by saying, "We are all from Essex, so this is Essex. It 's not acting. It 's not like they 've got people from America and said ' Right, act like you think you know where Essex is. ' We are Essex people so what you 're watching is Essex. ''
In April 2011, it was reported that Big Brother 8 winner Brian Belo intended to sue the makers of The Only Way Is Essex -- claiming they "stole his idea ''. Belo was in the original pilot of the show -- provisionally titled Totally Essex -- alongside current stars Mark Wright, Sam Faiers, Kirk Norcross and Amy Childs. Belo plans to sue his former manager and Lime Productions, which makes the show, for lost earnings of up to £ 100,000 a series. The Sun reported that Belo had spent the previous two years working on an idea for a United Kingdom version of The Hills, with his manager successfully pitching the pilot to Lime Productions. After not making the cast list, Belo believed he might be involved in producing the show, but was "cut '' from the production entirely.
On 24 October 2011, it was reported that sisters Sam and Billie Faiers had been attacked by a group of girls on a night out: "The sisters were first targeted inside the club when the girls made off with Billie 's handbag... When they left, the gang followed them back to Essex. '' An insider also commented saying "Both Sam and Billie later went to A&E to get checked out. They are fine now, just a bit shocked, although Sam has been left with two black eyes. '' A video of the attack leaked online a day later. The aftermath of the attack was aired during series 3 episode 10.
In May 2012, it was reported that original cast member Lauren Goodger had fallen out with the show 's director for her bad timekeeping on set and her diva demands. Goodger appeared in the first four episodes of series 5, and was suspended from appearing in the show, however on 18 May 2012, it was confirmed that the issues had been resolved and that Goodger would be returning to the programme. Goodger returned in episode 9 and her absence from the show was not mentioned on screen.
On 1 December 2012, it was reported that X Factor finalist Rylan Clark would appear on the TOWIE Live special episode and later return as a full - time cast member in 2013. Mario Falcone reacted to the rumours by saying, "If he comes on Monday 's live show, that 's fine because it 's all for charity, but if he comes on TOWIE as a main character, I 'll leave. We hate him. He 's a douche bag. '' Kirk Norcross commented, "I 've met Rylan before and he 's actually a really nice boy but when people think of Essex they just think of the abbreviation, the ' Shut - up ', the ' Oh my god ' - that was all Amy Childs and we do n't want that. '' On 3 December, following Falcone and Norcross 's comments, Clark pulled out of his one - off appearance for the live episode, later saying: "TOWIE 's a great programme and I wish them all the best of luck, but I ca n't do the show because I 've got commitments to the X Factor tour and I 've got to be in rehearsals. I 've never met Mario in my life, so I find it very unprofessional and ungentlemanly for him to go around talking about people he has n't even met, Anyone who cheats on his girlfriend that much is n't worth my time. ''
The live episode was called "an utter car crash '' and "possibly the worst TV show ever ''.
The show is filmed just a few days in advance, and is narrated by Denise van Outen, who is a native of the Essex town of Basildon. The first series ran initially for four weeks, airing every Wednesday and Sunday. The show has been described by the Daily Mirror as Britain 's answer to The Hills and Jersey Shore. Series 2 began on 20 March 2011, once again airing every Wednesday and Sunday, but with longer episodes than Series 1. Series 2 also saw the departure of original cast member Amy Childs. The second series consisted of 14 episodes, ending on 4 May 2011. The series returned for a third series on 25 September 2011 and was the final series to feature two of the original cast members Mark Wright whose departure was seen in the final episode while Kirk Norcross departed off - screen like Childs. The series ended on 9 November 2011. On 2 December 2011, it was revealed that many of the cast would not be returning for the fourth series in 2012 but would feature in the 2011 Christmas Special. The fourth series began in January 2012.
Digital Spy reported that the series had been renewed for a further four series following the Christmas Special and would air four 10 - episode runs in 2012. On 11 January it was reported that 12 new characters would be joining the cast.
Fresh Out of Essex was a set of mini online 5 -- 12 minute episodes that were uploaded onto the official website when the series was off air. 35 mini-episodes were uploaded, with two series airing in 2012. The series has not returned.
In December 2011 the show 's current cast released a cover of the Wham! classic Last Christmas, with their own unique version of the show 's theme song ' The Only Way Is Up ' as the single 's B - side. The version used on the show, by Yazz, spent five weeks at number one in 1988. All profits from the single go to Text Santa, a major new charity initiative set up by ITV, which aims to raise money and awareness for a group of charities, including Crisis, Samaritans and Great Ormond Street Hospital.
The official video for the single premiered on 1 December at 11 pm on ITV2 and featured Jess Wright taking lead vocals alongside Lauren and Gemma. The video shows the current cast from series 3 singing in the studio with clips of the Lauren, Mark and Lucy love triangle from series 1. Half of the current cast, including main singers on the single Jessica Wright and James Argent, performed the single on the final episode of the Text Santa TV series.
Joey Essex Presents Essex Anthems is a 60 - song compilation album of dance tracks selected by Joey Essex, released on 17 March 2014.
The Only Way Is Marbs -- Marbella Sessions is a 61 - song compilation album released 23 June 2014 to coincide with the start of series 12 which saw the return of The Only Way Is Marbs. The album is mixed by Lauren Pope.
The Only Way Is Essex -- Dance Anthems is a 61 - song compilation album due to be released 13 October 2014 The album is the second to be mixed by Lauren Pope.
Series 1 - 17 have been shown in Australia on LifeStyle You channel on Foxtel, and Series 1 - 4 have been shown in New Zealand on LifeStyle You channel on Sky TV. Series 1 -- 20 are available in the United States on video - on - demand site Hulu. The show airs in Israel on yes Drama. Series 1 - 5 has been showing in South Africa (June 2013 - June 2014). Series 17 began broadcasting on UTV Ireland on 18 April 2016.
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where was alice in chains down in a hole video filmed | Down in a Hole - wikipedia
"Down in a Hole '' is a power ballad by Alice in Chains, featured on their album Dirt (1992). It is the twelfth song on most pressings of the album and fourth or eleventh on others. The song was included on the compilation albums Nothing Safe: Best of the Box (1999) and Music Bank (1999).
Songwriter and guitarist Jerry Cantrell was at first hesitant to present the song to the band, feeling that the song was too soft, but after a positive response from the band, they followed through and recorded it. The composition is written in A ♭ minor, utilizing Dorian mode, and is centered mainly around Ab minor - Gb major - Db major chord progression, with Layne Staley 's and Jerry Cantrell 's vocal parts intricately harmonizing.
In the liner notes of 1999 's Music Bank box set collection, Jerry Cantrell said of the song:
("Down in a Hole '') 's in my top three, personally. It 's to my long - time love. It 's the reality of my life, the path I 've chosen and in a weird way it kind of foretold where we are right now. It 's hard for us to both understand... that this life is not conducive to much success with long - term relationships.
"Down in a Hole '' was released as a single in 1993. "Down in a Hole '' peaked at number ten on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. The UK single was released in October 1993. "Down in a Hole '' reached the top 40 in the UK and the top 30 in Ireland.
Ned Raggett of Allmusic said that "Staley 's... half - strangled but still amazingly evocative performance... is heartfelt and almost yearning '' and that "the end result feels like a ruined man looking for some sort of comfort. ''
"Down in a Hole '' became one of the five video - singles from the album. The music video was released in 1993 and was directed by Nigel Dick. The video is available on the home video release Music Bank: The Videos.
Alice in Chains performed an acoustic version of "Down in a Hole '' for its appearance on MTV Unplugged in 1996 and the song was included on the Unplugged live album and home video release. Also, another acoustic version of "Down in a Hole '' featuring new vocalist William DuVall on lead vocals is included on Japanese version of Black Gives Way to Blue as a bonus track.
The song was covered by professional baseball player Bronson Arroyo on his 2005 album, Covering the Bases, which lists the song as "Down in the Hole ''. Fuel acoustically covered the song in 2007 on AM Radio. On his low - key 2007 tour -- in support of his album Easy Tiger -- Ryan Adams covered the song live with his band, The Cardinals. A cover of the song is also featured on Adams ' 2007 EP Follow the Lights. The Christian metal band Demon Hunter perform an acoustic version of the song on the deluxe edition of their album The World Is a Thorn.
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where did they film blood in blood out | Blood in Blood out - wikipedia
Blood In Blood Out (also known as Bound by Honor) is a 1993 American crime - drama film directed by Taylor Hackford. It follows the intertwining lives of three Chicano relatives from 1972 to 1984. They start out as members of a street gang in East Los Angeles, and as dramatic incidents occur, their lives and friendships are forever changed. Blood In Blood Out was filmed in 1991 throughout the Spanish - speaking areas of Los Angeles and inside California 's San Quentin State Prison.
Miklo is a man of Mexican and White American ethnicity who grew up in El Pico Aliso barrio in east Los Angeles. Upon moving back home from Las Vegas, Nevada, Miklo goes to stay with his two cousins Paco and Cruz. Miklo tells Cruz that he wants to join their gang Vatos Locos. While Paco is initially skeptical, Miklo later proves himself when he performs an attack on a rival gang, Tres Puntos. Afterwards he is made a member of Vatos Locos.
However, the Tres Puntos gang soon takes revenge by brutally attacking Cruz who is a budding artist, and damages his back for life. When Vatos Locos learn of the attack, they perform a well - planned counterattack. However, things go wrong when Miklo ends up getting shot by their rival gang 's leader, "Spider ''. Miklo is able to shoot and kill Spider, but has to be rushed to the hospital by Paco while being chased by police. Paco crashes into another car at the El Pino tree and they are both arrested.
From here, the trio 's paths diverges: Miklo is sent to San Quentin State Prison for murder, Paco volunteers for military service in the United States Marine Corps as an alternative choice to prison, and Cruz continues his passion for art. He also becomes a heroin addict due to the recurring back pain. His addiction leads to him being disowned by his family after his 12 - year - old brother, Juanito, dies from injecting air into his veins thinking it 's Cruz 's heroin supply. Paco becomes an L.A.P.D. narcotics detective after leaving the Marine Corps.
Miklo finds trouble adapting to prison life. The prison is run by three prison gangs, all of whom are based on their racial backgrounds. The Black Guerrilla Army (B.G.A.) is led by "Bonafide '', the Aryan Vanguard is led by "Red Ryder '', and La Onda is led by Montana Segura. La Onda 's members do not initially accept Miklo and one of them, Popeye, tries to rape Miklo at knife - point, but is stopped by Montana. After meeting Montana, he is told the only way into La Onda is killing an enemy inmate, in Miklo 's case a white inmate named Big Al who runs the gambling in San Quentin. After gaining Big Al 's trust, Miklo stabs him to death during a sexual encounter in the prison kitchen. Miklo is initiated into La Onda, is later promoted to its Ruling Council, and is granted parole after serving nine years in prison.
On the outside, Miklo is disgusted by his menial job on which his supervisor is extorting money from him, so he joins in an armed robbery. The heist goes poorly and Miklo is intercepted by Paco, now a decorated cop. Miklo tries to run away, but Paco shoots him in the leg, which later has to be amputated. Miklo is sent back to prison where he notices the cocaine addictions of several inmates. Onda Council Member Carlos has entered the cocaine trade and is competing with the B.G.A. for customers. The Aryan Vanguard want to partner with Carlos in the cocaine business by becoming his new supplier. In return, Carlos moves on the B.G.A. and take them out of the cocaine business. Montana, however, is fiercely against allowing La Onda to enter the drug trade, saying that drugs will destroy La Onda and that the Aryan Vanguard want to start a war between the Black and Chicano inmates. The other Council members agree with Montana and vote against it. This causes Carlos to leave La Onda to work with the Aryan Vanguard, causing other members to follow him. Carlos murders a B.G.A. soldier named "Pockets '' who is running the B.G.A. 's cocaine operation. He also contacts his brother, Smokey, outside of prison to bomb a B.G.A. hangout where they move their drugs. After all of this happens, Carlos ' usefulness has come to an end and the Aryan Vanguard drops their protection of him. The B.G.A. then takes the opportunity to murder Carlos. Despite his death, Miklo agrees with Carlos 's outlook after being convinced by Carlos 's old drug supplier.
With hostility high between the Black and Hispanic inmates, Montana and Bonafide meet in the prison yard. Montana convinces Bonafide to agree to a truce if Montana reaches out to La Onda leaders in the Folsom and Chino prisons to end the violence. The warden grants Montana special permission to visit the Chino and Folsom prisons and Miklo is left in charge during his absence. Montana is granted a special request, and he gets to stay overnight at Delano penitentiary where he can see his daughter. On the morning of the visit, Montana is stabbed to death outside his cell by a member of the B.G.A.. Believing that the Aryan Vanguard sent forged orders to the hitman, Paco arranges a peace conference between La Onda and the B.G.A. However, Miklo, La Onda 's new leader, manipulates the peace talks in order to build an alliance with the B.G.A. and they agree to kill the Aryan Vanguard leaders.
Later, enforcers for La Onda and the B.G.A. sweep through the walls of San Quentin, killing the leaders of the Aryan Vanguard. After the killings are done, however, Miklo 's men promptly exterminate the B.G.A. leaders as well. Paco is enraged that his own cousin has played him for a fool and angrily confronts Miklo in the prison visiting room. Paco leaves his cousin in disgust, disowning him forever.
The members of La Onda hold a final gathering after the warden vows to split the council up transporting some members to their home states. Miklo plans on using this to expand La Onda to other states in the South West. Later, Miklo and his cellmate "Magic '' destroy the mold which they used to send the forged orders to the B.G.A. hit man to kill Montana. Magic says "We both loved him, but we did what we had to do for La Onda. '' Back in East Los Angeles, Paco visits one of Cruz 's murals after the family re-accepts him to see a portrait of his former life. In a pep talk with Cruz, Paco realizes that by ordering Miklo to go after Spider, Paco is responsible for all of the things that have happened to Miklo. This causes Paco to feel guilty for his actions and ultimately forgive Miklo.
The three prison gangs in the film are fictional creations of screenwriter Jimmy Santiago Baca and director Taylor Hackford. However, they were all loosely based on actual prison gangs, with the Aryan Vanguard, Black Guerrilla Army and La Onda representing the Aryan Brotherhood, Black Guerrilla Family, and the Mexican Mafia, respectively.
Actor Theodore Wilson died shortly after filming his scenes in the film.
Artist Adan Hernandez was hired to create the paintings the character of Cruz Candelaria was supposed to have painted. All of the paintings that were used in the film were created by him. The mural in the reservoir seen in the film 's climax has unfortunately been painted over. Hernandez made a cameo appearance in the film as the drug dealer Gilbert in the art gallery scene.
The film was shot in and around Los Angeles and East Los Angeles and inside the walls of San Quentin State Prison. The main character Miklo is sent to San Quentin, where much of the film 's plot takes place. Several of the then - inmates appear in the film as extras. In addition, several of the prison staff members also appear as others and some facilitated the production of the film by serving as technical advisors. Many members of the staff were given small lines in the film, with the warden giving an extended cameo in a part that is somewhat integral to the plot. In addition, actor Danny Trejo, who appears in the film as Geronimo, had served time in San Quentin before deciding to become an actor.
In addition to prison inmates and staff and artist Hernandez, screenwriter and barrio poet Jimmy Santiago Baca cameos as a prison inmate and member of the La Onda council.
The film was initially entitled Blood in Blood Out but was retitled Bound by Honor before the film 's release. Blood in blood out refers to the initiation ritual of having to kill someone to enter a gang and, on the reverse end, not being able to leave the gang unless killed. This is a common initiation in many gangs, including prison gangs, and is also the motto of La Onda in the film. Hollywood Pictures insisted on the name change as the studio felt that it would incite violence in East Los Angeles. In addition, executives at Hollywood Pictures, a subsidiary of Disney, were cautious about the potential effect the film would have following the 1992 LA Riots and the attribution given to Boyz N the Hood as a partial cause / inspiration of the riots. Director Taylor Hackford has stated that he was very unhappy with this decision as the film 's message was the exact opposite of the one that the studio feared would be transmitted.
The film received mixed reviews from critics. It holds a 55 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 11 reviews. On IMDb it holds an 8 / 10. The TV Guide review stated "similarity to Edward James Olmos ' American Me, in which a tormented drug dealer travels the same route through prison society as Miklo. The principal difference between the two films is that Bound By Honor is by far the glossier effort, relentlessly picturesque in the seamlessly anesthetized manner of mainstream Hollywood films. '' Film critic Jonathan Rosenbaum for the Chicago Reader wrote that this "ugly three - hour snoozefest is apparently supposed to do for East Los Angeles Chicanos what the Godfather movies did for New York mafiosi... '' Roger Ebert wrote "The East Los Angeles milieu and some of the characters seem familiar, because some of the same ground was covered by American Me... Bound by Honor covers similar material in a less passionate and finally less meaningful way. '' Roger Ebert gave the film 2 stars out of 4. A critic from Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman gave Bound By Honor a B -, falling on the high end of the movie spectrum. He states "Bound By Honor comes fully alive when it moves behind bars. There 's an exploitative thrill built into the genre... '' This film critic was definitely more interested in the second half of the movie once Miklo was in jail running La Onda. Vincent Canby from the New York Times wrote "The film is big and long, passionate and flat. It 's full of heroic and tragic incident, but skimpy about the details of quotidian lives. '' Giving a very detailed review on the plot of the story he later exalts some of the characters in the movie one in particular, Enrique Castillo. Although Vincent Canby does not give an official rating for the film, he concludes "Though it 's not the epic it means to be, it is not a failure. ''
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where did the yankees get gleyber torres from | Gleyber Torres - wikipedia
Gleyber David Torres Castro (born December 13, 1996) is a Venezuelan professional baseball second baseman and shortstop for the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball (MLB). He made his MLB debut on April 22, 2018.
Torres was born and raised in Caracas by his parents Eusebio Torres and Ibelise Castro. Intrigued by the name "Qleyber '', his father decided to name Torres after it because of its uniqueness. He grew up in a middle class household. However, life at home devolved into unrest as many citizens starting rebelling against the government, resulting in food shortages, rampant crime and widespread violence.
Torres started playing baseball at the age of four as a center fielder, catcher, pitcher, and eventually shortstop. His passion for baseball grew watching games on TV, while idolizing his favorite player Omar Vizquel. Torres also played basketball briefly in high school, but he quit it on his father 's instructions in order to focus on baseball. Academies began to take notice of his talent and wanted to help Torres become a professional. At 14, he moved to Maracay to enroll in an academy that had contacts with MLB scouts. He was sought out by the Chicago Cubs and signed a contract with them.
When he was not playing baseball he would spend a lot of time with his friends, riding bicycles and going to amusement parks. One of his favorite games was "chapitas. '' The game was played with a bottle cap, with one person pitching and another batting with a broomstick.
Torres signed with the Chicago Cubs as an international free agent in 2013, for a $1.7 million signing bonus. He made his professional debut in 2014 with the Arizona Cubs of the Rookie - level Arizona League. He was later promoted to the Boise Hawks of the Class A-Short Season Northwest League. In 50 games for the two teams combined, he hit. 297 /. 386 /. 440 with two home runs.
In 2015, Torres began the season with the South Bend Cubs of the Class A Midwest League, and was promoted to the Myrtle Beach Pelicans of the Class A-Advanced Carolina League in September. In 487 at bats over 126 games for the two teams combined, he hit. 287 /. 346 /. 376 with three home runs and 64 runs batted in (RBIs).
Torres started 2016 with Myrtle Beach. On July 25, the Cubs traded Torres, Adam Warren, Billy McKinney, and Rashad Crawford to the Yankees for relief pitcher Aroldis Chapman. He began his Yankees career playing with the Tampa Yankees of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League. He finished the 2016 season batting. 270 /. 354 /. 421 with 11 home runs and 66 RBIs for the two Class A+ teams combined. After the season, the Yankees assigned him to the Scottsdale Scorpions of the Arizona Fall League (AFL). After batting. 403 in 76 at bats with a. 513 on - base percentage and a 1.158 OPS, Torres was named the AFL Most Valuable Player. At the age of 19, Torres was the youngest player in the AFL, and the youngest player in history to win the AFL MVP. He was ranked after the 2016 season as the Yankees ' top prospect by Baseball America.
Torres was listed as the fifth best prospect in baseball entering the 2017 season by Baseball America. After hitting. 448 in 29 at bats with two home runs in spring training with the Yankees, Torres began the 2017 season with the Trenton Thunder of the Class AA Eastern League. In April, he went on the 7 - day disabled list with rotator cuff inflammation. The Yankees promoted Torres to the Scranton / Wilkes - Barre RailRiders of the Class AAA International League in May. In June, Torres slid headfirst into home, despite the fact that the Yankees stress to their players to slide feet - first because the team believes it is safer, and tore the ulnar collateral ligament in his non-throwing left elbow. On June 19, Torres was ruled out for the rest of the 2017 season after it was determined that his injury required Tommy John surgery. He finished the 2017 season batting. 287 /. 383 /. 480 with 7 home runs and 34 RBIs for the two teams combined. The Yankees added him to their 40 - man roster after the season.
Entering the 2018 season, Torres was labeled as the fifth - best prospect in baseball and the best shortstop prospect by MLB.com. During spring training, Torres competed with Miguel Andujar and other infielders for a spot on the opening day roster. On March 13, 2018, Torres was optioned to Scranton / Wilkes - Barre to begin the year. He was pulled out of the game on April 22 after six innings. Torres misunderstood thinking it was a punishment for not hustling enough but after the game he was called into manager Bobby Mitchell 's office where he heard of his promotion to the Major Leagues.
Torres made his MLB debut on April 22, 2018, against the Toronto Blue Jays, going 0 - for - 4. The next day against the Minnesota Twins, Torres recorded his first MLB hit. On May 4, Torres hit his first career home run off Josh Tomlin. At 21 years old, Torres was the youngest Yankee to homer since John Ellis in 1969.
On May 6, 2018, against the Cleveland Indians, Torres hit his first career walk - off home run off of relief pitcher Dan Otero, giving the Yankees a 7 -- 4 victory. On May 21, 2018, against the Texas Rangers, Torres recorded his first multi-homer game when he hit two home runs as the Yankees won 10 -- 5. On May 25 against the Los Angeles Angels, Torres hit a home run in his fourth straight game; at 21 years and 163 days old, Torres is the youngest player in American League history to accomplish that feat. Torres was named AL Player of the Week for the week ending on May 27, when he hit. 368 /. 429 / 1.158 with five home runs and nine RBIs. On May 29, Torres hit a walk - off single to beat the Houston Astros in extra innings. Torres was also named American League Rookie of the Month for May. He posted a slash line of. 317 /. 374 /. 659 scoring 13 runs, 26 hits, nine home runs and 24 RBIs. On July 4, Torres went on the 10 - day disabled list due to a right hip strain. After batting. 294 with 15 home runs and 42 RBIs, Torres was selected to the 2018 All - Star Game, his first All - Star appearance, but he did not play in the game. For the week ending on September 2nd, Gleyber Torres was once again named AL Player of the week. On September 29th, Torres hit the Yankees 265th home run of 2018 surpassing the 1997 Seattle Mariners for most home runs in a single season. In addition, it was the 20th home run in the 9th spot of the order making the Yankees the first team in history to have 20 home runs from every batting spot in the lineup.
Torres met his long - time girlfriend Elizabeth in his hometown Caracas in 2014 and got married in April 2017. She 's been a big support for him since the Minor Leagues. Torres is very close to his family and friends back at home and is in communication with them daily. He tries to make it a point to go back for the holidays every December.
Off the field, Torres 's transition to New York City was a bit difficult and it took him time to get accustomed to the fast - paced lifestyle. Nevertheless, he enjoys his life in New York and is looking forward to exploring the rest of the city. After being called up to the Majors, he has taken an initiative to get better at speaking in English by taking accelerated English classes. A year ago Torres conducted interviews with Yankees translator Marlon Abreu by his side, but now refuses to have a translator. He wants to be able to express how he feels and what he wants to say. Torres finds being able to connect with the fans and the media in New York is an important part to getting accustomed to his new home.
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who played in this year's rose bowl | 2018 Rose Bowl - wikipedia
Offensive: Sony Michel, RB
The 2018 Rose Bowl was a college football bowl game between the Oklahoma Sooners and the Georgia Bulldogs, played on January 1, 2018 at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena, California. The 104th Rose Bowl Game was a semifinal for the College Football Playoff (CFP), matching two of the top four teams selected by the system 's selection committee. Georgia and Oklahoma competed for a spot at the 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship game, to be played on January 8, 2018 at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia. The Georgia Bulldogs won the game with a 27 - yard run by Sony Michel, shortly after Lorenzo Carter blocked Oklahoma Sooners ' field goal attempt in the second overtime. The game lasted four hours and five minutes. With 26.8 million viewers on ESPN, the game ranked as the fifth most - viewed cable program of all time.
The game was one of the 2017 -- 18 bowl games that concluded the 2017 FBS football season. It was televised on ESPN and ESPN Deportes, and broadcast on ESPN Radio and XM Satellite Radio, with the kickoff at 5 p.m. ET (2 p.m. local time). The Pasadena Tournament of Roses Association organized the game. Sponsored by the Northwestern Mutual financial services organization, the game was officially known as the College Football Playoff Semifinal at the Rose Bowl Game presented by Northwestern Mutual.
In the 2018 Rose Bowl, the # 2 - ranked Oklahoma Sooners, champions of the Big 12 Conference, faced the # 3 - ranked Georgia Bulldogs, champions of the Southeastern Conference. This was the first meeting between the University of Georgia and the University of Oklahoma football teams.
Traditionally, the Rose Bowl pits the winners of the Big Ten Conference and Pac - 12 Conference. However, any teams may be selected every three years, when the Rose Bowl is a CFP semifinal. The Big 12 and SEC champions traditionally meet in the Sugar Bowl. The 2018 Sugar Bowl was used as the other semifinal this year, allowing any team to be selected.
The matchups for the semifinals are geographically selected to ensure the top two teams do not play in road environments. More than one team from the same conference may participate in the game, and avoiding rematches is not a selection factor.
Georgia won their only previous Rose Bowl appearance when their 1942 team, which claims a national championship, beat the Pacific Coast Conference (predecessor to the Pac - 12) champion UCLA 9 -- 0 in 1943, a matchup which occurred prior to the Big Nine - PCC agreement. Oklahoma won their only previous Rose Bowl appearance when their 2002 team beat the then Pac - 10 champion Washington State 34 -- 14 in 2003, a matchup which occurred since Big Ten champion Ohio State was selected for the Fiesta Bowl, which was being used as that year 's BCS National Championship Game, and Oklahoma was selected to replace them.
Georgia opened the 2017 season as the No. 15 team in both the AP and Coaches Polls. In the season opener, the Georgia Bulldogs faced the Appalachian State Mountaineers. During the first quarter, starting quarterback Jacob Eason was injured in an out - of - bounds hit that strained his knee. Freshman quarterback Jake Fromm replaced Eason. Fromm started as quarterback the rest of the season.
Georgia traveled to its first away and out - of - conference game against the No. 24 Notre Dame Fighting Irish on September 9, 2017. The score was back - and - forth the whole game, until Rodrigo Blankenship scored a field goal with 3: 34 to go in the fourth quarter, giving Georgia a 20 -- 19 lead. On 1st - and - 10, Georgia linebacker Davin Bellamy sacked quarterback Brandon Wimbush, and forced a fumble, which Georgia 's Lorenzo Carter recovered. The Bulldogs held the field, winning the game. The Bulldogs returned home for the next two weeks, beating the Samford Bulldogs 42 -- 14 and the No. 17 Mississippi State Bulldogs 31 -- 3.
On September 30, 2017, No. 7 Georgia traveled to Knoxville to play longtime SEC East rival the Tennessee Volunteers after losing to them at home in 2016. The Bulldogs defeated the Volunteers in a 41 -- 0 shutout, which was Tennessee 's worst home loss since 1905. The following week, Georgia returned to Tennessee to play the Vanderbilt Commodores, winning 45 -- 14. Undefeated No. 4 Georgia faced the Missouri Tigers back home in Athens, winning 53 -- 28. During that game, Georgia gained 696 total yards, the second - highest in school history. When Georgia faced their biggest rival, the Florida Gators, in the annual neutral - location game, Georgia remained undefeated and beat Florida 42 -- 7, the biggest win in the rivalry since 1982. After Florida 's loss to Georgia, they fired head coach Jim McElwain. The following week, Georgia beat the South Carolina Gamecocks 24 -- 10, clinching the SEC East and their spot in the SEC Championship.
On November 11, 2017, Georgia lost to the Auburn Tigers 17 -- 40 in what would be their only loss of the regular season. Georgia wrapped up the regular season by beating the Kentucky Wildcats 42 -- 13 and the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets 38 -- 7. On December 2, 2017, No. 6 Georgia joined No. 4 Auburn in the SEC Championship, the only team who beat them during the regular season. In the rematch, Georgia took the lead in the second quarter when Georgia linebacker Davin Bellamy stripped the ball from Auburn quarterback Jarrett Stidham, recovered by Roquan Smith and leading to Georgia 's drive that tied the score. Georgia took the SEC title for the first time since 2005, almost certainly securing their spot in the playoffs.
In the 2017 preseason polls, Oklahoma was ranked No. 7 in the AP Poll and No. 8 in the Coaches Poll. Oklahoma opened the season against the University of Texas at El Paso Miners, winning 56 -- 7 and showcasing a strong offense. Next, No. 6 Oklahoma traveled to the No. 2 Ohio State Buckeyes and won 31 -- 16. In Oklahoma 's first meeting with the Tulane Green Wave, No. 2 Oklahoma won 56 -- 14. They went on to play the Baylor Bears, eking out an expected blowout but still winning 44 -- 34.
In Oklahoma 's big upset of the season, they lost to the Iowa State Cyclones 31 -- 38. They went on to beat the Texas Longhorns 29 -- 24 after Texas recovered from a 20 - point deficit. The Sooners also began the next game against the Kansas State Wildcats with a 14 - point deficit in the first half, but in a second - half comeback, Rodney Anderson scored a 22 - yard touchdown with seven seconds left in the game, winning 42 -- 35. Against the Texas Tech Red Raiders, Mayfield led the team to a 49 -- 27 victory.
Oklahoma met the Oklahoma State Cowboys for their annual rivalry game, and quarterback Baker Mayfield completed 598 yards, winning 62 -- 52. The No. 5 Sooners beat the No. 8 Texas Christian University Horned Frogs 38 -- 20, taking 1st place in the Big 12. In the next away game against the Kansas Jayhawks, Mayfield accounted for his 127th touchdown, breaking Landry Jones 's record as completing the most touchdowns in school history, and they won the game 41 -- 3. During the game, Mayfield lost his captaincy for the following game against the West Virginia Mountaineers when he screamed profanity and grabbed his crotch, which he directed at the Kansas sideline. Mayfield 's replacement, Kyler Murray, started the game, but Mayfield returned and won 59 -- 31.
On December 2, 2017, No. 2 Oklahoma joined No. 10 TCU in a rematch in the Big 12 Championship, winning 41 -- 17. The game secured Oklahoma 's spot in the College Football Playoff semifinals.
Oklahoma scored on five of six possessions in the first half, and they entered halftime leading Georgia by 14 points.
The 54 -- 48 score made this the highest - scoring Rose Bowl, edging out 2017 's University of Southern California 52 -- 49 win over Penn State.
After winning the coin toss, Oklahoma elected to defer and kick off. Georgia was forced to punt the ball on the first drive of the game, giving Oklahoma its first possession. Oklahoma 's quarterback Baker Mayfield completed three passes, the third to Marquise Brown in the end zone, scoring the first touchdown of the day.
Sony Michel rushed for a 75 - yard touchdown.
At the end of the second quarter, the Sooners employed a double reverse, and Baker Mayfield caught his first pass in college to score a 2 - yard touchdown.
Georgia received its possession with only 6 seconds on the clock, and Rodrigo Blankenship scored a 55 - yard field goal. Blankenship set a Rose Bowl record for longest field goal kick.
The Sooners led 31 - 17 at halftime but the Bulldogs scored fourteen unanswered points in the third quarter.
The game went back and forth in the last quarter. Baker Mayfield threw the first interception of the game, as Dominick Sanders intercepted his pass. Jake Fromm completed a 4 - yard pass to Javon Wims, taking the lead for the first time in the game, at 38 -- 31.
Oklahoma tied the game back up, with Dimitri Flowers scoring a touchdown with 8: 47 left in the game. Sony Michel fumbled in the next possession, and Oklahoma 's Steven Parker recovered the fumble and returned it 46 yards to score a touchdown, putting the Sooners in the lead again.
With fifty - five seconds left in the game, Nick Chubb took a direct snap and rushed for two yards for a game - tying touchdown. Oklahoma did not score on its last drive of regulation game, forcing overtime.
The game went into overtime and was the first Rose Bowl in history to do so. The Sooners won the overtime coin toss and elected to play defense first. The teams traded field goals in the first overtime, sending the game into a second overtime.
Georgia 's Lorenzo Carter blocked Oklahoma kicker Austin Seibert 's 27 - yard field goal attempt, meaning Georgia would win the game with any points during its possession. When Georgia had the ball, Sony Michel took a direct snap on a second down and rushed for a 27 - yard touchdown, winning the game for the Bulldogs.
In this game, a number of Rose Bowl records were set:
Pre-game activities were held at the Rose Bowl parking lots and at Brookside Golf Course. The 2017 Rose Bowl Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony was held at the Rose Bowl Stadium Lot K on December 30, 2017 from 12: 00 to 1: 30 PM. The 2017 Class members were Mack Brown (Texas), Cade McNown (UCLA), Charles Woodson (Michigan) and Dr. Charles West (Washington & Jefferson), represented by his daughter.
The 2018 Rose Parade started at 8: 00 a.m. Pacific Time and featured floral floats, marching bands, and equestrian units marching down the 5.5 mile route of the parade down Colorado Boulevard.
The 2018 Rose Parade 's theme was "Making A Difference, '' and actor Gary Sinise was its Grand Marshal.
# denotes national championship game / denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game. Forward slash (/) denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
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most of the world's wealth is held by countries in north america south america and europe | List of countries by distribution of wealth - Wikipedia
This is a list of countries by distribution of wealth, including Gini coefficients. Wealth distribution can vary greatly from income distribution in a country. See: List of countries by income equality.
Higher Gini coefficients signify greater inequality in wealth distribution, with 0 being complete equality, whereas a value near 1 can arise in a situation where everybody has zero wealth except a very small minority. "The top 10 percent owned 71 percent of world wealth, and the Gini coefficient for the global distribution of wealth is estimated to be 0.804, indicating greater inequality than that observed in the global distribution of consumption or income. ''
The table below is for 2000, and is based on purchasing power parity (PPP) dollars, based on a 2008 working paper published by the National Bureau of Economic Research.
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when will dragon ball super english dub be released | List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia
Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5, 2015 on Fuji TV. It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years. Storywise, the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films, Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ', which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z. Afterwards, the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes, the reemergence of Future Trunks, and a new threat to his Earth known as Goku Black and a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu. Later, the Z Fighters participate in a universal tournament held by Zeno - sama to decide the fate of multiple universes. If they lose in the universal tournament, then their entire universe will be erased.
The first opening theme song for episodes 1 to 76 is "Chōzetsu ☆ Dynamic! '' (超絶 ☆ ダイナミック!, Chōzetsu Dainamikku, "Excellent Dynamic! '') by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey. The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series. The second opening theme song from episode 77 onwards is "Limit - Break x Survivor '' (限界 突破 × サバイバー, Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā) by Kiyoshi Hikawa. Yukinojo Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number "Genkai Toppa x Survivor '' and Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music. The first ending theme song for episodes 1 to 12 is "Hello Hello Hello '' (ハロー ハロー ハロー, Harō Harō Harō) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America. The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is "Starring Star '' (スターリング スター, Sutāringu Sutā) by Key Talk. The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is "Usubeni '' (薄 紅, "Light Pink '') by Lacco Tower. The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is "Forever Dreaming '' (フォーエバー ドリーミング, Fōebā Dorīmingu) by Czecho No Republic. The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is "Yokayoka Dance '' (よかよか ダンス, Yokayoka Dansu, "It 's Fine Dance '') by idol group Batten Showjo Tai. The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is "Chao Han Music '' (炒飯 MUSIC, Chāhan Myūjikku) by Arukara. The seventh ending theme from episodes 73 to 83 is "Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' (悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔, An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil) by THE COLLECTORS. The eighth ending theme from episodes 84 to 96 is "Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue. The ninth ending theme from episodes 97 to 108 is "Haruka '' by Lacco Tower. The tenth ending theme from episodes 109 onwards is "By A 70cm Square Window '' by RottenGraffty.
The anime episodes are being released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each. The first set was released on December 2, 2015. The second set was released on March 2, 2016. The third set was released on July 2, 2016. The fourth set was released on October 10, 2016.
Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia and India in January 2017. The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC. Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France, Italy, Spain, and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016. An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll, Daisuki.net, and Anime Lab beginning October 22, 2016. Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub. As well as officially announcing the dub, it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform, FunimationNow. Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super started airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting January 7, 2017.
The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle, but they fear the worst is still to come. On Earth, Vegeta, Whis, and the others are still standing by while watching the battle. Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee. In space, Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack, which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth. Shortly after, the light clears out, which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion. Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion, which saved the universe. Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast, Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again. Despite being at his limit, Goku remains calm, which annoys the God of Destruction. Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding, which Goku promptly denies. Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought. The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting, but this time both are at their limit. As soon as they start, Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form. Upon noticing that, Beerus decides to quit. He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan. However, Goku does not notice and keeps going at it. Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy. Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost. However, Piccolo begs to differ. Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form, Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power. This made him stronger in his ordinary form. With or without the Super Saiyan God form, Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against. Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods.
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who plays kyle diaz in grey's anatomy | Wilmer Valderrama - wikipedia
Wilmer Eduardo Valderrama (/ vɑːldəˈrɑːmə /; Spanish: (baldeˈrama); born January 30, 1980) is an American actor, producer, singer and television personality. He is best known for the role of Fez in the sitcom That ' 70s Show (1998 -- 2006) and as Carlos Madrigal in From Dusk till Dawn: The Series (2014 -- 16). He was also host of the MTV series Yo Momma (2006 -- 07), the voice of Manny in the children 's show Handy Manny (2006 -- 13) and has had recurring roles on Grey 's Anatomy as well as The Ranch (both in 2016). He also has a role on NCIS.
Valderrama has further performed in several prominent feature films, including Party Monster (2003), Beauty Shop (2005), Fast Food Nation (2006), Unaccompanied Minors (2006), Zoom (2006), Larry Crowne (2011), and The Adderall Diaries (2015). He is set to voice the character of Prince Charming in the family animated film Charming (2018).
Valderrama was born in Miami, Florida, the son of Sobeida and Balbino A. Valderrama, who owned a farm equipment rental company. When he was three, they moved to Venezuela and then later when he was 14 years old moved back to the United States. He is of Colombian and Venezuelan descent.
Valderrama dated actress Lindsay Lohan in 2004. He later dated Demi Lovato from 2010 until 2016.
Valderrama got his start performing in numerous plays, including A Midsummer Night 's Dream and Rumors. He made his professional debut in a Spanish - language Pacific Bell commercial. At his drama teacher 's suggestion, he got an agent and was cast in the CBS miniseries Four Corners and in Omba Mokomba on the Disney Channel. He made his big screen debut in the film Summer Catch.
Valderrama played Fez on That ' 70s Show from 1998 -- 2006; he was a senior in high school when the pilot episode was filmed. He played DJ Keoki in the 2003 film Party Monster. He produced and hosted the MTV series Yo Momma from 2006 to 2007, and appeared three times on Punk 'd, hosted by fellow That ' 70s Show alumnus Ashton Kutcher.
In April and May 2003, Valderrama appeared in the Los Angeles Times critic 's choice play Blackout, an adaptation of the feature film Drunks, and on April 4, 2004, starred in the Actors ' Fund of America one - performance only reading of Sunset Boulevard. He filmed the short film La torcedura in which he played the lead, and appeared in The Darwin Awards, an independent film directed by Finn Taylor.
In animation work, Valderrama voiced Rodrigo in Clifford 's Really Big Movie. He also voices the main character, Manny, in Disney Channel 's Handy Manny series for preschoolers. He had a starring role in El Muerto, an indie film directed by Brian Cox and based on the comic book created by Javier Hernandez. In January 2007, Valderrama launched his own men 's fashion label called "Calavena ''.
In 2010, Valderrama guest - starred on Disney Channel 's series Wizards of Waverly Place playing the role of Theresa Russo 's brother, Ernesto. In 2011, he appeared in three episodes of USA Network 's Royal Pains as Eric Kassabian, an art dealer.
In 2012, Valderrama co-hosted Premios Juventud as a superhero on July 19, 2012. In August 2012, he appeared in house music group Nomads ' music video of "Addicted to Love ''.
On September 27, 2013, Valderrama won an ALMA Award for Outstanding Social Activism. By late November 2013, Valderrama had joined the cast of From Dusk till Dawn: The Series.
On June 16, 2016, Valderrama joined NCIS in its fourteenth season. He is a series regular as NCIS Special Agent Nicholas Torres.
On May 11, 2011, Valderrama released the song "The Way I Fiesta '', which he performed as his alter ego Eduardo Fresco. The video was directed by Akiva Schaffer from the group The Lonely Island. Danny Masterson, Valderrama 's co-star from That ' 70s Show, has a cameo appearance in the video. Valderrama appeared in the 2009 music video for Wisin & Yandel 's song "Imagínate ''. He also appeared in and produced the 2011 video for LMFAO 's song "Sexy and I Know It ''. At the Billboard Latin Music Awards, he said that he is making music which he will release in Spanish and English. On July 27, 2012, he had an interview with Latina and said that he is recording tracks and is working with great artists / producers from both the English and the Spanish side. He said he was hoping to release more music in 2013. On March 10, 2014, Valderrama revealed that a Salud Part 2 is in the works and that he has his own music coming out towards the end of the summer of 2014.
Valderrama states music as his first passion on DJ Vice 's Electric Taco.
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where do we go from here chaos or community book | Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? - Wikipedia
Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? is a 1967 book by African - American minister, Nobel Peace Prize laureate, and social justice campaigner Martin Luther King, Jr. Advocating for human rights and a sense of hope, it was King 's fourth and last book before his assassination. He spent a long period in isolation, living in a rented residence in Jamaica with no telephone, composing the book.
It later lapsed out of print until Beacon Press published an expanded edition in 2010, which featured a new introduction passage by King 's long - time friend Vincent Gordon Harding and a foreword by King 's wife, Coretta Scott King. The book received critical acclaim, its revamped version being highlighted as a 2011 University Press Book for Public and Secondary School Libraries and recommended for use in teaching.
One of the central themes of the book 's messages is that of hope. King reflects upon the Civil Rights Movement. He discusses the question of what African - Americans should do with their new freedoms found in laws such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965. He concludes that all Americans must unite in order to fight poverty and create an equality of opportunity. King emphasizes that he is neither a Marxist nor a doctrinaire socialist; he instead advocates for a united social movement that would act within both the Republican and Democratic parties.
Establishing a clear contrast between his own views and that of the Black Power movement, King argues that abandoning the fight for nonviolent social change and replacing it with personal militarism tinged with black separatism is both immoral and self - defeating. He also criticizes moderate American whites for having inaccurate, unrealistic views of the ongoing plight of African - Americans, even after legal reforms undertaken under U.S. President Lyndon Johnson, and he asserts that radical change is still not only just but necessary. The then ongoing Vietnam War represents, in King 's eyes, an immense waste of resources as well as a distraction from pressing domestic issues, the cost in lost lives making it all even worse.
In economic terms specifically, the author cites philological thinker Henry George 's Progress and Poverty while writing in support of broadly Georgist ideas, with King quoting George 's text that "the work which extends knowledge and increases power and enriches literature... is not the work of slaves, driven to their task either by the lash of a master or by animal necessities. '' King concludes that, rather than having a mere welfare state or a general class struggle, U.S. government measures should act more directly to benefit individuals by some kind of guaranteed income:
I am now convinced that the simplest approach will prove to be the most effective -- the solution to poverty is to abolish it directly by a now widely discussed measure: the guaranteed income.
Cornel West, a Princeton University professor and author of books such as Race Matters, remarked:
"Martin Luther King, Jr. was one of the greatest organic intellectuals in American history. His unique ability to connect the life of the mind to the struggle for freedom is legendary, and in this book -- his last grand expression of his vision -- he put forward his most prophetic challenge to powers that be and his most progressive program for the wretched of the earth. ''
King 's argument for a basic income system to improve the U.S. economy and statements against wealth inequality have been cited by a wide variety of later publications. Examples include academic and economist Guy Standing 's 2014 book A Precariat Charter: From Denizens to Citizens and professor P.L. Thomas ' 2012 book Ignoring Poverty in the U.S.: The Corporate Takeover of Public Education. The revamped 2010 version of King 's work was highlighted in a 2011 University Press Book for Public and Secondary School Libraries, and was recommended for use in teaching.
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critically evaluate why a culture of openness is necessary to manage illnesses | Openness to experience - wikipedia
Openness to experience is one of the domains which are used to describe human personality in the Five Factor Model. Openness involves six facets, or dimensions, including active imagination (fantasy), aesthetic sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, preference for variety, and intellectual curiosity. A great deal of psychometric research has demonstrated that these facets or qualities are significantly correlated. Thus, openness can be viewed as a global personality trait consisting of a set of specific traits, habits, and tendencies that cluster together.
Openness tends to be normally distributed with a small number of individuals scoring extremely high or low on the trait, and most people scoring moderately. People who score low on openness are considered to be closed to experience. They tend to be conventional and traditional in their outlook and behavior. They prefer familiar routines to new experiences, and generally have a narrower range of interests. Openness has moderate positive relationships with creativity, intelligence and knowledge. Openness is related to the psychological trait of absorption, and like absorption has a modest relationship to individual differences in hypnotic susceptibility.
Openness has more modest relationships with aspects of subjective well - being than other Five Factor Model personality traits. On the whole openness appears to be largely unrelated to symptoms of mental disorders.
Openness to experience is usually assessed with self - report measures, although peer - reports and third - party observation are also used. Self - report measures are either lexical or based on statements. Which measure of either type is used is determined by an assessment of psychometric properties and the time and space constraints of the research being undertaken
A number of studies have found that openness to experience has two major subcomponents, one related to intellectual dispositions, the other related to the experiential aspects of openness, such as aesthetic appreciation and openness to sensory experiences. These subcomponents have been referred to as intellect and experiencing openness respectively, and have a strong positive correlation (r =. 55) with each other.
According to research by Sam Gosling, it is possible to assess openness by examining people 's homes and work spaces. Individuals who are highly open to experience tend to have distinctive and unconventional decorations. They are also likely to have books on a wide variety of topics, a diverse music collection, and works of art on display.
Openness to experience has both motivational and structural components. People high in openness are motivated to seek new experiences and to engage in self - examination. Structurally, they have a fluid style of consciousness that allows them to make novel associations between remotely connected ideas. Closed people by contrast are more comfortable with familiar and traditional experiences.
Openness to experience correlates with creativity, as measured by tests of divergent thinking. Openness has been linked to both artistic and scientific creativity as professional artists and scientists have been found to score higher in openness compared to members of the general population.
Openness to experience correlates with intelligence, correlation coefficients ranging from about r =. 30 to r =. 45. Openness to experience is moderately associated with crystallized intelligence, but only weakly with fluid intelligence. A study examining the facets of openness found that the Ideas and Actions facets had modest positive correlations with fluid intelligence (r =. 20 and r =. 07 respectively). These mental abilities may come more easily when people are dispositionally curious and open to learning. Several studies have found positive associations between openness to experience and general knowledge. People high in openness may be more motivated to engage in intellectual pursuits that increase their knowledge. Openness to experience, especially the Ideas facet, is related to need for cognition, a motivational tendency to think about ideas, scrutinize information, and enjoy solving puzzles, and to typical intellectual engagement (a similar construct to need for cognition).
Openness to experience is strongly related to the psychological construct of absorption defined as "a disposition for having episodes of ' total ' attention that fully engage one 's representational (i.e. perceptual, enactive, imaginative, and ideational) resources. '' The construct of absorption was developed in order to relate individual differences in hypnotisability to broader aspects of personality. The construct of absorption influenced Costa and McCrae 's development of the concept of openness to experience in their original NEO model due to the independence of absorption from extraversion and neuroticism. A person 's openness to becoming absorbed in experiences seems to require a more general openness to new and unusual experiences. Openness to experience, like absorption has modest positive correlations with individual differences in hypnotisability. Factor analysis has shown that the fantasy, aesthetics, and feelings facets of openness are closely related to absorption and predict hypnotisability, whereas the remaining three facets of ideas, actions, and values are largely unrelated to these constructs. This finding suggests that openness to experience may have two distinct yet related subdimensions: one related to aspects of attention and consciousness assessed by the facets of fantasy, aesthetics, and feelings; the other related to intellectual curiosity and social / political liberalism as assessed by the remaining three facets. However, all of these have a common theme of ' openness ' in some sense. This two - dimensional view of openness to experience is particularly pertinent to hypnotisability. However, when considering external criteria other than hypnotisability, it is possible that a different dimensional structure may be apparent, e.g. intellectual curiosity may be unrelated to social / political liberalism in certain contexts.
Although the factors in the Big Five model are assumed to be independent, openness to experience and extraversion as assessed in the NEO-PI - R have a substantial positive correlation. Openness to experience also has a moderate positive correlation with sensation - seeking, particularly, the experience seeking facet. In spite of this, it has been argued that openness to experience is still an independent personality dimension from these other traits because most of the variance in the trait can not be explained by its overlap with these other constructs. A study comparing the Temperament and Character Inventory with the Five Factor model found that Openness to experience had a substantial positive correlation with self - transcendence (a "spiritual '' trait) and to a lesser extent novelty seeking (conceptually similar to sensation seeking). It also had a moderate negative correlation with harm avoidance. The Myers -- Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) measures the preference of "intuition, '' which is related to openness to experience. Robert McCrae pointed out that the MBTI sensation versus intuition scale "contrasts a preference for the factual, simple and conventional with a preference for the possible, complex, and original, '' and is therefore similar to measures of openness.
There are social and political implications to this personality trait. People who are highly open to experience tend to be liberal and tolerant of diversity. As a consequence, they are generally more open to different cultures and lifestyles. They are lower in ethnocentrism, right - wing or left - wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, and prejudice. Openness has a stronger (negative) relationship with right - wing and left - wing authoritarianism than the other five - factor model traits (conscientiousness has a modest positive association, and the other traits have negligible associations). Openness has a somewhat smaller (negative) association with social dominance orientation than (low) agreeableness (the other traits have negligible associations). Openness has a stronger (negative) relationship with prejudice than the other five - factor model traits (agreeableness has a more modest negative association, and the other traits have negligible associations). However, right - wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation are each more strongly (positively) associated with prejudice than openness or any of the other five - factor model traits.
In regards to conservatism, studies have found that cultural conservatism was related to low openness and all its facets, but economic conservatism was unrelated to total openness, and only weakly negatively related to the Aesthetics and values facets. The strongest personality predictor of economic conservatism was low agreeableness (r = -. 23). Economic conservatism is based more on ideology whereas cultural conservatism seems to be more psychological than ideological and may reflect a preference for simple, stable and familiar mores.
Openness to experience has been found to have modest yet significant associations with happiness, positive affect, and quality of life and to be unrelated to life satisfaction, negative affect, and overall affect in people in general. These relationships with aspects of subjective well - being tend to be weaker compared to those of other five - factor model traits, that is, extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. Openness to experience was found to be associated with life satisfaction in older adults after controlling for confounding factors. Openness appears to be generally unrelated to the presence of mental disorders. A meta - analysis of the relationships between five - factor model traits and symptoms of psychological disorders found that none of the diagnostic groups examined differed from healthy controls on openness to experience.
At least three aspects of openness are relevant to understanding personality disorders: cognitive distortions, lack of insight and impulsivity. Problems related to high openness that can cause issues with social or professional functioning are excessive fantasizing, peculiar thinking, diffuse identity, unstable goals and nonconformity with the demands of the society.
High openness is characteristic to schizotypal personality disorder (odd and fragmented thinking), narcissistic personality disorder (excessive self - valuation) and paranoid personality disorder (sensitivity to external hostility). Lack of insight (shows low openness) is characteristic to all personality disorders and could explain the persistence of maladaptive behavioral patterns.
The problems associated with low openness are difficulties adapting to change, low tolerance for different worldview or lifestyles, emotional flattening, alexithymia and a narrow range of interests. Rigidity is the most obvious aspect of (low) openness among personality disorders and that shows lack of knowledge of one 's emotional experiences. It is most characteristic of obsessive - compulsive personality disorder, the opposite of it known as impulsivity (here: an aspect of openness that shows a tendency to behave unusually or autistically) is characteristic of schizotypal and borderline personality disorders.
Openness to experience has mixed relationships with different types of religiosity and spirituality. General religiosity has a weak association with low openness. Religious fundamentalism has a somewhat more substantial relationship with low openness. Mystical experiences occasioned by the use of psilocybin were found to increase openness significantly (see ' Drug Use, ' below).
A study examining gender differences in big five personality traits in 55 nations found that across nations there were negligible average differences between men and women in openness to experience. By contrast, across nations women were found to be significantly higher than men in average neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. In 8 cultures, men were significantly higher than women in openness, but in 4 cultures women were significantly higher than men. Previous research has found that women tend to be higher on the feelings facet of openness, whereas men tend to be higher on the ideas facet, although the 55 nation study did not assess individual facets.
A study on individual differences in the frequency of dream recall found that openness to experience was the only big five personality trait related to dream recall. Dream recall frequency has also been related to similar personality traits, such as absorption and dissociation. The relationship between dream recall and these traits has been considered as evidence of the continuity theory of consciousness. Specifically, people who have vivid and unusual experiences during the day, such as those who are high in these traits, tend to have more memorable dream content and hence better dream recall.
Openness is related to many aspects of sexuality. Men and women high in openness are more well - informed about sex, have wider sexual experience, stronger sex drives, and more liberal sexual attitudes. In married couples, wives ' but not husbands ' level of openness is related to sexual satisfaction. This might be because open wives are more willing to explore a variety of new sexual experiences, leading to greater satisfaction for both spouses.
Openness to experience, like the other traits in the five factor model, is believed to have a genetic component. Identical twins (who have the same DNA) show similar scores on openness to experience, even when they have been adopted into different families and raised in very different environments. One genetic study with 86 subjects found Openness to experience related to the 5 - HTTLPR polymorphism associated with the serotonin transporter gene.
Higher levels of openness have been linked to activity in the ascending dopaminergic system and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Openness is the only personality trait that correlates with neuropsychological tests of dorsolateral prefrontal cortical function, supporting theoretical links among openness, cognitive functioning, and IQ.
An Italian study found that people who lived on Tyrrhenian islands tended to be less open to experience than those living on the nearby mainland, and that people whose ancestors had inhabited the islands for twenty generations tended to be less open to experience than more recent arrivals. Additionally, people who emigrated from the islands to the mainland tended to be more open to experience than people who stayed on the islands, and than those who immigrated to the islands.
People living in the eastern and western parts of the United States tend to score higher on openness to experience than those living in the midwest and the south. The highest average scores on openness are found in the states of New York, Oregon, Massachusetts, Washington, and California. Lowest average scores come from North Dakota, Wyoming, Alaska, Alabama, and Wisconsin.
Psychologists in the early 1970s used the concept of openness to experience to describe people who are more likely to use marijuana. Openness was defined in these studies as high creativity, adventuresomeness, internal sensation novelty seeking, and low authoritarianism. Several correlational studies confirmed that young people who score high on this cluster of traits are more likely to use marijuana. More recent research has replicated this finding using contemporary measures of openness.
Cross-cultural studies have found that cultures high in Openness to Values have higher rates of use of the drug ecstasy, although a study at the individual level in the Netherlands found no differences in openness levels between users and non-users. Ecstasy users actually tended to be higher in extraversion and lower in conscientiousness than non-users.
A 2011 study found Openness (and not other traits) increased with the use of psilocybin, an effect that held even after 14 months. The study found that individual differences in levels of mystical experience while taking psilocybin were correlated with increases in Openness. Participants who met criteria for a ' complete mystical experience ' experienced a significant mean increase in Openness, whereas those participants who did not meet the criteria experienced no mean change in Openness. Five of the six facets of Openness (all except Actions) showed this pattern of increase associated with having a mystical experience. Increases in Openness (including facets as well as total score) among those whose had a complete mystical experience were maintained more than a year after taking the drug. Participants who had a complete mystical experience changed more than 4 T - score points between baseline and follow up. By comparison, Openness has been found to normally decrease with ageing by 1 T - score point per decade.
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why was the whiskey rebellion a significant event in the early days of the new government | Whiskey Rebellion - Wikipedia
Government victory
The Whiskey Rebellion (also known as the Whiskey Insurrection) was a tax protest in the United States beginning in 1791 during the presidency of George Washington. The so - called "whiskey tax '' was the first tax imposed on a domestic product by the newly formed federal government. It became law in 1791, and was intended to generate revenue for the war debt incurred during the Revolutionary War. The tax applied to all distilled spirits, but American whiskey was by far the country 's most popular distilled beverage in the 18th century, so the excise became widely known as a "whiskey tax ''. Farmers of the western frontier were accustomed to distilling their surplus rye, barley, wheat, corn, or fermented grain mixtures into whiskey. These farmers resisted the tax. In these regions, whiskey often served as a medium of exchange. Many of the resisters were war veterans who believed that they were fighting for the principles of the American Revolution, in particular against taxation without local representation, while the federal government maintained that the taxes were the legal expression of Congressional taxation powers.
Throughout Western Pennsylvania counties, protesters used violence and intimidation to prevent federal officials from collecting the tax. Resistance came to a climax in July 1794, when a U.S. marshal arrived in western Pennsylvania to serve writs to distillers who had not paid the excise. The alarm was raised, and more than 500 armed men attacked the fortified home of tax inspector General John Neville. Washington responded by sending peace commissioners to western Pennsylvania to negotiate with the rebels, while at the same time calling on governors to send a militia force to enforce the tax. Washington himself rode at the head of an army to suppress the insurgency, with 13,000 militiamen provided by the governors of Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The rebels all went home before the arrival of the army, and there was no confrontation. About 20 men were arrested, but all were later acquitted or pardoned. Most distillers in nearby Kentucky were found to be all but impossible to tax -- in the next six years, over 175 distillers from Kentucky were convicted of violating the tax law. Numerous examples of resistance are recorded in court documents and newspaper accounts.
The Whiskey Rebellion demonstrated that the new national government had the will and ability to suppress violent resistance to its laws, though the whiskey excise remained difficult to collect. The events contributed to the formation of political parties in the United States, a process already underway. The whiskey tax was repealed in the early 1800s during the Jefferson administration.
A new U.S. federal government began operating in 1789, following the ratification of the United States Constitution. The previous central government under the Articles of Confederation had been unable to levy taxes; it had borrowed money to meet expenses and fund the Revolution, accumulating $54 million in debt. The state governments had amassed an additional $25 million in debt. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton sought to use this debt to create a financial system that would promote American prosperity and national unity. In his Report on Public Credit, he urged Congress to consolidate the state and national debts into a single debt that would be funded by the federal government. Congress approved these measures in June and July 1790.
A source of government revenue was needed to pay the respectable amount due to the previous bondholders to whom the debt was owed. By December 1790, Hamilton believed that import duties, which were the government 's primary source of revenue, had been raised as high as feasible. He therefore promoted passage of an excise tax on domestically produced distilled spirits. This was to be the first tax levied by the national government on a domestic product. Whiskey was by far the most popular distilled beverage in late 18th - century America, so the excise became known as the "whiskey tax. '' Taxes were politically unpopular, and Hamilton believed that the whiskey excise was a luxury tax and would be the least objectionable tax that the government could levy. In this, he had the support of some social reformers, who hoped that a "sin tax '' would raise public awareness about the harmful effects of alcohol. The whiskey excise act, sometimes known as the "Whiskey Act '', became law in March 1791. George Washington defined the revenue districts, appointed the revenue supervisors and inspectors, and set their pay in November 1791.
The population of Western Pennsylvania was 17,000 in 1790. Among the farmers in the region, the whiskey excise was immediately controversial, with many people on the frontier arguing that it unfairly targeted westerners. Whiskey was a popular drink, and farmers often supplemented their incomes by operating small stills. Farmers living west of the Appalachian Mountains distilled their excess grain into whiskey, which was easier and more profitable to transport over the mountains than the more cumbersome grain. A whiskey tax would make western farmers less competitive with eastern grain producers. Additionally, cash was always in short supply on the frontier, so whiskey often served as a medium of exchange. For poorer people who were paid in whiskey, the excise was essentially an income tax that wealthier easterners did not pay.
Small - scale farmers also protested that Hamilton 's excise effectively gave unfair tax breaks to large distillers, most of whom were based in the east. There were two methods of paying the whiskey excise: paying a flat fee or paying by the gallon. Large distillers produced whiskey in volume and could afford the flat fee. The more efficient they became, the less tax per gallon they would pay (as low as 6 cents, according to Hamilton). Western farmers who owned small stills did not usually operate them year - round at full capacity, so they ended up paying a higher tax per gallon (9 cents), which made them less competitive. The regressive nature of the tax was further compounded by an additional factor: whiskey sold for considerably less on the cash - poor Western frontier than in the wealthier and more populous East. This meant that, even if all distillers had been required to pay the same amount of tax per gallon, the small - scale frontier distillers would still have to remit a considerably larger proportion of their product 's value than larger Eastern distillers. Small - scale distillers believed that Hamilton deliberately designed the tax to ruin them and promote big business, a view endorsed by some historians. However, historian Thomas Slaughter argued that a "conspiracy of this sort is difficult to document ''. Whether by design or not, large distillers recognized the advantage that the excise gave them and they supported it.
Other aspects of the excise law also caused concern. The law required all stills to be registered, and those cited for failure to pay the tax had to appear in distant Federal, rather than local courts. The only Federal courthouse was in Philadelphia, some 300 miles away from the small frontier settlement of Pittsburgh. From the beginning, the Federal government had little success in collecting the whiskey tax along the frontier. Many small western distillers simply refused to pay the tax. Federal revenue officers and local residents who assisted them bore the brunt of the protester 's ire. Tax rebels harassed several whiskey tax collectors and threatened or beat those who offered them office space or housing. As a result, many western counties never had a resident Federal tax official.
In addition to the whiskey tax, westerners had a number of other grievances with the national government, chief among which was the perception that the government was not adequately protecting the residents living in western frontier. The Northwest Indian War was going badly for the United States, with major losses in 1791. Furthermore, westerners were prohibited by Spain (which then owned Louisiana) from using the Mississippi River for commercial navigation. Until these issues were addressed, westerners felt that the government was ignoring their security and economic welfare. Adding the whiskey excise to these existing grievances only increased tensions on the frontier.
Many residents of the western frontier petitioned against passage of the whiskey excise. When that failed, some western Pennsylvanians organized extralegal conventions to advocate repeal of the law. Opposition to the tax was particularly prevalent in four southwestern counties: Allegheny, Fayette, Washington, and Westmoreland. A preliminary meeting held on July 27, 1791 at Redstone Old Fort in Fayette County called for the selection of delegates to a more formal assembly, which convened in Pittsburgh in early September 1791. The Pittsburgh convention was dominated by moderates such as Hugh Henry Brackenridge, who hoped to prevent the outbreak of violence. The convention sent a petition for redress of grievances to the Pennsylvania Assembly and the U.S House of Representatives, both located in Philadelphia. As a result of this and other petitions, the excise law was modified in May 1792. Changes included a 1 - cent reduction in the tax that was advocated by William Findley, a congressman from western Pennsylvania, but the new excise law was still unsatisfactory to many westerners.
Appeals to nonviolent resistance were unsuccessful. On September 11, 1791, a recently appointed tax collector named Robert Johnson was tarred and feathered by a disguised gang in Washington County. A man sent by officials to serve court warrants to Johnson 's attackers was whipped, tarred, and feathered. Because of these and other violent attacks, the tax went uncollected in 1791 and early 1792. The attackers modeled their actions on the protests of the American Revolution. Supporters of the excise argued that there was a difference between taxation without representation in colonial America, and a tax laid by the elected representatives of the American people.
Older accounts of the Whiskey Rebellion portrayed it as being confined to western Pennsylvania, yet there was opposition to the whiskey tax in the western counties of every other state in Appalachia (Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia). The whiskey tax went uncollected throughout the frontier state of Kentucky, where no one could be convinced to enforce the law or prosecute evaders. In 1792, Hamilton advocated military action to suppress violent resistance in western North Carolina, but Attorney General Edmund Randolph argued that there was insufficient evidence to legally justify such a reaction.
In August 1792, a second convention was held in Pittsburgh to discuss resistance to the whiskey tax. This meeting was more radical than the first convention; moderates such as Brackenridge and Findley were not in attendance. Future Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin was one moderate who did attend, to his later regret. A militant group known as the Mingo Creek Association dominated the convention and issued radical demands. As some of them had done in the American Revolution, they raised liberty poles, formed committees of correspondence, and took control of the local militia. They created an extralegal court and discouraged lawsuits for debt collection and foreclosures.
Hamilton regarded the second Pittsburgh convention as a serious threat to the operation of the laws of the federal government. In September 1792, he sent Pennsylvania tax official George Clymer to western Pennsylvania to investigate. Clymer only increased tensions with a clumsy attempt at traveling in disguise and attempting to intimidate local officials. His somewhat exaggerated report greatly influenced the decisions made by the Washington administration. Washington and Hamilton viewed resistance to federal laws in Pennsylvania as particularly embarrassing, since the national capital was then located in the same state. On his own initiative, Hamilton drafted a presidential proclamation denouncing resistance to the excise laws and submitted it to Attorney General Randolph, who toned down some of the language. Washington signed the proclamation on September 15, 1792, and it was published as a broadside and printed in many newspapers.
Federal tax inspector for western Pennsylvania General John Neville was determined to enforce the excise law. He was a prominent politician and wealthy planter -- and also a large - scale distiller. He had initially opposed the whiskey tax, but subsequently changed his mind, a reversal that angered some western Pennsylvanians. In August 1792, Neville rented a room in Pittsburgh for his tax office, but the landlord turned him out after being threatened with violence by the Mingo Creek Association. From this point on, tax collectors were not the only people targeted in Pennsylvania; those who cooperated with federal tax officials also faced harassment. Anonymous notes and newspaper articles signed by "Tom the Tinker '' threatened those who complied with the whiskey tax. Those who failed to heed the warnings might have their barns burned or their stills destroyed.
Resistance to the excise tax continued through 1793 in the frontier counties of Appalachia. Opposition remained especially strident in western Pennsylvania. In June, Neville was burned in effigy by a crowd of about 100 people in Washington County. On the night of November 22, 1793, men broke into the home of tax collector Benjamin Wells in Fayette County. Wells was, like Neville, one of the wealthier men in the region. At gunpoint, the intruders forced him to surrender his commission. President Washington offered a reward for the arrest of the assailants, to no avail.
The resistance came to a climax in 1794. In May of that year, federal district attorney William Rawle issued subpoenas for more than 60 distillers in Pennsylvania who had not paid the excise tax. Under the law then in effect, distillers who received these writs would be obligated to travel to Philadelphia to appear in federal court. For farmers on the western frontier, such a journey was expensive, time - consuming, and beyond their means. At the urging of William Findley, Congress modified this law on June 5, 1794, allowing excise trials to be held in local state courts. But by that time, U.S. marshal David Lenox had already been sent to serve the writs summoning delinquent distillers to Philadelphia. Attorney General William Bradford later maintained that the writs were meant to compel compliance with the law, and that the government did not actually intend to hold trials in Philadelphia.
The timing of these events later proved to be controversial. Findley was a bitter political foe of Hamilton, and he maintained in his book on the insurrection that the treasury secretary had deliberately provoked the uprising by issuing the subpoenas just before the law was made less onerous. In 1963, historian Jacob Cooke, an editor of Hamilton 's papers, regarded this charge as "preposterous '', calling it a "conspiracy thesis '' that overstated Hamilton 's control of the federal government. In 1986, historian Thomas Slaughter argued that the outbreak of the insurrection at this moment was due to "a string of ironic coincidences '', although "the question about motives must always remain ''. In 2006, William Hogeland argued that Hamilton, Bradford, and Rawle intentionally pursued a course of action that would provoke "the kind of violence that would justify federal military suppression ''. According to Hogeland, Hamilton had been working towards this moment since the Newburgh Crisis in 1783, where he conceived of using military force to crush popular resistance to direct taxation for the purpose of promoting national unity and enriching the creditor class at the expense of common taxpayers. Historian S.E. Morison believed that Hamilton, in general, wished to enforce the excise law "more as a measure of social discipline than as a source of revenue ''.
Federal Marshal Lenox delivered most of the writs without incident. On July 15, he was joined on his rounds by General Neville, who had offered to act as his guide in Allegheny County. That evening, warning shots were fired at the men at the Miller farm, about 10 mi (16 km) south of Pittsburgh. Neville returned home while Lenox retreated to Pittsburgh.
On July 16, at least 30 Mingo Creek militiamen surrounded Neville 's fortified home of Bower Hill. They demanded the surrender of the federal marshal, whom they believed to be inside. Neville responded by firing a gunshot that mortally wounded Oliver Miller, one of the "rebels ''. The rebels opened fire but were unable to dislodge Neville, who had his slaves ' help to defend the house. The rebels retreated to nearby Couch 's Fort to gather reinforcements.
The next day, the rebels returned to Bower Hill. Their force had swelled to nearly 600 men, now commanded by Major James McFarlane, a veteran of the Revolutionary War. Neville had also received reinforcements: 10 U.S. Army soldiers from Pittsburgh under the command of Major Abraham Kirkpatrick, Neville 's brother - in - law. Before the rebel force arrived, Kirkpatrick had Neville leave the house and hide in a nearby ravine. David Lenox and General Neville 's son Presley Neville also returned to the area, though they could not get into the house and were captured by the rebels.
Following some fruitless negotiations, the women and children were allowed to leave the house, and then both sides began firing. After about an hour, McFarlane called a ceasefire; according to some, a white flag had been waved in the house. As McFarlane stepped into the open, a shot rang out from the house, and he fell mortally wounded. The enraged rebels then set fire to the house, including the slave quarters, and Kirkpatrick surrendered. The number of casualties at Bower Hill is unclear; McFarlane and one or two other militiamen were killed; one U.S. soldier may have died from wounds received in the fight. The rebels sent the U.S. soldiers away. Kirkpatrick, Lenox, and Presley Neville were kept as prisoners, but they later escaped.
McFarlane was given a hero 's funeral on July 18. His "murder '', as the rebels saw it, further radicalized the countryside. Moderates such as Brackenridge were hard - pressed to restrain the populace. Radical leaders emerged, such as David Bradford, urging violent resistance. On July 26, a group headed by Bradford robbed the U.S. mail as it left Pittsburgh, hoping to discover who in that town opposed them and finding several letters that condemned the rebels. Bradford and his band called for a military assembly to meet at Braddock 's Field, about 8 mi (13 km) east of Pittsburgh.
On August 1, about 7,000 people gathered at Braddock 's Field. The crowd consisted primarily of poor people who owned no land, and most did not own whiskey stills. The furor over the whiskey excise had unleashed anger about other economic grievances. By this time, the victims of violence were often wealthy property owners who had no connection to the whiskey tax. Some of the most radical protesters wanted to march on Pittsburgh, which they called "Sodom '', loot the homes of the wealthy, and then burn the town to the ground. Others wanted to attack Fort Fayette. There was praise for the French Revolution and calls for bringing the guillotine to America. David Bradford, it was said, was comparing himself to Robespierre, a leader of the French Reign of Terror.
At Braddock 's Field, there was talk of declaring independence from the United States and of joining with Spain or Great Britain. Radicals flew a specially designed flag that proclaimed their independence. The flag had six stripes, one for each county represented at the gathering: the Pennsylvania counties of Allegheny, Bedford, Fayette, Washington, and Westmoreland, and Virginia 's Ohio County.
Pittsburgh citizens helped to defuse the threat by banishing three men whose intercepted letters had given offense to the rebels, and by sending a delegation to Braddock 's Field that expressed support for the gathering. Brackenridge prevailed upon the crowd to limit the protest to a defiant march through the town. In Pittsburgh, Major Kirkpatrick 's barns were burned, but nothing else.
A convention was held on August 14 of 226 whiskey rebels from the six counties, held at Parkison 's Ferry (now known as Whiskey Point) in present - day Monongahela. The convention considered resolutions which were drafted by Brackenridge, Gallatin, David Bradford, and an eccentric preacher named Herman Husband, a delegate from Bedford County. Husband was a well - known local figure and a radical champion of democracy who had taken part in the Regulator movement in North Carolina 25 years earlier. The Parkison 's Ferry convention also appointed a committee to meet with the peace commissioners who had been sent west by President Washington. There, Gallatin presented an eloquent speech in favor of peace and against proposals from Bradford to further revolt.
President Washington was confronted with what appeared to be an armed insurrection in western Pennsylvania, and he proceeded cautiously while determined to maintain governmental authority. He did not want to alienate public opinion, so he asked his cabinet for written opinions about how to deal with the crisis. The cabinet recommended the use of force, except for Secretary of State Edmund Randolph who urged reconciliation. Washington did both: he sent commissioners to meet with the rebels while raising a militia army. Washington privately doubted that the commissioners could accomplish anything, and believed that a military expedition would be needed to suppress further violence. For this reason, historians have sometimes charged that the peace commission was sent only for the sake of appearances, and that the use of force was never in doubt. Historians Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick argued that the military expedition was "itself a part of the reconciliation process '', since a show of overwhelming force would make further violence less likely.
Meanwhile, Hamilton began publishing essays under the name of "Tully '' in Philadelphia newspapers, denouncing mob violence in western Pennsylvania and advocating military action. Democratic - Republican Societies had been formed throughout the country, and Washington and Hamilton believed that they were the source of civic unrest. "Historians are not yet agreed on the exact role of the societies '' in the Whiskey Rebellion, wrote historian Mark Spencer in 2003, "but there was a degree of overlap between society membership and the Whiskey Rebels ''.
Before troops could be raised, the Militia Act of 1792 required a justice of the United States Supreme Court to certify that law enforcement was beyond the control of local authorities. On August 4, 1794, Justice James Wilson delivered his opinion that western Pennsylvania was in a state of rebellion. On August 7, Washington issued a presidential proclamation announcing, with "the deepest regret '', that the militia would be called out to suppress the rebellion. He commanded insurgents in western Pennsylvania to disperse by September 1.
In early August 1794, Washington dispatched three commissioners to the west, all of them Pennsylvanians: Attorney General William Bradford, Justice Jasper Yeates of the Pennsylvania Supreme Court, and Senator James Ross. Beginning on August 21, the commissioners met with a committee of westerners that included Brackenridge and Gallatin. The government commissioners told the committee that it must unanimously agree to renounce violence and submit to U.S. laws, and that a popular referendum must be held to determine if the local people supported the decision. Those who agreed to these terms would be given amnesty from further prosecution.
The committee was divided between radicals and moderates, and narrowly passed a resolution agreeing to submit to the government 's terms. The popular referendum was held on September 11 and also produced mixed results. Some townships overwhelmingly supported submitting to U.S. law, but opposition to the government remained strong in areas where poor and landless people predominated. The final report of the commissioners recommended the use of the military to enforce the laws. The trend was towards submission, however, and westerners dispatched representatives William Findley and David Redick to meet with Washington and to halt the progress of the oncoming army. Washington and Hamilton declined, arguing that violence was likely to re-emerge if the army turned back.
Under the authority of the recently passed federal militia law, the state militias were called up by the governors of New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania. The federalized militia force of 12,950 men was a large army by American standards of the time, comparable to Washington 's armies during the Revolution. Relatively few men volunteered for militia service, so a draft was used to fill out the ranks. Draft evasion was widespread, and conscription efforts resulted in protests and riots, even in eastern areas. Three counties in eastern Virginia were the scenes of armed draft resistance. In Maryland, Governor Thomas Sim Lee sent 800 men to quash an antidraft riot in Hagerstown; about 150 people were arrested.
Liberty poles were raised in various places as the militia was recruited, worrying federal officials. A liberty pole was raised in Carlisle, Pennsylvania on September 11, 1794. The federalized militia arrived in that town later that month and rounded up suspected pole - raisers. Two civilians were killed in these operations. On September 29, an unarmed boy was shot by an officer whose pistol accidentally fired. Two days later, an "Itinerant Person '' was "Bayoneted '' to death by a soldier while resisting arrest (the man had tried to wrest the rifle from the soldier he confronted; it is possible he had been a member of a 500 - strong Irish work crew nearby who were "digging, a canal into the Sculkill '' (sic); at least one of that work gang 's members protested the killing so vigorously that he was "put under guard ''). President Washington ordered the arrest of the two soldiers and had them turned over to civilian authorities. A state judge determined that the deaths had been accidental, and the soldiers were released.
In October 1794, Washington traveled west to review the progress of the military expedition. According to historian Joseph Ellis, this was "the first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field ''. Jonathan Forman led the Third Infantry Regiment of New Jersey troops against the Whiskey Rebellion, he wrote about his encounter with Washington:
October 3d Marched early in the morning for Harrisburgh, where we arrived about 12 O'clock. About 1 O'Clock recd. information of the Presidents approach on which, I had the regiment paraded, timely for his reception, & considerably to my satisfaction. Being afterwards invited to his quarters he made enquiry into the circumstances of the man (an incident between an "Itinerant Person '' and "an Old Soldier '' mentioned earlier in the journal (p. 3)) & seemed satisfied with the information.
Washington met with the western representatives in Bedford, Pennsylvania on October 9 before going to Fort Cumberland in Maryland to review the southern wing of the army. He was convinced that the federalized militia would meet little resistance, and he placed the army under the command of the Virginia Governor Henry "Lighthorse Harry '' Lee, a hero of the Revolutionary War. Washington returned to Philadelphia; Hamilton remained with the army as civilian adviser.
Daniel Morgan, a general key to the winning of the American Revolution, was called up to lead a force to suppress the protest. It was at this time (1794) that Morgan was promoted to Major General. Serving under General "Light - Horse Harry '' Lee, Morgan led one wing of the militia army into Western Pennsylvania. The massive show of force brought an end to the protests without a shot being fired. After the uprising had been suppressed, Morgan commanded the remnant of the army that remained until 1795 in Pennsylvania, some 1,200 militiamen, one of whom was Meriwether Lewis.
The insurrection collapsed as the federal army marched west into western Pennsylvania in October 1794. Some of the most prominent leaders of the insurrection, such as David Bradford, fled westward to safety. It took six months for those who were charged to be tried. Most were acquitted due to mistaken identity, unreliable testimony and lack of witnesses. The only two convicted of treason and sentenced to hang were John Mitchell and Philip Wigle. They were later pardoned by Washington.
Immediately before the arrests "... as many as 2,000 of (the rebels) -- had fled into the mountains, beyond the reach of the militia. It was a great disappointment to Hamilton, who had hoped to bring rebel leaders such as David Bradford to trial in Philadelphia -- and possibly see them hanged for treason. Instead, when the militia at last turned back, out of all the suspects they had seized a mere twenty were selected to serve as examples, They were at worst bit players in the uprising, but they were better than nothing. ''
The captured participants and the Federal militia arrived in Philadelphia on Christmas Day. Some artillery was fired and church bells were heard as "... a huge throng lined Broad Street to cheer the troops and mock the rebels... (Presley) Neville said he ' could not help feeling sorry for them. The captured rebels were paraded down Broad Street being ' humiliated, bedragged, (and) half - starved... ' ''
Other accounts describe the indictment of 24 men for high treason. Most of the accused had eluded capture, so only ten men stood trial for treason in federal court. Of these, only Philip Wigle and John Mitchell were convicted. Wigle had beaten up a tax collector and burned his house; Mitchell was a simpleton who had been convinced by David Bradford to rob the U.S. mail. Both men were sentenced to death by hanging, but they were pardoned by President Washington. Pennsylvania state courts were more successful in prosecuting lawbreakers, securing numerous convictions for assault and rioting. While violent opposition to the whiskey tax ended, political opposition to the tax continued. Opponents of internal taxes rallied around the candidacy of Thomas Jefferson and helped him defeat President John Adams in the election of 1800. By 1802, Congress repealed the distilled spirits excise tax and all other internal Federal taxes. Until the War of 1812, the Federal government would rely solely on import tariffs for revenue, which quickly grew with the Nation 's expanding foreign trade.
The Washington administration 's suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion met with widespread popular approval. The episode demonstrated that the new national government had the willingness and ability to suppress violent resistance to its laws. It was, therefore, viewed by the Washington administration as a success, a view that has generally been endorsed by historians. The Washington administration and its supporters usually did not mention, however, that the whiskey excise remained difficult to collect, and that many westerners continued to refuse to pay the tax. The events contributed to the formation of political parties in the United States, a process already underway. The whiskey tax was repealed after Thomas Jefferson 's Republican Party came to power in 1801, which opposed the Federalist Party of Hamilton and Washington.
The Rebellion raised the question of what kinds of protests were permissible under the new Constitution. Legal historian Christian G. Fritz argued that there was not yet a consensus about sovereignty in the United States, even after ratification of the Constitution. Federalists believed that the government was sovereign because it had been established by the people; radical protest actions were permissible during the American Revolution but were no longer legitimate, in their thinking. But the Whiskey Rebels and their defenders believed that the Revolution had established the people as a "collective sovereign '', and the people had the collective right to change or challenge the government through extra-constitutional means.
Historian Steven Boyd argued that the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion prompted anti-Federalist westerners to finally accept the Constitution and to seek change by voting for Republicans rather than resisting the government. Federalists, for their part, came to accept the public 's role in governance and no longer challenged the freedom of assembly and the right to petition.
Soon after the Whiskey Rebellion, actress - playwright Susanna Rowson wrote a stage musical about the insurrection entitled The Volunteers, with music by composer Alexander Reinagle. The play is now lost, but the songs survive and suggest that Rowson 's interpretation was pro-Federalist. The musical celebrates as American heroes the militiamen who put down the rebellion, the "volunteers '' of the title. President Washington and Martha Washington attended a performance of the play in Philadelphia in January 1795. W.C. Fields recorded a comedy track in Les Paul 's studio in 1946, shortly before his death, entitled "The Temperance Lecture '' for the album W.C. Fields... His Only Recording Plus 8 Songs by Mae West. The bit discussed Washington and his role in putting down the Whiskey Rebellion, and Fields wondered aloud whether "George put down a little of the vile stuff too. ''
L. Neil Smith wrote the alternate history novel The Probability Broach in 1980 as part of his North American Confederacy Series. In it, Albert Gallatin joins the rebellion in 1794 to benefit the farmers, rather than the fledgling US Government as he did in reality. This results in the rebellion becoming a Second American Revolution. This eventually leads to George Washington being overthrown and executed for treason, the abrogation of the Constitution, and Gallatin being proclaimed the second president and serving as president until 1812.
David Liss ' 2008 novel The Whiskey Rebels covers many of the circumstances during 1788 - 92 that led to the 1794 Rebellion. The fictional protagonists are cast against an array of historical persons, including Alexander Hamilton, William Duer, Anne Bingham, Hugh Henry Brackenridge, Aaron Burr, and Philip Freneau.
In 2011, the Whiskey Rebellion Festival was started in Washington, Pennsylvania. This annual event is held in July and includes live music, food, and historic reenactments, featuring the "tar and feathering '' of the tax collector.
Other works which include events of the Whiskey Rebellion:
Much primary source historical material has been preserved and exists in archives. A list of institutions that possess holdings and examples are:
Sir: I am extremely thrilled that you printed my song in your folk singing article. I love music and Joan Baez. Copper Kettle was written in 1953 as part of my opera Go Lightly Stranger. A.F. Beddoe, Staten Island, N.Y.
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who was the starting quarterback for the jacksonville jaguars | List of Jacksonville Jaguars starting quarterbacks - wikipedia
These quarterbacks have started at least one game for the Jacksonville Jaguars of the National Football League. They are listed in order of the date of each player 's first start at quarterback for the Jaguars.
The number of games they started during the season is listed to the right:
These quarterbacks have started for the Jaguars in regular season games (as of Week 17 of 2017 season).
(As of Week 17 of 2017 season)
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the source document used to record the amount of time worked by an employee on a job is called the | Timesheet - wikipedia
A timesheet (or time sheet) is a method for recording the amount of a worker 's time spent on each job. Traditionally a sheet of paper with the data arranged in tabular format, a timesheet is now often a digital document or spreadsheet. The time cards stamped by time clocks can serve as a timesheet or provide the data to fill one. These, too, are now often digital. Timesheets came into use in the 19th century as time books.
Originally developed for an employer to calculate payroll, timesheets can also be used for management accounting. Timesheets may record the start and end time of tasks or just the duration. It may contain a detailed breakdown of tasks accomplished throughout the project or program. This information may be used for payroll, client billing, and increasingly for project costing, estimation, tracking, and management.
Some companies provide web - based timesheet software or services that provide a means to track time for payroll, billing and project management. One of the major uses of timesheets in a project management environment is comparing planned costs versus actual costs, as well as measuring employee performance, and identifying problematic tasks. This knowledge can drive corporate strategy as users stop performing or reassign unprofitable work.
Factory workers may often have a "time card '' (also known as punch card) and "punch in '' by inserting their card into an automatic timestamp machine (called a time clock or bundy clock) when starting and ending their work shift, though other card technologies such as swipe cards have become more prevalent.
Time tracking can lower costs in three ways: by making payroll processing more efficient, by making costs visible so you can lower them, and by automating billing and invoicing.
Time tracking can increase revenue through automating billing, which tends to make it easier for a company to get correct invoices out for all hours worked by consulting staff. This speeds up payment and eliminates the hassles of ' dropping ' bills.
By lowering costs in three ways, and increasing revenue in one way, timesheet management technologies that are web - based can improve the health of companies.
In project management, timesheets can also be used to build a body of knowledge about how much effort tasks take to develop. Machine learning is being used to automatically find patterns in timesheets -- then using this information to recommend more accurate project plans in the future. For example, if developing a training plan has historically taken a month, then it can be assumed that creating a new one will take a month. Also, most timesheet software has the ability to track resource costs and project expenses to allow for better future budgeting.
For the HR function, the time spent on activities by individuals can be analyzed over a period of time and categorized into broad types. Based on the outcome roles could be realigned.
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who has won the maximum grand slam in mens tennis | List of Grand Slam men 's singles champions - wikipedia
This article details the list of men 's singles Grand Slam tournaments tennis champions. Some major changes have taken place in history and have affected the number of titles that have been won by various players. These have included the opening of the French national championships to international players in 1925, the elimination of the challenge round in 1922, and the admission of professional players in 1968 (the start of the Open era).
Note: All of these tournaments have been listed since they began, rather than when they officially became majors. The Australian and US tournaments have only been officially regarded as majors by the ILTF (now the ITF) since 1924 (though many regarded the US Championships as a major before then). The French Championships have only been a major since 1925 (when it became open to all amateurs internationally). Before 1924 (since 1912 / 1913 to 1923) there were 3 official majors: Wimbledon, the World Hard Court Championships (played on clay) and the World Covered Court Championships (played on an indoor wood surface).
All - time
Open Era
All - time
Open Era
Note: Bold indicates player still active.
Note: * indicates ongoing streak, bold indicates player still active.
These players won all four majors. The year listed is the year the player first won each tournament; the last one is marked in bold. The age listed is the age at the end of that last tournament, i.e., the age at which the player completed his Career Grand Slam.
(Winners of all four Grand Slam singles tournaments in the same calendar year)
Note: players with four titles are not included here.
Note: players with more than two titles are not included here.
Bold = Active Streaks
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what causes your anion gap to be high | High anion gap metabolic acidosis - Wikipedia
When acidosis is present on blood tests, the first step in determining the cause is determining the anion gap. If the anion gap is high (> 12 mEq / L), there are several potential causes.
High anion gap metabolic acidosis is a form of metabolic acidosis characterized by a high anion gap (a medical value based on the concentrations of ions in a patient 's serum). An anion gap is usually considered to be high if it is over 12 mEq / L.
High anion gap metabolic acidosis is caused generally by acid produced by the body,. More rarely, high anion gap metabolic acidosis may be caused by ingesting methanol or overdosing on aspirin. The Delta Ratio is a formula that can be used to assess elevated anion gap metabolic acidosis and to evaluate whether mixed acid base disorder (metabolic acidosis) is present.
The list of agents that cause high anion gap metabolic acidosis is similar to but broader than the list of agents that cause a serum osmolal gap.
Causes include:
The newest mnemonic was proposed in The Lancet reflecting current causes of anion gap metabolic acidosis:
The mnemonic MUDPILES is commonly used to remember the causes of increased anion gap metabolic acidosis.
Another frequently used mnemonic is KARMEL.
Another frequently used mnemonic is KULT.
The preferred mnemonic of D. Robert Dufour, the chief of the Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Service, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, is DUMPSALE, which omits the I of MUDPILES as the proposed values of * I * are exceedingly rare in clinical practice.
The mnemonic for the (rare, in comparison) toxins is ACE GIFTs: Aspirin, Cyanide, Ethanolic ketosis, Glycols (ethylene and propylene), Isoniazid, Ferrous iron, Toluene. Most of these cause a lactic acidosis.
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where is u of m ranked in football | Michigan Wolverines football - wikipedia
The Michigan Wolverines football program represents the University of Michigan in college football at the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (formerly Division I-A) level. Michigan has the most all - time wins in college football history and the highest winning percentage among FBS teams. The team is known for its distinctive winged helmet, its fight song, its record - breaking attendance figures at Michigan Stadium, and its many rivalries, particularly its annual, regular - season - ending game against Ohio State, once voted as ESPN 's best sports rivalry.
Michigan began competing in intercollegiate football in 1879. The Wolverines joined the Big Ten Conference at its inception in 1896, and other than a hiatus from 1907 to 1916, have been members since. Michigan has won or shared 42 league titles, and, since the inception of the AP Poll in 1936, has finished in the top 10 a total of 38 times. The Wolverines claim 11 national championships, most recently that of the 1997 squad voted atop the final AP Poll.
From 1900 to 1989, Michigan was led by a series of nine head coaches, each of whom has been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame either as a player or as a coach. Fielding H. Yost became Michigan 's head coach in 1901 and guided his "Point - a-Minute '' squads to a streak of 56 games without a defeat, spanning from his arrival until the season finale in 1905, including a victory in the 1902 Rose Bowl, the first college football bowl game ever played. Fritz Crisler brought his winged helmet from Princeton University in 1938 and led the 1947 Wolverines to a national title and Michigan 's second Rose Bowl win. Bo Schembechler coached the team for 21 seasons (1969 -- 1989) in which he won 13 Big Ten titles and 194 games, a program record. The first decade of his tenure was underscored by a fierce competition with his former mentor, Woody Hayes, whose Ohio State Buckeyes squared off against Schembechler 's Wolverines in a stretch of the Michigan -- Ohio State rivalry dubbed the "Ten - Year War ''.
Following Schembechler 's retirement, the program was coached by two of his former assistants, Gary Moeller and then Lloyd Carr, who maintained the program 's overall success over the next 18 years. However, the program 's fortunes declined under the next two coaches, Rich Rodriguez and Brady Hoke, who were both fired after relatively short tenures. Following Hoke 's dismissal, Michigan hired Jim Harbaugh on December 30, 2014. Harbaugh is a former quarterback of the team, having played for Michigan between 1982 and 1986 under Schembechler.
The Michigan Wolverines have featured 81 players that have garnered consensus selection to the College Football All - America Team. Three Wolverines have won the Heisman Trophy: Tom Harmon in 1940, Desmond Howard in 1991, and Charles Woodson in 1997. Gerald Ford, who later became the 38th President of the United States, started at center and was voted most valuable player by his teammates on the 1934 team.
On May 30, 1879, Michigan played its first intercollegiate football game against Racine College at White Stocking Park in Chicago. The Chicago Tribune called it "the first rugby - football game to be played west of the Alleghenies. '' Midway through "the first ' inning ', '' Irving Kane Pond scored the first touchdown for Michigan. According to Will Perry 's history of Michigan football, the crowd responded to Pond 's plays with cheers of "Pond Forever. '' In 1881, Michigan played against Harvard in Boston. The game that marked the birth of inter-sectional football. On their way to a game in Chicago in 1887, Michigan players stopped in South Bend, Indiana and introduced football to students at the University of Notre Dame. A November 23 contest marked the inception of the Notre Dame Fighting Irish football program and the beginning of the Michigan -- Notre Dame rivalry. In 1894, Michigan defeated Cornell, which was the "first time in collegiate football history that a western school defeated an established power from the east. ''
In 1896, the Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives -- then commonly known as the Western Conference and later as the Big Ten Conference -- was formed by the University of Michigan, the University of Chicago, the University of Illinois, the University of Minnesota, the University of Wisconsin, Northwestern University, and Purdue University. The first Western Conference football season was played in 1896, with Michigan going 9 -- 1, but losing out on the inaugural Western Conference title with a loss to the Chicago Maroons to end the season. By 1898 Amos Alonzo Stagg was fast at work at turning the University of Chicago football program into a powerhouse. Before the final game of the 1898 season, Chicago was 9 -- 1 -- 1 and Michigan was 9 -- 0; a game between the two teams in Chicago decided the third Western Conference championship. Michigan won, 12 -- 11, capturing the program 's first conference championship in a game that inspired "The Victors '', which later became the school 's fight song. Michigan went 8 -- 2 and 7 -- 2 -- 1 in 1899 and 1900, results that were considered unsatisfactory relative to the 10 -- 0 season of 1898.
After the 1900 season, Charles A. Baird, Michigan 's first athletic director, wrote to Fielding H. Yost, "Our people are greatly roused up over the defeats of the past two years '', and gave Yost an offer to come to Michigan to coach the football team. Upon arriving at Michigan, Yost famously ran up State Street and proclaimed to a reporter, "Michigan is n't going to lose a game. '' Yost certainly delivered, with the 1901 Michigan team demolishing its opponents. In the first season under head coach Yost, a lopsided victory over Buffalo drew national attention and marked the arrival of Yost 's "Point - a-Minute '' teams. The Buffalo team beat Ivy League power Columbia earlier in the year and was favored over a Michigan team the Buffalo newspapers had dubbed "Woolly Westerners. '' Michigan scored 22 touchdowns in 38 minutes of play, averaging a touchdown every one minute and 43 seconds. Buffalo quit 15 minutes before the game was scheduled to end. The New York Times reported that Michigan 's margin of victory was "one of the most remarkable ever made in the history of football in the important colleges. '' At the end of the season, Michigan participated in the inaugural Rose Bowl, the first bowl game in American football history. Michigan dominated the game so thoroughly that Stanford 's captain requested the game be called with eight minutes remaining. Neil Snow scored five touchdowns in the game, which is still the all - time Rose Bowl record. The Tournament of Roses Association held chariot races and other events in lieu of a football game for the next 15 years.
The next year, 1902, featured a contest between Michigan and the Wisconsin Badgers. The two teams were undefeated since 1900, and the crowd (20,000 -- 22,000) was the largest in western football history. Michigan won, 6 -- 0, leading the Detroit Free Press to call it "the greatest football game ever played on a western gridiron. '' The undefeated 1902 team outscored its opponents 644 to 12 on its way to an 11 -- 0 season. In 1903, Michigan played a game against Minnesota that started the rivalry for the Little Brown Jug, the oldest rivalry trophy in college football. Yost sent a student assistant to purchase a five - gallon water jug from a local store. After the game ended in a tie, Yost forgot the jug in the locker room. Custodian Oscar Munson discovered it and brought it to L.J. Cooke, who painted the jug brown and wrote "Michigan Jug -- Captured by Oscar, October 31, 1903. Michigan 6, Minnesota 6. '' When Yost requested that the jug be returned, Cooke responded that "if you want it, you 'll have to win it. '' The game marked the only time from 1901 to 1904 that Michigan failed to win. Michigan finished the season at 11 -- 0 -- 1. In 1904, Michigan once again went undefeated at 10 -- 0 while recording the most lopsided defeat in college football history, a 130 -- 0 defeat of the West Virginia Mountaineers.
From 1901 through 1904, Michigan did n't lose a single game. The streak was finally halted at the end of the 1905 season by Amos Alonzo Stagg 's Chicago Maroons, a team that went on to win two Big 9 (as the Western Conference was now being called with the addition of Iowa and Indiana) titles in the next three years. The game, dubbed "The First Greatest Game of the Century, '' broke Michigan 's 56 - game unbeaten streak and marked the end of the "Point - a-Minute '' years. The 1905 Michigan team had outscored opponents 495 -- 0 in its first 12 games. The game was lost in the final ten minutes of play when Denny Clark was tackled for a safety as he attempted to return a punt from behind the goal line. Michigan tied for another Big 9 title in 1906 before opting to go independent for the 1907 season.
The independent years were not as kind to Yost as his years in the Big 9. Michigan suffered one loss in 1907. In 1908, Michigan got battered by Penn (a team that went 11 -- 0 -- 1 that year) in a game in which Michigan center Germany Schulz took such a battering as to have to be dragged off the field. In 1909, Michigan suffered its first loss to Notre Dame, leading Yost to refuse to schedule another game against Notre Dame; the schools did not play again until 1942. In 1910, Michigan played their only undefeated season of the independent years, going 3 -- 0 -- 3. Overall from 1907 to 1916, Michigan lost at least one game every year (with the exception of 1910).
Michigan rejoined the Big 9 in 1917, after which it was called the Big Ten. Yost immediately got back to work. In 1918, Michigan played the first game against Stagg 's Chicago Maroons since Chicago ended Michigan 's winning streak in 1905. Michigan defeated the Maroons, 18 -- 0, on the way to a 5 -- 0 record. The next three years were lean, with Michigan going 3 -- 4, 5 -- 2, and 5 -- 1 -- 1, in 1919, 1920, and 1921. However, in 1922 Michigan managed to spoil the "Dedication Day '' for Ohio Stadium, defeating the Buckeyes 19 -- 0. Legend has it that the rotunda at Ohio Stadium is painted with maize flowers on a blue background due to the outcome of the 1922 dedication game. Michigan went 5 -- 0 -- 1 in 1922, capturing a Big Ten title. In 1923, Michigan went 8 -- 0, winning another conference championship. The 1924 Wolverines, coached by George Little, saw their 20 - game unbeaten streak end at the hands of Red Grange. After the 1924 season, Little left Michigan to accept the head coach and athletic director positions at Wisconsin, returning athletic director Yost to the head coaching position. Although the 1925 and 1926 seasons did not include a conference title, they were memorable due to the presence of the famous "Benny - to - Bennie '' combination, a reference to Benny Friedman and Bennie Oosterbaan. The two helped popularize passing the ball in an era when running held dominance. Oosterbaan became a three - time All - American and was selected for the All - Time All - American team in 1951, while Friedman went on to have a Hall of Fame NFL career. Also during 1926, Michigan was retroactively awarded national titles for the 1901 and 1902 seasons via the Houlgate System, the first national titles awarded to the program. Other major selectors later retroactively awarded Michigan with titles in the 1903, 1904, 1918, 1923, 1925, and 1926 seasons. Michigan currently claims titles in the 1901, 1902, 1903, 1904, 1918, and 1923 seasons.
Yost stepped aside in 1926 to focus on being Michigan 's athletic director, a post he had held since 1921, thus ending the greatest period of success in the history of Michigan football. Under Yost, Michigan posted a 165 -- 29 -- 10 record, winning ten conference championships and six national championships. One of his main actions as athletic director was to oversee the construction of Michigan Stadium. Michigan began playing football games in Michigan Stadium in the fall of 1927. At the time Michigan Stadium had a capacity of 72,000, although Yost envisioned eventually expanding the stadium to a capacity well beyond 100,000. Michigan Stadium was formally dedicated during a game against the Ohio State Buckeyes that season to the tune of a 21 -- 0 victory.
Elton Wieman became Michigan 's head coach in 1927. That year, Michigan posted a modest 6 -- 2 record. However, the team ended 1928 with a losing 3 -- 4 -- 1 record and Wieman was fired.
In 1929, Harry Kipke, a former player under Yost, took over as head coach. From 1930 to 1933, Kipke returned Michigan to prominence. During that stretch, Michigan won the Big Ten title every year and the national championship in 1932 and 1933. During this span Kipke 's teams only lost one game, to Ohio State. After 1933, Kipke 's teams fell off the map, going 12 -- 22 from 1934 to 1937. The 1934 Michigan team only won one game, against Georgia Tech in a controversial contest. Georgia Tech coach and athletic director W.A. "Bill '' Alexander refused to allow his team to take the field if Willis Ward, an African - American player for Michigan, stepped on the field. Michigan conceded, and the incident reportedly caused Michigan player Gerald R. Ford to consider quitting the team. Needless to say, four years without success had become unacceptable at Michigan, and Yost began work on hiring another head coach. Overall, Kipke posted a 49 -- 26 -- 4 record at Michigan, winning four conference championships and two national championships.
In 1938, Michigan hired Fritz Crisler as Kipke 's successor. Crisler had been head coach of the Princeton Tigers and reportedly was n't excited to leave Princeton. Michigan invited him to name his price, and Crisler demanded what he thought would be unacceptable: the position of athletic director when Yost stepped down and the highest salary in college football. Michigan accepted, and Crisler became the new head coach of the Michigan football program.
Upon arriving at Michigan, Crisler introduced the winged football helmet, ostensibly to help his players find the receivers down field. Whatever the reasoning, the winged helmet has since become one of the iconic marks of Michigan football. Michigan debuted the winged helmet in a game against Michigan State in 1938. Two years later in 1940, Tom Harmon led the Wolverines to a 7 -- 1 record on his way to winning the Heisman Trophy. Harmon ended the season by scoring three rushing touchdowns, two passing touchdowns, four extra points, intercepting three passes, and punting three times for an average of 50 yards in a game against the Ohio State Buckeyes. The 1943 season included a No. 1 (Notre Dame) vs. No. 2 (Michigan) match - up against Notre Dame, a game the Wolverines lost 35 -- 12. Michigan ended the season at 8 -- 1, winning Crisler 's first Big Ten championship.
Crisler had reversed the misfortune of the end of the Kipke era and returned Michigan to one and two - loss seasons. From 1938 to 1944, Michigan posted a 48 -- 11 -- 2 record, although the period lacked a national title and only contained one conference title. Yet, Crisler 's biggest mark on the game of football was made in 1945, when Michigan faced a loaded Army squad that featured two Heisman trophy winners, Doc Blanchard and Glenn Davis. Crisler did n't feel that his Michigan team could match up with Army, so he opted to take advantage of a 1941 NCAA rule that allowed players to enter or leave at any point during the game. Crisler divided his team into "offensive '' and "defensive '' specialists, an act that earned him the nickname "the father of two - platoon football. '' Michigan still lost the game with Army 28 -- 7, but Crisler 's use of two - platoon football shaped the way the game was played in the future. Eventually, Crisler 's use of the platoon system propelled his team to a conference championship and a national title in 1947, his final season. The 1947 team, nicknamed the "Mad Magicians '' due to their use of two - platoon football, capped their season with a 49 -- 0 victory over the USC Trojans in the 1948 Rose Bowl. Crisler finished with a 116 -- 32 -- 9 record at Michigan, winning two conference titles and one national title.
Crisler continued as athletic director while Bennie Oosterbaan, the same Bennie that had electrified the world while making connections with Benny Friedman 20 years earlier, took over the football program. Things started off well for Oosterbaan in 1948 with the Wolverines earning a quality mid-season victory over # 3 Northwestern. Michigan finished the season undefeated at 9 -- 0, thus winning another national championship. Initially, Oosterbaan continued Crisler 's tradition of on - field success, winning conference titles each year from 1948 to 1950 and the national title in 1948. The 1950 season ended in interesting fashion, with Michigan and Ohio State combining for 45 punts in a game that came to be known as the "Snow Bowl. '' Michigan won the game 9 -- 3, winning the Big Ten conference and sending the Wolverines off to the 1951 Rose Bowl. Subsequently, Michigan 's football team began to decline under Oosterbaan. From 1951 to 1958, Michigan compiled a record of 42 -- 26 -- 2, a far cry from the success under Crisler and Yost. Perhaps more importantly, Oosterbaan posted a 2 -- 5 -- 1 record against Michigan State and a 3 -- 5 record against Ohio State over the same time period. Under mounting pressure, Oosterbaan stepped down after 1958.
In place of Oosterbaan stepped Bump Elliott, a former Michigan player of Crisler 's. Elliott continued many of the struggles that began under Oosterbaan, posting a 51 -- 42 -- 2 record from 1959 through 1968 (including a 2 -- 7 -- 1 record against Michigan State and a 3 -- 7 record against Ohio State). Michigan 's only Big Ten title under Elliott came in 1964, a season that included a win over Oregon State in the 1965 Rose Bowl. Following a 50 - 14 drubbing at the hands of Ohio State in 1968, Elliott resigned, opening the way for Michigan athletic director Don Canham to hire Bo Schembechler.
It took 15 minutes for Don Canham to be sold on Bo Schembechler, resulting in Schembechler becoming the 15th coach in Michigan football history. At the time, Schembechler 's current employer, the Miami RedHawks, could have thrown more money at Schembechler, but Canham managed to sell Schembechler on Michigan 's tradition and prestige. Schembechler 's respect for Michigan was evident early on when assistants complained about how the equipment they had was worse than what they had to work with at Miami. Schembechler gestured to a rusty chair and said, "See this chair? Fielding Yost sat in this chair. See this nail? Fielding Yost hung his hat on that nail. And you 're telling me we had better stuff at Miami? No men, we did n't. We have tradition here, Michigan tradition, and that 's something no one else has! '' Schembechler immediately got to work in turning around his team. He had a reputation for being hard on his players, causing 65 of his 140 players to quit the team before the season even started. In response, Schembechler promised his team "Those Who Stay Will be Champions '', assuring the players that remained that their efforts would be rewarded.
Schembechler 's first team got off to a moderate start, losing to rival Michigan State and entering the Ohio State game with a 7 -- 2 record. Ohio State, coached by icon Woody Hayes, entered the game at 8 -- 0 and poised to repeat as national champions. The 1969 Ohio State team was hailed by some as being the "greatest college football team ever assembled '' and came into the game favored by 17 points over Michigan. Michigan shocked the Buckeyes, winning 24 -- 12, going to the Rose Bowl, and launching The Ten Year War between Hayes and Schembechler. From 1969 to 1978, one of either Ohio State or Michigan won at least a share of the Big Ten title and represented the Big Ten in the Rose Bowl every season.
In 1970 Schembechler failed to repeat on the magic of 1969, that year losing to Ohio State 20 -- 9 and finishing at 9 -- 1. However, in 1971, Schembechler led Michigan to an undefeated regular season, only to lose to the Stanford Indians in the Rose Bowl to finish at 11 -- 1 and miss out on a chance at a national championship. From 1972 to 1975, Michigan failed to win a game against Ohio State (powered by phenom running back Archie Griffin), finishing at 10 -- 1, 10 -- 0 -- 1, 10 -- 1, and 8 -- 2 -- 2. However, Michigan did tie Ohio State in 1973, only missing out on the Rose Bowl due to a controversial vote that sent Ohio State to the Rose Bowl and left Michigan at home. Another notable event occurred during the 1975 season, with the first of Michigan 's record streak of games with more than 100,000 people in attendance occurring during a game against the Purdue Boilermakers.
From 1976 to 1978, Michigan asserted its own dominance of the rivalry, beating Ohio State, going to the Rose Bowl, and posting a 10 -- 2 record every year. After the 1978 season, Woody Hayes was fired for punching an opposing player during the 1978 Gator Bowl, thus ending The Ten Year War. Michigan had a slight edge in the war, with Schembechler going 5 -- 4 -- 1 against Hayes. However, while Schembechler successfully placed great emphasis on the rivalry, Michigan 's bowl performances were sub-par. Michigan failed to win their last game of the season every year during The Ten Year War. The only year in which Michigan did n't lose its last game of the season was the 1973 tie against Ohio State.
After the end of the Ten Year War, Michigan 's regular season performance declined, but their post season performance improved. The 1979 season included a memorable game against Indiana that ended with a touchdown pass from John Wangler to Anthony Carter with six seconds left in the game. The play was made famous by Bob Ufer 's emotional radio narration: "Under center is Wangler at the 45, he goes back. He 's looking for a receiver. He throws downfield to Carter. Carter has it. (unintelligible screaming) Carter scores... I have never seen anything like this in all my 40 years of covering Michigan football... I hope you can hear me -- because I 've never been so happy in all my cotton - picking 59 years!... Johnny Wangler to Anthony Carter will be heard until another 100 years of Michigan football is played!... Meeeshigan wins, 27 to 21. They are n't even going to try the extra point. Who cares? Who gives a damn? ''. Michigan went 8 -- 4 on the season, losing to North Carolina in the 1979 Gator Bowl.
In 1980, Michigan went 10 -- 2 and got their first win in the Rose Bowl under Schembechler, a 23 -- 6 win over Washington. Michigan went 9 -- 3 in 1981 to get Schembechler 's second bowl win in the 1981 Bluebonnet Bowl. In 1982, Michigan won the Big Ten championship while being led by three - time All - American wide receiver Anthony Carter. Michigan fell to UCLA Bruins in the 1983 Rose Bowl. Without Anthony Carter, the Wolverines did not win the Big Ten title in 1983, going 9 -- 3. In 1984, the Wolverines suffered their worst season under Schembechler, going 6 -- 6 with a loss to national champion BYU in the 1984 Holiday Bowl.
Michigan needed to reverse its fortunes in 1985, and they began doing so with new quarterback Jim Harbaugh. Harbaugh led the Wolverines to a 5 -- 0 record, propelling them to a No. 2 ranking heading into a game with the # 1 Iowa Hawkeyes. Michigan lost 12 -- 10, but did not lose another game the rest of the season to finish at 10 -- 1 -- 1 with a victory over Tom Osborne 's Nebraska Cornhuskers in the 1986 Fiesta Bowl. In 1986 Michigan won the Big Ten at 11 -- 2, suffering a loss to the Arizona State Sun Devils in the 1987 Rose Bowl.
The departure of Harbaugh after 1986 once again left Michigan on tough times as Schembechler 's team stumbled to an 8 -- 4 record in 1987. However, Michigan bounced back again in 1988 and 1989, winning the Big Ten title outright both years at 9 -- 2 -- 1 and 10 -- 2 with trips to Rose Bowl. From 1981 through 1989, Michigan went 80 -- 27 -- 2, winning four Big Ten titles and going to a bowl game every year (with another Rose Bowl win obtained against USC Trojans after the 1988 season). Bo Schembechler retired after the 1989 season, handing the job over to his offensive coordinator Gary Moeller. Under Schembechler, Michigan posted a 194 -- 48 -- 5 record (11 -- 9 -- 1 against Ohio State), and won 13 Big Ten championships.
Gary Moeller took over from Schembechler for the 1990 season, becoming the 16th head coach in Michigan football history. Moeller inherited a talented squad that had just played in the 1990 Rose Bowl, including wide receiver Desmond Howard. Moeller led Michigan to a 9 -- 3 record in his first season, tying for the Big Ten championship but losing out on a Rose Bowl bid to Iowa. The next two years, Moeller 's teams won the conference outright, setting marks of 10 -- 2 and 9 -- 0 -- 3. In 1991, Desmond Howard had a memorable season that propelled him to win the Heisman Trophy, the award given to college football 's most outstanding player. The 1992 team, led by quarterback Elvis Grbac, posted a 9 -- 0 -- 3 record, defeating Washington in the 1993 Rose Bowl. Moeller led Michigan to 8 -- 4 records in both 1993 and 1994. The 1994 season was marked by an early - season loss to Colorado that included a Hail Mary pass from Kordell Stewart to Michael Westbrook to end the game, leading to the game being dubbed "The Miracle at Michigan. '' After the 1994 season, Moeller was found intoxicated at a Southfield, MI restaurant in an incident in which Moeller was caught on tape throwing a punch in a police station, which resulted in his firing.
Michigan 's athletic director appointed Lloyd Carr as interim head coach for the 1995 season. Carr became the permanent head coach after an 8 -- 2 start and Michigan finished his first season at 9 -- 4. Carr had similar success in his second season, going 8 -- 4 and earning a trip to the 1997 Outback Bowl. Carr returned a strong squad for the 1997 season, led by cornerback and punt returner Charles Woodson. Michigan went undefeated in 1997, with the defense smothering opponents; the only team to score more than 16 points on Michigan that year were the Iowa Hawkeyes. Overall, the Michigan defense only allowed 9.5 points per game and ended the season ranked No. 1 in the AP Poll, giving Michigan its first national championship since 1948 with a victory in the 1998 Rose Bowl. For his efforts, Woodson won the Heisman Trophy and was selected 4th overall in the 1998 NFL Draft by the Oakland Raiders.
During this era under Carr, Michigan began to establish for itself a reputation as a quarterback school, with future NFL quarterbacks such as Brian Griese (1993 -- 1997), Tom Brady (1996 -- 1999), Drew Henson (1998 -- 2000), John Navarre (1999 -- 2003), and Chad Henne (2004 -- 2007) all playing for Michigan. With this string of quarterbacks, Michigan had a starting quarterback that later joined the NFL every year from 1993 through 2007. Under Tom Brady, Michigan went 10 -- 3 and repeated as Big Ten champions in 1998, but in 1999 Michigan lost out on the conference championship at 10 -- 2 to a Wisconsin Badgers team led by Ron Dayne. Drew Henson led Michigan to a 9 -- 3 record and a tie for the Big Ten championship in 2000.
During Lloyd Carr 's first six years, he had compiled an excellent record of 5 -- 1 against the Ohio State Buckeyes. Ohio State 's coach, John Cooper, had compiled a 2 -- 10 -- 1 record against Schembechler, Moeller, and Carr. On top of that, Ohio State had entered the game against Michigan undefeated with national championship aspirations on three of those occasions (1993, 1995, and 1996). This, combined with Cooper 's 3 -- 8 bowl record led to his firing after the 2000 season and replacement by Jim Tressel. Tressel immediately ushered in a new era in the Ohio State - Michigan rivalry, upsetting the Wolverines 26 -- 20 in 2001, his first season at the helm. This came on the heels of another last - second loss in which Michigan State defeated Michigan with a pass in the last second of the game in a controversial finish that led to the game being referred to as "Clockgate. '' Despite these setbacks, Michigan 's 2001 squad, led by John Navarre, went 8 -- 4 with an appearance in the 2002 Florida Citrus Bowl. Again under Navarre in 2002, Michigan compiled a 10 -- 3 record, but included another loss to Ohio State, who went on to win the national championship. Carr got over the hump against Tressel in 2003 as John Navarre and Doak Walker Award - winning running back Chris Perry led the Wolverines to a 10 -- 3 record, a Big Ten championship, and an appearance in the 2004 Rose Bowl.
For the 2004 season, Carr turned to highly rated recruit Chad Henne to lead the Wolverines at quarterback. Michigan went 9 -- 3 to tie for another Big Ten championship and earn a trip to the 2005 Rose Bowl, but the season again included a loss to Ohio State, who only went 8 -- 4 on the season. Carr, who had started off with a stellar record against Cooper 's Ohio State, seemed to have much more trouble beating Tressel 's version of the Buckeyes. In addition, Michigan was beginning to have a reputation for struggling with the spread offense, with teams such as the Purdue Boilermakers led by Drew Brees in 2000, the Oregon Ducks in 2003, and the Texas Longhorns led by Vince Young in the 2005 Rose Bowl all putting many points on Lloyd Carr 's defense.
In 2005, Michigan struggled to make a bowl game, only going 7 -- 5, with the season capped with another loss to Ohio State. Expectations were tempered going into the 2006 season; however, a 47 -- 21 blowout of # 2 Notre Dame and an 11 -- 0 start propelled Michigan to the No. 2 rankings going into "The Game '' with # 1 Ohio State. The 2006 Ohio State - Michigan game was hailed by the media as the "Game of the Century. '' The day before the game, Bo Schembechler died, leading Ohio State to honor him with a moment of silence, one of the few Michigan Men to be so honored in Ohio Stadium. The game itself was a back - and - forth affair, with Ohio State winning 42 -- 39 for the right to play in the 2007 BCS National Championship Game. Michigan lost to USC in the 2007 Rose Bowl, ending the season at 11 -- 2.
Going into 2007, Michigan had high expectations. Standout players Chad Henne, Mike Hart, and Jake Long all opted to return for their senior seasons for one last crack at Ohio State and a chance at a national championship, causing Michigan to be ranked fifth in the preseason polls. However, Michigan 's struggles against the spread offense reared its ugly head again as the Wolverines shockingly lose the opener to the Appalachian State Mountaineers. The game marked the first win by a Division I - AA team over a team ranked in the Associated Press Poll. The next week, Michigan was blown out by Oregon, another spread team. Despite the early rough start, Michigan won their next eight games and went into the Ohio State game with a chance to win the Big Ten championship. However, Michigan once again fell to the Buckeyes, this time 14 -- 3. After the game, Lloyd Carr announced that he would retire from Michigan after the bowl game. In the 2008 Capital One Bowl, Carr 's final game, Michigan defeated the defending national champion Florida Gators, led by Heisman Trophy winner Tim Tebow, 41 -- 35. Carr 's accomplishments at Michigan included a 122 -- 40 record, five Big Ten championships, and one national championship.
Following Carr 's retirement, Michigan launched a coaching search that ultimately saw Rich Rodriguez lured away from his alma mater, West Virginia. Rodriguez 's arrival marked the beginning of major upheaval in the Michigan football program. Rodriguez, a proponent of the spread offense, installed it in place of the pro-style offense that had been used by Carr. The offseason saw significant attrition in Michigan 's roster. The expected starting quarterback Ryan Mallett departed the program, stating that he would be unable to fit in a spread offense. Starting wide receivers Mario Manningham and Adrian Arrington both decided to forgo their senior seasons and enter the NFL Draft. Michigan lost a good deal of its depth and, when the 2008 season began, was forced to start players with very little playing experience.
The 2008 season was disappointing for Michigan, finishing at 3 -- 9 and suffering its first losing campaign since 1967. Michigan also missed a bowl game invitation for the first time since 1974. For the 2009 season the team saw many changes from the previous year. A new practice facility replaced Oosterbaan Fieldhouse as Michigan 's indoor practice facility, and two new quarterbacks, Tate Forcier and Denard Robinson, became the focus of the offseason. The week before the season began, however, the Detroit Free Press accused the team of violating the NCAA 's practice time limits. While the NCAA conducted investigations, Michigan won its first four games, including a last second victory against its rival Notre Dame. The season ended in disappointment, however, as Michigan went 1 -- 7 in its last eight games and missed a bowl for the second straight season.
Rodriguez 's final season began with new hope in the program, as Robinson was named the starting quarterback over Forcier. Robinson led the Wolverines to a 5 -- 0 start, but after a defeat to Michigan State at home, the Wolverines finished the season 2 -- 5 over their last seven games. Michigan did, however, qualify for a bowl game with a 7 -- 5 record, and clinched its bowl berth in dramatic fashion against Illinois, with Michigan winning 67 -- 65 in three overtime periods. The game was the highest combined scoring game in Michigan history, and saw Michigan 's defense give up the most points in its history. Michigan was invited to the Gator Bowl to face Mississippi State, losing 52 -- 14. The Michigan defense set new school records as the worst defense in Michigan history. In the middle of the season, the NCAA announced its penalties against Michigan for the practice time violations. The program was placed on three years probation and docked 130 practice hours, which was twice the amount Michigan had exceeded.
Rodriguez was fired following the bowl game, with athletic director Dave Brandon citing Rodriguez 's failure to meet expectations as the main reason for his dismissal. Rodriguez left the program winless against rivals Michigan State and Ohio State and compiled a 15 -- 22 record, the worst record of any head coach in Michigan history.
Michigan announced the hiring of head coach Brady Hoke on January 11, 2011. He became the 19th head coach in Michigan football history. Hoke had previously been the head coach at his alma mater Ball State and then San Diego State after serving as an assistant at Michigan under Lloyd Carr from 1995 to 2002. In his first season, Hoke led the Wolverines to 11 wins, beating rival Notre Dame with a spectacular comeback in Michigan 's first night game at Michigan Stadium. Despite losing to Iowa and Michigan State, the Wolverines finished with a 10 -- 2 regular season record with their first win over Ohio State in eight years. The Wolverines received an invitation to the Sugar Bowl in which they defeated Virginia Tech, 23 -- 20, in overtime. This was the program 's first bowl win since the season of 2007. Until the streak was broken in 2008, Michigan had appeared in a bowl game each year since the 1975 season.
In Hoke 's second season, he led Michigan to an 8 -- 5 record. The Wolverines dropped their season opener to eventual national champions, Alabama in Dallas, Texas. U-M won the next two games at home in non-conference bouts against Air Force and UMass, totaling 94 points over the two games. Michigan then traveled to face eventual national runner - up Notre Dame. In this game, the Wolverines committed six turnovers, including five interceptions, as they fell to the Fighting Irish by a 13 -- 6 final. After back - to - back wins over Purdue and Illinois, they defeated in - state rival Michigan State for the first time since 2007. The win was the 900th in program history, becoming the first program to reach the milestone. U-M finished the season with wins over Minnesota, Northwestern and Iowa as well as losses to Nebraska and Ohio State to finish the regular season. Michigan was selected to participate in the 2013 Outback Bowl, where they fell to South Carolina by a 33 -- 28 score.
In the 2013 campaign, Michigan finished with a 7 -- 6 record, including a 3 -- 5 record in Big Ten play and a loss to Kansas State in the Buffalo Wild Wings Bowl 31 - 14.
On December 2, 2014, Hoke was fired as the head coach after four seasons following a 5 -- 7 record in 2014. This marked only the third season since 1975 in which Michigan missed a bowl game. Hoke compiled a 31 -- 20 record, including an 18 -- 14 record in Big Ten play.
On December 30, 2014, the University announced the hiring of Jim Harbaugh as the team 's 20th head coach. Harbaugh, who was starting quarterback in the mid 1980s under Bo Schembechler, had most recently served as head coach of the San Francisco 49ers. In his first season, Harbaugh led Michigan to a 10 -- 3 record, including a 41 -- 7 win over the Florida Gators in the 2016 Citrus Bowl. The squad achieved an identical 10 -- 3 record during the 2016 season, which ended with a 33 -- 32 loss to Florida State in the Orange Bowl on December 30. The team lost many key players on the offensive and defensive side of the ball prior to Harbaugh 's third season. The Wolverines went 8 -- 4 in the regular season losing to their main rivals, Michigan State and Ohio State, and lost to South Carolina in the Outback Bowl, dropping the record on the year to 8 -- 5.
Michigan has played in 46 bowl games in its history, compiling a record of 21 -- 25. Before missing a bowl game in 2008, Michigan had made a bowl game 33 years in a row, the second longest streak (as of the end of 2013 season) in college football history. From the 1921 to 1945 seasons, the Big Ten Conference did not allow its teams to participate in bowls. From the 1946 to 1974 seasons, only a conference champion, or a surrogate representative, was allowed to attend a bowl, the Rose Bowl, and no team could go two years in a row until the 1972 Rose Bowl, with the exception of Minnesota in 1961 and 1962.
In the early days of Michigan football, Michigan played smaller home games at the Washtenaw County Fairgrounds with larger games being held in Detroit at the Detroit Athletic Club. The Fairgrounds were originally located at the southeast intersection of Hill and Forest, but in 1890 moved to what is now called Burns Park.
In 1890, the Board of Regents authorized $3,000 ($78,947.37 in 2014 dollars) for the purchase of a parcel of land along South State Street. In 1891 a further $4,500 ($118,421.05 in 2014 dollars) was authorized "for the purpose of fitting up the athletic field. '' Michigan began play on Regents Field in 1893, with capacity being expanded to over 15,000 by the end of the field 's use.
By 1902 Regents Field had grown inadequate for the uses of the football team as a result of the sport 's increasing popularity. Thanks to donations from Dexter M. Ferry, work began on planning the next home stadium for the Michigan football team. Powered by a $30,000 donation from Ferry, Ferry Field was constructed with a maximum temporary capacity of 18,000 for the 1906 season. Ferry Field was expanded to a capacity of 21,000 in 1914 and 42,000 in 1921. However, attendance was often over-capacity with crowds of 48,000 cramming into the small stadium. This prompted athletic director Fielding Yost to contemplate the construction of a much larger stadium.
Fielding H. Yost anticipated massive crowds as college football 's popularity increased and wished to build a stadium with a capacity of at least 80,000. Ultimately, the final plans authorized the construction of a stadium with a capacity of 72,000 with footings to be set in place to expand it beyond 100,000 later. Michigan Stadium was dedicated in 1927 during a game against the Ohio State Buckeyes, drawing an over-capacity crowd of 84,401. After World War II, crowd sizes increased, prompting another stadium expansion to a capacity of 93,894 in 1949. Michigan Stadium cracked the 100,000 mark by expanding to 101,001 in 1955. Michigan Stadium temporarily lost the title of "largest stadium '' to Neyland Stadium of the Tennessee Volunteers in 1996, but recaptured the title in 1998 with another expansion to 107,501. In 2007, the Board of Regents authorized a $226 million renovation to add a new press box, 83 luxury boxes, and 3,200 club seats. For the 2011 season, lights were installed at Michigan Stadium at the cost of $1.8 million. This allowed Michigan to play its first night game at home against Notre Dame in 2011.
Michigan and Ohio State first played each other in 1897 and have since played in 112 contests with Michigan holding a 58 -- 48 -- 6 advantage. Ohio State 's victory in 2010 was vacated. The rivalry was particularly enhanced during The Ten Year War, a period in which Ohio State was coached by Woody Hayes and Michigan was coached by Bo Schembechler. Overall, the Buckeye and Wolverine football programs have combined for 19 national titles, 77 conference titles, and 10 Heisman Trophy winners.
Michigan and Michigan State first played each other in 1898. Since then the teams have played 109 contests, with Michigan holding a 69 -- 36 -- 5 advantage. Since Michigan State joined the Big Ten Conference in 1953, the two schools have competed annually for the Paul Bunyan -- Governor of Michigan Trophy. The winner retains possession of the trophy until the next year 's game. Michigan currently leads the trophy series 36 -- 27 -- 2. Michigan State is the current holder of the trophy following a 14 -- 10 win in 2017.
Michigan plays Minnesota for the Little Brown Jug trophy. The Little Brown Jug is the most regularly exchanged rivalry trophy in college football, the oldest trophy game in FBS college football, and the second oldest rivalry trophy overall. Michigan leads the overall series 75 -- 25 -- 3 and currently hold the trophy, having won the 2017 contest, 33 -- 10.
Michigan and Notre Dame began playing each other in 1887 in Notre Dame 's first football game. Since then, Michigan and Notre Dame have played in 42 contests, with Michigan holding a 24 -- 17 -- 1 advantage. The rivalry is notable due to the historical success of the football programs. Through the end of the 2015 season, Michigan is ranked No. 1 in wins and No. 2 in all - time winning percentage while Notre Dame is No. 2 and No. 1, respectively. Both schools also claim 11 national championships.
The following is a list of Michigan 's 11 claimed national championships:
Michigan was also undefeated in 12 other seasons: 1879, 1880, 1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1898, 1910, 1922, 1930, 1973, 1992.
The following is a list of Michigan 's 42 conference championships:
§ Co-champions
Twenty - six Heisman Trophy candidates have played at Michigan, Three have won the award:
Michigan Most Valuable Player Award (1926 -- 1959), Louis B. Hyde Memorial Award (1960 -- 1994), Bo Schembechler Award (1995 -- present); winners of the Chicago Tribune Silver Football as the Big Ten 's MVP also noted:
Beginning in 2011, previously retired numbers of "Michigan Football Legends '' were assigned to and worn by players selected by the head coach. The Legends program was discontinued in July 2015, and the numbers again permanently retired.
Michigan alumni inductees to the College Football Hall of Fame include:
Michigan alumni inductees to the Pro Football Hall of Fame include:
Michigan alumni inductees to the Rose Bowl Hall of Fame include:
Updated as of Sept 10, 2017.
Announced schedules as of May 5, 2017.
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what 3 events led the us into ww1 | American entry into World war I - wikipedia
The American entry into World War I came in April 1917, after more than two and a half years of efforts by President Woodrow Wilson to keep the United States out of the war. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for the British, American public opinion reflected that of the president: the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans, German Americans, and Scandinavian Americans, as well as among church leaders and among women in general. On the other hand, even before World War I had broken out, American opinion had been more negative toward Germany than towards any other country in Europe. Over time, especially after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and following the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915, the American citizens increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor in Europe.
As U.S. president, it was Wilson who made the key policy decisions over foreign affairs: while the country was at peace, the domestic economy ran on a laissez - faire basis, with American banks making huge loans to Britain and France -- funds that were in large part used to buy munitions, raw materials, and food from across the Atlantic. Until 1917, Wilson made minimal preparations for a land war and kept the United States Army on a small peacetime footing, despite increasing demands for enhanced preparedness. He did however expand the United States Navy.
In 1917, with Russia experiencing political upheaval following widespread disillusionment there over the war, and with Britain and France low on credit, Germany appeared to have the upper hand in Europe, while Germany 's ally, the Ottoman Empire, clung stubbornly to its possessions in the Middle East. In the same year, Germany decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare against any vessel approaching British waters; this attempt to starve Britain into surrender was balanced against the knowledge that it would almost certainly bring the United States into the war. Germany also made a secret offer to help Mexico regain territories lost in the Mexican -- American War in an encoded telegram known as the Zimmermann Telegram, which was intercepted by British Intelligence. Publication of that communique outraged Americans just as German U-boats started sinking American merchant ships in the North Atlantic. Wilson then asked Congress for "a war to end all wars '' that would "make the world safe for democracy '', and Congress voted to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917.
On December 7, 1917, the U.S. declared war on Austria - Hungary.
U.S. troops began arriving on the Western Front in large numbers in 1918.
Britain used its large navy to prevent cargo vessels entering German ports, mainly by intercepting them in the North Sea between the coasts of Scotland and Norway. The wider sea approaches to Britain and France, their distance from German harbours and the smaller size of the German surface fleet all made it harder for Germany to reciprocate. Instead, Germany used submarines to lie in wait for, and then sink, merchant ships heading for enemy ports.
The United States insisted on maintaining the traditional rights of ships registered in neutral countries and protested strongly against American ships being intercepted or sunk: the British seized American ships for supposed violations, while the Germans sank them -- often without warning, in violation of international law that said sailors must be allowed an opportunity to reach their lifeboats. After several violations, Germany stopped this practice but in early 1917 she decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare, in the hope that this would starve out the British before the Americans could make any effective military retaliation.
The British Royal Navy successfully stopped the shipment of most war supplies and food to Germany. Neutral American ships that tried to trade with Germany were seized or turned back by the Royal Navy who viewed such trade as in direct conflict with the Allies ' war efforts. The strangulation came about very slowly, because Germany and its allies controlled extensive farmlands and raw materials. It was eventually successful because Germany and Austria - Hungary had decimated their agricultural production by taking so many farmers into their armies. By 1918, German cities were on the verge of starvation; the front - line soldiers were on short rations and were running out of essential supplies.
Germany also considered a blockade. "England wants to starve us '', said Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the man who built the German fleet and who remained a key advisor to the Kaiser Wilhelm II. "We can play the same game. We can bottle her up and destroy every ship that endeavors to break the blockade ''. Unable to challenge the more powerful Royal Navy on the surface, Tirpitz wanted to scare off merchant and passenger ships en route to Britain. He reasoned that since the island of Britain depended on imports of food, raw materials, and manufactured goods, scaring off a substantial number of the ships would effectively undercut its long - term ability to maintain an army on the Western Front. While Germany had only nine long - range U-boats at the start of the war, it had ample shipyard capacity to build the hundreds needed. However, the United States demanded that Germany respect the international agreements upon "freedom of the seas '', which protected neutral American ships on the high seas from seizure or sinking by either belligerent. Furthermore, Americans insisted that the drowning of innocent civilians was barbaric and grounds for a declaration of war. The British frequently violated America 's neutral rights by seizing ships. Wilson 's top advisor, Colonel Edward M. House commented that, "The British have gone as far as they possibly could in violating neutral rights, though they have done it in the most courteous way ''. When Wilson protested British violations of American neutrality, the British backed down.
German submarines torpedoed ships without warning, causing sailors and passengers to drown. Berlin explained that submarines were so vulnerable that they dared not surface near merchant ships that might be carrying guns and which were too small to rescue submarine crews. Britain armed most of its merchant ships with medium calibre guns that could sink a submarine, making above - water attacks too risky. In February 1915, the United States warned Germany about misuse of submarines. On April 22, the German Imperial Embassy warned U.S. citizens against boarding vessels to Britain, which would have to face German attack. On May 7, Germany torpedoed the British passenger liner RMS Lusitania, sinking her. This act of aggression caused the loss of 1,198 civilian lives, including 128 Americans. The sinking of a large, unarmed passenger ship, combined with the previous stories of atrocities in Belgium, shocked Americans and turned public opinion hostile to Germany, although not yet to the point of war. Wilson issued a warning to Germany that it would face "strict accountability '' if it sank more neutral U.S. passenger ships. Berlin acquiesced, ordering its submarines to avoid passenger ships.
By January 1917, however, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff decided that an unrestricted submarine blockade was the only way to achieve a decisive victory. They demanded that Kaiser Wilhelm order unrestricted submarine warfare be resumed. Germany knew this decision meant war with the United States, but they gambled that they could win before America 's potential strength could be mobilized. However, they overestimated how many ships they could sink and thus the extent Britain would be weakened. Finally, they did not foresee that convoys could and would be used to defeat their efforts. They believed that the United States was so weak militarily that it could not be a factor on the Western Front for more than a year. The civilian government in Berlin objected, but the Kaiser sided with his military.
The beginning of war in Europe coincided with the end of the Recession of 1913 -- 1914 in America. Exports to belligerent nations rose rapidly over the first four years of the War from $824.8 million in 1913 to $2.25 billion in 1917. Loans from American financial institutions to the Allied nations in Europe also increased dramatically over the same period. Economic activity towards the end of this period boomed as government resources aided the production of the private sector. Between 1914 and 1917, industrial production increased 32 % and GNP increased by almost 20 %. The improvements to industrial production in the United States outlasted the war. The capital build - up that had allowed American companies to supply belligerents and the American army resulted in a greater long - run rate of production even after the war had ended in 1918.
In 1913, J.P. Morgan, Jr. took over the House of Morgan, an American - based investment bank consisting of separate banking operations in New York, London, and Paris, after the death of his father, J. Pierpont Morgan. The House of Morgan offered assistance in the wartime financing of Britain and France from the earliest stages of the war in 1914 through America 's entrance in 1917. J.P. Morgan & Co., the House of Morgan 's bank in New York, was designated as the primary financial agent to the British government in 1914 after successful lobbying by the British ambassador, Sir Cecil Spring Rice. The same bank would later take a similar role in France and would offer extensive financial assistance to both warring nations. J.P. Morgan &Co. became the primary issuer of loans to the French government by raising money from American investors. Morgan, Harjes, the House of Morgan 's French affiliated bank, controlled the majority of the wartime financial dealings between the House of Morgan and the French government after primary issuances of debt in American markets. Relations between the House of Morgan and the French government became tense as the war raged on with no end in sight. France 's ability to borrow from other sources diminished, leading to greater lending rates and a depressing of the value of the franc. After the war, in 1918, J.P. Morgan & Co. continued to aid the French government financially through monetary stabilization and debt relief.
Because America was still a declared neutral state, the financial dealings of American banks in Europe caused a great deal of contention between Wall Street and the U.S. government. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan strictly opposed financial support of warring nations and wanted to ban loans to the belligerents in August 1914. He told President Wilson that "refusal to loan to any belligerent would naturally tend to hasten a conclusion of the war. '' Wilson at first agreed, but then reversed himself when France argued that if it was legal to buy American goods then it was legal to take out credits on the purchase.
J.P. Morgan issued loans to France including one in March 1915 and, following negotiations with the Anglo - French Financial Commission, another joint loan to Britain and France in October 1915, the latter amounting to US $500,000,000. Although the stance of the U.S. government was that stopping such financial assistance could hasten the end of the war and therefore save lives, little was done to insure adherence to the ban on loans, in part due to pressure from Allied governments and American business interests.
The American steel industry had faced difficulties and declining profits during the Recession of 1913 -- 1914. As war began in Europe, however, the increased demand for tools of war began a period of heightened productivity that alleviated many U.S. industrial companies from the low - growth environment of the recession. Bethlehem Steel took particular advantage of the increased demand for armaments abroad. Prior to American entrance into the War, these companies benefitted from unrestricted commerce with sovereign customers abroad. After President Wilson issued his declaration of war, the companies were subjected to price controls created by the U.S. Trade Commission in order to insure that the U.S. military would have access to the necessary armaments.
By the end of the war in 1918, Bethlehem Steel had produced 65,000 pounds of forged military products and 70 million pounds of armor plate, 1.1 billion pounds of steel for shells, and 20.1 million rounds of artillery ammunition for Britain and France. Bethlehem Steel took advantage of the domestic armaments market and produced 60 % of the American weaponry and 40 % of the artillery shells used in the War. Even with price controls and a lower profit margin on manufactured goods, the profits resulting from wartime sales expanded the company into the third largest manufacturing company in the country. Bethlehem Steel became the primary arms supplier for the United States and other allied powers again in 1939.
Historians divide the views of American political and social leaders into four distinct groupings -- the camps were mostly informal:
The first of these were the Non-Interventionists, a loosely affiliated and politically diverse anti-war movement which sought to keep the United States out of the war altogether. Members of this group tended to view the war as a clash between British imperialism and German militarism, both of which they regarded as equally corrupt. Others were pacifists, who objected on moral grounds. Prominent leaders included Democrats like former Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan, industrialist Henry Ford and publisher William Randolph Hearst; Republicans Robert M. La Follette, Senator from Wisconsin and George W. Norris, Senator from Nebraska; and Progressive Party activist Jane Addams.
At the far - left end of the political spectrum the Socialists, led by their perennial candidate for President Eugene V. Debs and movement veterans like Victor L. Berger and Morris Hillquit, were staunch anti-militarists and opposed to any US intervention, branding the conflict as a "capitalist war '' that American workers should avoid. However, after the US did join the war in April, 1917 a schism developed between the anti-war Party majority and a pro-war faction of Socialist writers, journalists and intellectuals led by John Spargo, William English Walling and E. Haldeman - Julius. This group founded the rival Social Democratic League of America to promote the war effort among their fellow Socialists.
Next were the more moderate Liberal - Internationalists. This bipartisan group reluctantly supported a declaration of war against Germany with the postwar goal of establishing collective international security institutions designed to peacefully resolve future conflicts between nations and to promote liberal democratic values more broadly. This groups 's views were advocated by interest groups such as the League to Enforce Peace. Adherents included US President Woodrow Wilson, his influential advisor Edward M. House, former President William Howard Taft, famed inventor Alexander Graham Bell, Wall Street financier Bernard Baruch and Harvard University President Abbott Lawrence Lowell.
Finally, there were the so - called Atlanticists. Ardently pro-Entente, they had strongly championed American intervention in the war since 1915. Their primary political motivation was to both prepare the US for war with Germany and to forge an enduring military alliance with Great Britain. This group actively supported the Preparedness Movement and was strong among the Anglophile political establishment of the northeast, boasting such luminaries as former President Theodore Roosevelt, Major General Leonard Wood, prominent attorney and diplomat Joseph Hodges Choate, former Secretary of War Henry Stimson, journalist Walter Lippman and Senators Henry Cabot Lodge, Sr. of Massachusetts and Elihu Root of New York.
A cosmopolitan group of upper and upper - middle class businessmen based in the largest cities took the lead in promoting military preparedness and in defining how far America could be pushed around before it would fight back. Many public figures hated war -- Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan was the most prominent, and he resigned when he thought Wilson had become too bellicose. Grassroots opposition to American entry came especially from German and Irish elements.
A surprising factor in the development of American public opinion was how little the political parties became involved. Wilson and the Democrats in 1916 campaigned on the slogan "He kept us out of war! '', saying a Republican victory would mean war with both Mexico and Germany. His position probably was critical in winning the Western states. Charles Evans Hughes, the GOP candidate, insisted on downplaying the war issue.
The Socialist party talked peace. Socialist rhetoric declared the European conflict to be "an imperialist war ''. It won 2 % of the 1916 vote for Eugene V. Debs, blamed the war on capitalism and pledged total opposition. "A bayonet '', its propaganda said, "was a weapon with a worker at each end ''. When war began, however, about half the Socialists, typified by Congressman Meyer London, supported the decision and sided with the pro-Allied efforts. The rest, led by Debs, remained ideological and die - hard opponents. Many socialists came under investigation from the Espionage Act of 1917 and many suspected of treason were arrested, including Debs. This would only increase the Socialist 's anti-war groups in resentment toward the American government.
The working class was relatively quiet, and tended to divide along ethnic lines. At the beginning of the war, neither working men nor farmers took a large interest in the debates on war preparation. Samuel Gompers, head of the AFL labor movement, denounced the war in 1914 as "unnatural, unjustified, and unholy '', but by 1916 he was supporting Wilson 's limited preparedness program, against the objections of Socialist union activists. In 1916 the labor unions supported Wilson on domestic issues and ignored the war question.
The war at first disrupted the cotton market; Britain blockaded shipments to Germany, and prices fell from 11 cents a pound to only 4 cents. By 1916, however, the British decided to bolster the price to 10 cents to avoid losing Southern support. The cotton growers seem to have moved from neutrality to intervention at about the same pace as the rest of the nation. Midwestern farmers generally opposed the war, especially those of German and Scandinavian descent. The Midwest became the stronghold of isolationism; other remote rural areas also saw no need for war.
The African - American community did not take a strong position one way or the other. A month after congress declared war, W.E.B. Du Bois called on African - Americans to "fight shoulder to shoulder with the world to gain a world where war shall be no more ''. Once war began and black men were drafted, they worked to achieve equality. Many had hoped the community 's help in the war efforts abroad would earn civil rights at home. When such civil liberties were still not granted, many African - Americans grew tired of waiting for recognition of their rights as American citizens.
There was a strong antiwar element in the white South and border states. In rural Missouri for example, distrust of powerful Eastern influences focused on the risk that Wall Street would lead America into war. Across the South poor white farmers warned each other that "a rich man 's war meant a poor man 's fight, '' and they wanted nothing of it. Congressman James Hay, Democrat of Virginia was the powerful chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs. He repeatedly blocked prewar efforts to modernize and enlarge the army. Preparedness was not needed because Americans were already safe, he insisted in January 1915:
German Americans by this time usually had only weak ties to Germany; however, they were fearful of negative treatment they might receive if the United States entered the war (such mistreatment was already happening to German - descent citizens in Canada and Australia). Almost none called for intervening on Germany 's side, instead calling for neutrality and speaking of the superiority of German culture. As more nations were drawn into the conflict, however, the English - languages press increasingly supporting Britain, while the German - American media called for neutrality while also defending Germany 's position. Chicago 's Germans worked to secure a complete embargo on all arms shipments to Europe. In 1916, large crowds in Chicago 's Germania celebrated the Kaiser 's birthday, something they had not done before the war. German Americans in early 1917 still called for neutrality, but proclaimed that if a war came they would be loyal to the United States. By this point, they had been excluded almost entirely from national discourse on the subject. Once war started, they were harassed in so many ways that historian Carl Wittke noted in 1936, it was "one of the most difficult and humiliating experiences suffered by an ethnic group in American history. '' German - American Socialists in Milwaukee, Wisconsin actively campaigned against entry into the war.
Leaders of most religious groups (except the Episcopalians) tended to pacifism, as did leaders of the woman 's movement. The Methodists and Quakers among others were vocal opponents of the war. President Wilson, who was a devout Presbyterian, would often frame the war in terms of good and evil in an appeal for religious support of the war.
A concerted effort was made by pacifists including Jane Addams, Oswald Garrison Villard, David Starr Jordan, Henry Ford, Lillian Wald, and Carrie Chapman Catt. Their goal was to encourage Wilson 's efforts to mediate an end of the war by bringing the belligerents to the conference table. Finally in 1917 Wilson convinced some of them that to be truly anti-war they needed to support what he promised would be "a war to end all wars ''.
Once war was declared, the more liberal denominations, which had endorsed the Social Gospel, called for a war for righteousness that would help uplift all mankind. The theme -- an aspect of American exceptionalism -- was that God had chosen America as his tool to bring redemption to the world.
American Catholic bishops maintained a general silence toward the issue of intervention. Millions of Catholics lived in both warring camps, and Catholic Americans tended to split on ethnic lines in their opinions toward American involvement in the war. At the time, heavily Catholic towns and cities in the East and Midwest often contained multiple parishes, each serving a single ethnic group, such as Irish, German, Italian, Polish, or English. American Catholics of Irish and German descent opposed intervention most strongly. Pope Benedict XV made several attempts to negotiate a peace. All of his efforts were rebuffed by both the Allies and the Germans, and throughout the war the Vatican maintained a policy of strict neutrality.
Jewish American sympathies likewise broke along ethnic lines, with recently arrived Yiddish speaking Jews inclined to Zionism, and the established German - American Jewish community largely opposed to it. In 1914 -- 1916, there were few Jewish forces in favor of American entry into the war. Many regarded Britain as hostile to Jewish interests. New York City, with its well - organized element numbering 1.5 million Jews, was the center of antiwar activism.
The different Jewish communities worked together during the war years to provide relief to Jewish communities in Eastern Europe.
Of greatest concern to Jews was the tsarist regime in Russia because it was notorious for tolerating pogroms and following anti-Semitic policies. As historian Joseph Rappaport reported through his study of Yiddish press during the war, "The pro-Germanism of America 's immigrant Jews was an inevitable consequence of their Russophobia ''. The fall of the tsarist regime in March 1917 removed a major obstacle for many Jews who refused to support tsarism. The draft went smoothly in New York City, and left - wing opposition to the war largely collapsed when Zionists saw the possibility of using the war to demand a state of Israel.
The most effective domestic opponents of the war were Irish - American Catholics. They had little interest in the continent, but were neutral about helping the United Kingdom because it had recently enacted the Government of Ireland Act 1914, allowing Irish Home Rule. However, the Act was suspended until the war ended. John Redmond and the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) declared that Irish Volunteers should support America 's pro-Allied war efforts first; his political opponents argued that it was not the time to support Britain in its attempt to "strengthen and expand her empire ''. The attacks on the IPP and pro-Allied press showed a firm belief that a German victory would hasten the achievement of Irish independence. Yet rather than proposing intervention on behalf of the Germans, Irish American leaders and organizations focused on demanding American neutrality. But the increased contact between militant Irish nationalists and German agents in the United States only fueled concerns of where the primary loyalties of Irish Americans lay. Nevertheless, close to 1,000 Irish - born Americans died fighting with the U.S. armed forces in WWI.
The Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916 was crushed within a week and its leaders executed by firing squad. The mainstream American press treated the uprising as foolish and misguided, and theorized it was largely inspired by the Germans. Overall public opinion remained faithfully pro-British.
Irish - Americans dominated the Democratic party in many large cities so Wilson had to take account of their views. They did not prevent him from being hostile to Germany, but they did force him to keep his distance from Britain. Indeed, Irish - American pressure influenced the United States into not accepting Britain 's war aims as its own and define its own objectives, primarily self - determination. The Irish - American community thought they had Wilson 's promise to promote Irish independence in exchange for their support of his war policies, but after the war they were bitterly disappointed by his refusal to support them in 1919. Wilson saw the Irish situation purely as an internal UK matter and did not perceive the dispute and the unrest in Ireland as comparable to the plight of the various nationalities in Europe as a fall - out from World War I. The progress of the Irish Race Conventions give a flavour of the differing and changing opinions during the war.
Some British immigrants worked actively for intervention. London - born Samuel Insull, Chicago 's leading industrialist, for example, enthusiastically provided money, propaganda, and means for volunteers to enter the British or Canadian armies. After the United States ' entry, Insull directed the Illinois State Council of Defense, with responsibility for organizing the state 's mobilization.
Immigrants from eastern Europe usually cared more about politics in their homeland than politics in the United States. Spokesmen for Slavic immigrants hoped that an Allied victory would bring independence for their homelands. Large numbers of Hungarian immigrants who were liberal and nationalist in sentiment, and sought an independent Hungary, separate from the Austro - Hungarian Empire lobbied in favor of the war and allied themselves with the Atlanticist or Anglophile portion of the population. This community was largely pro-British and anti-German in sentiment. Albanian - Americans in communities such as Boston also campaigned for entry into the war and were overwhelmingly pro-British and anti-German, as well as hopeful the war would lead to an independent Albania which would be free from the Ottoman Empire. Polish, Slovak, and Czech immigrants were enthusiastically pro-war and generally pro-British.
Henry Ford supported the pacifist cause by sponsoring a large - scale private peace mission, with numerous activists and intellectuals aboard the "Peace Ship ' (the ocean liner Oscar II). Ford chartered the ship in 1915 and invited prominent peace activists to join him to meet with leaders on both sides in Europe. He hoped to create enough publicity to prompt the belligerent nations to convene a peace conference and mediate an end to the war. The mission was widely mocked by the press, which wrote about the "Ship of Fools. '' Infighting between the activists, mockery by the press contingent aboard, and an outbreak of influenza marred the voyage. Four days after the ship arrived in neutral Norway, a beleaguered and physically ill Ford abandoned the mission and returned to the United States; he had demonstrated that independent small efforts accomplished nothing.
On July 24, 1915, the German embassy 's commercial attaché, Heinrich Albert, left his briefcase on a train in New York City, where an alert Secret Service agent, Frank Burke, snatched it up. Wilson let the newspapers publish the contents, which indicated a systematic effort by Berlin to subsidize friendly newspapers and block British purchases of war materials. Berlin 's top espionage agent, debonnaire Franz Rintelen von Kleist was spending millions to finance sabotage in Canada, stir up trouble between the United States and Mexico and to incite labor strikes. The British were engaged in propaganda too, though not illegal espionage, but they did not get caught. Germany took the blame as Americans grew ever more worried about the vulnerability of a free society to subversion. Indeed, one of the main fears Americans of all stations had in 1916 -- 1919 was that spies and saboteurs were everywhere. This sentiment played a major role in arousing fear of Germany, and suspicions regarding everyone of German descent who could not "prove '' 100 % loyalty.
By 1915, Americans were paying much more attention to the war. The sinking of the Lusitania had a strong effect on public opinion because of the deaths of American civilians. That year, a strong "Preparedness '' movement emerged. Proponents argued that the United States needed to immediately build up strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes; an unspoken assumption was that America would fight sooner or later. General Leonard Wood (still on active duty after serving a term as Chief of Staff of the Army), former president Theodore Roosevelt, and former secretaries of war Elihu Root and Henry Stimson were the driving forces behind Preparedness, along with many of the nation 's most prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers and scions of prominent families. Indeed, there emerged an "Atlanticist '' foreign policy establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper - class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeast, committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism. Representative was Paul D. Cravath, one of New York 's foremost corporation lawyers. For Cravath, in his mid-fifties when the war began, the conflict served as an epiphany, sparking an interest in international affairs that dominated his remaining career. Fiercely Anglophile, he strongly supported American intervention in the war and hoped that close Anglo - American cooperation would be the guiding principle of postwar international organization.
The Preparedness movement had a "realistic '' philosophy of world affairs -- they believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self - determination. Emphasizing over and over the weak state of national defenses, they showed that America 's 100,000 - man Army even augmented by the 112,000 National Guardsmen, was outnumbered 20 to one by Germany 's army, which was drawn from a smaller population. Similarly in 1915, the armed forces of Great Britain and the British empire (the world 's most powerful military and economic power at the time), France, Russia, the Austro - Hungarian empire, Ottoman empire, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military, in many cases significantly so.
Reform to them meant UMT or "universal military training ''. They proposed a national service program under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and afterwards be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency.
Antimilitarists complained the plan would make America resemble Germany (which required two years ' active duty). Advocates retorted that military "service '' was an essential duty of citizenship, and that without the commonality provided by such service the nation would splinter into antagonistic ethnic groups. One spokesman promised that UMT would become "a real melting pot, under which the fire is hot enough to fuse the elements into one common mass of Americanism ''. Furthermore, they promised, the discipline and training would make for a better paid work force. Hostility to military service was strong at the time, and the program failed to win approval. In World War II, when Stimson as Secretary of War proposed a similar program of universal peacetime service, he was defeated.
Underscoring its commitment, the Preparedness movement set up and funded its own summer training camps at Plattsburgh, New York, and other sites, where 40,000 college alumni became physically fit, learned to march and shoot, and ultimately provided the cadre of a wartime officer corps. Suggestions by labor unions that talented working - class youth be invited to Plattsburgh were ignored. The Preparedness movement was distant not only from the working classes but also from the middle - class leadership of most of small - town America. It had had little use for the National Guard, which it saw as politicized, localistic, poorly armed, ill trained, too inclined to idealistic crusading (as against Spain in 1898), and too lacking in understanding of world affairs. The National Guard on the other hand was securely rooted in state and local politics, with representation from a very broad cross section of American society. The Guard was one of the nation 's few institutions that (in some northern states) accepted blacks on an equal footing.
The Democratic party saw the Preparedness movement as a threat. Roosevelt, Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates. More subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard, and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place. Working with the Democrats who controlled Congress, Wilson was able to sidetrack the Preparedness forces. Army and Navy leaders were forced to testify before Congress to the effect that the nation 's military was in excellent shape.
In fact, neither the Army nor Navy was in shape for war. The Navy had fine ships but Wilson had been using them to threaten Mexico, and the fleet 's readiness had suffered. The crews of the Texas and the New York, the two newest and largest battleships, had never fired a gun, and the morale of the sailors was low. In addition, it was outnumbered and outgunned by the British, German, French, and Italian navies. The Army and Navy air forces were tiny in size. Despite the flood of new weapons systems unveiled by the British, Germans, French, Austro - Hungarians, Italians, and others in the war in Europe, the Army was paying scant attention. For example, it was making no studies of trench warfare, poison gas, heavy artillery, or tanks and was utterly unfamiliar with the rapid evolution of Aerial warfare. The Democrats in Congress tried to cut the military budget in 1915. The Preparedness movement effectively exploited the surge of outrage over the Lusitania in May 1915, forcing the Democrats to promise some improvements to the military and naval forces. Wilson, less fearful of the Navy, embraced a long - term building program designed to make the fleet the equal of the British Royal Navy by the mid-1920s, although this would not be achieved until World War II. "Realism '' was at work here; the admirals were Mahanians and they therefore wanted a surface fleet of heavy battleships second to none -- that is, equal to Britain. The facts of submarine warfare (which necessitated destroyers, not battleships) and the possibilities of imminent war with Germany (or with Britain, for that matter), were simply ignored.
Wilson 's program for the Army touched off a firestorm. Secretary of War Lindley Garrison adopted many of the proposals of the Preparedness leaders, especially their emphasis on a large federal reserve and abandonment of the National Guard. Garrison 's proposals not only outraged the localistic politicians of both parties, they also offended a strongly held belief shared by the liberal wing of the Progressive movement. They felt that warfare always had a hidden economic motivation. Specifically, they warned the chief warmongers were New York bankers (like J.P. Morgan) with millions at risk, profiteering munition makers (like Bethlehem Steel, which made armor, and DuPont, which made powder) and unspecified industrialists searching for global markets to control. Antiwar critics blasted them. These special interests were too powerful, especially, Senator La Follette noted, in the conservative wing of the Republican Party. The only road to peace was disarmament, reiterated Bryan.
Garrison 's plan unleashed the fiercest battle in peacetime history over the relationship of military planning to national goals. In peacetime, War Department arsenals and Navy yards manufactured nearly all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, artillery, naval guns, and shells. Items available on the civilian market, such as food, horses, saddles, wagons, and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors. Armor plate (and after 1918, airplanes) was an exception that has caused unremitting controversy for a century. After World War II, the arsenals and Navy yards were much less important than giant civilian aircraft and electronics firms, which became the second half of the "military - industrial complex '' Peace leaders like Jane Addams of Hull House and David Starr Jordan of Stanford redoubled their efforts, and now turned their voices against the president because he was "sowing the seeds of militarism, raising up a military and naval caste ''. Many ministers, professors, farm spokesmen, and labor union leaders joined in, with powerful support from a band of four dozen southern Democrats in Congress who took control of the House Military Affairs Committee. Wilson, in deep trouble, took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early 1916, a warmup for his reelection campaign that fall. Wilson seems to have won over the middle classes, but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers. Congress still refused to budge, so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with Newton Baker, the Democratic mayor of Cleveland and an outspoken opponent of preparedness (Garrison kept quiet, but felt Wilson was "a man of high ideals but no principles ''). The upshot was a compromise passed in May 1916, as the war raged on and Berlin was debating whether America was so weak it could be ignored. The Army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men, with no reserve, and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men. Summer camps on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers, and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own. Preparedness supporters were downcast, the antiwar people were jubilant. America would now be too weak to go to war. Colonel Robert L. Bullard privately complained that "Both sides (Britain and Germany) treat us with scorn and contempt; our fool, smug conceit of superiority has been exploded in our faces and deservedly. '' The House gutted the naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy '' plan by 189 to 183, and scuttling the battleships. The battle of Jutland (May 31 / June 1, 1916) was used by the navalists to argue for the primacy of seapower; they then took control in the Senate, broke the House coalition, and authorized a rapid three - year buildup of all classes of warships. A new weapons system, naval aviation, received $3.5 million, and the government was authorized to build its own armor plate factory. The very weakness of American military power encouraged Berlin to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew this meant war with America, but it could discount the immediate risk because the U.S. Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919 by which time the war would be over, with Germany victorious. The notion that armaments led to war was turned on its head: refusal to arm in 1916 led to war in 1917.
Americans felt an increasing need for a military that could command respect. As one editor put it, "The best thing about a large army and a strong navy is that they make it so much easier to say just what we want to say in our diplomatic correspondence. '' Berlin thus far had backed down and apologized when Washington was angry, thus boosting American self - confidence. America 's rights and America 's honor increasingly came into focus. The slogan "Peace '' gave way to "Peace with Honor ''. The Army remained unpopular, however. A recruiter in Indianapolis noted that, "The people here do not take the right attitude towards army life as a career, and if a man joins from here he often tries to go out on the quiet ''. The Preparedness movement used its easy access to the mass media to demonstrate that the War Department had no plans, no equipment, little training, no reserve, a laughable National Guard, and a wholly inadequate organization for war. Motion pictures like The Battle Cry of Peace (1915) depicted invasions of the American homeland that demanded action.
The readiness and capability of the U.S. Navy was a matter of controversy. The press at the time reported that the only thing the military was ready for was an enemy fleet attempting to seize New York harbor -- at a time when the German battle fleet was penned up by the Royal Navy. The Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels was a journalist with pacifist leanings. He had built up the educational resources of the Navy and made its Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island an essential experience for would - be admirals. However, he alienated the officer corps with his moralistic reforms, including no wine in the officers ' mess, no hazing at the Naval Academy, and more chaplains and YMCAs. Daniels, as a newspaperman, knew the value of publicity. In 1915 he set up the Naval Consulting Board headed by Thomas Edison to obtain the advice and expertise of leading scientists, engineers, and industrialists. It popularized technology, naval expansion, and military preparedness, and was well covered in the media. But according to Coletta he ignored the nation 's strategic needs, and disdaining the advice of its experts, Daniels suspended meetings of the Joint Army and Navy Board for two years because it was giving unwelcome advice, chopped in half the General Board 's recommendations for new ships, reduced the authority of officers in the Navy yards where ships were built and repaired, and ignored the administrative chaos in his department. Bradley Fiske, one of the most innovative admirals in American naval history, in 1914 was Daniels ' top aide; he recommended a reorganization that would prepare for war, but Daniels refused. Instead he replaced Fiske in 1915 and brought in for the new post of Chief of Naval Operations an unknown captain, William Benson. Chosen for his compliance, Benson proved a wily bureaucrat who was more interested in preparing for an eventual showdown with Britain than an immediate one with Germany. Benson told Sims he "would as soon fight the British as the Germans ''. Proposals to send observers to Europe were blocked, leaving the Navy in the dark about the success of the German submarine campaign. Admiral William Sims charged after the war that in April 1917, only ten percent of the Navy 's warships were fully manned; the rest lacked 43 % of their seamen. Light antisubmarine ships were few in number, as if Daniels had been unaware of the German submarine menace that had been the focus of foreign policy for two years. The Navy 's only warfighting plan, the "Black Plan '' assumed the Royal Navy did not exist and that German battleships were moving freely about the Atlantic and the Caribbean and threatening the Panama Canal. Daniels ' tenure would have been even less successful save for the energetic efforts of Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt, who effectively ran the Department. His most recent biographer concludes that, "it is true that Daniels had not prepared the navy for the war it would have to fight. ''
By 1916 a new factor was emerging -- a sense of national self - interest and American nationalism. The unbelievable casualty figures in Europe were sobering -- two vast battles caused over one million casualties each. Clearly this war would be a decisive episode in the history of the world. Every American effort to find a peaceful solution was frustrated.
Kendrick Clements claims bureaucratic decision - making was one of the main sources pushing the United States to declaring war on Germany and aligning itself with the Allies. He cites the State Department 's demand that Germany 's submarines obey outdated, 18th century sailing laws as one of the first missteps by the United States bureaucracy regarding the war. By doing so, the United States had essentially given Germany the choice of whether or not the U.S. would enter the war. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan spent most of the fall of 1914 out of contact with the State Department, leaving the more conservative Robert Lansing with the ability to shape American foreign policy at the time. One of these decisions was made in response to British protests that the Germans were using U.S. radio towers to send messages to their warships. Immediately prior to the war starting in 1914, Britain had cut all cable communications leading out of Germany, including the trans - Atlantic cable. The US Government permitted German embassies to use the US cable lines for "proper '' diplomatic business. Germany argued that usage of the towers was necessary to allow efficient contact between the U.S. and Germany. Lansing responded by requiring both sides to give the U.S. Navy copies of the messages they sent over the towers. The French and British were still able to use the cables, forcing Germany to be the only belligerent required to provide the U.S. with their messages. This and other seemingly small decisions made by Lansing during this time would eventually stack up, shifting American support towards the Allies.
Once Germany had decided on unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917, and knowing it would be attacking all American ships in the North Atlantic, it tried to line up new allies, especially Mexico. Arthur Zimmermann, the German foreign minister, sent the Zimmermann Telegram to Mexico on January 16, 1917. Zimmermann invited Mexico (knowing their resentment towards America since the 1848 Mexican Cession) to join in a war against the United States. Germany promised to pay for Mexico 's costs and to help it recover the territory annexed by the U.S. in 1848. These territories included the present day states of California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, about half of New Mexico and a quarter of Colorado. British intelligence intercepted and decoded the telegram and passed it to the Wilson administration. The White House would release it to the press on March 1. Anger grew further as the Germans began sinking American ships, even as isolationists in the Senate launched a filibuster to block legislation for arming American merchant ships to defend themselves.
In early 1917 Berlin forced the issue. Its declared decision on 31 January 1917 to target neutral shipping in a designated war - zone became the immediate cause of the entry of the United States into the war. Five American merchant ships went down in March. Outraged public opinion now overwhelmingly supported Wilson when he asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917.
Historians such as Ernest R. May have approached the process of American entry into the war as a study in how public opinion changed radically in three years ' time. In 1914 most Americans called for neutrality, seeing the war a dreadful mistake and were determined to stay out. By 1917 the same public felt just as strongly that going to war was both necessary and wise. Military leaders had little to say during this debate, and military considerations were seldom raised. The decisive questions dealt with morality and visions of the future. The prevailing attitude was that America possessed a superior moral position as the only great nation devoted to the principles of freedom and democracy. By staying aloof from the squabbles of reactionary empires, it could preserve those ideals -- sooner or later the rest of the world would come to appreciate and adopt them. In 1917 this very long - run program faced the severe danger that in the short run powerful forces adverse to democracy and freedom would triumph. Strong support for moralism came from religious leaders, women (led by Jane Addams), and from public figures like long - time Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of State from 1913 to 1916. The most important moralist of all was President Woodrow Wilson -- the man who dominated decision making so totally that the war has been labelled, from an American perspective, "Wilson 's War ''.
In 1917 Wilson won the support of most of the moralists by proclaiming "a war to make the world safe for democracy. '' If they truly believed in their ideals, he explained, now was the time to fight. The question then became whether Americans would fight for what they deeply believed in, and the answer turned out to be a resounding "Yes ''.
Antiwar activists at the time and in the 1930s, alleged that beneath the veneer of moralism and idealism there must have been ulterior motives. Some suggested a conspiracy on the part of New York City bankers holding $3 billion of war loans to the Allies, or steel and chemical firms selling munitions to the Allies. The interpretation was popular among left - wing Progressives (led by Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin) and among the "agrarian '' wing of the Democratic party -- including the chairman of the tax - writing Ways and Means Committee of the House. He strenuously opposed war, and when it came he rewrote the tax laws to make sure the rich paid the most. (In the 1930s neutrality laws were passed to prevent financial entanglements from dragging the nation into a war.) In 1915, Bryan thought that Wilson 's pro-British sentiments had distorted his policies, so he became the first Secretary of State ever to resign in protest.
However, historian Harold C. Syrett argues that business supported neutrality. Other historians state that the pro-war element was animated not by profit but by disgust with what Germany actually did, especially in Belgium, and the threat it represented to American ideals. Belgium kept the public 's sympathy as the Germans executed civilians, and English nurse Edith Cavell. American engineer Herbert Hoover led a private relief effort that won wide support. Compounding the Belgium atrocities were new weapons that Americans found repugnant, like poison gas and the aerial bombardment of innocent civilians as Zeppelins dropped bombs on London. Even anti-war spokesmen did not claim that Germany was innocent, and pro-German scripts were poorly received.
Randolph Bourne criticized the moralist philosophy claiming it was a justification by American intellectual and power elites, like President Wilson, for going to war unnecessarily. He argues that the push for war started with the Preparedness movement, fueled by big business. While big business would not push much further than Preparedness, benefitting the most from neutrality, the movement would eventually evolve into a war - cry, led by war - hawk intellectuals under the guise of moralism. Bourne believes elites knew full well what going to war would entail and the price in American lives it would cost. If American elites could portray the United States ' role in the war as noble, they could convince the generally isolationist American public war would be acceptable.
Above all, American attitudes towards Germany focused on the U-boats (submarines), which sank the Lusitania in 1915 and other passenger ships "without warning ''. That appeared to Americans as an unacceptable challenge to America 's rights as a neutral country, and as an unforgivable affront to humanity. After repeated diplomatic protests, Germany agreed to stop. But in 1917 the Germany military leadership decided that "military necessity '' dictated the unrestricted use of their submarines. The Kaiser 's advisors felt America was enormously powerful economically but too weak militarily to make a difference.
On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked a special joint session of Congress to declare war on the German Empire, stating, "We have no selfish ends to serve ''. To make the conflict seem like a better idea, he painted the conflict idealistically, stating that the war would "make the world safe for democracy '' and later that it would be a "war to end war ''. The United States had a moral responsibility to enter the war, Wilson proclaimed. The future of the world was being determined on the battlefield, and American national interest demanded a voice. Wilson 's definition of the situation won wide acclaim, and, indeed, has shaped America 's role in world and military affairs ever since. Wilson believed that if the Central Powers won, the consequences would be bad for the United States. Germany would have dominated the continent and perhaps would gain control of the seas as well. Latin America could well have fallen under Berlin 's control. The dream of spreading democracy, liberalism, and independence would have been shattered. On the other hand, if the Allies had won without help, there was a danger they would carve up the world without regard to American commercial interests. They were already planning to use government subsidies, tariff walls, and controlled markets to counter the competition posed by American businessmen. The solution was a third route, a "peace without victory '', according to Wilson.
On April 6, 1917, Congress declared war. In the Senate, the resolution passed 82 to 6, with Senators Harry Lane, William J. Stone, James Vardaman, Asle Gronna, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and George W. Norris voting against it. In the House, the declaration passed 373 to 50, with Claude Kitchin, a senior Democrat, notably opposing it. Another opponent was Jeannette Rankin, who alone voted against entry into both World War I and World War II. Nearly all of the opposition came from the West and the Midwest.
The United States Senate, in a 74 to 0 vote, declared war on Austria - Hungary on December 7, 1917, citing Austria - Hungary 's severing of diplomatic relations with the United States, its use of unrestricted submarine warfare and its alliance with Germany. The declaration passed in the United States House of Representatives by a vote of 365 to 1.
President Wilson also came under pressure from Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, and from former President Theodore Roosevelt, who demanded a declaration of war on Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, as Germany 's allies. President Wilson drafted a statement to Congress in December 1917 which said "I... recommend that Congress immediately declare the United States in a state of war with Austria - Hungary, with Turkey and with Bulgaria ''. But after further consultations decision on war against Germany 's other allies was postponed.
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for the first time in forever disney hollywood studios | For the first Time in Forever: a Frozen sing - along Celebration - Wikipedia
For the First Time in Forever: A Frozen Sing - Along Celebration is a musical show based on Disney 's 2013 animated film Frozen and the songs from the film, located at Disney 's Hollywood Studios and Shanghai Disneyland Park. It was also formerly hosted at Disney California Adventure, Disneyland Paris and Hong Kong Disneyland.
The show originally premiered at the Premiere Theater in the Streets of America section of Disney 's Hollywood Studios during the 2014 Frozen Summer Fun on July 5, 2014. The show moved into its current location at the Hyperion Theater in Echo Lake on June 17, 2015, the former home of The American Idol Experience.
On January 7, 2015, the Muppet * Vision 3D theater in Hollywood Land at Disney California Adventure began operating as the Crown Jewel Theater and presented the show as part of the park 's "Frozen Fun '' event. Although the event officially ended on May 15, 2015, the venue held the Frozen sing - along show until April 17, 2016. It was then closed and the theater was renamed the Sunset Showcase Theater with a movie preview in May 2016.
The stage is located in The Chaparral Theater in Frontierland under the name Chantons La Reine des Neiges; it is the first version that features Olaf. Shows run several times daily with separate French - and English - language presentations. It first ran from June 1 to September 13, 2015 as the summer event, but it was scheduled to return on November 14, as part of the Christmas event. However, due to a terrorist attack in Paris on November 13, 2015, both Disneyland Paris and Walt Disney Studios Park were closed from November 14 until November 18.
Hong Kong Disneyland features an almost identical show, named simply "Frozen '' Festival Show. The stage is located in the "Black Box '' space known as "The Pavilion '', between Adventureland and Grizzly Gulch, also the former home of "The Revenge of the Headless Horseman '', an exclusive walk - through attraction for the Haunted Halloween event from 2011 - 2014. It was ran from June 11, 2015. Although the event officially ended on August 30, the show continued until October 4.
The stage is located in The Evergreen Playhouse in Fantasyland. This was the first Frozen sing - along show that would not open for a seasonal event.
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number of books in the library of babel | The Library of Babel - wikipedia
"The Library of Babel '' (Spanish: La biblioteca de Babel) is a short story by Argentine author and librarian Jorge Luis Borges (1899 -- 1986), conceiving of a universe in the form of a vast library containing all possible 410 - page books of a certain format and character set.
The story was originally published in Spanish in Borges ' 1941 collection of stories El Jardín de senderos que se bifurcan (The Garden of Forking Paths). That entire book was, in turn, included within his much - reprinted Ficciones (1944). Two English - language translations appeared approximately simultaneously in 1962, one by James E. Irby in a diverse collection of Borges 's works titled Labyrinths and the other by Anthony Kerrigan as part of a collaborative translation of the entirety of Ficciones.
Borges ' narrator describes how his universe consists of an enormous expanse of adjacent hexagonal rooms, each of which contains the bare necessities for human survival -- and four walls of bookshelves. Though the order and content of the books are random and apparently completely meaningless, the inhabitants believe that the books contain every possible ordering of just 25 basic characters (22 letters, the period, the comma, and the space). Though the vast majority of the books in this universe are pure gibberish, the library also must contain, somewhere, every coherent book ever written, or that might ever be written, and every possible permutation or slightly erroneous version of every one of those books. The narrator notes that the library must contain all useful information, including predictions of the future, biographies of any person, and translations of every book in all languages. Conversely, for many of the texts some language could be devised that would make it readable with any of a vast number of different contents.
Despite -- indeed, because of -- this glut of information, all books are totally useless to the reader, leaving the librarians in a state of suicidal despair. This leads some librarians to superstitious and cult - like behaviours, such as the "Purifiers '', who arbitrarily destroy books they deem nonsense as they scour through the library seeking the "Crimson Hexagon '' and its illustrated, magical books. Others believe that since all books exist in the library, somewhere one of the books must be a perfect index of the library 's contents; some even believe that a messianic figure known as the "Man of the Book '' has read it, and they travel through the library seeking him.
The story repeats the theme of Borges ' 1939 essay "The Total Library '' ("La biblioteca total ''), which in turn acknowledges the earlier development of this theme by Kurd Lasswitz in his 1901 story "The Universal Library '' ("Die Universalbibliothek ''):
Certain examples that Aristotle attributes to Democritus and Leucippus clearly prefigure it, but its belated inventor is Gustav Theodor Fechner, and its first exponent, Kurd Lasswitz. (...) In his book The Race with the Tortoise (Berlin, 1919), Dr Theodor Wolff suggests that it is a derivation from, or a parody of, Ramón Llull 's thinking machine (... T) he elements of his game are the universal orthographic symbols, not the words of a language (...) Lasswitz arrives at twenty - five symbols (twenty - two letters, the space, the period, the comma), whose recombinations and repetitions encompass everything possible to express in all languages. The totality of such variations would form a Total Library of astronomical size. Lasswitz urges mankind to construct that inhuman library, which chance would organize and which would eliminate intelligence. (Wolff 's The Race with the Tortoise expounds the execution and the dimensions of that impossible enterprise.)
Many of Borges ' signature motifs are featured in the story, including infinity, reality, cabalistic reasoning, and labyrinths. The concept of the library is often compared to Borel 's dactylographic monkey theorem. There is no reference to monkeys or typewriters in "The Library of Babel '', although Borges had mentioned that analogy in "The Total Library '': "(A) half - dozen monkeys provided with typewriters would, in a few eternities, produce all the books in the British Museum. '' In this story, the closest equivalent is the line, "A blasphemous sect suggested (...) that all men should juggle letters and symbols until they constructed, by an improbable gift of chance, these canonical books. ''
Borges would examine a similar idea in his 1975 story, "The Book of Sand '' in which there is an infinite book (or book with an indefinite number of pages) rather than an infinite library. Moreover, the story 's Book of Sand is said to be written in an unknown alphabet and its content is not obviously random. In The Library of Babel, Borges interpolates Italian mathematician Bonaventura Cavalieri 's suggestion that any solid body could be conceptualized as the superimposition of an infinite number of planes.
The concept of the library is also overtly analogous to the view of the universe as a sphere having its center everywhere and its circumference nowhere. The mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal employed this metaphor, and in an earlier essay Borges noted that Pascal 's manuscript called the sphere effroyable, or "frightful ''.
In any case, a library containing all possible books, arranged at random, might as well be a library containing zero books, as any true information would be buried in, and rendered indistinguishable from, all possible forms of false information; the experience of opening to any page of any of the library 's books has been simulated by websites which create screenfuls of random letters.
The quote at the beginning of the story, "By this art you may contemplate the variation of the twenty - three letters, '' is from Robert Burton 's 1621 The Anatomy of Melancholy.
There are numerous philosophical implications within the idea of the finite library which exhausts all possibilities. Every book in the library is "intelligible '' if one decodes it correctly, simply because it can be decoded from any other book in the library using a third book as a one - time pad. This lends itself to the philosophical idea proposed by Immanuel Kant, that our mind helps to structure our experience of reality; thus the rules of reality (as we know it) are intrinsic to the mind. So if we identify these rules, we can better decode ' reality '. One might speculate that these rules are contained in the crimson hexagon room which is the key to decoding the others. The library becomes a temptation, even an obsession, because it contains these gems of enlightenment while also burying them in deception. On a psychological level, the infinite storehouse of information is a hindrance and a distraction, because it lures one away from writing one 's own book (i.e., living one 's own life). Anything one might write would of course already exist. One can see any text as being pulled from the library by the act of the author defining the search letter by letter until they reach a text close enough to the one they intended to write. The text already existed theoretically, but had to be found by the act of the author 's imagination. Another implication is an argument against certain proofs of the existence of God, as it is carried out by David Hume using the thought experiment of a similar library of books generated not by human mind, but by nature.
In a short essay, W. V. O. Quine noted the interesting fact that the Library of Babel is finite (that is, we will theoretically come to a point in history where everything has been written), and that the Library of Babel can be constructed in its entirety simply by writing a dot on one piece of paper and a dash on another. These two sheets of paper could then be alternated at random to produce every possible text, in Morse code or equivalently binary. Writes Quine, "The ultimate absurdity is now staring us in the face: a universal library of two volumes, one containing a single dot and the other a dash. Persistent repetition and alternation of the two is sufficient, we well know, for spelling out any and every truth. The miracle of the finite but universal library is a mere inflation of the miracle of binary notation: everything worth saying, and everything else as well, can be said with two characters. ''
The full possible set of protein sequences (Protein sequence space) has been compared to the Library of Babel. In the Library of Babel, finding any book that made sense was impossible due to the sheer number and lack of order. The same would be true of protein sequences if it were not for natural selection, which has selected out only protein sequences that make sense. Additionally, each protein sequence is surrounded by a set of neighbours (point mutants) that are likely to have at least some function. Daniel Dennett 's 1995 book Darwin 's Dangerous Idea includes an elaboration of the Library of Babel concept to imagine the set of all possible genetic sequences, which he calls the Library of Mendel, in order to illustrate the mathematics of genetic variation. Dennett uses this concept again later in the book to imagine all possible algorithms that can be included in his Toshiba computer, which he calls the Library of Toshiba. He describes the Library of Mendel and the Library of Toshiba as subsets within the Library of Babel.
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let's get down to business disney song | I 'll Make a Man Out of You - wikipedia
"I 'll Make a Man out of You '' is a song written by composer Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel for Walt Disney Pictures ' 36th animated feature film Mulan (1998). Appearing on the film 's soundtrack Mulan: An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is performed by American singer Donny Osmond as the singing voice of Captain Li Shang in lieu of American actor BD Wong, who provides the character 's speaking voice. The song also features appearances by Lea Salonga as Mulan, Eddie Murphy as Mushu, and Harvey Fierstein, Jerry Tondo and Wilder himself as Yao, Chien - Po and Ling, respectively. Murphy 's line, however, is the only one to be spoken instead of sung.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was written to replace the song "We 'll Make a Man of You '' after the film 's original songwriter Stephen Schwartz departed from the project in favor of working on DreamWorks ' The Prince of Egypt (1998). Prior to Mulan, Osmond had auditioned for the role of Hercules in Disney 's Hercules (1997), a role for which he was ultimately turned down by the directors because they felt that he sounded too old. Disney eventually cast Osmond as the singing voice of Shang because his singing voice is similar to Wong 's speaking voice. An up - tempo military - style song, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is performed by Shang during a rigorous training montage in which his young, inexperienced soldiers attempt to justify their worth. The song 's title is considered ironic because Mulan, who relies on intelligence, ultimately proves more competent than her male comrades, including Captain Li Shang, who takes a liking to her.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' has received mostly positive reviews from film and music critics, some of whom dubbed it the film 's best song, while praising Osmond 's performance. Critics have also drawn comparisons between the song and Disney 's Hercules, while likening Mulan 's role and transformation to actress Demi Moore 's performance as Lieutenant Jordan O'Neil in the film G.I. Jane (1997). The song has since appeared on several "best of '' Disney songs lists, including those of Total Film and the New York Post. Discussed by film critics, film historians, academic journalists and feminists, the song has gone on to be recorded and covered in several different languages -- namely Mandarin, Cantonese and Spanish -- by entertainers Jackie Chan and Cristian Castro, respectively.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was written by composer Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel, who were hired to write the songs for Mulan because, according to co-director Tony Bancroft, "Disney was trying to find different songwriters that... would give kind of different sound to each of the songs. '' While Zippel, a Broadway lyricist, was recruited because the directors were impressed by the songwriter 's work on Disney 's Hercules (1997), at the time Wilder, a pop singer and record producer, was best known for his hit single "Break My Stride ''. Bancroft believes that, although the songwriters "had two different sensibilities... I think the blend (of their styles) worked well together, especially on (' I 'll Make a Man Out of You ') ''.
Originally, songwriter Stephen Schwartz, who had just recently worked as a lyricist opposite composer Alan Menken on Disney 's Pocahontas (1995) and The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996), was slated to write the lyrics for Mulan, but he was replaced by Zippel "at the last moment. '' Schwartz had written a song called "We 'll Make a Man of You '' for "when Mulan is trying to learn to be a soldier ''. The song was eventually replaced by Wilder and Zippel 's "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' when Schwartz was forced to resign from Mulan by Disney executives Peter Schneider and Michael Eisner because the songwriter had also agreed to write the songs for rival film studio DreamWorks ' animated feature film The Prince of Egypt (1998). According to The Musical Theater of Stephen Schwartz: From Godspell to Wicked and Beyond, Schwartz believed that he would have been able to work on both films simultaneously, but ultimately chose The Prince of Egypt instead because he felt pressured by Disney.
Before Mulan, American singer Donny Osmond had auditioned for the lead role in Hercules, a role for which he was ultimately not cast because the directors felt that his voice sounded "too old '' and "too deep '' for the character. Osmond later revealed in an interview with People that he was so embarrassed by his Hercules audition that he had nearly considered ending his singing career prematurely. A few months later, Disney contacted Osmond with interest in casting him as the singing voice of Shang after comparing his audition tapes to BD Wong and determining that both actors have "very similar voices. '' In one scene, Osmond 's character, Shang, is hit in the stomach while singing "I 'll Make a Man Out of You ''. In order to sound as realistic as possible, Osmond punched himself in the stomach several times while recording the song.
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is performed by Captain Li Shang during Mulan 's training montage, which has also been identified as the film 's "boot camp sequence. '' The scene explores Shang 's attempt to train his newly recruited squadron of incompetent soldiers in the hopes of ultimately transforming into a skilled army. Occupying a significant portion of the film 's plot, Shang promises to turn his team of "rag - tag recruits '' into men. The musical number is used to "compress dramatic time or narrate '' in a more compelling way than had solely dialogue been used. The scene begins with Shang shooting an arrow into the top of a tall pole and challenging all of his soldiers to retrieve it, each of whom fail until Mulan eventually succeeds. According to the book Into the Closet: Cross-Dressing and the Gendered Body in Children 's Literature and Film by Victoria Flanagan, Mulan is successful in retrieving the arrow because she uses "an ingenuity that is based upon her ability to incorporate aspects of femininity into her masculine performance. '' By the end of the scene, all of the soldiers have improved dramatically and the results of their practice and training are finally revealed. In what Joshua and Judges author Athalya Brenner called "a humorous reversal toward the end of the movie, '' Mulan and her male comrades disguise themselves as concubines in order to infiltrate the palace and rescue the emperor while "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' reprises in the background.
Critics have observed ways in which the scene explores Mulan 's growth and transformation as the character evolves from a clumsy, inexperienced recruit into one of the army 's most skilled soldiers, in spite of her gender. According to the book Literacy, Play and Globalization: Converging Imaginaries in Children 's Critical and Cultural Performances, the montage depicts Mulan 's gender as "an obstacle to overcome. '' Author Phyllis Frus wrote in her book Beyond Adaptation: Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works, "The need for inexperienced young men to go through a rigorous training results in a sequence common to many films, '' and that the scene "show 's the challenges Ping / Mulan faces due to her '' inexperience. As observed by Juanita Kwok in the book Film Asia: New Perspectives on Film for English, the irony of the scene lies within the fact that "Mulan proves herself more competent than any of the men. '' The author also observed that the scene 's first refrain accompanies shots of Shang, while its second "coincides with Mulan climbing to the top of the pole. '' Additionally, while the earlier, all - female musical number "Honor to Us All '' "functions as an account of the constructedness of female gender, '' "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' "juxtaposes and makes explicit the contention that gender is a cultural product, '' according to Johnson Cheu, author of Diversity in Disney Films: Critical Essays on Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexuality and Disability. The Representation of Gender in Walt Disney 's "Mulan '' believes that the song emphasizes desirable masculine traits, namely "discipline... tranquility, celerity, strength and fearlessness, '' while Shang, according to Putting the Grail Back into Girl Power: How a Girl Saved Camelot, and why it Matters, "views (femininity) as comparable to weakness. '' In her article Disney 's "Mulan '' -- the "True '' Deconstructed Heroine?, Lisa Brocklebank argued the song explores themes such as othering, ostracism and abjection.
Critics have drawn similarities between the "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' sequence and Hercules ' training montage in Disney 's Hercules (1997), as well as actress Demi Moore 's role as Lieutenant Jordan O'Neil in the film G.I. Jane (1997). In the book Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature, author John Stephens wrote that although both Mulan and Hercules depict "the active male body as spectacle, '' Mulan 's is less "straight - forward '' due to the character 's gender. Michael Dequina of The Movie Report observed that "Mulan 's transformation is highly reminiscent of Demi Moore 's in last year 's Disney drama G.I. Jane, but Mulan oneups that film 's hour - long toughening process by efficiently covering the same ground during a single, rousing musical number. ''
Written in common time at a tempo of 110 beats per minute and starting out in the key of E minor, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' has been identified as a "heroic power ballad '' and anthem that features an upbeat, "thumping '' rhythm. The Disney Song Encyclopedia described the song as a "rhythmic military song. '' Beginning with "a military - style drum '' introduction, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '', which is immediately preceded by the emotional ballad "Reflection '' on the film 's soundtrack album, "breaks up the slower pace of the songs, '' according to Filmtracks.com. Similar to the song "A Girl Worth Fighting For '', the "ironically titled '' "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' "play (s) off Mulan 's secret '' because Shang is unaware that she is actually a girl, as observed by Jeffrey Gantz of The Phoenix. Johnson Cheu, author of Diversity in Disney Films: Critical Essays on Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexuality and Disability, received the song as a counterpart to the all - female musical number "Honor to Us All ''. Going into the last verse, the song 's key shifts up to F minor and later towards the end, "the backing track falls into silence and (Osmond 's) vocals come to the fore. '' Osmond 's vocal range spans one octave, from D to F. Beginning with two verses, followed by a bridge, a refrain, a final verse and repeated choruses, the song is a total of three minutes and twenty - one seconds in length.
Entertainment Weekly identified the number as the film 's "rambunctious peak. '' According to Victoria Flanagan, author of Into the Closet: Gender and Cross-dressing in Children 's Fiction: Cross-Dressing and the Gendered Body in Children 's Literature and Film, "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' is "a playful parody of conventional masculinity. '' The lyric "I 'll make a man out of you '' is constantly repeated and reinforced by Shang. According to author John Stephens of Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature, the song 's lyrics "initially define masculinity in opposition to femininity, '' with its first verse beginning, "Let 's get down to business / To defeat the Huns / Did they send me daughters / When I asked for sons? '' Its chorus reads, "You must be swift as the coursing river / With all the force of the great typhoon / With all the strength of a raging fire / Mysterious as the dark side of the moon '' which, according to Ways of Being Male: Representing Masculinities in Children 's Literature, "essentializes masculinity by asserting that it embodies the speed, strength and power of the natural world, and yet contains this within an aura of tranquility and mystery. '' According to Beyond Adaptation: Essays on Radical Transformations of Original Works, these lyrics "add a hint of darkness as they celebrate male prowess '' by suggesting that one who has "acquired fiery strength '' is also "untamed as the moon 's dark side. '' The song has been noted by the New York Post for its "slew of one - liners from supporting characters. '' According to The Phoenix, Osmond performs the song 's lyrics with "grit. '' Meanwhile, the singer is backed up by a macho - sounding choir repeatedly chanting "Be a man! ''
"I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' has been met with mostly positive reviews from both film and music critics. Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic wrote, "there has n't been a single chorus in all of post-Mulan pop music that has managed to rival the roaring power in the refrain. '' Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net reviewed "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' as "a stirring, testosterone filled piece, '' describing the scene as "amusing. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song "has a comparable infectious punch, '' concluding, "it 's the only song in the movie that escapes Disneyfied blandness. '' Jeff Vice of the Deseret News observed that Wong and Osmond 's "voices sound eerily similar. '' Tom Henry of The Blade enjoyed Osmond 's delivery, describing the singer 's performance as "solid. '' Lloyd Paseman of The Register - Guard called "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' a favorite of his. While exploring "The History of Movie Training Montages '', Chris Giblin of Men 's Fitness opined, "Mulan served as proof that the fitness montage can work amazingly well in movies for kids. '' Giblin continued, "it has the best lyrics of any serious fitness / sports montage song. Overall, a very strong montage. '' Disney.com itself cites "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' as a "song that was so epic, so legendary, that it requires an out loud sing along anytime we hear it. ''
Despite dubbing the film 's songs its "weak link, '' TV Guide wrote that the musical numbers are "crafted with a knowing, almost camp wink that 's totally in keeping with the subtext of the film, '' concluding that "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' sounds like a Village People song. Writing for The Seattle Times, Moira Macdonald criticized Wilder and Zippel 's songs as "forgettable, '' calling "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' "annoying. '' The Phoenix 's Jeffrey Gantz wrote that "Donny Osmond shows some grit, but he 's still the voice of the Whitebread West. '' Amazon.ca 's Jason Verlinde commented, "Unfortunately, the voice of Donny Osmond, relegated to anthems such as ' I 'll Make a Man Out of You ' does n't really enhance the story line ''.
Total Film ranked "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' twenty - ninth on its list of the "30 Best Disney Songs ''. Similarly, M ranked the song twentieth on its list of the "Top 20 Disney Songs of All Time ''. Author Stephanie Osmanski cited "Did they send me daughters when I asked for sons? '' as her favourite lyric. Gregory E. Miller of the New York Post cited I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' as one of "The best (and the most underrated) Disney songs, '' writing, "Captain Shang 's battle - preparation anthem is the movie 's most quotable, with a memorable chorus and a slew of one - liners from supporting characters. '' PopSugar ranked the song the nineteenth "Catchiest Disney Song ''. On Empire 's list of the twenty "Most Awesome Training Montages In Cinema History '', "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was ranked 14th. The author identified it as "a solid training montage in which Mulan and her friends go from hapless duffers to fearless warriors in just over two minutes. '' Similarly, Men 's Fitness also ranked "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' among the greatest training montages in film history. Stephen Fiorentine of Sneaker Report wrote that "Training montages are n't limited to just live - action movies. With movies like Mulan and Hercules, Disney mastered the art of the montage in their animated films. ''
When Mulan was released in China, Hong Kong actor Jackie Chan was hired to dub the voice of Shang and record "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' in Mandarin and Cantonese. The special edition DVD release of Mulan features a music video of Chan performing the song. The video also depicts Chan performing martial arts - inspired choreography. Positively received, Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net called Chan 's rendition "a fun addition for Chan fans, '' while Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News wrote that he performed the song "very ably. '' Mexican singer Cristian Castro, who voiced Shang in the film 's Latin American release, recorded "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' in Spanish, titled "Hombres de Acción serán hoy ''.
In July 2013, a parody of the song was uploaded to YouTube titled "I 'll Make a Mann Out Of You ''. The video uses the song with animation made in Source Filmmaker in which the Soldier from Team Fortress 2 motivates his fellow RED teammates against the BLU team. In October 2014, a parody of "I 'll Make a Man Out of You '' was uploaded to YouTube entitled "I 'll Make a ' Mon Out of You ''. A mashup of Mulan and the popular Pokémon franchise, the video features Digimon Gatomon attempting to masquerade as Pokémon Meowth in lieu of Mulan, while Ash occupies the role of Shang as his trainer, according to Smosh. Another parody of the song, based on the Dragon Ball franchise was uploaded to YouTube by TeamFourStar.
Credits adapted from the website Discogs.
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when was the decimal currency system introduced in india | Decimalisation - wikipedia
Decimalisation is the process of converting a currency from its previous non-decimal denominations to a decimal system (i.e., a system based on one basic unit of currency and one or more sub-units, such that the number of sub-units in one basic unit is a power of 10, most commonly 100).
The only current non-decimal currencies are the Malagasy ariary (equal to five iraimbilanja) and the Mauritanian ouguiya (equal to five khoums), though in practice both just have one currency unit and no sub-unit because khoums and iraimbilanja are no longer minted.
Decimal currencies have sub-units based on a factor of 10. There are most commonly 100 sub-units to the base currency unit, but currencies based on 1000 sub-units also exist, especially in Arab countries.
For example:
Historically, non-decimal currencies were much more common: such as the British pound sterling before decimalisation in 1971. Until 1971, the pound sterling had sub-units of account of shillings (20 to a pound) and pence (12 to a shilling). Like other currencies, it also had coins with other names (ha'pence, guineas, and crowns); and in addition, until 1960 the penny was divided into 4 farthings. There were nineteen different fractions of a pound of a whole number of pence. For example, a third, quarter, fifth and sixth of a pound were respectively 80, 60, 48, and 40 pence, normally written as shillings and pence: 6 / 8, 5 / -, 4 / -, and 3 / 4. There were eight additional fractions which were a whole number of farthings (for example, one sixty - fourth of a pound was three pence three farthings, written 3 ⁄ d).
Russia converted to a decimal currency under Tsar Peter the Great in 1704, with the ruble being equal to 100 kopeks, thus making the Russian ruble the world 's first decimal currency.
France introduced the franc in 1795 to replace the livre tournois, abolished during the French Revolution. France introduced decimalisation in a number of countries that it occupied during the Napoleonic period.
Dutch guilder decimalised in 1817 (became equal to 100 centen instead of 20 stuivers = 160 duits = 320 penningen), with last pre-decimal coins withdrawn from circulation in 1848.
Sweden introduced decimal currency in 1855. The currency riksdaler was divided into 100 öre. The riksdaler was renamed krona in 1873.
The Austro - Hungarian Empire decimalised the Austro - Hungarian gulden in 1857, concurrent with its transition from the Conventionsthaler to the Vereinsthaler standard.
Spain introduced its decimal currency unit, the peseta, in 1868, replacing all previous currencies.
Cyprus decimalised the Cypriot pound in 1955, which comprised 1,000 mils, later replaced by 100 cents.
On Decimal Day, 15 February 1971, the United Kingdom decimalised the pound sterling and the Republic of Ireland decimalised the Irish pound.
Malta decimalised the lira in 1972.
The euro, which comprises 100 cents, was introduced in the eurozone, and as of 2015, it replaced 19 national currencies in Europe.
In places where £ sd was used, the decimalisation process either defined one new penny = ⁄ pound, where the main unit (the pound) was unchanged, or introduced a new main unit (such as the dollar), equivalent to half a pound, with one cent = ⁄ dollar.
The following table shows the conversion of common denominations of coins of the £ sd system.
The farthing, at ⁄ penny, was never converted, as it ceased to be legal tender a decade prior to decimalisation. In 1971, a new penny would have been worth 9.6 farthings (making a farthing slightly more than 0.104 new pence).
In 1784, Thomas Jefferson proposed a decimal currency system based on the Spanish dollar, with coins for 10 dollars, 1 dollar, 1 / 10 dollar, and 1 / 100 dollar; possibly supplemented by a half - dollar, "double tenth '', and "five copper piece ''. One argument he advanced in favour of this system was that the 1 / 100 - dollar coin would be similar in value to existing copper coins:
The initial currency of the United States was of decimal denomination from the outset of home minted currency in 1792 with the dollar being equal to 100 cents, but other currencies were also accepted for some time afterwards. For example, the Spanish dollar, a non-decimalized currency, was accepted as official currency in the United States alongside the U.S. dollar until 1857.
Decimalisation in Canada was complicated by the different jurisdictions before Confederation in 1867. In 1841, the united Province of Canada 's Governor General, Lord Sydenham, argued for establishment of a bank that would issue dollar currency (the Canadian dollar). Francis Hincks, who would become the Province of Canada 's Prime Minister in 1851, favoured the plan. Ultimately the provincial assembly rejected the proposal. In June 1851, the Canadian legislature passed a law requiring provincial accounts to be kept decimalised as dollars and cents. The establishment of a central bank was not touched upon in the 1851 legislation. The British government delayed the implementation of the currency change on a technicality, wishing to distinguish the Canadian currency from the United States ' currency by referencing the units as "Royals '' rather than "Dollars ''. The British delay was overcome by the Currency Act of 1 August 1854. In 1858, coins denominated in cents and imprinted with "Canada '' were issued for the first time.
Decimalisation occurred in:
The colonial elite, the main advocates of decimalisation, based their case on two main arguments: The first was for facilitation of trade and economic ties with the United States, the colonies ' largest trading partner; the second was to simplify calculations and reduce accounting errors.
The Mexican peso was formally decimalised in the 1860s with the introduction of coins denominated in centavos; however, the currency did not fully decimalise in practice immediately and pre-decimal reales were issued until 1897.
Bermuda decimalised in 1970, by introducing the Bermudian dollar equal to 8 shillings 4 pence (100 pence, effectively equal to the US dollar under the Bretton Woods system).
The rand was introduced on 14 February 1961. A Decimal Coinage Commission had been set up in 1956 to consider a move away from the denominations of pounds, shillings and pence, submitting its recommendation on 8 August 1958. It replaced the South African pound as legal tender, at the rate of 2 rand = 1 pound or 10 shillings to the rand. Australia, New Zealand and Rhodesia also chose ten shillings as the base unit of their new currency.
Australia decimalised on 14 February 1966, with the new Australian dollar equivalent to ten shillings or half an Australian pound in the previous currency. Since a shilling became equal to ten cents, the Australian cent was equal to 1.2 Australian pence, although they were usually exchanged on a 1: 1 basis during the brief period when both were circulating. The television campaign containing a memorable jingle, sung to the tune of Click Go the Shears, was used to help the public to understand the changes.
New Zealand decimalised on 10 July 1967, with the New Zealand dollar replacing the New Zealand pound. The conversion rates were the same as Australia 's -- 10c to one shilling, one dollar to 10 shillings, and two dollars to one pound. Confusion was expected with twelve pence becoming ten cents, such as people expecting four cents ' change from paying ten cents / one shilling for an item costing eight cents. To help avoid this, the Decimal Currency Board recommended on inter-currency transactions (e.g., paying 4c with £ sd coins, or paying 4d with decimal coins) to pay to the next highest five cents or sixpence to get the correct change.
Sri Lanka (known as Ceylon at the time) decimalised in 1869.
India changed from the rupee, anna, pie system to decimal currency on 1 April 1957.
Yemen Arab Republic introduced coinage system of 1 North Yemeni rial = 100 fils in 1974, to replace former system of 1 rial = 40 buqsha = 80 halala = 160 zalat. The country was one of the last to convert its coinage.
Japan historically had two decimalisations of the yen, the sen (1 / 100) and the rin (1 / 1,000). However, they were taken out of circulation as of December 31, 1953, and all transactions are now conducted in round amounts of 1 yen or greater.
In India, Pakistan, and other places where a system of 1 rupee = 16 annas = 64 paise = 192 pies was used, the decimalisation process defines 1 new paisa = ⁄ rupee. The following table shows the conversion of common denominations of coins issued in modern India and Pakistan. Bold denotes the actual denomination written on the coins
In the special context of quoting the prices of stocks, traded almost always in blocks of 100 or more shares and usually in blocks of many thousands, stock exchanges in the United States used eighths or sixteenths of dollars, until converting to decimals between September 2000 and April 2001.
Similarly, in the UK, the prices of government securities continued to be quoted in multiples of ⁄ of a pound (7 ⁄ d or 3 ⁄ p) long after the currency was decimalised.
Mauritania and Madagascar theoretically retain currencies with units whose values are in the ratio five to one: the Mauritanian ouguiya (MRO) is equivalent to five khoums, and the Malagasy ariary (MGA) to five iraimbilanja.
In practice, however, the value of each of these two larger units is very small: as of 2010, the MRO is traded against the euro at about 370 to one, and the MGA at about 2,900 to one. In each of these countries, the smaller denomination is no longer used, and coins denominated in khoums and iraimbilanja are no longer minted. Therefore, in practice, they are neither decimal nor non-decimal currencies as there is no sub-unit.
Before introducing physical euro notes and coins on 1 January 2002, previous decimalisation efforts, particularly that of the UK in 1971, were studied by the European Central Bank. Questions included how to most effectively educate the public (particularly the elderly), the duration of the transition, the likely speed of uptake, the likely effects on inflation for currencies where one euro cent, the smallest circulating denomination, was greater in value than the smallest coin in circulation before the transition, and the likely criminal activities which might be attempted during the transition period.
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who is the face on the handle of the claret jug | Claret Jug - wikipedia
The Golf Champion Trophy, commonly known as the Claret Jug, is the trophy presented to the winner of The Open Championship (often called the "British Open ''), one of the four major championships in golf.
The awarding of the Claret Jug dates from 1872, when a new trophy was needed after Young Tom Morris had won the original Challenge Belt (presented by Prestwick Golf Club) outright in 1870 by winning the Championship three years in a row. Prestwick had both hosted and organised the Championship from 1860 to 1870.
By the time that Prestwick had reached agreement with the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews and the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers (based at Musselburgh) for the championship to rotate at these three venues, more than a year had passed. So, there was no event in 1871.
Each club contributed £ 10 to the cost of the new trophy, which is inscribed ' The Golf Champion Trophy ', and was made by Mackay Cunningham & Company of Edinburgh.
When the 1872 event was played, the trophy still was n't ready in time to be presented to Morris (who had won his fourth in a row) although his name was the first to be engraved on it. In 1872, Morris was presented with a medal as have all subsequent winners.
In 1873 Tom Kidd became the first winner to be actually presented with the Claret Jug after winning the Championship.
The original Claret Jug has been on permanent display at the clubhouse of The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews since 1928. The original Challenge Belt is also on display at the same site, having been donated in 1908 by the Morris family.
The current Claret Jug was first awarded to Walter Hagen for winning the 1928 Open. The winner must return the trophy before the next year 's Open, and receives a replica to keep permanently. Three other replicas exist: one in the British Museum of Golf at St Andrews, and two used for travelling exhibitions.
Every year, the winner 's name is engraved on the Claret Jug before it is presented to him. The BBC always shows the engraver poised to start work, and the commentators like to speculate about when he will be sure enough of the outcome to begin. Despite some suggestions, at the 1999 Open Championship, Jean van de Velde 's name was not engraved on the trophy before he famously choked with a triple - bogey on the 18th hole and Paul Lawrie subsequently won the playoff - engraver Alex Harvey stated "No, I did n't start engraving the Jug with his name. I 've got to wait until the secretary hands me a slip of paper with the winner 's name on it, and they always wait until the last putt is dropped. ''. Upon being awarded the Jug in 1989, Mark Calcavecchia said, "How 's my name going to fit on that thing? ''
The Claret Jug has twice appeared on commemorative £ 5 Scottish banknotes issued by the Royal Bank of Scotland: first in 2004, for the 250th Anniversary of The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews, then in 2005, the jug is shown held by Jack Nicklaus to mark his retirement.
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who sings mama's don't let your babies grow up to be cowboys on the ranch | Mammas Do n't Let Your Babies Grow up to Be cowboys - wikipedia
"Mammas Do n't Let Your Babies Grow Up to Be Cowboys '' is a country music song first recorded by Ed Bruce, written by him and wife Patsy Bruce. His version of the song appears on his 1976 self - titled album for United Artists Records. In late 1975 -- early 1976, Bruce 's rendition of the song went to number 15 on the Hot Country Singles charts. This song was featured on Chris LeDoux 's album released January 20, 1976, Songbook of the American West, and in the Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas video game soundtrack, on the fictitious radio station K - Rose.
Members of the Western Writers of America chose the song as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.
The narrator warns mothers not to let their children become cowboys because of the tough and busy life of cowboy culture.
Waylon Jennings and Willie Nelson covered the song on their 1978 duet album Waylon & Willie. This rendition peaked at No. 1 in March 1978, spending four weeks atop the country music charts. It also reached 42 on the Billboard Hot 100, and won the 1979 Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. Also in 1979, Nelson 's version was featured in the film The Electric Horseman with Robert Redford and Jane Fonda. This version was covered by Alvin and the Chipmunks as "Mammas Do n't Let Your Babies Grow Up to Be Chipmunks '' for their 1981 album Urban Chipmunk. It is also featured in a 2015 TV commercial for the Volkswagen Passat.
In 1994, country music group Gibson / Miller Band recorded a cover version on its album Red, White and Blue Collar. This version peaked at # 49 on the Hot Country Songs chart, and was featured in the soundtrack for the movie The Cowboy Way. It also appeared on the band 's second and final studio album, Red, White and Blue Collar.
A version of the song by Lukas Nelson and Shooter Jennings was used as the theme tune for Netflix comedy The Ranch.
A version of the song was recorded by Lucinda Williams on the "Imus Ranch Record ''. a benefit compilation of country and roots music released Sept 16, 2008.
The song is referenced and subverted in the "Weird Al '' Yankovic song Dare to Be Stupid, the title track on his album Dare to Be Stupid. The song, a pastiche parody of the band Devo, dares the listener to engage in several "stupid '' acts, among them counting chickens before they hatch, selling wine before its time, and letting "babies grow up to be cowboys. ''
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who are the pros on so you think you can dance | So You Think You Can Dance (U.S. TV series) - wikipedia
So You Think You Can Dance is an American televised dance competition show that airs on Fox in the United States and is the flagship series of the international So You Think You Can Dance television franchise. It was created by American Idol producers Simon Fuller and Nigel Lythgoe and is produced by 19 Entertainment, Dick Clark Productions, and Conrad Sewell Productions. The series premiered on July 20, 2005 with over ten million viewers and ended the summer season as the top - rated show on television. The first season was hosted by American news personality Lauren Sánchez. Since the second season, it has been hosted by former British children 's television personality and game show emcee Cat Deeley. During its second season, the program remained the No. 1 rated summer show (adults aged 18 -- 49), but it has declined in ratings since.
The show features a tiered format wherein dancers trained in a variety of dance genres enter open auditions held in a number of major U.S. cities to showcase their talents and may move forward through successive additional rounds of auditions to test their ability to adapt to different styles. At the end of this process, a small number of dancers are chosen as finalists. These dancers move on to the competition 's main phase, where they perform solo, duet, and group dance numbers on live television, attempting to master a diverse selection of dance styles, including classical, contemporary, ballroom, hip - hop, street, club, jazz, and musical theatre styles, among others. They compete for the votes of the broadcast viewing audience which, combined with the input of a panel of judges, determines which dancers advance to the next stage from week to week.
So You Think You Can Dance has won seven Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Choreography and a total of nine Emmy Awards altogether. Licensed variations of the show, produced for broadcast markets in other nations, began airing in August 2005, and dozens of localized adaptations of the show have been produced since, airing in 37 countries to date. On January 30, 2017, Fox renewed the series for a fourteenth season, which premiered on June 12, 2017.
A typical season of So You Think You Can Dance is divided between a selection process, during which expert judges select competitors from a wide pool of applicant dancers, and a competition phase, during which these ' finalists ' (more typically referred to as the ' Top 20 ') compete for votes from home viewers. Though it is produced over the course of months, the selection phase is highly edited and usually constitutes only the first 2 -- 4 weeks of aired episodes, with the competition episodes forming the remaining 8 -- 9 weeks of the season.
The open auditions, the first stage in determining a seasons finalists, take place in 5 -- 6 major U.S. cities each season and are typically open to anyone aged 18 -- 30 at the time of their audition. The cities where auditions are held change from season to season but some, such as Los Angeles and New York, have featured in most seasons. During this stage, dancers perform a brief routine (typically a solo, but duet and group routines are allowed as well) before a panel of dance experts, usually headed by series creator and executive producer Nigel Lythgoe. This panel then decides on - the - spot whether the dancer demonstrated enough ability and performance value to proceed further. If the dancer exhibited exceptional ability in their performance, judges award "a ticket to Vegas '' (or in more recent seasons "a ticket to the Academy ''), moving them instantly one step forward in the competition. Alternatively, if judges are on the fence about the dancer, they may ask the contestant to wait until the end of that day 's auditions to participate in a short test of their ability to pick up professional choreography.
The second stage of the selection process is referred to as "the callbacks '' (the round has often been held in the city of Las Vegas and also been known as "Vegas Week '' for much of the show 's run, but has been called Academy Week since season 13). The callbacks consist of a several - day - long process in which the remaining hopefuls are tested for overall well - rounded dance ability, stamina, creativity and their ability to perform under pressure. The dancers are put through a battery of rounds that test their ability to pick up various dance styles; these are typically some of the more well - represented genres that are later prominent in the competition phase, such as hip - hop, jazz, ballroom, and contemporary. Additionally the dancers may be asked to perform further solos in styles of their choosing and participate in a group choreography round in which small teams of contestants must display their musicality and ability to communicate professionally by choreographing a performance to a randomly selected piece of music -- this challenge is notable as being the only time competitors are asked to choreograph themselves, aside from solos. The Callbacks are often collectively portrayed as one of the most exhausting and stressful stages of the competition; each successive round sees cuts in which a significant portion of the remaining dancers are eliminated from competition and dancers are given a limited amount of time to adapt to styles they are sometimes wholly unfamiliar with while being physically taxed by the rapid progression of rounds and a limited amount of rest. At the end of this process, usually less than 40 competitors remain in a pool that final contestants are chosen from. Most seasons have featured 20 top finalists for the competition portion of the show, but Season One was represented by a Top 16, Season Seven saw a Top 11, and Season Thirteen employed a Top 10.
Following Vegas Week -- - which has, through video vignettes, made many of the dancers increasingly familiar to the audience as it observes their attempts to cope with the challenges of the week - -- the judge 's panel selects their finalists from the remaining dancers, breaking the good or bad news to each dancer. Since Season six, the series has also featured a showcase episode that takes place immediately before the main competition. In this episode, dancers compete for the first time on the main SYTYCD stage in Los Angeles before a live audience, dancing duet or group routines, but only in their own styles. In seasons eight through ten, the finalist announcement episode and the dancer 's showcase were combined into one episode, with groups of dancers taking to the stage for the first time immediately after they are revealed. In seasons six through nine, no dancers were in danger of elimination at this point and the first round of viewer voting and judge eliminations occurred the following week. In the slightly more compact format of the more recent seasons, the dancer showcase is often the first episode to be accompanied by viewer voting and a resulting elimination.
Following the finalist selection process, the show transitions into its regular competition phase, which lasts the rest of the season. The competition stage is typically divided into 8 weeks, generally with two contestants eliminated per week. Dancers are paired - up into male - female couples that will sometimes stay paired for half of the remaining competition if neither is eliminated. These couples perform 1 -- 2 duets per week in randomly selected styles. These duets, as with all non-solo performances at this stage in the competition, are choreographed by professional choreographers. Prior to most duet performances, a video packet of clips of the couple preparing to perform the routine is shown; these packets are intended not only to demonstrate the couple 's efforts to master the routine, but also to give glimpses of the personalities of the dancers as well as to allow the choreographer to give insight as to the thematic, narrative, and artistic intentions of the piece. Following each duet performance, the week 's panel of judges gives critical feedback, often emphasizing the two key areas of technique and performance value. Duets and their accompanying video packets and critiques typically take up the majority of a competition show but may also be supplemented by solos or group numbers. Each competition show ends with a quick recap of the night 's routines accompanied by voting prompts -- traditionally by phone, but increasingly through online voting processes. Performance shows typically last around two hours, commercials included.
In seasons 2 - 8 the show 's weekly format was split between two episodes, a performance episode, as described above, and a results show which reveals the outcome of the at - home - viewer voting. Results shows typically aired on the night immediately following that of the performance show of the same week and usually opened with a group routine from the remaining contestants. The main purpose of this show was to determine which of the dancers are eliminated that week, but these episodes generally also featured guest dance performances or guest musical acts, and sometimes further video packets that provide insight on the dancers and their journey on the show. More recent seasons have moved to a one - show - per - week format, combining elements that used to be found in both varieties of show. Regardless of how many shows air per week, a "bottom three '' couples (those that garnered the fewest votes from viewers -- in some seasons it is a bottom three of individual dancers rather than couples) are typically revealed weekly at this stage in the competition. Each of these dancers are then in danger of elimination and must perform a solo for the judges as their last effort to impress and stay in the competition. The judges then retire briefly (typically during the night 's headlining musical guest performance) to determine which man and woman (which are not necessarily from the same couple) will leave the competition. The eliminated dancers are then announced and given a brief send - off via a video montage. On very rare occasions, the judges have been unwilling to send any of the bottom dancers home on the merits of their performances that week amd have abstained from making an elimination and instead allowed all competitors to proceed to the next week (often to be followed by a double elimination the following week). Since Season 7, dancers have also been routinely paired with "All Stars '', returning dancers from previous seasons who partner with the contestant dancers, but are not themselves competing.
The total number of hours shown in a given week during the performance phase of the competition has varied from two to four hours. In season one there was no results show and the dancers ' eliminations were pre-recorded the week they occurred and then broadcast at the beginning of the next week 's episode. Seasons 9 - 14 have also utilized one show per week, but with votes from the previous week being revealed later in the show. Voting has varied by season (and often within seasons) with regard to whether the voter selected individuals or couples. There has also been variability in how long couples are kept together and how the at - home - viewer votes are balanced against judge decisions, though ultimately at some point in every season, the judges give up their power to save dancers at this point, and eliminations are determined exclusively by viewer votes, with judges serving in only an advisory capacity. Each season undergoes one final format shake - up in its last week, which typically takes place when the show reaches a Top 4. In the final performance show, the remaining dancers typically each dance duets with all of their remaining fellow finalists as well as perform solos and participate in group numbers. The following night 's season finale episode is often the most elaborately produced show of a season and features the last performances of the competitors, encore performances of many of the season 's most acclaimed routines, guest dancers (including returning past season competitors and cast - members from other international versions of the franchise), musical performances and multiple video packets chronicling the course of the season 's events, all culminating in the announcement of the winner of the competition, as decided by the previous night 's vote. Some seasons have featured a singular winner, while others have allowed for a male and female winner. Following the closure of the season, the Top Ten dancers often go on tour for several months, performing hit routines from the season amongst other performances.
The judging panel has also varied considerably in size and composition over the run of the series. Typically a season has 2 -- 3 permanent judges with an additional 1 -- 2 guest judges for most episodes, with the panel ballooning up to six to nine members for Vegas Week and the finale. Executive producer Nigel Lythgoe is the only permanent judge on the panel for all of the seasons. Other permanent judges have included ballroom specialist Mary Murphy, film director and choreographer Adam Shankman and contemporary choreographer Mia Michaels. Guest judge positions are typically filled by choreographers who work regularly on the show -- though choreographers will never develop routines for an episode on which they judge -- who in rare cases may also be former contestants themselves, and by iconic names from the entertainment industry. Guest judges for the show have included: Debbie Allen, Christina Applegate, Robin Antin, Toni Basil, Cicely Bradley, Kristin Chenoweth, Alex Da Silva, Ellen DeGeneres, Tyce Diorio, Joey Dowling, Napoleon and Tabitha D'umo, Carmen Electra, Brian Friedman, Jean - Marc Généreux, Jason Gilkison, Neil Patrick Harris, Hi - Hat, Katie Holmes, Dan Karaty, Lady Gaga, Carly Rae Jepsen, Lil ' C, Rob Marshall, Mandy Moore, Megan Mullally, Kenny Ortega, Toni Redpath, Debbie Reynolds, Wade Robson, Doriana Sanchez, Shane Sparks, Sonya Tayeh, Olisa Thompson, Stacey Tookey, Jesse Tyler Ferguson, and Travis Wall. In earlier seasons, the judges decided on eliminations until around week five of the competitive phase of the show, but in seasons seven through nine the judges decided the eliminations until week seven. Beginning with the twelfth season, Paula Abdul and Jason Derulo joined Lythgoe as permanent judges. For the thirteenth season, 13 - year - old dancer Maddie Ziegler joined the panel as a fourth judge. Season Fourteen has seen the departure of Abdul, Derulo, and Ziegler from their season - long positions of the judges panel, but introduction of Vanessa Hudgens and the return of Mary Murphy to her seat.
† From its inception in season 6 and through season 10, the dancer showcase episode represented a non-competitive round with no viewer voting or subsequent eliminations, followed the next week by the first competitive round. In season 11 it was the first episode of the season upon which viewers voted.
‡ For seasons 8 - 10, the dancer showcase episode was combined with the Top 20 reveal episode, with groups of the dancers performing immediately after being revealed as finalists.
* In both seasons 7 and 8, the judges decided not to eliminate any dancers on the occasion of one results show; in both cases this event was followed by the elimination of double the normal amount of contestants the following week. Similarly, for format reasons, season 9 featured two shows with double eliminations, with four dancers eliminated instead of two for each of these shows.
⁂ Unlike all previous seasons, season 12 featured the elimination of one "street '' dancer and one "stage '' dancer each week, as opposed to one female and one male contestant (as in all previous seasons which eliminated two dancers per week).
° Season 13 (during which the show was subtitled ' The Next Generation ') featured competitors between the ages of 9 (or as young as 8 at time of application) and 14.
* * In season 13, the judges held the audition rounds, but the all - stars, rather than the judges, made the eliminations during Academy week to choose the top 10. After this, in episodes 7 and 8, from the two contestants with the lowest viewer votes, the judges made the elimination. In episode 9, the two contestants with the lowest viewer votes were both eliminated, and in episodes 10 and 11, the contestant with the lowest viewer votes was eliminated.
Over the course of its eleven seasons, So You Think You Can Dance has featured dozens of distinct dance styles in its choreographed routines. Most of these styles fall into four categories that are regularly showcased and can be found in almost every performance episode: western contemporary / classical styles, ballroom styles, hip - hop / street styles, and Jazz and its related styles. Various other forms of dance that do not especially fall into these broad categories are seen as well, but not as regularly. The following styles have all been seen in a choreographed duet or group routine; styles featured only in auditions or solos are not listed.
Routines from the classically derived style of contemporary dance are the most common dances seen on the show, being seen in every performance episode of the series (and typically at least twice per episode). While contemporary, lyrical, and modern dance are typically considered three separate (if overlapping) styles, the practice on So You Think You Can Dance has been to refer to all routines in this area as "contemporary '', except in the first season where the label "lyrical '' was used for the same purpose. Ballet routines occur much more rarely, at a rate of one or two per season since their introduction in the fourth season.
Hip - hop routines are also present in every performance episode. While these routines frequently feature elements from many different subgenres of hip - hop (locking and popping, for example) and various "street '' styles (such as breaking), they are typically all labelled under the umbrella term of hip - hop. An exception is the now frequently featured lyrical hip - hop, which is unique amongst all the styles on SYTYCD in that it is the only one that is held to have become a known distinct style at least in - part as a result of the show; the style is widely attributed to regular show choreographers Tabitha and Napoleon D'umo and the term itself to judge Adam Shankman. These two broad categories are occasionally supplemented by krump routines, which have been featured a few times a season since their introduction in season 2. Additionally the styles of breakdancing (in the sense of a full breaking routine as opposed to a hip - hop routine with a few breaking tricks), waacking, and stepping have all been featured in exactly one routine. In Season 12, there are more street style dances because of the season 's new format where there are 10 street dancers which do only street styles.
Ballroom styles are also seen regularly in every performance episode; these dances may be traditional European - derived styles or Latin - American styles or a mix of the two.
Jazz is featured in nearly all performance episodes. While these routines are typically labelled simply "Jazz '', the genre is notable as being one of the most fusional featured on the show and various style combinations and sub-categories have been referenced. Descended from Jazz but treated as a separate genre on SYTYCD, "Broadway '' is analogous to the label "Musical Theater '' outside the U.S.
These dance styles are featured less frequently than their ballroom relatives, but have been seen intermittently since the first season.
In addition to the broad categories above, many more styles that are less common in the U.S. are sometimes featured. Most of these are seen only once, but the Bollywood style has been featured several times per season since the fourth season.
The second season premiered on May 12, 2006. The top 20 finalists were revealed on June 8, and the winner, Benjamin Schwimmer, was named "America 's Favorite Dancer '' on August 16, 2006 after 16 million votes were collected for the season finale. Travis Wall was the first runner - up, and Donyelle Jones was named second runner - up. There were several changes to the show 's format in the second season. This season was the first to feature two episodes per week, splitting the bulk of the performances and the voting results segments between two nights. New styles of dance were also introduced, and the winning prize was increased from US $100,000 to $250,000 and also included a new car and a one - year contract to perform in a Céline Dion show then performing Las Vegas. The season was also the first followed by a live tour for the top ten dancers.
Open auditions for season 3 began early October 2006, held in New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Atlanta. Like the previous season, those that made the cuts moved on to Las Vegas. The taped auditions premiered on the Fox on May 24, 2007, and the subsequent shows were taped and broadcast live for a 12 - week season. Cat Deeley returned as host, and Nigel Lythgoe returned as permanent judge. Joining Lythgoe permanently at the judging table was Mary Murphy; her promotion was reported by TV Guide on March 8, 2007. The prize for the winner remained at $250,000 cash. On the performance finale show (August 16, 2007), Sabra Johnson was named "America 's Favorite Dancer, '' while Danny Tidwell (brother of season 2 runner - up Travis Wall) was runner - up.
Auditions for Season 4 began in Texas on January 17 and took place in six locations through March 2008. The show kicked off its two - hour season premiere on May 22, 2008. Cat Deeley returned as host and Nigel Lythgoe and Mary Murphy as permanent judges. This season saw the introduction of new dance styles, including Bollywood, and new choreographers, including hip - hop duo Tabitha and Napoleon D'umo. The prize for the winner was again $250,000 cash and the title of "America 's Favorite Dancer '' and additionally included an offer for a role in the dance film Step Up 3D. In the finale, viewers voted Joshua Allen as the overall winner, while Katee Shean was voted the top female dancer and was given a previously unannounced award of $50,000.
Auditions for Season 5 kicked off in New York City on November 13, 2008 and continued on to Miami, Los Angeles, Denver, Memphis, and Seattle. The premiere aired on May 21, 2009. Louis van Amstel joined the show 's cast of choreographers and Shane Sparks returned to choreograph while on break from America 's Best Dance Crew. The prize for the winner was once again $250,000 cash, the chance to be on the November 2009 issue cover of Dance Spirit Magazine, and the title of "America 's Favorite Dancer. '' On August 6, 2009 (the finale), Jeanine Mason was given the title.
After a low - rated special episode of Dance featuring Lythgoe presenting his and viewer 's favorite dance routines from seasons 1 -- 5, the sixth season of Dance, premiered on Wednesday, September 9, 2009. Auditions were held in Boston, Atlanta, Los Angeles, New Orleans, Phoenix, and Salt Lake City. Adam Shankman joined as the permanent judge for the first time this season. The winner was Russell Ferguson and the runner - up was Jakob Karr.
Auditions began in Miami, Florida, on January 18, 2010, continuing through New York, Dallas, Nashville, and Chicago, ending in Los Angeles on March 26. The season premiered on May 27, 2010. This season introduced significant format changes to the show, with a Top 11 dancers instead of the traditional Top 20 and "All - Stars '', contestants from previous seasons who returned to partner with the Top 11 for a portion of their routines. Lauren Froderman won this season with Kent Boyd as runner - up.
Auditions started October 13, 2010 in Oakland, California and continued through November 15 in Brooklyn, New York. The premiere aired on May 26, 2011. This season began a new version of the "All - Star '' format in which the All - Stars did n't come in until the top 10. The show returned to a top 20 with couples. This season also marks the first time that the public can cast votes online, in addition to calling in, with a limit of 50 votes per viewer. On August 11, 2011, Melanie Moore won season 8, and Sasha Mallory was named the runner - up. Together they received 79 % of the 11.5 million votes.
The ninth season premiered on May 24, 2012. Fox discontinued the results show. The two winners selected on September 18, 2012 were Eliana Girard and Chehon Wespi - Tschopp.
Season 10 premiered on May 14, 2013, in its new Tuesdays at 8 p.m. time slot. The two - part premiere concluded on May 15, 2013 at 9 p.m., after the finale of American Idol season 12. On September 10, 2013, Amy Yakima and Du - Shaunt ' Fik - Shun ' Stegall were named the season 10 winners, becoming the first contestants to take the top two positions who had been a couple at the beginning of the live show competition. No music artists or special dance performers appeared on this season except for All - Stars who were former contestants.
The eleventh season premiered on Wednesday, May 28, 2014. The season finale aired on Wednesday, September 3, 2014. Contemporary dancer Ricky Ubeda was the winner of the season with Tap dancer Valerie Rockey finishing as the runner - up.
The twelfth season of the show divided contestants into two equally sized teams, one representing "stage '' dancers and the other "street '' styles, with one contestant eliminated from each team weekly until the finale. Auditions began on January 24, 2015 and took place in five major American cities. Season 12 premiered on Monday, June 1. Tap dancer Gaby Diaz was the winner of the season, becoming the first tap dancer to win So You Think You Can Dance. Animation dancer Jaja Vankova finished as the runner - up.
The thirteenth season of the series premiered on May 30, 2016, titled So You Think You Can Dance: The Next Generation. The season features young dancers between the ages of 8 and 13 (at their date of application). After auditions, during Dance Academy episodes, 10 All - Stars eliminated competitors until each selected one contestant to mentor and partner with in performances during the live episodes. One or more finalists were eliminated each week beginning July 18, 2016. 13 - year - old dancer Maddie Ziegler observed the Academy episodes and joined the judging panel for the live shows (also observing and commenting on rehearsals), together with continuing judges Abdul, Derulo and Lythgoe, the three of whom conducted the auditions. Leon "Kida '' Burns won the top prize of $250,000. J.T. Church was the runner - up.
On January 30, 2017, Fox renewed the series for a fourteenth season, which returned to its former contestant age range of 18 - 30 but keeps the All - Star partnerships. The season premiered on June 12, 2017. Contemporary dancer Lex Ishimoto was the winner of the season with contemporary dance Koine Iwasaki finishing as the runner - up and female winner, becoming the first Asian - Americans to take the top two positions of So You Think You Can Dance.
On September 2, 2009, as prelude to season 6, a special show aired featuring judge picks for the top 15 routines from the first five seasons. At the end of the show, show creator and judge Nigel Lythgoe presented his favorite performance, a contemporary piece choreographed by Tyce Diorio and performed by Melissa Sandvig and Ade Obayomi.
In March 2014, Chinese television station CCTV broadcast a promotional episode in which notable all - star dancers from the U.S. and Chinese versions of So You Think You Can Dance competed directly against one - another as teams. Titled Zhōngměi Wǔ Lín Guànjūn Duìkàngsài - Super Dancer Born Tonight, the show was shot in Las Vegas but never aired on U.S. television.
So You Think You Can Dance premiered with over 10 million viewers in 2005. For Season 1, it was the No. 1 summer show on television. However, when NBC 's America 's Got Talent premiered in the summer of 2006, it took the title of "# 1 summer show '' and, over the following few years, broadened its lead. In summer 2009, SYTYCD premiered strong with a 3.4 rating in its target demographic, although with the start of America 's Got Talent roughly a month later in the same timeslot, Dance fell to No. 4 on the ratings board. It continued to lose viewers throughout the summer of 2009 and ended up with an average of approximately 8 million viewers. Fox then moved SYTYCD to its fall 2009 schedule where its ratings continued to decline; hitting an all - time series low of 4.6 million viewers for a "special '' episode hosted by Nigel Lythgoe on September 2, 2009. The move to the fall was short - lived. After dropping to an average of 6 million viewers, Fox moved SYTYCD back to the summer in 2010. With Mia Michaels replacing Mary Murphy and former contestants termed as "All - Stars '' being used as partners, the ratings for Dance continued to slide to all - time series lows; dropping to just 5.6 million viewers on July 15, 2010. For Season 7, So You Think You Can Dance averaged just over 5 million viewers. After season 7, Mia Michaels was replaced on the judge 's panel by returning personality Mary Murphy. The change appeared to have little effect on the ratings, and the show continued to average just over five million viewers per episode in 2011 's season 8. Season 9 saw a slight uptick in ratings early on, with each of the season 's first five episodes garnering between six and seven million viewers, but the rise was short - lived and the show 's ratings hit a new low of 4.16 million viewers on August 29, 2012. Season 10 maintained similar numbers, averaging about 4 million viewers per episode in 2013, with a 4.3 million viewership for the last episode of the season, an all - time series low for a finale.
In April 2014, Nigel Lythgoe appealed on Twitter to fans to share information about the show ahead of the 11th season 's May premiere in an attempt to augment the show 's ratings for the upcoming season and bolster its chances of renewal thereafter. The show was renewed for a 12th season, but ratings continued to decline, with an average of around 3.5 million viewers per show. FOX renewed the show for a 13th season, but with a drastically re-worked format focused on child dancers. Ratings declined further for the new version, with only five episodes breaking the 3 million viewer mark; the finale saw a series low viewership of just 2.27 million viewers.
In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that "in general '', Dance "is more popular in cities, though it hits peak popularity in Utah ''.
Dance competition had been a part of American television for decades before the premiere of So You Think You Can Dance, but usually in the form of all - around talent searches, (such as Star Search, Soul Train, or Showtime at the Apollo). However, a season - long American Idol - like talent - search show with a sole focus on dance had never been broadcast on American network television. Producers and judges associated with the show have stated on numerous occasions, both within the context of the show and in interviews, that the series was meant to rejuvenate the visibility and appreciation of dance as an art form in the U.S. and to give exposure to struggling dancers. Series judge Mary Murphy says, for example, "Of course you hope you can make a living at it, because you do n't want to give up on something that you do, but the honest truth is most dancers have to carry one or two jobs and dance as much as they can on the side -- it 's a very lucky dancer who gets a full scholarship. '' A number of dance - themed competition shows have been produced for American television since the premiere of So You Think You Can Dance, including America 's Best Dance Crew, Superstars of Dance, and Live to Dance.
In 2009, Lythgoe came together with fellow SYTYCD judge Adam Shankman as well as Katie Holmes, Carrie Ann Inaba, and others in the dance entertainment industry, in an effort to launch The Dizzyfeet Foundation, with the aim of providing scholarships and training to young dancers of limited means. The foundation has been referenced sporadically on the show since. In 2010, Lythgoe, with the assistance of other SYTYCD personalities and long - time healthy lifestyles proponent Congresswoman Eleanor Holmes Norton, was successful in getting another of his dance - oriented concepts realized -- an official National Dance Day, held now annually on the last Saturday of July, to promote fitness through movement. This national dance day has been celebrated annually by the show since.
Before the end of 2005, the year the series first premiered, its format had already been licensed for the first of a number foreign adaptations. To date, the resulting So You Think You Can Dance franchise has produced 26 shows representing 37 different countries and comprising more than 80 individual seasons. These adaptations have aired in Armenia, Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iraq, India, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Lithuania, Malaysia, Morocco, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Palestinian Territories, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, South Africa, Sudan, Sweden, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and Vietnam.
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what is the standard base unit for length | SI base unit - wikipedia
The International System of Units (SI) defines seven units of measure as a basic set from which all other SI units can be derived. The SI base units and their physical quantities are the metre for measurement of length, the kilogram for mass, the second for time, the ampere for electric current, the kelvin for temperature, the candela for luminous intensity, and the mole for amount of substance.
The SI base units form a set of mutually independent dimensions as required by dimensional analysis commonly employed in science and technology.
The names and symbols of SI base units are written in lowercase, except the symbols of those named after a person, which are written with an initial capital letter. For example, the metre (US English: meter) has the symbol m, but the kelvin has symbol K, because it is named after Lord Kelvin and the ampere with symbol A is named after André - Marie Ampère.
Other units, such as the litre (US English: liter), are formally not part of the SI, but are accepted for use with SI.
2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles. '' 14th CGPM (1971, Resolution 3; CR, 78) "In this definition, it is understood that unbound atoms of carbon 12, at rest and in their ground state, are referred to. '' (Added by CIPM in 1980)
The definitions of the base units have been modified several times since the Metre Convention in 1875, and new additions of base units have occurred. Since the redefinition of the metre in 1960, the kilogram is the only unit that is directly defined in terms of a physical artifact, rather than a property of nature. However, the mole, the ampere, and the candela are linked through their definitions to the mass of the platinum -- iridium cylinder stored in a vault near Paris.
It has long been an objective in metrology to define the kilogram in terms of a fundamental constant, in the same way that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. The 21st General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM, 1999) placed these efforts on an official footing, and recommended "that national laboratories continue their efforts to refine experiments that link the unit of mass to fundamental or atomic constants with a view to a future redefinition of the kilogram. '' Two possibilities have attracted particular attention: the Planck constant and the Avogadro constant.
In 2005, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) approved preparation of new definitions for the kilogram, the ampere, and the kelvin and it noted the possibility of a new definition of the mole based on the Avogadro constant. The 23rd CGPM (2007) decided to postpone any formal change until the next General Conference in 2011.
In a note to the CIPM in October 2009, Ian Mills, the President of the CIPM Consultative Committee - Units (CCU) catalogued the uncertainties of the fundamental constants of physics according to the current definitions and their values under the proposed new definition. He urged the CIPM to accept the proposed changes in the definition of the kilogram, ampere, kelvin, and mole so that they are referenced to the values of the fundamental constants, namely the Planck constant (h), the electron charge (e), the Boltzmann constant (k), and the Avogadro constant (N).
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who did san francisco play in the super bowl | Super Bowl XLVII - wikipedia
Super Bowl XLVII was an American football game between the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Baltimore Ravens and the National Football Conference (NFC) champion San Francisco 49ers to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2012 season. The Ravens defeated the 49ers by the score of 34 -- 31, handing the 49ers their first Super Bowl loss in franchise history. The game was played on February 3, 2013, at Mercedes - Benz Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana. This was the tenth Super Bowl to be played in New Orleans, equaling Miami 's record of ten in an individual city.
For the first time in Super Bowl history, the game featured two brothers coaching against each other -- Jim and John Harbaugh, head coaches of the San Francisco 49ers and Baltimore Ravens, respectively -- earning it the nickname Harbaugh Bowl. In addition, Super Bowl XLVII was the first to feature two teams that had undefeated records in previous Super Bowl games (Baltimore, 1 -- 0; San Francisco, 5 -- 0). The 49ers, who posted a regular - season record of 11 -- 4 -- 1, entered the game seeking their sixth Super Bowl win in team history (and first since Super Bowl XXIX at the end of the 1994 season), which would have tied the Pittsburgh Steelers for the most by a franchise. The Ravens, who posted a 10 -- 6 regular - season record, made their second Super Bowl appearance in 12 years, having previously won Super Bowl XXXV. Ray Lewis, the Most Valuable Player (MVP) from that game, as well as the last remaining member of the inaugural Ravens roster from 1996, also played in this game, his last before his retirement from professional football.
Baltimore built a 28 -- 6 lead early in the third quarter before a partial power outage in the Superdome suspended play for 34 minutes (earning the game the added nickname of the Blackout Bowl). After play resumed, San Francisco scored 17 unanswered third - quarter points to cut the Ravens ' lead to 28 -- 23, and continued to chip away in the fourth quarter. With the Ravens leading late in the game, 34 -- 29, the 49ers advanced to the Baltimore 7 - yard line just before the two - minute warning but turned the ball over on downs. The Ravens then took an intentional safety in the waning moments of the game to preserve the victory. Baltimore quarterback Joe Flacco, who completed 22 of 33 passes for 287 yards and three touchdowns, became the fourth quarterback in a row to be named Super Bowl MVP, after Drew Brees at Super Bowl XLIV, Aaron Rodgers at Super Bowl XLV, and Eli Manning at Super Bowl XLVI.
CBS broadcast the game in the U.S., and charged an average of $4 Million for a 30 - second commercial during the game, the highest rate for any Super Bowl. According to Nielsen, Super Bowl XLVII was viewed by an estimated average of 108.69 million people in the United States, with a record 164.1 million tuning into at least six minutes of the game. Beyoncé performed in the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show, which featured a reunion with her fellow members from Destiny 's Child: Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams.
The game marked the first Super Bowl in which both of the teams had appeared in, but had not yet lost a previous Super Bowl; the 49ers came into the game having won all five of their previous Super Bowl appearances, while the Ravens had won in their lone previous Super Bowl appearance in Super Bowl XXXV against the New York Giants. Currently, this phenomenon can only be repeated if either the Ravens or the New York Jets play against either the Tampa Bay Buccaneers or the New Orleans Saints in a subsequent Super Bowl. Baltimore 's victory made them the only current NFL franchise to have appeared in at least two Super Bowls without ever losing any of their appearances.
Three cities presented bids for the game:
The league then selected the New Orleans bid during the NFL 's Spring Ownership Meetings in Fort Lauderdale, Florida on May 19, 2009. This was the tenth time that the city has hosted the Super Bowl, by far the most by an individual city and once again tying with the Miami area for the most Super Bowls hosted by a metropolitan area. It was the first Super Bowl to be held in New Orleans since the Superdome sustained damage from Hurricane Katrina in 2005, as well as since the naming rights of the Superdome were sold to Mercedes - Benz while it was undergoing a major renovation in 2011, including the addition of Champions Square. New Orleans artist Ally Burguieres was selected to design the official medallion for Super Bowl XLVII, which was included on beads to commemorate the Mardi Gras tradition.
Because of the February 3 date of Super Bowl XLVII, the 2013 Mardi Gras calendar in Orleans Parish was changed. Parades scheduled for February 3 and before were moved ahead one week. The same situation occurred in 2002 when the 9 / 11 attacks caused a one - week delay in the 2001 NFL season, resulting in the Super Bowl XXXVI falling within the Mardi Gras parade calendar.
This was the 49ers ' second Super Bowl played at the Superdome -- the first being Super Bowl XXIV when they beat the Denver Broncos 55 -- 10. The 49ers, Broncos and New England Patriots are the only teams so far to play two or more Super Bowls at the Superdome. The 49ers also joined the Broncos and the Colts in playing two Super Bowls at two different stadiums. The 49ers won Super Bowls XXIII and XXIX in Miami at what is now known as Hard Rock Stadium.
Super Bowl XLVII earned many nicknames, including the "Bro Bowl '', "Harbaugh Bowl '', "HarBowl '', "Super Baugh '', "Brother Bowl '', and "Superbro '', as this was the first Super Bowl featuring brothers as opposing head coaches: Baltimore 's John Harbaugh and San Francisco 's Jim Harbaugh, whose clubs previously met in a 2011 Thanksgiving Day game, which John Harbaugh 's Ravens won 16 -- 6, which was also the first time that two brothers had met as rival head coaches in the NFL. Due to a power outage affecting half the stadium during the third quarter, the game has also become known as the "Blackout Bowl ''.
After going 12 -- 4 and reaching the AFC Championship Game in 2011, only to lose to the New England Patriots when wide receiver Lee Evans dropped a game - winning catch in the end zone and Billy Cundiff missed a potential game - tying 32 - yard field goal, the Ravens advanced further in 2012 to the Super Bowl after recording a 10 -- 6 regular season record. Under head coach John Harbaugh, who was in his fifth season with the team, Baltimore upgraded their roster with players such as defensive backs Sean Considine and Corey Graham, and wide receiver Jacoby Jones. In December 2012, the Ravens fired offensive coordinator Cam Cameron and promoted quarterbacks coach Jim Caldwell, who was previously the head coach of the Indianapolis Colts from 2009 to 2011, as the successor. With personnel on both sides of the ball, they finished the season ranked 10th in points per game (24.9), and 12th in fewest points allowed (21.5)
In command of the offense was five - year veteran Joe Flacco, who finished the season with a career - high 3,817 passing yards and 22 touchdowns, with only 10 interceptions. (Super Bowl XLVII would be one of only two years the AFC team 's quarterback would not be either Tom Brady, Ben Roethlisberger or Peyton Manning between Super Bowls XXXVI and LI; the other was Super Bowl XXXVII ten years prior, when the 2002 Oakland Raiders were helmed by Rich Gannon.) His top targets were receivers Anquan Boldin (65 receptions, 921 yards, 4 touchdowns) and Torrey Smith (49 receptions, 855 yards, 8 touchdowns), along with tight end Dennis Pitta (61 receptions, 669 yards, 7 touchdowns). Their backfield featured two Pro Bowl selections: halfback Ray Rice and fullback Vonta Leach. Rice rushed for 1,143 yards and 9 touchdowns, while also hauling in 61 receptions for 478 yards and another score. Leach served effectively as his lead blocker and a receiver out of the backfield, catching 21 passes. The Ravens ' offensive line was led by Pro Bowl guard Marshal Yanda.
On special teams, Jones returned 38 kickoffs for 1,116 yards and two touchdowns, giving him a whopping 30.7 yards per return average. He also gained 341 yards and another touchdown returning punts, and caught 30 passes for 406 yards and a score. Rookie kicker Justin Tucker ranked 7th in the NFL in field goal percentage (90.9), kicking 30 / 33 field goals and making all 42 of his extra point attempts.
Baltimore 's defensive line was anchored by Pro Bowl defensive end Haloti Ngata, who compiled 51 tackles and 5 sacks, along with defensive tackle Arthur Jones (47 tackles, 4.5 sacks). The Ravens also had an excellent set of linebackers, such as Paul Kruger, Dannell Ellerbe, Jameel McClain, Terrell Suggs, and Ray Lewis. Kruger led the team in sacks with 9, while Ellerbe added 92 tackles and 4.5 sacks. McClain had 79 tackles. Suggs, a ten - year veteran and five - time Pro Bowl selection, who had missed the first half of the regular season with a partially torn Achilles tendon, made a speedy recovery and was key in the Ravens ' win over the Broncos in the divisional round of the playoffs with 2 sacks on Broncos quarterback Peyton Manning. Lewis, a 17 - year veteran and 13 - time Pro Bowl selection, had missed most of the season with an arm injury, but still managed to rack up 57 tackles in just 6 games. Then shortly before returning for the playoffs, he announced his plans to retire after the postseason, and promptly went on to amass 44 tackles in Baltimore 's four playoff games.
The Ravens secondary featured Pro Bowl safety Ed Reed, the NFL 's all - time leader in interception return yardage. Reed had another statistically successful season in 2012, recording 58 tackles and 4 interceptions. Cornerback Cary Williams was also a big contributor with 4 interceptions and 75 tackles.
The team dedicated their 2012 season to former owner and founder Art Modell, who died on September 6, 2012, four days before the first regular season game.
The 49ers had recently emerged as a dominant team after nearly a decade of ineptitude. During the ' 80s and ' 90s, they had been one of the NFL top contenders, playing in ten conference championship games and winning five Super Bowls. But after a strong 2002 season, San Francisco went into a dismal slump in which they failed to make the playoffs for eight consecutive seasons. Following the end of the 2010 season, the 49ers hired Jim Harbaugh as their head coach. Harbaugh, who played 14 years in the NFL, joined the team after an impressive 12 -- 1 season as the coach of Stanford, and in his first season with San Francisco he managed to turn their fortunes around, aided by breakout seasons from quarterback Alex Smith and receiver Michael Crabtree.
Smith entered the 2012 season as the starting quarterback, but missed two starts mid-season after suffering a concussion, and second - year backup Colin Kaepernick successfully filled in. A quarterback controversy then began because Smith was ranked third in the NFL in passer rating (104.1), led the league in completion percentage (70 %), and had been 19 -- 5 -- 1 as a starter under Harbaugh, while Kaepernick was considered more dynamic with his scrambling ability and arm strength. After Smith was fully recovered, Harbaugh chose Kaepernick as the starter for the 8 -- 2 -- 1 49ers, but also stated that the assignment was week - to - week and not necessarily permanent. Kaepernick ended up being the starter for the rest of the season and led the team to an 11 -- 4 -- 1 record, throwing for 1,814 yards and 10 touchdowns, with just 3 interceptions and a 98.4 passer rating, while also rushing for 415 yards and 5 touchdowns.
San Francisco 's top receiver was Crabtree, who caught 85 passes for a career - high 1,105 yards and 9 touchdowns. Other key contributors to the passing game included tight end Vernon Davis (41 receptions for 538 yards and 5 touchdowns) along with offseason acquired receivers Mario Manningham and Randy Moss. Manningham had been signed away from the defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants, while Moss, the NFL 's second all - time leader in receiving yards, had been signed out of retirement after missing the previous season. The 49ers ' backfield featured Pro Bowl running back Frank Gore, who rushed for 1,214 yards and 8 touchdowns, while also catching 28 passes for 234 yards and another score. The team also had a strong offensive line with two Pro Bowl linemen, left tackle Joe Staley and left guard Mike Iupati.
On special teams, punter Andy Lee led the NFL in net yards per punt (43.2) and ranked 5th in gross yards per punt (48.1). He planted 36 punts inside the 20 - yard line with just 5 touchbacks. Kicker David Akers had a relatively bad year overall, converting only 69 percent of his field goal attempts, but in the week 1 contest against the Green Bay Packers tied the NFL record for the longest field goal with a successful 63 - yard attempt.
The 49ers ' strongest unit was their defense, which ranked 2nd in fewest points allowed per game (17.1) and sent 6 of their 11 starters to the Pro Bowl. Pro Bowl defensive end Justin Smith led the line with 66 tackles and 3 sacks. Behind him, all four of the team 's starting linebackers -- Aldon Smith, NaVorro Bowman, Patrick Willis and Ahmad Brooks -- were named to the 2012 All - Pro Team, and all but Brooks made the Pro Bowl. Aldon Smith set a franchise record with 19.5 sacks, more than the rest of the team had combined. Willis ranked second on the team with 120 tackles and picked off two passes, while Bowman 's 149 tackles were second most in the NFL. The 49ers secondary featured Pro Bowl safeties Dashon Goldson and Donte Whitner.
Baltimore finished the season as the AFC North champion and the number 4 seed in the American Football Conference. The Ravens began their playoff run at home against the number 5 seed Indianapolis Colts in the Wild - Card round in what would turn out to be Ray Lewis 's final career home game. They defeated the Colts 24 -- 9, with Flacco throwing for 288 yards and two touchdowns, while their defense held the Colts to just 9 points, 13 below their regular season average.
In the divisional round, the Ravens would face the top - seeded Denver Broncos, who came into the game with an 11 - game winning streak. Baltimore fell behind late in the game, but with less than a minute left on the clock, Flacco 's 70 - yard touchdown pass to Jacoby Jones sent it into overtime, a play that is known as the Mile High Miracle. An interception by Corey Graham from Peyton Manning late in the first overtime period set up Tucker 's 47 - yard field goal to win the game 1: 42 into double overtime.
Finally, Baltimore advanced to the Super Bowl by overcoming a 13 - 7 halftime deficit and then beating the second - seeded New England Patriots in the AFC Championship Game 28 -- 13, vindicating the Ravens ' loss against New England in the 2011 AFC Championship game, forcing three turnovers total, intercepting two of Tom Brady 's passes, and keeping the Patriots scoreless in the second half. By winning the game, the Ravens handed Brady his first AFC Championship Game loss at home.
As the NFC West champion and the number 2 seed in the National Football Conference, San Francisco earned a first - round bye. The 49ers started their playoff run against the number 3 seed Green Bay Packers in the divisional round. Jim Harbaugh 's decision to start Kaepernick for the playoffs came into immediate question when he threw an interception that was returned for a touchdown by Sam Shields on their opening drive, but this turned out to be the only miscue he would make for the rest of the game, as well as the only interception he would throw until the Super Bowl. By the end of the game, Kaepernick racked up 444 total yards (more than the entire Packers team), including 181 rushing yards, the NFL single game record for rushing yards by a quarterback, as the 49ers went on to win easily, 45 -- 31.
They then faced the top - seeded Atlanta Falcons in the NFC Championship Game, where they quickly fell behind 17 -- 0 in the first half. No team in NFC Championship Game history had ever overcome a deficit that large, but the 49ers proved up to the challenge, cutting the score to 24 -- 21 going into the final quarter. Late in the game, their comeback hopes suffered a setback when Crabtree lost a fumble on the 1 - yard line as he was going in for the leading score. However, their defense forced a punt, and Ted Ginn Jr. 's 20 - yard return set up a touchdown run by Gore. The defense then held firm, forcing a turnover on downs at their 10 - yard line to secure the victory.
This was the first Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXXVII that did not feature the New England Patriots, Indianapolis Colts, or the Pittsburgh Steelers as the AFC representatives. Baltimore defeated the Colts and Patriots during the playoffs while the Steelers failed to make the playoffs. By contrast, the NFC had a different member go to the Super Bowl almost every year during that same span, with the New York Giants (who won Super Bowls XLII and XLVI) being the only NFC team to make two appearances during that span. With the 49ers making their first Super Bowl appearance since Super Bowl XXIX, this left the Dallas Cowboys (last appeared in Super Bowl XXX), Detroit Lions (never appeared in a Super Bowl), Minnesota Vikings (last appeared in Super Bowl XI) and Washington Redskins (last appeared in Super Bowl XXVI) as the only NFC teams not to play in a Super Bowl since 1998, with only the Vikings (on three occasions) even advancing to the NFC Championship Game.
The 49ers attempted to follow the 2012 World Series championship victory of Major League Baseball 's San Francisco Giants. The last time a metropolitan area won the World Series and Super Bowl in the same season was when the Boston Red Sox won the 2004 World Series followed by the Patriots winning Super Bowl XXXIX.
As the 49ers -- who were attempting to join the New York Giants and Green Bay Packers as the only teams to win a Super Bowl in three different decades -- were the designated home team in the annual rotation between AFC and NFC teams, San Francisco elected to wear their red jerseys, which they wore in Super Bowls XIX, XXIII, and XXIX (wearing an alternate throwback red jersey with three - dimensional numerals in XXIX), and gold pants (worn in their first four Super Bowl appearances) for the first time since Super Bowl XXIV (having worn white pants in XXIX along with the aforementioned throwback jerseys). The Ravens wore white jerseys as they did in Super Bowl XXXV, but with black pants this time instead of white. Due to the Ravens having their Art Modell memorial patch on the left side of their jerseys, the team wore their Super Bowl XLVII patch on the right side.
Much of the pregame media hype centered around the Harbaugh brothers, and how their father Jack, a former college football head coach, raised them. On January 24, Jack, along with his wife Jackie and daughter Joani, conducted a media conference call, answering questions about John and Jim. Jackie jokingly asked if the game could end in a tie, before stating that the family was staying neutral but remain excited that both John and Jim brought their respective teams to the Super Bowl. The Harbaugh brothers then conducted a joint press conference on the Friday before the game, which is unusual for opposing Super Bowl coaches, but it was done because of the historic nature of the game.
The game was carried by CBS in the United States, with Jim Nantz calling play - by - play and Phil Simms as color analyst. For the second consecutive year, a webcast was provided; this time on CBSSports.com. A special episode of Elementary would be the lead - out program of this Super Bowl. The network 's owned and operated stations in Baltimore and San Francisco, WJZ - TV (originally an ABC affiliate) and KPIX - TV respectively, were for many years owned by Westinghouse Broadcasting, which merged with CBS in 1995. Thus, this became the first CBS - aired Super Bowl to involve two former Westinghouse markets since the merger. Additionally, this Super Bowl gave CBS the distinction of televising both of the Ravens ' appearances (and victories) so far (after Super Bowl XXXV in 2001).
The game was later featured as one of the NFL 's Greatest Games under the title "Change of Momentum ''.
A feed designed for areas less familiar with American football was produced by NFL Network, with Bob Papa (the regular - season voice of the New York Giants) calling play - by - play and Joe Theismann as color analyst. The NFL claimed that their feed would go to 180 countries.
According to CBS, the price of a 30 - second advertisement hit a record high US $ 4,000,000. General Motors announced it would not advertise on the game, citing the advertising costs.
Adbowl had a special theme this year for the Super Bowl, called "Catbowl 2013 '', which pitted the best commercials by votes with cat videos to see which one is more popular.
The advertisers for Super Bowl XLVII included Mercedes - Benz, Gildan, Samsung, BlackBerry, Kraft Foods, Subway, Taco Bell, Procter & Gamble, Best Buy, Coca - Cola, Sodastream, PepsiCo (including entries in the Doritos Crash the Super Bowl contest), Axe, Audi, Kia Motors, Ford Motor Company, Wonderful Pistachios, GoDaddy, and perpetual Super Bowl advertiser Anheuser - Busch. Ram Trucks and the Future Farmers of America ran a two - minute commercial based on the Paul Harvey speech "So God Made a Farmer. '' Movie studios Paramount Pictures, Universal Studios and Walt Disney Studios paying for movie trailers to be aired during the Super Bowl. With Paramount paying for Star Trek Into Darkness and World War Z, Universal paying for the debut trailer for Fast & Furious 6 that followed Monsters vs. Aliens ' footsteps and Disney paying for Iron Man 3, The Lone Ranger and Oz the Great and Powerful.
In the United States, the game was carried nationwide over the Dial Global radio network, with Kevin Harlan as play - by - play announcer, Boomer Esiason as color analyst, and James Lofton and Mark Malone as sideline reporters. Univision Radio broadcast the game in Spanish.
Each team 's flagship station also carried the game: WIYY and WBAL broadcast the game in Baltimore, with Gerry Sandusky on play - by - play and Stan White and Qadry Ismail on color commentary. In San Francisco, the game was broadcast on KSAN - FM and KNBR, with Ted Robinson on play - by - play, Eric Davis on color commentary, and Rod Brooks reporting from the sidelines. Both WBAL and KNBR are clear - channel stations, which allowed the local commentaries to be heard throughout the Eastern and Western United States, respectively. Per contractual rules, the rest of the stations in the 49ers ' and Ravens ' radio networks carried the Dial Global feed.
Internationally, the game was carried on radio as follows:
Sirius XM Radio and NFL Audio Pass carried the local, Dial Global, and select international audio feeds.
On January 18, 2013, the league announced that Alicia Keys would sing the national anthem. Keys stated that she would not perform the song traditionally and instead would perform it as if it were "a brand new song. ''
Jennifer Hudson and a chorus of several students from Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Connecticut, the site of the shooting on December 14, 2012, performed "America the Beautiful ''.
The coin toss ceremony featured the recent inductees to the Pro Football Hall of Fame: Larry Allen, Cris Carter, Curley Culp, Warren Sapp, Bill Parcells, Jonathan Ogden, and Dave Robinson.
On October 16, 2012, Beyoncé was chosen as the headline performer for the Super Bowl halftime show, with a reunited Destiny 's Child also appearing as part of the show. Despite initial reports that mentioned that Beyoncé 's husband, Jay Z, was a potential collaborator on the show, he did not make an appearance.
Beyoncé was the second most - watched halftime show in history with 104 million viewers.
San Francisco was hurt by penalties and turnovers early in the game as the Ravens built a 21 -- 6 first - half lead. On their first play of the opening drive, tight end Vernon Davis 's 20 - yard reception was called back by an illegal formation penalty. The team ended up punting after three more plays, and Jacoby Jones returned the ball 17 yards to the Ravens ' 49 - yard line. Baltimore then drove 51 yards, scoring on Joe Flacco 's 13 - yard touchdown pass to receiver Anquan Boldin. Flacco had previously thrown a third - down incompletion, but an offsides penalty against linebacker Ahmad Brooks gave him a second chance.
San Francisco responded on their next possession, moving the ball 62 yards in a 12 - play drive, with quarterback Colin Kaepernick completing a 19 - yard pass to Michael Crabtree and a 24 - yarder to Davis. David Akers finished the drive with a 36 - yard field goal to cut the score to 7 -- 3. Baltimore responded with a drive to the 49ers ' 37 - yard line, featuring a 30 - yard catch by Boldin, but came up empty after Flacco was sacked on third down for a 5 - yard loss by defensive tackle Ray McDonald, pushing the Ravens out of field goal range.
Five plays into the 49ers ' next drive, linebacker Courtney Upshaw forced a fumble from running back LaMichael James, and Baltimore 's Arthur Jones recovered it on the Ravens ' 25 - yard line. Baltimore drove 75 yards on 10 plays, 42 of those came from a 23 - yard and a 14 - yard pass to tight end Ed Dickson, the second followed by a 15 - yard facemask penalty on Donte Whitner. Dennis Pitta caught a 1 - yard touchdown catch on the final play of the drive and the extra point made the score 14 -- 3.
On the first play of the next drive, Ed Reed intercepted a pass by Kaepernick and returned the ball 6 yards to the 49ers ' 38 - yard line. This was the first interception thrown by San Francisco in any of their six Super Bowl appearances. Unnecessary roughness charges were called after the play on players from both teams so the charges offset. Baltimore reached the red zone on their next drive, but was unable to score. Following a one - yard run by Bernard Pierce and two incomplete passes, rookie kicker Justin Tucker was tackled 1 yard short of a first down while running the ball on a fake field goal play.
San Francisco was forced to a three - and - out on the drive. Jones muffed the punt, but recovered the ball and returned it 11 yards to the Ravens ' 44 - yard line. Two plays later, Jones made a falling catch deep down the field, then got back up and eluded two 49ers defensive backs en route to a 56 - yard touchdown reception, making the score 21 -- 3 with less than two minutes to go in the first half. On the second play of San Francisco 's next drive, tight end Delanie Walker caught a 14 - yard pass from Kaepernick, which was extended by a 15 - yard roughing the passer penalty against Haloti Ngata. After an incomplete first down attempt, Walker received another 28 - yard pass, putting San Francisco on the Baltimore 17 - yard line. San Francisco reached the 9 - yard line, but were unable to convert on three plays. On the last play of the half, Akers kicked his second field goal to cut their deficit to 21 -- 6.
On the second - half kickoff, Jacoby Jones fielded the kick and promptly returned it 108 yards for the longest play in Super Bowl history. It broke the previous 104 - yard record for the longest kickoff return in the playoffs (set by Trindon Holliday of the Denver Broncos in the divisional playoff game earlier that year against Baltimore), and it tied an NFL record already held by Jones and shared with Ellis Hobbs and Randall Cobb for the longest kickoff return. With the extra point, Baltimore was now leading 28 -- 6.
Shortly into the 49ers ' next drive, a power outage caused the lights to go out in half of the stadium, stopping play for 34 minutes. The outage was caused by equipment failure at the stadium.
After play resumed, both teams punted once. Then San Francisco drove 80 yards, with Kaepernick rushing for 15 yards and completing an 18 - yard pass to Davis before finishing the drive with a pass to Crabtree, who broke through two potential Ravens tacklers on the way to a 31 - yard touchdown reception. Then Baltimore was forced to punt from their own 9 - yard line following Brooks ' 8 - yard sack of Flacco on third down, and Ted Ginn Jr. returned the ball 32 yards to the 20 before being shoved out of bounds by punter Sam Koch. Kaepernick completed a 14 - yard pass to Davis on the next play, and Gore followed it up with a 6 - yard touchdown run, cutting the score to 28 -- 20.
On the second play of the fourth quarter, Baltimore committed their first turnover when defensive back Tarell Brown forced and recovered a fumble from Ray Rice on the Ravens ' 25 - yard line. Three plays later, Akers missed (went wide left) on a 39 - yard field goal attempt, but Baltimore 's Chykie Brown was penalized for running into the kicker, and Akers ' second attempt was good from 34 yards, trimming the lead to 28 -- 23.
The Ravens responded on their ensuing possession, moving the ball 77 yards and advancing to the San Francisco 1 - yard line, with Boldin catching two passes for 39 yards. But they were unable to reach the end zone and settled for Tucker 's 19 - yard field goal to put them back up by 8 points, 31 -- 23. San Francisco stormed back, scoring in just five plays. Following a 32 - yard reception by Randy Moss and a 21 - yard burst by Gore, Kaepernick took the ball across the goal line on a 15 - yard run, the longest touchdown run by a quarterback in Super Bowl history. However, the ensuing two - point conversion failed, so the 49ers were unable to break the deficit, still trailing at 31 -- 29.
On the Ravens ' ensuing drive, Boldin caught two passes for 22 yards and Rice rushed for 11 yards as the team moved the ball 55 yards and scored on Tucker 's 38 - yard field goal, making the score 34 -- 29 with 4: 19 left in regulation. San Francisco used up two timeouts on their next drive, but managed to move the ball to a first and goal on the Ravens ' 7 - yard line following a 24 - yard catch by Crabtree and a 33 - yard run by Gore.
With four chances to take the lead, San Francisco started out with a 2 - yard run by James to the 5 - yard line. Then Kaepernick threw two incompletions, bringing up fourth down. On their last chance, Kaepernick tried to throw the ball to Crabtree in the end zone, but it was too far ahead and the pass fell incomplete. Defensive back Jimmy Smith and Crabtree both made contact prior to the ball arriving, but no penalty was called and the 49ers turned the ball over on downs with 1: 46 left in the game.
San Francisco managed to force a three - and - out on the Ravens ' next drive, but as they had only one timeout remaining, the Ravens were able to run the clock down to twelve seconds. On fourth down, and after the Ravens then called a timeout of their own, punter Sam Koch fielded the snap in his own end zone. In an effort to kill as much of the twelve remaining seconds on the clock, Koch was instructed not to punt the ball but rather hang on to it and scramble around in the end zone. Koch was able to scramble for eight seconds before giving up an intentional safety by running out of the side of the end zone, leaving just four seconds remaining. On the ensuing free kick, Ginn returned the ball 31 yards, but was tackled at midfield by linebacker Josh Bynes as time expired.
Play was interrupted for 34 minutes because of a 22 - minute partial power outage. Emergency generators provided backup lighting. The fire department (NOFD) rescued people from elevator seven, but other elevators were brought to the ground uneventfully. Attendees used double the usual amount of data for their cell phones. AT&T reported 78 gigabytes (GB) downloaded from 8 to 9 PM, about double from the peak the year before. NFL chief security officer Jeffrey Miller attributed fans ' calmness to their preoccupation with their electronics.
SMG, the Superdome 's management company, recently upgraded electrical systems at the facility. In an October 15, 2012 memo, Louisiana officials expressed concern that the equipment bringing electricity into the stadium from utility company Entergy had a "chance of failure ''. Authorities subsequently spent nearly $1 million on upgrades to the stadium, more than half of that paid to Allstar Electric to upgrade electrical feeder cables.
Entergy and SMG both said the problem was in interconnection equipment, and SMG has hired a third party to investigate. Investigations homed in on a newly installed switchgear. Entergy installed a pair of relays made by Rogers Park 's S&C Electric Company of Rogers Park, Chicago to ensure continued power supply in case one supply line failed. One of those relays tripped. Subsequent tests showed one of the relays functioned properly and the other did not. S&C Electric Co. claims the relay 's trip setting was too low, but Entergy claims that the two were set identically.
Electricity usage during the game was on par with a regular New Orleans Saints game. The halftime show was powered by a generator that did not impact the stadium 's power.
Ray Lewis later stated in an interview that he believed the blackout was part of a conspiracy, saying "You 're a zillion dollar company and your lights go out? No. No way. '' 49ers CEO Jed York responded to the claim on Twitter in jest, tweeting "There is no conspiracy. I pulled the plug. ''
at Mercedes - Benz Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana
Both teams combined for 312 kickoff return yards, a Super Bowl record. The Ravens scored the same amount of points (34) in both of their Super Bowl appearances. Meanwhile, the 49ers became just the second team to lose the Super Bowl while scoring more than 30 points after the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl XIII; in both cases, the losing team scored 31 points. As such, these two Super Bowls are the only two times in NFL history (including the pre-Super Bowl era) in which both teams scored over 30 points in a Championship game.
For the Ravens, Anquan Boldin was the leading receiver with 6 receptions for 106 yards and a touchdown. Paul Kruger had three tackles and two sacks, while Ed Reed had five tackles and an interception. Reed 's interception gave him 9 career postseason picks, tying the NFL record. Dannell Ellerbe had nine tackles, while Ray Lewis had seven tackles in the final game of his 17 - season career.
Baltimore 's Jacoby Jones returned 5 kickoffs for 208 yards and a touchdown, two punts for 28 yards, and caught a 56 - yard touchdown pass. He tied an NFL league record and set a Super Bowl record for longest kickoff return in a Super Bowl with a 108 - yard return to open up the second half. Jones also set or tied the following records: the record for most combined yards in a Super Bowl game with 290, tied the record for most touchdown plays of 50 yards or more, with 2 and became the first player to score a receiving touchdown and return touchdown in a Super Bowl.
For San Francisco, Colin Kaepernick completed 16 of 28 passes for 302 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for 62 yards and another score, but had 1 interception. His 62 rushing yards were the second highest total by a quarterback in the Super Bowl, behind Tennessee Titans quarterback Steve McNair 's record of 64 in Super Bowl XXXIV. Kaepernick also set a Super Bowl record for the longest rushing touchdown from a quarterback for his 15 - yard touchdown run in the fourth quarter. This beat the previous 6 - yard record held by the 49ers ' Joe Montana achieved in Super Bowl XIX.
Frank Gore rushed for 110 yards and a touchdown. Michael Crabtree caught 5 passes for 109 yards and a touchdown, while Davis caught 6 passes for 104 yards. His 104 receiving yards tied Dan Ross 's record for the most ever by a tight end in a Super Bowl. Patrick Willis was the top tackler of the game with 10, while Brooks had five tackles and a sack.
Because of the power outage in the third quarter, the game set a Super Bowl record long running time of 4 hours and 14 minutes. During the presentation of the Vince Lombardi Trophy, Hall of Fame defensive end Richard Dent brought the trophy to the stage. Twitter announced that a record 24.1 million tweets were sent the night of the game.
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XLVII, The Football Database Super Bowl XLVII
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
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just feel better santana steven tyler official video | Just feel better - Wikipedia
"Just Feel Better '' was the second international single to be released from Santana 's 2005 album All That I Am. The song features lead vocals by Aerosmith frontman Steven Tyler, also signed to Sony Music Entertainment. The song is produced by John Shanks and written by Jamie Houston, Buck Johnson and Damon Johnson. The single achieved reasonable success in Australia, debuting at Number 8 on the ARIA chart and receiving significant airplay. In Australia it has been on Rage (ABC) and videohits (channel 10) a number of times.
The song was also recorded with Puddle of Mudd frontman Wes Scantlin on vocals but Santana said he felt Tyler did it better, with more emotion, although he liked both renditions.
In the music video, Nikki Reed stars as the main girl. She is shown to have various troubles, such as a teacher who makes sexual advances towards her and a strained relationship with her mother. At the very end she finally meets a really nice guy but a terrible accident happens which kills him instantly. This was the final straw for her. She makes amends with her mother and gets better and better at school. She actually wants to become someone worth fighting for. And as the song 's title says, all she wants is to just feel better.
This song is shown to be playing on the first generation iPod Nano on its packaging box.
In 2010, Damon Johnson recorded his own version of the song for his album Release.
The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA).
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what were the long term effects of the seven years war | Iroquois - wikipedia
The Iroquois (/ ˈɪrəkwɔɪ / or / ˈɪrəkwɑː /) or Haudenosaunee (/ ˈhoʊdənoʊˈʃoʊni /) are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy. They were known during the colonial years to the French as the "Iroquois League, '' and later as the "Iroquois Confederacy, '' and to the English as the "Five Nations '' (before 1722), and later as the "Six Nations, '' comprising the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora peoples.
The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their cultures as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, and by offering shelter to displaced peoples.
The historic Erie, Susquehannock, Wyandot (Huron), and St. Lawrence Iroquoians, all independent peoples, spoke Iroquoian languages. In the larger sense of linguistic families, they are often considered Iroquoian peoples because of their similar languages and cultures, all culturally and linguistically descended from the Proto - Iroquoian people and language; however, they were traditionally enemies of the nations in the Iroquois League.
In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, and about 80,000 in the United States.
The most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, where it occurs as "Irocois ''. Other spellings occurring in the earliest sources include "Erocoise '', "Hiroquois '', "Hyroquoise '', "Irecoies '', "Iriquois '', "Iroquaes '', "Irroquois '', and "Yroquois ''. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as (irokwe) or (irokwɛ). Over the years, several competing theories have been proposed for this name 's ultimate origin -- the earliest such proposal is by the Jesuit priest Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix, who wrote in 1744:
The name Iroquois is purely French, and is formed from the term Hiro or Hero, which means I have said -- with which these Indians close all their addresses, as the Latins did of old with their dixi -- and of Koué, which is a cry sometimes of sadness, when it is prolonged, and sometimes of joy, when it is pronounced shorter.
In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, and that "no other nation or tribe of which we have any knowledge has ever borne a name composed in this whimsical fashion. '' Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa "they who smoke '' or Cayuga iakwai "a bear ''. J.N.B. Hewitt responded to Hale 's etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either of those words even exist in the respective languages. His preferred etymology at the time was from Montagnais irin "true, real '' and ako "snake '', plus the French - ois suffix, though he later revised his theory to state that the source was Algonquin Irinakhoiw. However, none of these etymologies gained widespread acceptance, and by 1978 Ives Goddard could write: "No such form is attested in any Indian language as a name for any Iroquoian group, and the ultimate origin and meaning of the name are unknown. ''
A more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning "terrible man '', via the reduced form irokue. Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning "a man, an Iroquois '', as the origin of this term. For the first element irno, Day cites cognates from other attested Montagnais dialects: irinou, iriniȣ, and ilnu; and for the second element kwédač he suggests a relation to kouetakiou, kȣetat - chiȣin, and goéṭètjg -- names used by neighboring Algonquian tribes to refer to the Iroquois, Hurons, and Laurentians.
More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque origin for "Iroquois ''. Basque fishermen and whalers are known to have frequented the waters of the Northeast in the 1500s, so much so that a Basque - based pidgin developed for communication with the Algonquian tribes of the region. Bakker claims that it is unlikely that "- quois '' derives from a root specifically used to refer to the Iroquois, citing as evidence that several other Indian tribes of the region were known to the French by names terminating in the same element, e.g. "Armouchiquois '', "Charioquois '', "Excomminquois '', and "Souriquois ''. He proposes instead that the word derives from hilokoa (via the intermediate form irokoa), from the Basque roots hil "to kill '', ko (the locative genitive suffix), and a (the definite article suffix). In favor of an original form beginning with / h /, Bakker cites alternate spellings such as "hyroquois '' sometimes found in documents from the period, and the fact that in the Southern dialect of Basque the word hil is pronounced il. He also argues that the / l / was rendered as / r / since the former is not attested in the phonemic inventory of any language in the region (including Maliseet, which developed an / l / later). Thus the word according to Bakker is translatable as "the killer people, '' and is similar to other terms used by Eastern Algonquian tribes to refer to the Iroquois which translate as "murderers ''.
A different term, Haudenosaunee, is the designation more commonly used by the Iroquois to refer to themselves. It is also occasionally preferred by scholars of Native American history who consider the name "Iroquois '' to be derogatory in origin. This name derives from two phonetically - similar but etymologically - distinct words in the Seneca language: Hodínöhšö: ni: h, meaning "those of the extended house, '' and Hodínöhsö: ni: h, meaning "house builders ''. The name "Haudenosaunee '' first appears in English in Lewis Henry Morgan (1851), where it is written as Ho - de _́ - no - sau - nee, although the spelling "Hotinnonsionni '' is also attested from later in the nineteenth century. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is occasionally encountered as well. This term derives from the Mohawk kanǫhsyǫ́ ni ("the extended house ''), or from a cognate expression is a related Iroquoian language, and is frequently encountered in earlier sources variously spelled "Kanosoni '', "akwanoschioni '', "Aquanuschioni '', "Cannassoone '', "Canossoone '', "Ke - nunctioni '', or "Konossioni ''. More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also often referred to simply as the Six Nations (or, for the period before the entry of the Tuscarora in 1722, the Five Nations). The word is Rotinonsionni in the Mohawk language.
The history of the Iroquois Confederacy goes back to its formation by the Peacemaker in 1142, bringing together five distinct nations in the southern Great Lakes area into "The Great League of Peace ''. Each nation within the Iroquoian family had a distinct language, territory and function in the League. Iroquois influence extended into present - day Canada, westward along the Great Lakes and down both sides of the Allegheny mountains into present - day Virginia and Kentucky and into the Ohio Valley.
The League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations.
The original Iroquois League (as the French knew them) or Five Nations (as the British knew them), occupied large areas of present - day New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River, and south into northwestern Pennsylvania. The League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations. In or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo - European settlement. Also an Iroquoian - speaking people, the Tuscarora were accepted into what became the Six Nations.
Other Iroquoian - speaking peoples, such as the Erie, Susquehannock, Huron (Wendat) and Wyandot, lived at various times along the St. Lawrence River, and around the Great Lakes. In the American Southeast, the Cherokee were an Iroquoian - language people who had migrated to that area centuries before European contact. None of these were part of the Haudenosaunee. Those on the borders of their territory in the Great Lakes region competed and warred with the Haudenosaunee.
The Iroquois and most Iroquoian peoples have a matrilineal kinship system; with descent and inheritance passing through the maternal lines, children are considered born into their mother 's clan and take their social status from her family. The clan mothers, the elder women of each clan, are highly respected. The women elders nominate the chief for life from the clan, and own the symbols of his office.
When Europeans first arrived in North America, the Haudenosaunee were based in what is now the northeastern United States, primarily in what is referred to today as Central New York west of the Hudson River and through the Finger Lakes region, and upstate New York along the St. Lawrence River area downstream to today 's Montreal.
French, Dutch and British colonists in both Canada and the Thirteen Colonies recognized a need to gain favor with the Iroquois people, who occupied a significant portion of lands west of colonial settlements. In addition, these peoples established lucrative fur trading with the Iroquois, which was favorable to both sides. The colonists also sought to establish positive relations to secure their borders.
For nearly 200 years the Iroquois were a powerful factor in North American colonial policy - making decisions. Alignment with Iroquois offered political and strategic advantages to the colonies but the Iroquois preserved considerable independence. Some of their people settled in mission villages along the St. Lawrence River, becoming more closely tied to the French. While they participated in French raids on Dutch and later English settlements, where some Mohawk and other Iroquois settled, in general the Iroquois resisted attacking their own peoples.
The Iroquois remained a politically unique, undivided, large Native American polity up until the American Revolution. The League kept its treaty promises to the British Crown. But when the British were defeated, they ceded the Iroquois territory without consultation; many Iroquois had to abandon their lands in the Mohawk Valley and elsewhere and relocate in the northern lands retained by the British.
The Iroquois League has also been known as the "Iroquois Confederacy ''. Modern scholars distinguish between the League and the Confederacy. According to this interpretation of the scholars, the Iroquois League refers to the ceremonial and cultural institution embodied in the Grand Council, while the Iroquois Confederacy is the decentralized political and diplomatic entity that emerged in response to European colonization. According to that theory, "The League '' still exists. The Confederacy dissolved after the defeat of the British and allied Iroquois nations in the American Revolutionary War. Today 's Iroquois / Six Nations people do not make any distinction between "The League '' and "the Confederacy '' and use the terms interchangeably.
After the defeat of the British and their Iroquois allies in the American Revolutionary War, Britain ceded most of the Iroquois territory, without bringing their allies to the negotiating table. Many of the Iroquois migrated to Canada, forced out of New York because of hostility to the British allies. Those remaining in New York were required to live mostly on reservations. In 1784, a total of 6,000 Iroquois had to confront 240,000 New Yorkers, with land - hungry New Englanders poised to migrate west. "Oneidas alone, who were only 600 strong, owned six million acres, or about 2.4 million hectares. Iroquoia was a land rush waiting to happen. ''
In addition to the major cessions of Iroquois land, the Oneida and others who gained reservations in New York faced increasing pressures for their lands. By the War of 1812, they had lost control of considerable property.
Knowledge of Iroquois history stems from Haudenosaunee oral tradition, archaeological evidence, accounts from Jesuit missionaries, and subsequent European historians. Historian Scott Stevens credits the early modern European value for the written word over oral tradition and cultures as contributing to a prejudiced, racialized element within writings about the Iroquois that continued into the 19th century. The historiography of the Iroquois people is therefore a topic of much debate, especially regarding the American colonial period.
Jesuit accounts of the Iroquois portrayed them as savages because of comparisons to French culture; the Jesuits perceived them to lack government, law, letters, and religion. A major problem with contemporary European sources, both French and British, from the 17th and 18th centuries, was that Europeans, coming from a patriarchal society, did not understand the matriarchal nature of Iroquois society. The Canadian historian D. Peter MacLeod writing about the relationship between the Canadian Iroquois and the French in the time of the Seven Years ' War wrote: "Most critically, the importance of clan mothers, who possessed considerable economic and political power within Canadian Iroquois communities, was blithely overlooked by patriarchal European scribes. Those references that do exist, show clan mothers meeting in council with their male counterparts to take decisions regarding war and peace and joining in delegations to confront the Onontio (the Iroquois term for the French governor - general) and the French leadership in Montreal, but only hint at the real influence wielded by these women ''. Eighteenth - century English historiography focuses on the diplomatic relations with the Iroquois, with visualizations such as John Verelst 's Four Mohawk Kings and publications such as the Anglo - Iroquoian treaty proceedings printed by Benjamin Franklin. One historical narrative persistent in the 19th and 20th centuries casts the Iroquois as "an expansive military and political power... (who) subjugated their enemies by violent force and for almost two centuries acted as the fulcrum in the balance of power in colonial North America ''. Historian Scott Stevens noted that the Iroquois also began to influence the writing of their history in the 19th century, including the Mohawk Joseph Brant, and Tuscarora David Cusick. Seneca John Arthur Gibson (1850 -- 1912) was an important figure of his generation in rendering versions of Iroquois history in epics on the Peacemaker. Notable women historians among the Iroquois emerged in the following decades, including Laura "Minnie '' Kellog (Oneida, 1880 -- 1949) and Alice Lee Jemison (Seneca, 1901 -- 1964).
The Iroquois League was established prior to European contact, with the banding together of five of the many Iroquoian peoples who 'd originated ' to the south '. Reliable sources link the origins of the Iroquois confederacy to 1142 and an agricultural shift when corn was adopted as a staple crop. Many archaeologists and anthropologists believe that the League was formed about 1450. Arguments have been made for an earlier date.
One theory argues that the League formed shortly after a solar eclipse on August 31, 1142, an event thought to be expressed in oral tradition about the League 's origins.
Anthropologist Dean Snow argues that the archaeological evidence does not support a date earlier than 1450, and that recent claims for a much earlier date "may be for contemporary political purposes ''. In contrast, other scholars note that when anthropological studies were made, only male informants were consulted, even though the Iroquois people had distinct oral traditions held by males and females, thus excluding half of the historical story which was told by women. For this reason, origin tales tend to emphasize Deganawidah and Hiawatha while the role of Jigonsaseh largely remains unknown because this part of the oral history was held by women.
According to oral traditions, the League was formed through the efforts of two men and one woman. They were Dekanawida, sometimes known as the Great Peacemaker, Hiawatha, and Jigonhsasee, known as the Mother of Nations, whose home acted as a sort of United Nations. They brought the Peacemaker 's message, known as the Great Law of Peace, to the squabbling Iroquoian nations, who were fighting, raiding and feuding with one another and other tribes, both Algonkians and Iroquoian people. There were originally only five nations that joined themselves into the League giving rise to the many historic references of Five Nations of the Iroquois or as often, just The Five Nations. With the addition of the southern Tuscarora in the 17th century, these original five tribes are the others which still compose it today: the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca. There were as many, and likely a few more tribal peoples including the populous Wyandot (Huron) with Iroquoian language, social organization, and cultures that were to later go extinct as tribes which did not join the league when invited after the decades over which the multiple bloodlettings of the Beaver Wars, and the various colonial frontier wars with the Indians, through the French and Indian War. After the end of the later, which was in effect a civil war between Iroquois who 'd backed both sides,
According to legend, an evil Onondaga chieftain named Tadodaho was the last converted to the ways of peace by The Great Peacemaker and Hiawatha. He was offered the position as the titular chair of the League 's Council, representing the unity of all nations of the League. This is said to have occurred at Onondaga Lake near present - day Syracuse, New York. The title Tadodaho is still used for the League 's chair, the fiftieth chief who sits with the Onondaga in council.
With the formation of the League, the impact of internal conflicts was minimized, the council of fifty thereafter ruled on disputes, displacing raiding traditions and most of the impulsive actions by hotheaded warriors onto surrounding peoples. This allowed the Iroquois to increase in numbers while pushing down rival nations ' numbers. The political cohesion of the Iroquois rapidly became one of the strongest forces in 17th - and 18th - century northeastern North America; though only occasionally used as representations of all five tribes until about 1678, when negotiations between the governments of Pennsylvania and New York seemed to awake the power. Thereafter, the editors of American Heritage write the Iroquois became very adroit at playing the French off against the British, as individual tribes had played the Swedes, Dutch, and English. The editors of American Heritage magazine suggest the Iroquois spokesmen were politically sophisticated, and as manipulative as many a modern politician.
As has been noted above, there were peoples who spoke languages in the same linguistic family, but who were not part of the League of whom it is known were culturally similar including reputations of being as fierce, as territorial -- yet before the Beaver Wars, were known to co-exist in societies which more often than not, were at peace and conducting trade with the Iroquois when the French and Dutch first explored, conducted maritime fur trading and first settled North America. The explorer Robert La Salle in the 17th century identified the Mosopelea as among the Ohio Valley peoples defeated by the Iroquois in the early 1670s, whereas the Erie and peoples of the upper Allegheny valley were known to have fallen earlier during the Beaver Wars, while by 1676 the Susquehannock were known to be broken as a power between three years of epidemic disease, war with the Iroquois, and frontier battles as settlers took advantage of the weakened tribe.
According to one theory of early Iroquois history, after becoming united in the League, the Iroquois invaded the Ohio River Valley in the territories that would become the eastern Ohio Country down as far as present - day Kentucky to seek additional hunting grounds. They displaced about 1200 Siouan - speaking tribepeople of the Ohio River valley, such as the Quapaw (Akansea), Ofo (Mosopelea), and Tutelo and other closely related tribes out of the region. These tribes migrated to regions around the Mississippi River and the piedmont regions of the east coast.
In Reflections in Bullough 's Pond, historian Diana Muir argues that the pre-contact Iroquois were an imperialist, expansionist culture whose cultivation of the corn / beans / squash agricultural complex enabled them to support a large population. They made war primarily against neighboring Algonquian peoples. Muir uses archaeological data to argue that the Iroquois expansion onto Algonquian lands was checked by the Algonquian adoption of agriculture. This enabled them to support their own populations large enough to have sufficient warriors to defend against the threat of Iroquois conquest. The People of the Confederacy dispute whether any of this historical interpretation relates to the League of the Great Peace which they contend is the foundation of their heritage.
The Iroquois may be the Kwedech described in the oral legends of the Mi'kmaq nation of Eastern Canada. These legends relate that the Mi'kmaq in the late pre-contact period had gradually driven their enemies -- the Kwedech -- westward across New Brunswick, and finally out of the Lower St. Lawrence River region. The Mi'kmaq named the last - conquered land Gespedeg or "last land, '' from which the French derived Gaspé. The "Kwedech '' are generally considered to have been Iroquois, specifically the Mohawk; their expulsion from Gaspé by the Mi'kmaq has been estimated as occurring c. 1535 -- 1600.
Around 1535, Jacques Cartier reported Iroquoian - speaking groups on the Gaspé peninsula and along the St. Lawrence River. Archeologists and anthropologists have defined the St. Lawrence Iroquoians as a distinct and separate group (and possibly several discrete groups), living in the villages of Hochelaga and others nearby (near present - day Montreal), which had been visited by Cartier. By 1608, when Samuel de Champlain visited the area, that part of the St. Lawrence River valley had no settlements, but was controlled by the Mohawk as a hunting ground. On the Gaspé peninsula, Champlain encountered Algonquian - speaking groups. The precise identity of any of these groups is still debated.
The Iroquois became well known in the southern colonies in the 17th century by this time. After the first English settlement in Jamestown, Virginia (1607), numerous 17th - century accounts describe a powerful people known to the Powhatan Confederacy as the Massawomeck, and to the French as the Antouhonoron. They were said to come from the north, beyond the Susquehannock territory. Historians have often identified the Massawomeck / Antouhonoron as the Haudenosaunee. Other Iroquoian - language tribes included the Erie, who were destroyed by the Iroquois in 1654 over competition for the fur trade.
Between 1665 and 1670, the Iroquois established seven villages on the northern shores of Lake Ontario in present - day Ontario, collectively known as the "Iroquois du Nord '' villages. The villages were all abandoned by 1701.
Over the years 1670 -- 1710, the Five Nations achieved political dominance of much of Virginia west of the Fall Line and extending to the Ohio River valley in present - day West Virginia and Kentucky. As a result of the Beaver Wars, they pushed Siouan - speaking tribes out and reserved the territory as a hunting ground by right of conquest. They finally sold the British colonists their remaining claim to the lands south of the Ohio in 1768 at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix.
Beginning in 1609, the League engaged in a decades - long series of wars, the so - called Beaver Wars, against the French, their Huron allies, and other neighboring tribes, including the Petun, Erie, and Susquehannock. Trying to control access to game for the lucrative fur trade, they put great pressure on the Algonquian peoples of the Atlantic coast (the Lenape or Delaware), the Anishinaabe peoples of the boreal Canadian Shield region, and not infrequently fought the English colonies as well. During the Beaver Wars, they were said to have defeated and assimilated the Huron (1649), Petun (1650), the Neutral Nation (1651), Erie Tribe (1657), and Susquehannock (1680). The traditional view is that these wars were a way to control the lucrative fur trade in order to access European goods on which they had become dependent.
Recent scholarship has elaborated on this view, arguing that the Beaver Wars were an escalation of the "Mourning Wars '', which were an integral part of early Iroquoian culture. This view suggests that the Iroquois launched large - scale attacks against neighboring tribes in order to avenge or replace the massive number of deaths resulting from battles or smallpox epidemics.
In 1628, the Mohawk defeated the Mahican to gain a monopoly in the fur trade with the Dutch at Fort Orange (present - day Albany), New Netherland. The Mohawk would not allow northern native peoples to trade with the Dutch. In 1645, a tentative peace was forged between the Iroquois and the Huron, Algonquin, and French.
In 1646, Jesuit missionaries at Sainte - Marie among the Hurons went as envoys to the Mohawk lands to protect the fragile peace of the time. Mohawk attitudes toward the peace soured while the Jesuits were traveling, and their warriors attacked the party en route. The missionaries were taken to the village of Ossernenon (near present - day Auriesville, New York), where the moderate Turtle and Wolf clans recommended setting the priests free. Angered, members of the Bear clan killed Jean de Lalande, and Isaac Jogues on October 18, 1646. The Catholic Church has commemorated the two French priests and Jesuit lay Brother René Goupil (killed 29 September 1642) as among the eight North American Martyrs.
In 1649 during the Beaver Wars, the Iroquois used recently purchased Dutch guns to attack the Huron, who were allied with the French. These attacks, primarily against the Huron towns of Taenhatentaron (St. Ignace) and St. Louis in Michigan, were the final battles that effectively destroyed the Huron Confederacy. From 1651 to 1652, the Iroquois attacked the Susquehannock, located to their south in present - day Pennsylvania, without sustained success.
In the early 17th century, the Iroquois Confederacy was at the height of its power, with a total population of about 12,000 people. In 1653 the Onondaga Nation extended a peace invitation to New France. An expedition of Jesuits, led by Simon Le Moyne, established Sainte Marie de Ganentaa in 1656 in their territory. The Jesuits were forced to abandon the mission by 1658 as hostilities resumed, possibly because of the sudden death of 500 native people from an epidemic of smallpox, a European infectious disease to which they had no immunity.
From 1658 to 1663, the Iroquois were at war with the Susquehannock and their Lenape and Province of Maryland allies. In 1663, a large Iroquois invasion force was defeated at the Susquehannock main fort. In 1663, the Iroquois were at war with the Sokoki tribe of the upper Connecticut River. Smallpox struck again, and through the effects of disease, famine, and war, the Iroquois were under threat of extinction. In 1664, an Oneida party struck at allies of the Susquehannock on Chesapeake Bay.
In 1665, three of the Five Nations made peace with the French. The following year, the Canadian Governor sent the Carignan regiment under Marquis de Tracy to confront the Mohawk and the Oneida. The Mohawk avoided battle, but the French burned their villages and crops. In 1667, the remaining two Iroquois Nations signed a peace treaty with the French and agreed to allow their missionaries to visit their villages. This treaty lasted for 17 years.
Around 1670, the Iroquois drove the Siouan - speaking Mannahoac tribe out of the northern Virginia Piedmont region. They began to claim ownership of the territory by right of conquest. In 1672, the Iroquois were defeated by a war party of Susquehannock. The Iroquois appealed to the French for support and asked Governor Frontenac to assist them against the Susquehannock.
It would be a shame for him to allow his children to be crushed, as they saw themselves to be... they not having the means of going to attack their fort, which was very strong, nor even of defending themselves if the others came to attack them in their villages.
Some old histories state that the Iroquois defeated the Susquehannock during this time period. As no record of a defeat has been found, historians have concluded that no defeat occurred. In 1677, the Iroquois adopted the majority of the Iroquoian - speaking Susquehannock into their nation. In January 1676, the Governor of New York colony, Edmund Andos, sent a letter to the chiefs of the Iroquois asking for their help in King Philip 's War as the English colonists in New England were having much difficulty fighting the Wampanoag under the leadership of Metacom. In exchange for guns from the English, which the Iroquois greatly valued, an Iroquois war party launched a devastating raid on the Wampanoag in February 1676, destroying villages and with them, supplies of food while taking many prisoners.
By 1677, the Iroquois formed an alliance with the English through an agreement known as the Covenant Chain. By 1680, the Iroquois Confederacy was in a strong position, having eliminated the Susquehannock and the Wampanoag, taken vast number of captives to increase the size of their population, and had secured an alliance with the English that guaranteed supplies of guns and ammunition. Together the allies battled to a standstill the French, who were allied with the Huron. These Iroquoian people had been a traditional and historic foe of the Confederacy. The Iroquois colonized the northern shore of Lake Ontario and sent raiding parties westward all the way to Illinois Country. The tribes of Illinois were eventually defeated, not by the Iroquois, but by the Potawatomi.
In 1679, the Susquehannock, with Iroquois help, attacked Maryland 's Piscataway and Mattawoman allies. Peace was not reached until 1685. During the same period, French Jesuit missionaries were active in Iroquoia, which led to a voluntary mass relocation of many Haudenosaunee to the St. Lawrence valley at Kahnawake and Kanesatake near Montreal. It was the intention of the French to use the Catholic Haudenosaunee in the St. Lawrence valley as a buffer to keep the Haudenosaunee allied with the English living in what is now upstate New York away from Montreal, the center of the French fur trade. The attempts of both the English and the French to use their Haudenosaunee allies for their own purposes were foiled as the two groups of Haudenosaunee showed a "profound reluctance to kill one another ''. Following the move of the Catholic Iroquois to the St. Lawrence valley, historians commonly describe the Iroquois living outside of Montreal as the Canadian Iroquois while the Iroquois who remained in the historical heartland of Iroquoia in modern upstate New York are described as the League Iroquois.
In 1684, the governor of New France, Joseph - Antoine Le Febvre de La Barre, decided to launch a putative expedition against the Seneca, who were attacking French and Algonquian fur traders in the Mississippi river valley, and asked for the Catholic Haudenosaunee to contribute men for his expedition. La Barre 's expedition ended in fiasco in September 1684 when influenza broke out among the troupes de la Marine while the Canadian Iroquois warriors refused to fight, instead only engaging in verbal battles as they exchanged insults with the Seneca warriors. King Louis XIV of France was not amused when he heard of La Barre 's failure, which led him to sack La Barre as governor of New France, and sent as his replacement, the marquis de Denonville, who arrived in August 1685 as the new governor of New France with orders from the king to crush the Haudenosaunee confederacy. The Sun King had instructed Denonville to ensure that the "grandeur '' of France be respected even in the most remotest woods of North America.
In 1684, the Iroquois invaded Virginia and Illinois territory again and unsuccessfully attacked French outposts in the latter. Trying to reduce warfare in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, later that year, the Virginia Colony agreed in a conference at Albany to recognize the Iroquois ' right to use the North - South path, known as the Great Warpath, running east of the Blue Ridge, provided they did not intrude on the English settlements east of the Fall Line.
In 1687, Jacques - René de Brisay de Denonville, Marquis de Denonville, Governor of New France from 1685 to 1689, set out for Fort Frontenac (modern Kingston) with a well - organized force. In July 1687 Denonville took with him on his expedition a mixed force of troupes de la Marine, French - Canadian militiamen, and 353 Indian warriors from the Jesuit mission settlements, of which 220 were Haudenosaunee. They met with 50 hereditary sachems from the Onondaga council fire, who came under a flag of truce in what on the north shore of Lake Ontario in what is now southern Ontario. Denonville recaptured the fort for New France and seized, chained, and shipped the 50 Iroquois chiefs to Marseilles, France, to be used as galley slaves. Several of the Catholic Haudenosaunee were outraged at the way in which French enslaved a diplomatic party that had come under the flag of truce and had enslaved all of the Cayuga people living in several villages on the north shore of Lake Ontario, which led to least 100 of them to desert to the Seneca. Denonville justified enslaving the people he encountered, saying that as an "civilized European '' he did not respect the customs of "savages '' and would do as he liked with them. On 13 August 1687, an advance party of French soldiers walked into a Seneca ambush and were nearly killed to a man; however the Seneca had mistaken the advance party for the main French force and fled when the main French force came up. The remaining Catholic Haudenosaunee warriors refused orders from Dennoville to pursue the retreating Seneca.
Denonville ravaged the land of the Seneca, landing a French armada at Irondequoit Bay, striking straight into the seat of Seneca power, and destroying many of its villages. Fleeing before the attack, the Seneca moved farther west, east and south down the Susquehanna River. Although great damage was done to the Seneca homeland, the Senecas ' military might was not appreciably weakened. The Confederacy and the Seneca developed an alliance with the English who were settling in the east. The destruction of the Seneca land infuriated the members of the Iroquois Confederacy. On August 4, 1689, they retaliated by burning to the ground Lachine, a small town adjacent to Montreal. Fifteen hundred Iroquois warriors had been harassing Montreal defenses for many months prior to that.
They finally exhausted and defeated Denonville and his forces. His tenure was followed by the return of Frontenac, who succeeded Denonville as Governor for the next nine years (1689 -- 1698). Frontenac had been arranging a new plan of attack to lessen the effects of the Iroquois in North America. Realizing the danger of continuing to hold the sachems, he located the 13 surviving leaders of the 50 originally taken and returned with them to New France in October 1689.
In 1696, Frontenac decided to take the field against the Iroquois, although at this time he was seventy - six years of age. On July 6, he left Lachine at the head of a considerable force and traveled to the village of the Onondaga, where he arrived a month later. With support from the French, the Algonquian nations drove the Iroquois out of the territories north of Lake Erie and west of present - day Cleveland, Ohio, regions which they had conquered during the Beaver Wars. In the meantime, the Iroquois had abandoned their villages. As pursuit was impracticable, the French army commenced its return march on August 10. Under Frontenac 's leadership, the Canadian militia became increasingly adept at guerrilla warfare, taking the war into Iroquois territory and attacking a number of English settlements. The Iroquois never threatened the French colony again.
During King William 's War (North American part of the War of the Grand Alliance), the Iroquois were allied with the English. In July 1701, they concluded the "Nanfan Treaty '', deeding the English a large tract north of the Ohio River. The Iroquois claimed to have conquered this territory 80 years earlier. France did not recognize the validity of the treaty, as it had settlements in the territory at that time and the English had virtually none. Meanwhile, the Iroquois were negotiating peace with the French; together they signed the Great Peace of Montreal that same year.
After the 1701 peace treaty with the French, the Iroquois remained mostly neutral. During the course of the 17th century, the Iroquois had acquired a fearsome reputation among the Europeans, and it was the policy of the Six Nations to use this reputation to play off the French against the British in order to extract the maximum amount of material rewards. In 1689, the English Crown provided the Six Nations goods worth £ 100 pounds in exchange for help against the French, in the year 1693 the Iroquois had received goods worth £ 600 pounds, and in the year 1701 the Six Nations had received goods worth £ 800 pounds.
During Queen Anne 's War (North American part of the War of the Spanish Succession), they were involved in planned attacks against the French. Peter Schuyler, mayor of Albany, arranged for three Mohawk chiefs and a Mahican chief (known incorrectly as the Four Mohawk Kings) to travel to London in 1710 to meet with Queen Anne in an effort to seal an alliance with the British. Queen Anne was so impressed by her visitors that she commissioned their portraits by court painter John Verelst. The portraits are believed to be the earliest surviving oil portraits of Aboriginal peoples taken from life.
In the first quarter of the 18th century, the Iroquoian - speaking Tuscarora fled north from the pressure of British colonization of North Carolina and intertribal warfare; they had been subject to having captives sold into Indian slavery. They petitioned to become the sixth nation of the Iroquois Confederacy. This was a non-voting position, but they gained the protection of the Haudenosaunee.
The Iroquois program toward the defeated tribes favored assimilation within the ' Covenant Chain ' and Great Law of Peace, over wholesale slaughter. Both the Lenni Lenape, and the Shawnee were briefly tributary to the Six Nations, while subjected Iroquoian populations emerged in the next period as the Mingo, speaking a dialect like that of the Seneca, in the Ohio region.
In 1721 and 1722, Lt. Governor Alexander Spotswood of Virginia concluded a new Treaty at Albany with the Iroquois, renewing the Covenant Chain and agreeing to recognize the Blue Ridge as the demarcation between Virginia Colony and the Iroquois. But, as European settlers began to move beyond the Blue Ridge and into the Shenandoah Valley in the 1730s, the Iroquois objected. Virginia officials told them that the demarcation was to prevent the Iroquois from trespassing east of the Blue Ridge, but it did not prevent English from expanding west. Tensions increased over the next decades, and the Iroquois were on the verge of going to war with the Virginia Colony. In 1743, Governor Gooch paid them the sum of 100 pounds sterling for any settled land in the Valley that was claimed by the Iroquois. The following year at the Treaty of Lancaster, the Iroquois sold Virginia all their remaining claims in the Shenandoah Valley for 200 pounds in gold.
During the French and Indian War (the North American frontier of the Seven Years ' War), the League Iroquois sided with the British against the French and their Algonquian allies, who were traditional enemies. The Iroquois hoped that aiding the British would also bring favors after the war. Few Iroquois warriors joined the campaign. By contrast, the Canadian Iroquois supported the French.
In February 1756, the French learned from a spy, Ou8tatory, an Oneida chief, that a British were stockpiling supplies at the Oneida Carrying Place, a crucial portage between Albany and Oswego to support an offensive in the spring into what is now Ontario. As the frozen waters melted south of Lake Ontario on average two weeks before the waters did north of Lake Ontario, the British would be able to move against the French bases at Fort Frontenac and Fort Niagara before the French forces in Montreal could come to their relief, which from the French perspective necessitated a preventive strike at the Oneida Carrying Place in the winter. To carry out this strike, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, the Governor - General of New France, assigned the task to Gaspard - Joseph Chaussegros de Léry, an officer of the troupes de le Marine, who required and received the assistance of the Canadian Iroquois to guide him to the Oneida Carrying Place. The Canadian Iroquois joined the expedition, which left Montreal on 29 February 1756 on the understanding that they would only fight against the British, not the League Iroquois, and they would not be assaulting a fort.
On 13 March 1756, an Oswegatchie Indian traveler informed the expedition that the British had built two forts at the Oneida Carrying Place, which caused the majority of the Canadian Iroquois to want to turn back, as they argued the risks of assaulting a fort would mean too many casualties, and many did in fact abandon the expedition. On 26 March 1756, Léry 's force of troupes de le Marine and French - Canadian militiamen, who had not eaten for two days, received much needed food when the Canadian Iroquois ambushed a British wagon train bringing supplies to Fort William and Fort Bull. As far as the Canadian Iroquois were concerned, the raid was a success as they captured 9 wagons full of supplies and taken 10 prisoners without losing a man, and for them, engaging in a frontal attack against the two wooden forts as Léry wanted to do was irrational. The Canadian Iroquois informed Léry "if I absolutely wanted to die, I was the master of the French, but they were not going to follow me ''. In the end, about 30 Canadian Iroquois reluctantly joined Léry 's attack on Fort Bull on the morning of 27 March 1756, when the French and their Indian allies stormed the fort, finally smashing their way in through the main gate with a battering ram at noon. Of the 63 people in Fort Bull, half of whom were civilians, only 3 soldiers, one carpenter and one woman survived the Battle of Fort Bull as Léry reported "I could not restrain the ardor of the soldiers and the Canadians. They killed everyone they encountered ''. Afterwards, the French destroyed all of the British supplies and Fort Bull itself, which secured the western flank of New France. At the same day, the main force of the Canadian Iroquois ambushed a relief force from Fort William coming to the aid of Fort Bull, and did not slaughter their prisoners as the French did at Fort Bull; for the Iroquois, prisoners were very valuable as they increased the size of the tribe.
The crucial difference between the European and First Nations way of war was that Europe had millions of people, which meant that British and French generals were willing to see thousands of their own men die in battle in order to secure victory as their losses could always be made good; by contrast, the Iroquois had a considerably smaller population, and could not afford heavy losses, which could cripple a community. The Iroquois custom of "Mourning wars '' to take captives who would become Iroquois reflected the continual need for more people in the Iroquois communities. Iroquois warriors were brave, but would only fight to the death if necessary, usually to protect their women and children; otherwise, the crucial concern for Iroquois chiefs was always to save manpower. The Canadian historian D. Peter MacLeod wrote that the Iroquois way of war was based on their hunting philosophy, where a successful hunter would bring down an animal efficiently without taking any losses to his hunting party, and in the same way, a successful war leader would inflict losses on the enemy without taking any losses in return.
In the Battle of Lake George, a group of Catholic Mohawk (from Kahnawake) and French forces ambushed a Mohawk - led British column; the Mohawk were deeply disturbed as they had created their confederacy for peace among the peoples and had not had warfare against each other.
After the war, to protect their alliance, the British government issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, forbidding Anglo - European (white) settlements beyond the Appalachian Mountains. Colonists largely ignored the order, and the British had insufficient soldiers to enforce it.
Faced with confrontations, the Iroquois agreed to adjust the line again in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768). Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet, British Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Northern District, had called the Iroquois nations together in a grand conference in western New York, which a total of 3,102 Indians attended. They had long had good relations with Johnson, who had traded with them and learned their languages and customs. As Alan Taylor noted in his history, The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution (2006), the Iroquois were creative and strategic thinkers. They chose to sell to the British Crown all their remaining claim to the lands between the Ohio and Tennessee rivers, which they did not occupy, hoping by doing so to draw off English pressure on their territories in the Province of New York.
During the American Revolution, the Iroquois first tried to stay neutral. Pressed to join one side or the other, the Tuscarora and the Oneida sided with the colonists, while the Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga remained loyal to Great Britain, with whom they had stronger relationships. Joseph Louis Cook offered his services to the United States and received a Congressional commission as a lieutenant colonel -- the highest rank held by any Native American during the war.
The Mohawk war chief Joseph Brant, other war chiefs, and British allies conducted numerous operations against frontier settlements in the Mohawk Valley, including the Cherry Valley massacre, destroying many villages and crops, and killing and capturing inhabitants. The Continentals retaliated and in 1779, George Washington ordered the Sullivan Campaign, led by Col. Daniel Brodhead and General John Sullivan, against the Iroquois nations to "not merely overrun, but destroy '', the British - Indian alliance. They burned many Iroquois villages and stores throughout western New York; refugees moved north to Canada. By the end of the war, few houses and barns in the valley had survived the warfare.
The American Revolution was a war that caused a great divide amongst the colonists between Patriots and Loyalists; it caused a divide between the colonies and Great Britain, and it also caused a rift that would break the Iroquois Confederacy. At the onset of the Revolution, the Iroquois Confederacy 's Six Nations attempted to take a stance of neutrality. However, almost inevitably, the Iroquois nations eventually had to take sides in the conflict. It is easy to see how the American Revolution would have caused conflict and confusion among the Six Nations. For years they had been used to thinking about the English and their colonists as one and the same people. In the American Revolution, the Iroquois Confederacy now had to deal with relationships between two governments.
The Iroquois Confederation 's population had changed significantly since the arrival of Europeans. Disease had reduced their population to a fraction of what it had been in the past. Therefore, it was in their best interest to be on the good side of whoever would prove to be the winning side in the war, for the winning side would dictate how future relationships would be with the Iroquois in North America. Dealing with two governments made it hard to maintain a neutral stance, because the governments could get jealous easily if the Confederacy was interacting or trading more with one side over the other, or even if there was simply a perception of favoritism. Because of this challenging situation, the Six Nations had to choose sides. The Oneida and Tuscarora decided to support the American colonists, while the rest of the Iroquois League (the Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca) sided with the British and their Loyalists among the colonists.
There were many reasons that the Six Nations could not remain neutral and uninvolved in the Revolutionary War. One of these is simple proximity; the Iroquois Confederacy was too close to the action of the war to not be involved. The Six Nations were very discontented with the encroachment of the English and their colonists upon their land. They were particularly concerned with the border established in the Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768.
During the American Revolution, the authority of the British government over the frontier was highly contested. The colonists tried to take advantage of this as much as possible by seeking their own profit and claiming new land. In 1775, the Six Nations were still neutral when "a Mohawk person was killed by a Continental soldier ''. Such a case shows how the Six Nations ' proximity to the war drew them into it. They were concerned about being killed, and about their lands being taken from them. They could not show weakness and simply let the colonists and British do whatever they wanted. Many of the English and colonists did not respect the treaties made in the past. "A number of His Majesty 's subjects in the American colonies viewed the proclamation as a temporary prohibition which would soon give way to the opening of the area for settlement... and that it was simply an agreement to quiet the minds of the Indians ''. The Six Nations had to take a stand to show that they would not accept such treatment, and they looked to build a relationship with a government that would respect their territory.
In addition to being in close proximity to the war, the new lifestyle and economics of the Iroquois Confederacy since the arrival of the Europeans in North America made it nearly impossible for the Iroquois to isolate themselves from the conflict. By this time, the Iroquois had become dependent upon the trade of goods from the English and colonists, and had adopted many European customs, tools, and weapons. For example, they were increasingly dependent on firearms for hunting. After becoming so reliant, it would have been hard to even consider cutting off trade that brought goods that were a central part of everyday life.
As Barbara Graymont stated, "Their task was an impossible one to maintain neutrality. Their economies and lives had become so dependent on each other for trading goods and benefits it was impossible to ignore the conflict. Meanwhile they had to try and balance their interactions with both groups. They did not want to seem as they were favoring one group over the other, because of sparking jealousy and suspicion from either side ''. Furthermore, the English had made many agreements with the Six Nations over the years, yet most of the Iroquois ' day - to - day interaction had been with the colonists. This made it a confusing situation for the Iroquois because they could not tell who the true heirs of the agreement were, and could n't know if agreements with England would continue to be honored by the colonists if they were to win independence.
Supporting either side in the Revolutionary War was a complicated decision. Each nation individually weighed their options to come up with a final stance that ultimately broke neutrality and ended the collective agreement of the Confederation. The British were clearly the most organized, and seemingly most powerful. In many cases, the British presented the situation to the Iroquois as the colonists just being "naughty children ''. On the other, the Iroquois considered that "the British government was three thousand miles away. This placed them at a disadvantage in attempting to enforce both the Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty at Fort Stanwix 1768 against land hungry frontiersmen. '' In other words, even though the British were the strongest and best organized faction, the Six Nations had concerns about whether they would truly be able to enforce their agreements from so far away.
The Iroquois also had concerns about the colonists. The British asked for Iroquois support in the war. "In 1775, the Continental Congress sent a delegation to the Iroquois in Albany to ask for their neutrality in the war coming against the British ''. It had been clear in prior years that the colonists had not been respectful of the land agreements made in 1763 and 1768. The Iroquois Confederacy was particularly concerned over the possibility of the colonists winning the war, for if a revolutionary victory were to occur, the Iroquois very much saw it as the precursor to their lands being taken away by the victorious colonists, who would no longer have the British Crown to restrain them. Continental army officers such as George Washington had attempted to destroy the Iroquois.
On a contrasting note, it was the colonists who had formed the most direct relationships with the Iroquois due to their proximity and trade ties. For the most part, the colonists and Iroquois had lived in relative peace since the English arrival on the continent a century and a half before. The Iroquois had to determine whether their relationships with the colonists were reliable, or whether the English would prove to better serve their interests. They also had to determine whether there were really any differences between how the English and the colonists would treat them.
The war ensued, and the Iroquois broke their confederation. Hundreds of years of precedent and collective government was trumped by the immensity of the American Revolutionary War. The Oneida and Tuscarora decided to support the colonists, while the rest of the Iroquois League (the Cayuga, Mohawk, Onondaga, and Seneca) sided with the British and Loyalists. At the conclusion of the war the fear that the colonists would not respect the Iroquois ' pleas came true, especially after the majority of the Six Nations decided to side with the British and were no longer considered trustworthy by the newly independent Americans. In 1783 the Treaty of Paris was signed. While the treaty included peace agreements between all of the European nations involved in the war as well as the newborn United States, it made no provisions for the Iroquois, who were left to be treated with by the new United States government as it saw fit.
After the Revolutionary War, the ancient central fireplace of the League was re-established at Buffalo Creek. By 1811, Methodist and Episcopalian missionaries established missions to assist the Oneida and Onondaga in western New York. However, white settlers continued to move into the area. By 1821, a group of Oneida led by Eleazar Williams, son of a Mohawk woman, went to Wisconsin to buy land from the Menominee and Ho - Chunk and thus move their people further westward.
Captain Joseph Brant and a group of Iroquois left New York to settle in the Province of Quebec (present - day Ontario). To partially replace the lands they had lost in the Mohawk Valley and elsewhere because of their fateful alliance with the British Crown, they were given a large land grant on the Grand River, at Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation. Brant 's crossing of the river gave the original name to the area: Brant 's Ford. By 1847, European settlers began to settle nearby and named the village Brantford. The original Mohawk settlement was on the south edge of the present - day Canadian city at a location still favorable for launching and landing canoes. In the 1830s many additional Onondaga, Oneida, Seneca, Cayuga, and Tuscarora relocated into the Indian Territory, the Province of Upper Canada, and Wisconsin.
Many Iroquois (mostly Mohawk) and Iroquois - descended Métis people living in Lower Canada (primarily at Kahnawake) took employment with the Montreal - based North West Company during its existence from 1779 to 1821 and became voyageurs or free traders working in the North American fur trade as far west as the Rocky Mountains. They are known to have settled in the area around Jasper 's House and possibly as far west as the Finlay River and north as far as the Pouce Coupe and Dunvegan areas, where they founded new Aboriginal communities which have persisted to the present day claiming either First Nations or Métis identity and indigenous rights. The Michel Band, Mountain Métis, and Aseniwuche Winewak Nation of Canada in Alberta and the Kelly Lake community in British Columbia all claim Iroquois ancestry.
The complex political environment which emerged in Canada with the Haudenosaunee grew out of the Anglo - American era of European colonization. At the end of the War of 1812, Britain shifted Indian affairs from the military to civilian control. With the creation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867, civil authority, and thus Indian affairs, passed to Canadian officials with Britain retaining control of military and security matters. At the turn of the century, the Canadian government began passing a series of Acts which were strenuously objected to by the Iroquois Confederacy. During World War I, an act attempted to conscript Six Nations men for military service. Under the Soldiers Resettlement Act, legislation was introduced to redistribute native land. Finally in 1920, an Act was proposed to force citizenship on "Indians '' with or without their consent, which would then automatically remove their share of any tribal lands from tribal trust and make the land and the person subject to the laws of Canada.
The Haudenosaunee hired a lawyer to defend their rights in the Supreme Court of Canada. The Supreme Court refused to take the case, declaring that the members of the Six Nations were British citizens. In effect, as Canada was at the time a division of the British government, it was not an international state, as defined by international law. In contrast, the Iroquois Confederacy had been making treaties and functioning as a state since 1643 and all of their treaties had been negotiated with Britain, not Canada. As a result, a decision was made in 1921 to send a delegation to petition the King of England, whereupon Canada 's External Affairs division blocked issuing passports. In response, the Iroquois began issuing their own passports and sent Levi General, the Cayuga Chief "Deskaheh, '' to England with their attorney. Winston Churchill dismissed their complaint claiming that it was within the realm of Canadian jurisdiction and referred them back to Canadian officials.
On 4 December 1922, Charles Stewart, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, and Duncan Campbell Scott, Deputy Superintendent of the Canadian Department of Indian Affairs traveled to Brantford to negotiate a settlement on the issues with the Six Nations. After the meeting, the Native delegation brought the offer to the tribal council, as was customary under Haudenosaunee law. The council agreed to accept the offer, but before they could respond, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police conducted a liquor raid on the Iroquois ' Grand River territory. The siege lasted three days and prompted the Haudenosaunee to send Deskaheh to Washington, DC, to meet with the chargé d'affaires of the Netherlands asking the Dutch Queen to sponsor them for membership in the League of Nations. Under pressure from the British, the Netherlands reluctantly refused sponsorship.
Deskaheh and the tribal attorney proceeded to Geneva and attempted to gather support. "On 27 September 1923, delegates representing Estonia, Ireland, Panama and Persia signed a letter asking for communication of the Six Nations ' petition to the League 's assembly, '' but the effort was blocked. Six Nations delegates traveled to the Hague and back to Geneva attempting to gain supporters and recognition, while back in Canada, the government was drafting a mandate to replace the traditional Haudenosaunee Confederacy Council with one that would be elected under the auspices of the Canadian Indian Act. In an unpublicized signing on 17 September 1924, Prime Minister Mackenzie King and Governor - General Lord Byng of Vimy signed the Order in Council, which set elections on the Six Nations reserve for 21 October. Only 26 ballots were cast.
The long - term effect of the Order was that the Canadian government had wrested control over the Haudenosaunee trust funds from the Iroquois Confederation and decades of litigation would follow. In 1979, over 300 Indian chiefs visited London to oppose Patriation of the Canadian Constitution, fearing that their rights to be recognized in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 would be jeopardized. In 1981, hoping again to clarify that judicial responsibilities of treaties signed with Britain were not transferred to Canada, several Alberta Indian chiefs filed a petition with the British High Court of Justice. They lost the case but gained an invitation from the Canadian government to participate in the constitutional discussions which dealt with protection of treaty rights.
In the period between World War II and The Sixties the US government followed a policy of Indian Termination for its Native citizens. In a series of laws, attempting to mainstream tribal people into the greater society, the government strove to end the U.S. government 's recognition of tribal sovereignty, eliminate trusteeship over Indian reservations, and implement state law applicability to native persons. In general the laws were expected to create taxpaying citizens, subject to state and federal taxes as well as laws, from which Native people had previously been exempt.
On 13 August 1946 the Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946, Pub. L. No. 79 - 726, ch. 959, was passed. Its purpose was to settle for all time any outstanding grievances or claims the tribes might have against the U.S. for treaty breaches, unauthorized taking of land, dishonorable or unfair dealings, or inadequate compensation. Claims had to be filed within a five - year period, and most of the 370 complaints that were submitted were filed at the approach of the 5 - year deadline in August, 1951.
On 2 July 1948 Congress enacted (Public Law 881) 62 Stat. 1224, which transferred criminal jurisdiction over offenses committed by and against "Indians '' to the State of New York. It covered all reservations lands within the state and prohibited the deprivation of hunting and fishing rights which may have been guaranteed to "any Indian tribe, band, or community, or members thereof. '' It further prohibited the state from requiring tribal members to obtain fish and game licenses. Within 2 years, Congress passed (Public Law 785) 64 Stat. 845, on 13 September 1950 which extended New York 's authority to civil disputes between Indians or Indians and others within the State. It allowed the tribes to preserve customs, prohibited taxation on reservations, and reaffirmed hunting and fishing rights. It also prohibited the state from enforcing judgments regarding any land disputes or applying any State Laws to tribal lands or claims prior to the effective date of the law 13 September 1952. During congressional hearings on the law, tribes strongly opposed the passage, fearful that states would deprive them of their reservations. The State of New York disavowed any intention to break up or deprive tribes of their reservations and asserted that they did not have the ability to do so.
On 1 August 1953, United States Congress issued a formal statement, House Concurrent Resolution 108, which was the formal policy presentation announcing the official federal policy of Indian termination. The resolution called for the "immediate termination of the Flathead, Klamath, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Turtle Mountain Chippewa, as well as all tribes in the states of California, New York, Florida, and Texas. '' All federal aid, services, and protection offered to Native people were to cease, and the federal trust relationship and management of reservations would end. Individual members of terminated tribes were to become full United States citizens with all the rights, benefits and responsibilities of any other United States citizen. The resolution also called for the Interior Department to quickly identify other tribes who would be ready for termination in the near future.
Beginning in 1953, a Federal task force began meeting with the tribes of the Six Nations. Despite tribal objections, legislation was introduced into Congress for termination. The proposed legislation involved more than 11,000 Indians of the Iroquois Confederation and was divided into two separate bills. One bill dealt with the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Tuscarora tribes and the other dealt with the Seneca. The arguments the Six Nations made in their hearings with committees were that their treaties showed that the United States recognized that their lands belonged to the Six Nations, not the United States and that "termination contradicted any reasonable interpretation that their lands would not be claimed or their nations disturbed '' by the federal government. The bill for the Iroquois Confederation died in committee without further serious consideration.
On 31 August 1964, H.R. 1794 An Act to authorize payment for certain interests in lands within the Allegheny Indian Reservation in New York was passed by Congress and sent to the president for signature. The bill authorized payment for resettling and rehabilitation of the Seneca Indians who were being dislocated by the construction of the Kinzua Dam on the Allegheny River. Though only 127 Seneca families (about 500 people) were being dislocated, the legislation benefited the entire Seneca Nation, because the taking of the Indian land for the dam abridged a 1794 treaty agreement. In addition, the bill provided that within three years, a plan from the Interior Secretary should be submitted to Congress withdrawing all federal supervision over the Seneca Nation, though technically civil and criminal jurisdiction had lain with the State of New York since 1950.
Accordingly, on 5 September 1967 a memo from the Department of the Interior announced proposed legislation was being submitted to end federal ties with the Seneca. In 1968 a new liaison was appointed from the BIA for the tribe to assist the tribe in preparing for termination and rehabilitation. The Seneca were able to hold off termination until President Nixon issued his Special Message to the Congress on Indian Affairs in July 1970. Thus, no New York tribes then living in New York were terminated during this period.
In a twist of fate, one former New York Tribe did lose its federal recognition. The Emigrant Indians of New York included the Oneidas, Stockbridge - Munsee, and Brothertown Indians of Wisconsin. In an effort to fight termination and force the government into recognizing their outstanding land claims from New York, the three tribes filed litigation with the Claims Commission in the 1950s. They won their claim on 11 August 1964. Public Law 90 - 93 81 Stat. 229 Emigrant New York Indians of Wisconsin Judgment Act established federal trusteeship to pay the Oneidas and Stockbridge - Munsee, effectively ending Congressional termination efforts for them. Though the law did not specifically state the Brothertown Indians were terminated, it authorized all payments to be made directly to each enrollee with special provisions for minors to be handled by the Secretary. The payments were not subject to state of federal taxes. Beginning in 1978, the Brothertown Indians submitted a petition to regain federal recognition. In 2012 the Department of the Interior, in the final determination on the Brothertown petition found that Congress had terminated their tribal status when it granted them citizenship in 1838 and therefore only Congress could restore their tribal status. They are still seeking Congressional approval.
For the Haudenosaunee, grief for a loved one who died was a powerful emotion that if not attended would cause all sorts of problems for the grieving who if left without consolation would go mad. Rituals to honor the dead were very important and the most important of all was the Condolence ceremony to provide consolation for those who lost a family member or friend. Since it was believed that the death of a family member also weakened the spiritual strength of the surviving family members, it was considered crucially important to replace the lost family member by providing a substitute who could be adopted or alternatively could be tortured to provide an outlet for the grief. Hence the "mourning wars ''.
One of the central features of traditional Iroquois life was the "Mourning wars '' when Haudenosaunee warriors would raid neighboring peoples in search of captives to replace those Haudenosaunee who had died. War for the Haudenosaunee was primarily for captives, and the usual factors that were considered benefits of war for the Europeans like expansion of territory or glory in battle did not count for the Haudeenosaunee, who only cared about taking captives. A successful war party was one that had taken many prisoners without suffering losses in return; killing enemies was considered acceptable if necessary, but disapproved of as it reduced the number of potential captives. Captives were seen as far more important than scalps. Additionally war served as a way for young men to demonstrate their valor and courage, which was not a prerequisite for becoming a chief, but also essential if one wanted to get married and hence have sex. A man considered a coward was viewed as unattractive by Haudenosaunee women who saw bravery in war as a very attractive feature in a man. In the precontact era, war was relativity bloodless as First Nations peoples fought one another in suits of wooden armor. In 1609, the French explorer Samuel de Champlain observed several battles between the Algonquins and the Iroquois which featured hardly any killing, which seemed to be the norm for First Nations wars. At a battle between the Algonquins and the Iroquois by the shores of Lake Champlain, the only people killed were two Iroquois warriors when Champlain demonstrated the power of his musket to his Algonquin allies.
The clan mothers would demand a "mourning war '' to provide consolation and renewed spiritual strength for a family that lost a member to death by accusing the warriors of cowardice; either the warriors would go on a "mourning war '' or would be marked as cowards forever, which make them unmarriageable. At which point, the warriors would then usually leave to raid a neighboring people in search of captives. The captives were either adopted into Haudenosaunee families to become Haudenosaunee, or were to killed after bouts of ritualized torture as a way of expressing rage at the death of a family member. The male captives were usually received with blows as they were marched into the community, and were then all captives regardless of their sex or age were stripped naked and tied to poles in the middle of the community. After having sensitive parts of their bodies burned and some of their fingernails pulled out, the prisoners were allowed to rest and given food and water. In the following days, the captives had to dance naked before the community, and then it was decided if they were to be adopted or killed. If those who were adopted into the Haudenosaunee families made a sincere effort to become Haudenosaunee, then they would be embraced by the community, and if they did not, then they were swiftly executed.
Those slated for execution had to wear red and black facial paint and were "adopted '' by a family who addressed the prisoner as "uncle '', "aunt '', "nephew '' or "niece '' depending on their age and sex, and would bring them food and water. The captive would be executed after a day - long torture session of burning and removing body parts, which the prisoner was expected to behave with stoicism and nobility (an expectation not usually met) before being scalped alive, had hot sand applied to the exposed skull and finally killed by cutting out their hearts. Afterwards, the victim 's body was cut and eaten by the community. The practice of ritual torture and execution together with cannibalism ended some time in the early 18th century, and by late 18th century European writers like Philip Mazzei and James Adair were denying that the Haudenosaunee engaged in ritual torture and cannibalism, saying they had seen no evidence of such practices during their visits to Haudenosaunee villages.
For Iroquois, the purpose of war was to take prisoners first and foremost, with the Onondaga chief Teganissorens telling the governor of New York, Sir Robert Hunter, in 1711: "We are not like you Christians, for when you have prisoners of one another you send them home, by such means you can never rout one another ''... The converse of this strategy was that the Iroquois would not accept losses in battle as it defeated the whole purpose of the "mourning wars '', which was to add to their numbers, not decrease them. The French during their wars with the Haudenosaunee were often astonished when a war party that was on the verge of victory over them could be made to retreat by merely killing one or two of their number. The European notion of a glorious death in battle had no counterpart with the Haudenosaunee. Death in battle was to accepted only when absolutely necessary, and the Iroquois believed the souls of those who died in battle were destined to spend eternity as angry ghosts haunting the world in search of vengeance. For this reason, those who died in battle were never buried in community cemeteries, as it would bring the presence of unhappy ghosts into the community.
For these reasons, the Haudenosaunee engaged in tactics that the French, the British and later on the Americans all considered to be cowardly. The Haudenosaunee preferred ambushes and surprise attacks, would almost never attack a fortified place or attack frontally, or would retreat if outnumbered. If Kanienkeh was invaded, the Haudenosaunee would attempt to ambush the enemy, or alternatively they would retreat behind the wooden walls of their villages to endure a siege. If the enemy appeared too powerful as when the French invaded Kanienkeh in 1693, the Haudenosaunee burned their villages and their crops and the entire population retreated into the woods to wait for the French to depart.
When European diseases that the Indians had no immunity to like smallpox devastated the Five Nations in the 17th century, causing thousands of deaths, the League began a period of "mourning wars '' without precedent, which led to the virtual destruction of the Huron, Petun and Neutral peoples. By the 1640s, it is estimated that smallpox had reduced the population of the Haudenosaunee by least 50 %, which required massive "mourning wars '' to make up these losses. The American historian Daniel Richter wrote it was at this point that war changed from being sporadic, small - scale raids launched in response to individual deaths and became "... the constant and increasing undifferentiated symptom of societies in demographic crisis ''. Furthermore, the introduction of guns, which could piece though the wooden armor, made First Nations warfare bloodier and more deadly than it had been in the pre-contact era, ending the age when armed conflicts were more brawls than battles as Europeans would had understood the term. At the same time, guns could be only be obtained by trading furs with the Europeans, and once the Haudenosaunee exhausted their supplies of beaver by about 1640, they were forced to buy beaver pelts from Indians living further north, which led them to attempt to eliminate other middlemen in order to monopolize the fur trade in a series of "beaver wars ''. Richter wrote "... the mourning war tradition, deaths from disease, dependence on firearms, and the trade in furs combined to produce a dangerous spiral: epidemics led to deadlier mourning wars fought with firearms; the need for guns increased the need for pelts to trade for them; the quest for furs provoked wars with other nations; and deaths in those wars began the mourning war cycle anew ''. From 1640 to 1701, the Five Nations was almost continuously at war, battling at various times the French, the Huron, the Erie, the Neutral, the Lenape, the Susquenhannock, the Petun, the Abenaki, the Ojibwa, and the Algonquins, fighting campaigns from Virginia to the Mississippi and all the way to what is now northern Ontario.
Despite taking thousands of captives, the Five Nations populations continued to fall, as diseases continued to take their toll while Jesuits, whom the Haudenosaunee were forced to accept after making peace with the French in 1667, encouraged Catholic converts to move to the St. Lawrence river valley. In the 1640s, the Mohawks could field about 800 warriors, and the 1670s, could field only 300 warriors, which suggested a population decline.
The Iroquois League traditions allowed for the dead to be symbolically replaced through captives taken in "mourning wars '', the blood feuds and vendettas that were an essential aspect of Iroquois culture. As a way of expediting the mourning process, raids were conducted to take vengeance and seize captives. Captives were generally adopted directly by the grieving family to replace the member (s) who had been lost.
This process not only allowed the Iroquois to maintain their own numbers, but also to disperse and assimilate their enemies. The adoption of conquered peoples, especially during the period of the Beaver Wars (1609 - 1701), meant that the Iroquois League was composed largely of naturalized members of other tribes. Cadwallader Colden wrote, "It has been a constant maxim with the Five Nations, to save children and young men of the people they conquer, to adopt them into their own Nation, and to educate them as their own children, without distinction; These young people soon forget their own country and nation and by this policy the Five Nations make up the losses which their nation suffers by the people they lose in war. '' Those who attempted to return to their families were harshly punished; for instance, the French fur trader Pierre - Esprit Radisson was captured by an Iroquois raiding party as a teenager, was adopted by a Mohawk family, ran away to return to his family in Trois - Rivières, and upon being recaptured was punished by having his fingernails pulled out and having one of his fingers cut to the bone. However, Radisson was not executed as his adopted parents provided gifts to the families of the men Radisson had killed when he fled as compensation for their loss; several of the Huron who fled with Radisson were not so lucky and were executed.
By 1668, two - thirds of the Oneida village were assimilated Algonquians and Hurons. At Onondaga there were Native Americans of seven different nations and among the Seneca eleven. They also adopted European captives, as did the Catholic Mohawk in settlements outside Montreal. This tradition of adoption and assimilation was common to native people of the northeast but was quite different from European settlers ' notions of combat.
At the time of first European contact the Iroquois lived in a small number of large villages scattered throughout their territory. Each nation had between one and four villages at any one time, and villages were moved approximately every five to twenty years as soil and firewood were depleted. These settlements were surrounded by a palisade and usually located in a defensible area such as a hill, with access to water. Because of their appearance with the palisade, Europeans termed them castles.
Within the villages the inhabitants lived in longhouses. In 1653, Dutch official and landowner Adriaen van der Donck described a Mohawk longhouse in his Description of New Netherland.
Their houses are mostly of one and the same shape, without any special embellishment or remarkable design. When building a house, large or small, -- for sometimes they build them as long as some hundred feet, though never more than twenty feet wide -- they stick long, thin, peeled hickory poles in the ground, as wide apart and as long as the house is to be. The poles are then bent over and fastened one to another, so that it looks like a wagon or arbor as are put in gardens. Next, strips like split laths are laid across these poles from one end to the other.... This is then well covered all over with very tough bark.... From one end of the house to the other along the center they kindle fires, and the area left open, which is also in the middle, serves as a chimney to release the smoke. Often there are sixteen or eighteen families in a house... This means that often a hundred or a hundred and fifty or more lodge in one house.
A castle might contain twenty or thirty longhouses. In addition to the castles the Iroquois also had smaller settlements which might be occupied seasonally by smaller groups, for example for fishing or hunting.
Total population for the five nations has been estimated at 20,000 before 1634. After 1635 the population dropped to around 6,800, chiefly due to the epidemic of smallpox introduced by contact with European settlers.
By the late 1700s The Iroquois were building smaller log cabins resembling those of the colonists, but retaining some native features, such as bark roofs with smoke holes and a central fireplace.
The Iroquois are a mix of horticulturalists, farmers, fishers, gatherers and hunters, though their main diet traditionally has come from farming. The main crops they cultivated are corn, beans and squash, which were called the three sisters (De-oh - há - ko) and are considered special gifts from the Creator. These crops are grown strategically. The cornstalks grow, the bean plants climb the stalks, and the squash grow beneath, inhibiting weeds and keeping the soil moist under the shade of their broad leaves. In this combination, the soil remained fertile for several decades. The food was stored during the winter, and it lasted for two to three years. When the soil in one area eventually lost its fertility, the Haudenosaunee moved their village.
Gathering is the traditional job of the women and children. Wild roots, greens, berries and nuts were gathered in the summer. During spring, sap is tapped from the maple trees and boiled into maple syrup, and herbs are gathered for medicine. The Iroquois hunted mostly deer but also other game such as wild turkey and migratory birds. Muskrat and beaver were hunted during the winter. Fishing was also a significant source of food because the Iroquois had villages mostly in the St. Lawrence area. They fished salmon, trout, bass, perch and whitefish until the St. Lawrence became too polluted by industry. In the spring the Iroquois netted, and in the winter fishing holes were made in the ice. Allium tricoccum is also a part of traditional Iroquois cuisine.
In 1644 Johannes Megapolensis described Mohawk traditional wear.
In summer they go naked, having only their private parts covered with a patch. The children and young folks to ten, twelve and fourteen years of age go stark naked. In winter, they hang about them simply an undressed deer or bear or panther skin; or they take some beaver and otter skins, wild cat, racoon, martin, otter, mink, squirrel or such like skins... and sew some of them to others, until it is a square piece, and that is then a garment for them; or they buy of us Dutchmen two and a half ells (about 170 centimetres (5.6 ft)) of duffel, and that they hang simply about them, just as it was torn off, without sewing it.
On their feet the Iroquois wore moccasins, "true to nature in its adjustment to the foot, beautiful in its materials and finish, and durable as an article of apparel. ''
The moccason is made of one piece of deer - skin. It is seamed up at the heel, and also in front, above the foot, leaving the bottom of the moccasin without a seam. In front the deer - skin is gathered, in place of being crimped; over this part porcupine quills or beads are worked, in various patterns. The plain moccasin rises several inches above the ankle... and is fastened with deer strings; but usually this part is turned down, so as to expose a part of the instep, and is ornamented with bead - work.
Moccasins of a sort were also made of corn husks. In 1653 Dutch official Adriaen van der Donck wrote:
Around their waist they all (i.e. both men and women) wear a belt made of leather, whalefin, whalebone, or wampum. The men pull a length of duffel cloth -- if they have it -- under this belt, front and rear, and pass it between the legs. It is over half an ell (35 centimetres (14 in)) wide and nine quarter - ells (155 centimetres (61 in)) long, which leaves a square flap hanging down in front and back... Before duffel cloth was common in that country, and sometimes even now when it can not be had, they took for that purpose some dressed leather or fur -- The women also wear a length of woolen cloth of full width (165 centimetres (65 in)) and an ell and a quarter (90 centimetres (35 in)) long, which comes halfway down the leg. It is like a petticoat, but under it, next to the body, they wear a deerskin which also goes around the waist and ends in cleverly cut pointed edging and fringes. The wealthier women and those who have a liking for it wear such skirts wholly embroidered with wampum... As for covering the upper part of the body both men and women use a sheet of duffel cloth of full width, i.e. nine and a half quarter - ells, and about three ells 210 centimetres (83 in) long. It is usually worn over the right shoulder and tied in a knot around the waist and from there hangs down to the feet.
By the 1900s most Iroquois were wearing the same clothing as their non-Indian neighbors. Today most nations only wear their traditional clothing to ceremonies or special events.
Men wore a cap with a single long feather rotating in a socket called a gustoweh. Later, feathers in the gustoweh denote the wearer 's tribe by their number and positioning. The Mohawk wear three upright feathers, the Oneida two upright and one down. The Onondaga wear one feather pointing upward and another pointing down. The Cayuga have a single feather at a forty - five degree angle. The Seneca wear a single feather pointing up, and the Tuscarora have no distinguishing feathers.
Writing in 1851 Morgan wrote that women 's outfits consisted of a skirt (gä - kä ' - ah) "usually of blue broadcloth, and elaborately embroidered with bead - work. It requires two yards of cloth, which is worn with the selvedge at the top and bottom; the skirt being secured about the waist and descending nearly to the top of the moccasin. '' Under the skirt, between the knees and the moccasins, women wore leggings (gise ' - hǎ), called pantalettes by Morgan, "of red broadcloth, and ornamented with a border of beadwork around the lower edge... In ancient times the gise ' - hǎ was made of deer - skin and embroidered with porcupine - quill work. '' An over-dress (ah - de-a ' - da - we - sa) of muslin or calico was worn over the skirt, it is "gathered slightly at the waist, and falls part way down the skirt... In front it is generally buttoned with silver broaches. '' The blanket (e'yose) is two or three yards of blue or green broadcloth "it falls from the head or neck in natural folds the width of the cloth, as the selvedges are at the top and bottom, and it is gathered round the person like a shawl. ''
The women wore their hair very long and tied together at the back, or "tied at the back of the head and folded into a tress of about a hand 's length, like a beaver tail... they wear around the forehead a strap of wampum shaped like the headband that some was worn in olden times. '' "The men have a long lock hanging down, some on one side of the head, and some on both sides. On the top of their heads they have a streak of hair from the forehead to the neck, about the breadth of three fingers, and this they shorten until it is about two or three fingers long, and it stands right on end like a cock 's comb or hog 's bristles; on both sides of this cock 's comb they cut all the hair short, except for the aforesaid locks, and they also leave on the bare places here and there small locks, such as aree in sweeping brushes and then they are in fine array. '' This is the forerunner to what is today called a "Mohawk hairstyle. ''
The women did not paint their faces. The men "paint their faces red, blue, etc. ''
Plants traditionally used by the Iroquois include Agrimonia gryposepala, which was to treat diarrhea, and interrupted fern, used for blood and venereal diseases and conditions. Cone flower (Echinacea), an immune system booster and treatment for respiratory disease was also known and used. They also give an infusion of Chelidonium majus, another plant & milk to pigs that drool and have sudden movements. They use Ranunculus acris, in that apply a poultice of the smashed plant to the chest for pains and for colds, take an infusion of the roots for diarrhea, and apply a poultice of plant fragments with another plant to the skin for excess water in the blood. Symphyotrichum novae - angliae is used in a decoction for weak skin, use a decoction of the roots and leaves for fevers, use the plant as a "love medicine '', and use an infusion of whole plant and rhizomes from another plant to treat mothers with intestinal fevers,. A decoction of the roots of chicory is used as a wash and applied as a poultice to chancres and fever sores. A decoction of the root of Allium tricoccum is used to treat worms in children, and they also use the decoction as a spring tonic to "clean you out ''. Epigaea repens is also utilized, as they use a compound for labor pains in parturition, use a compound decoction for rheumatism, take a decoction of the leaves for indigestion, and they also take a decoction of the whole plant or roots, stalks and leaves taken for the kidneys. A pounded infusion of the roots of Potentilla canadensis is given as an antidiarrheal.
The Iroquois also used quinine, chamomile, ipecac, and a form of penicillin.
The Iroquois are a matriarchal Mother Clan system. No person is entitled to ' own ' land, but it is believed that the Creator appointed women as stewards of the land. Traditionally, the Clan Mothers appoint leaders, as they have raised children and are therefore held to a higher regard. By the same token, if a leader does not prove sound, becomes corrupt or does not listen to the people, the Clan Mothers have the power to strip him of his leadership.
The Iroquois had a matrilineal system: women held property and hereditary leadership passed through their lines. They held dwellings, horses and farmed land, and a woman 's property before marriage stayed in her possession without being mixed with that of her husband. They had separate roles but real power in the nations. The work of a woman 's hands was hers to do with as she saw fit. At marriage, a young couple lived in the longhouse of the wife 's family. A woman choosing to divorce a shiftless or otherwise unsatisfactory husband was able to ask him to leave the dwelling and take his possessions with him.
The children of the marriage belong to their mother 's clan and gain their social status through hers. Her brothers are important teachers and mentors to the children, especially introducing boys to men 's roles and societies. The clans are matrilineal, that is, clan ties are traced through the mother 's line. If a couple separated, the woman traditionally kept the children. The chief of a clan can be removed at any time by a council of the women elders of that clan. The chief 's sister was responsible for nominating his successor. It was regarded as incest by the Iroquois to marry within one 's matrilineal clan, but it was considered acceptable to marry someone from the same patrilineal clan.
Like many cultures, the Iroquois ' spiritual beliefs changed over time and varied across tribes. Generally, the Iroquois believed in numerous deities, including the Great Spirit, the Thunderer, and the Three Sisters (the spirits of beans, maize, and squash). The Great Spirit was thought to have created plants, animals, and humans to control "the forces of good in nature '', and to guide ordinary people. Orenda was the Iroquoian name for the magical potence found in people and their environment.
Sources provide different stories about Iroquois creation beliefs. Brascoupé and Etmanskie focus on the first person to walk the earth, called the Skywoman or Aientsik. Aientsik 's daughter Tekawerahkwa gave birth to twins, Tawiskaron, who created vicious animals and river rapids, while Okwiraseh created "all that is pure and beautiful ''. After a battle where Okwiraseh defeated Tawiskaron, Tawiskaron was confined to "the dark areas of the world '', where he governed the night and destructive creatures. Other scholars present the "twins '' as the Creator and his brother, Flint. The Creator was responsible for game animals, while Flint created predators and disease. Saraydar (1990) suggests the Iroquois do not see the twins as polar opposites but understood their relationship to be more complex, noting "Perfection is not to be found in gods or humans or the worlds they inhabit. ''
Descriptions of Iroquois spiritual history consistently refer to dark times of terror and misery prior to the Iroquois Confederacy, ended by the arrival of the Great Peacemaker. Tradition asserts that the Peacemaker demonstrated his authority as the Creator 's messenger by climbing a tall tree above a waterfall, having the people cut down the tree, and reappearing the next morning unharmed. The Peacemaker restored mental health to a few of the most "violent and dangerous men '', Ayonhwatha and Thadodaho, who then helped him bear the message of peace to others.
After the arrival of the Europeans, some Iroquois became Christians, among them the first Native American Saint, Kateri Tekakwitha, a young woman of Mohawk - Algonquin parents. The Seneca sachem Handsome Lake, also known as Ganeodiyo, introduced a new religious system to the Iroquois in the late 18th century, which incorporated Quaker beliefs along with traditional Iroquoian culture. Handsome Lake 's teachings include a focus on parenting, appreciation of life, and peace. A key aspect of Handsome Lake 's teachings is the principle of equilibrium, wherein each person 's talents combined into a functional community. By the 1960s, at least 50 % of Iroquois followed this religion.
Dreams play a significant role in Iroquois spirituality, providing information about a person 's desires and prompting individuals to fulfill dreams. To communicate upward, humans can send prayers to spirits by burning tobacco.
Iroquois ceremonies are primarily concerned with farming, healing, and thanksgiving. Key festivals correspond to the agricultural calendar, and include Maple, Planting, Strawberry, Green Maize, Harvest, and Mid-Winter (or New Year 's), which is held in early February. The ceremonies were given by the Creator to the Iroquois to balance good with evil.
During healing ceremonies, a carved "False Face Mask '' is worn to represent spirits in a tobacco - burning and prayer ritual. False Face Masks are carved in living trees, then cut free to be painted and decorated. False Faces represent grandfathers of the Iroquois, and are thought to reconnect humans and nature and to frighten illness - causing spirits. The False Face Society continues today among modern Iroquois.
Condolence ceremonies are conducted by the Iroquois for both ordinary and important people, but most notably when sachems died. Such ceremonies were still held on Iroquois reservations as late as the 1970s. After death, the soul is thought to embark on a journey, undergo a series of ordeals, and arrive in the sky world. This journey is thought to take one year, during which the Iroquois mourn for the dead. After the mourning period, a feast is held to celebrate the soul 's arrival in the skyworld.
"Keepers of the faith '' are part - time specialists who conduct religious ceremonies. Both men and women can be appointed as keepers of the faith by tribe elders.
The Iroquois traditionally celebrate six major festivals throughout the year. These usually combine a spiritual component and ceremony, a feast, a chance to celebrate together, sports, entertainment and dancing. These celebrations have historically been oriented to the seasons and celebrated based on the cycle of nature rather than fixed calendar dates.
For instance, the Mid-winter festival, Gi ' - ye - wä - no - us - quä - go - wä ("The supreme belief '') ushers in the new year. This festival is traditionally held for one week around the end of January to early February, depending on when the new moon occurs that year.
The favorite sport of the Iroquois was lacrosse (O - tä - dä - jish ′ - quä - äge in Seneca). This version was played between two teams of six or eight players, made up of members of two sets of clans (Wolf, Bear, Beaver, and Turtle on one side vs. Deer, Snipe, Heron, and Hawk on the other among the Senecas). The goals were two sets of poles roughly 450 yards (410 m) apart. The poles were about 10 feet (3.0 m) high and placed about 15 feet (4.6 m) apart. A goal was scored by carrying or throwing a deer - skin ball between the goal posts using netted sticks -- touching the ball with hands was prohibited. The game was played to a score of five or seven. The modern version of lacrosse remains popular as of 2015.
A popular winter game was the snow - snake game. The "snake '' was a hickory pole about 5 -- 7 feet (1.5 -- 2.1 m) long and about. 25 inches (0.64 cm) in diameter, turned up slightly at the front and weighted with lead. The game was played between two sides of up to six players each, often boys, but occasionally between the men of two clans. The snake, or Gawa ′ sa, was held by placing the index finger against the back end and balancing it on the thumb and other fingers. It was not thrown but slid across the surface of the snow. The side whose snake went the farthest scored one point. Other snakes from the same side which went farther than any other snake of the opposing side also scored a point; the other side scored nothing. This was repeated until one side scored the number of points which had been agreed to for the game, usually seven or ten.
The Peach - stone game (Guskä ′ eh) was a gambling game in which the clans bet against each other. Traditionally it was played on the final day of the Green Corn, Harvest, and Mid-winter festivals. The game was played using a wooden bowl about one foot in diameter and six peach - stones (pits) ground to oval shape and burned black on one side. A "bank '' of beans, usually 100, was used to keep score and the winner was the side who won them all. Two players sat on a blanket - covered platform raised a few feet off the floor. To play the peach stones were put into the bowl and shaken. Winning combinations were five of either color or six of either color showing.
Players started with five beans each from the bank. The starting player shook the bowl; if he shook a five the other player paid him one bean, if a six five beans. If he shook either he got to shake again. If he shook anything else the turn passed to his opponent. All his winnings were handed over to a "manager '' or "managers '' for his side. If a player lost all of his beans another player from his side took his place and took five beans from the bank. Once all beans had been taken from the bank the game continued, but with the draw of beans now coming from the winnings of the player 's side, which were kept out of sight so that no one but the managers knew how the game was going. The game was finished when one side had won all the beans.
The game sometimes took quite a while to play, depending on the starting number of beans, and games lasting more than a day were common.
The First Nations Lacrosse Association is recognized by the Federation of International Lacrosse as a sovereign state for international lacrosse competitions. It is the only sport in which the Iroquois field national teams and the only indigenous people 's organization sanctioned for international competition by any world sporting governing body.
Each clan has a group of personal names which may be used to name members. The clan mother is responsible for keeping track of those names not in use, which may then be reused to name infants. When a child becomes an adult he takes a new "adult '' name in place of his "baby '' name. Some names are reserved for chiefs or faith keepers, and when a person assumes that office he takes the name in a ceremony in which he is considered to "resuscitate '' the previous holder. If a chief resigns or is removed he gives up the name and resumes his previous one.
Although the Iroquois are sometimes mentioned as examples of groups who practiced cannibalism, the evidence is mixed as to whether such a practice could be said to be widespread among the Six Nations, and to whether it was a notable cultural feature. Some anthropologists have found evidence of ritual torture and cannibalism at Iroquois sites, for example, among the Onondaga in the sixteenth century. However, other scholars, most notably anthropologist William Arens in his controversial book, The Man - Eating Myth, have challenged the evidence, suggesting the human bones found at sites point to funerary practices, asserting that if cannibalism was practiced among the Iroquois, it was not widespread. Modern anthropologists seem to accept the probability that cannibalism did exist among the Iroquois, with Thomas Abler describing the evidence from the Jesuit Relations and archaeology as making a "case for cannibalism in early historic times... so strong that it can not be doubted. ''. Scholars are also urged to remember the context for a practice that now shocks the modern Western society. Sanday reminds us that the ferocity of the Iroquois ' rituals "can not be separated from the severity of conditions... where death from hunger, disease, and warfare became a way of life ''.
The missionaries Johannes Megapolensis and François - Joseph Bressani, and the fur trader Pierre - Esprit Radisson present first - hand accounts of cannibalism among the Mohawk. A common theme is ritualistic roasting and eating the heart of a captive who has been tortured and killed. "To eat your enemy is to perform an extreme form of physical dominance. ''
The first five nations listed below formed the original Five Nations (listed from east to west, as they were oriented to the sunrise); the Tuscarora became the sixth nation in 1722.
1 Not one of the original Five Nations; joined 1720. 2 Settled between the Oneida and Onondaga.
Within each of the six nations, people belonged to a number of matrilineal clans. The number of clans varies by nation, currently from three to eight, with a total of nine different clan names.
According to the Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, The Iroquois Confederacy had 10,000 people at its peak, but by the 18th century, their population had decreased to 4,000, recovering only to 7,000 by 1910.
According to data compiled in 1995 by Doug George - Kanentiio, a total of 51,255 Six Nations people lived in Canada. These included 15,631 Mohawk in Quebec; 14,051 Mohawk in Ontario; 3,970 Oneida in Ontario; and a total of 17,603 of the Six Nations at the Grand River Reserve in Ontario. More recently according to the Six Nations Elected Council, some 12,436 on the Six Nations of the Grand River reserve, the largest First Nations reserve in Canada, as of December 2014 and 26,034 total in Canada.
In 1995, tribal registrations among the Six Nations in the United States numbered about 30,000 in total, with the majority of 17,566 in New York. The remainder were more than 10,000 Oneida in Wisconsin, and about 2200 Seneca - Cayuga in Oklahoma. As the nations individually determine their rules for membership or citizenship, they report the official numbers. (Some traditional members of the nations refuse to be counted.) There is no federally recognized Iroquois nation or tribe, nor are any Native Americans enrolled as Iroquois.
In the 2000 United States census, 80,822 people identified as having Iroquois ethnicity (which is similar to identifying as European), with 45,217 claiming only Iroquois ancestry. There are the several reservations in New York: Cayuga Nation of New York (~ 450,) St. Regis Mohawk Reservation (3248 in 2014), Onondaga Reservation (473 in 2014), Oneida Indian Nation (~ 1000), Seneca Nation of New York (~ 8000) and the Tuscarora Reservation (1100 in 2010). Some lived at the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin on the reservation there counting some 21,000 according to the 2000 census. Seneca - Cayuga Nation in Oklahoma has more than 5,000 people in 2011. In the 2010 Census, 81,002 persons identified as Iroquois, and 40,570 as Iroquois only across the United States. Including the Iroquois in Canada, the total population numbered over 125,000 as of 2009.
The Grand Council of the Six Nations is an assembly of 56 Hoyenah (chiefs) or sachems. Today, the seats on the Council are distributed among the Six Nations as follows:
When anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan studied the Grand Council in the 19th century, he interpreted it as a central government. This interpretation became influential, but Richter argues that while the Grand Council served an important ceremonial role, it was not a government in the sense that Morgan thought. According to this view, Iroquois political and diplomatic decisions are made on the local level, and are based on assessments of community consensus. A central government that develops policy and implements it for the people at large is not the Iroquois model of government.
Unanimity in public acts was essential to the Council. In 1855, Minnie Myrtle observed that no Iroquois treaty was binding unless it was ratified by 75 % of the male voters and 75 % of the mothers of the nation. In revising Council laws and customs, a consent of two - thirds of the mothers was required. The need for a double supermajority to make major changes made the Confederacy a de facto consensus government.
The women traditionally held real power, particularly the power to veto treaties or declarations of war. The members of the Grand Council of Sachems were chosen by the mothers of each clan. If any leader failed to comply with the wishes of the women of his tribe and the Great Law of Peace, the mother of his clan could demote him, a process called "knocking off the horns ''. The deer antlers, an emblem of leadership, were removed from his headgear, thus returning him to private life.
Councils of the mothers of each tribe were held separately from the men 's councils. The women used men as runners to send word of their decisions to concerned parties, or a woman could appear at the men 's council as an orator, presenting the view of the women. Women often took the initiative in suggesting legislation.
The term "wampum '' refers to beads made from purple and white mollusk shells. Species used to make wampum include the highly prized quahog clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) which produces the famous purple colored beads. For white colored beads the shells from the channeled whelk (Busycon canaliculatum), knobbed whelk (Busycon carica), lightning whelk (Busycon sinistrum), and snow whelk (Busycon Laeostomum) are used.
Wampum was primarily used to make wampum belts by the Iroquois. Wampum belts are used to signify the importance of a specific message being presented. Treaty making often involved wampum belts to signify the importance of the treaty. A famous example is "The Two Row Wampum '' or "Guesuenta '', meaning "it brightens our minds '', which was originally presented to the Dutch settlers, and then French, representing a canoe and a sailboat moving side - by - side along the river of life, not interfering with the other 's course. All non-Native settlers are, by associations, members of this treaty.
"The Covenant Belt '' was presented to the Iroquois at the signing of the Canandaigua Treaty. The belt has a design of thirteen human figures representing symbolically the Thirteen Colonies of the United States. The house and the two figures directly next to the house represent the Iroquois people and the symbolic longhouse. The figure on the left of the house represent the Seneca Nation who are the symbolic guardians of the western door (western edge of Iroquois territory) and the figure to the right of the house represents the Mohawk who are the keepers of the eastern door (eastern edge of Iroquois territory).
The Hiawatha belt is the national belt of the Iroquois and is represented in the Iroquois Confederacy flag. The belt has four squares and a tree in the middle which represents the original five nations of the Iroquois. Going from left to right the squares represent the Seneca, Cayuga, Oneida and Mohawk. The Onondaga are represented by an eastern white pine which represents the Tree of Peace. Traditionally the Onondaga are the peace keepers of the confederacy. The placement of the nations on the belt represents the actually geographical distribution of the six nations over their shared territory, with the Seneca in the far west and the Mohawk in the far east of Iroquois territory.
Historians in the 20th century have suggested the Iroquois system of government influenced the development of the United States 's government. Contact between the leaders of the English colonists and the Iroquois started with efforts to form an alliance via the use of treaty councils. Prominent individuals such as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were often in attendance. Bruce Johansen proposes that the Iroquois had a representative form of government. The Six Nations ' governing committee was elected by the men and women of the tribe, one member from each of the six nations. Giving each member the same amount of authority in the council ensured no man received too much power, providing some of the same effect as the United States 's future system of checks and balances.
Consensus has not been reached on how influential the Iroquois model was to the development of United States ' documents such as the Articles of Confederation and United States Constitution. The influence thesis has been discussed by historians such as Donald Grinde and Bruce Johansen. In 1988, the United States Congress passed a resolution to recognize the influence of the Iroquois League upon the Constitution and Bill of Rights. In 1987, Cornell University held a conference on the link between the Iroquois ' government and the U.S. Constitution.
Scholars such as Jack N. Rakove challenge thesis. Stanford University historian Rakove writes, "The voluminous records we have for the constitutional debates of the late 1780s contain no significant references to the Iroquois '' and notes that there are ample European precedents to the democratic institutions of the United States. Historian Francis Jennings noted that supporters of the thesis frequently cite the following statement by Benjamin Franklin, made in a letter from Benjamin Franklin to James Parker in 1751: "It would be a very strange thing, if six Nations of ignorant savages should be capable of forming a Scheme for such a Union... and yet that a like union should be impracticable for ten or a Dozen English Colonies, '' but he disagrees that it establishes influence. Rather, he thinks Franklin was promoting union against the "ignorant savages '' and called the idea "absurd ''.
The anthropologist Dean Snow has stated that although Franklin 's Albany Plan may have drawn inspiration from the Iroquois League, there is little evidence that either the Plan or the Constitution drew substantially from that source. He argues that "... such claims muddle and denigrate the subtle and remarkable features of Iroquois government. The two forms of government are distinctive and individually remarkable in conception. ''
Similarly, the anthropologist Elizabeth Tooker has concluded that "there is virtually no evidence that the framers borrowed from the Iroquois. '' She argues that the idea is a myth resulting from a claim made by linguist and ethnographer J.N.B. Hewitt that was exaggerated and misunderstood after his death in 1937. According to Tooker, the original Iroquois constitution did not involve representative democracy and elections; deceased chiefs ' successors were selected by the most senior woman within the hereditary lineage in consultation with other women in the tribe.
The Grand Council of the Iroquois Confederacy declared war on Germany in 1917 during World War I and again in 1942 in World War II.
The Haudenosaunee government has issued passports since 1923, when Haudenosaunee authorities issued a passport to Cayuga statesman Deskaheh (Levi General) to travel to the League of Nations headquarters.
More recently, passports have been issued since 1997. Before 2001 these were accepted by various nations for international travel, but with increased security concerns across the world since the September 11 attacks, this is no longer the case. In 2010, the Iroquois Nationals lacrosse team was allowed by the U.S. to travel on their own passports to the 2010 World Lacrosse Championship in England only after the personal intervention of Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. However, the British government refused to recognize the Iroquois passports and denied the team members entry into the United Kingdom.
The Onondaga Nation spent $1.5 million on a subsequent upgrade to the passports designed to meet 21st century international security requirements.
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when does the next season of graham norton start | The Graham Norton show - wikipedia
The Graham Norton Show (often simply as Graham Norton) is a British comedy chat show presented by Graham Norton.
It was initially broadcast on BBC Two, from 22 February 2007, before moving to BBC One in October 2009.
It currently airs on Friday evenings, and is usually repeated a few nights later.
The show mirrors So and V with strong adult humour along with Graham 's monologue at the beginning of the show and often a musical guest to play out over the credits. Although the rude objects in "Graham 's drawer '' did not survive, the phone calls and hidden camera surprises have. These surprises are sometimes based around the guests, such as Sarah Beeny 's dating website, a TARDIS on the South Bank when David Tennant appeared and a wine - tasting group drinking Gérard Depardieu 's wine whilst he was on the show. Some of the surprises, such as the wine - tasting, have been arranged through ideas submitted by viewers, stating where they will be when the show is recorded.
At the end of the show, after any band or artist performance, an extra 5 minute section of the show was recorded, known as the "Cooldown ''. This section was seen in an extended weekend repeat, called Graham Norton Uncut, and was also made available as a downloadable podcast. As well as showing the "Cooldown '', it also included previously unseen parts from the original episode. This section often involved the audience, such as guessing an audience member 's partner and playing mass charades.
After Graham 's short monologue, he always introduced two guests. If there was a third guest, they were usually introduced later in the show. If the two guests are connected in some way (for example, Dustin Hoffman and his wife), they were the only ones introduced at the start. If musical guests were involved in the show, one of several things happened. Some performers, such as Enrique Iglesias, were on stage from the very beginning. Others, such as Gareth Gates came on stage about 5 to 7 minutes before their performance for a short interview. Also, some musical guests only performed during the end credits and participated in the Cooldown section of the programme. However, all bands performed during the credits and were interviewed in the Cooldown segment.
Once the show moved to BBC One, it moved to Monday nights, and the guest list increased to three or occasionally four people, with an accompanying reduction in Norton 's signature pieces. A typical show consisted of one big celebrity name, a comedian sitting in the aforementioned comedy chair and a well - known musical personality who would all be introduced after the monologue. Sometimes three guests are introduced at the top of the show with the musical guest brought in about 10 to 15 minutes before the end of the show.
Unlike the BBC Two show, the BBC One show does not end with the musical performance, but with a new audience participation segment called That 's All We 've Got Time For, where audience members sit in the famous red chair and begin to tell a humorous story. Graham and his guests listen to the stories and if Graham gets bored, he -- or occasionally a guest -- pulls the lever and the chair falls backwards, dumping the speaker from it. The red chair segment was inspired by comedian Ronnie Corbett 's longwinded armchair monologues.
After the end of Friday Night with Jonathan Ross, it was announced that The Graham Norton Show would be taking over the coveted Friday night slot. The show premiered on 22 October 2010.
The first series began at 10pm on 22 February 2007 on BBC Two and was originally slated to end on 24 May 2007 after 13 episodes. However, the series proved such a hit that it was extended for an additional six episodes. A 12 - week second series began on 11 October 2007, and culminated with a Boxing Day special and New Year 's compilation from previous episodes.
The show made its North American premiere on BBC America on 2 June 2007, one week after what was supposed to be the final episode of Series 1 (before its extension).
Series 2 premiered on BBC America on 20 October 2007. Unlike the previous series, each episode premiered in the United States only 9 days after the initial UK broadcast. However, the final three episodes were broadcast in reverse order (with Episode 12 being shown on BBC America a few days earlier than on BBC Two. The same thing occurred in Series 4 with the Christmas special airing on BBC America 10 days before the BBC Two broadcast.
Series 3 began its run on 17 April 2008. For series 3, the "Cooldown '' segment had been dropped, and the show was just the full uncut 45 - minute version of the show. The show was originally recorded in studio 2 at The London Studios, but moved to studio 1, due to the slot of The Paul O'Grady Show and the high audience numbers.
The show continued to be broadcast in a 30 - minute version on Thursdays at 10pm with Graham Norton Uncut, the uncut version shown on Sundays at around 11pm in a 45 - minute version. However, BBC Two in Wales sometimes broadcast the Thursday edition later than the rest of the BBC Two regions, usually after Newsnight at 11.20 pm because they would usually have local programmes in the 10pm slot. BBC Two Northern Ireland did the same, and during series three, they broadcast Thursday 's show on Friday nights at 10pm on BBC Two Northern Ireland because of local programming on Thursdays.
Series 4 began its run on 3 October 2008 at 10pm on BBC Two (however, both BBC Two Wales and BBC Two Northern Ireland broadcast the show at a later time due to their regional programming). The Sunday uncut editions have been kept, with the first uncut edition broadcast on BBC Two late on Sunday night.
Since its sixth series, The Graham Norton Show has aired on BBC One. As of 2017, there have been 21 series of the show.
In late January 2017 it was confirmed that Graham Norton had signed a new three - year deal with the BBC which along with his BBC Radio 2 show, Eurovision commentary duties and other projects for the BBC, it will also keep The Graham Norton Show on BBC One until at least 2020. Graham said "We 've just done a deal for another three years, which right now feels like a long time ''.
Across Scandinavia, The Graham Norton Show is shown frequently on cable and satellite channels BBC Brit, formerly known as BBC Entertainment. Episodes are usually shown a week after their original UK airing on BBC One, while re-runs from past seasons are shown overnight or during the day.
In Latin America, Poland and several countries in continental Europe, The Graham Norton Show is aired on satellite channel BBC Entertainment. Episodes are usually shown a week after their original UK airing on BBC One, while re-runs from past seasons are shown over-night or during daytime.
In the United States, the show started airing on Saturday nights in June 2007. Starting 11 April 2013, cable / satellite network BBC America aired new episodes on Thursdays. From 2014 to 2015, it then aired every Saturday night on BBC America, normally eight days after the BBC. (1). In November 2015, The Weinstein Company bought the series rights in the United States and took a break while negotiating a new contract with BBC America. On 18 January 2016, BBC America aired the 2015 New Year 's Eve episode. On 21 January 2016, the network announced that the programme would be returning on Monday, 25 January 2016, with new episodes now airing three days after the BBC airing. In 2017, the series moved back to its original Saturday time slot. In 2018, the show moved to a Friday night time slot, which airs new episodes a week after the BBC airing.
In Canada, cable channel BBC Canada broadcasts the show Friday nights.
In Ireland, the show is broadcast on TV3 and its sister channel 3e one day after the BBC broadcast on Saturdays. In January 2015, UTV Ireland aired the show every Sunday night. TV3 Group continued to air "Best of '' Specials recorded prior to 2015. This arrangement changed in January 2017 when the TV3 Group bought UTV Ireland and changed it to "be3 '' channel. TV3 then moved The Graham Norton Show back to their main channel, where it airs every Saturday, 24 hours after UK transmission, usually at around 9.30 pm.
In Australia, the series is broadcast on Network Ten on Friday nights, airing one week after original broadcast in the UK. Additionally, for Pay TV viewers (Foxtel and Austar), it airs on UKTV at 9.30 pm Mondays, with repeats on Tuesdays and Saturdays. It previously aired on ABC2 on Thursday nights from 2007 to 2012. In New Zealand, the show was originally broadcast on UKTV. Since the start of Series 11 on 4 May 2012, the show has been broadcast on TV3 on Friday nights.
In India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives The Graham Norton Show airs Saturday nights on Comedy Central, a week after the BBC broadcast.
All ratings are taken from BARB.
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what is the lighthouse of alexandria made out of | Lighthouse of Alexandria - wikipedia
The Lighthouse of Alexandria, sometimes called the Pharos of Alexandria (/ ˈfɛərɒs /; Ancient Greek: ὁ Φάρος τῆς Ἀλεξανδρείας, contemporary Koine Greek pronunciation: (ho phá. ros teːs a. lek. sandréːaːs)), was a lighthouse built by the Ptolemaic Kingdom, during the reign Ptolemy II Philadelphus (280 -- 247 BC) which has been estimated to be 100 metres (330 ft) in overall height. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, for many centuries it was one of the tallest man - made structures in the world. Badly damaged by three earthquakes between AD 956 and 1323, it then became an abandoned ruin. It was the third longest surviving ancient wonder (after the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the extant Great Pyramid of Giza), surviving in part until 1480, when the last of its remnant stones were used to build the Citadel of Qaitbay on the site. In 1994, French archaeologists discovered some remains of the lighthouse on the floor of Alexandria 's Eastern Harbour. In 2016 the Ministry of State of Antiquities in Egypt had plans to turn submerged ruins of ancient Alexandria, including those of the Pharos, into an underwater museum.
Pharos was a small island located on the western edge of the Nile Delta. In 332 BC Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria on an isthmus opposite Pharos. Alexandria and Pharos were later connected by a mole spanning more than 1200 metres (. 75 mi), which was called the Heptastadion ("seven stadia '' -- a stadium was a Greek unit of length measuring approximately 180 m). The east side of the mole became the Great Harbour, now an open bay; on the west side lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbour. Today 's city development lying between the present Grand Square and the modern Ras el - Tin quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole, and the Ras el - Tin promontory represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the lighthouse at its eastern point having been weathered away by the sea.
The lighthouse was constructed in the 3rd century BC. After Alexander the Great died, the first Ptolemy (Ptolemy I Soter) announced himself king in 305 BC, and commissioned its construction shortly thereafter. The building was finished during the reign of his son, the second Ptolemy (Ptolemy II Philadelphus). It took twelve years to complete, at a total cost of 800 talents, and served as a prototype for all later lighthouses in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top, and the tower was said to have been built mostly with solid blocks of limestone.
Strabo reported that Sostratus had a dedication inscribed in metal letters to the "Saviour Gods ''. Later Pliny the Elder wrote that Sostratus was the architect, which is disputed. In the second century AD the satirist Lucian wrote that Sostratus inscribed his name under plaster bearing the name of Ptolemy. This was so that when the plaster with Ptolemy 's name fell off, Sostratus 's name would be visible in the stone.
Judith McKenzie writes that "The Arab descriptions of the lighthouse are remarkably consistent, although it was repaired several times especially after earthquake damage. The height they give varies only fifteen per cent from c. 103 to 118 m (338 to 387 ft), on a base c. 30 by 30 m (98 by 98 ft) square. ''
The fullest description of the lighthouse comes from Arab traveller Abou Haggag Youssef Ibn Mohammed el - Balawi el - Andaloussi, who visited Alexandria in A.D. 1166.
The Arab authors indicate that the lighthouse was constructed from large blocks of light - coloured stone, the tower was made up of three tapering tiers: a lower square section with a central core, a middle octagonal section, and, at the top, a circular section. At its apex was positioned a mirror which reflected sunlight during the day; a fire was lit at night. Extant Roman coins struck by the Alexandrian mint show that a statue of Triton was positioned on each of the building 's four corners. A statue of Poseidon or Zeus stood atop the lighthouse. The Pharos 's masonry blocks were interlocked, sealed together using molten lead, to withstand the pounding of the waves.
Al - Masudi writes that the seaward - facing eastern side featured an inscription dedicated to Zeus.
The lighthouse was badly damaged in the earthquake of 956, and then again in 1303 and 1323. Finally the stubby remnant disappeared in 1480, when the then - Sultan of Egypt, Qaitbay, built a medieval fort on the larger platform of the lighthouse site using some of the fallen stone.
The 10th - century writer al - Mas'udi reports a legendary tale on the lighthouse 's destruction, according to which at the time of Caliph Abd al - Malik ibn Marwan (r. 705 -- 715) the Byzantines sent a eunuch agent, who adopted Islam, gained the Caliph 's confidence, and secured permission to search for hidden treasure at the base of the lighthouse. The search was cunningly made in such a manner that the foundations were undermined, and the Pharos collapsed. The agent managed to escape in a ship waiting for him.
In 1968 the lighthouse was rediscovered. UNESCO sponsored an expedition to send a team of marine archaeologists, led by Honor Frost, to the site. She confirmed the existence of the ruins representing part of the lighthouse. Due to the lack of specialized archaeologists and the area becoming a military zone, exploration was put on hold.
Greek archaeologists led by Jean - Yves Empereur re-discovered the physical remains of the lighthouse in late 1994 on the floor of Alexandria 's Eastern Harbour. Some of these remains were brought up and were lying at the harbour on public view at the end of 1995. Subsequent satellite imaging has revealed further remains. It is possible to go diving and see the ruins. The secretariat of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage are currently working with the Government of Egypt on an initiative to add the Bay of Alexandria (to include remains of the lighthouse) on a World Heritage List of submerged cultural sites.
Legend has it that the people of the island of Pharos were wreckers; hence, Ptolemy I had the lighthouse built to help guide ships into port at night.
Pharos became the etymological origin of the word "lighthouse '' in Greek (φάρος), Persian (Fānūs -- فانوس), many Romance languages such as French (phare), Italian and Spanish (faro), Romanian (far) and Portuguese (farol), and even some Slavic languages like Bulgarian (far). Both in Serbian and Russian, a derived word means "headlight '' (фар; фара).
It is thought that the ancient Roman lighthouse known as the Tower of Hercules, built in the 2nd century AD during the reign of Trajan and still functioning as a present - day lighthouse near A Coruña, Galicia, Spain, was modeled after the famous Pharos Lighthouse of Alexandria.
In 2008 it was suggested that the Pharos was the vertical yardstick used in the first precise measurement of the size of the earth.
Since 1978 a number of proposals have been made to replace the lighthouse with a modern reconstruction. In 2015, the Egyptian government and the Alexandria governorate suggested building a skyscraper on the site of the lighthouse as part of the regeneration of the eastern harbour of Alexandria Port. The plan was opposed by Alexandria - based sociologist Amro Ali.
The lighthouse remains a civic symbol of the city of Alexandria and of the Alexandria Governorate with which the city is more or less coterminous. A stylised representation of the lighthouse appears on the flag and seal of the Governorate and on many public services of the city, including the seal of Alexandria University.
Now because of the narrowness of the strait there can be no access by ship to the harbour without the consent of those who hold the Pharos. In view of this, Caesar took the precaution of landing his troops while the enemy was preoccupied with fighting, seized the Pharos and posted a garrison there. The result was that safe access was secured for his corn supplies and reinforcements.
"After he (Sostratus) had built the work he wrote his name on the masonry inside, covered it with gypsum, and having hidden it inscribed the name of the reigning king. He knew, as actually happened, that in a very short time the letters would fall away with the plaster and there would be revealed: ' Sostratus of Cnidos, the son of Dexiphanes, to the Divine Saviours, for the sake of them that sail at sea. ' Thus, not even he had regard for the immediate moment or his own brief life - time: he looked to our day and eternity, as long as the tower shall stand and his skill abide. History then should be written in that spirit, with truthfulness and an eye to future expectations rather than with adulation and a view to the pleasure of present praise. ''
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this is a set of programming language statements that together perform a specific task | Procedural programming - wikipedia
Procedural programming is a programming paradigm, derived from structured programming, based upon the concept of the procedure call. Procedures, also known as routines, subroutines, or functions (not to be confused with mathematical functions, but similar to those used in functional programming), simply contain a series of computational steps to be carried out. Any given procedure might be called at any point during a program 's execution, including by other procedures or itself. The first major procedural programming languages first appeared circa 1960, including Fortran, ALGOL, COBOL and BASIC. Pascal and C were published closer to the 1970s, while Ada was released in 1980. Go is an example of a more modern procedural language, first published in 2009.
Computer processors provide hardware support for procedural programming through a stack register and instructions for calling procedures and returning from them. Hardware support for other types of programming is possible, but no attempt was commercially successful (for example Lisp machines or Java processors).
Modularity is generally desirable, especially in large, complicated programs. Inputs are usually specified syntactically in the form of arguments and the outputs delivered as return values.
Scoping is another technique that helps keep procedures modular. It prevents the procedure from accessing the variables of other procedures (and vice versa), including previous instances of itself, without explicit authorization.
Less modular procedures, often used in small or quickly written programs, tend to interact with a large number of variables in the execution environment, which other procedures might also modify.
Because of the ability to specify a simple interface, to be self - contained, and to be reused, procedures are a convenient vehicle for making pieces of code written by different people or different groups, including through programming libraries.
Procedural programming languages are also imperative languages, because they make explicit references to the state of the execution environment. This could be anything from variables (which may correspond to processor registers) to something like the position of the "turtle '' in the Logo programming language.
Often, the terms "procedural programming '' and "imperative programming '' are used synonymously. However, procedural programming relies heavily on blocks and scope, whereas imperative programming as a whole may or may not have such features. As such, procedural languages generally use reserved words that act on blocks, such as if, while, and for, to implement control flow, whereas non-structured imperative languages use goto statements and branch tables for the same purpose.
The focus of procedural programming is to break down a programming task into a collection of variables, data structures, and subroutines, whereas in object - oriented programming it is to break down a programming task into objects that expose behavior (methods) and data (members or attributes) using interfaces. The most important distinction is that while procedural programming uses procedures to operate on data structures, object - oriented programming bundles the two together, so an "object '', which is an instance of a class, operates on its "own '' data structure. The first major Object - oriented programming language built from the ground up is Java in 1995.
Nomenclature varies between the two, although they have similar semantics:
The principles of modularity and code reuse in practical functional languages are fundamentally the same as in procedural languages, since they both stem from structured programming. So for example:
The main difference between the styles is that functional programming languages remove or at least deemphasize the imperative elements of procedural programming. The feature set of functional languages is therefore designed to support writing programs as much as possible in terms of pure functions:
Many functional languages, however, are in fact impurely functional and offer imperative / procedural constructs that allow the programmer to write programs in procedural style, or in a combination of both styles. It is common for input / output code in functional languages to be written in a procedural style.
There do exist a few esoteric functional languages (like Unlambda) that eschew structured programming precepts for the sake of being difficult to program in (and therefore challenging). These languages are the exception to the common ground between procedural and functional languages.
In logic programming, a program is a set of premises, and computation is performed by attempting to prove candidate theorems. From this point of view, logic programs are declarative, focusing on what the problem is, rather than on how to solve it.
However, the backward reasoning technique, implemented by SLD resolution, used to solve problems in logic programming languages such as Prolog, treats programs as goal - reduction procedures. Thus clauses of the form:
have a dual interpretation, both as procedures
and as logical implications:
Experienced logic programmers use the procedural interpretation to write programs that are effective and efficient, and they use the declarative interpretation to help ensure that programs are correct.
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who won the 2016 capital one orange bowl | 2016 Orange Bowl - wikipedia
The 2016 Orange Bowl was a college football bowl game played on December 30, 2016 at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida, played between the Michigan Wolverines of the Big Ten Conference against the Florida State Seminoles of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC)... It was one of the 2016 -- 17 bowl games that concluded the 2016 NCAA Division I FBS football season. Florida State won the game by a score of 33 -- 32. Dalvin Cook, running back for the Seminoles, was named the game 's MVP.
The game was played on the 30th instead of on December 31 or January 1, as the following day 's College Football Playoff semi-final bowls were played with earlier kick - off times that intruded into the New Year 's Six early - afternoon scheduling window.
The teams playing in the Orange Bowl game were the Michigan Wolverines and the Florida State Seminoles
This was the third meeting between the two schools, with the all time series tied at 1 -- 1; the most recent previous meeting was in 1991, when the Seminoles defeated the Wolverines by a score of 51 -- 31 in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The other meeting occurred in 1986 when the Wolverines defeated the Seminoles by a score of 20 -- 18, a game also played in Ann Arbor.
After finishing their regular season with a 10 -- 2 record, the Wolverines were selected to their third Orange Bowl appearance. This will be their 45th bowl game appearance, the 11th - highest total all - time among FBS schools.
After finishing their regular season with a 9 -- 3 record, the Seminoles were selected to their 10th Orange Bowl appearance, the third most Orange Bowl appearances by any team. This will be their 46th bowl game appearance.
Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game.
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list of events for the 2018 winter olympics | 2018 Winter Olympics - wikipedia
The 2018 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XXIII Olympic Winter Games (Korean: 제 23 회 동계 올림픽, translit. Jeisipsamhoe Donggye Ollimpik) and commonly known as PyeongChang 2018, was an international winter multi-sport event that was held between 9 and 25 February 2018 in Pyeongchang County, Gangwon Province, South Korea, with the opening rounds for certain events held on 8 February 2018, the eve of the opening ceremony.
Pyeongchang was elected as the host city in July 2011, during the 123rd IOC Session in Durban, South Africa. This was the first time that South Korea had hosted the Winter Olympics and the second Olympics held in the country overall, after the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. It was the third time that an East Asian country had hosted the Winter Games, after Sapporo (1972) and Nagano (1998), both in Japan. It was also the first of three consecutive Olympics to be held in East Asia, the other two being the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo and the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing.
The Games featured 102 events in fifteen sports, with the addition of "big air '' snowboarding, mass start speed skating, mixed doubles curling, and mixed team alpine skiing to the Winter Olympic programme. 2,914 athletes from 92 NOCs competed, including the debuts of Ecuador, Eritrea, Kosovo, Malaysia, Nigeria and Singapore. After a state - sponsored doping program was exposed following the 2014 Winter Olympics, the Russian Olympic Committee was suspended, and selected athletes were allowed to compete neutrally under the IOC designation of "Olympic Athletes from Russia ''. Despite tense relations, North Korea agreed to participate in the Games, enter with South Korea during the opening ceremony as a unified Korea, and field a unified team in women 's ice hockey.
Norway led the total medal tally with 39, followed by Germany 's 31 and Canada 's 29. Germany and Norway were tied for the most gold medals won; both won fourteen golds. Host nation South Korea won seventeen medals, their highest medal haul at a Winter Olympics, five of which were gold.
Pyeongchang bid to host both the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics, but lost in the final rounds of voting to Vancouver and Sochi respectively.
Munich also launched a bid to host these Games. Prior to Beijing 's successful 2022 Winter Olympics bid, Munich would have become the first city to host both the Winter and the Summer Games, having previously hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics, but received only 25 votes. Annecy (in southeastern France) launched their own bid, which failed to secure public support from the local citizens. Their bid ended up receiving seven votes.
Pyeongchang was elected as the host city at the 123rd IOC Session in Durban in 2011, earning the necessary majority of at least 48 votes in just one round of voting, more votes than its competitors combined. With this, Pyeongchang became the third Asian city to host the Winter Games; the first two were in Japan, at Sapporo (1972) and Nagano (1998).
On 5 August 2011, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced the formation of the Pyeongchang 2018 Coordination Commission. On 4 October 2011, it was announced that the Organizing Committee for the 2018 Winter Olympics would be headed by Kim Jin - sun. The Pyeongchang Organizing Committee for the 2018 Olympic & Paralympic Winter Games (POCOG) was launched at its inaugural assembly on 19 October 2011. The first tasks of the organizing committee were putting together a master plan for the Games as well as forming a design for the venues. The IOC Coordination Commission for the 2018 Winter Olympics made their first visit to Pyeongchang in March 2012. By then, construction was already underway on the Olympic Village. In June 2012, construction began on a high - speed rail line that would connect Pyeongchang to Seoul.
The International Paralympic Committee met for an orientation with the Pyeongchang 2018 organizing committee in July 2012. Then - IOC President Jacques Rogge visited Pyeongchang for the first time in February 2013.
The Pyeongchang Organizing Committee for the 2018 Olympic & Paralympic Winter Games created Pyeongchang WINNERS in 2014 by recruiting university students living in South Korea to spread awareness of the Olympic Games through social networking services and news articles.
The Games ' medal designs were unveiled on 21 September 2017. Designed by Lee Suk - woo, they feature a pattern of diagonal ridges on both sides, with the front including the Olympic rings, and the obverse featuring the Games ' emblem, the event name and the discipline. The edge of the medals features extrusions of hangul alphabets, while the ribbons are made from a traditional South Korean textile.
The torch relay started on 24 October 2017 in Greece and ended at the start of the Olympics on 9 February 2018. On 1 November 2017 the relay entered Korea. The relay lasted 101 days. There were 7,500 torch bearers to represent the Korean population of 75 million people. There were also 2,018 support runners to guard the torch and act as messengers.
The torch and its bearers traveled by a diverse means of transportation, including by turtle ship in Hansando Island, sailboat on the Baengmagang River in Buyeo, marine cable car in Yeosu, zip - wire over Bamseom Island, steam train in the Gokseong Train Village, marine rail bike along the east coast in Samcheok, and by yacht in Busan Metropolitan City.
There were also robot torch relays in Jeju and Daejeon.
Most of the outdoor snow events were held in the county of Pyeongchang, while the downhill, combined and super-G events in the Alpine skiing were held in the neighboring county of Jeongseon. The indoor ice events were held in Pyeongchang 's neighboring city of Gangneung.
The Alpensia Sports Park in Daegwallyeong - myeon, Pyeongchang, was the focus of the 2018 Winter Olympics. It was home to the Olympic Stadium, the Olympic Village and most of the outdoor sports venues.
Additionally, a stand - alone outdoor sports venue was located in Bongpyeong - myeon, Pyeongchang:
Another stand - alone outdoor sports venue was located in Pyeongchang 's neighboring county of Jeongseon:
The Gangneung Olympic Park in the city of Gangneung includes four indoor sports venues, all in close proximity to one another.
Additionally, a stand - alone indoor sports venue was located in the grounds of Catholic Kwandong University.
Ticket prices for the 2018 Winter Olympics were announced in April 2016 and tickets went on sale in October 2016. Event tickets ranged in price from ₩ 20,000 (approx. US $ 18) to ₩ 900,000 (~ US $796) while tickets for the opening and closing ceremonies ranged from ₩ 220,000 (~ US $195) to ₩ 1.5 million (~ US $1327). The exact prices were determined through market research; around 50 % of the tickets were expected to cost about ₩ 80,000 (~ US $71) or less, and tickets in sports that are relatively unknown in the region, such as biathlon and luge, were made cheaper in order to encourage attendance. By contrast, figure skating and the men 's ice hockey gold - medal game carried the most expensive tickets of the Games.
As of 11 October 2017, domestic ticket sales for the Games were reported to be slow. Of the 750,000 seats allocated to South Koreans, only 20.7 % had been sold. International sales were more favorable, with 59.7 % of the 320,000 allocated tickets sold. However, as of 31 January 2018, 77 % of all tickets had been sold.
The opening ceremony of the 2018 Winter Olympics was held at the Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium on 9 February 2018; the US $100 million facility was only intended to be used for the opening and closing ceremonies of these Olympics and the subsequent Paralympics, and is scheduled to be demolished following their conclusion.
The 2018 Winter Olympics featured 102 events in 15 sports, making it the first Winter Olympics to surpass 100 medal events. Six new events in existing sports were introduced to the Winter Olympic program in Pyeongchang, including men 's and ladies ' big air snowboarding, mixed doubles curling, men 's and ladies ' mass start speed skating, and mixed team alpine skiing.
Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of medal events contested in each sport.
A total of 92 teams qualified at least one athlete to compete in the Games. The number of athletes who qualified per country is listed in the table below (number of athletes shown in parentheses). Six nations made their Winter Olympics debut: Ecuador, Eritrea, Kosovo, Malaysia, Nigeria and Singapore. Athletes from three further countries -- the Cayman Islands, Dominica and Peru -- qualified to compete, but all three National Olympic Committees returned the quota spots back to the International Ski Federation (FIS).
Under an historic agreement facilitated by the IOC, qualified athletes from North Korea were allowed to cross the Korean Demilitarized Zone into South Korea to compete in the Games. The two nations marched together under the Korean Unification Flag during the opening ceremony. A unified Korean team, consisting of 12 players from North Korea and 23 from South Korea, competed in the women 's ice hockey tournament under a special IOC country code designation (COR) following talks in Panmunjom on 17 January 2018. The two nations also participated separately: the South Korea team competed in every sport and the North Korea team competed in alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, figure skating and short track speed skating. See North Korea at the 2018 Winter Olympics for further details.
On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced that the Russian Olympic Committee had been suspended due to the Russian doping controversy and the investigation into the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. Individual Russian athletes, who qualified and could demonstrate they had complied with the IOC 's doping regulations, were given the option to compete at the 2018 Games as "Olympic Athletes from Russia '' (OAR) under the Olympic flag and with the Olympic anthem played at any ceremony.
Apart from the respective delegations, North Korea and South Korea formed a unified Korean women 's ice hockey team. Russian athletes participated as Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR) if individually cleared by the IOC.
To accommodate primetime broadcasts in the Americas, figure skating events were scheduled with morning start times; figure skating is one of the most popular Winter Olympic sports among U.S. viewers. This scheduling practice had an impact on the events themselves, including skaters having to adjust to the modified schedule, as well as the attendance levels of the sessions themselves.
Conversely, and somewhat controversially, eight of the eleven biathlon events were scheduled at night, making it necessary for competitors to ski and shoot under floodlights, with colder temperatures and blustery winds.
* Host nation (South Korea)
Three podium sweeps were recorded during the Games.
The closing ceremony of the 2018 Winter Olympics was held at the Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium on 25 February 2018, as Thomas Bach, the IOC president, declared the Games closed, and the cauldron extinguished.
Broadcast rights to the 2018 Winter Olympics in some countries were already sold as part of long - term broadcast rights deals, including the Games ' local rightsholder SBS, which in July 2011 had extended its rights to the Olympics through to 2024. SBS sub-licensed its rights to MBC and KBS.
On 29 June 2015, the IOC announced that Discovery Communications had acquired exclusive rights to the Olympics across all of Europe outside of Russia, from 2018 through to 2024. Discovery 's pan-European Eurosport networks were promoted as the main rightsholder of the Games, but Discovery free - to - air channels such as DMAX in Spain, Kanal 5 in Sweden and TVNorge in Norway, were also involved. Discovery was required to sub-licence at least 100 hours of coverage to free - to - air broadcasters in each market; some of these agreements required certain sports to be exclusive to Eurosport and its affiliated networks. The deal did not initially cover France due to France Télévisions ' rights, which run through to the 2020 Games. In the United Kingdom, Discovery held exclusive pay television rights under license from the BBC, in return for BBC sub-licencing the free - to - air rights to the 2022 and 2024 Olympics from Discovery.
Despite the Russian team being formally banned from competing under its flag in Pyeongchang, Russian state broadcaster Channel One, and sports channel Match TV, still committed to covering the Games with a focus on Russian athletes. Russia was not affected by the Eurosport deal, due to a pre-existing contract held by a marketing agency which runs through to 2024.
In the United States, the Games were once again broadcast by NBCUniversal properties under a long - term contract. As U.S. Eastern Time is fourteen hours behind Pyeongchang, morning events naturally fell within traditional U.S. prime time hours (8: 00 to 11: 00 pm). This allowed NBC to broadcast its prime time coverage live in all U.S. time zones, rather than showing "plausibly live '' delayed footage as they had in previous Olympics. As per previous Games, the ceremonies were still shown on TV via tape delay only, but NBC did, for the first time, offer live streaming of the opening ceremony online. Notably, figure skating events were deliberately scheduled for the morning in Pyeongchang to accommodate the network 's live broadcast to a peak U.S. audience in the evening.
NHK and Olympic Broadcasting Services (OBS) once again filmed portions of the Games, including 90 hours of footage of selected events and the opening ceremonies, in high - dynamic - range 8K resolution video. In South Korea, ATSC 3.0 digital terrestrial television at 4K resolution was introduced in 2017 in time for the Olympics. In the U.S., this footage was delivered in 4K by NBCUniversal parent Comcast to participating television providers, including its own Xfinity, as well as DirecTV and Dish Network. NBC 's Raleigh, North Carolina affiliate WRAL - TV also held demonstration viewings as part of its ATSC 3.0 test broadcasts.
The 2018 Winter Olympics were also used to showcase 5G wireless technologies, as part of a collaboration between domestic wireless sponsor KT, and worldwide sponsor Intel. Several venues were outfitted with 5G networks to facilitate features such as live camera feeds from bobsleds, and multi-camera views from cross-country and figure skating events. These were offered as part of public demonstrations coordinated by KT and Intel.
The emblem for the Games was unveiled on 3 May 2013. It is a stylised representation of the hangul letters ᄑ p and ᄎ ch, these being the initial sounds of 평창 Pyeongchang. The left - hand symbol is said to represent the Korean philosophical triad of heaven, earth and humanity (Korean: 천지인 cheon - ji - in), and the right - hand symbol represents a crystal of ice. In the emblem and all official materials, Pyeongchang was stylised in CamelCase as "PyeongChang '', in order to alleviate potential confusion with Pyongyang, the similarly - named capital of neighbouring North Korea.
The official mascots of the 2018 Winter Olympics and Paralympics were unveiled on 2 June 2016. The Olympic mascot, Soohorang (Korean: 수 호랑), is a white tiger. The mascot 's name is a portmanteau of "Sooho '', a Korean word for "protection '', and "Rang '' which is derived both from the Korean word for "tiger '' and from the name of a traditional Korean folk song originating from Gangwon Province. Tigers have a strong association with Korean culture and folklore.
In June 2017, Ubisoft announced that it would release an expansion pack for its winter sports video game Steep entitled Road to the Olympics, which features new game modes and content inspired by the 2018 Winter Olympics.
In November 2017, the IOC announced it would support and sponsor an Intel Extreme Masters StarCraft II tournament in Pyeongchang preceding the Games. Its support of the tournament as a de facto demonstration event came on the heels of a report by the IOC which recognised that eSports "could be considered as a sporting activity ''. The tournament was won by Sasha "Scarlett '' Hostyn of Canada; she became the second North American pro to place first at a major StarCraft II tournament in South Korea, and the first woman to win a major tournament.
The 2018 Winter Olympics saw increasing granularity in official sponsorships for technology vendors; Intel signed with the IOC to become part of its Worldwide Olympic Partner program, to promote 5G wireless technology, as well as broadcasting technology such as 360 - degree video and virtual reality. Alibaba Group was also named the official e-commerce and cloud services provider. These categories affected how the vendors were allowed to promote themselves within the context of the Olympics: Samsung could showcase VR experiences but only within the context of its own smartphones due to Intel 's sponsorship rights in relation to VR; Alibaba could not promote Alipay due to Visa Inc. sponsorship rights; and Intel could not promote end - user applications of 5G due to national sponsorship rights held by KT Corporation.
Due to the state of relations between North and South Korea, concerns were raised over the security of the 2018 Winter Olympics, especially in the wake of tensions over North Korean missile and nuclear tests. On 20 September 2017, South Korean president Moon Jae - in stated that the country would ensure the security of the Games. The next day, Laura Flessel - Colovic, the French Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports, stated that France would pull out of the Games if the safety of its delegation could not be guaranteed.
The next day, Austria and Germany raised similar concerns and also threatened to skip the Games. France later reaffirmed its participation. In early December 2017, the United States Ambassador to the United Nations, Nikki Haley, told Fox News that it was an "open question '' whether the United States was going to participate in the Games, citing security concerns in the region. However, days later the White House Press Secretary, Sarah Huckabee Sanders, stated that the United States would participate.
In his New Year 's address on 1 January 2018, North Korean leader Kim Jong - un proposed talks in Seoul over the country 's participation in the Games, which would be the first high - level talks between the North and South in over two years. Because of the talks, held on 9 January, North Korea agreed to field athletes in Pyeongchang. On 17 January 2018, it was announced that North and South Korea had agreed to field a unified Korean women 's ice hockey team at the Games, and to enter together under a Korean Unification Flag during the opening ceremony.
These moves were met with opposition in South Korea, including protests and online petitions; critics argued that the government was attempting to use the Olympics to spread pro-North Korean sentiment, and that the unified hockey team would fail. A rap video entitled "The Regret for Pyeongchang '' (평창 유감), which echoed this criticism and called the event the "Pyongyang Olympics '', went viral in the country. Japan 's foreign affairs minister Tarō Kōno warned South Korea to be wary of North Korea 's "charm offensive '', and not to ease its pressure on the country.
The South Korean President, Moon Jae - in, at the start of the Olympics shook hands with the sister of North Korean leader Kim Jong - un and a prominent figure of the regime, Kim Yo - jong. This marked the first time since the Korean War that a member of the ruling Kim dynasty had visited South Korea. In contrast, U.S. vice president Mike Pence met with Fred Warmbier (father of Otto Warmbier, who had died after being released from captivity in North Korea) and a group of North Korean defectors in Pyeongchang. American officials said that North Korea cancelled a meeting with Pence at the last minute.
At the closing ceremony, North Korea sent general Kim Yong - chol as its delegate. His presence was met with hostility from South Korean conservatives, as there were allegations that he had a role in the ROKS Cheonan sinking and other past attacks. The Ministry of Unification stated that "there is a limitation in pinpointing who was responsible for the incident. '' Although he is subject to sanctions, they did not affect his ability to visit the country for the Games.
Russia 's participation in the 2018 Winter Olympics was affected by the aftermath of its state - sponsored doping program. As a result, the IOC suspended the Russian Olympic Committee in December 2017, although Russian athletes whitelisted by the IOC were allowed to compete neutrally under the OAR (Olympic Athletes from Russia) designation. The official sanctions imposed by the IOC included: the exclusion of Russian government officials from the Games; the use of the Olympic flag and Olympic Anthem in place of the Russian flag and anthem; and the submission of a replacement logo for the OAR uniforms.
By early January 2018, the IOC had banned 43 Russian athletes from competing in the 2018 Winter Olympics and all future Olympic Games (as part of the Oswald Commission). Of those athletes, 42 appealed against their bans to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) and 28 of the appeals were successful, but eleven of the athletes had their sanctions upheld due to the weight of evidence against them. The IOC stated that the court ruling did not prove that the 28 athletes were innocent and that they would not necessarily be invited to the 2018 Games. Three of the athletes who appealed are still awaiting their hearings.
The eventual number of neutral Russian athletes that participated at the 2018 Games was 168. These were selected from an original pool of 500 athletes that was put forward for consideration and, in order to receive an invitation to the Games, they were obliged to meet a number of pre-games conditions to rule out any possibility of doping.
Russian president Vladimir Putin and other officials had signalled in the past that it would be a humiliation if Russian athletes were not allowed to compete under the Russian flag. However, there were never actually any official plans to boycott the 2018 Games and in late 2017 the Russian government agreed to allow their athletes to compete at the Games as individuals under a neutral designation. Despite this public show of co-operation, there were numerous misgivings voiced by leading Russian politicians, including a statement from Putin himself saying that he believed the United States had used its influence within the IOC to "orchestrate the doping scandal ''. 86 % of the Russian population opposed participation at the Olympics under a neutral flag, and many Russian fans attended the Games wearing the Russian colours and chanting "Russia! '' in unison, in an act of defiance against the ban.
The IOC 's decision was heavily criticised by Jack Robertson, primary investigator of the Russian doping program on behalf of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), in whose opinion the judgement was commercially and politically motivated. He argued that not only was doping rife amongst Russian athletes but that there was no sign of it being eradicated. The CAS decision to overturn the life bans of 28 Russian athletes and restore their medals was also fiercely criticised, by Olympic officials, IOC president Thomas Bach and whistleblower Grigory Rodchenkov 's lawyer.
For the first time since 1998, the National Hockey League did not provide accommodations (including a break in the season for all teams during the Olympics) to allow its players to participate in the men 's ice hockey tournament. The NHL 's decision stemmed from their demands that the IOC cover the cost of insuring the NHL players who participated in the Games. Although the IOC did pay to insure NHL players in Sochi, the commission was unwilling to do so for Pyeongchang, and was concerned that the NHL 's demand could set a precedent for other professional sports bodies to follow. NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman added that a factor in the decision was that the IOC did not allow the NHL to promote the involvement of its players in the Olympics. The NHL secured the cooperation of the International Ice Hockey Federation and the IOC, who agreed to establish a blacklist forbidding national teams from nominating or accepting players under NHL contract to their Olympic rosters.
Other leagues, such as the Swedish Hockey League, did not close during the games, but teams had to accept that some players took part in the games instead of the league.
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who plays jacob as a kid in lost | Across the Sea (Lost) - Wikipedia
Mark Pellegrino as Jacob Allison Janney as Mother Ryan Bradford as Young Man in Black Lela Loren as Claudia Titus Welliver as Man in Black Kenton Duty as Young Jacob Ivo Nandi as Hunter
"Across the Sea '' is the 15th episode of the American Broadcasting Company 's sixth season of the serial drama television series Lost and 118th episode overall. The episode aired on May 11, 2010, on ABC in the United States. The episode was written by Carlton Cuse & Damon Lindelof and directed by Tucker Gates. The episode is centered on Jacob and The Man in Black. This episode is the second in the season that does not feature a "flash - sideways. ''
The episode, unlike most Lost episodes, does not divide its time between two different time settings, but takes place entirely in the past, except for a brief scene at the end from the season one episode "House of the Rising Sun. '' It depicts the origins of the characters of Jacob (Mark Pellegrino) and his brother, The Man in Black (Titus Welliver), and how they came to be on the island. It also reveals the identities of the corpses discovered in the cave in "House of the Rising Sun. '' None of the series regulars appear in the episode, except in the flashback sequence, making it the only episode of the series in which this occurs.
This is the only episode where the Man in Black appears in his original, human form. In all of his other appearances, he is either in his smoke form or the smoke in the form of a dead person. Although he appears in his own form in "The Incident '' and "Ab Aeterno '', this was an imitation of his original form which by that point was dead.
This episode is notable for receiving a widely mixed opinion, with many commentators alternately considering one of the best or worst episodes of the series.
Washed ashore on the island, a pregnant woman named Claudia (Lela Loren) encounters an unnamed woman (Allison Janney); both of the women speak Latin. The woman helps Claudia give birth to her son, whom Claudia names Jacob (Kenton Duty). Then another boy is born (Ryan Bradford). The woman then kills Claudia with a blow to the head. The woman raises the twins as her own, and tries to keep them ignorant of a world beyond the island. She also convinces them to be distrustful of humanity, which she says she regards as corrupt and dangerous.
At age 13, Jacob 's brother (the future Man in Black) finds a Senet game, containing polished black and white pieces. Jacob asks about the box and his brother tells him it 's a game for which he "just knows '' the rules. He asks Jacob to keep the box a secret from the woman, but Jacob reveals it to her as she appears to know there is a secret. The woman confronts Jacob 's brother and claims that she left the box for him, musing to him that "Jacob does n't know how to lie... he 's not like you. '' She allays the accusation by telling the young Man in Black that he is "special. '' He suggests that the box came from somewhere else, across the sea. The woman responds, "There is nowhere else. '' When the young Man in Black persists in asking about his origins, the woman explains that she came from her own mother who is now dead. When he asks "What is dead? '' the woman explains, "Something you 'll never have to worry about. ''
After following a boar some distance from their camp, Jacob and his brother discover that other people are on the island. The woman warns the brothers that the other people "are not like us. We are here for a reason. '' Then she worriedly expresses out loud that "it 's not time yet '' and reluctantly decides to show the brothers a mysterious, hidden tunnel filled with light and an underground stream. She tells them that one of them will eventually be its caretaker, and that she "made it so you (the two boys) can never hurt each other. '' Upon seeing the light - filled tunnel, the woman explains that the light is "the warmest, brightest light you 've ever felt. And we must make sure no one ever finds it. '' She goes on to explain that, "A little bit of this very same light is inside of every man, and they always want more. '' And then she finally warns, "If the light goes out here, it goes out everywhere. ''
Soon after, the brothers are playing the box game and Jacob is frustrated at his brother 's selfish rules for the game. The young Man in Black explains, "One day you can make up your own game, and everyone else will have to follow your rules. '' Suddenly a vision of Claudia appears and asks the young Man in Black to follow her. Jacob can not see her, so his brother excuses himself and follows Claudia into the jungle. She reveals to the young Man in Black that she is his and Jacob 's birth mother and that the other people came to the island with her, 13 years earlier. After his discussion with Claudia, the young Man in Black confronts the woman about Claudia 's claims, and attempts to convince Jacob to join the other people on the island with him. However, Jacob refuses and stays with the woman.
Over the course of the next 30 years, Jacob (Mark Pellegrino) visits his brother (Titus Welliver) at the camp he shares with the other people. The Man in Black, while he believes the people are corrupt, stays with them as a "means to an end, '' and when Jacob asks, "What end? '', he replies "I 'm leaving, Jacob. '' He reveals that together with other scientifically curious men, they have discovered a way to leave the island by harnessing its strange properties. This was accomplished by digging wells in spots where "metal behaves strangely. '' The Man in Black invites Jacob to leave with him, but Jacob refuses to leave the island or the woman.
When the woman hears of what the Man in Black is doing, she visits him and learns that he and the others have constructed a giant wheel down a well. He tells her that his people have dug into the light from other locations on the island, and that they plan to create a system that will allow them to tap into its energy, and use it to leave the island. Upon hearing this, she smashes the Man in Black 's head, rendering him unconscious. Later, the Man in Black awakens outside the well site, and discovers that the people in the camp have been massacred; the well has been completely filled in with earth.
Meanwhile, the woman shows Jacob the tunnel of light again, explaining that it leads to "Life, death, rebirth; the source, the heart of the island, '' and that Jacob has "no choice '' but to take care of it now. She also warns Jacob never to enter the tunnel, as doing so would cause a fate worse than death. Jacob reluctantly drinks a wine that the woman pours and then she proclaims, "Now you and I are the same. ''
Enraged by her actions, the Man in Black stabs the woman in her camp through the back and asks why she would n't let him leave the island. She replies, "Because I love you. '' Appearing relieved and calm with her fast approaching death, the woman says "Thank You '' and dies. Jacob retaliates by beating his brother, and throwing him into the stream leading down the tunnel of light. The Man in Black is sucked into the tunnel and the smoke monster emerges in his place, disappearing into the treetops above. Jacob then finds the Man in Black 's physical body and places it with the woman 's in the cave where she had been living with Jacob, along with a pouch containing the black and white stones they used in the box game.
In a repeat of a scene from the first season now in a new context, the corpses and the stones are found centuries later by Jack Shephard (Matthew Fox) and Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly), and dubbed Adam and Eve by John Locke (Terry O'Quinn).
"Across the Sea '' is one of the most polarizing episodes of Lost. Writers Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse said on their podcast that even they were shocked by fans ' reaction to the episode, stating they had received comments ranging from saying "This is one of the best episodes ever '' to "You ruined Lost ''. The episode received mixed reviews from critics, and a divided reaction from fans. Review aggregator website Metacritic gave the episode a score of 58 out of 100, indicating "Mixed or Average Reviews ''. The score was down on the previous episode 's score of 92 and is the lowest rated episode of the season. Teresa Kiessling of NPD, said "Now we just need to learn the origin of their Mother, '' and indicated that the episode did little to satisfy viewer 's curiosity surrounding the origins of Jacob and Man In Black. Noel Murray of The A.V. Club stated "I have only one real criticism of "Across The Sea, '' and it 's that when Lost deals directly with the transcendental -- rather than just glancing at it -- the show can get awfully gooey, and painfully blunt. '' Todd VanDerWerff of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "One part of me, the TV critic part, the part that dissects these things and picks them apart and looks for things to dislike about them, mostly really liked the episode, aside from a few niggling points. '' Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly stated "Across The Sea '' was "an unconventional outing that deserves props for benching its stars to give us a story that felt absolutely necessary for establishing the Big Picture context for the final act that is at last upon us. '' Chris Carabott of IGN gave the episode a score of 6.8, saying that he felt frustrated that at this point of the show, it is n't giving many answers.
Some critics were very disappointed with the episode. James Poniewozik of Time stated "' Across the Sea ' took a series that is deeply and richly psychological and character - based and moved it into the realm of the allegorical. '' Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune stated "For a lot of reasons, this was not an episode that goes in the Win column. It was actually seriously disappointing, if not disheartening. ''
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when did the lakers last won a championship | Los Angeles Lakers - wikipedia
The Los Angeles Lakers are an American professional basketball team based in Los Angeles. The Lakers compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA), as a member of the league 's Western Conference Pacific Division. The Lakers play their home games at Staples Center, an arena shared with the NBA 's Los Angeles Clippers, the Los Angeles Sparks of the Women 's National Basketball Association, and the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League. The Lakers are one of the most successful teams in the history of the NBA, and have won 16 NBA championships (11 in Los Angeles), their last being in 2010. As of 2017, the Lakers are the second most valuable franchise in the NBA according to Forbes, having an estimated value of $3.0 billion.
The franchise began with the 1947 purchase of a disbanded team, the Detroit Gems of the National Basketball League (NBL). The new team began playing in Minneapolis, calling themselves the Minneapolis Lakers in honor of the state 's nickname, "Land of 10,000 Lakes ''. Initially a member of the NBL, the Lakers won the 1948 NBL championship before joining the rival Basketball Association of America and winning five of the next six BAA and NBA championships in Minneapolis after the NBA formed in 1949. The team was propelled by center George Mikan, who is described by the NBA 's official website as the league 's "first superstar ''. After struggling financially in the late 1950s following Mikan 's retirement, they relocated to Los Angeles before the 1960 -- 61 season.
Led by Hall of Famers Elgin Baylor and Jerry West, Los Angeles made the NBA Finals six times in the 1960s, but lost each series to the Boston Celtics, beginning their long and storied rivalry. In 1968, the Lakers acquired four - time NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) Wilt Chamberlain to play center, and after losing in the Finals in 1969 and 1970, they won their sixth NBA title -- and first in Los Angeles -- in 1972, led by new head coach Bill Sharman. After the retirement of West and Chamberlain, the team acquired another center, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, who had won multiple MVP awards, but was unable to make the Finals in the late 1970s. The 1980s Lakers were nicknamed "Showtime '' due to their Magic Johnson - led fast break - offense, and won five championships in a 9 - year span, including their first ever Finals championship against the Celtics in 1985. This team featured Hall of Famers in Johnson, Abdul - Jabbar, and James Worthy, and a Hall of Fame coach, Pat Riley. After Abdul - Jabbar and Johnson 's retirement, the team struggled in the early 1990s before acquiring Shaquille O'Neal and Kobe Bryant in 1996. Led by O'Neal, Bryant, and another Hall of Fame coach, Phil Jackson, Los Angeles won three consecutive titles between 2000 to 2002, securing the franchise its second "three - peat ''. After losing both the 2004 and 2008 NBA Finals, the Lakers won two more championships by defeating the Orlando Magic in 2009 and Boston in 2010.
The Lakers hold the record for NBA 's longest winning streak, 33 straight games, set during the 1971 -- 72 season. 21 Hall of Famers have played for Los Angeles, while four have coached the team. Four Lakers -- Abdul - Jabbar, Johnson, O'Neal, and Bryant -- have won the NBA MVP Award for a total of eight awards.
The Lakers ' franchise began in 1947 when Ben Berger and Morris Chalfen of Minnesota purchased the recently disbanded Detroit Gems of the National Basketball League (NBL) for $15,000 from Gems owner Maury Winston. Minneapolis sportswriter Sid Hartman played a key behind the scenes role in helping put together the deal and later the team. Inspired by Minnesota 's nickname, "Land of 10,000 Lakes '', the team christened themselves the Lakers. Hartman helped them hire John Kundla from College of St. Thomas, to be their first head coach, by meeting with him and selling him on the team.
The Lakers had a solid roster, which featured forward Jim Pollard, playmaker Herm Schaefer, and center George Mikan, who became the most dominant player in the NBL. In their first season, they led the league with a 43 -- 17 record, later winning the NBL Championship that season.
In 1948, the Lakers moved from the NBL to the Basketball Association of America (BAA), and Mikan 's 28.3 point per game (ppg) scoring average set a BAA record. In the 1949 BAA Finals they won the championship, beating the Washington Capitols four games to two. The following season, the team improved to 51 -- 17, repeating as champions. In the 1950 -- 51 season, Mikan won his third straight scoring title at 28.4 ppg and the Lakers went 44 -- 24 to win their second straight division title. One of those games, a 19 -- 18 loss against the Fort Wayne Pistons, became infamous as the lowest scoring game in NBA history. In the playoffs, they defeated the Indianapolis Olympians in three games but lost to the Rochester Royals in the next round.
During the 1951 -- 52 season, the Lakers won 40 games, finishing second in their division. They faced the New York Knicks in the NBA Finals, which they won in seven games. In the 1952 -- 53 season, Mikan led the NBA in rebounding, averaging 14.4 rebounds per game (rpg), and was named MVP of the 1953 NBA All - Star Game. After a 48 -- 22 regular season, the Lakers defeated the Fort Wayne Pistons in the Western playoffs to advance to the NBA Finals. They then defeated the New York Knicks to win their second straight championship. Though Lakers star George Mikan suffered from knee problems throughout the 1953 -- 54 season, he was still able to average 18 ppg. Clyde Lovellette, who was drafted in 1952, helped the team win the Western Division. The team won its third straight championship in the 1950s and fifth in six seasons when it defeated the Syracuse Nationals in seven games.
Following Mikan 's retirement in the 1954 off - season, the Lakers struggled but still managed to win 40 games. Although they defeated the Rochester Royals in the first round of the playoffs, they were defeated by the Fort Wayne Pistons in the semifinals. Although they had losing records the next two seasons, they made the playoffs each year. Mikan came back for the last half of the 1955 -- 56 season, but struggled and retired for good after the season. Led by Lovellette 's 20.6 points and 13.5 rebounds, they advanced to the Conference Finals in 1956 -- 57. The Lakers had one of the worst seasons in team history in 1957 -- 58 when they won a league - low 19 games. They had hired Mikan, who had been the team 's general manager for the previous two seasons, as head coach to replace Kundla. Mikan was fired in January when the team was 9 -- 30, and Kundla was rehired.
The Lakers earned the top pick in the 1958 NBA draft and used it to select Elgin Baylor. Baylor, who was named NBA Rookie of the Year and co-MVP of the 1959 NBA All - Star Game, averaged 24.9 ppg and 15.0 rpg helping the Lakers improve to second in their division despite a 33 -- 39 record. After upsetting the Hawks in six games in the division finals, they returned to the NBA Finals, but were swept by the Celtics, beginning their long rivalry.
In their last year in Minneapolis, the Lakers went 25 -- 50. On January 18, 1960, the team was coming off a loss and traveling to St. Louis when their plane crash - landed. Snow storms had driven the pilot 150 miles off course when he was forced to land in a cornfield. No one was hurt. Their record earned them the number two pick in the 1960 NBA draft. The team selected Jerry West from West Virginia University. During the 1960 off - season, the Lakers became the NBA 's first West Coast team when owner Bob Short decided to move the team to Los Angeles. Led by Baylor 's 34.8 ppg and 19.8 rpg, Los Angeles won 11 more than the year before in West 's first season. On November 15 that season, Baylor set a new NBA scoring record when he scored 71 points in a victory against the New York Knicks while grabbing 25 rebounds. In doing so, Baylor broke his own NBA record of 64 points. Despite a losing record, the Lakers made the playoffs. They came within two points of the NBA Finals when they lost in game seven of their second round series against St. Louis.
Led by Baylor and West at 38.3 and 30.8 ppg respectively, the Lakers improved to 54 -- 26 in 1961 -- 62, and made the finals. In a game five victory, Baylor grabbed 22 rebounds and set the still - standing NBA record for points in a finals game with 61, despite fouling out of the game. The Lakers, however, lost to the Celtics by three points in overtime of game seven. Frank Selvy, after making two jumpers in the final 40 seconds to tie the game, missed a potential game - winning 18 foot jump shot in regulation, a miss which he said in June 2010 still haunted him more than 40 years later.
Los Angeles won 53 games in 1962 -- 63, behind Baylor 's 34.0 ppg and West 's 27.1 ppg but lost in the NBA Finals in six games to the Celtics. After falling to 42 -- 38 and losing in the first round of the 1964 NBA Playoffs to the Hawks, the team won 49 games in 1964 -- 65. The Lakers surged past the Baltimore Bullets in the division finals, behind West 's record - setting 46.3 ppg in the series. They lost again to Celtics in the Finals however, this time in five games.
Los Angeles lost in the finals to Boston in seven games again in 1966, this time by two points. Down by 16 entering the fourth quarter, and 10 with a minute and a half to go, the Lakers mounted a furious rally in the closing moments, which fell just short. After dropping to 36 wins and losing in the first round of the 1967 NBA Playoffs, they lost in the finals to the Celtics again in 1968. Los Angeles moved to a brand - new arena, The Forum, in 1967, after playing seven seasons at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena.
On July 9, 1968, the team acquired Wilt Chamberlain from the Philadelphia 76ers for Darrell Imhoff, Archie Clark, and Jerry Chambers. In his first season as a Laker, Chamberlain set a team record by averaging a league - leading 21.1 rpg. West, Baylor, and Chamberlain each averaged over 20 points, and Los Angeles won their division. The Lakers and Celtics again met in the finals, and Los Angeles had home court advantage against Boston for the first time in their rivalry. They won the first game behind Jerry West 's 53 points, and had a 3 -- 2 lead after five. Boston won the series in seven games however, and earned their 11th NBA Championship in 13 seasons. West was named the first - ever Finals MVP; this remains the only time that a member of the losing team has won the award. In 1970, West won his first scoring title at 31.2 ppg, the team returned to the finals, and for the first time in 16 years, they did not have to face the Celtics; instead playing the New York Knicks, who defeated them 4 -- 3. The next season the Lakers were defeated by the Milwaukee Bucks, led by future Laker Lew Alcindor (now known as Kareem Abdul - Jabbar) in the Western Conference Finals.
The 1971 -- 72 season brought several changes. Owner Jack Kent Cooke brought in Bill Sharman as head coach, and Elgin Baylor announced his retirement early in the season after realizing that his legs were not healthy enough. Sharman increased the team 's discipline. He introduced the concept of the shootaround, where players would arrive at the arena early in the morning before a game to practice shots. They won 14 straight games in November and all 16 games played in December. They won three straight to open the year of 1972 but on January 9, the Milwaukee Bucks ended their winning streak by defeating the Lakers, 120 -- 104. By winning 33 straight games, Los Angeles set a record for longest winning streak of any team in American professional sports. The Lakers won 69 games that season, which stood as the NBA record for 24 years until the Chicago Bulls won 72 games in 1995 -- 96. Chamberlain averaged a low 14.8 points but led the league in rebounding at 19.2 a game. West 's 9.7 assists per game (apg) led the league, he also averaged more than 25 points, and was named MVP of the 1972 NBA All - Star Game. The team failed to score 100 points just once all year, and at the end of the season, Bill Sharman was named Coach of the Year. The Lakers went on to reach the finals against the New York Knicks where they would avenge their 1970 finals loss by defeating them 4 games to 1. Chamberlain tallied 24 points and 29 rebounds in game five and won the NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award.
The Lakers won 60 games in the 1972 -- 73 NBA season, and took another Pacific Division title. Wilt Chamberlain, playing in his final season, again led the league in rebounding and set the still standing NBA record for field - goal percentage at 72.7 %. The team defeated the Chicago Bulls in seven games in the conference semifinals, then the Golden State Warriors in five in the Western Division Finals. They played the New York Knicks in the 1973 NBA Finals. Los Angeles took the first game by three points, but New York won the series in five games.
During the 1973 -- 74 season, the team was hampered by the loss of West, who played only 31 games before his legs gave out. Goodrich, averaging 25.3 points, helped the team to a late - season surge. Trailing the Golden State Warriors by three games with seven left to play, the Lakers rallied to finish 47 -- 35 and win the Pacific Division. They made the playoffs but managed just one win against Milwaukee in the conference semifinals. Following the season, West retired due to contract disagreements with Cooke, and filed a suit for unpaid back wages.
After missing the playoffs in the 1974 -- 75 season, the Lakers acquired Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, who had won three league MVP 's by that time. Abdul - Jabbar wanted out of Milwaukee, demanding a trade to either New York or Los Angeles. He was traded for Elmore Smith, Brian Winters, Junior Bridgeman, and Dave Meyers. Abdul - Jabbar had his fourth MVP season in 1975 -- 76, leading the league in rebounding, blocked shots, and minutes played. The Lakers struggled in January, going 3 -- 10, and finished out of the playoffs at 40 -- 42.
West and Cooke settled their differences -- and the former Laker 's lawsuit -- and Cooke hired him to replace Sharman as the team 's coach. West became upset, however, when Cooke refused to spend the money necessary to acquire forward Julius Erving, who the Nets were selling. Behind another MVP season from Abdul - Jabbar, Los Angeles won the Pacific Division, finishing the 1976 -- 77 season a league - best 53 -- 29. They defeated the Warriors in a seven - game series to open the postseason before being swept by Portland in the Western Conference Finals. During the offseason, Los Angeles picked up Jamaal Wilkes from Golden State and signed first - round draft pick Norm Nixon. In the first two minutes of the first game of the 1977 -- 78 season, Abdul - Jabbar punched Bucks center Kent Benson for an overly aggressive elbow and broke his hand. Two months later, a healthy Abdul - Jabbar got into an altercation with Houston Rockets center Kevin Kunnert after a rebound. The team 's starting power forward, Kermit Washington, who was averaging 11.5 points and 11.2 rebounds, entered the fight, and when Rudy Tomjanovich ran in from the bench to break up the action, Washington punched him in the face. Tomjanovich nearly died from the punch, suffering a fractured skull and other facial injuries, which prematurely ended his playing career. Washington, who stated that he assumed Tomjanovich was a combatant, was suspended for two months by the NBA, and released by the Lakers. The team won 45 games despite being down a starter in Washington and not having Abdul - Jabbar for nearly two months, but lost in the first round of the playoffs to Seattle. During the 1978 -- 79 season, the team posted a 47 -- 35 record but lost to the SuperSonics in the semifinal round of the playoffs.
In the 1979 NBA draft, Los Angeles selected 6 - foot, 9 - inch point guard Magic Johnson from Michigan State with the first overall pick. It took Johnson 's teammates time to acclimate themselves to his passing ability, as his "no - look '' passes often caught them unaware. Once they adjusted, his passing became a key part of Los Angeles ' offense. The Lakers won 60 games in Johnson 's rookie year, and defeated the Philadelphia 76ers in six games in the 1980 NBA Finals. Johnson won the Finals MVP award, after starting at center for the injured Abdul - Jabbar in game six, and tallying 42 points, 15 rebounds, and seven assists. The team fell off in the 1980 -- 81 season, though, as the Lakers lost Johnson for most of the season to a knee injury. The team turned in a 54 -- 28 record and finished second behind the Phoenix Suns in the Pacific Division. The Rockets, led by Moses Malone, defeated Los Angeles in the first round of the playoffs.
Early in the 1981 -- 82 season, Johnson complained to the media about head coach Paul Westhead and demanded a trade. Westhead was fired shortly after Johnson 's criticisms, and although Lakers ' owner Jerry Buss stated that Johnson 's comments did not factor into the decision, Johnson was vilified by the national media and booed both on the road and at home. Buss promoted assistant coach Pat Riley to "co-head coach '' with Jerry West (although West considered himself Riley 's assistant) on November 19 and the team won 17 of its next 20 games. Nicknamed "Showtime '' due to the team 's new Johnson - led fast break - offense, the Lakers won the Pacific Division title and swept both the Suns and Spurs in the 1982 playoffs. Los Angeles stretched its postseason winning streak to nine games by taking the first contest of the NBA Finals from the 76ers. The team won the Finals 4 -- 2 to finish a 12 -- 2 playoff run. On draft night in 1982, the Lakers had the first overall pick (the result of a trade with Cleveland midway through the 1979 -- 80 season, when the Lakers had sent Don Ford and a 1980 first - round pick to the Cavaliers for Butch Lee and their 1982 selection) and selected James Worthy from North Carolina. The Lakers won the Pacific Division at 58 -- 24, but Worthy suffered a leg injury in the last week of the season and missed the rest of the season. Nevertheless, they advanced to play Philadelphia in the 1983 NBA Finals after defeating Portland and San Antonio. The Sixers, however, won the series and the championship in four games. After the season West replaced Sharman as the team 's GM.
In the 1983 -- 84 season, Los Angeles went 54 -- 28, and played Boston in the Finals for the first time since 1969. The Lakers won two of the first three games. However, Kevin McHale 's hard clothesline foul of Lakers forward Kurt Rambis on a fast break is credited as a turning point of the series. Boston won three of the next four to win the title and send Los Angeles 's record to 0 -- 8 in Finals series against the Celtics.
Using the past year 's Finals defeat as motivation, the team won the Pacific Division for the fourth straight year and lost just two games in the Western Conference playoffs. In the NBA Finals, the Celtics were again the Lakers ' final hurdle. Los Angeles lost game one of the NBA Finals by a score of 148 -- 114, in what is remembered as the "Memorial Day Massacre ''. The Lakers, behind 38 - year - old Finals MVP Abdul - Jabbar, recovered to defeat the Celtics in six games. The team won the title in the Boston Garden, becoming the only visiting team to ever win an NBA championship there.
In the 1985 -- 86 season, the Lakers started 24 -- 3 and went on to win 62 games and their fifth straight division title. The Rockets, however, defeated the Lakers in five games in the Western Conference Finals. Houston won the series when Ralph Sampson hit a 20 - foot jumper as time expired in game five at The Forum.
Prior to the 1986 -- 87 season, the Lakers moved A.C. Green into the starting lineup, and acquired Mychal Thompson from the Spurs. Johnson won his first career MVP Award while leading the Lakers to a 65 -- 17 record, and Michael Cooper was named NBA Defensive Player of the Year. Before the season, Riley had made the decision to shift the focus of the offense to Johnson over the 40 - year - old Abdul - Jabbar. The Lakers advanced to the NBA Finals by sweeping the Nuggets, defeating the Warriors in five games, and sweeping the SuperSonics in the Western Conference Finals. The Lakers defeated Boston in the first two games of the Finals, and the teams split the next four games, giving Los Angeles their second championship in three seasons. The series was highlighted by Johnson 's running "baby hook '' shot to win game four at Boston Garden with two seconds remaining. Johnson was named the NBA Finals MVP, in addition to regular - season MVP. At the Lakers ' championship celebration in Los Angeles, coach Riley brashly declared that Los Angeles would repeat as NBA champions, which no team had done since the 1968 -- 69 Boston Celtics.
Looking to make good on Riley 's promise in the 1987 -- 88 season, the Lakers took their seventh consecutive Pacific Division title with a 62 -- 20 record. They swept the Spurs in the first round of the Western Conference Finals before pulling out a tough seven - game series win over the Utah Jazz led by youngsters Karl Malone and John Stockton. A seven - game Western Conference finals win over the Dallas Mavericks propelled the Lakers to the NBA Finals once again. In their seventh trip to the Finals in nine years, they met the Detroit Pistons. Los Angeles would take the series in seven games, and James Worthy 's game seven triple - double earned him a Finals MVP award. The win marked their fifth title in nine years, but would also mark their last title until 2000.
In the 1988 -- 89 season, Los Angeles won 57 games and their eighth consecutive Pacific Division crown. They swept the through the playoffs defeating Portland, Seattle, and Phoenix. In eighth trip to the NBA Finals in 10 years, they once again faced the Detroit Pistons. Hampered by injuries to Byron Scott and Johnson, the Lakers were swept by Detroit.
Following the 1989 Finals, on June 28, 1989, after 20 professional seasons, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar announced his retirement. The Lakers still cruised through the Pacific Division, winning their ninth consecutive division crown with a 63 -- 19 record. However, after beating the Rockets in the first round, they lost four games to one in the second round of the playoffs to the Suns. Riley announced he was stepping down after the season citing burnout, and was replaced by Mike Dunleavy. Riley 's departure received a mixed reaction from the players. They respected his contributions, but some, such as Worthy and Scott, had grown tired of his intense practices and felt he tried to take too much credit for the team 's successes. Following the season, 1987 Defensive Player of the Year winner Michael Cooper decided to play in Europe and was waived at his request.
The 1990 -- 91 Lakers failed to win the Pacific Division for the first time in 10 years, but still finished with a 58 -- 24 record. After cruising through the Western Conference playoffs, the Lakers found themselves in the NBA Finals once again, their ninth trip to the Finals in 12 years. The 1991 Finals represented a changing of the guard as the Lakers were defeated in five games by the Chicago Bulls, led by superstar Michael Jordan.
On November 7, 1991, Magic Johnson announced he had tested positive for HIV and would retire immediately.
In their first season without Johnson, the team won 43 games to earn the eight seed in the Western Conference playoffs. The Lakers became the first eighth seed to win the opening two games on the road against a number one seed when they took a 2 -- 0 lead versus Phoenix. They lost the next two games at home however, then game five in Phoenix in overtime. Following the season head coach Mike Dunleavy was fired.
The Lakers would lose 43 games in 1992 -- 93 under Randy Pfund, their first losing season since 1976. The Lakers would still make the playoffs, but were bounced in the first round. During the 1993 -- 94 season, Pfund was fired during the season that would result in the Lakers failing to make the playoffs for the first time since 1976. Magic Johnson, would coach the final 16 games of the season with former teammate Michael Cooper as his lead assistant. Johnson decided not to take the job permanently due to what he felt was a lack of commitment from certain players, and Los Angeles ended the season with a 10 - game losing streak to finish 33 -- 49.
Under new coach Del Harris, Los Angeles made the playoffs each of the next two seasons, but was eliminated in the second and first rounds respectively. The team was led by young guards Nick Van Exel and Eddie Jones. Johnson came out of retirement to return as a player in the 1995 -- 96 season to lead the then 24 -- 18 Lakers to a 29 -- 11 finish. After some run - ins with Van Exel, displeasure with Harris 's strategies, and a first round loss to the Rockets, Johnson decided to retire for the final time after the season.
During the 1996 off - season, the Lakers acquired 17 - year - old Kobe Bryant from the Charlotte Hornets for Vlade Divac; Bryant was drafted 13th overall out of Lower Merion High School in Ardmore, Pennsylvania in that year 's draft, by Charlotte. Los Angeles also signed free - agent Shaquille O'Neal. Trading for Bryant was West 's idea, and he was influential in the team 's signing of the all - star center. "Jerry West is the reason I came to the Lakers '', O'Neal later said. They used their 24th pick in the 1996 draft to select Derek Fisher. During the season, the team traded Cedric Ceballos to Phoenix for Robert Horry. O'Neal led the team to a 56 -- 26 record, their best effort since 1990 -- 91, despite missing 31 games due to a knee injury. O'Neal averaged 26.2 ppg and 12.5 rpg and finished third in the league in blocked shots (2.88 bpg) in 51 games. The Lakers defeated the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round of the playoffs as O'Neal scored 46 points in Game 1 against the Trail Blazers, marking the highest single - game playoff scoring output by a Laker since Jerry West scored 53 against the Celtics in 1969. In the next round, the Lakers lost in five games to the Utah Jazz.
In the 1997 -- 98 season, O'Neal and the Lakers had the best start in franchise history, 11 -- 0. O'Neal would miss 20 games on the season due to an abdominal injury. Los Angeles battled Seattle for the Pacific Division title most of the season. In the final two months, the Lakers won 22 of their final 25 games, finishing 61 -- 21, but still finished second to Seattle in the standings. The Lakers defeated Portland three games to one in the first roundto advance to face Seattle. Although the Sonics won the first game, the Lakers responded with four straight wins, taking the series, but were swept by the Jazz in the Western Conference Finals.
During the 1998 -- 99 season, All - Star guard Eddie Jones and center Elden Campbell were traded to the Charlotte Hornets. The team also acquired J.R. Reid, B.J. Armstrong, and Glen Rice. Head coach Del Harris was fired in February after a three - game losing streak and replaced on an interim basis by former Laker Kurt Rambis. The team finished 31 -- 19 in the strike - shortened season, which was fourth in the Western Conference. The Lakers defeated Houston in the first round of the playoffs, but were swept by San Antonio in the next round. Game four of the series would be the last game ever played at the Great Western Forum.
Before the 1999 -- 2000 season, West was prepared to hire Rambis as the team 's full - time coach before an outcry from fans and members of the organization caused him to seek out a bigger name. Los Angeles hired former Chicago Bulls coach Phil Jackson, who had coached that team to six championships, and gave him a lucrative $6 million a year contract. He brought along assistant Tex Winter and they installed Winter 's version of the triangle offense. The Lakers signed veterans Brian Shaw, John Salley, Ron Harper, and A.C. Green, who was a Laker during the "Showtime '' era. The team also moved to a new arena, the Staples Center.
Led by league MVP O'Neal, the Lakers won 31 of their first 36 games. They finished 67 -- 15, the highest win total since they won 65 in the 1986 -- 87 season. The eliminated Sacramento and Phoenix in the first two rounds of the playoffs. After the Lakers took a three games to one lead in the Western Conference Finals against Portland, the Trail Blazers won the next two games to force a game seven. The Lakers, who trailed by 15 points in the fourth quarter, would go on 19 -- 4 run to tie the game and eventually win 89 -- 84 to advance to the NBA Finals. In their first trip to the Finals since 1991, the Lakers defeated Reggie Miller and the Indiana Pacers four games to two win their first title since 1988. West retired from his spot in the team 's front office after the season after a power struggle between him and Jackson over control of the team 's operations. After the season, starters Rice and Green left the team, and Los Angeles signed Horace Grant.
The following season, the Lakers won 11 fewer regular season games than the prior year, but swept the first three rounds of the playoffs, defeating the Portland, Sacramento, and San Antonio. They met Allen Iverson and the Philadelphia 76ers in the NBA Finals. Although the Sixers took game one in overtime, the Lakers won the next four games to win their second straight title. Their 15 -- 1 postseason record was the best in NBA history until the Golden State Warriors broke it in 2017.
The Lakers won 58 games in 2001 -- 02. In the playoffs, they swept Portland and defeated San Antonio four games to one to advance to the Western Conference Finals to face Sacramento. The series would go on to be known as one of the greatest playoff matchups in NBA history. The series extended to all seven games, and ended in a Lakers victory. In game one, Bryant scored 30 points as the Lakers won, 106 -- 99. The series would then shift in Sacramento 's favor, with the Kings winning the next two games. Facing a deficit in game 4, the Lakers had the ball with under 20 seconds to play. After misses by both Bryant and O'Neal, Kings center Vlade Divac tapped the ball away from the rim in an attempt to wind down the clock. It went straight into Robert Horry 's hands, who drained a game - winning three with under three seconds to play. After the Kings won game five on a buzzer beater by Mike Bibby, the Lakers were faced with a must - win game six. In one of the most controversial playoff games in league history (Tim Donaghy scandal), the Lakers would win by four points. The Lakers went on to win game seven in overtime, with the Kings missing numerous potentially game - saving shots and free throws. The Lakers then achieved a three - peat by sweeping Jason Kidd and the New Jersey Nets in the NBA Finals. O'Neal won each of the Finals series ' MVP awards, making him the only player besides Michael Jordan to win three consecutive Finals MVPs.
The Lakers would attempt a four - peat the following year, but started the 2002 -- 03 season 11 -- 19. However, they finished the season 39 -- 13 to finish 50 -- 32. They defeated Minnesota in the first round of the playoffs, but the four - peat attempt ended as they were eliminated by San Antonio in six games in the second round.
During the 2003 -- 04 season, the team was the subject of intense media coverage generated by the teaming of four stars and the sexual - assault case involving Kobe Bryant. Before the season, the Lakers signed two - time MVP Karl Malone formerly of the Jazz, and former Seattle Defensive Player of the Year Gary Payton to join O'Neal and Bryant. Three of the "big four '', however, struggled with injuries: O'Neal suffered from a strained calf, Malone an injured knee, and Bryant an injured shoulder. The Lakers started 18 -- 3 and finished 56 -- 26 and won the Pacific Division title, entering the playoffs as the No. 2 seed. They defeated Houston, San Antonio, and Minnesota to advance to the NBA Finals. In the Finals, they would fall to Detroit in five games.
During the 2004 offseason, the team entered a rebuilding phase when O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom, Brian Grant, Caron Butler, and a first - round draft pick. Bryant and O'Neal had clashed in the past, and the media credited their feud as one of the motivating factors for the trade. Jackson did not return as head coach, and wrote a book about the team 's 2003 -- 04 season, in which he heavily criticized Bryant and called him "uncoachable ''. The Lakers front office said that the book contained "several inaccuracies ''.
The Lakers also traded Rick Fox and Gary Payton to Boston, for Chris Mihm, Marcus Banks, and Chucky Atkins before the 2004 -- 05 season. Derek Fisher, frustrated with losing playing time, opted out of his contract and signed with the Warriors. The team hired Rudy Tomjanovich to replace Jackson. After sitting out the first half of the 2004 -- 05 season, Malone announced his retirement on February 13, 2005. Tomjanovich coached the team to a 22 -- 19 record before resigning due to health problems. Assistant Frank Hamblen was named interim head coach to replace Tomjanovich for the remainder of the season. Bryant (ankle) and Odom (shoulder) suffered injuries, and the Lakers finished 34 -- 48, missing the playoffs for only the fifth time in franchise history and the first time since 1995.
With the 10th overall pick in the 2005 draft, the Lakers selected Andrew Bynum, a center from St. Joseph High School in Metuchen, New Jersey. The team also traded Caron Butler and Chucky Atkins to Washington for Kwame Brown and Laron Profit. Jackson returned to coach the team after Rudy Tomjanovich resigned midway through the previous season. On January 22, 2006, Bryant scored 81 points against Toronto, the second - highest total in NBA history. Ending the season 45 -- 37, the team made the playoffs after a one - season absence. After taking a three games to one lead in the first round, Phoenix came back to take the series in seven games.
In the following season, the Lakers won 26 of their first 39 games, but lost 27 of their last 43 -- including seven in a row at one point -- to finish 42 -- 40. They were eliminated in the first round by Phoenix again. Frustrated by the team 's inability to advance in the playoffs, Bryant demanded to be traded in the offseason. Buss initially agreed to seek a trade, but also worked to try to change Bryant 's mind.
After re-acquiring Derek Fisher, the Lakers started the 2007 -- 08 season with a 25 -- 11 record, before Andrew Bynum, their center who was leading the league in field - goal percentage, went out for the year due to a knee injury in mid-January. They acquired power forward Pau Gasol from the Memphis Grizzlies in a trade in early February and went 22 -- 5 to finish the season. The Lakers ' 57 -- 25 record earned them the first seed in the Western Conference. Bryant was awarded the league 's MVP award, becoming the first Laker to win the award since O'Neal in 2000. In the playoffs, they defeated the Nuggets in four games, the Jazz in six, and the defending champion Spurs in five, but lost to the Celtics in six games in the NBA Finals.
In the 2008 -- 09 season, the Lakers finished 65 -- 17; the best record in the Western Conference. They defeated the Jazz in five games, the Rockets in seven and the Nuggets in six, to win the Western Conference title. They then won their 15th NBA championship by defeating the Orlando Magic in five games in the NBA finals. Bryant was named the NBA Finals MVP for the first time in his career.
The Lakers, who had added Ron Artest (now Metta World Peace) in place of Trevor Ariza in their starting lineup, finished the 2009 -- 10 season with the best record in the Western Conference for the third straight time. On January 13, 2010, the Lakers became the first team in NBA history to win 3,000 regular season games by defeating the Dallas Mavericks 100 -- 95. They defeated the Oklahoma City Thunder, the Utah Jazz, and the Phoenix Suns in the Western Conference playoffs. In the finals, the Lakers played the Boston Celtics for the 12th time. They rallied back from a 3 -- 2 disadvantage in the series and erased a 13 - point deficit in the fourth quarter of the seventh game to defeat the Celtics. This series win gave them their 16th NBA title overall and 11th since they moved to Los Angeles. Bryant was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row, despite a 6 -- 24 shooting performance in game seven.
After much speculation, head coach Phil Jackson returned for the 2010 -- 11 season. In the playoffs, the Lakers defeated the New Orleans Hornets in the first round. But their opportunity for a three - peat was denied by the Dallas Mavericks in a four - game sweep of the second round. After the season, it was announced that Jackson will not be returning to coach the Lakers.
After Jackson 's retirement, former Cleveland Cavaliers head coach Mike Brown was hired as head coach on May 25, 2011. Before the start of the shortened 2011 -- 12 season, the Lakers traded Lamar Odom to the Dallas Mavericks after Odom requested to be traded. On the trade deadline long time Laker Derek Fisher along with a first round draft pick were traded to the Houston Rockets for Jordan Hill. With a 41 -- 25 regular season record the Lakers entered the playoffs as the third seed, the team defeated the Denver Nuggets in the first round in seven games but were eliminated by the Oklahoma City Thunder in the second round in five games.
On July 4, 2012, Steve Nash of the Phoenix Suns agreed to a sign - and - trade deal that would send him to the Lakers in exchange for the Lakers ' 2013 and 2015 first round draft picks, 2013 and 2014 second round draft picks, and $3 million. The trade was made official on July 11, 2012, the first day the trade moratorium was lifted. On August 10, 2012, in a four - team trade the Lakers traded Andrew Bynum and acquired Dwight Howard. On November 9, 2012, Mike Brown was relieved of coaching duties after a 1 -- 4 start to the 2012 -- 13 season. Assistant Coach Bernie Bickerstaff took over as interim head coach, leading the Lakers to a 5 -- 5 record. On November 12, 2012, the Lakers hired Mike D'Antoni as head coach. On February 18, 2013, Lakers owner Jerry Buss died from cancer at age 80. On the court, D'Antoni coached the Lakers to a 40 -- 32 record the rest of the way to finish 45 -- 37, their worst record since 2007. The Lakers clinched a playoff berth on the final game of the season and finished seventh in the Western Conference after beating the Houston Rockets on April 16, 2013. The Lakers battled injuries all season, the most prominent of which is the Achilles tendon rupture to Kobe Bryant that ended his season after 78 games. The absence of Bryant was sorely felt as the Lakers were swept by the San Antonio Spurs in the first round of the 2013 NBA Playoffs. Nevertheless, Bryant passed Lakers legend Wilt Chamberlain to become the fourth all - time leading scorer in NBA history on March 30, 2013, against the Sacramento Kings.
On March 25, 2014, the Lakers scored 51 points in the third quarter against the New York Knicks, the most points scored in a quarter in the history of the franchise. The Lakers went on to miss the NBA playoffs for the first time since 2005, for just the second time in the last two decades and for just the sixth time in franchise history. On April 30, 2014, Mike D'Antoni resigned from his position as head coach after a 27 -- 55 season.
After spending the majority of the off - season without a head coach, the Lakers named former player Byron Scott as the new head coach. After the season, he was the frontrunner to become the new Lakers head coach. Scott interviewed three times for the position, which had become vacant after Mike D'Antoni 's resignation. On July 28, 2014, he signed a multi-year contract to coach the Lakers.
During the first game of the 2014 -- 15 season, the 7th overall pick in the 2014 NBA draft, Julius Randle went down with a broken leg, which ended his rookie season. The Lakers began their season losing 10 of their first 16 games. After playing only 35 games, Kobe Bryant tore a rotator cuff in his shoulder ending his season. Nick Young was also forced to end his season with a fractured kneecap, leaving the team with a record of 14 -- 41. With 27 games left in the regular season, Byron Scott gave rookie Jordan Clarkson more playing time. Clarkson, the 46th overall pick in the 2014 draft, finished his rookie season with game stats of 11.9 ppg, 3.2 rpg, 3.5 apg, and shooting 44.8 % from the field. The Lakers ' season ended with a record of 21 -- 61, the 4th worst record in the league and at the time the worst record in franchise history.
The next season, the Lakers had the second overall pick of the 2015 NBA draft, which they used to select Ohio State freshman point guard D'Angelo Russell. On November 30, 2015, Bryant announced he would retire at the end of the season after 20 seasons with the team. In Bryant 's last season the team missed the playoffs for the third straight year with a 17 -- 65 record, the worst in franchise history.
On April 24, 2016, the Lakers announced that they will not to exercise their option on Byron Scott 's contract for the following season. On April 29, the Lakers announced another former Laker, Luke Walton, as their new head coach. At the time of his hiring, Walton was an assistant coach for the Golden State Warriors, who were in the playoffs, so Walton could not officially begin his duties as head coach until the Warriors playoff run was over. The Lakers earned the second overall pick in the 2016 NBA draft, and selected Brandon Ingram from Duke University.
On February 21, 2017, the Lakers fired general manager Mitch Kupchak, while Magic Johnson was named as the president of basketball operations. The team 's governor Jeanie Buss, also announced the removal of her brother, Jim Buss, from his position as executive vice president of basketball operations. On March 7, 2017, the Lakers hired Rob Pelinka as the general manager, signing him to a five - year deal. The Lakers again earned the second overall pick, this time, in the 2017 NBA draft, and selected Lonzo Ball from UCLA.
The rivalry between the Boston Celtics and the Lakers involves the two most storied basketball franchises in National Basketball Association (NBA) history. It has been called the best rivalry in the NBA. The two teams have met a record 12 times in the NBA Finals, starting with their first Finals meeting in 1959. They would go on to dominate the league in the 1960s and the 1980s, facing each other six times in the 1960s and three times in the 1980s.
The rivalry had been less intense since the retirements of Magic Johnson and Larry Bird in the early 1990s, but in 2008 it was renewed as the Celtics and Lakers met in the Finals for the first time since 1987, with the Celtics winning the series 4 -- 2. They faced off once again in the 2010 NBA Finals, which the Lakers won in 7 games.
The two teams have won the two highest numbers of championships, the Celtics 17, the Lakers 16; together, the 33 championships account for almost half of the 67 championships in NBA history.
The rivalry between the Lakers and the Los Angeles Clippers is unique because they are the only two NBA teams to share an arena, the Staples Center. It is also one of only two intra-city rivalries in the NBA, the other being the new crosstown rivalry between the New York Knicks and Brooklyn Nets.
Los Angeles fans have historically favored the Lakers. Some contend that the term rivalry is inaccurate until the Clippers become more successful. However, with the addition of Chris Paul and Blake Griffin to the Clippers ' roster and their emergence as playoff contenders, the rivalry has started to develop in earnest, with a recent matchup between the teams garnering ESPN its highest ratings ever for a regular season broadcast in Los Angeles.
The San Antonio Spurs and the Lakers, developed what some would classify as a rivalry in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Since 1999, the teams have met in the NBA Playoffs five times, with the clubs combining to appear in seven consecutive NBA Finals (1999 -- 2005). Additionally, the teams combined to win five NBA championships from 1999 to 2003. The Spurs won the NBA championship in 1999, 2003, 2005, 2007 and 2014 while the Lakers won the championship in 2000, 2001, 2002, 2009 and 2010. From 1999 to 2004 the clubs ' rivalry was often considered the premier rivalry in the NBA, and each time the clubs faced each other in the playoffs the winner advanced to the NBA Finals. In 2008 the teams met again in the Western Conference Finals where the Spurs were handily defeated only to beat LA when they met again in 2013 (though against a Lakers team without an injured Kobe Bryant).
Berger and Chalfen purchased the NBL 's disbanded Detroit Gems for $15,000 in 1947, changed their name to the Lakers and relocated them to Minnesota. Max Winter bought a third of the club in their early years, and sold his share to Mikan in 1954. Berger bought Mikan 's share in 1956 giving him a controlling (2⁄3) interest. After Mikan retired, attendance plummeted and the team lost money for several seasons, leading the ownership group to put the team up for sale in 1957. Marty Marion, a retired baseball player and manager, and his business partner Milton Fischman attempted to purchase the team with the intention of moving the club to Kansas City, Missouri. Mikan offered to mortgage his home in an attempt to buy the team and keep the club in Minnesota. The Lakers were sold to a group of investors led by Bob Short however. The team was sold to Short 's group with the agreement that it would not be relocated to Kansas City but kept in Minnesota. Short 's ownership group consisted of 117 Minnesota businesses and private citizens, who amassed a total of $200,000 for the purchase; $150,000 to buy the team and $50,000 to run it. By 1958 Short had become 80 % owner of the team by buying out his partners, but the team was floundering. Attendance remained poor, and the NBA had put the Lakers on "financial probation '', notifying them that if they did not meet certain ticket sales numbers they could be bought out by the league and relocated. Short was forced to move the team to Los Angeles in 1960; the club had lost $60,000 in the first half of the 1959 -- 60 season alone. The NBA 's owners originally voted 7 -- 1 against the move. When Short indicated that he might take the team to new rival league that was developing however, the owners held another vote that same day and allowed the relocation (8 -- 0). Aided by Baylor 's drawing power, and the new locale, the team 's finances improved when they arrived in LA. Short sold the team to Washington Redskins owner and publisher Jack Kent Cooke in 1965 for a then league record amount of $5,175,000. Short insisted the deal be conducted in cash as he was wary of Cooke, so guards transported the money in a cart from one New York bank to another.
Cooke was a more hands - on owner than Short, and overhauled the team 's operations. He personally financed construction of the Forum in 1967 at a cost of $16.5 million. He owned the team until 1979 when he sold it, the NHL 's Los Angeles Kings, the Forum, and some real estate to Jerry Buss for $67 million. Cooke was forced to sell the team as he was undergoing a costly divorce. Buss was a local chemical engineer and former University of Southern California professor who had become wealthy in real estate. Philip Anschutz bought a stake in the team in 1998, and until October 2010 Magic Johnson was a minority owner as well. Buss started the trend of allowing sponsors to add their name to team 's stadiums when he renamed the Forum the Great Western Forum in 1988. In 2009 major sponsors included Verizon Wireless, Toyota, Anheuser - Busch, American Express, and Carl 's Jr., and the team 's $113 average ticket price was the highest in the league. Fast food chain Jack in the Box is another major sponsor, the company gives all fans in attendance at home games a coupon for two free tacos if the Lakers hold their opponent under 100 points and win. The company also sponsors the team 's halftime shows on KCAL - TV and Fox Sports West. In 2013, Buss died at the age of 80 after being hospitalized for 18 months with cancer. His controlling ownership of the team passed to his six children via a trust, with each child receiving an equal vote. Buss ' succession plan had daughter Jeanie Buss assume his title as the Lakers ' governor as well as its team representative at NBA Board of Governors meetings.
Given the team 's proximity to Hollywood, the Lakers fanbase includes numerous celebrities, many of whom can be seen at the Staples Center during home games. Jack Nicholson, for example, has held season tickets since the 1970s, and directors reportedly need to work their shooting schedules around Lakers home games. From 2002 and 2007 the team averaged just over 18,900 fans, which placed them in the top ten in the NBA in attendance. Red Hot Chili Peppers ' song "Magic Johnson '' from their 1989 album Mother 's Milk is a tribute to the former point guard, and frontman Anthony Kiedis and bassist Michael "Flea '' Balzary are frequently seen attending home games. The team has sold out every home game since the 2007 -- 08 season. As of 2010, the Lakers have the most popular team merchandise among all NBA teams, and Bryant the most popular jersey.
The Laker nickname came from the state of Minnesota being the Land of 10,000 Lakes. The team 's colors are purple, gold and white. The Lakers logo consists of the team name, "Los Angeles Lakers '' written in purple on top of a gold basketball. Purple uniforms are used for road games and gold uniforms are used for home games. The team also wears white jerseys for Sunday and holiday home games.
The Lakers have won 16 NBA titles and have appeared in the NBA Finals 15 other times. These appearances include eight NBA Finals appearances in the 1980s. The best record posted by the team was 69 -- 13, in 1972; the worst record was 17 -- 65, in 2015 -- 16.
Bryant holds most individual team records for longevity including most games played (1333), and most minutes logged (48,298). Johnson holds all significant assist records for the club including career assists (10,141), assists in a game (24), and highest assist average for a season (13.1). Johnson also has the most triple doubles, with his 138 over 100 more than the next closest player (Bryant; 17). Elmore Smith holds team records for blocks in a game (17), blocks per game for a season (4.85), and career blocks per game (3.93). The scoring records are mostly shared by Elgin Baylor and Bryant, with Baylor having the highest average for a career (27.4) while Bryant has the highest points scored in a single game (81). Baylor, Bryant and West hold the top five single season scoring averages, with Bryant occupying the numbers one (35.4) and four (31.6) spots, while Baylor has the second (34.8), and third (34.0), and West the fifth (31.3).
The Lakers hold several NBA records as a team including most consecutive games won overall (33) and most consecutive road games won (16) both of which came during the 1971 -- 72 season. Highest field - goal percentage for a season at 54.5 % (1984 -- 85), and highest road winning percentage at 0.816 (1971 -- 72). They also hold records for having (into the 2009 -- 10 season) the most wins (3,027), the highest winning percentage (61.9 %), and the most NBA Finals appearances (31). The 2000 -- 01 team set the NBA record for best playoff record at 15 -- 1, which was later broken by the Golden State Warriors in 2017. The 1971 -- 72 team holds franchise records in wins (69), most points scored, and largest margin of victory; both of the latter came in the team 's 63 point win versus Golden State (162 -- 99). They also used to hold the record for most wins at home in the regular season (going 36 -- 5 in 1971 -- 72, then 37 -- 4 in both 1976 -- 77 and 1979 -- 80) before the Boston Celtics set the current record of 40 -- 1 in the 1985 -- 86 season.
The Lakers play their home games at Staples Center, located at L.A. Live in Downtown Los Angeles. Staples Center opened in fall 1999, and seats up to 18,997 for Lakers games. The Staples Center is also home to the Los Angeles Clippers, the WNBA 's Los Angeles Sparks, and the NHL 's Los Angeles Kings. The arena is owned and operated by AEG and L.A. Arena Company. Before moving to the Staples Center, for 32 seasons (1967 -- 1999), the Lakers played their home games at The Forum in Inglewood, California, located approximately 10 miles southwest of the team 's current home at Staples Center. During the 1999 NBA preseason, the Lakers played their home games at the Forum before officially moving into Staples Center, and once again hosted a preseason game versus the Golden State Warriors on October 9, 2009, this time to commemorate the team 's 50th anniversary season in Los Angeles.
In the first seven years in Los Angeles, the team played their home games at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena, south of Downtown Los Angeles. While the team played in Minneapolis, the team played their home games at the Minneapolis Auditorium, from 1947 to 1960.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2018 -- 04 -- 05
The Lakers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
The Lakers have had three first overall picks in their history: Elgin Baylor (selected in 1958), Magic Johnson (selected in 1979) and James Worthy (selected in 1982). The Lakers have also had six lottery picks in their history: Eddie Jones (selected 10th overall in 1994), Andrew Bynum (selected 10th overall in 2005), Julius Randle (selected 7th overall in 2014), D'Angelo Russell (selected 2nd overall in 2015), Brandon Ingram (selected 2nd overall in 2016), and Lonzo Ball (selected 2nd overall in 2017). Other draft picks include Jerry West and Gail Goodrich in the 1960s, Michael Cooper and Norm Nixon in the 1970s, A.C. Green and Vlade Divac in the 1980s, Elden Campbell, Nick Van Exel, Derek Fisher, and Devean George in the 1990s, and Luke Walton, Sasha Vujačić, and Ronny Turiaf in the 2000s.
There have been 22 head coaches for the Lakers franchise. John Kundla coached the team in Minneapolis when they won their first five BAA / NBA championships, from 1949 to 1954. Pat Riley is second in franchise history in both regular season and playoff games coached and wins. Phil Jackson broke Riley 's regular season wins record in 2009, and he passed Riley 's playoff wins and games coached records in 2010. Jackson, Riley, Kundla, and Bill Sharman have all been inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame for their coaching careers. George Mikan, Jim Pollard, Jerry West, Pat Riley, Magic Johnson, Kurt Rambis and Byron Scott have all played and head coached for the Lakers. Jackson, who had two stints as head coach, was coach from 2005 -- 2006 until 2010 -- 2011. Mike Brown was named his replacement for the 2011 -- 2012 season in May 2011. Brown was fired on November 9, 2012, after a 1 -- 4 start. Assistant coach Bernie Bickerstaff served as interim head coach for five games before the Lakers selected Mike D'Antoni as their new head coach. D'Antoni resigned at the end of the 2013 -- 2014 season. In July 2014, Byron Scott was hired as head coach. After the 2015 -- 2016 season ended, Scott was fired. On April 29, 2016, former Lakers player Luke Walton was named as Scott 's replacement.
The Lakers have 30 Hall of Famers (23 players, 4 head coaches, 1 assistant coach, and 2 contributors) who contributed to the organization.
The Lakers have retired eleven jersey numbers and an honorary microphone in honor of their players and broadcaster:
In addition, several other players and coaches who were instrumental to the franchise 's success during its days in Minneapolis were named Honored Minneapolis Lakers, although their numbers are not retired by the franchise:
Chick Hearn was the team 's broadcaster for 41 years until his death in 2002. He broadcast 3,338 consecutive games between November 21, 1965, and December 16, 2001. Hearn came up with West 's "Mr. Clutch '' nickname. He was a part of the team 's "inner sanctum '' when Cooke was owner, and was consulted on basketball decisions. Paul Sunderland, who had filled in for a couple of games while Hearn recuperated in 2001 -- 02, was named the permanent play - by - play announcer. Stu Lantz was retained as the color commentator. Sunderland 's contract expired in the summer of 2005, and the team chose not to renew it. Joel Meyers moved in alongside Lantz as the television announcer, while Spero Dedes and former Laker player Mychal Thompson on the radio.
For the 2011 -- 12 NBA season, Bill Macdonald became the new television play - by - play announcer, joining Lantz who remained as the color analyst. Meanwhile, John Ireland joined Mychal Thompson to call the games on radio.
As of the 2009 -- 10 season, Lakers radio broadcasts are heard on KSPN (Los Angeles ESPN Radio affiliate) in English and KWKW in Spanish. KLAC had the team 's radio broadcast rights from the 1976 -- 77 season until the 2008 -- 09 season. Until 2011, telecasts had been split between KCAL - TV (road games) and Fox Sports West (home games), unless they are chosen for national broadcasts on ABC. KCAL had been the Lakers ' over-the - air television broadcaster since 1977, dating back to when the station was the RKO General - owned KHJ - TV, the longest relationship between an NBA team and a television station. Prior to KHJ, Laker games were televised on KTLA. The Lakers had been on Fox Sports West since 1985, dating to when it was the original Prime Ticket and owned by Buss.
On February 14, 2011, Time Warner Cable and the Lakers announced the formation of two new regional sports networks (one in English, one in Spanish) that will exclusively televise the team 's games and related programming for 20 years starting with the 2012 -- 13 NBA season. The said networks were originally known as Time Warner Cable SportsNet, before it was renamed Spectrum SportsNet in 2016 upon Charter Communications ' purchase of Time Warner Cable.
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love me justin bieber mp3 download mr jatt | Love Me (Justin Bieber song) - wikipedia
"Love Me '' is a song by Canadian recording artist, Justin Bieber. The track was written by Bruno Mars, Ari Levine, and Philip Lawrence, and produced by DJ Frank E. It was released exclusively to iTunes as the first promotional single from his debut studio release, My World, on October 26, 2009.
An electropop song which also contains dance - pop and R&B music, the chorus interpolates the 1996 single "Lovefool '' by the Swedish band The Cardigans. "Love Me '' was one of the most well received tracks on the album, with critics complimenting its electro and club feel, and its usage of the "Lovefool '' sample.
The song peaked in Canada and in the U.S. at twelve and thirty - seven, respectively. The song also charted in the United Kingdom on its main chart and R&B chart, and in Australia. The music video for the song was released on August 3, 2010 and serves as a "tribute to his worldwide fans, thanking them for their support ''. The dominant scenes are made of up of live performances, behind - the - scenes footage, and Bieber standing in front of a blue and white backdrop dancing. Bieber opened every show on his My World Tour with the song.
The song was produced by DJ Frank E at Side 3 Studios in Denver, Colorado. The song recorded by Bill Malina at Serenity Sound Studio in Hollywood, California. Mixing was done by Dave Pensado and Jaycen - Joshua Fowler, at Larrabee Studios in North Hollywood, California. Taylor Graves and Bonnie McKee provided background vocals.
Bieber originally stated that the third single from his debut album to be released exclusively on iTunes would be an acoustic remix of his lead single, "One Time '', and that it would be released on October 27, 2009. However plans were changed, and a week before the release, Bieber announced that a new song, "Love Me '' would be released. It was released a day early on October 26. Bieber took to Twitter with his shock saying that he was surprised himself.
"Love Me '' is a pop song, which makes use of guitars / bass and drums sounds. The chorus interpolates the song "Lovefool '' by the Swedish band The Cardigans. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing, Ltd., "Love Me '' is set in common time. The song is composed in the key of C minor with Bieber 's vocals spanning from the low - note of Bb to the high - note of Eb. The song follows in the chord progression of Cm -- A ♭ -- E ♭ -- B ♭
The song was one of the most well received on the album. Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly said "Bieber 's better on "Love Me '', where he riffs on the Cardigans ' "Lovefool '' atop a killer electro - glam groove. '' Mark Hirsh The Boston Globe, which was one of the few reviewers that gave the album a mixed analysis, said that "Love Me '' was the essential song on the set. Washington Post also cited the song as one of the album 's best, referring to it as a "modest club track. '' The New York Times said the track is "probably the only release in recent memory that owes debts to both the Cardigans. '' Mike Diver of BBC Music called the song an "electro - infused reinterpretation of The Cardigans ' Lovefool, where Bieber exhibits the right kind of attitude, playful and endearing. '' Diver preferred Bieber in the song and wanted more of "the cheeky chap rightfully having the time of his young life '', rather than the "adolescent playboy ''. "Love Me '' had debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 and Billboard Hot 100 at twelve and thirty - seven. It spent twelve non-consecutive weeks on the Canadian chart and four in the United States. On the week ending January 10, 2010, "Love Me '' entered the UK Singles Chart at eighty - two, and later peaked at seventy - one. It also debuted and peaked on the UK R&B chart at twenty - three, remaining on the chart for three weeks. It debuted and peaked in Australia at 100.
The music video for "Love Me '' was directed by Alfredo Flores with Bieber as co-director. It was released on August 3, 2010. Bieber said the video serves as a "tribute to his worldwide fans, thanking them for their support ''. The dominant scenes are made of up of live performances. Other scenes of the video feature behind - the - scenes footage such as; rehearsal sessions, fan meet and greets, making radio appearances, jokingly walking around with toilet paper sticking out of his pants, and scenes with friends and family. Bieber 's mentor, Usher, also makes an appearance in the video. The video also incorporates Bieber standing in front of a "simple (white) backdrop '' dancing and "draw (ing) hearts in the air, presumably directed at his loving fanbase '' relative to the songs theme, "Love Me ''. Bieber performed the song several times including at the new Microsoft Store grand opening in Mission Viejo, California, on the Fearless Tour, on his radio promotion tour and Jingle Ball tour, and CBS ' The Early Show as a part of their Super Bowl programming. He also performed it in an unaired segment of VH1 's Pepsi Super Bowl Fan Jam, and at the 2010 Houston Rodeo with Selena Gomez. Bieber performed the song at a concert at the Hollywood Palladium. In a review of the performance, August Brown of the Los Angeles Times, said commended the song, saying the song "tacks the indie - pop chorus from the Cardigans ' "Lovefool '' onto en - vogue trance synthesizers and martial dance beats. ''
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what was the date of the first sugar bowl | 1995 Sugar Bowl (December) - wikipedia
The 1995 Sugar Bowl was the 62nd edition of the post-season American college football Sugar Bowl bowl game. It featured the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Texas Longhorns and was held at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana, on December 31, 1995. The game was the final contest of the 1995 NCAA Division I-A football season for both teams, and ended in a 28 -- 10 victory for Virginia Tech.
In 1995, the Sugar Bowl was held under the rules of the Bowl Alliance. The Alliance, predecessor to the modern Bowl Championship Series, was intended to match the champions of the Southeastern Conference, Big East Conference, Atlantic Coast Conference, Big 12, Southwest Conference, and one at - large team against each other in the Sugar Bowl, Orange Bowl, and Fiesta Bowl. Each year, the two highest - ranked teams would play in a National Championship Game held in place of one of the bowl games. The site of the national championship game rotated among the three bowl games, as did the date of each game. Following the 1995 college football season, the Sugar Bowl was designated for December 31, marking the first time two Sugar Bowls would be held in the same calendar year.
Virginia Tech was selected to play in the 1995 Sugar Bowl by virtue of winning the Big East football championship. The Hokies, who finished 9 -- 2 during the regular season, actually were co-Big East champions. The University of Miami, which tied the Hokies, was ineligible for post-season play due to sanctions imposed as a result of recruiting rules violations. The Hokies played the University of Texas, which finished 10 -- 1 -- 1 during the regular season en route to becoming Southwest Conference champions. The Southwest Conference was scheduled to disband after the football season, but its champion was guaranteed one of the at - large spots in the Bowl Alliance.
The game was marred by the revelation that a Texas player had been competing under an assumed name. Other off - the - field incidents also took place prior to the game. Because the game was Virginia Tech 's first trip to a major bowl game, ticket sales were brisk. Texas took an early lead in the competition and led 10 -- 7 at halftime, but Virginia Tech 's defense shut out Texas ' offense in the second half and Tech scored 21 unanswered points. In recognition of his achievements in the game, Virginia Tech wide receiver Bryan Still was named the game 's most valuable player.
In the 1995 college football season, teams were selected for the Sugar Bowl under the new Bowl Alliance system. The Bowl Alliance matched up the conference champions of the Big East, Southeastern Conference, Big 12 Conference, Atlantic Coast Conference, and two at - large teams in games to determine an official national champion. Prior to the introduction of the Bowl Alliance and its predecessor, the Bowl Coalition, national champions were determined by various college football polls that sometimes named different teams as champion.
Under the Alliance system, the two highest - ranked members of Alliance conferences were matched up in a national championship game. The lower - ranked conference champions and two - at large teams would play each other in other bowl games. In 1995, one of these at - large spots was reserved for the champion of the Southwest Conference, which had been a member of the Bowl Coalition but was scheduled to dissolve after the 1995 season. Its members joined different conferences in an attempt to increase their revenue.
The Fiesta Bowl hosted the national championship game for the 1995 season, and thus had the first and second pick of eligible Bowl Alliance teams. The Orange Bowl had the third and fifth selections, while the Sugar Bowl had the fourth and sixth picks. The three Bowl Alliance games each were assigned a different date: December 31, January 1, or January 2. The dates rotated among the three games, along with which game would host the national championship. The Sugar Bowl was assigned the December 31 date, marking the first time it had been held on that date instead of its traditional January 1 date since December 31, 1975. From December 31, 1972, to December 31, 1975, the game was held on New Year 's Eve. Thus, there were two games held during the calendar year 1972 and none in calendar year 1976. There were also two games in calendar year 1995, but since then the game has been held on or after January 1 following the regular season.
The University of Texas Longhorns began the 1995 college football season after winning eight games and losing four in 1994, a year that culminated with the Longhorns in a five - way tie for the Southwest Conference championship and with a 35 -- 31 victory over the North Carolina Tar Heels in the 1994 Sun Bowl. Heading into the 1995 season, Texas was ranked 18th in both the coaches ' and Associated Press preseason polls. In the Southwest Conference, which was scheduled to dissolve after the season, Texas was picked to finish second in the annual preseason poll of media covering the Southwest Conference. Texas A&M was predicted to win the conference. Overall, most commentators predicted Texas to improve on its 8 -- 4 performance in 1994 and have an outside chance to compete in the top ranks, nationally.
The Longhorns got the 1995 season off to a successful start with a 38 -- 17 win against the Hawaii Rainbows in Honolulu. After a bye week, No. 15 Texas repeated that success in its home opener with a 38 -- 27 win over the Pittsburgh Panthers. The consecutive wins raised Texas to No. 13 in the country, but the Longhorns fumbled away their third game of the season, a 55 -- 27 defeat at the hands of Notre Dame that involved five turnovers by the Longhorns.
After the loss, the Longhorns fell to No. 21 in the country. They quickly recovered however, reeling off two wins in subsequent weeks: a 35 -- 10 victory over Southern Methodist University and a 37 -- 13 win against Rice. After the two wins, the Longhorns were 4 -- 1 and No. 18 in the country heading into their traditional rivalry game against Oklahoma, the Red River Shootout. The 1995 edition of that competition ended in frustration, however, as the two teams battled to a 24 -- 24 tie after Texas failed to convert a fourth down deep in Oklahoma territory late in the game. It was just the fifth tie in the 89 - game history of the rivalry that started in 1900.
Following the tie against Oklahoma, No. 16 Texas struggled against No. 14 Virginia in Austin. Not until the game 's final play did the Longhorns secure their 17 -- 16 win over the favored Cavaliers. The game was the 700th victory in Texas football history and marked the only time in Texas ' first 103 years of football that a game ended with Texas kicking a winning field goal. Following the victory over Virginia, Texas began a winning streak that continued through the remainder of the regular season. Heading into the final game of the regular season, it appeared that the winner of the Texas / Texas A&M game would clinch the Southwest Conference championship and a bid to a Bowl Alliance game. In Texas ' final Southwestern Conference game, it secured the conference championship with a 16 -- 6 win that guaranteed it a spot in a Bowl Alliance game. On the next day, the Sugar Bowl 's pick of Texas was made official.
The Virginia Tech Hokies entered the 1995 season after having finished with an 8 -- 4 overall record in 1994. That season culminated with a 45 -- 23 loss to Tennessee in the 1994 Gator Bowl. Heading into the 1995 season, fans and coaches expected Tech to improve on its previous performance. Most commentators, however, expected a season comparable to 1994 's: a second - place finish in the Big East and a trip to the Gator Bowl. This was borne out by the preseason college football polls. The AP Poll put Tech 24th, while the coaches ' poll had Tech 26th.
Those who tempered their expectations of the Hokies appeared to be vindicated in Tech 's first game of the season, which took place on September 7, a week later than most teams started regular - season play. Tech rose to No. 20 in the country on the basis of other teams losing their season openers. A similar fate befell the Hokies, who lost to Boston College, 20 -- 14. The opening - game loss was a "discouraging note '' to begin the season in the eyes of at least one commentator. Because Tech 's opening game was on a Thursday night, the Hokies had an extra two days to prepare for their next opponent, Cincinnati. The extra time did not help, however, and the Hokies were shut out, 16 -- 0 by underdog Cincinnati. The shutout was the first scoreless effort by the Hokies since 1981 and caused sportswriters to call the Hokies "the most overrated team in the country. ''
Following the Cincinnati loss, the Hokies had one week to prepare for a matchup against No. 17 Miami, the team predicted to win the Big East in preseason polls. The Hokies had not beaten Miami in 12 previous matchups, but they managed an upset 13 -- 7 victory on September 23. At the time, the one - week turnaround from embarrassing defeat to unexpected triumph caused some commentators to declare the win the biggest in Virginia Tech football history. Following the Miami win, Virginia Tech started a winning streak that continued for the remainder of the regular season. In total, Tech won its final nine regular - season games, including two wins over ranked opponents: No. 20 Syracuse and at No. 13 Virginia. The 36 -- 29 defeat of Virginia was Tech 's closest victory during the span and elevated Tech to No. 13 in the nation.
The Miami Hurricanes kept pace with the Hokies throughout the regular season, winning every conference game after their loss to Tech. After Miami won its final game of the season and tied the Hokies for the Big East football championship (the Big East had no tiebreaker at the time), it appeared that Virginia Tech would be passed over for a Bowl Alliance game in favor of the Hurricanes. Miami traditionally had a stronger football team and a wider following on television, making it more attractive to bowl - game officials. But Miami 's bowl hopes evaporated after the NCAA announced Miami would be put under sanctions for recruiting rules violations. One of the sanctions included a ban from bowl games, which Miami elected to take after the 1995 season instead of delaying until 1996. After the sanctions were announced, the only question for the Hokies was whether they would be bound for the Orange Bowl in Miami or the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans. That question was resolved on December 3, 1995, when Bowl Alliance officials announced their selection of Virginia Tech and Texas for the Sugar Bowl.
The game between the Hokies and the Longhorns was the first meeting of the two teams. The competition marked Virginia Tech 's first trip to the annual Sugar Bowl game, but it was the Hokies ' third consecutive bowl appearance. It was Texas ' third Sugar Bowl appearance and its first since 1958. In exchange for playing in the game, each team received $8.3 million. Thanks to revenue - sharing agreements with Big East conference members, Virginia Tech received $3.5 million, minus expenses, for playing in the Sugar Bowl. Pregame media coverage of the event focused on Virginia Tech making its first appearance in a major bowl game and Texas ' resurgence as a major college football power. On the field, attention was focused on Virginia Tech 's strong defense and Texas ' successful offense.
After the matchup was announced and betting on the game began, oddsmakers favored Texas to win the game, with spread bettors predicting Texas to win by one point. By December 21, Texas ' margin had increased to 1.5 points. By December 31, the date of the game, oddsmakers predicted the Longhorns would win by two points.
Because the 1995 Sugar Bowl was Virginia Tech 's first major bowl game in school history, tickets and travel packages were in high demand. Prior to the first day of ticket sales, the price of travel packages skyrocketed due to demand. In Virginia, travel agencies hired temporary workers to meet demand, and in New Orleans, the demand for hotel rooms was so great that many hotels instituted a three - night minimum stay.
Tickets officially went on sale December 4, and three days later, Virginia Tech had sold out its entire initial allotment of 15,000 tickets. A second allotment of 2,400 tickets was sold out in a few hours, leaving ticketless fans disgruntled. Many fans who were turned away at the Virginia Tech ticket office bought tickets from the secondary market or traveled to New Orleans in hopes of buying tickets at the game. So many Virginia Tech fans traveled to the game that the Montgomery County school district extended its winter break one day to avoid a shortage of teachers and students. The crowds also caused problems at Roanoke Regional Airport, the nearest airport to Virginia Tech. Forty - three aircraft chartered by Virginia Tech fans arrived in New Orleans on a single day.
At the University of Texas, ticket sales likewise were rapid. On the first day of sales, Texas ' ticket office received 10,500 orders. The demand was so great that some students camped overnight in front of the ticket office to ensure they would receive a ticket. Despite that initial surge in orders, as late as December 27, four days before the game, tickets were still readily available. In terms of chartered flights and the number of fans spending money at New Orleans businesses, Texas also trailed Virginia Tech.
Three Virginia Tech players were charged with crimes before the Sugar Bowl. Linebacker Tony Morrison and receiver James Crawford were suspended indefinitely from the team and did not travel to the game. Morrison was arrested for public intoxication, petty larceny and destruction of property, while Crawford was charged with defrauding a garage keeper and felony hit and run. On December 12, cornerback Antonio Banks was charged with misdemeanor assault and battery but was not suspended from the team and played in the Sugar Bowl.
On Virginia Tech 's first night in New Orleans, redshirt center Keith Short missed the team 's 2 a.m. curfew. In response, Tech head coach Frank Beamer ushered Short to the local Greyhound bus depot and put the player on a bus to his home in Richmond. The move was part of Beamer 's attempt to keep his players focused on the upcoming game and not be distracted by the attractions of New Orleans.
Beamer himself was the object of some off - field controversy when Georgia considered offering him its head football coaching job during the days prior to the Sugar Bowl. Beamer denied any interest in the position, and the controversy abated when Georgia hired Glen Mason as its head coach on December 18. Mason later changed his mind, and Georgia hired Jim Donnan instead.
The biggest off - the - field incident was revealed on the final weekend before the Sugar Bowl. Texas reserve defensive back Ron McKelvey was revealed to be using an assumed name. In reality, he was a 30 - year - old man named Ron Weaver who had played for a junior - college team and a small - college team under other assumed names. Weaver disappeared prior to the Sugar Bowl, but stated that he had used the assumed name in order to gather information for a book about the inner workings of Texas football. Weaver later pleaded guilty to a felony charge of misusing Social Security numbers, but he avoided jail and paid no fine. Texas was not sanctioned by the NCAA, but Longhorns players later said the event was a severe distraction from pre-game preparations.
In 1995, the Texas Longhorns boasted a high - powered offense that accumulated 5,199 yards of total offense during the regular season. Texas ' offense was No. 17 in the country and averaged 31.7 points per game and 6.1 yards per play.
The Longhorns were led on offense by quarterback James Brown, who completed 163 of 322 passes (50.6 %) for 2,447 yards, 19 touchdowns, and 12 interceptions. These figures were enough for him to set the Texas single - season records for passing yards and passing touchdowns. Brown finished the season with a passer rating of 177, No. 1 in the NCAA in 1995. He was limited in practices prior to the Sugar Bowl because of a sprained ankle suffered in Texas ' final regular - season game. Brown 's favorite receiver was Mike Adams, who led the Southwest Conference by catching 53 passes for 876 yards and three touchdowns during the regular season. Adams was assisted by Justin McLemore, a sixth - year senior who caught 30 passes for 488 yards, including a 161 - yard game against Houston. McLemore 's 30 receptions were tied by tight end Pat Fitzgerald, who had eight touchdowns, No. 2 in the country for tight ends.
On the ground, Texas ' rushing offense was led by two running backs: Ricky Williams and Shon Mitchell. Together, they averaged 207 yards per game, good enough for No. 22 nationally. Mitchell started at running back and gained 1,099 rushing yards. Williams accumulated 990 rushing yards during the regular season. That figure was a record for Texas freshmen. Protecting Williams, Mitchell, and Brown was a successful offensive line led by All - America guard Dan Neil.
The Virginia Tech offense progressed during the course of the regular season. In the Hokies ' first six games, they averaged just 13.4 points. In their final six games, they averaged 42.3 points per game. Averaged across the season, Tech scored 29.2 points per game, good enough for No. 28 nationally. The Hokies also finished with 4,233 net yards and 321 points; both figures were in the top five for Virginia Tech season offenses to that point.
The Hokies were led on offense by quarterback Jim Druckenmiller, who completed 151 of his 294 pass attempts (51.4 %) for 2,103 yards, 14 touchdowns, and 11 interceptions. Druckenmiller 's favorite receiver was Bryan Still, who caught 32 passes for 628 yards and three touchdowns despite missing 21⁄2 games due to an injured shoulder. Two of Still 's receptions were for more than 80 yards apiece, making him the first Virginia Tech wide receiver to catch two passes of more than 80 yards in the same season.
On the ground, the Tech offense was led by two running backs: Ken Oxendine and Dwayne Thomas. Thomas was a fifth - year senior who accumulated 673 rushing yards and seven touchdowns despite missing three games due to injury. Opening the field for the Tech rushing attack was the offensive line led by center Bill Conaty, who played in the Sugar Bowl despite a leg fracture suffered in Tech 's final regular - season game. Conaty underwent surgery and played despite not being fully healed.
One weakness in Virginia Tech 's offense was in the kicking game, controlled by placekicker Atle Larsen. During the regular season, Larsen was successful on just 12 of 20 field goal attempts, and his longest successful kick was from just 44 yards away.
Virginia Tech 's defense came into the 1995 Sugar Bowl ranked 10th in the country in total defense. This was due in large part to the Hokies ' success in rushing defense. Tech boasted the No. 1 rushing defense in the country, allowing an average of only 77.4 yards per game on the ground. Tech also had the No. 5 scoring defense in the country, allowing just 14 points per game on average. Tech 's defense was No. 11 in total, allowing just 285.9 yards per game. The Hokies also sacked opposing quarterbacks 44 times during the regular season and were ranked No. 23 in pass defense.
The Hokie defense was led by Cornell Brown, a first - team All - America selection who also won the Dudley Award, which is given to the top Division I college football player in Virginia. Brown finished the regular season with 103 tackles and 14 sacks during the regular season. Free safety William Yarborough led the Hokies ' pass defense. He was named to the first - team All - Big East team and finished the 1995 regular season with five interceptions and 11 pass breakups, the most on the team in each category.
The Hokies also had excellent special teams defense. During the regular season, the Hokies blocked eight kicks, including four punts. In total, Tech scored six defensive touchdowns, a school record.
On defense, the Longhorns were ranked No. 55 nationally in total defense and No. 5 in the Southwest Conference. This was despite a marked improvement as the regular season progressed. Through their first six games, the Longhorns allowed 146 points and sacked opposing quarterbacks nine times. In their final six games, Texas allowed 81 points and accumulated 17 sacks. Their 16 -- 6 win over Texas A&M marked the first time that school had been held without a touchdown in a Southwest Conference game in more than a decade.
Texas ' defense was led by All - American Tony Brackens, who led the Longhorns in sacks (7) and tackles for loss (16) despite not playing three games due to a broken tibia. Brackens also had a blocked kick, five forced fumbles, and five fumble recoveries. Defensive back Chris Carter led Texas in interceptions with six, which he returned a total of 146 yards. He also had the most pass break - ups on the team with nine. In total tackles, the Longhorns were led by linebacker Tyson King, who had 137 -- an average of 11.4 tackles per game.
The 1995 Sugar Bowl kicked off at 7: 30 p.m. EST on December 31, 1995, at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana. The game 's officials were from the Atlantic Coast Conference. Michael Dover was the referee, William Wampler was the umpire, and Sam Stephenson was the linesman. A capacity crowd of 70,283 people attended the game, which was televised by the American Broadcasting Company. The crowd was the smallest to attend a Sugar Bowl in the Superdome to that point. Mark Jones was the play - by - play announcer for the broadcast, Todd Blackledge was the analyst, and Dean Blevins was the sideline reporter. Approximately 6,041,700 American households watched the broadcast, giving it a television rating of 6.3.
Virginia Tech kicked off to Texas to begin the game, and the Longhorns returned the kick to the 35 - yard line. On the first play of the game, Brown attempted to pass downfield, but Tech defended the Texas receivers and Brown scrambled for a four - yard loss. Texas regained the yardage after Tech committed a five - yard offsides penalty, then Longhorns running back Ricky Williams gained six yards on a run up the middle. A third - down pass fell incomplete, and the Longhorns went three and out on the first possession of the game. Texas punted, and the Hokies returned the kick to their 26 - yard line.
On Tech 's first offensive play of the game, a pass by Tech quarterback Jim Druckenmiller was dropped. During the next play, Tech picked up four yards on a running play. On third down, Druckenmiller completed a pass to wide receiver Bryan Still, but the play fell one foot short of a first down. Tech punted after three plays, just as Texas had done. Texas returned the kick to its 22 - yard line, and with 11: 49 remaining in the quarter, the Longhorns began their second possession of the game.
The first play of the possession resulted in a five - yard penalty against Tech. The second play resulted in the initial first down of the game as Brown completed a 19 - yard pass to wide receiver Mike Adams. After the first down, Williams picked up two yards on a running play, but Texas lost that short gain when Brown fumbled the ball during the next play. Brown lost seven yards, but recovered the ball. On third down, Brown attempted to scramble for the first down, but was stopped short of the line of scrimmage. Texas ' punt was fair caught at the 29 - yard line, and Virginia Tech began its second possession.
Tech running back Dwayne Thomas gained nine yards on the first Tech play, then the Hokies earned their initial first down on an option run that gained three yards. After the first down, Druckenmiller threw an incomplete pass, then Thomas ran for a six - yard gain. On third down, a long pass downfield was knocked down by a Texas defender, and the Hokies punted back to Texas. The kick was fair caught at the 13 - yard line, but Tech was penalized 15 yards for interfering with the catch.
Texas began its third possession with 7: 58 remaining in the quarter. From the 28 - yard line, running back Shon Mitchell gained 14 yards and a first down at the 42 - yard line. Brown then completed a 26 - yard pass to Adams, who earned a first down at the Tech 32 - yard line. Now in Tech territory, Mitchell gained eight yards on a run to the left side of the field. On second down, Williams ran straight ahead for a first down at the Tech 17 - yard line. Mitchell then advanced to the 12 - yard line on a running play, but Brown threw an incomplete pass on second down. Facing a third down and needing five yards, Texas was stopped for a short gain, but Tech was called for an offsides penalty. The five yards negated the third - down stop and gave Texas a first down at the six - yard line of Virginia Tech. Two plays later, Brown completed a pass to tight end Pat Fitzgerald, who ran into the end zone for a touchdown. The subsequent extra point kick was good, and Texas took a 7 -- 0 lead with 4: 32 remaining in the first quarter.
Virginia Tech downed Texas ' subsequent kickoff in its end zone for a touchback, and the Hokies attempted to answer the Texas score starting at the Tech 20 - yard line. During the first play after the kickoff, Texas and Tech both committed penalties. After the penalties, Tech had a first down at its 27 - yard line. After the penalties, running back Ken Oxendine attempted to run up the middle of the field, but had the ball knocked loose by defender Tony Brackens. Texas recovered the fumble and the Longhorns ' offense returned to the field at the Tech 32 - yard line.
After the turnover, Texas attempted a trick play, but the pass by a wide receiver was knocked down by the Virginia Tech defense. After an eight - yard gain on a running play, Texas was penalized 10 yards for holding. The Longhorns were unable to regain the yardage lost to the penalty and punted to the Hokies. With 2: 15 remaining in the opening quarter, Tech fair caught the punt at its 19 - yard line.
After a short gain on first down, Druckenmiller completed a 13 - yard pass to fullback Brian Edmonds. The play resulted in a first down at the Tech 34 - yard line. Two short plays resulted in six yards, setting up a third down and four yards. Rather than attempt a conversion prior to the end of the quarter, the Hokies let the clock roll down with the Longhorns in the lead, 7 -- 0.
The second quarter began with Virginia Tech in possession of the ball at its 40 - yard line and facing a third - and - four situation. On the first play of the quarter, Druckenmiller completed a pass to Holmes for 13 yards and a first down at the Texas 47 - yard line. Once there, however, Druckenmiller threw a pass that bounced off a Tech receiver and was caught by Texas defender Jason Reeves, who returned it to the Tech 33 - yard line. On the first play after the turnover, the Texas offense lost four yards on a rushing play that went out of bounds. Brown then completed a two - yard pass to Fitzgerald, setting up a long third - down play. The Longhorns were unable to earn a first down and sent in kicker Phil Dawson to attempt a 52 - yard field goal. The kick attempt equaled his career long and grazed one of the uprights of the goal post, but the kick was successful and gave Texas a 10 -- 0 lead with 13: 19 remaining in the first half.
Texas ' post-score kickoff was returned to the Tech four - yard line. A two - yard run was followed by an 11 - yard carry by Ken Oxendine who earned a first down at the Tech 17 - yard line. After the first down, Oxendine earned another six yards. Druckenmiller then completed a 13 - yard pass to tight end Bryan Jennings for a first down at the Tech 35 - yard line. Texas committed a five - yard offsides penalty, then a long pass downfield fell incomplete. Two more plays failed to gain a first down, and the Hokies punted.
The Tech kick was returned to the 16 - yard line of Texas, and with 9: 15 remaining in the first half, the Longhorns began their first full possession of the quarter. On the first play of the possession, Brown completed a 15 - yard pass to Adams. From the 31 - yard line, Texas gained six yards on two plays, then the Longhorns were called for having an illegal player downfield during third down. Texas ' punt was returned to the 20 - yard line, and Tech 's offense returned to the field.
Running back Dwayne Thomas gained six yards on the first play, then earned a first down at the 30 - yard line on an option play. After an incomplete pass, Druckenmiller completed a nine - yard throw to Still. Tech committed a false - start penalty on third down, but the Hokies made up the penalty and earned a first down when Druckenmiller completed a pass to Jennings at the Texas 45 - yard line. On the first play after the completion, Druckenmiller was sacked for a one - yard loss. A second - down pass was dropped, a third - down pass was incomplete, and the Hokies punted again.
Texas fair caught the punt at their 14 - yard line. On the first play after the kick, a run up the middle was stopped for the loss of a yard. Williams then gained two yards, and Brown threw an incomplete pass. Texas went three - and - out for the first time in the second quarter and prepared to punt. Bryan Still fielded the kick at the Tech 40 - yard line and returned it 60 yards to the end zone for Virginia Tech 's first points of the game. The subsequent extra point was good, and with 2: 34 remaining in the first half, Tech cut Texas ' lead to 10 -- 7.
Adams returned Tech 's kickoff to the Texas 21 - yard line, and the Longhorns ' offense took the field. On the first play, Brown completed a 13 - yard pass to Adams, who earned a first down at the 34 - yard line. Mitchell gained four yards on a running play, then Texas was penalized for having an ineligible player downfield. On the play after the penalty, Texas was penalized for an illegal formation, negating a completed pass for a first down. The Longhorns then faced a third down and 11, but Brown 's third - down pass was knocked down and the Longhorns punted to end their final possession of the first half.
The ball bounced off a Virginia Tech player, causing a scramble for the loose ball. Virginia Tech recovered it at their 19 - yard line, and Druckenmiller started a hurry - up offensive drive for the Hokies, who had 56 seconds to move into scoring possession. On the first play, Druckenmiller completed an 18 - yard play to move the ball to the Tech 38 - yard line. Druckenmiller then completed a 16 - yard pass to Holmes for a first down at the Texas 46 - yard line. From there, however, Druckenmiller threw three incomplete passes and Tech punted with 15 seconds remaining in the first half. Texas ran out the remaining seconds on the clock and went into halftime with a 10 -- 7 lead.
The game 's halftime show featured both school marching bands and a musical ensemble featuring music by The Beatles. Various high school marching bands also participated in the show, which was produced by Bowl Games of America.
Following halftime, Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half. Texas ' kickoff was fielded by Antonio Banks, who returned it to the Tech 41 - yard line. On the first play of the half, Thomas was tackled for a loss of two yards on a running play up the middle. After an incomplete pass, Druckenmiller completed a pass to Jennings, who fell down short of the first down marker. The Hokies punted, but Texas was called for a five - yard running into the kicker penalty and Tech opted to re-kick. After the second kick, Texas ' offense started at its 17 - yard line.
Texas ' first possession of the second half began with a two - yard run to the right. After that, Brown completed a first - down pass to Adams at the Texas 28 - yard line. Following an incomplete pass, Williams ran for a short gain and Texas was stopped short of the needed yardage on third down. After the punt, Tech 's offense started at their 11 - yard line. Thomas gained six yards on a rushing play, then Druckenmiller completed a two - yard pass to Edmonds. On third down, Texas ' Brackens moved offsides and Tech was given a first down at their 24 - yard line. Thomas then broke free on a running play for an 11 - yard gain and a first down at the Tech 35 - yard line. After the first down, Druckenmiller scrambled for no gain, then Edmonds gained six yards on a running play. On third down, a Druckenmiller pass was knocked down at the line of scrimmage by a Texas defender and the Hokies had to punt.
Texas returned the kick to its 32 - yard line, and on the first play from scrimmage, Tech sacked Brown for a loss of nine yards. Williams regained five of the lost yards, but on third down Brown threw an incomplete pass. Texas ' punt bounced out of bounds at the 33 - yard line, and Virginia Tech 's offense returned to the field with 5: 30 remaining in the quarter.
The Hokies began their drive with a seven - yard pass from Druckenmiller to Marcus Parker. Oxendine then ran ahead and gained a first down at the 46 - yard line. From there, Druckenmiller completed a 28 - yard pass to Jennings at the Texas 26 - yard line. Oxendine was tackled after a gain of two yards, then Tech was penalized five yards for an illegal shift. After being pushed back to the 30 - yard line, Druckenmiller completed a 28 - yard pass to Still, who picked up a first down at the Texas two - yard line. On the next play, Parker rushed through the Texas defense for the Hokies ' first offensive touchdown of the game. The extra point kick was good, and with 2: 32 remaining in the third quarter, Virginia Tech took its first lead of the game.
Virginia Tech 's kickoff was downed in the end zone for a touchback. Texas ' offense thus began its drive at its 20 - yard line. The first play of the drive was an end - around that gained 10 yards and a first down for Texas. After an incomplete pass, Mitchell gained five yards on a counter run. On third down, Williams caught a six - yard pass for a first down at the Texas 41 - yard line. Mitchell ran six yards on first down, but was stopped after a gain of just one yard on second down. The second - down play caused the final seconds to tick off the clock in the third quarter, which ended with Virginia Tech leading, 14 -- 10.
The fourth quarter began with Texas in possession of the ball and facing a third down - and - three situation at its 47 - yard line. On the first play of the quarter, Brown completed a first - down pass to wide receiver Matt Davis at the Tech 47 - yard line. After a Texas pass was batted down, Mitchell ran to the left for a gain of two yards. On third down, Brown was pressured by the Virginia Tech defense and threw an interception to Virginia Tech 's William Yarborough, who caught the ball at the Tech 31 - yard line.
After the turnover, Druckenmiller got Virginia Tech 's drive started with a first - down pass to the Tech 42 - yard line. After a short run by Edmonds, Druckenmiller threw an incomplete pass, setting up a third - and - seven for Virginia Tech 's offense. During the third - down play, wide receiver Bryan Still broke free of the Texas defense and caught a 55 - yard pass from Druckenmiller for Tech 's second offensive touchdown of the game. The extra point kick was successful, and Tech took a 21 -- 10 lead with 12: 28 remaining in the game.
After Tech 's kickoff was downed in the end zone, the Longhorns ' offense began a new drive from their 20 - yard line. Brown threw an incomplete pass, then completed a first - down pass to Adams at the 32 - yard line. From there, Brown threw an incomplete pass, then tossed a 15 - yard screen pass to Fitzgerald, who gained a first down at the Texas 42 - yard line. Williams crossed into Virginia Tech territory on the next play as he ran straight ahead for a 13 - yard gain. A one - yard run was followed by an incomplete pass, and on third down Brown threw an interception directly to Virginia Tech defender Torrian Gray, who returned the pass to the Tech 33 - yard line.
On the first play after the turnover, Druckenmiller completed a 16 - yard pass to Cornelius White, who picked up a first down at the Tech 49 - yard line. Texas then committed a five - yard offsides penalty before Oxendine ran forward for four yards. On the next play, Oxendine fumbled the ball after being hit by a Texas defender. The loose ball was picked up by a Texas defender, who returned it to the 50 - yard line. Brown threw two incomplete passes, then Tech committed a five - yard penalty. On third down, Brown completed a 21 - yard pass to Davis, who gained a first down at the Tech 24 - yard line. After the long gain, Brown threw two more incomplete passes. On third down, Brown threw another interception to Gray, who returned the ball to the Tech 31 - yard line and allowed the Hokies ' offense to return to the field with 7: 33 remaining in the game.
Tech 's Thomas gained six yards on a run up the middle, then Druckenmiller ran ahead for a one - yard gain. On third down, Tech committed a 10 - yard penalty, negating what would have been a first - down run. A long pass on third down fell incomplete, and Tech punted for the first time in the quarter. The Longhorns fair caught the ball at their 30 - yard line with 5: 25 remaining in the game.
Trailing by 11, and with time running down, Texas needed to score quickly. Brown threw an incomplete pass, then was sacked by the Virginia Tech defense. During the sack, Brown fumbled, and the ball was picked up by a Virginia Tech defender who returned it into the end zone for a Virginia Tech defensive touchdown. The extra point was good, and Tech expanded its lead to 28 -- 10 with 5: 06 remaining in the game.
After the score, Tech was penalized 15 yards for excessive celebration, allowing Texas a better chance to return the post-score kickoff. Texas ' kick returner fumbled the return, however and the ball rolled out of bounds at the Texas 10 - yard line. On the first play after the kickoff, Brown was sacked at the Texas two - yard line. Williams regained some of the lost yardage with a five - yard run, but on third down he was stopped after another five - yard gain. Rather than attempt to convert the fourth down, Texas punted with 2: 33 remaining in the game.
Virginia Tech returned the kick to their 43 - yard line, and the Hokies proceeded to run out the clock by executing running plays -- which do not stop the clock at their conclusion. Tempers ran high among Texas players, and Texas defender Stoney Clark was ejected from the game after throwing the football at a Virginia Tech player following the conclusion of a play. Texas was assessed two personal - foul penalties, which advanced the ball to the Texas 31 - yard line and gave Virginia Tech a first down. Tech continued to run down the clock with rushing plays, and the Hokies brought in freshman backup quarterback Al Clark to supervise the game 's final plays. The clock rolled to zero, and Virginia Tech secured a 28 -- 10 victory.
In recognition of his performance during the game, Virginia Tech wide receiver Bryan Still was named the game 's most valuable player. He caught six passes for 119 yards and one touchdown. He also returned a punt for 60 yards and a touchdown, and his 27 - yard reception in the third quarter set up Tech 's third touchdown two plays later. Still 's punt return was the longest in Virginia Tech bowl - game history to that point and was surpassed in the 2008 Orange Bowl when Justin Harper returned a punt 84 yards for a touchdown. Tech tight end Bryan Jennings was the Hokies ' second - leading receiver; he finished the game with six catches for 77 yards. Four other players had two or fewer receptions.
On the opposite side of the ball, Texas ' receiving corps was led by Mike Adams, who had six grabs for 92 yards. Tight end Pat Fitzgerald had the Longhorns ' only receiving touchdown, and he finished the game with three catches for 21 yards. Three other players had two or fewer receptions.
Both teams ' quarterbacks benefited from the profusion of passing. Virginia Tech quarterback Jim Druckenmiller finished the game having completed 18 of his 34 pass attempts for 266 yards, one touchdown, and one interception. He also ran three times for a total gain of one yard. Texas quarterback James Brown completed 14 of his 36 pass attempts for 148 yards, three interceptions, and a touchdown. He rushed six times for - 43 yards because sacks are counted as runs for negative yardage. Texas also was hurt by penalty yardage. The Longhorns ' nine penalties for 91 yards are both Texas bowl - game records.
On the ground, both teams ' running back tandems gained appreciable yardage. Texas ' Ricky Williams ran the ball 12 times for 62 yards, while Shon Mitchell had 15 carries for 59 yards. Virginia Tech 's Dwayne Thomas carried the ball 15 times for 62 yards, and Ken Oxendine had eight carries for 31 yards. Four other Hokies (including Druckenmiller) had at least one carry.
Defensively, both teams found success at times. In the first half, Texas ' defense held the Hokies to just one touchdown, and that was not recorded until the second quarter. Virginia Tech 's offense was extremely successful in shutting down the Longhorns ' offense in the second half of the game. The Hokies shut out the Longhorns in that half, setting a bowl - game record for fewest points allowed in a half. Texas ' 10 points, 78 yards rushing and 226 yards total offense were all season lows. In total, Tech 's defense had nine tackles for loss, including five sacks of Brown. Linebacker Brandon Semones was Tech 's leading tackler, and he had nine tackles, a sack, and a pass breakup. In pass defense, Torrian Gray had two interceptions, and William Yarborough had one. Gray 's interceptions tied a Virginia Tech bowl - game record. Defensive tackle Jim Barron 's fumble return for a touchdown was the first such score in the Sugar Bowl since a rule change in 1990.
Virginia Tech 's win lifted it to a final record of 10 -- 2, while Texas ' loss dropped it to a record of 10 -- 2 -- 1. Tech improved to 3 -- 6 in bowl games, while Texas fell to 17 -- 17 -- 2. As a result of the win, Tech jumped to No. 10 in the final AP Poll of the year and No. 9 in the final coaches ' poll of the year. Texas fell to No. 14 in both final polls. A large portion of Virginia Tech 's bowl - game proceeds were devoted toward improving athletic facilities at the school, and more money was generated by a boom in merchandise sales that followed the game. Texas saw a similar but smaller boom in merchandise sales.
Several coaches from each team were fired or moved on to other jobs in the offseason following the 1995 Sugar Bowl. Virginia Tech co-defensive coordinator Rod Sharpless resigned to become the defensive coordinator at Rutgers University. Tech defensive line coach Todd Grantham was replaced by Charley Wiles after Grantham resigned to take the same job at Michigan State. To prevent Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer from likewise seeking a different position, the school signed him to a new five - year contract at a salary of more than $148,000 per year.
Texas head coach John Mackovic likewise received a contract extension through 2000. The new contract included an annual salary of $600,000, plus various other financial incentives.
As the final game of the 1995 college football season for Texas and Virginia Tech, the 1995 Sugar Bowl provided a final opportunity for players to demonstrate their skills on the field prior to the next NFL Draft. Several players from both teams announced their intention to enter the draft and attempt to play in the National Football League. Star Virginia Tech defender Cornell Brown was not one of these players. Prior to the draft, he announced his intention to remain at Tech for his senior year.
The 1996 NFL Draft took place on April 20 -- 21, 1996. Virginia Tech had two players selected: wide receiver Bryan Still (41st overall) and J.C. Price (88th). Texas also had two players taken in the draft. Defensive end Tony Brackens was selected 33rd overall, and guard John Elmore was picked 139th.
Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game.
Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game.
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what age do you start middle school in america | Middle school - wikipedia
A middle school (also known as intermediate school or junior high school) is an educational stage which exists in some countries, providing education between primary school and high school (secondary school). The concept, regulation and classification of middle schools, as well as the ages covered, vary between, and sometimes within, countries.
In Afghanistan, middle school consists of grades 6, 7 and 8. Besides there is a change in the scenario.
In Albania, middle school is included in the primary education which lasts 9 years and attendance is mandatory.
In Algeria, a middle school includes 4 grades; 6, 7, 8 and 9 consisting of students from ages 11 to 14 or 12 to 15.
Most regions of Australia do not have middle schools, as students go directly from primary school (for years K -- 6) to secondary school (years 7 - 12, usually referred to as high school).
As an alternative to the middle school model, some secondary schools divided their grades into "junior high school '' (years 8, 9 and 10) and "senior high school '' (years 11 and 12.) Some have 3 levels, "junior '' (years 7 and 8), "intermediate '' (years 9 and 10), and "senior '' (years 11 and 12).
In 1996 and 1997, a national conference met to develop what became known as the National Middle Schooling Project, which aimed to develop a common Australian view of
The first middle school established in Australia was The Armidale School, in Armidale (approximately 370 km (230 mi) north of Sydney, 360 km (220 mi) SSW of Brisbane and approximately 140 km (87 mi) due west of Coffs Harbour on the coast). Other schools have since followed this trend.
The Northern Territory has introduced a three tier system featuring Middle Schools for years 7 -- 9 (approximate age 13 -- 15) and high school year 10 -- 12 (approximate age 16 -- 18).
Many schools across Queensland have introduced a Middle School tier within their schools. The middle schools cover years 5 to 8.
In Brazil, middle school is a mandatory stage that precedes High School (Ensino Médio) called "Ensino Fundamental II '' consisting of grades 6 to 9, ages 11 to 14.
In Canada, the terms "Middle School '' and "Junior High School '' are both used, depending on which grades the school caters to. Junior high schools tend to only include grades 7, 8, and 9 (some older schools with the name ' carved in concrete ' still use "Junior High '' as part of their name, although grade nine is now missing), whereas middle schools are usually grades 6 -- 8 or only grades 7 - 8 or 6 - 7 (i.e. around ages 11 -- 14), varying from area to area and also according to population vs. building capacity. Another common model is grades 5 -- 8. Alberta, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island junior high schools (the term "Middle School '' is not commonly used) include only grades 7 -- 9, with the first year of high school traditionally being grade 10. In some places students go from elementary school to secondary school. In Ontario, the term "Middle School and Secondary School are used).
Quebec uses a grade system that is different from those of the other provinces. The Secondary level has five grades, starting after Elementary Grade 6. These are called Secondary I to Secondary V.
In the People 's Republic of China, middle school has two stages, junior stage (grades 7 -- 9, some places are grades 6 -- 9) and senior stage (grades 10 -- 12). The junior stage education is the last 3 years of 9 - year - compulsory education for all young citizens; while the senior stage education is optional but considered as a critical preparation for college education. Some middle schools have both stages while some have either of them.
The admissions for most students to enroll in senior middle schools from junior stage are on the basis of the scores that they get in "Senior Middle School Entrance Exam '', which are held by local governments. Other students may avoid the exam, based on their distinctive talents, like athletics, or excellent daily performance in junior stage.
In the Czech Republic after completing the nine - year elementary school (compulsory school attendance) a student may apply for high school (gymnasium).
Students have the opportunity to enroll in high school from Grade 5 or (less commonly) Grade 7 of elementary school, spending eight or six years respectively at high school that otherwise takes four years. Thus they can spend five years in elementary school, followed by eight in high school. The first four years of eight - year study program at high school are comparable with junior high school. Gymnasium focuses on a more advanced academic approach to education. All other types of high schools except gymnasiums and conservatories (e.g. lyceums) accept only students that finished Grade 9.
In Egypt, middle school precedes high school. It is called the preparatory stage and consists of three phases: first preparatory in which students study more subjects than primary with different branches. For instance, algebra and geometry are taught instead of "mathematics. '' In the second preparatory phase, students study science, geography, the history of Egypt starting with pharaonic history, including Coptic history, Islamic history, and concluding with modern history. The students are taught two languages, Arabic and English. Middle school (preparatory stage) lasts for three years.
In France, the equivalent period to middle school is collège, which lasts four years from the Sixième (sixth, the equivalent of the Canadian and American Grade 6) to the Troisième (third, the equivalent of the Canadian and American Grade 9), accommodating pupils aged between 11 and 15. Upon completion of the latter, students are awarded a Brevet des collèges if they obtain a certain amount of points on a series of tests in various subjects (French, history / geography, mathematics) and oral examinations (e.g., about cross-subjects themes they work on the latest years, the fourth year of collège). They can then enter high school (called lycée), which lasts three years from the Seconde to the Terminale until the baccalauréat, and during which they can choose a general or a professional field of study.
There are four middle schools in Gibraltar, following the English model of middle - deemed - primary schools accommodating pupils aged between 8 and 12 (National Curriculum Years 4 to 7). The schools were opened in 1972 when the government introduced comprehensive education in the country.
CBSE (Central Board of Secondary Education) classifies Middle School as a combination of Lower (Class 1 -- 5) and Upper Primary (Class 5 -- 8).
There are other Central Boards / Councils such as CISCE (Council for the Indian School Certificate Examination).
Each state has its own State Board. Each has its own standards, which might be different from the Central Boards.
In some institutions, providing education for 5th to 10th are known as secondary school.
In Indonesia, middle school covers ages 12 to 14 or class 7 to class 9.
Although compulsory education ends at junior high, most pursue higher education. There are around 22,000 middle schools in Indonesia with a balanced ownership between public and private sector.
Iran calls Middle School Secondary School, which caters to children between the ages 13 and 16, i.e. 7th, 8th and 9th grade.
In most of the cities in Israel, middle school (Hebrew: חטיבת ביניים, Khativat Beynaiym) covers ages 12 to 15. From the 7th grade to the 9th.
Middle school in Jamaica is called a Junior High School. It is from grade 7 - 9 but this idea is becoming rare now so grades 7 - 9 is considered lower secondary.
Junior high schools (中学校 chūgakkō) serve ages 12 through 15.
In Italy the equivalent is the "scuola secondaria di primo grado '' formerly and commonly called "middle lower school '' (Scuola Media Inferiore), often shortened to "middle school '' (Scuola Media). When the "Scuola secondaria di secondo grado '', the equivalent of high school, was formerly called "middle higher school '' (Scuola Media Superiore), commonly called "Superiori ''. The Middle School lasts three years from the student age of 11 to age 14. Since 2009, after "Gelmini reform '', the middle school was renamed "Scuola secondaria di primo grado '' ("junior secondary school '').
In Kuwait, middle school is from grade 6 - 9 and from age 11 - 14.
In Lebanon, middle school or intermediate school consists of grades 7, 8, and 9. At the end of 9th grade, the student is given the National diploma examination.
In Malaysia, the middle school equivalent is called lower secondary school which consists of students from age 13 to 15 (Form 1 - 3). Usually, these lower secondary schools are combined with upper secondary schools to form a single secondary school which is also known as high school. Students at the end of their lower secondary studies are required to sit for an examination called PT3 (Form 3. 7 subjects for non-Muslim students and 8 subjects for Muslim students) in order to determine their field of studies for upper secondary (Form 4 - 5).
In Mexico, the middle school system is called Secundaria and usually comprises three years, grades 7 -- 9 (ages: 7: 12 -- 13, 8: 13 -- 14, 9: 14 -- 15). It is completed after Primaria (Elementary School, up to grade 6: ages 6 -- 12.) and before Preparatoria / Bachillerato (High School, grades 10 -- 12 ages 15 -- 18).
In New Zealand middle schools are known as intermediate schools. They generally cover years 7 and 8 (formerly known as Forms 1 to 2). Students are generally aged between 10 and 13. There are full primary schools which also contain year 7 and 8 with students continuing to high school at year 9 (formerly known as Form 3). Some high schools also include years 7 and 8.
After 2000 there was an increased interest in middle schooling (for years 7 -- 10) with at least seven schools offering education to this age group opening around the country in Auckland, Cambridge, Hamilton, Christchurch and Upper Hutt.
In Pakistan, the Middle School is a combination of Lower (Class 1 -- 5) and Upper Primary (Class 6 -- 8). Some institutions provide education from 1st to 10th class are known as secondary schools and from 1st to 12th class are known as higher secondary schools. The age limit for student in class 1 is (5 / 6 - 6 / 7) class 2 is (6 / 7 - 7 / 8) class 3 is (7 / 8 - 8 / 9) class 4 is (8 / 9 - 9 / 10) class 5 is (9 / 10 - 10 / 11) class 6 is (10 / 11 - 11 / 12) class 7 is (11 / 12 - 12 / 13) class 8 is (12 / 13 - 13 / 14) class 9 is (13 / 14 - 14 / 15) class 10 is (14 / 15 - 15 / 16) class 11 is (15 / 16 - 16 / 17) class 12 is (16 / 17 - 17 / 18).
Middle School in the Philippines is called Junior High School which starts at 7th Grade to 10th Grade & formerly called First Year to Fourth Year. It Often Starts at the age of 12 to the age of 16 & Senior High School which starts at 11th Grade to 12th Grade & formerly called First Year to Second Year College. It often starts the age of 16 to the age of 18. Some schools, such as Miriam College in Loyola Heights, have their Middle Schools from 6th Grade to 8th Grade.
Middle school in Poland, called gimnazjum, was first introduced in 1932. The education was intended for pupils of at least 12 years of age and lasted four years. Middle schools were part of the educational system until the reform of 1947, except during World War II.
The middle schools were reinstated in Poland in 1999 now lasting three years after six years of primary school. Pupils entering gimnazjum are usually 13 years old. Middle school is compulsory for all students, and it is also the final stage of mandatory education. In the final year students take a standardized test to evaluate their academic skills. Higher scorers in the test are allowed first pick of school if they want to continue their education, which is encouraged.
Starting with the school year 2017 / 18, middle schools are scheduled to be disbanded and primary schools to be extended to lasting eight years, as it was before 1999.
In Portugal, the middle school is known as 2nd and 3rd cycles of basic education (2o e 3o ciclos do ensino básico). It comprises the 5th till 9th year of compulsory education, for children between ten and fifteen years old. After the education reform of 1986, the former preparatory school (escola preparatória) or liceu, became part of basic education (educação básica).
Basic education now includes:
Middle school in Romania, or gymnasium, includes grades 5 to 8 and the students usually share the building with the students of Primary school but in different wings / floors. Primary school lessons are taught by a handful of teachers: most are covered by one of them, and more specific areas such as foreign languages, religion or gym may have dedicated teachers. The transition to middle school changes that to a one teacher per course model where the students usually remain in the same classroom while the teachers rotate between courses. At the end of the eighth grade (usually corresponding to age 14 or 15), students take a written exam that counts for 75 % (before, it used to be 50 %) of the average needed to enroll in high school. Students then go to high school or vocational school, depending on their final grade. Schooling is compulsory until the tenth grade (which corresponds with the age of 16 or 17). The education process is done in numbered semesters, the first semester lasting 19 weeks between September and February and the second semester lasting 16 weeks between February and June.
Middle school in Russia covers grades 5 to 9, and is a natural continuation of primary school activities (usually they share the building but are located in different wings / floors). Primary school lessons are taught by a handful of teachers: most are covered by one of them, and more specific areas such as English or gym may have dedicated teachers. The transition to middle school changes that to a one teacher per course model, where teachers stay in their classrooms and pupils change rooms during breaks. Examples of courses include mathematics (split from grade 7 into algebra, geometry and physics), visual arts, Russian language, foreign language, history, literature, geography, biology, computer science, chemistry (from grade 8), social theory (in grade 9). The education process is done in numbered quarters, with the first quarter covering September and October, second quarter November and December, third quarter going from mid January to mid March, fourth quarter covering April and May. There are one week long holidays between quarters 1 and 2 as well as 3 and 4, somewhat longer holidays between quarters 2 and 3 to allow for New Year festivities, and a three - month break between the years. At the end of middle school most people stay in school for two more years and get a certificate allowing them to pursue university, but some switch to vocational - technical schools.
In Saudi Arabia, middle school includes grade 7 through 9, consisting of students from ages 12 to 15.22
In Singapore, middle school is usually referred to as secondary school. Students start secondary school after completing primary school at the age of 13, and to 16 (four years if they are taking the Special, Express or Normal Technical courses), or 17 (five years if they are taking the Normal Academic courses). Students from the Special and Express courses take the GCE ' O ' Levels after four years at the end of secondary education, and students from the Normal (Academic and Technical) courses take the GCE ' N ' Level examinations after four years, and the Normal Academic students has the option to continue for the ' O ' Levels. Selected excelling students also have the option to change classes which then affect the years they study. After completing secondary school, students move on to pre-tertiary education (i.e. in institutes such as junior colleges, polytechnics, ITE).
In Somalia, middle school identified as intermediate school is the four years between secondary school and primary school. Pupils start middle school from form as referred to in Somalia or year 5 and finish it at year 8. Students start middle school from the age of 11 and finish it when they are 14 -- 15. Subjects, which middle school pupils take are: Somali, Arabic, English, Religion, Science, Geography, History, Math, Textiles, Art and Design, Physical Education (PE) (Football) and sometimes Music. In some middle schools, it is obligatory to study Italian.
In South Korea, a middle school is called a jung hakgyo (Hangul: 중학교; Hanja: 中 學 校) which includes grades 7 through 9 (referred to as: middle school 1st -- 3rd grades; approx. age 13 -- 15).
In Spain, middle school roughly corresponds to the four - year Educación Secundaria Obligatoria or Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO), from age 12 to 16 (or 11 to 15, depending on the birth date). It is divided in two cycles of three and one year with its own grading, from 1st to 4th of ESO. The second cycle (4th of ESO) contains two options: one geared towards the Spanish Baccalaureate (equivalent to high school), which is similar to the 1st year of high school in other countries, and the other towards vocational training.
Junior high schools (Three years from 7th to 9th grade) in Taiwan were originally called "primary middle school ''. However, in August 1968, they were renamed "nationals ' middle school '' often translated "junior high '') when they became free of charge and compulsory. Private middle school nowadays are still called "primary middle school ''. Taiwanese students older than twelve normally attend junior high school. Accompanied with the switch from junior high to middle school was the cancellation of entrance examination needed to enter middle school.
In Tunisia and Morocco, a middle school includes grades 7 through 9, consisting of students from ages 12 to 15.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, Slovenia, the countries of former Yugoslavia, srednja škola (Serbo - Croatian) / srednja šola (Slovene) / средно училиште (Macedonian) / shkolla e mesme e ulët (Albanian), literally "middle school '', refers to educational institutions for ages between 14 and 18, and lasts 3 -- 4 years, following elementary school (which lasts 8 or 9 years). Gymnasiums are the most prestigious type of "middle '' school in these countries.
The final four years of elementary school are actually what would be called junior high school in the USA. Students have up to 12 -- 15 different subjects in each school year (most of them only two 45 - minute class periods per week). For example, 8th and 9th grade students do not have one subject called Science but three separate subjects called Chemistry, Physics and Biology.
In England, local education authorities introduced middle schools in the 1960s and 1970s. The notion of Middle Schools was mooted by the Plowden Report of 1967 which proposed a change to a three - tier model including First schools for children aged between 4 and 7, Middle Schools for 7 -- 11 year - olds, and then upper or high schools for 11 -- 16 year - olds. Some authorities introduced Middle Schools for ideological reasons, in line with the report, while others did so for more pragmatic reasons relating to the raising of the school leaving age in compulsory education to 16, or to introduce a comprehensive system.
Different authorities introduced different age - range schools, although in the main, three models were used:
In many areas primary school rather than first school was used to denote the first tier.
In addition, some schools were provided as combined schools catering for pupils in the 5 -- 12 age range as a combined first and middle school.
Around 2000 middle and combined schools were in place in the early 1980s. However, that number began to fall in the later 1980s with the introduction of the National Curriculum. The new curriculum 's splits in Key Stages at age 11 encouraged the majority of local education authorities to return to a two - tier system of Primary (sometimes split into Infant schools and Junior schools) and Secondary schools. There are now fewer than 150 middle schools still operational in the United Kingdom, meaning that approximately 90 % of middle schools have closed or reverted to primary school status since 1980. The system of 8 - 12 middle schools has fallen into complete disuse.
Under current legislation, all middle schools must be deemed either primary or secondary. Thus, schools which have more primary year groups than KS3 or KS4 are termed deemed primaries or middles - deemed - primaries, while those with more secondary - aged pupils, or with pupils in Y11 are termed deemed secondaries or middles - deemed - secondaries. For statistical purposes, such schools are often included under primary and secondary categories "as deemed ''. Notably, most schools also follow teaching patterns in line with their deemed status, with most deemed - primary schools offering a primary - style curriculum taught by one class teacher, and most deemed - secondary schools adopting a more specialist - centred approach. Legally all - through schools are also considered middle schools (deemed secondary), although they are rarely referred to as such.
Some middle schools still exist in various areas of England. They are supported by the National Middle Schools ' Forum. See List of middle schools in England.
In Scotland, a similar system to the English one was trialled in Grangemouth middle schools, Falkirk between 1975 and 1987. The label of junior high school is used for some through schools in Orkney and Shetland which cater for pupils from 5 up to the age of 14, at which point they transfer to a nearby secondary school.
In Northern Ireland, in the Armagh, Banbridge and Craigavon District Council area in County Armagh, the Dickson Plan operates, whereby pupils attend a primary school from ages 4 -- 10, a junior high school from 11 -- 14, and a senior high school or grammar school from 14 -- 19. This is not dissimilar to the middle school system.
Usually consisting of grades 7 - 8, 7 - 9, 6 - 8, or 5 - 8. Historically, in Elementary school Primary school, kindergarten through to sixth grade, or kindergarten through to fifth grade, i.e. up to age 12, but some elementary schools have 4 or 8 grades, i.e. up to ages 10 or 14 (also known as, the intermediate grades). Basic subjects are taught in primary school, and students often remain in one classroom throughout the school day, except for physical education, library, music, and art classes. In 2001, there were about 3.6 million children in each grade in the United States. "Middle schools '' and "junior high schools '' are schools that span grades 5 to 8 and 7 to 9, respectively, but junior high schools spanning grades 7 to 8 were common until the 1980s.
The range defined by either is often based on demographic factors, such as an increase or decrease in the relative numbers of younger or older students, with the aim of maintaining stable school populations. At this time, students are given more independence, moving to different classrooms for different subjects, which includes math, social studies, science, and language arts. Also, students are able to choose some of their class subjects (electives). Usually, starting in ninth grade, grades become part of a student 's official transcript. In the U.S., children within this grade - range are sometimes referred to as junior highers.
The middle school format has now replaced the junior high format by a ratio of about ten to one in the United States, but at least two school districts had incorporated both systems in 2010.
The "junior high school '' concept was introduced in 1909, in Columbus, Ohio. In the late 19th century and early 20th century most American elementary schools had grades 1 through 8, and this organization still exists, where some concepts of middle school organization have been adapted to the intermediate grades. As time passed, the junior high school concept increased quickly as new school districts proliferated, or systems modernized buildings and curriculum. This expansion continued through the 1960s. Jon Wiles, author of Developing Successful K -- 8 Schools: A Principal 's Guide, said that "(a) major problem '' for the original model was "the inclusion of the ninth grade, '' because of the lack of instructional flexibility, due to the requirement of having to earn high school credits in the ninth grade -- and that "the fully adolescent ninth grader in junior high school did not seem to belong with the students experiencing the onset of puberty. '' The new middle school model began to appear in the mid-1960s. Wiles said, "At first, it was difficult to determine the difference between a junior high school and a middle school, but as the middle school became established, the differences became more pronounced (...). ''
Junior high schools were created for "bridging the gap between the elementary and the high school, '' an emphasis credited to Charles W. Eliot. The faculty is organised into academic departments that operate more or less independently of one another.
In Uruguay, the public middle school consists of two stages, one mandatory called "Basic Cycle '' or "First Cycle ''. This consists of three years, ages 12 -- 13, 13 -- 14 and 14 -- 15, and one optional called "Second Cycle '', ages 15 -- 16, 16 -- 17 and 17 -- 18. The Second Cycle is divided into 4 options in the 5th grade: "Human Sciences '', "Biological '', "Scientific '' and "Arts '', and 7 options in the 6th and last grade: "Law '' or "Economy '' (if Human Sciences course taken in 5th), "Medicine '' or "Agronomy '' (if Biological course taken in 5th), "Architecture '' or "Engineering '' (if Scientific course taken in 5th) and "Arts '' (if Arts course taken in 5th).
Both of this stages are commonly known as "Liceo '' (Spanish for "high school ''). Middle school starts at grade 6 and ends at grade 8.
In Venezuela, public middle schools have a different Spanish name than private schools. The school system includes a preparatory year before first grade, so nominal grade levels are offset when compared to other countries (except those countries who have mandatory pre-school). Middle schools are from 7th grade (equivalent to 8th grade US) to 11th grade, which is equivalent to 12th grade.
In some institutions called "Technical Schools '' there is an extra grade, for those who want to graduate as "Middle technician '' in a certain area. This education would allow them to be hired at a higher level, or get introduced more easily into a college career.
There is a "college test '' from main universities of the country. Their score on this test might allow them to more quickly obtain a spot within an institution. Students with high qualifications during the high school, have more chances to have the spot.
Secondary school, or Junior High school, includes grade 6 to 9. After finishing grade 9, students have to take the graduating test nationally, which includes Mathematics and Literature. The maximum score for each test is 10, which is 20 when 2 time each test scores.
Some public schools use the graduating exam 's score and student 's transcripts to make their decision. Many other public and private schools require students who apply for those schools to take their entrance exams. The administration team would review the student 's transcripts and his or her exam to decide whether that student is qualified for their requirement or not.
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where does implantation and formation of the placenta normally occur | Implantation (human embryo) - wikipedia
In humans, implantation is the stage of pregnancy at which the already fertilized egg adheres to the wall of the uterus. At this stage of prenatal development, the conceptus is called a blastocyst. It is by this adhesion that the fetus receives oxygen and nutrients from the mother to be able to grow.
In humans, implantation of a fertilized ovum is most likely to occur around 9 days after ovulation, however this can range between 6 and 12 days.
The reception - ready phase of the endometrium of the uterus is usually termed the "implantation window '' and lasts about 4 days. The implantation window occurs around 6 days after the peak in luteinizing hormone levels. With some disparity between sources, it has been stated to occur from 7 days after ovulation until 9 days after ovulation, or days 6 - 10 postovulation. On average, it occurs during the 20th to the 23rd day after the last menstrual period.
The implantation window is characterized by changes to the endometrium cells, which aid in the absorption of the uterine fluid. These changes are collectively known as the plasma membrane transformation and bring the blastocyst nearer to the endometrium and immobilize it. During this stage the blastocyst can still be eliminated by being flushed out of the uterus. Scientists have hypothesized that the hormones cause a swelling that fills the flattened out uterine cavity just prior to this stage, which may also help press the blastocyst against the endometrium. The implantation window may also be initiated by other preparations in the endometrium of the uterus, both structurally and in the composition of its secretions.
To enable implantation, the uterus goes through changes in order to be able to receive the conceptus.
The endometrium increases thickness, becomes vascularized and its glands grow to be tortuous and boosted in their secretions. These changes reach their maximum about 7 days after ovulation.
Furthermore, the surface of the endometrium produces a kind of rounded cells, which cover the whole area toward the uterine cavity. This happens about 9 to 10 days after ovulation. These cells are called decidual cells, which emphasises that the whole layer of them is shed off in every menstruation if no pregnancy occurs, just as leaves of deciduous trees. The uterine glands, on the other hand, decrease in activity and degenerate already 8 to 9 days after ovulation in absence of pregnancy.
The decidual cells originate from the stromal cells that are always present in the endometrium. However, the decidual cells make up a new layer, the decidua. The rest of the endometrium, in addition, expresses differences between the luminal and the basal sides. The luminal cells form the zona compacta of the endometrium, in contrast to the basalolateral zona spongiosa, which consists of the rather spongy stromal cells.
Decidualization succeeds predecidualization if pregnancy occurs. This is an expansion of it, further developing the uterine glands, the zona compacta and the epithelium of decidual cells lining it. The decidual cells become filled with lipids and glycogen and take the polyhedral shape characteristic for decidual cells.
It is likely that the blastocyst itself makes the main contribution to this additional growing and sustaining of the decidua. An indication of this is that decidualization occurs at a higher degree in conception cycles than in nonconception cycles. Furthermore, similar changes are observed when giving stimuli mimicking the natural invasion of the embryo.
The decidua can be organized into separate sections, although they have the same composition.
After implantation the decidua remains, at least through the first trimester. However, its most prominent time is during the early stages of pregnancy, during implantation. Its function as a surrounding tissue is replaced by the definitive placenta. However, some elements of the decidualization remain throughout pregnancy.
The compacta and spongiosa layers are still observable beneath the decidua in pregnancy. The glands of the spongiosa layer continue to secrete during the first trimester, when they degenerate. However, before that disappearance, some glands secrete unequally much. This phenomenon of hypersecretion is called the Arias - Stella phenomenon, after the pathologist Javier Arias - Stella.
Pinopodes are small, finger - like protrusions from the endometrium. They appear between day 19 and day 21 of gestational age. This corresponds to a fertilization age of approximately 5 to 7 days, which corresponds well with the time of implantation. They only persist for 2 to 3 days. The development of them is enhanced by progesterone but inhibited by estrogens.
Pinopodes endocytose uterine fluid and macromolecules in it. By doing so, the volume of the uterus decreases, taking the walls closer to the embryoblast floating in it. Thus, the period of active pinocytes might also limit the implantation window.
Pinopodes continue to absorb fluid, and removes most of it during the early stages of implantation.
secreted by the endometrial glands
alpha - 2 - globulin (alpha - 2 - PEG)
(PAPP - A)
Not only the lining of the uterus transforms, but in addition, the secretion from its epithelial glands changes. This change is induced by increased levels of progesterone from the corpus luteum. The target of the secretions is the embryoblast, and has several functions on it.
The embryoblast spends approximately 72 hours in the uterine cavity before implanting. In that time, it can not receive nourishment directly from the blood of the mother, and must rely on secreted nutrients into the uterine cavity, e.g. iron and fat - soluble vitamins.
In addition to nourishment, the endometrium secretes several steroid - dependent proteins, important for growth and implantation. Cholesterol and steroids are also secreted. Implantation is further facilitated by synthesis of matrix substances, adhesion molecules and surface receptors for the matrix substances. When the sperm nucleus and the egg nucleus have fused together, they form a zygote
Implantation is initiated when the blastocyst comes into contact with the uterine wall.
To be able to perform implantation, the blastocyst first needs to get rid of its zona pellucida. This process can be called "hatching ''.
Lytic factors in the uterine cavity, as well as factors from the blastocyst itself are essential for this process. Mechanisms in the latter are indicated by that the zona pellucida remains intact if an unfertilized egg is placed in the uterus under the same conditions. A substance probably involved is plasmin. Plasminogen, the plasmin precursor, is found in the uterine cavity, and blastocyst factors contribute to its conversion to active plasmin. This hypothesis is supported by lytic effects in vitro by plasmin. Furthermore, plasmin inhibitors also inhibit the entire zona hatching in rat experiments.
The very first, albeit loose, connection between the blastocyst and the endometrium is called the apposition.
On the endometrium, the apposition is usually made where there is a small crypt in it, perhaps because it increases the area of contact with the rather spherical blastocyst.
On the blastocyst, on the other hand, it occurs at a location where there has been enough lysis of the zona pellucida to have created a rupture to enable direct contact between the underlying trophoblast and the decidua of the endometrium. However, ultimately, the inner cell mass, inside the trophoblast layer, is aligned closest to the decidua. Nevertheless, the apposition on the blastocyst is not dependent on if it is on the same side of the blastocyst as the inner cell mass. Rather, the inner cell mass rotates inside the trophoblast to align to the apposition. In short, the entire surface of the blastocyst has a potential to form the apposition to the decidua.
The identity of the molecules on the trophoblast and the endometrial epithelia that mediate the initial interaction between the two remain unidentified. However, a number of research groups have proposed that MUC1, a member of the Mucin family of glycosylated proteins, is involved. MUC1 is a transmembrane glycoprotein expressed at the apical surface of endometrial epithelial cells during the window of implantation in humans and has been shown to be differentially expressed between fertile and infertile subjects during this time. MUC1 displays carbohydrate moieties on its extracellular domain that are ligands of L - selectin, a protein expressed on the surface of trophoblast cells. An in vitro model of implantation developed by Genbacev et al., gave evidence to support the hypothesis that L - selectin mediates apposition of the blastocyst to the uterine epithelium by interacting with its ligands.
Adhesion is a much stronger attachment to the endometrium than the loose apposition.
The trophoblasts adhere by penetrating the endometrium, with protrusions of trophoblast cells.
There is massive communication between the blastocyst and the endometrium at this stage. The blastocyst signals to the endometrium to adapt further to its presence, e.g. by changes in the cytoskeleton of decidual cells. This, in turn, dislodges the decidual cells from their connection to the underlying basal lamina, which enables the blastocyst to perform the succeeding invasion.
This communication is conveyed by receptor - ligand - interactions, both integrin - matrix and proteoglycan ones.
Another ligand - receptor system involved in adhesion is proteoglycan receptors, found on the surface of the decidua of the uterus. Their counterparts, the proteoglycans, are found around the trophoblast cells of the blastocyst. This ligand - receptor system also is present just at the implantation window.
Invasion is an even further establishment of the blastocyst in the endometrium.
The protrusions of trophoblast cells that adhere into the endometrium continue to proliferate and penetrate into the endometrium. As these trophoblast cells penetrate, they differentiate to become a new type of cells, syncytiotrophoblast. The prefix syn - refers to the transformation that occurs as the boundaries between these cells disappear to form a single mass of many cell nuclei (a syncytium). The rest of the trophoblasts, surrounding the inner cell mass, are hereafter called cytotrophoblasts.
Invasion continues with the syncytiotrophoblasts reaching the basal membrane beneath the decidual cells, penetrating it and further invading into the uterine stroma. Finally, the whole embryo is embedded in the endometrium. Eventually, the syncytiotrophoblasts come into contact with maternal blood and form chorionic villi. This is the initiation of forming the placenta.
The blastocyst secretes factors for a multitude of purposes during invasion. It secretes several autocrine factors, targeting itself and stimulating it to further invade the endometrium. Furthermore, secretions loosen decidual cells from each other, prevent the embryo from being rejected by the mother, trigger the final decidualization and prevent menstruation.
Human chorionic gonadotropin is an autocrine growth factor for the blastocyst. Insulin - like growth factor 2, on the other hand, stimulates the invasiveness of it.
The syncytiotrophoblasts dislodges decidual cells in their way, both by degradation of cell adhesion molecules linking the decidual cells together as well as degradation of the extracellular matrix between them.
Cell adhesion molecules are degraded by syncytiotrophoblast secretion of Tumor necrosis factor - alpha. This inhibits the expression of cadherins and beta - catenin. Cadherins are cell adhesion molecules, and beta - catenin helps to anchor them to the cell membrane. Inhibited expression of these molecules thus loosens the connection between decidual cells, permitting the syncytotrophoblasts and the whole embryo with them to invade into the endometrium.
The extracellular matrix is degraded by serine endopeptidases and metalloproteinases. Examples of such metalloproteinases are collagenases, gelatinases and stromelysins. These collagenases digest Type - I collagen, Type - II collagen, Type - III collagen, Type - VII collagen and Type - X collagen. The gelatinases exist in two forms; one digesting Type - IV collagen and one digesting gelatin.
The embryo differs from the cells of the mother, and would be rejected as a parasite by the immune system of the mother if it did n't secrete immunosuppressive agents. Such agents are Platelet - activating factor, human chorionic gonadotropin, early pregnancy factor, immunosuppressive factor, Prostaglandin E 2, Interleukin 1 - alpha, Interleukin 6, interferon - alpha, leukemia inhibitory factor and Colony - Stimulating Factor.
Factors from the blastocyst also trigger the final formation of decidual cells into their proper form. In contrast, some decidual cells in the proximity of the blastocyst degenerate, providing nutrients for it.
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) not only acts as an immunosuppressive, but also "notifies '' the mother 's body that she is pregnant, preventing menstruation by sustaining the function of the corpus luteum.
Other factors secreted by the blastocyst are;
Implantation failure is considered to be caused by inadequate uterine receptivity in two - thirds of cases, and by problems with the embryo itself in the other third.
Inadequate uterine receptivity may be caused by abnormal cytokine and hormonal signaling as well as epigenetic alterations. Recurrent implantation failure is a cause of female infertility. Therefore, pregnancy rates can be improved by optimizing endometrial receptivity for implantation. Evaluation of implantation markers may help to predict pregnancy outcome and detect occult implantation deficiency.
Luteal support is the administration of medication, generally progestins, for the purpose of increasing the success rate of implantation and early embryogenesis, thereby complementing the function of the corpus luteum.
In women with more than 3 implantation failures in assisted reproduction, a review of several small randomized controlled studies estimated that the use of adjunct low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) improves live birth rate by approximately 80 %.
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who is the original singer of it's all coming back to me now | It 's All Coming Back to Me Now - wikipedia
"It 's All Coming Back to Me Now '' is a power ballad written by Jim Steinman. According to Steinman, the song was inspired by Wuthering Heights, and was an attempt to write "the most passionate, romantic song '' he could ever create. The Sunday Times posits that "Steinman protects his songs as if they were his children ''. Meat Loaf had wanted to record "It 's All Coming Back... '' for years, but Steinman saw it as a "woman 's song. '' Steinman won a court movement preventing Meat Loaf from recording it. Girl group Pandora 's Box went on to record it and it was subsequently made famous through a cover by Celine Dion, which upset Meat Loaf because he was going to use it for a planned album with the working title Bat Out of Hell III. Alternately, Meat Loaf has said the song was intended for Bat Out of Hell II and given to the singer in 1986, but that they both decided to use "I 'd Do Anything for Love (But I Wo n't Do That) '' for Bat II, and save this song for Bat III.
The song has had three major releases. The first version appeared on the concept album Original Sin, recorded by Pandora 's Box. It was then recorded by Celine Dion for her album Falling into You, and her version was a commercial hit, reaching No. 2 in the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart. Meat Loaf eventually recorded it as a duet with Norwegian singer Marion Raven for Bat III and released it as a single in 2006.
A music video was produced for each of the three versions; death is a recurring theme in all of these videos, fitting in with the suggestion in Virgin 's press release for Original Sin that "in Steinman 's songs, the dead come to life and the living are doomed to die. '' This is particularly evident when the dead characters seem to be resurrected in the memories of the main vocalist. Although in the case of Celine Dion 's video, the theme is less about the living being doomed and more about a lost love.
Influenced by Emily Brontë 's novel Wuthering Heights, Steinman compared the song to ' Heathcliff digging up Cathy 's corpse and dancing with it in the cold moonlight '. In the Jim Steinman Opens Pandora 's Box promotional video, he says that the novel:
is always made much too polite; it always has been in movies. This is n't the Wuthering Heights of Kate Bush -- that little fanciful Wuthering Heights. The scene they always cut out is the scene when Heathcliff digs up Catherine 's body and dances in the moonlight and on the beach with it. I think you ca n't get much more operatic or passionate than that. I was trying to write a song about dead things coming to life. I was trying to write a song about being enslaved and obsessed by love, not just enchanted and happy with it. It was about the dark side of love; about the ability to be resurrected by it... I just tried to put everything I could into it, and I 'm real proud of it.
In another interview, Steinman expands on his comments about the song being about the ' dark side of love '.
It 's about obsession, and that can be scary because you 're not in control and you do n't know where it 's going to stop. It says that, at any point in somebody 's life, when they loved somebody strongly enough and that person returns, a certain touch, a certain physical gesture can turn them from being defiant and disgusted with this person to being subservient again. And it 's not just a pleasurable feeling that comes back, it 's the complete terror and loss of control that comes back. And I think that 's ultimately a great weapon.
The website Allmusic called the song ' a tormented ballad about romantic loss and regret built on a spooky yet heart - wrenching piano melody '. The torment is present in the song 's opening (' There were nights when the wind was so cold '), from which the singer recovers (' I finished crying in the instant that you left... And I banished every memory you and I had ever made '). However, the defiance in the verses are replaced by the return of the ' subservient ' feelings in the chorus (' when you touch me like this, and you hold me like that... '); this juxtaposition continues throughout the song.
Eroticism is implied in the lines ' There were nights of endless pleasure ' and ' The flesh and the fantasies: all coming back to me '. The song ends with a passionate, quiet reprise of the chorus. Critics have also identified Wagner, of whom Steinman is an admirer, as an inspiration. Specifying this song, the Sunday Times said "the theme of Wagner 's opera Tristan and Isolde, with its extreme passions and obsessive love, informs all his best work. ''
A 2007 article in the Toronto Star claims that the song was written as Steinman 's "tryout '' as lyricist for Andrew Lloyd Webber 's Sunset Boulevard.
In 1989, Steinman produced a concept album, Original Sin, with an all - female group called Pandora 's Box. The album featured many tracks that would later be recorded by other artists, particularly Meat Loaf. Elaine Caswell was the lead vocalist for "It 's All Coming Back To Me Now '', who apparently collapsed five times during its recording. Caswell has since performed the song as part of The Dream Engine at Joe 's Pub in New York City.
For the track, Roy Bittan performed on the grand piano, with Steinman and Jeff Bova on keyboards. Guitars were by Eddie Martinez, with Steve Buslowe on bass guitar. Todd Rundgren arranged the background vocals, which were performed by Ellen Foley, Gina Taylor and Deliria Wilde. The song was released as a single in the United Kingdom during October 1989, but only reached No. 51 in the singles charts. In its review of the album, Kerrang! magazine called the song ' excruciatingly operatic '.
Ken Russell directed the video, which was filmed at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire. Steinman wrote the script, based on Russell 's "Nessun Dorma '' segment in the compilation opera movie Aria. Scholar Joseph Lanza describes the video:
a woman 's near - death experience (from a motorcycle crash) is set amid operatic excesses and black leather. In a simulated city engulfed by an apocalyptic blaze, British vocalist Elaine Caswell sings and participates in a ritual to celebrate the song 's "nights of sacred pleasure ''... (The soundtstage) is stocked with gravestones, motorcycles, python and dancers (allegedly from the London production of Cats), strapped in chaps, studded bras, and spiked codpieces.
The girl, near death, is being ministered to by paramedics, fantasizing and being ' sexually aroused by a large python and writhing on a bed that lit up in time with the music, while surrounded by a group of bemused, semi-naked dancers '. When Steinman 's manager saw it, he responded ' It 's a porno movie! ' The two - day shoot ran over schedule and budget, costing £ 35,000 an hour. Russell and Steinman even designed a sequence where a motorcyclist would cycle up the steps of a local church - tower, jump out of the turrets at the top, and then explode; alas, the wardens of the church refused permission.
The 7 ", 12 '' and CD singles featured Steven Margoshes 's piano solo "Pray Lewd '' (containing elements of "It 's All Coming Back to Me Now ''), Steinman 's monologue "I 've Been Dreaming Up a Storm Lately '', and "Requiem Metal '', a sample from Verdi 's Requiem Mass, all from the album Original Sin.
The song is the first on Dion 's album Falling into You. Jim Steinman produced the track, with Steven Rinkoff and Roy Bittan as co-producers. Bat Out of Hell and Meat Loaf collaborators Todd Rundgren, Eric Troyer, Rory Dodd, Glen Burtnick and Kasim Sulton provided backing vocals. An edited version of the song was then released on Dion 's album All the Way... A Decade of Song. On Falling into You album the song 's original length is seven minutes and thirty - seven seconds while on All the Way... A Decade of Song it is only five minutes and thirty - one seconds.
In 2008, "It 's All Coming Back to Me Now '' was included on Dion 's greatest hits compilation My Love: Essential Collection. Live performances can be found on the A New Day... Live in Las Vegas, Taking Chances World Tour: The Concert, and Céline... une seule fois / Live 2013 albums. Dion also performed this song during her Summer Tour 2016 and her 2017 European tour.
The cover has received acclaim from international critics. The Calgary Sun stated: "(The song) is undoubtedly the highlight of her English - language recording career. Dion 's over-the - top vocals soar and swoop around Steinman 's epic, ostentatious arrangement. Not surprisingly, everything else that follows... pales in comparison. '' Toronto 's Eye Weekly said Steinman 's "fatal absence from the last Meat Loaf record is finally justified here, '' and The Miami Herald said "Dion knocks a couple out of the ballpark... (the song) features seven minutes of Wagnerian bombast, thunderclap piano chords and emoting that would wither an opera diva. Sure, it 's over-the - top but it 's passionate and musical. '' Allmusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine marked this song as a standout along with "Falling Into You '' and praised it: "Dion shines on mock epics like Jim Steinman 's "It 's All Coming Back to Me Now. '' The New York Times ' Stephen Holden wrote: "The melodrama peaks with two overblown Jim Steinman productions: "It 's All Coming Back to Me Now '', a romantic flashback replete with thunderclaps... ``
Some other reviews were less enthusiastic. After labelling Dion "a Madonna - meets - Meat Loaf vocal freak '', The Vancouver Sun called the song "intensely self - indulgent, pompously self - important and mediocre beyond belief, the song just never ends. '' The Ottawa Sun called it ' turgid ', while The Toronto Sun, coincidentally, said that it "sounds like a Meat Loaf reject. ''
According to the Sunday Times, Andrew Lloyd Webber told Steinman he thought this song was "the greatest love song ever written, '' and on hearing the Dion version reportedly said: "This will be the record of the millennium. ''
Nigel Dick directed the music video for Dion 's version, with Simon Archer as cinematographer and Jaromir Svarc as art director. It was shot between 29 June and 3 July 1996 in the summer palace of the Austrian Emperor, Ploskovice and Barandov Studios, Prague, Czech Republic; it was later released in July 1996. Castle Ploskovice in Ploskovice supplied the exterior of the gothic mansion. There are two versions of this music video; the full version (about 7: 44 in length) and the single version (about 6: 00 in length). Both of them are included on Dion 's 2001 DVD video collection All the Way... A Decade of Song & Video.
The video opens with a man being thrown off his motorcycle, after lightning strikes a tree down in his path - eventually killing him in the process. Dion 's character is haunted by her lover 's image, which she sees through a mirror, and images of them together through picture frames. There are stylistic similarities to Russell Mulcahy 's video for Steinman 's "Total Eclipse of the Heart '', to the extent that Slant Magazine calls Dick 's video an update.
Several versions of the CD single were released in 1996. They featured the songs "The Power of the Dream '', "Le fils de Superman '', "Fly '', "To Love You More '', and a live version of "Where Does My Heart Beat Now ''; a cassette and 7 '' vinyl version were also released. Another CD contained several dance remixes, although these attracted negative reviews. While praising its original form, Allmusic said that ' as a dance song, it misses the mark... the final ' Moran ' mix is a little better (than the other dance mixes) because the vocals do n't pop up until three and a half minutes into the song '.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In interviews, Meat Loaf has said that, in his mind, the song was always meant to be a duet. It was recorded as a duet by Meat Loaf and Marion Raven for the album Bat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose, produced by Desmond Child. Raven had been working on her solo album with Child, and was chosen because the timbre of her voice starkly contrasts to Meat Loaf 's. In promotional interviews, Meat Loaf said that "I believe that the version that Marion Raven and myself did on this album is the definitive version. ''
Meat Loaf cried when he first heard the song, which "is the only time that 's happened. '' He has also said that the song could refer to Steinman and himself, with an array of emotions coming back every time they work together. Referring to lines like ' when I kiss you like that ', he said that although "I love Jim Steinman '', he would n't French kiss him.
To me it was n't a song about romance, it was about me and Jim Steinman. We 'd had a load of problems with managers in the early ' 80s and all of a sudden after five years we started to communicate. After I 'd been to his house, he sent me the song, and it was "It 's All Coming Back To Me Now ''. Not the line ' When you kiss me like that ', but the emotional connection. It does n't have to be literal.
P.R. Brown directed this video, which premiered on VH1 Classic on 8 August 2006. There are similarities between the video for Meat Loaf 's version of the song, and that the video for that of Celine Dion, with Meat Loaf being haunted by the memory of his lover. It is structured differently, however, with the story being told through flashback. Shots when Raven 's character is alive have a distinct yellow tint, with a darker, blue tint for those after her death. Whereas the motorcyclist dies before the first verse in the Dion version, Raven 's crash and resulting death is not shown until the final chorus. Meat Loaf becomes angry with Raven because the ghost of Raven 's former lover appears at a masquerade ball they are attending (some reviewers have compared this to the Stanley Kubrick film Eyes Wide Shut).
This version of the song replaces the word ' nights ' with ' lights ', in the line ' There were nights of endless pleasure '. The ending of the single version is different, concluding with an additional ' We forgive and forget and it 's all coming back to me now '. The album version, following those recorded by Pandora 's Box and Celine Dion, ends with the female voice whispering ' And if we... ', followed by four piano notes.
The track was available to download from iTunes in the United Kingdom in August 2006, two months before its UK release on 16 October. The CD single includes the song "Black Betty '', with the limited edition 7 '' featuring "Whore '', a rock duet with Patti Russo; it was also released as a DVD single. The album version was made available on Meat Loaf and Marion Raven 's respective MySpace sites in August, with the single version being played during some of their promotional interviews, such as that on BBC Radio 2. The cover art is by Julie Bell, who is also the artist for the album Bat out Of Hell III.
The single entered the UK charts at No. 6 on 22 October 2006, giving Meat Loaf his highest position in the UK charts since "I 'd Lie for You (And That 's the Truth) '' reached No. 2 in 1995. Critical reaction was generally positive, with The Guardian saying that the song is "ostensibly a reflection on love, but imbued with the delicacy of aircraft carriers colliding at sea. ''
Marion Raven joined Meat Loaf for his 2007 tour of Europe. She was the supporting act, promoting her album Set Me Free. Meat Loaf introduced her again on stage at the latter stages of the concerts to duet on "It 's All Coming Back to Me Now ''. A performance was recorded and released on DVD as 3 Bats Live.
Dion 's version appears in a 2018 TV commercial for Applebee 's.
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who plays ra's al ghul in arrow | Matthew Nable - Wikipedia
Matthew Nable (born 8 March 1972) is an Australian film and television actor, writer, sports commentator and former professional rugby league footballer. After playing in the Winfield Cup Premiership during the 1990s for the Manly - Warringah and South Sydney clubs, he wrote and starred in the rugby league - centred drama The Final Winter in 2007. Nable went on to act in films such as Killer Elite and Riddick. He appeared on The CW 's Arrow and Legends of Tomorrow as Ra 's al Ghul.
Nable grew up on the Northern Beaches of Sydney and also, as a young boy, spent two years at Portsea, Victoria, when his father, Dave, a soldier, was stationed there. His father had also worked as a trainer for the Australian national rugby league team, and his brother, Adam Nable, would become a professional player as well.
Matt Nable rose through the junior ranks at the Manly - Warringah club and made five appearances for the Graham Lowe coached team over 1991 and 1992. Following this he would n't appear in the premiership until 1995 when he played three games for the South Sydney Rabbitohs.
After another season in England where he played for Carlisle before moving to the London Broncos, Nable quit football and then tried his hand at boxing, fighting for the state light - heavyweight title as an amateur. He then worked as a beer salesman and personal trainer, but eventually decided to leave paid employment to become a writer.
After encouragement from his mentor, Booker Prize - winning novelist Thomas Keneally, Nable wrote a screenplay for The Final Winter based on his unpublished novel of the same name. With friends he also managed to raise $1.6 m and they worked together to make the film which was released in 2007, and earned critical praise but was a box office failure.
Nable went on to act in the United States as a Los Angeles detective in the 2008 television movie S.I.S..
In 2009, his book We Do n't Live Here Anymore was published, in 2011 he published his second book Faces in the Clouds, which won critical praise.
He worked as a writer on Channel 7 's new rugby league comedy programme, The Matty Johns Show.
Nable appeared in the main cast of critically acclaimed and award - winning SBS drama series, East West 101, and in the 2011 action film Killer Elite alongside Clive Owen, Robert De Niro, Yvonne Strahovski, Jason Statham, and Dominic Purcell.
Nable starred in the 2012 Australian drama series, Bikie Wars: Brothers in Arms. The same year he was announced as a cast member of another Australian TV series, Underbelly: Badness. He also had a role in the film 33 Postcards.
He appeared in the 2013 sci - fi film Riddick alongside Vin Diesel.
In March 2014 it was reported that Nable would appear in the Nine network 's upcoming miniseries Gallipoli.
On 4 September, Stephen Amell announced on Facebook that Nable would portray the role of Ra 's al Ghul on the third season of Arrow. Despite Liam Neeson (Ra 's al Ghul in The Dark Knight Trilogy) expressing an interest in reprising his role for the television series ' third season and the CW Network reaching out to him, he was unavailable and Nable was cast as Ra 's instead. IGN 's Jesse Scheeden said he brought "charisma and danger to the part ''. Nable portrayed the character in ten episodes of the third season. He reprised his role in Legends of Tomorrow.
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the townshend revenue act allowed british officials to | Townshend Acts - wikipedia
The Townshend Acts were a series of British acts passed beginning in 1767 and relating to the British American colonies in North America. The acts are named after Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who proposed the program. Historians vary slightly as to which acts they include under the heading "Townshend Acts '', but five acts are often mentioned: the Revenue Act of 1767, the Indemnity Act (1767), the Commissioners of Customs Act (1767), the Vice Admiralty Court Act (1768), and the New York Restraining Act (1767). The purpose of the Townshend Acts was to raise revenue in the colonies to pay the salaries of governors and judges so that they would remain loyal to Great Britain, to create a more effective means of enforcing compliance with trade regulations, to punish the province of New York for failing to comply with the 1765 Quartering Act, and to establish the precedent that the British Parliament had the right to tax the colonies. The Townshend Acts (1767) were met with resistance in the colonies, prompting the occupation of Boston by British troops in 1768, which eventually resulted in the Boston Massacre of 1770.
As a result of widespread protest in the American colonies, Parliament began to partially repeal the Townshend duties. Most of the new taxes were repealed, but the tax on tea was retained. The British government continued in its attempt to tax the colonists without their consent and the American Revolution followed.
Following the Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 1763), the British Empire was deep in debt. To help pay some of the costs of the newly expanded empire, the British Parliament decided to levy new taxes on the colonies of British America. Previously, through the Trade and Navigation Acts, Parliament had used taxation to regulate the trade of the empire. But with the Sugar Act of 1764, Parliament sought, for the first time, to tax the colonies for the specific purpose of raising revenue. American colonists argued that there were constitutional issues involved.
The Americans claimed they were not represented in Parliament but the British government retorted they had "virtual representation, '' a concept the Americans rejected. This issue, only briefly debated following the Sugar Act, became a major point of contention following Parliament 's passage of the 1765 Stamp Act. The Stamp Act proved to be wildly unpopular in the colonies, contributing to its repeal the following year, along with the lack of substantial revenue being raised.
Implicit in the Stamp Act dispute was an issue more fundamental than taxation and representation: the question of the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies. Parliament provided its answer to this question when it repealed the Stamp Act in 1766 by simultaneously passing the Declaratory Act, which proclaimed that Parliament could legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever ''.
The first of the Townshend Acts, sometimes simply known as the Townshend Act, was the Revenue Act of 1767. This act represented the Chatham ministry 's new approach for generating tax revenue in the American colonies after the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766. The British government had gotten the impression that because the colonists had objected to the Stamp Act on the grounds that it was a direct (or "internal '') tax, colonists would therefore accept indirect (or "external '') taxes, such as taxes on imports. With this in mind, Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, devised a plan that placed new duties on paper, paint, lead, glass, and tea that were imported into the colonies. These were items that were not produced in North America and that the colonists were only allowed to buy from Great Britain.
The colonists ' objection to "internal '' taxes did not mean that they would accept "external '' taxes; the colonial position was that any tax laid by Parliament for the purpose of raising revenue was unconstitutional. "Townshend 's mistaken belief that Americans regarded internal taxes as unconstitutional and external taxes constitutional '', wrote historian John Phillip Reid, "was of vital importance in the history of events leading to the Revolution. '' The Townshend Revenue Act received the royal assent on 29 June 1767. There was little opposition expressed in Parliament at the time. "Never could a fateful measure have had a more quiet passage '', wrote historian Peter Thomas.
The Revenue Act was passed in conjunction with the Indemnity Act of 1767, which was intended to make the tea of the British East India Company more competitive with smuggled Dutch tea. The Indemnity Act repealed taxes on tea imported to England, allowing it to be re-exported more cheaply to the colonies. This tax cut in England would be partially offset by the new Revenue Act taxes on tea in the colonies. The Revenue Act also reaffirmed the legality of writs of assistance, or general search warrants, which gave customs officials broad powers to search houses and businesses for smuggled goods.
The original stated purpose of the Townshend duties was to raise a revenue to help pay the cost of maintaining an army in North America. Townshend changed the purpose of the tax plan, however, and instead decided to use the revenue to pay the salaries of some colonial governors and judges. Previously, the colonial assemblies had paid these salaries, but Parliament hoped to take the "power of the purse '' away from the colonies. According to historian John C. Miller, "Townshend ingeniously sought to take money from Americans by means of parliamentary taxation and to employ it against their liberties by making colonial governors and judges independent of the assemblies. ''
Some members of Parliament objected because Townshend 's plan was expected to generate only £ 40,000 in yearly revenue, but he explained that once the precedent for taxing the colonists had been firmly established, the programme could gradually be expanded until the colonies paid for themselves. According to historian Peter Thomas, Townshend 's "aims were political rather than financial ''.
To better collect the new taxes, the Commissioners of Customs Act of 1767 established the American Board of Customs Commissioners, which was modeled on the British Board of Customs. The Board was created because of the difficulties the British Board faced in enforcing trade regulations in the distant colonies. Five commissioners were appointed to the board, which was headquartered in Boston. The American Customs Board would generate considerable hostility in the colonies towards the British government. According to historian Oliver M. Dickerson, "The actual separation of the continental colonies from the rest of the Empire dates from the creation of this independent administrative board. ''
The American Board of Customs Commissioners was notoriously corrupt according to historians. Political scientist Peter Andreas argues:
Historian Edmund Morgan says:
Historian Doug Krehbiel argues:
Another measure to enforce the trade laws was the Vice Admiralty Court Act of 1768. Although often included in discussions of the Townshend Acts, this act was initiated by the Cabinet when Townshend was not present, and was not passed until after his death. Before this act, there was just one vice admiralty court in North America, located in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Established in 1764, this court proved to be too remote to serve all of the colonies, and so the 1768 Vice Admiralty Court Act created four district courts, which were located at Halifax, Boston, Philadelphia, and Charleston. One purpose of the vice admiralty courts, which did not have juries, was to help customs officials prosecute smugglers, since colonial juries were reluctant to convict persons for violating unpopular trade regulations.
Townshend also faced the problem of what to do about the New York Provincial Assembly, which had refused to comply with the 1765 Quartering Act because its members saw the act 's financial provisions as levying an unconstitutional tax. The New York Restraining Act, which according to historian Robert Chaffin was "officially a part of the Townshend Acts '', suspended the power of the Assembly until it complied with the Quartering Act. The Restraining Act never went into effect because, by the time it was passed, the New York Assembly had already appropriated money to cover the costs of the Quartering Act. The Assembly avoided conceding the right of Parliament to tax the colonies by making no reference to the Quartering Act when appropriating this money; they also passed a resolution stating that Parliament could not constitutionally suspend an elected legislature.
Townshend knew that his program would be controversial in the colonies, but he argued that, "The superiority of the mother country can at no time be better exerted than now. '' The Townshend Acts did not create an instant uproar like the Stamp Act had done two years earlier, but before long, opposition to the programme had become widespread. Townshend did not live to see this reaction, having died suddenly on September 4, 1767.
The most influential colonial response to the Townshend Acts was a series of twelve essays by John Dickinson entitled "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania '', which began appearing in December 1767. Eloquently articulating ideas already widely accepted in the colonies, Dickinson argued that there was no difference between "internal '' and "external '' taxes, and that any taxes imposed on the colonies by Parliament for the sake of raising a revenue were unconstitutional. Dickinson warned colonists not to concede to the taxes just because the rates were low, since this would set a dangerous precedent.
Dickinson sent a copy of his "Letters '' to James Otis of Massachusetts, informing Otis that "whenever the Cause of American Freedom is to be vindicated, I look towards the Province of Massachusetts Bay ''. The Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by first sending a petition to King George asking for the repeal of the Revenue Act, and then sending a letter to the other colonial assemblies, asking them to join the resistance movement. Upon receipt of the Massachusetts Circular Letter, other colonies also sent petitions to the king. Virginia and Pennsylvania also sent petitions to Parliament, but the other colonies did not, believing that it might have been interpreted as an admission of Parliament 's sovereignty over them. Parliament refused to consider the petitions of Virginia and Pennsylvania.
In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough, who had recently been appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the colonial governors in America, instructing them to dissolve the colonial assemblies if they responded to the Massachusetts Circular Letter. He also sent a letter to Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard, instructing him to have the Massachusetts House rescind the Circular Letter. By a vote of 92 to 17, the House refused to comply, and Bernard promptly dissolved the legislature.
Merchants in the colonies, some of them smugglers, organized economic boycotts to put pressure on their British counterparts to work for repeal of the Townshend Acts. Boston merchants organized the first non-importation agreement, which called for merchants to suspend importation of certain British goods effective 1 January 1769. Merchants in other colonial ports, including New York City and Philadelphia, eventually joined the boycott. In Virginia, the non-importation effort was organized by George Washington and George Mason. When the Virginia House of Burgesses passed a resolution stating that Parliament had no right to tax Virginians without their consent, Governor Lord Botetourt dissolved the assembly. The members met at Raleigh Tavern and adopted a boycott agreement known as the "Association ''.
The non-importation movement was not as effective as promoters had hoped. British exports to the colonies declined by 38 percent in 1769, but there were many merchants who did not participate in the boycott. The boycott movement began to fail by 1770, and came to an end in 1771.
The newly created American Customs Board was seated in Boston, and so it was there that the Board concentrated on strictly enforcing the Townshend Acts. The acts were so unpopular in Boston that the Customs Board requested naval and military assistance. Commodore Samuel Hood complied by sending the fifty - gun warship HMS Romney, which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768.
On June 10, 1768, customs officials seized the Liberty, a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock, on allegations that the ship had been involved in smuggling. Bostonians, already angry because the captain of the Romney had been impressing local sailors, began to riot. Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection. With John Adams serving as his lawyer, Hancock was prosecuted in a highly publicized trial by a vice-admiralty court, but the charges were eventually dropped.
Given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed Governor Bernard to try to find evidence of treason in Boston. Parliament had determined that the Treason Act 1543 was still in force, which would allow Bostonians to be transported to England to stand trial for treason. Bernard could find no one who was willing to provide reliable evidence, however, and so there were no treason trials. The possibility that American colonists might be arrested and sent to England for trial produced alarm and outrage in the colonies.
Even before the Liberty riot, Hillsborough had decided to send troops to Boston. On 8 June 1768, he instructed General Thomas Gage, Commander - in - Chief, North America, to send "such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston '', although he conceded that this might lead to "consequences not easily foreseen ''. Hillsborough suggested that Gage might send one regiment to Boston, but the Liberty incident convinced officials that more than one regiment would be needed.
People in Massachusetts learned in September 1768 that troops were on the way. Samuel Adams organized an emergency, extralegal convention of towns and passed resolutions against the imminent occupation of Boston, but on 1 October 1768, the first of four regiments of the British Army began disembarking in Boston, and the Customs Commissioners returned to town. The "Journal of Occurrences '', an anonymously written series of newspaper articles, chronicled clashes between civilians and soldiers during the military occupation of Boston, apparently with some exaggeration. Tensions rose after Christopher Seider, a Boston teenager, was killed by a customs employee on 22 February 1770. Although British soldiers were not involved in that incident, resentment against the occupation escalated in the days that followed, resulting in the killing of five civilians in the Boston Massacre of 5 March 1770. After the incident, the troops were withdrawn to Castle William.
On the 5th of March 1770 -- the same day as the Boston Massacre although news travelled slowly at the time, and neither side of the Atlantic were aware of this coincidence -- Lord North, the new Prime Minister, presented a motion in the House of Commons that called for partial repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. Although some in Parliament advocated a complete repeal of the act, North disagreed, arguing that the tea duty should be retained to assert "the right of taxing the Americans ''. After debate, the Repeal Act received the Royal Assent on 12 April 1770.
Historian Robert Chaffin argued that little had actually changed:
It would be inaccurate to claim that a major part of the Townshend Acts had been repealed. The revenue - producing tea levy, the American Board of Customs and, most important, the principle of making governors and magistrates independent all remained. In fact, the modification of the Townshend Duties Act was scarcely any change at all.
The Townshend duty on tea was retained when the 1773 Tea Act was passed, which allowed the East India Company to ship tea directly to the colonies. The Boston Tea Party soon followed, which set the stage for the American Revolution.
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how many flag registers are there in 8051 | Flags register - wikipedia
The FLAGS register is the status register in Intel x86 microprocessors that contains the current state of the processor. This register is 16 bits wide. Its successors, the EFLAGS and RFLAGS registers, are 32 bits and 64 bits wide, respectively. The wider registers retain compatibility with their smaller predecessors.
The fixed bits at bit positions 1, 3 and 5, and carry, parity, adjust, zero and sign flags are inherited from an even earlier architecture, 8080. The adjust flag used to be called auxiliary carry bit in 8080 and half - carry bit in the Zilog Z80 architecture.
Note: The mask column in the table is the AND bitmask (as hexadecimal value) to query the flag (s) within FLAGS register value.
The POPF, POPFD, and POPFQ instructions read from the stack, the first 16, 32, and 64 bits of the flags register, respectively. POPFD was introduced with the i386 architecture and POPFQ with the x64 architecture. In 64 - bit mode, PUSHF / POPF and PUSHFQ / POPFQ are available but not PUSHFD / POPFD.
The following assembly code changes the direction flag (DF):
In practical software, the cld and std instructions are used to clear and set the direction flag, respectively. Some instructions in assembly language use the FLAGS register. The conditional jump instructions use certain flags to compute. For example, jz uses the zero flag, jc uses the carry flag and jo uses the overflow flag. Other conditional instructions look at combinations of several flags.
Testing if certain bits in the FLAGS register are changeable allows determining what kind of processor is installed. For example, the alignment flag can only be changed on the 486 and above, so if it can be changed then the CPU is a 486 or higher. These methods of processor detection were not made obsolete by the CPUID instruction introduced with the Intel Pentium, as CPUID is not implemented in these older CPUs.
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population of major indian cities as per census 2011 | List of Cities in India by Population - wikipedia
The following tables are the list of cities in India by population. Often cities are bifurcated into multiple regions (municipalities) which results in creation of cities within cities which may figure in the list. The entire work of this article is based on Census of India, 2011, conducted by the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, under Ministry of Home Affairs (India), Government of India.
The list includes the cities and not urban agglomerations.
Definitions:
The cities listed in bold are the capitals of the respective state / union territory.
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where are panthers found in the united states | Black panther - wikipedia
A black panther is the melanistic color variant of any big cat species. Black panthers in Asia and Africa are leopards (Panthera pardus), and those in the Americas are black jaguars (Panthera onca).
Melanism in the jaguar is conferred by a dominant allele, and in the leopard (Panthera pardus) by a recessive allele. Close examination of the color of these black cats will show that the typical markings are still present, but are hidden by the excess black pigment melanin, giving an effect similar to that of printed silk. This is called "ghost striping ''. Melanistic and non-melanistic animals can be littermates. It is thought that melanism may confer a selective advantage under certain conditions since it is more common in regions of dense forest, where light levels are lower. Recently, preliminary studies also suggest that melanism might be linked to beneficial mutations in the immune system.
Melanism is relatively common in leopards, with melanistic individuals making up approximately 11 % of the species, occurring at very different rates in different subspecies with non-random distribution.
Data on the distribution of leopard populations indicates that melanism occurs in five subspecies: Javan leopard (P. p. melas), African leopard (P. p. pardus), Indian leopard (P. p. fusca), Indochinese leopard (P. p. delacouri) and Sri Lankan leopard (P. p. kotiya). Black leopards are common in the equatorial rainforest of Malaya and the tropical rainforest on the slopes of some African mountains such as Mount Kenya. They are also common in Java, and are reported from densely forested areas in southwestern China, Myanmar, Assam and Nepal, from Travancore and other parts of southern India where they may be more numerous than spotted leopards. One was recorded in the equatorial forest of Cameroon.
The taxonomic status of captive black leopards and the extent of hybridization between different subspecies is uncertain. Therefore, coordinated breeding programs for black leopards do not exist in European and North American zoos. Black leopards occupy space needed for breeding of endangered leopard subspecies and are not kept within the North American Species Survival Plan.
In jaguars, the melanism allele is dominant. Consequently, black jaguars may produce either black or spotted cubs, but a pair of spotted jaguars can only produce spotted cubs. Individuals with two copies of the allele are darker (the black background colour is more dense) than ones with just one copy, whose background colour may appear to be dark charcoal rather than black.
The black jaguar was considered a separate species by indigenous peoples. English naturalist W.H. Hudson wrote:
The jaguar is a beautiful creature, the ground - colour of the fur a rich golden - red tan, abundantly marked with black rings, enclosing one or two small spots within. This is the typical colouring and it varies little in the temperate regions; in the hot region the Indians recognise three strongly marked varieties, which they regard as distinct species -- the one described; the smaller jaguar, less aquatic in his habits and marked with spots, not rings; and, thirdly, the black variety. They scout the notion that their terrible "black tiger '' is a mere melanic variation, like the black leopard of the Old World and the wild black rabbit. They regard it as wholly distinct, and affirm that it is larger and much more dangerous than the spotted jaguar; that they recognise it by its cry; that it belongs to the terra firma rather than to the water - side; finally, that black pairs with black, and that the cubs are invariably black. Nevertheless, naturalists have been obliged to make it specifically one with Felis onca (Panthera onca), the familiar spotted jaguar, since, when stripped of its hide, it is found to be anatomically as much like that beast as the black is like the spotted leopard.
A black jaguar named "Diablo '' was inadvertently crossed with a lioness named "Lola '' at the Bear Creek Wildlife Sanctuary in Barrie, Ontario, Canada. The offspring were a charcoal black jaglion female and a tan - coloured, spotted jaglion male. It therefore appears that the jaguar melanism gene is also dominant over normal lion colouration (the black jaguar sire was presumably carrying the black on only one allele). In preserved, stuffed specimens, black leopards often fade to a rusty colour but black jaguars fade to a chocolate brown colour.
There are no authenticated cases of truly melanistic cougars. Melanistic cougars have never been photographed or killed in the wild, and none have ever been bred. Unconfirmed sightings, known as the "North American black panther '', are currently attributed to errors in species identification by non-experts, and by the mimetic exaggeration of size. Black panthers in the American Southeast feature prominently in Choctaw folklore where, along with the owl, they are often thought to symbolize Death.
In his Histoire Naturelle (1749), French naturalist Georges - Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, wrote of the "Black Cougar '':
M. de la Borde, King 's physician at Cayenne, informs me, that in the (South American) Continent there are three species of rapacious animals; that the first is the jaguar, which is called the tiger; that the second is the couguar (sic), called the red tiger, on account of the uniform redness of his hair; that the jaguar is of the size of a large bull - dog, and weighs about 200 pounds (90 kg); that the cougar is smaller, less dangerous, and not so frequent in the neighbourhood of Cayenne as the jaguar; and that both these animals take six years in acquiring their full growth. He adds, that there is a third species in these countries, called the black tiger, of which we have given a figure under the appellation of the black cougar. The head is pretty similar to that of the common cougar; but the animal has long black hair, and likewise a long tail, with strong whiskers. He weighs not much above forty pounds (18 kg). The female brings forth her young in the hollows of old trees.
This "black cougar '' was most likely a margay or ocelot, which are under 18 kg (40 lb) in weight, live in trees, and do have melanistic phases.
Another description of a black cougar was provided by Thomas Pennant:
Black tiger, or cat, with the head black, sides, fore part of the legs, and the tail, covered with short and very glossy hairs, of a dusky colour, sometimes spotted with black, but generally plain: Upper lips white: At the corner of the mouth a black spot: Long hairs above each eye, and long whiskers on the upper lip: Lower lip, throat, belly and the inside of the legs, whitish, or very pale ash - colour: Paws white: Ears pointed: Grows to the size of a heifer of a year old: Has vast strength in its limbs. -- Inhabits Brasil and Guiana: Is a cruel and fierce beast; much dreaded by the Indians; but happily is a scarce species.
According to his translator Smellie (1781), the description was taken from two black jaguars exhibited in London some years previously.
Black panther sightings are frequently recorded in rural Victoria and New South Wales, and Western Australia. The Australian "phantom panthers '' are said to be responsible for the disappearances and deaths of numerous cats, dogs and livestock.
Animal X Natural Mysteries Unit led an investigation into the phantom panther. Mike Williams, a local researcher, said he had sent feces and hair found by locals to labs for analysis, which identified it as feces from dogs that had feasted on swamp wallaby, and hair from a domestic cat. Mr Williams said he also had known leopard feces and hair collected from a private zoo tested by one of the same labs, but that these samples came back with the same results of dog feces and domestic cat hair. This indicated the lab incapable of distinguishing between leopard hairs and those of domestic animals, casting doubt on the previous findings. The lab used was not identified in the episode.
Pseudo-melanism (abundism) occurs in leopards. A pseudo-melanistic leopard has a normal background color, but the spots are more densely packed than normal and merge to obscure the golden - brown background color. Any spots on the flanks and limbs that have not merged into the mass of swirls and stripes are unusually small and discrete, rather than forming rosettes. The face and underparts are paler and dappled like those of ordinary spotted leopards.
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what is the length of a toyota sienna minivan | Toyota Sienna - wikipedia
The Toyota Sienna is a minivan manufactured by Toyota at the Toyota Motor Manufacturing Indiana facility, in Princeton, Indiana, United States, for the North American market. It replaced the first - generation Previa van in 1997 with a more conventional front wheel drive layout and shares a heavily revised platform with the Camry. Both the Previa and original Sienna were smaller than the other minivans they competed against, but a redesign in 2003 (for the 2004 model year) increased the dimensions to match those of its competitors. The Sienna is currently the only minivan in its class to offer all - wheel - drive. It was redesigned a second time in 2010 (for the 2011 model year). The third generation Sienna was put on sale in the US in February 2010 and is the first Sienna to ever receive a "Top Safety Pick '' award from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. Exports from the US to Korea began in November 2011.
In late 1997, Toyota launched the front wheel drive MY 1998 Sienna in the North American market as a replacement for the mid-engined Previa. The Sienna debuted with a 3.0 - liter 1MZ - FE V6 engine rated at 194 hp (145 kW) and 209 lb ⋅ ft (284 N ⋅ m) of torque. Built on an extended platform of the Toyota Camry, the Sienna was appropriately marketed as the "Camry of minivans, '' capitalizing on the Camry 's popularity and reputation. It is named for the Italian city of Siena, in the region of Tuscany.
It came in three trim levels, CE, LE, and XLE. The LE and XLE models were equipped with 2nd row captain 's chairs while the CE models came equipped with a 2nd row 2 - passenger bench seat. The seats can be easily folded and individually removed as needed. The driver side sliding door and roof rack were standard on the LE and XLE models, but were optional on the CE models. The XLE models offered leather seats and a wood trim package. The Sienna also touted best - in - class fuel economy of 16 mpg city driving and 22 mpg highway driving. It was built in Georgetown, Kentucky. A year after its release, the Sienna faced new competition from the redesigned Honda Odyssey minivan, which was larger and offered a V6 like the Sienna.
For the 2001 model year, the Sienna underwent a mid-cycle refresh. This update included a facelift to both front and rear fascias which added a redesigned front grille and bumper along with revised rear taillights sporting a more modern appearance (clear - lens turn - signals as opposed to amber - coloured). Toyota also revamped the center console area to add more usability to the HVAC controls along with new locations for the accessory switches (rear vent, power sliding doors, heated seats). The engine also came equipped with a variable valve timing feature VVT - i boosting output to 210 hp (157 kW) and 220 lb ⋅ ft (298 N ⋅ m) torque. The driver side sliding door became standard on all models, although the roof rack remained optional on the CE models.
This generation was noteworthy for its impressive safety content as one of the few minivans to offer options including front seat - mounted side torso airbags and Vehicle Stability Control. Anti-lock braking was standard. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety rated the Sienna "Good '' in all six frontal crash test measures, which was far better than the Previa.
The reputation of this generation was marred by a class - action settlement for an engine oil sludge problem which affected the V - 6 engines in many Toyota models. Symptoms of the problem include oil smoke in the exhaust, oil quickly becoming dark or black after an oil change, gasoline odor in the oil, high oil consumption, and eventually engine failure.
Toyota assigned Yuji Yokoya as chief engineer on the new Sienna project. Yokoya and his family drove the previous model over 53,000 miles (85,000 km) throughout North America to find weaknesses from the design. The engine was an updated ULEV certified 3.3 - liter 3MZ - FE V6 paired with a new five - speed automatic transmission. The gear stick was moved from the steering column to the center console and had a gated shift pattern. Seating for eight was optional on lower - level trims, and the third row seating was fold - flat, allowing the van to transport 4 by 8 feet (1.2 by 2.4 m) building materials like plywood and drywall sheets.
On January 6, 2003, the second - generation Sienna was unveiled at the Detroit Auto Show. Production was moved from the Georgetown plant to Toyota Motor Manufacturing Indiana. Changes from the first generation included 45 per cent more volume overall and 39 per cent more cargo space. The seats were in the 60 / 40 split configuration, and the flat - folding third row seat was offered even with all - wheel - drive.
Trim levels, in order of increasing standard and available features were: CE, LE, and XLE, and XLE Limited (renamed Limited in later years). The most distinguishable difference on the XLE Limited model was the horizontal chrome bar placed above the rear license plate. The CE had a black trim there, while middling models had a body - colored trim.
Standard features included remote keyless entry, tilt - and - telescopic steering wheel, and high solar energy - absorbing glass (HSEA) on the windshield and front windows. All 2004 -- 2007 Siennas had a factory tow package (hitch kit and trailer lighting connections not included) and a 3,500 pounds (1,600 kg) towing capacity.
All wheel drive, optional on the more expensive trims included run - flat tires. The all wheel drive system continuously divided engine power 50: 50 front and rear.
Options, depending on the trim level, included HID Xenon headlamps, Dynamic Laser Cruise Control, parking sensors, a convex rear view mirror to enable the driver to see the passengers, a voice - activated navigation system (not voice activated for the 2004 model year) which included a backup camera, 10 - speaker JBL audio and rear - seat DVD entertainment system with two 110V outlets.
New styling allowed for a drag coefficient of Cd = 0.30. EPA Fuel economy was 17 mpg city driving and 23 mpg highway for the FWD version. The AWD version got 16 mpg city driving and 22 mpg highway driving. The turning radius was 11.2 metres (37 ft).
The Sienna came standard with anti-lock braking, brake assist, electronic brakeforce distribution, traction control and a tire - pressure monitoring system. Side torso airbags, and side curtain airbags were standard on certain 2004 and 2005 LE and XLE model trims while optional on others, but became standard on all 2006 trims. Vehicle Stability Control initially optional on lower trims became standard for 2008 models.
The IIHS gives the Sienna an overall "Good '' score in their frontal offset crash test with "Good '' marks in all six measured categories. All 2006 models and later receive a "Good '' overall score, while pre-2006 models without side airbags receive an "Acceptable '' score for side impacts.
The redesigned 2011 Sienna premiered at the Los Angeles Auto Show in early December 2009. It was designed at Calty studios and engineered at Toyota Technical Center in Ann Arbor, Michigan and Toyota Motor Corporation in Japan. The new Sienna arrived at dealers in February 2010.
The Sienna is offered in five trim levels, the Sienna base grade, LE, XLE, Limited and for the first time the SE trim. The new SE offers revised bodywork, clear tail lamps, 19 - inch (480 mm) wheels, firmer suspension and revised steering tuning for a sportier ride. All - wheel - drive is only available with the V6 engine on the LE, XLE and Limited model trims. Described by AOL Autos as slipping a sports car in a minivan, Chief Engineer Kazuo Mori (an avid autocrosser) reportedly had to overcome opposition to get the SE equipment package included in the line - up.
The previous 3.5 - liter 2GR - FE continues, but for the first time the Sienna offers a four cylinder engine, the 1AR - FE; and is the first time Toyota has offered a four - cylinder engine in a North American minivan since discontinuation of the Estima / Previa in late 1997. An Electric Power Steering (EPS) system replaces the previous hydraulic power steering system. Toyota continues to offer all wheel drive in the Sienna. It is the only North American minivan with an available AWD drivetrain. Toyota expects EPA - estimated mileage figures of 19 mpg (12.4 L / 100 km) city / 24 mpg (9.8 L / 100 km) highway for models powered by the 4 - cylinder engine, 18 mpg (13.1 L / 100 km) city / 24 mpg (9.8 L / 100 km) highway for 2WD V6 models, and 16 mpg (14.7 L / 100 km) city / 22 mpg (10.7 L / 100 km) highway for AWD models. An optional tow package for V6 models is rated to tow 3,500 pounds (1,600 kg).
The front dashboard features a "swoop '' wood trim, inspired by the Toyota Venza and Lexus RX, that gives front seat occupants a "60 / 60 '' split whether in the driver or passenger seat.
New features include an optional sliding second row with "Lounge Seating '' recliner style chairs, a feature previously seen on the Lexus LS, and Toyota 's keyless Smart Key System with push - button start. The rear seat entertainment option now uses a 16.4 - inch (41.7 cm) LCD screen which operates in two view modes, a single 16: 9 - ratio widescreen or two separate 4: 3 - ratio split screens with separate wireless headphones.
For safety the back - up camera comes with a new 180 ° panoramic view. Other new options include a Pre-Collision System (PCS) as well as an automatic highbeam dimmer, Safety Connect and a more advanced stability control system known as Vehicle Integrated Dynamics Management. A driver 's knee airbag is now standard as well.
When the second row seats are removed, the bottom of the second row seats, which is similar to a rack, remains attached to the van floor. This means that with second row seats removed, the floor is not flat.
Toyota is the first automaker to offer a factory installed auto - access seat for disabled people. The one - touch rotating, power ascending / descending lift - up seat can lower to within 19 inches (48 cm) of the ground.
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where did the valley girl accent come from | Valley Girl - wikipedia
Valley girl is a socio - economic stereotype depicting a class of women characterized by the colloquial California English dialect Valleyspeak and materialism.
Originally referring to upper - middle class girls from the Los Angeles commuter towns of San Fernando Valley during the 1980s, the term in later years became more broadly applied to any English - speaking female -- primarily in the United States and Canada -- who engendered the associated affects of ditziness, airheadedness, and / or greater interest in conspicuous consumption than intellectual or personal accomplishment.
In 1982, composer Frank Zappa released the single "Valley Girl '', with his 14 - year - old daughter Moon Unit speaking typical "Valley Girl '' phrases. Zappa intended to lampoon the image, but after the song 's release there was a significant increase in the "Valspeak '' slang usage, whether ironically spoken or not.
The 1983 film Valley Girl starring Nicolas Cage centered on a group of "Valley Girl '' characters and featured several characterizations associated with their lifestyle (such as going shopping at the mall or "Galleria, '' suntanning at the beach, and going to parties).
The protagonist of the 1995 film Clueless has been described as a caricature of 1990s Valley Girls, though she is actually from nearby Beverly Hills.
In her 2015 memoir entitled Wildflower, actress Drew Barrymore says she talks "like a valley girl '' because she lived in Sherman Oaks from the age of 7 to 14.
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where did the story the epic of gilgamesh originate | Epic of Gilgamesh - wikipedia
The Epic of Gilgamesh (/ ˈɡɪlɡəˌmɛʃ /) is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia that is often regarded as the earliest surviving great work of literature. The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian poems about Bilgamesh (Sumerian for "Gilgamesh ''), king of Uruk, dating from the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100 BC). These independent stories were later used as source material for a combined epic. The first surviving version of this combined epic, known as the "Old Babylonian '' version, dates to the 18th century BC and is titled after its incipit, Shūtur eli sharrī ("Surpassing All Other Kings ''). Only a few tablets of it have survived. The later "standard '' version dates from the 13th to the 10th centuries BC and bears the incipit Sha naqba īmuru ("He who Saw the Deep '', in modern terms: "He who Sees the Unknown ''). Approximately two thirds of this longer, twelve - tablet version have been recovered. Some of the best copies were discovered in the library ruins of the 7th - century BC Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.
The first half of the story discusses Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, and Enkidu, a wild man created by the gods to stop Gilgamesh from oppressing the people of Uruk. After Enkidu becomes civilized through sexual initiation with a prostitute, he travels to Uruk, where he challenges Gilgamesh to a test of strength. Gilgamesh wins and the two become friends. Together, they make a six - day journey to the legendary Cedar Forest, where they plan to slay the Guardian, Humbaba the Terrible, and cut down the sacred Cedar. Later they kill the Bull of Heaven, which the goddess Ishtar sends to punish Gilgamesh for spurning her advances. As a punishment for these actions, the gods sentence Enkidu to death.
In the second half of the epic, distress about Enkidu 's death causes Gilgamesh to undertake a long and perilous journey to discover the secret of eternal life. He eventually learns that "Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let death be his share, and life withheld in their own hands ''. However, because of his great building projects, his account of Siduri 's advice, and what the immortal man Utnapishtim told him about the Great Flood, Gilgamesh 's fame survived his death. His story has been translated into many languages, and in recent years has featured in works of popular fiction.
Distinct sources exist from over a 2000 - year timeframe. The earliest Sumerian poems are now generally considered to be distinct stories, rather than parts of a single epic. They date from as early as the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100 BC). The Old Babylonian tablets (c. 1800 BC), are the earliest surviving tablets for a single Epic of Gilgamesh narrative. The older Old Babylonian tablets and later Akkadian version are important sources for modern translations, with the earlier texts mainly used to fill in gaps (lacunae) in the later texts. Although several revised versions based on new discoveries have been published, the epic remains incomplete. Analysis of the Old Babylonian text has been used to reconstruct possible earlier forms of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The most recent Akkadian version (c. 1200 BC), also referred to as the standard version, consisting of twelve tablets, was edited by Sin - liqe - unninni and was found in the Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh.
The New York Times, front page, 1872
The Epic of Gilgamesh was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in 1853. The central character of Gilgamesh was initially reintroduced to the world as "Izdubar '', before the cuneiform logographs in his name could be pronounced accurately. The first modern translation was published in the early 1870s by George Smith. Smith then made further discoveries of texts on his later expeditions, which culminated in his final translation which is given in his book The Chaldaean Account of Genesis (1880).
The most definitive modern translation is a two - volume critical work by Andrew George, published by Oxford University Press in 2003. A book review by the Cambridge scholar, Eleanor Robson, claims that George 's is the most significant critical work on Gilgamesh in the last 70 years. George discusses the state of the surviving material, and provides a tablet - by - tablet exegesis, with a dual language side - by - side translation. In 2004, Stephen Mitchell supplied a controversial version that takes many liberties with the text and includes modernized allusions and commentary relating to the Iraq War of 2003.
The first direct Arabic translation from the original tablets was made in the 1960s by the Iraqi archaeologist Taha Baqir.
The discovery of artifacts (c. 2600 BC) associated with Enmebaragesi of Kish, mentioned in the legends as the father of one of Gilgamesh 's adversaries, has lent credibility to the historical existence of Gilgamesh.
From the diverse sources found, two main versions of the epic have been partially reconstructed: the standard Akkadian version, or He who saw the deep, and the Old Babylonian version, or Surpassing all other kings. Five earlier Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh have been partially recovered, some with primitive versions of specific episodes in the Akkadian version, others with unrelated stories.
The standard version was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh in 1853. It was written in a dialect of Akkadian that was used for literary purposes. This version was compiled by Sin - liqe - unninni sometime between 1300 and 1000 BC from earlier texts.
The standard Akkadian version has different opening words, or incipit, from the older version. The older version begins with the words "Surpassing all other kings '', while the standard version has "He who saw the deep '' (ša nagba īmuru), "deep '' referring to the mysteries of the information brought back by Gilgamesh from his meeting with Uta - Napishti (Utnapishtim) about Ea, the fountain of wisdom. Gilgamesh was given knowledge of how to worship the gods, why death was ordained for human beings, what makes a good king, and how to live a good life. The story of Utnapishtim, the hero of the flood myth, can also be found in the Babylonian Epic of Atrahasis.
The 12th tablet is a sequel to the original 11, and was probably added at a later date. It bears little relation to the well - crafted 11 - tablet epic; the lines at the beginning of the first tablet are quoted at the end of the 11th tablet, giving it circularity and finality. Tablet 12 is a near copy of an earlier Sumerian tale, a prequel, in which Gilgamesh sends Enkidu to retrieve some objects of his from the Underworld, and he returns in the form of a spirit to relate the nature of the Underworld to Gilgamesh.
This summary is based on Andrew George 's translation.
The story introduces Gilgamesh, king of Uruk. Gilgamesh, two - thirds god and one - third man, is oppressing his people, who cry out to the gods for help. For the young women of Uruk this oppression takes the form of a droit du seigneur, or "lord 's right '', to sleep with brides on their wedding night. For the young men (the tablet is damaged at this point) it is conjectured that Gilgamesh exhausts them through games, tests of strength, or perhaps forced labour on building projects. The gods respond to the people 's pleas by creating an equal to Gilgamesh who will be able to stop his oppression. This is the primitive man, Enkidu, who is covered in hair and lives in the wild with the animals. He is spotted by a trapper, whose livelihood is being ruined because Enkidu is uprooting his traps. The trapper tells the sun - god Shamash about the man, and it is arranged for Enkidu to be seduced by Shamhat, a temple prostitute, his first step towards being tamed. After six days and seven nights of continuous lovemaking she takes Enkidu to a shepherd 's camp to learn how to be civilized. Gilgamesh, meanwhile, has been having dreams about the imminent arrival of a beloved new companion.
Shamhat brings Enkidu to the shepherds ' camp, where he is introduced to a human diet and becomes the night watchman. Learning from a passing stranger about Gilgamesh 's treatment of new brides, Enkidu is incensed and travels to Uruk to intervene at a wedding. When Gilgamesh attempts to visit the wedding chamber, Enkidu blocks his way, and they fight. After a fierce battle, Enkidu acknowledges Gilgamesh 's superior strength and they become friends. Gilgamesh proposes a journey to the Cedar Forest to slay the monstrous demi - god Humbaba in order to gain fame and renown. Despite warnings from Enkidu and the council of elders, Gilgamesh is not deterred.
The elders give Gilgamesh advice for his journey. Gilgamesh visits his mother, the goddess Ninsun, who seeks the support and protection of the sun - god Shamash for their adventure. Ninsun adopts Enkidu as her son, and Gilgamesh leaves instructions for the governance of Uruk in his absence.
Gilgamesh and Enkidu journey to the Cedar Forest. Every few days they camp on a mountain, and perform a dream ritual. Gilgamesh has five terrifying dreams about falling mountains, thunderstorms, wild bulls, and a thunderbird that breathes fire. Despite similarities between his dream figures and earlier descriptions of Humbaba, Enkidu interprets these dreams as good omens, and denies that the frightening images represent the forest guardian. As they approach the cedar mountain, they hear Humbaba bellowing, and have to encourage each other not to be afraid.
The heroes enter the cedar forest. Humbaba, the guardian of the Cedar Forest, insults and threatens them. He accuses Enkidu of betrayal, and vows to disembowel Gilgamesh and feed his flesh to the birds. Gilgamesh is afraid, but with some encouraging words from Enkidu the battle commences. The mountains quake with the tumult and the sky turns black. The god Shamash sends 13 winds to bind Humbaba, and he is captured. Humbaba pleads for his life, and Gilgamesh pities him. He offers Gilgamesh to be king of the forest, he will cut the trees for him, and be his slave. Enkidu, however, argues that Gilgamesh should kill Humbaba to establish his reputation forever. Humbaba curses them both and Gilgamesh dispatches him with a blow to the neck. The two heroes cut down many cedars, including a gigantic tree that Enkidu plans to fashion into a gate for the temple of Enlil. They build a raft and return home along the Euphrates with the giant tree and (possibly) the head of Humbaba.
Gilgamesh rejects the advances of the goddess Ishtar because of her mistreatment of previous lovers like Dumuzi. Ishtar asks her father Anu to send Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven, to avenge her. When Anu rejects her complaints, Ishtar threatens to raise the dead who will "outnumber the living '' and "devour them ''. Anu becomes frightened, and gives in to her. Ishtar leads Gugalanna to Uruk, and it causes widespread devastation. It lowers the level of the Euphrates river, and dries up the marshes. It opens up huge pits that swallow 300 men. Without any divine assistance, Enkidu and Gilgamesh attack and slay it, and offer up its heart to Shamash. When Ishtar cries out, Enkidu hurls one of the hindquarters of the bull at her. The city of Uruk celebrates, but Enkidu has an ominous dream about his future failure.
In Enkidu 's dream, the gods decide that one of the heroes must die because they killed Humbaba and Gugalanna. Despite the protestations of Shamash, Enkidu is marked for death. Enkidu curses the great door he has fashioned for Enlil 's temple. He also curses the trapper and Shamhat for removing him from the wild. Shamash reminds Enkidu of how Shamhat fed and clothed him, and introduced him to Gilgamesh. Shamash tells him that Gilgamesh will bestow great honors upon him at his funeral, and will wander into the wild consumed with grief. Enkidu regrets his curses and blesses Shamhat. In a second dream, however, he sees himself being taken captive to the Netherworld by a terrifying Angel of Death. The underworld is a "house of dust '' and darkness whose inhabitants eat clay, and are clothed in bird feathers, supervised by terrifying beings. For 12 days, Enkidu 's condition worsens. Finally, after a lament that he could not meet a heroic death in battle, he dies.
Gilgamesh delivers a lamentation for Enkidu, in which he calls upon mountains, forests, fields, rivers, wild animals, and all of Uruk to mourn for his friend. Recalling their adventures together, Gilgamesh tears at his hair and clothes in grief. He commissions a funerary statue, and provides grave gifts from his treasury to ensure that Enkidu has a favourable reception in the realm of the dead. A great banquet is held where the treasures are offered to the gods of the Netherworld. Just before a break in the text there is a suggestion that a river is being dammed, indicating a burial in a river bed, as in the corresponding Sumerian poem, The Death of Gilgamesh.
Tablet nine opens with Gilgamesh roaming the wild wearing animal skins, grieving for Enkidu. Fearful of his own death, he decides to seek Utnapishtim ("the Faraway ''), and learn the secret of eternal life. Among the few survivors of the Great Flood, Utnapishtim and his wife are the only humans to have been granted immortality by the gods. Gilgamesh crosses a mountain pass at night and encounters a pride of lions. Before sleeping he prays for protection to the moon god Sin. Then, waking from an encouraging dream, he kills the lions and uses their skins for clothing. After a long and perilous journey, Gilgamesh arrives at the twin peaks of Mount Mashu at the end of the earth. He comes across a tunnel, which no man has ever entered, guarded by two scorpion monsters, who appear to be a married couple. The husband tries to dissuade Gilgamesh from passing, but the wife intervenes, expresses sympathy for Gilgamesh, and (according to the poem 's editor Benjamin Foster) allows his passage. He passes under the mountains along the Road of the Sun. In complete darkness he follows the road for 12 "double hours '', managing to complete the trip before the Sun catches up with him. He arrives at the Garden of the gods, a paradise full of jewel - laden trees.
Gilgamesh meets alewife Siduri, who assumes that he is a murderer or thief because of his disheveled appearance. Gilgamesh tells her about the purpose of his journey. She attempts to dissuade him from his quest, but sends him to Urshanabi the ferryman, who will help him cross the sea to Utnapishtim. Gilgamesh, out of spontaneous rage, destroys the stone charms that Urshanabi keeps with him. He tells him his story, but when he asks for his help, Urshanabi informs him that he has just destroyed the objects that can help them cross the Waters of Death, which are deadly to the touch. Urshanabi instructs Gilgamesh to cut down 120 trees and fashion them into punting poles. When they reach the island where Utnapishtim lives, Gilgamesh recounts his story, asking him for his help. Utnapishtim reprimands him, declaring that fighting the common fate of humans is futile and diminishes life 's joys.
Gilgamesh observes that Utnapishtim seems no different from himself, and asks him how he obtained his immortality. Utnapishtim explains that the gods decided to send a great flood. To save Utnapishtim the god Ea told him to build a boat. He gave him precise dimensions, and it was sealed with pitch and bitumen. His entire family went aboard together with his craftsmen and "all the animals of the field ''. A violent storm then arose which caused the terrified gods to retreat to the heavens. Ishtar lamented the wholesale destruction of humanity, and the other gods wept beside her. The storm lasted six days and nights, after which "all the human beings turned to clay ''. Utnapishtim weeps when he sees the destruction. His boat lodges on a mountain, and he releases a dove, a swallow, and a raven. When the raven fails to return, he opens the ark and frees its inhabitants. Utnapishtim offers a sacrifice to the gods, who smell the sweet savor and gather around. Ishtar vows that just as she will never forget the brilliant necklace that hangs around her neck, she will always remember this time. When Enlil arrives, angry that there are survivors, she condemns him for instigating the flood. Ea also castigates him for sending a disproportionate punishment. Enlil blesses Utnapishtim and his wife, and rewards them with eternal life. This account matches the flood story that concludes the Epic of Atra - Hasis (see also Gilgamesh flood myth).
The main point seems to be that when Enlil granted eternal life it was a unique gift. As if to demonstrate this point, Utnapishtim challenges Gilgamesh to stay awake for six days and seven nights. Gilgamesh falls asleep, and Utnapishtim instructs his wife to bake a loaf of bread on each of the days he is asleep, so that he can not deny his failure to keep awake. Gilgamesh, who is seeking to overcome death, can not even conquer sleep. After instructing Urshanabi the ferryman to wash Gilgamesh, and clothe him in royal robes, they depart for Uruk.
As they are leaving, Utnapishtim 's wife asks her husband to offer a parting gift. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that at the bottom of the sea there lives a boxthorn - like plant that will make him young again. Gilgamesh, by binding stones to his feet so he can walk on the bottom, manages to obtain the plant. Gilgamesh proposes to investigate if the plant has the hypothesized rejuvenation ability by testing it on an old man once he returns to Uruk.
There is a plant that looks like a box - thorn, it has prickles like a dogrose, and will prick one who plucks it. But if you can possess this plant, you 'll be again as you were in your youth
This plant, Ur - shanabi, is the "Plant of Heartbeat '', with it a man can regain his vigour. To Uruk - the - sheepfold I will take it, to an ancient I will feed some and put the plant to the test!
Unfortunately, when Gilgamesh stops to bathe, it is stolen by a serpent, who sheds its skin as it departs. Gilgamesh weeps at the futility of his efforts, because he has now lost all chance of immortality. He returns to Uruk, where the sight of its massive walls prompts him to praise this enduring work to Urshanabi.
This tablet is mainly an Akkadian translation of an earlier Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh and the Netherworld (also known as "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld '' and variants), although it has been suggested that it is derived from an unknown version of that story. The contents of this last tablet are inconsistent with previous ones: Enkidu is still alive, despite having died earlier in the epic. Because of this, its lack of integration with the other tablets, and the fact that it is almost a copy of an earlier version, it has been referred to as an ' inorganic appendage ' to the epic. Alternatively, it has been suggested that "its purpose, though crudely handled, is to explain to Gilgamesh (and the reader) the various fates of the dead in the Afterlife '' and in "an awkward attempt to bring closure '', it both connects the Gilgamesh of the epic with the Gilgamesh who is the King of the Netherworld, and is "a dramatic capstone whereby the twelve - tablet epic ends on one and the same theme, that of "seeing '' (= understanding, discovery, etc.), with which it began. ''
Gilgamesh complains to Enkidu that various of his possessions (the tablet is unclear exactly what -- different translations include a drum and a ball) have fallen into the underworld. Enkidu offers to bring them back. Delighted, Gilgamesh tells Enkidu what he must and must not do in the underworld if he is to return. Enkidu does everything which he was told not to do. The underworld keeps him. Gilgamesh prays to the gods to give him back his friend. Enlil and Suen do n't reply, but Ea and Shamash decide to help. Shamash makes a crack in the earth, and Enkidu 's ghost jumps out of it. The tablet ends with Gilgamesh questioning Enkidu about what he has seen in the underworld.
This version of the epic, called in some fragments Surpassing all other kings, is composed of tablets and fragments from diverse origins and states of conservation. It remains incomplete in its majority, with several tablets missing and big lacunae in those found. They are named after their current location or the place where they were found.
Surpassing all other kings Tablet II, greatly correlates with tablets I - II of the standard version. Gilgamesh tells his mother Ninsun about two dreams he had. His mother explains that they mean that a new companion will soon arrive at Uruk. In the meanwhile the wild Enkidu and the priestess (here called Shamkatum) are making love. She tames him in company of the shepherds by offering him bread and beer. Enkidu helps the shepherds by guarding the sheep. They travel to Uruk to confront Gilgamesh and stop his abuses. Enkidu and Gilgamesh battle but Gilgamesh breaks off the fight. Enkidu praises Gilgamesh.
Surpassing all other kings Tablet III, partially matches tablets II - III of the standard version. For reasons unknown (the tablet is partially broken) Enkidu is in a sad mood. In order to cheer him up Gilgamesh suggests going to the Pine Forest to cut down trees and kill Humbaba (known here as Huwawa). Enkidu protests, as he knows Huwawa and is aware of his power. Gilgamesh talks Enkidu into it with some words of encouragement, but Enkidu remains reluctant. They prepare, and call for the elders. The elders also protest, but after Gilgamesh talks to them, they agree to let him go. After Gilgamesh asks his god (Shamash) for protection and both equip, they leave with the elder 's blessing and counsel.
Possibly another version of the contents of the Yale Tablet, practically irrecoverable.
In the journey to the cedar forest and Huwawa, Enkidu interprets one of Gilgamesh 's dreams.
Fragments from two different versions / tablets tell how Enkidu interprets one of Gilgamesh 's dreams on the way to the Forest of Cedar, and their conversation when entering the forest.
After defeating Huwawa, Gilgamesh refrains from slaying him, and urges Enkidu to hunt Huwawa 's "seven auras ''. Enkidu convinces him to smite their enemy. After killing Huwawa and the auras, they chop down part of the forest and discover the gods ' secret abode. The rest of the tablet is broken.
The auras are not referred to in the standard version, but are in one of the Sumerian poems.
Partially overlapping the felling of the trees from the Ishchali tablet.
Partially overlapping the standard version tablets IX -- X. Gilgamesh mourns the death of Enkidu wandering in his quest for immortality. Gilgamesh argues with Shamash about the futility of his quest. After a lacuna, Gilgamesh talks to Siduri about his quest and his journey to meet Utnapishtim (here called Uta - na'ishtim). Siduri attempts to dissuade Gilgamesh in his quest for immortality, urging him to be content with the simple pleasures of life. After one more lacuna, Gilgamesh smashes the "stone ones '' and talks to the ferryman Urshanabi (here called Sur - sunabu). After a short discussion, Sur - sunabu asks him to carve 300 oars so that they may cross the waters of death without needing the "stone ones ''. The rest of the tablet is missing.
The text on the Old Babylonian Meissner fragment (the larger surviving fragment of the Sippar tablet) has been used to reconstruct possible earlier forms of the Epic of Gilgamesh, and it has been suggested that a "prior form of the story -- earlier even than that preserved on the Old Babylonian fragment -- may well have ended with Siduri sending Gilgamesh back to Uruk... '' and "Utnapistim was not originally part of the tale. ''
There are five extant Gilgamesh stories in the form of older poems in Sumerian. These probably circulated independently, rather than being in the form of a unified epic. Some of the names of the main characters in these poems differ slightly from later Akkadian names; for example, "Bilgamesh '' is written instead of "Gilgamesh '', and there are some differences in the underlying stories such as the fact that Enkidu is Gilgamesh 's servant in the Sumerian version:
Various themes, plot elements, and characters in the Epic of Gilgamesh have counterparts in the Hebrew Bible -- notably, the accounts of the Garden of Eden, the advice from Ecclesiastes, and the Genesis flood narrative.
The parallels between the stories of Enkidu / Shamhat and Adam / Eve have been long recognized by scholars. In both, a man is created from the soil by a god, and lives in a natural setting amongst the animals. He is introduced to a woman who tempts him. In both stories the man accepts food from the woman, covers his nakedness, and must leave his former realm, unable to return. The presence of a snake that steals a plant of immortality from the hero later in the epic is another point of similarity.
Several scholars suggest direct borrowing of Siduri 's advice by the author of Ecclesiastes.
A rare proverb about the strength of a triple - stranded rope, "a triple - stranded rope is not easily broken '', is common to both books.
Andrew George submits that the Genesis flood narrative matches that in Gilgamesh so closely that "few doubt '' that it derives from a Mesopotamian account. What is particularly noticeable is the way the Genesis flood story follows the Gilgamesh flood tale "point by point and in the same order '', even when the story permits other alternatives. In a 2001 Torah commentary released on behalf of the Conservative Movement of Judaism, rabbinic scholar Robert Wexler stated: "The most likely assumption we can make is that both Genesis and Gilgamesh drew their material from a common tradition about the flood that existed in Mesopotamia. These stories then diverged in the retelling. '' Ziusudra, Utnapishtim and Noah are the respective heroes of the Sumerian, Akkadian and biblical flood legends of the ancient Near East.
Matthias Henze suggests that Nebuchadnezzar 's madness in the biblical Book of Daniel draws on the Epic of Gilgamesh. He claims that the author uses elements from the description of Enkidu to paint a sarcastic and mocking portrait of the king of Babylon.
While not directly discussed in the Epic itself, many of the characters in the Epic also have myths associated with them with close biblical parallels, notably Ninti, the Sumerian goddess of life, was created from Enki 's rib to heal him after he had eaten forbidden flowers. Some scholars suggest that this served as the basis for the story of Eve created from Adam 's rib in the Book of Genesis. Esther J. Hamori, in Echoes of Gilgamesh in Jacob Story, also claims that the myth of Jacob and Esau is paralleled with the wrestling match between Gilgamesh and Enkidu.
Numerous scholars have drawn attention to various themes, episodes, and verses, indicating that the Epic of Gilgamesh had a substantial influence on both of the epic poems ascribed to Homer. These influences are detailed by Martin Litchfield West in The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. According to Tzvi Abusch of Brandeis University, the poem "combines the power and tragedy of the Iliad with the wanderings and marvels of the Odyssey. It is a work of adventure, but is no less a meditation on some fundamental issues of human existence. ''
The Epic of Gilgamesh has inspired many works of literature, art, and music, as Theodore Ziolkowski points out in his book Gilgamesh Among Us: Modern Encounters With the Ancient Epic (2011). It was only after the First World War that the Gilgamesh epic reached a wide audience, and only after the Second World War that it began to feature in a variety of genres.
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marlon bundo a day in the life of the vp | Marlon Bundo 's a Day in the Life of the Vice President - wikipedia
Marlon Bundo 's A Day in the Life of the Vice President is a 2018 children 's book by US vice-presidential family members Charlotte Pence as author and Karen Pence as illustrator. It details a fictional day in the life of Marlon Bundo, pet rabbit of the Vice President of the United States Mike Pence, father of Charlotte Pence and husband of Karen Pence.
Second Lady Karen Pence, a former teacher and a watercolor artist, painted the book 's illustrations over a period of about four months. Included from the vice presidential office wall is a representation of Blue Hills in the Distance by Indiana artist T.C. Steele.
A parody, A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo, was released around the same time and surpassed it in Amazon sales, taking aim at Mike Pence 's staunch opposition to same - sex marriage.
The book is an educational story explaining to children what the job of Vice President of the United States entails as seen through the eyes of the Pence family pet rabbit Marlon Bundo. The book was announced on an Instagram account dedicated to Marlon Bundo on September 15, 2017. The book was released on March 19, 2018 by the children 's arm of Regnery Publishing, a conservative book publisher. A book tour was scheduled to stop at several Republican presidential libraries as well as military bases.
Proceeds from the book 's sales were to be donated to Tracy 's Kids (an art therapy program Karen Pence brought to an Indianapolis hospital) and A21 (a nonprofit organization that works to end human trafficking). Two of Karen Pence 's original watercolors for the book illustrations were also auctioned to raise money for Tracy 's Kids.
The rabbit that became the book 's lead character was acquired when Charlotte Pence was a film school student at Chicago 's DePaul University in 2013. The seller asked her to "make an offer '', which was jokingly compared to the line in The Godfather film of 1972 in which actor Marlon Brando says "I 'm gon na make him an offer he ca n't refuse. '' This comparison then led to the rabbit 's being named "Marlon Bundo ''. The rabbit was featured in a short film project and was kept afterward as a family pet. He is said to be well - behaved and is the first rabbit to have flown on Air Force Two, when the Pences moved to Washington D.C. They plan to take Marlon Bundo along on the book 's press tour.
The story details the experiences of Marlon Bundo, the Pence family pet rabbit and BOTUS (Bunny of the United States) as he follows "Grampa '' (vice president Mike Pence) around for a day. Included are visits to the Oval Office, the Senate, the vice president 's office, and the telescope near their home at the Naval Observatory. At the end of the day, Marlon joins the vice president in reading the Bible and praying before bed.
Charlotte Pence 's book and Mike Pence 's staunch opposition to same - sex marriage inspired Last Week Tonight with John Oliver writer Jill Twiss to author A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo. The story details the same - sex romance of rabbits Marlon Bundo and Wesley, who face opposition from a stink bug who is against same - sex marriage. A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo is billed as an actual children 's story about marriage equality and democracy, rather than as a straight - up parody of Charlotte Pence 's book, yet sources including the Boston Globe describe some "definite '' jabs at the vice president.
Author Charlotte Pence supported A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo, posting on Twitter a picture of herself and the real - life Marlon Bundo wearing a bow tie identical to the one in Jill Twiss ' book, and saying on Mornings with Maria: "His book is contributing to charities that I think we can all get behind... I 'm all for it. '' The official Marlon Bundo Instagram account also referred to Twiss ' book in a positive light, stating "Not gon na lie, I do look pretty fly in a bow tie. The only thing better than one bunny book for charity is... TWO bunny books for charity. '' The Twiss book 's profits were also given to charities, namely The Trevor Project and AIDS United.
Conversely, Regnery Publishing initially criticized the release of A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo, saying that it was "unfortunate that anyone would feel the need to ridicule an educational children 's book and turn it into something controversial and partisan. '' When the success of both books became apparent, Regnery complimented John Oliver and Chronicle Books for their sales figures, adding: "There 's plenty to go around for everyone and, like Charlotte (Pence) said, we can all be happy the proceeds are going to a good cause. ''
One week after the book 's launch date, Regnery Publishing reported that Marlon Bundo 's A Day in the Life of the Vice President was in its third printing, totaling more than 100,000 copies.
On its launch date, a number of one - star reviews with negative comments were left on the book 's Amazon page by non-buyers who favored the Twiss book. Later that day, it was no longer possible to review the Pences ' book without purchasing it and one - star ratings from non-buyers had been removed. With these adjustments, the book has received a rating of 4.7 out of five stars, for an overall positive reception by buyers.
Kirkus Reviews called the book 's illustrations "competent '', the author 's verse "execrable '' and the publication as a whole "(a) nodyne at best '', noting the absence of people of color throughout the book and giving it a "skip it '' rating. Similarly, Susie Wilde of The News & Observer praised the illustrations and criticized the writing, "Pence shows her skill at realistic watercolors and captures the cuteness factor of the real BOTUS... The book fails when it comes to the text, though. '' Esquire mentioned the strained verse as well and called the book mediocre. Katy Waldman in The New Yorker also criticized the book 's verse as "mostly embarrassing. ''
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where is most plantation farming carried out in the world | Agriculture in Kenya - wikipedia
Agriculture in Kenya dominates Kenya 's economy. 15 -- 17 percent of Kenya 's total land area has sufficient fertility and rainfall to be farmed, and 7 -- 8 percent can be classified as first - class land. In 2006, almost 75 percent of working Kenyans made their living by farming, compared with 80 percent in 1980. About one - half of Kenya 's total agricultural output is non-marketed subsistence production.
Agriculture is also the largest contributor to Kenya 's gross domestic product (GDP). In 2005, agriculture, including forestry and fishing, accounted for about 24 percent of the GDP, as well as 18 percent of wage employment and 50 percent of revenue from exports.
Farming is the most important economic sector in Kenya, although less than 8 percent of the land is used for crop and feed production, and less than 20 percent is suitable for cultivation. Kenya is a leading producer of tea and coffee, as well as the third - leading exporter of fresh produce, such as cabbages, onions and mangoes. Small farms grow most of the corn and also produce potatoes, bananas, beans and peas.
The most common varieties that Kenyan sweet potato farmers grow are white, red and purple. The yellow - fleshed sweet potato 's popularity has increased, due to nutritionists promoting it as a source of vitamin A, which is lacking in the Kenyan diet. The vitamin A deficiency is not fatal, but it leaves the immune system depleted and susceptible to measles, malaria and diarrhoea. The deficiency also may cause blindness.
Despite efforts to develop completely resistant plants, little has been achieved so far. Therefore, attention is turning to pseudo-resistance, which includes mitigating weevil damage through deeper storage roots formation and short - season varieties, which are exposed to weevil infestation for less time. Where farmers piecemeal their sweet potato harvest, there can be up to a 10 percent crop loss due to disease and weevils. Beetle pests can completely destroy sweet potato plantations.
Kenya is the world 's 3rd largest exporter of cut flowers. Roughly half of Kenya 's 127 flower farms are concentrated around Lake Naivasha, 90 kilometers northwest of Nairobi. To speed their export, Nairobi airport has a terminal dedicated to the transport of flowers and vegetables.
The Kenya Flower Council (KFC) says that the flower industry directly employs 90,000 and a further 500,000 indirectly in auxiliary services. Kenyan flowers make up 30 to 35 % of flowers auctioned in Europe. Kenya 's roses, carnations and summer flowers are also popular in Russia and the U.S.
Because of pests, disease and decreased soil nutrients, farmers are rotating their sweet potato plants as much as possible, which means using a field for sweet potato plants only once every 5 years, and not having the crop in the same field for two consecutive years. "Planting rice between two sweet potato crops have long been suggested. '' When sweet potatoes and rice crops were planted in fields adjacent to each other, the sweet potato weevil infestation level dropped. "Reduced weevil damage was observed when sweet potato was intercropped with proso millet and sesame, but sweet potato yield was also considerably reduced. The sweet potato has been found to inhibit germination of proso millet. '' This crop rotation and growing pattern is very common in Africa.
Weed control requires many hours of manual labour. Uncontrolled weed growth reduces crop yield by as much as 60 percent. "Some farmers solve this problem by cultivating a smaller area, but this also reduces total yields. Herbicides are too expensive for most smallholders. '' When the sweet potato plant is propagated a number of consecutive times, the yield decreases and virus build - up increases. "Viruses can be removed by heat treatment.
Kenya 's irrigation sector is categorized into three organizational types: smallholder schemes, centrally - managed public schemes and private / commercial irrigation schemes.
The smallholder schemes are owned, developed and managed by individuals or groups of farmers operating as water users or self - help groups. Irrigation is carried out on individual or on group farms averaging 0.1 - 0.4 ha. There are about 3,000 smallholder irrigation schemes covering a total area of 47,000 ha, which is equivalent to 42 % of the total area under irrigation. They produce the bulk of horticultural produce consumed in urban centres in Kenya.
The country has seven large, centrally managed irrigation schemes, namely Mwea, Bura, Hola, Perkera, West Kano, Bunyala and Ahero covering a total commanded area of 18,200 ha and averaging 2,600 ha per scheme. These schemes are managed by the National Irrigation Board and account for 18 % of irrigated land area in Kenya. Initially, the government developed and managed national schemes with farmers participating as tenants. However, with effect from 2003, NIB handed over to stakeholders responsibility for most services, except for the development, O & M and rehabilitation of the major irrigation facilities.
Large - scale private commercial farms cover 45,000 hectares accounting for 40 % of irrigated land. They utilize high technology and produce high - value crops for the export market, especially flowers and vegetables. The farms employ a workforce of about 70,000 persons which is 41 % of the population directly active in irrigated agriculture.
An 8 - year comparative study, the Sustainable Agriculture Farming Systems project, compared conventional farming systems with differing practices of crop rotation and soil substance. The results showed that organic methods had yields in the same range as conventional systems for all crops that were studied, and for some crop studies, the yield level was higher for organics than conventional systems. The organic systems were noted for "increases in the organic carbon content of the soil and larger pools of stored nutrients, each of which is critical for long - term fertility maintenance. ''
Sweet potato is typically grown organically in Africa. To decrease labour for weeding, farmers interviewed by Macharia (2004) expressed preference for planting on mounds after trying ridges. Farmers found mound methods yielded larger tubers, and easier to use without new fertilizers or chemicals. Organic farming includes crop rotation, and mulches to control pests and soil fertility.
Organic farming by the Rothamsted and Rodale experiments have shown that "manure - based systems can provide enough nitrogen not only to sustain high crop yields but also to build up the nitrogen storage in the soil ''. According, to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Kenya had no percentage of certified organic cropland in 2003, yet farmers use organic methods.
Many farmers in Kenya refer to genetically modified (GM) maize delivered by the US as the Trojan horse. GMs are currently illegal in Kenya, although the US continues to send modified maize to Kenya in the form of aid.
Kenyans and other Africans, like Malawians and Zimbabweans, grind maize into flour before distributing it. Some activists have said that the US is purposefully sending GM food as aid to undercut the organic export market and cause Europe to start buying from the US. Other farmers may not be aware of GMs, and others are, as Hollie said simply too poor. If a farmer uses the chemicals, the soil becomes poor.
Kenya has a high birth rate which has led to a reduction in available farming land. Kenya also has a high rate of urban migration from the country. These two factors have led to an upsurge in demand for fresh food products. To increase production and boost profits, many small scale farmers in Kenya are adopting Greenhouse farming. Some of the popular products being grown in greenhouses include Watermelons, Pilipili Hoho (Capsicum) and Tomatoes.
Greenhouse farming in Kenya enables farmers to use less agricultural inputs (including labor and fertilizers) and control pests and diseases. The East African country is classified as a water scarce country and most of the land is not optimal for agriculture. Most Kenyan greenhouses utilize drip irrigation to maximize the use of the available water and efficiently deliver nutrients to their crops.
David Gordon Hines was seconded by the UK 1954 -- 1962 to advise the Kenya minister of agriculture about the "Million - acre scheme '' to buy expatriate farms mostly in the Kenya Highlands.
The Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) is mandated with relevant research. KARI is the national institution bringing together research programmes in food crops, horticultural and industrial crops, livestock and range management, land and water management, and socio - economics. KARI promotes sound agricultural research, technology generation and dissemination to ensure food security through improved productivity and environmental conservation.
KARI was established in 1979 as a semi-autonomous government institution. The new institute continued research activities from the East African Agricultural and Forestry Research Organisation (EAAFRO), East African Veterinary Research Organisation (EAAVRO) and, finally, the Ministries of Agriculture and Livestock Development. In 1986, the Kenyan government recognised the challenge to meet long - term food production constraints in the country. The Kenya Veterinary Vaccines Production Institute (KEVEVAPI) and the Kenya Tripanosomiasis Research Institute (KETRI) have been integrated into KARI more recently. This was due to the recognition of the need by the government to further strengthen its agricultural research system to create an institutional framework to effectively manage, reorganise and consolidate agricultural research within the country.
By act of parliament the Kenya Agricultural & Livestock Research Organisation (KALRO) was established in 2013. It merged with KARI, Coffee Research Foundation, Tea Research Foundation and the Kenya Sugar Research Foundation and has oversight of 18 research institutes. The new institution has an asset and equity base of KSh 28,000,000,000 and KSh 27,900,000,000 respectively, and 3,294 staff.
State corporations of Kenyan agriculture from the Kenyan government main site
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what is the movie same time next year about | Same Time, Next year (film) - wikipedia
Same Time, Next Year is a 1978 American romantic comedy - drama film directed by Robert Mulligan. The screenplay by Bernard Slade is based on his 1975 play of the same title. The film stars Alan Alda and Ellen Burstyn.
In 1951, at an inn on the Mendocino County coast, Doris (Ellen Burstyn), a 24 - year - old housewife from Oakland, meets George (Alan Alda), a 27 - year - old accountant from New Jersey at dinner. They have a sexual tryst, then agree to meet once a year to rekindle the sparks they experienced at their first meeting, despite the fact that both are happily married with six children between them. They discuss their spouses, Harry and Helen.
Over the course of the next 26 years, they develop an emotional intimacy deeper than what one would expect to find between two people meeting for a clandestine relationship just once a year. During the time they spend with each other, they discuss births, deaths - including George 's son Michael dying in Vietnam, which changes George politically - and the marital problems each experiences at home, while they adapt themselves to the social changes affecting their lives.
At their meeting in 1977, George tells Doris that his wife, Helen, died of cancer earlier in the year, and that Helen revealed to a friend that she had known of the affair for ten years, but never told George she knew. Now a widower, George proposes to Doris who refuses to accept because of her loyalty to, and respect for, Harry. Rejected, George leaves for good -- but he returns, and they promise to continue the affair as long as they are able.
The movie is structured as six episodes, each occurring approximately five years apart. Between the scenes are shown a series of photos that depict cultural and political events that had ensued in the years between each segment, such as Harry S. Truman, Nikita Khrushchev, Lucille Ball, Elvis Presley, and John F. Kennedy. The episodes are period - specific, often making references to what was actually happening during the time portrayed. For example, in the segment set in 1966, Doris is caught up in the protest movement at Berkeley, while George takes a Librium and reveals that he 'd voted for Barry Goldwater, and later that his son had been killed in Vietnam.
Exteriors for the film were shot at the Heritage House Inn, a well - known resort and bed & breakfast in Little River, California, seven miles south of Mendocino, California. The shell of the cottage was built on a temporary foundation overlooking the Pacific Ocean, but the interior was filmed on the Universal Studios sound stage in Los Angeles. After filming was completed, Universal paid for the shell to be relocated to a permanent foundation and the interior was outfitted with the studio furnishings. The cottage became a popular romantic getaway, so popular in fact that the Heritage House eventually partitioned the cottage in half and added a second bathroom to the opposite end. One half of the cottage was called "Same Time '' and the other half called "Next Year ''. The Heritage House closed due to foreclosure in December 2008. The "Same Time, Next Year '' cottage still stands, updated and remodeled, and the Heritage House reopened in the Summer of 2013.
Paul McCartney had composed a title song for the film, which he recorded with Wings, that was not used. He later released it as the B - side of a single in 1990. The theme song ultimately used was "The Last Time I Felt Like This, '' written by Marvin Hamlisch and Alan and Marilyn Bergman and performed by Johnny Mathis and Jane Olivor.
Slade 's play was also adapted by Hong Kong filmmaker Clifton Ko for his 1994 movie I Will Wait for You starring Tony Leung Ka - Fai and Anita Yuen.
While Bernard Slade 's acclaimed stage play earned a storm of praise, the movie received mixed reviews. Janet Maslin of the New York Times said, "Mr. Slade 's screenplay is n't often funny, and it 's full of momentous events that ca n't be laughed away... As directed by Robert Mulligan... Same Time, Next Year is both less and more than it could have been. By moving the action outdoors once in a while, or into the inn 's restaurant, Mr. Mulligan loses the element of claustrophobia that might have taken an audience 's mind off the screenplay 's troubles. But he substitutes the serenity of a California coastal setting, and gives the film a visual glamour that is mercifully distracting. Mr. Mulligan seems to have been more interested in sprucing up the material than in preserving its absolute integrity, and under the circumstances, his approach makes sense... Mr. Alda is n't terribly playful, and he reads every line as if it were part of a joke, which only accentuates the flatness of the script. Miss Burstyn, on the other hand... brings so much sweetness to Doris 's various incarnations that the character very nearly comes to life. ''
Variety called the film "a textbook example of how to successfully transport a stage play to the big screen '' and added "The production of Bernard Slade 's play, sensitively directed by Robert Mulligan, is everything you 'd want from this kind of film. And it features two first class performances by Ellen Burstyn and Alan Alda. ''
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
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list of soldiers killed at the little bighorn | Battle of the Little Bighorn - wikipedia
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to the Lakota and other Plains Indians as the Battle of the Greasy Grass and also commonly referred to as Custer 's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes and the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. The battle, which resulted in the defeat of US forces, was the most significant action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. It took place on June 25 -- 26, 1876, along the Little Bighorn River in the Crow Indian Reservation in southeastern Montana Territory.
The fight was an overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, who were led by several major war leaders, including Crazy Horse and Chief Gall, and had been inspired by the visions of Sitting Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake). The U.S. 7th Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, a force of 700 men led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, suffered a major defeat. Five of the 7th Cavalry 's twelve companies were annihilated and Custer was killed, as were two of his brothers, a nephew, and a brother - in - law. The total U.S. casualty count included 268 dead and 55 severely wounded (six died later from their injuries), including four Crow Indian scouts and two Pawnee Indian scouts.
Public response to the Great Sioux War varied in the immediate aftermath of the battle. Custer 's widow soon worked to burnish her husband 's memory, and during the following decades Custer and his troops came to be considered iconic, even heroic figures in American history, a status that lasted into the 1960s. The battle, and Custer 's actions in particular, have been studied extensively by historians.
In 1805, fur trader Francois Antoine Larocque reported joining a Crow camp in the Yellowstone area. On the way, he noted that the Crow hunted buffalo on the "Small Horn River ''. The United States built Fort Raymond in 1807 for trade with the Crow. It was located near the confluence of the Yellowstone and the Bighorn, around 40 miles north of the future battlefield. The area is first noted in the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie.
In the latter half of the 19th century, tensions increased between the Native inhabitants of the Great Plains of the United States and encroaching settlers. This resulted in a series of conflicts known as the Sioux Wars, which took place between 1854 and 1890. While some of the Indigenous peoples eventually agreed to relocate to ever - shrinking reservations, a number of them resisted, at times fiercely.
On May 7, 1868, the valley of the Little Bighorn became a tract in the eastern part of the new Crow Indian Reservation in the center of the old Crow country. The battlefield is known as "Greasy Grass '' to the Lakota, Dakota, Cheyenne, and most other Plains Indians; however, in contemporary accounts by participants, it was referred to as the "Valley of Chieftains ''.
Among the Plains Tribes, the long - standing ceremonial tradition known as the Sun Dance was the most important religious event of the year. It is a time for prayer and personal sacrifice on behalf of the community, as well as making personal vows. Towards the end of spring in 1876, the Lakota and the Cheyenne held a Sun Dance that was also attended by a number of "Agency Indians '' who had slipped away from their reservations. During a Sun Dance around June 5, 1876, on Rosebud Creek in Montana, Sitting Bull, the spiritual leader of the Hunkpapa Lakota, reportedly had a vision of "soldiers falling into his camp like grasshoppers from the sky. '' At the same time, U.S. military officials were conducting a summer campaign to force the Lakota and the Cheyenne back to their reservations, using infantry and cavalry in a so - called "three - pronged approach ''.
Col. John Gibbon 's column of six companies (A, B, E, H, I, and K) of the 7th Infantry and four companies (F, G, H, and L) of the 2nd Cavalry marched east from Fort Ellis in western Montana on March 30 to patrol the Yellowstone River. Brig. Gen. George Crook 's column of ten companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, I, L, and M) of the 3rd Cavalry, five companies (A, B, D, E, and I) of the 2nd Cavalry, two companies (D and F) of the 4th Infantry, and three companies (C, G, and H) of the 9th Infantry moved north from Fort Fetterman in the Wyoming Territory on May 29, marching toward the Powder River area. Brig. Gen. Alfred Terry 's column, including twelve companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, and M) of the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer 's immediate command, Companies C and G of the 17th U.S. Infantry, and the Gatling gun detachment of the 20th Infantry departed westward from Fort Abraham Lincoln in the Dakota Territory on May 17. They were accompanied by teamsters and packers with 150 wagons and a large contingent of pack mules that reinforced Custer. Companies C, D, and I of the 6th U.S. Infantry moved along the Yellowstone River from Fort Buford on the Missouri River to set up a supply depot and joined Terry on May 29 at the mouth of the Powder River. They were later joined there by the steamboat Far West, which was loaded with 200 tons of supplies from Fort Lincoln.
The 7th Cavalry had been created just after the American Civil War. Many men were veterans of the war, including most of the leading officers. A significant portion of the regiment had previously served four - and - a-half years at Fort Riley, Kansas, during which time it fought one major engagement and numerous skirmishes, experiencing casualties of 36 killed and 27 wounded. Six other troopers had died of drowning and 51 from cholera epidemics. In November 1868, while stationed in Kansas, the 7th Cavalry under Custer had successfully routed Black Kettle 's Southern Cheyenne camp on the Washita River in the Battle of Washita River, an attack which was at the time labeled a "massacre of innocent Indians '' by the Indian Bureau. (Need citation)
By the time of the Little Bighorn, half of the 7th Cavalry 's companies had just returned from 18 months of constabulary duty in the Deep South, having been recalled to Fort Abraham Lincoln to reassemble the regiment for the campaign. About 20 percent of the troopers had been enlisted in the prior seven months (139 of an enlisted roll of 718), were only marginally trained, and had no combat or frontier experience. A sizable number of these recruits were immigrants from Ireland, England and Germany, just as many of the veteran troopers had been before their enlistments. Archaeological evidence suggests that many of these troopers were malnourished and in poor physical condition, despite being the best - equipped and supplied regiment in the Army.
Of the 45 officers and 718 troopers then assigned to the 7th Cavalry (including a second lieutenant detached from the 20th Infantry and serving in Company L), 14 officers (including the regimental commander, Col. Samuel D. Sturgis) and 152 troopers did not accompany the 7th during the campaign. The ratio of troops detached for other duty (approximately 22 percent) was not unusual for an expedition of this size, and part of the officer shortage was chronic, due to the Army 's rigid seniority system: three of the regiment 's 12 captains were permanently detached, and two had never served a day with the 7th since their appointment in July 1866. Three second lieutenant vacancies (in E, H, and L Companies) were also unfilled.
The Army 's coordination and planning began to go awry on June 17, 1876, when Crook 's column retreated after the Battle of the Rosebud, just 30 miles to the southeast of the eventual Little Bighorn battlefield. Surprised and according to some accounts astonished by the unusually large numbers of Native Americans, Crook held the field at the end of the battle but felt compelled by his losses to pull back, regroup, and wait for reinforcements. Unaware of Crook 's battle, Gibbon and Terry proceeded, joining forces in early June near the mouth of Rosebud Creek. They reviewed Terry 's plan calling for Custer 's regiment to proceed south along the Rosebud while Terry and Gibbon 's united forces would move in a westerly direction toward the Bighorn and Little Bighorn rivers. As this was the likely location of native encampments, all army elements had been instructed to converge there around June 26 or 27 in an attempt to engulf the Native Americans. On June 22, Terry ordered the 7th Cavalry, composed of 31 officers and 566 enlisted men under Custer, to begin a reconnaissance in force and pursuit along the Rosebud, with the prerogative to "depart '' from orders if Custer saw "sufficient reason ''. Custer had been offered the use of Gatling guns but declined, believing they would slow his command.
While the Terry -- Gibbon column was marching toward the mouth of the Little Bighorn, on the evening of June 24, Custer 's Indian scouts arrived at an overlook known as the Crow 's Nest, 14 miles (23 km) east of the Little Bighorn River. At sunrise on June 25, Custer 's scouts reported they could see a massive pony herd and signs of the Native American village roughly 15 miles (24 km) in the distance. After a night 's march, the tired officer who was sent with the scouts could see neither, and when Custer joined them, he was also unable to make the sighting. Custer 's scouts also spotted the regimental cooking fires that could be seen from 10 miles (16 km) away, disclosing the regiment 's position.
Custer contemplated a surprise attack against the encampment the following morning of June 26, but he then received a report informing him several hostiles had discovered the trail left by his troops. Assuming his presence had been exposed, Custer decided to attack the village without further delay. On the morning of June 25, Custer divided his 12 companies into three battalions in anticipation of the forthcoming engagement. Three companies were placed under the command of Major Marcus Reno (A, G, and M) and three were placed under the command of Captain Frederick Benteen (H, D, and K). Five companies (C, E, F, I, and L) remained under Custer 's immediate command. The 12th, Company B under Captain Thomas McDougall, had been assigned to escort the slower pack train carrying provisions and additional ammunition.
Unknown to Custer, the group of Native Americans seen on his trail was actually leaving the encampment and did not alert the rest of the village. Custer 's scouts warned him about the size of the village, with Mitch Bouyer reportedly saying, "General, I have been with these Indians for 30 years, and this is the largest village I have ever heard of. '' Custer 's overriding concern was that the Native American group would break up and scatter. The command began its approach to the village at noon and prepared to attack in full daylight.
As the Army moved into the field on its expedition, it was operating with incorrect assumptions as to the number of Indians it would encounter. These assumptions were based on inaccurate information provided by the Indian Agents that no more than 800 hostiles were in the area. The Indian Agents based this estimate on the number of Lakota that Sitting Bull and other leaders had reportedly led off the reservation in protest of U.S. government policies. It was in fact a correct estimate until several weeks before the battle, when the "reservation Indians '' joined Sitting Bull 's ranks for the summer buffalo hunt. The agents did not take into account the many thousands of these "reservation Indians '' who had unofficially left the reservation to join their "uncooperative non-reservation cousins led by Sitting Bull ''. Thus, Custer unknowingly faced thousands of Indians, including the 800 non-reservation "hostiles ''. All Army plans were based on the incorrect numbers. Although Custer was severely criticized after the battle for not having accepted reinforcements and for dividing his forces, it must be understood that he had accepted the same official government estimates of hostiles in the area which Terry and Gibbon had also accepted. Historian James Donovan states that when Custer asked interpreter Fred Gerard for his opinion on the size of the opposition, he estimated the force at between 1,500 to 2,500 warriors.
Additionally, Custer was more concerned with preventing the escape of the Lakota and Cheyenne than with fighting them. From his own observation, as reported by his bugler John Martin (Martini), Custer assumed the warriors had been sleeping in on the morning of the battle, to which virtually every native account attested later, giving Custer a false estimate of what he was up against. When he and his scouts first looked down on the village from the Crow 's Nest across the Little Bighorn River, they could only see the herd of ponies. Looking from a hill 2.5 miles (4.0 km) away after parting with Reno 's command, Custer could observe only women preparing for the day, and young boys taking thousands of horses out to graze south of the village. Custer 's Crow scouts told him it was the largest native village they had ever seen. When the scouts began changing back into their native dress right before the battle, Custer released them from his command. While the village was enormous in size, Custer thought there were far fewer warriors to defend the village. He assumed most of the warriors were still asleep in their tipis.
Finally, Custer may have assumed that in the event of his encountering Native Americans, his subordinate Benteen with the pack train would quickly come to his aid. Rifle volleys were a standard way of telling supporting units to come to another unit 's aid. In a subsequent official 1879 Army investigation requested by Major Reno, the Reno Board of Inquiry (RCOI), Benteen and Reno 's men testified that they heard distinct rifle volleys as late as 4: 30 pm during the battle.
Custer had initially wanted to take a day and scout the village before attacking; however, when men went back after supplies dropped by the pack train, they discovered they were being back - trailed by Indians. Reports from his scouts also revealed fresh pony tracks from ridges overlooking his formation. It became apparent that the warriors in the village were either aware of or would soon be aware of his approach. Fearing that the village would break up into small bands that he would have to chase, Custer began to prepare for an immediate attack.
Custer 's field strategy was designed to engage noncombatants at the encampments on the Little Bighorn so as to capture women, children, and the elderly or disabled to serve as hostages to convince the warriors to surrender and comply with federal orders to relocate. Custer 's battalions were poised to "ride into the camp and secure noncombatant hostages '' and "forc (e) the warriors to surrender ''. Author Evan S. Connell observed that if Custer could occupy the village before widespread resistance developed, the Sioux and Cheyenne warriors "would be obliged to surrender, because if they started to fight, they would be shooting their own families. ''
In Custer 's book My Life on the Plains, published just two years before the Battle of the Little Bighorn, he asserted:
Indians contemplating a battle, either offensive or defensive, are always anxious to have their women and children removed from all danger... For this reason I decided to locate our (military) camp as close as convenient to (Chief Black Kettle 's Cheyenne) village, knowing that the close proximity of their women and children, and their necessary exposure in case of conflict, would operate as a powerful argument in favor of peace, when the question of peace or war came to be discussed.
On Custer 's decision to advance up the bluffs and descend on the village from the east, Lt. Edward Godfrey of Company K surmised:
(Custer) expected to find the squaws and children fleeing to the bluffs on the north, for in no other way do I account for his wide detour. He must have counted upon Reno 's success, and fully expected the "scatteration '' of the non-combatants with the pony herds. The probable attack upon the families and capture of the herds were in that event counted upon to strike consternation in the hearts of the warriors, and were elements for success upon which General Custer fully counted.
The Sioux and Cheyenne fighters were acutely aware of the danger posed by the military engagement of noncombatants and that "even a semblance of an attack on the women and children '' would draw the warriors back to the village, according to historian John S. Gray. Such was their concern that a "feint '' by Capt. Yates ' E and F Companies at the mouth of Medicine Tail Coulee (Minneconjou Ford) caused hundreds of warriors to disengage from the Reno valley fight and return to deal with the threat to the village.
Some authors and historians, based on archaeological evidence and reviews of native testimony, speculate that Custer attempted to cross the river at a point they refer to as Ford D. According to Richard A. Fox, James Donovan, and others, Custer proceeded with a wing of his battalion (Yates ' Troops E and F) north and opposite the Cheyenne circle at that crossing, which provided "access to the (women and children) fugitives. '' Yates 's force "posed an immediate threat to fugitive Indian families... '' gathering at the north end of the huge encampment; he then persisted in his efforts to "seize women and children '' even as hundreds of warriors were massing around Keogh 's wing on the bluffs. Yates ' wing, descending to the Little Bighorn River at Ford D, encountered "light resistance '', undetected by the Indian forces ascending the bluffs east of the village. Custer was almost within "striking distance of the refugees '' before being repulsed by Indian defenders and forced back to Custer Ridge.
The Lone Teepee (or Tipi) was a landmark along the 7th Cavalry 's march. It was where the Indian encampment had been a week earlier, during the Battle of the Rosebud on June 17. The Indians had left a single teepee standing (some reports mention a second that had been partially dismantled), and in it was the body of a Sans Arc warrior, Old She - Bear, who had been wounded in the battle. He had died a couple of days after the Rosebud battle, and it was the custom of the Indians to move camp when a warrior died and leave the body with its possessions. The Lone Teepee was an important location during the Battle of the Little Bighorn for several reasons, including:
The first group to attack was Major Reno 's second detachment (Companies A, G and M) after receiving orders from Custer written out by Lt. William W. Cooke, as Custer 's Crow scouts reported Sioux tribe members were alerting the village. Ordered to charge, Reno began that phase of the battle. The orders, made without accurate knowledge of the village 's size, location, or the warriors ' propensity to stand and fight, had been to pursue the Native Americans and "bring them to battle. '' Reno 's force crossed the Little Bighorn at the mouth of what is today Reno Creek around 3: 00 pm on June 25. They immediately realized that the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne were present "in force and not running away. ''
Reno advanced rapidly across the open field towards the northwest, his movements masked by the thick bramble of trees that ran along the southern banks of the Little Bighorn River. The same trees on his front right shielded his movements across the wide field over which his men rapidly rode, first with two approximately forty - man companies abreast and eventually with all three charging abreast. The trees also obscured Reno 's view of the Native American village until his force had passed that bend on his right front and was suddenly within arrow - shot of the village. The tepees in that area were occupied by the Hunkpapa Sioux. Neither Custer nor Reno had much idea of the length, depth and size of the encampment they were attacking, as the village was hidden by the trees. When Reno came into the open in front of the south end of the village, he sent his Arikara / Ree and Crow Indian scouts forward on his exposed left flank. Realizing the full extent of the village 's width, Reno quickly suspected what he would later call "a trap '' and stopped a few hundred yards short of the encampment.
He ordered his troopers to dismount and deploy in a skirmish line, according to standard army doctrine. In this formation, every fourth trooper held the horses for the troopers in firing position, with five to ten yards separating each trooper, officers to their rear and troopers with horses behind the officers. This formation reduced Reno 's firepower by 25 percent. As Reno 's men fired into the village and killed, by some accounts, several wives and children of the Sioux leader, Chief Gall (in Lakota, Phizí), mounted warriors began streaming out to meet the attack. With Reno 's men anchored on their right by the impassable tree line and bend in the river, the Indians rode hard against the exposed left end of Reno 's line. After about 20 minutes of long - distance firing, Reno had taken only one casualty, but the odds against him had risen (Reno estimated five to one) and Custer had not reinforced him. Trooper Billy Jackson reported that by then, the Indians had begun massing in the open area shielded by a small hill to the left of Reno 's line and to the right of the Indian village. From this position the Indians mounted an attack of more than 500 warriors against the left and rear of Reno 's line, turning Reno 's exposed left flank. They forced a hasty withdrawal into the timber along the bend in the river. Here the Indians pinned Reno and his men down and set fire to the brush to try to drive the soldiers out of their position.
After giving orders to mount, dismount and mount again, Reno told his men, "All those who wish to make their escape follow me, '' and led a disorderly rout across the river toward the bluffs on the other side. The retreat was immediately disrupted by Cheyenne attacks at close quarters. Later, Reno reported that three officers and 29 troopers had been killed during the retreat and subsequent fording of the river. Another officer and 13 -- 18 men were missing. Most of these missing men were left behind in the timber, although many eventually rejoined the detachment. Reno 's hasty retreat may have been precipitated by the death of Reno 's Arikara scout Bloody Knife, who had been shot in the head as he sat on his horse next to Reno, his blood and brains splattering the side of Reno 's face.
Atop the bluffs, known today as Reno Hill, Reno 's shaken troops were joined by Captain Benteen 's column (Companies D, H and K), arriving from the south. This force had been on a lateral scouting mission when it had been summoned by Custer 's messenger, Italian bugler John Martin (Giovanni Martini) with the handwritten message "Benteen. Come on, Big Village, Be quick, Bring packs. P.S. Bring Packs. ''. Benteen 's coincidental arrival on the bluffs was just in time to save Reno 's men from possible annihilation. Their detachments were reinforced by McDougall 's Company B and the pack train. The 14 officers and 340 troopers on the bluffs organized an all - around defense and dug rifle pits using whatever implements they had among them, including knives. This practice had become standard during the last year of the American Civil War, with both Union and Confederate troops utilizing knives, eating utensils, mess plates and pans to dig effective battlefield fortifications.
Despite hearing heavy gunfire from the north, including distinct volleys at 4: 20 pm, Benteen concentrated on reinforcing Reno 's badly wounded and hard - pressed detachment rather than continuing on toward Custer 's position. Benteen 's apparent reluctance to reach Custer prompted later criticism that he had failed to follow orders. Around 5: 00 pm, Capt. Thomas Weir and Company D moved out to make contact with Custer. They advanced a mile, to what is today Weir Ridge or Weir Point, and could see in the distance native warriors on horseback shooting at objects on the ground. By this time, roughly 5: 25 pm, Custer 's battle may have concluded. The conventional historical understanding is that what Weir witnessed was most likely warriors killing the wounded soldiers and shooting at dead bodies on the "Last Stand Hill '' at the northern end of the Custer battlefield. Some contemporary historians have suggested that what Weir witnessed was a fight on what is now called Calhoun Hill. The destruction of Keogh 's battalion may have begun with the collapse of L, I and C Company (half of it) following the combined assaults led by Crazy Horse, White Bull, Hump, Chief Gall and others. Other native accounts contradict this understanding, however, and the time element remains a subject of debate. The other entrenched companies eventually followed Weir by assigned battalions, first Benteen, then Reno, and finally the pack train. Growing native attacks around Weir Ridge forced all seven companies to return to the bluff before the pack train, with the ammunition, had moved even a quarter mile. The companies remained pinned down on the bluff for another day, but the natives were unable to breach the tightly held position.
Benteen displayed calmness and courage by exposing himself to Indian fire and was hit in the heel of his boot by an Indian bullet. At one point, he personally led a counterattack to push back Indians who had continued to crawl through the grass closer to the soldier 's positions.
The precise details of Custer 's fight are largely conjectural since none of his men (the five companies under his immediate command) survived the battle. Later accounts from surviving Indians are conflicting and unclear.
While the gunfire heard on the bluffs by Reno and Benteen 's men was probably from Custer 's fight, the soldiers on Reno Hill were unaware of what had happened to Custer until General Terry 's arrival on June 27. They were reportedly stunned by the news. When the army examined the Custer battle site, soldiers could not determine fully what had transpired. Custer 's force of roughly 210 men had been engaged by the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne about 3.5 miles (5.6 km) to the north of Reno and Benteen 's defensive position. Evidence of organized resistance included apparent breastworks made of dead horses on Custer Hill. By the time troops came to recover the bodies, the Lakota and Cheyenne had already removed most of their dead from the field. The troops found most of Custer 's dead stripped of their clothing, ritually mutilated, and in an advanced state of decomposition, making identification of many impossible. The soldiers identified the 7th Cavalry 's dead as best as possible and hastily buried them where they fell.
Custer was found with shots to the left chest and left temple. Either wound would have been fatal, though he appeared to have bled from only the chest wound, meaning his head wound may have been delivered postmortem. He also suffered a wound to the arm. Some Lakota oral histories assert that Custer committed suicide to avoid capture and subsequent torture, though this is usually discounted since the wounds were inconsistent with his known right - handedness. (Other native accounts note several soldiers committing suicide near the end of the battle.) Custer 's body was found near the top of Custer Hill, which also came to be known as "Last Stand Hill ''. There the United States erected a tall memorial obelisk inscribed with the names of the 7th Cavalry 's casualties.
Several days after the battle, Curley, Custer 's Crow scout who had left Custer near Medicine Tail Coulee (a drainage which led to the river), recounted the battle, reporting that Custer had attacked the village after attempting to cross the river. He was driven back, retreating toward the hill where his body was found. As the scenario seemed compatible with Custer 's aggressive style of warfare and with evidence found on the ground, it became the basis of many popular accounts of the battle.
According to Pretty Shield, the wife of Goes - Ahead (another Crow scout for the 7th Cavalry), Custer was killed while crossing the river: "... and he died there, died in the water of the Little Bighorn, with Two - bodies, and the blue soldier carrying his flag ''. In this account, Custer was allegedly killed by a Lakota called Big - nose. However, in Chief Gall 's version of events, as recounted to Lt. Edward Settle Godfrey, Custer did not attempt to ford the river and the nearest that he came to the river or village was his final position on the ridge. Chief Gall 's statements were corroborated by other Indians, notably the wife of Spotted Horn Bull. Given that no bodies of men or horses were found anywhere near the ford, Godfrey himself concluded "that Custer did not go to the ford with any body of men ''.
Cheyenne oral tradition credits Buffalo Calf Road Woman with striking the blow that knocked Custer off his horse before he died.
Having isolated Reno 's force and driven them away from the encampment, the bulk of the native warriors were free to pursue Custer. The route taken by Custer to his "Last Stand '' remains a subject of debate. One possibility is that after ordering Reno to charge, Custer continued down Reno Creek to within about a half mile (800 m) of the Little Bighorn, but then turned north and climbed up the bluffs, reaching the same spot to which Reno would soon retreat. From this point on the other side of the river, he could see Reno charging the village. Riding north along the bluffs, Custer could have descended into Medicine Tail Coulee. Some historians believe that part of Custer 's force descended the coulee, going west to the river and attempting unsuccessfully to cross into the village. According to some accounts, a small contingent of Indian sharpshooters opposed this crossing.
White Cow Bull claimed to have shot a leader wearing a buckskin jacket off his horse in the river. While no other Indian account supports this claim, if White Bull did shoot a buckskin - clad leader off his horse, some historians have argued that Custer may have been seriously wounded by him. Some Indian accounts claim that besides wounding one of the leaders of this advance, a soldier carrying a company guidon was also hit. Troopers had to dismount to help the wounded men back onto their horses. The fact that either of the non-mutilation wounds to Custer 's body (a bullet wound below the heart and a shot to the left temple) would have been instantly fatal casts doubt on his being wounded and remounted.
Reports of an attempted fording of the river at Medicine Tail Coulee might explain Custer 's purpose for Reno 's attack, that is, a coordinated "hammer - and - anvil '' maneuver, with Reno 's holding the Indians at bay at the southern end of the camp, while Custer drove them against Reno 's line from the north. Other historians have noted that if Custer did attempt to cross the river near Medicine Tail Coulee, he may have believed it was the north end of the Indian camp, although it was only the middle. Some Indian accounts, however, place the Northern Cheyenne encampment and the north end of the overall village to the left (and south) of the opposite side of the crossing. The precise location of the north end of the village remains in dispute, however.
Edward Curtis, the famed ethnologist and photographer of the Native American Indians, made a detailed personal study of the battle, interviewing many of those who had fought or taken part in it. First he went over the ground covered by the troops with the three Crow scouts White Man Runs Him, Goes Ahead, and Hairy Moccasin, and then again with Two Moons and a party of Cheyenne warriors. He also visited the Lakota country and interviewed Red Hawk, "whose recollection of the fight seemed to be particularly clear ''. Then, he went over the battlefield once more with the three Crow scouts, but also accompanied by General Charles Woodruff "as I particularly desired that the testimony of these men might be considered by an experienced army officer ''. Finally, Curtis visited the country of the Arikara and interviewed the scouts of that tribe who had been with Custer 's command. Based on all the information he gathered, Curtis concluded that Custer had indeed ridden down the Medicine Tail Coulee and then towards the river where he probably planned to ford it. However, "the Indians had now discovered him and were gathered closely on the opposite side ''. They were soon joined by a large force of Sioux who (no longer engaging Reno) rushed down the valley. This was the beginning of their attack on Custer who was forced to turn and head for the hill where he would make his famous "last stand ''. Thus, wrote Curtis, "Custer made no attack, the whole movement being a retreat ''.
Other historians claim that Custer never approached the river, but rather continued north across the coulee and up the other side, where he gradually came under attack. According to this theory, by the time Custer realized he was badly outnumbered, it was too late to break back to the south where Reno and Benteen could have provided assistance. Two men from the 7th Cavalry, the young Crow scout Ashishishe (known in English as Curley) and the trooper Peter Thompson, claimed to have seen Custer engage the Indians. The accuracy of their recollections remains controversial; accounts by battle participants and assessments by historians almost universally discredit Thompson 's claim.
Archaeological evidence and reassessment of Indian testimony has led to a new interpretation of the battle. In the 1920s, battlefield investigators discovered hundreds of. 45 -- 55 shell cases along the ridge line known today as Nye - Cartwright Ridge, between South Medicine Tail Coulee and the next drainage at North Medicine Tail (also known as Deep Coulee). Some historians believe Custer divided his detachment into two (and possibly three) battalions, retaining personal command of one while presumably delegating Captain George W. Yates to command the second.
Evidence from the 1920s supports the theory that at least one of the companies made a feint attack southeast from Nye - Cartwright Ridge straight down the center of the "V '' formed by the intersection at the crossing of Medicine Tail Coulee on the right and Calhoun Coulee on the left. The intent may have been to relieve pressure on Reno 's detachment (according to the Crow scout Curley, possibly viewed by both Mitch Bouyer and Custer) by withdrawing the skirmish line into the timber on the edge of the Little Bighorn River. Had the U.S. troops come straight down Medicine Tail Coulee, their approach to the Minneconjou Crossing and the northern area of the village would have been masked by the high ridges running on the northwest side of the Little Bighorn River.
That they might have come southeast, from the center of Nye - Cartwright Ridge, seems to be supported by Northern Cheyenne accounts of seeing the approach of the distinctly white - colored horses of Company E, known as the Grey Horse Company. Its approach was seen by Indians at that end of the village. Behind them, a second company, further up on the heights, would have provided long - range cover fire. Warriors could have been drawn to the feint attack, forcing the battalion back towards the heights, up the north fork drainage, away from the troops providing cover fire above. The covering company would have moved towards a reunion, delivering heavy volley fire and leaving the trail of expended cartridges discovered 50 years later.
In the end, the hilltop to which Custer had moved was probably too small to accommodate all of the survivors and wounded. Fire from the southeast made it impossible for Custer 's men to secure a defensive position all around Last Stand Hill where the soldiers put up their most dogged defense. According to Lakota accounts, far more of their casualties occurred in the attack on Last Stand Hill than anywhere else. The extent of the soldiers ' resistance indicated they had few doubts about their prospects for survival. According to Cheyenne and Sioux testimony, the command structure rapidly broke down, although smaller "last stands '' were apparently made by several groups. Custer 's remaining companies (E, F, and half of C) were soon killed.
By almost all accounts, the Lakota annihilated Custer 's force within an hour of engagement. David Humphreys Miller, who between 1935 and 1955 interviewed the last Lakota survivors of the battle, wrote that the Custer fight lasted less than one - half hour. Other native accounts said the fighting lasted only "as long as it takes a hungry man to eat a meal. '' The Lakota asserted that Crazy Horse personally led one of the large groups of warriors who overwhelmed the cavalrymen in a surprise charge from the northeast, causing a breakdown in the command structure and panic among the troops. Many of these men threw down their weapons while Cheyenne and Sioux warriors rode them down, "counting coup '' with lances, coup sticks, and quirts. Some Native accounts recalled this segment of the fight as a "buffalo run. ''
Captain Frederick Benteen, battalion leader of Companies D, H and K, recalled his observations on the Custer battlefield on June 27, 1876:
I went over the battlefield carefully with a view to determine how the battle was fought. I arrived at the conclusion I (hold) now -- that it was a rout, a panic, until the last man was killed...
There was no line formed on the battlefield. You can take a handful of corn and scatter (the kernels) over the floor, and make just such lines. There were none... The only approach to a line was where 5 or 6 (dead) horses found at equal distances, like skirmishers (part of Lt. Calhoun 's Company L). That was the only approach to a line on the field. There were more than 20 (troopers) killed (in one group); there were (more often) four or five at one place, all within a space of 20 to 30 yards (of each other)... I counted 70 dead (cavalry) horses and 2 Indian ponies.
I think, in all probability, that the men turned their horses loose without any orders to do so. Many orders might have been given, but few obeyed. I think that they were panic stricken; it was a rout, as I said before.
A Brulé Sioux warrior stated: "In fact, Hollow Horn Bear believed that the troops were in good order at the start of the fight, and kept their organization even while moving from point to point. '' Red Horse, an Oglala Sioux warrior, commented: "Here (Last Stand Hill) the soldiers made a desperate fight. '' One Hunkpapa Sioux warrior, Moving Robe, noted that "It was a hotly contested battle '', while another, Iron Hawk, stated: "The Indians pressed and crowded right in around Custer Hill. But the soldiers were n't ready to die. We stood there a long time. '' In a letter from February 21, 1910, Private William Taylor, Company M, 7th Cavalry, wrote: "Reno proved incompetent and Benteen showed his indifference -- I will not use the uglier words that have often been in my mind. Both failed Custer and he had to fight it out alone. ''
Recent archaeological work at the battlefield indicates that officers on Custer Hill restored some tactical control. E Company rushed off Custer Hill toward the Little Bighorn River but failed, which resulted in total destruction, leaving behind some 50 to 60 men. The remainder of the battle took on the nature of a running fight. Modern archaeology and historical Indian accounts indicate that Custer 's force may have been divided into three groups, with the Indians ' attempting to prevent them from effectively reuniting. Indian accounts describe warriors (including women) running up from the village to wave blankets in order to scare off the soldiers ' horses. One 7th Cavalry trooper claimed finding a number of stone mallets consisting of a round cobble weighing 8 -- 10 pounds (about 4 kg) with a rawhide handle, which he believed had been used by the Indian women to finish off the wounded. Fighting dismounted, the soldiers ' skirmish lines were overwhelmed. Army doctrine would have called for one man in four to be a horseholder behind the skirmish lines and, in extreme cases, one man in eight. Later, the troops would have bunched together in defensive positions and are alleged to have shot their remaining horses as cover. As individual troopers were wounded or killed, initial defensive positions would have been abandoned as untenable.
Under threat of attack, the first U.S. soldiers on the battlefield three days later hurriedly buried the troopers in shallow graves, more or less where they had fallen. A couple of years after the battle, markers were placed where men were believed to have fallen, so the placement of troops has been roughly construed. The troops evidently died in several groups, including on Custer Hill, around Captain Myles Keogh, and strung out towards the Little Bighorn River.
Modern documentaries suggest that there may not have been a "Last Stand '' as traditionally portrayed in popular culture. Instead, archaeologists suggest that, in the end, Custer 's troops were not surrounded but rather overwhelmed by a single charge. This scenario corresponds to several Indian accounts stating Crazy Horse 's charge swarmed the resistance, with the surviving soldiers fleeing in panic. Many of these troopers may have ended up in a deep ravine 300 -- 400 yards away from what is known today as Custer Hill. At least 28 bodies (the most common number associated with burial witness testimony), including that of scout Mitch Bouyer, were discovered in or near that gulch, their deaths possibly the battle 's final actions. Although the marker for Mitch Bouyer has been accounted for as being accurate through archaeological and forensic testing, it is some 65 yards away from Deep Ravine. Other archaeological explorations done in Deep Ravine have found no human remains associated with the battle. According to Indian accounts, about 40 men made a desperate stand around Custer on Custer Hill, delivering volley fire. The great majority of the Indian casualties were probably suffered during this closing segment of the battle, as the soldiers and Indians on Calhoun Ridge were more widely separated and traded fire at greater distances for most of their portion of the battle than did the soldiers and Indians on Custer Hill.
After the Custer force was annihilated, the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne regrouped to attack Reno and Benteen. The fight continued until dark (approximately 9: 00 pm) and for much of the next day, with the outcome in doubt. Reno credited Benteen 's leadership with repulsing a severe attack on the portion of the perimeter held by Companies H and M. On June 27, the column under General Terry approached from the north, and the Indians drew off in the opposite direction. The Crow scout White Man Runs Him was the first to tell General Terry 's officers that Custer 's force had "been wiped out. '' Reno and Benteen 's wounded troops were given what treatment was available at that time; five later died of their wounds. One of the regiment 's three surgeons had been with Custer 's column, while another, Dr. DeWolf, had been killed during Reno 's retreat. The only remaining doctor was Assistant Surgeon Henry R. Porter.
News of the defeat arrived in the East as the U.S. was observing its centennial. The Army began to investigate, although its effectiveness was hampered by a concern for survivors, and the reputation of the officers.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn had far - reaching consequences for the Indians. It was the beginning of the end of the Indian Wars and has even been referred to as "the Indians ' last stand '' in the area. Within 48 hours of the battle, the large encampment on the Little Bighorn broke up into smaller groups because there was not enough game and grass to sustain a large congregation of people and horses.
Oglala Sioux Black Elk recounted the exodus this way: "We fled all night, following the Greasy Grass. My two younger brothers and I rode in a pony - drag, and my mother put some young pups in with us. They were always trying to crawl out and I was always putting them back in, so I did n't sleep much. ''
The scattered Sioux and Cheyenne feasted and celebrated during July with no threat from soldiers. After their celebrations, many of the Indians slipped back to the reservation. Soon the number of warriors who still remained at large and hostile amounted to only about 600. Both Crook and Terry remained immobile for seven weeks after the battle, awaiting reinforcements and unwilling to venture out against the Indians until they had at least 2,000 men. Crook and Terry finally took the field against the Indians in August. General Nelson A. Miles took command of the effort in October 1876. In May 1877, Sitting Bull escaped to Canada. Within days, Crazy Horse surrendered at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. The Great Sioux War ended on May 7 with Miles ' defeat of a remaining band of Miniconjou Sioux.
Ownership of the Black Hills, which had been a focal point of the 1876 conflict, was determined by an ultimatum issued by the Manypenny Commission, according to which the Sioux were required to cede the land to the United States if they wanted the government to continue supplying rations to the reservations. Threatened with starvation, the Indians ceded Paha Sapa to the United States, but the Sioux never accepted the legitimacy of the transaction. They lobbied Congress to create a forum to decide their claim and subsequently litigated for 40 years; the United States Supreme Court in the 1980 decision United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians acknowledged that the United States had taken the Black Hills without just compensation. The Sioux refused the money subsequently offered and continue to insist on their right to occupy the land.
Modern - day accounts include Arapaho warriors in the battle, but the five Arapaho men who were at the encampments were there only by accident. While on a hunting trip they came close to the village by the river and were captured and almost killed by the Lakota who believed the hunters were scouts for the U.S. Army. Two Moon, a Northern Cheyenne leader, interceded to save their lives.
The 7th Cavalry was accompanied by a number of scouts and interpreters:
Native Americans
Native Americans
United States Army, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer, 7th United States Cavalry Regiment, Commanding.
Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer †, commanding.
Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer †
Major Marcus Reno
Captain Frederick Benteen
First Lieutenant Edward Gustave Mathey
Second Lieutenant Charles Varnum (wounded), Chief of Scouts
Estimates of Native American casualties have differed widely, from as few as 36 dead (from Native American listings of the dead by name) to as many as 300. Lakota chief Red Horse told Col. W.H. Wood in 1877 that the Native Americans suffered 136 dead and 160 wounded during the battle. In 1881, Red Horse told Dr. C.E. McChesney the same numbers but in a series of drawings done by Red Horse to illustrate the battle, he drew only sixty figures representing Lakota and Cheyenne casualties. Of those sixty figures only thirty some are portrayed with a conventional Plains Indian method of indicating death. In the last 140 years, historians have been able to identify multiple Indian names pertaining to the same individual, which has greatly reduced previously inflated numbers. Today a list of positively known casualties exists that lists 99 names, attributed and consolidated to 31 identified warriors.
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties at Battle of Little Bighorn (Plate XLV)
Six unnamed Native American women and four unnamed children are known to have been killed at the beginning of the battle during Reno 's charge. Among them were two wives and three children of the Hunkpapa Leader Pizi (Gall).
The 7th Cavalry suffered 52 percent casualties: 16 officers and 242 troopers killed or died of wounds, 1 officer and 51 troopers wounded. Every soldier of the five companies with Custer was killed (except for some Crow scouts and several troopers that had left that column before the battle or as the battle was starting). Among the dead were Custer 's brothers Boston and Thomas, his brother - in - law James Calhoun, and his nephew Henry Reed.
In 1878, the army awarded 24 Medals of Honor to participants in the fight on the bluffs for bravery, most for risking their lives to carry water from the river up the hill to the wounded. Few on the non-Indian side questioned the conduct of the enlisted men, but many questioned the tactics, strategy and conduct of the officers. Indian accounts spoke of soldiers ' panic - driven flight and suicide by those unwilling to fall captive to the Indians. While such stories were gathered by Thomas Bailey Marquis in a book in the 1930s, it was not published until 1976 because of the unpopularity of such assertions. Although soldiers may have believed captives would be tortured, Indians usually killed men outright and took as captive for adoption only young women and children. Indian accounts also noted the bravery of soldiers who fought to the death.
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen+ 2 Indian Government scouts (?)
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen & dead cavalry horses
Beginning in July, the 7th Cavalry was assigned new officers and recruiting efforts began to fill the depleted ranks. The regiment, reorganized into eight companies, remained in the field as part of the Terry Expedition, now based on the Yellowstone River at the mouth of the Bighorn and reinforced by Gibbon 's column. On August 8, 1876, after Terry was further reinforced with the 5th Infantry, the expedition moved up Rosebud Creek in pursuit of the Lakota. It met with Crook 's command, similarly reinforced, and the combined force, almost 4,000 strong, followed the Lakota trail northeast toward the Little Missouri River. Persistent rain and lack of supplies forced the column to dissolve and return to its varying starting points. The 7th Cavalry returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln to reconstitute.
The U.S. Congress authorized appropriations to expand the Army by 2,500 men to meet the emergency after the defeat of the 7th Cavalry. For a session, the Democratic Party - controlled House of Representatives abandoned its campaign to reduce the size of the Army. Word of Custer 's fate reached the 44th United States Congress as a conference committee was attempting to reconcile opposing appropriations bills approved by the House and the Republican Senate. They approved a measure to increase the size of cavalry companies to 100 enlisted men on July 24. The committee temporarily lifted the ceiling on the size of the Army by 2,500 on August 15.
As a result of the defeat in June 1876, Congress responded by attaching what the Sioux call the "sell or starve '' rider (19 Stat. 192) to the Indian Appropriations Act of 1876 (enacted August 15, 1876), which cut off all rations for the Sioux until they terminated hostilities and ceded the Black Hills to the United States. The Agreement of 1877 (19 Stat. 254, enacted February 28, 1877) officially took away Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn was the subject of an 1879 U.S. Army Court of Inquiry in Chicago, held at Reno 's request, during which his conduct was scrutinized. Some testimony by non-Army officers suggested that he was drunk and a coward. The court found Reno 's conduct to be without fault. After the battle, Thomas Rosser, James O'Kelly, and others continued to question the conduct of Reno due to his hastily ordered retreat. Defenders of Reno at the trial noted that, while the retreat was disorganized, Reno did not withdraw from his position until it became apparent that he was outnumbered and outflanked by the Indians. Contemporary accounts also point to the fact that Reno 's scout, Bloody Knife, was shot in the head, spraying him with blood, possibly increasing his own panic and distress.
General Terry and others claimed that Custer made strategic errors from the start of the campaign. For instance, he refused to use a battery of Gatling guns, and turned down General Terry 's offer of an additional battalion of the 2nd Cavalry. Custer believed that the Gatling guns would impede his march up the Rosebud and hamper his mobility. His rapid march en route to the Little Bighorn averaged nearly 30 miles (48 km) a day, so his assessment appears to have been accurate. Custer planned "to live and travel like Indians; in this manner the command will be able to go wherever the Indians can '', he wrote in his Herald dispatch.
By contrast, each Gatling gun had to be hauled by four horses, and soldiers often had to drag the heavy guns by hand over obstacles. Each of the heavy, hand - cranked weapons could fire up to 350 rounds a minute, an impressive rate, but they were known to jam frequently. During the Black Hills Expedition two years earlier, a Gatling gun had turned over, rolled down a mountain, and shattered to pieces. Lieutenant William Low, commander of the artillery detachment, was said to have almost wept when he learned he had been excluded from the strike force.
Custer believed that the 7th Cavalry could handle any Indian force and that the addition of the four companies of the 2nd would not alter the outcome. When offered the 2nd Cavalry, he reportedly replied that the 7th "could handle anything. '' There is evidence that Custer suspected that he would be outnumbered by the Indians, although he did not know by how many. By dividing his forces, Custer could have caused the defeat of the entire column, had it not been for Benteen 's and Reno 's linking up to make a desperate yet successful stand on the bluff above the southern end of the camp.
The historian James Donovan believed that Custer 's dividing his force into four smaller detachments (including the pack train) can be attributed to his inadequate reconnaissance; he also ignored the warnings of his Crow scouts and Charley Reynolds. By the time the battle began, Custer had already divided his forces into three battalions of differing sizes, of which he kept the largest. His men were widely scattered and unable to support each other. Wanting to prevent any escape by the combined tribes to the south, where they could disperse into different groups, Custer believed that an immediate attack on the south end of the camp was the best course of action.
Criticism of Custer was not universal. While investigating the battlefield, Lieutenant General Nelson A. Miles wrote in 1877, "The more I study the moves here (on the Little Big Horn), the more I have admiration for Custer. '' Facing major budget cutbacks, the U.S. Army wanted to avoid bad press and found ways to exculpate Custer. They blamed the defeat on the Indians ' alleged possession of numerous repeating rifles and the overwhelming numerical superiority of the warriors.
The widowed Elizabeth Bacon Custer, who never remarried, wrote three popular books in which she fiercely protected her husband 's reputation. She lived until 1933, thus preventing much serious research until most of the evidence was long gone. In addition, Captain Frederick Whittaker 's 1876 book idealizing Custer was hugely successful. Custer as a heroic officer fighting valiantly against savage forces was an image popularized in Wild West extravaganzas hosted by showman "Buffalo Bill '' Cody, Pawnee Bill, and others. It was n't until over half a century later that historians took another look at the battle and Custer 's decisions that led to his death and loss of half his command and found much to criticize.
General Alfred Terry 's Dakota column included a single battery of artillery, comprising two Rodman guns (3 - inch Ordnance rifle) and two Gatling guns. (According to historian Evan S. Connell, the precise number of Gatlings has not been established, ranging from two to three.)
Custer 's decision to reject Terry 's offer of the rapid - fire Gatlings has raised questions among historians as to why he refused them and what advantage their availability might have conferred on his forces at the Battle of the Little Bighorn.
One factor concerned Major Marcus Reno 's recent 8 - day reconnaissance - in - force of the Powder - Tongue - Rosebud Rivers, June 10 to 18. This deployment had demonstrated that artillery pieces mounted on gun carriages and hauled by horses no longer fit for cavalry mounts (so - called condemned horses) were cumbersome over mixed terrain and vulnerable to breakdowns. Custer, valuing the mobility of the 7th Cavalry and recognizing Terry 's acknowledgement of the regiment as "the primary strike force '' preferred to remain unencumbered by the Gatling guns. Custer insisted that the artillery was superfluous to his success, in that the 7th Cavalry alone was sufficient to cope with any force they should encounter, informing Terry: "The 7th can handle anything it meets ''. In addition to these practical concerns, a strained relationship with Major James Brisbin induced Custer 's polite refusal to integrate Brisbin 's Second Cavalry unit -- and the Gatling guns -- into his strike force, as it would disrupt any hierarchical arrangements that Custer presided over.
Historians have acknowledged the firepower inherent in the Gatling gun: they were capable of firing 350. 45 - 70 caliber rounds per minute. Jamming caused by black powder residue could lower that rate, raising questions as to their reliability under combat conditions. Researchers have further questioned the effectiveness of the guns under the tactics that Custer was likely to face with the Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The Gatlings, mounted high on carriages, required the battery crew to stand upright during its operation, making them easy targets for Lakota and Cheyenne sharpshooters.
Historian Robert M. Utley, in a section entitled "Would Gatling Guns Have Saved Custer? '' presents two judgments from Custer 's contemporaries: General Henry J. Hunt, expert in the tactical use of artillery in Civil War, stated that Gatlings "would probably have saved the command '', whereas General Nelson A. Miles, participant in the Great Sioux War declared "(Gatlings) were useless for Indian fighting. ''
The Lakota and Cheyenne warriors that opposed Custer 's forces possessed a wide array of weaponry, from Stone Age war clubs and lances to the most advanced firearms of the day. The typical firearms carried by the Lakota and Cheyenne combatants were muzzleloaders, more often a cap - lock smoothbore, the so - called Indian trade musket or Leman guns distributed to Indians by the US government at treaty conventions. Less common were surplus. 58 caliber rifled muskets of American Civil War vintage such as the Enfield and Springfield. Metal cartridge weapons were prized by native combatants, such as the Henry and the Spencer lever - action rifles, as well as Sharps breechloaders. Bows and arrows were utilized by younger braves in lieu of the more potent firearms; effective up to 30 yards (27 meters), the arrows could readily maim or disable an opponent.
Sitting Bull 's forces had no assured means to supply themselves with firearms and ammunition. Nonetheless, they could usually procure these through post-traders, licensed or unlicensed, and from gunrunners who operated in the Dakota Territory: "... a horse or a mule for a repeater... buffalo hides for ammunition. '' Custer 's highly regarded guide, "Lonesome '' Charley Reynolds, informed his superior in early 1876 that Sitting Bull 's forces were amassing weapons, including numerous Winchester repeating rifles and abundant ammunition.
Of the guns owned by Lakota and Cheyenne fighters at the Little Bighorn, approximately 200 were repeating rifles corresponding to about 1 of 10 of the encampment 's two thousand able - bodied fighters who participated in the battle
The troops under Custer 's command carried two regulation firearms authorized and issued by the U.S. Army in early 1876: the breech - loading, single - shot Springfield Model 1873 carbine, and the 1873 Colt single - action revolver. The regulation M1860 saber or "long knives '' were not carried by troopers upon Custer 's order.
With the exception of a number of officers and scouts who opted for personally owned and more expensive rifles and handguns, the 7th Cavalry was uniformly armed.
Ammunition allotments provided 100 carbine rounds per trooper, carried on a cartridge belt and in saddlebags on their mounts. An additional 50 carbine rounds per man were reserved on the pack train that accompanied the regiment to the battlefield. Each trooper had 24 rounds for his Colt handgun. The opposing forces, though not equally matched in the number and type of arms, were comparably outfitted, and neither side held a overwhelming advantage in weaponry.
Two hundred or more Lakota and Cheyenne combatants are known to have been armed with Henry, Winchester, or similar lever - action repeating rifles at the battle. Virtually every trooper in the 7th Cavalry fought with the single - shot, breech - loading Springfield carbine and the Colt revolver.
Historians have asked whether the repeating rifles conferred a distinct advantage on Sitting Bull 's villagers that contributed to their victory over Custer 's carbine - armed soldiers.
Historian Michael L. Lawson offers a scenario based on archaeological collections at the "Henryville '' site, which yielded plentiful Henry rifle cartridge casings from approximately 20 individual guns. Lawson speculates that, though less powerful than the Springfield carbines, the Henry repeaters provided a barrage of fire at a critical point, driving Lieutenant James Calhoun 's L Company from Calhoun Hill and Finley Ridge, forcing them to flee in disarray back to Captain Myles Keogh 's I Company, and leading to the disintegration of that wing of Custer 's Battalion.
After exhaustive testing -- including comparisons to domestic and foreign single - shot and repeating rifles -- the Army Ordnance Board (whose members included officers Marcus Reno and Alfred Terry) authorized the Springfield as the official firearm for the United State Army.
The Springfield, manufactured in a. 45 - 70 long rifle version for the infantry and a. 45 - 55 light carbine version for the cavalry, was judged a solid firearm that met the long - term and geostrategic requirements of the United States fighting forces.
British historian Mark Gallear maintains that US government experts rejected the lever - action repeater designs, deeming them ineffective in the event of a clash with fully equipped European armies, or in case of an outbreak of another American civil conflict. Gallear 's analysis minimizes the allegation that rapid depletion of ammunition in lever - action models influenced the decision in favor of the single - shot Springfield. The Indian War, in this context, appears as a minor theatre of conflict, whose contingencies were unlikely to govern the selection of standard weaponry for an emerging industrialized nation.
The Springfield carbine is praised for its "superior range and stopping power '' by historian James Donovan, and author Charles M. Robinson reports that the rifle could be "loaded and fired much more rapidly than its muzzle loading predecessors, and had twice the range of repeating rifles such as the Winchester, Henry and Spencer. ''
Gallear points out that lever - action rifles, after a burst of rapid discharge, still required a reloading interlude that lowered their overall rate of fire; Springfield breechloaders "in the long run, had a higher rate of fire, which was sustainable throughout a battle. ''
The breechloader design patent for the Springfield 's Erskine S. Allin trapdoor system was owned by the US government and the firearm could be easily adapted for production with existing machinery at the Springfield Armory in Massachusetts. At time when funding for the post-war Army had been slashed, the prospect for economical production influenced the Ordnance Board member selection of the Springfield option.
The question as to whether the reported malfunction of the Model 1873 Springfield carbine issued to the 7th Cavalry contributed to their defeat has been debated for years.
That the weapon experienced jamming of the extractor is not contested, but its contribution to Custer 's defeat is considered negligible. This conclusion is supported by evidence from archaeological studies performed at the battlefield, where the recovery of Springfield cartridge casing, bearing tell - tale scratch marks indicating manual extraction, were rare. The flaw in the ejector mechanism was known to the Army Ordnance Board at the time of the selection of the Model 1873 rifle and carbine, and was not considered a significant shortcoming in the overall worthiness of the shoulder arm. With the ejector failure in US Army tests as low as 1: 300, the Springfield carbine was vastly more reliable than the muzzle - loading Springfields used in the Civil War.
Gallear addresses the post-battle testimony concerning the copper. 45 - 55 cartridges supplied to the troops in which an officer is said to have cleared the chambers of spent cartridges for a number of Springfield carbines. This testimony of widespread fusing of the casings offered to the Chief of Ordnance at the Reno Court of Inquiry in 1879 conflicts with the archaeological evidence collected at the battlefield. Field data showed that possible extractor failures occurred at a rate of approximately 1: 30 firings at the Custer Battlefield and at a rate of 1: 37 at the Reno - Benteen Battlefield.
Historian Thom Hatch observes that the Model 1873 Springfield, despite the known ejector flaw, remained the standard issue shoulder arm for US troops until the early 1890s. when the copper - cased, inside - primed cartridges were replaced with brass.
Soldiers under Custer 's direct command were annihilated on the first day of the battle (except for three Crow scouts and several troopers (including John Martin (Giovanni Martino)) that had left that column before the battle; one Crow scout, Curly, was the only survivor to leave after the battle had begun), although for years rumors persisted of other survivors.
Over 120 men and women would come forward over the course of the next 70 years claiming they were "the lone survivor '' of Custer 's Last Stand. The phenomenon became so widespread that one historian remarked, "Had Custer had all of those who claimed to be ' the lone survivor ' of his two battalions he would have had at least a brigade behind him when he crossed the Wolf Mountains and rode to the attack. ''
The historian Earl Alonzo Brininstool suggested he had collected at least 70 "lone survivor '' stories. Michael Nunnally, an amateur Custer historian, wrote a booklet describing 30 such accounts. W.A. Graham claimed that even Libby Custer received dozens of letters from men, in shocking detail, about their sole survivor experience. At least 125 alleged "single survivor '' tales have been confirmed in the historical record as of July 2012.
Frank Finkel, from Dayton, Washington, had such a convincing story that historian Charles Kuhlman believed the alleged survivor, going so far as to write a lengthy defense of Finkel 's participation in the battle. Douglas Ellison -- mayor of Medora, North Dakota, and an amateur historian -- also wrote a book in support of the veracity of Finkel 's claim, but most scholars reject it.
Some of these survivors held a form of celebrity status in the United States, among them Raymond Hatfield "Arizona Bill '' Gardner and Frank Tarbeaux. A few even published their own autobiographies, including their deeds at the Little Bighorn.
Almost as soon as men came forward implying or directly pronouncing their unique role in the battle, there were others who were equally opposed to any such claims. Theodore Goldin, a battle participant who later became a controversial historian on the event, wrote (in regards to Charles Hayward 's claim to have been with Custer and taken prisoner):
The Indians always insisted that they took no prisoners. If they did -- a thing I firmly believe -- they were tortured and killed the night of the 25th. As an evidence of this I recall the three charred and burned heads we picked up in the village near the scene of the big war dance, when we visited the village with Capt. Benteen and Lieut. Wallace on the morning of the 27th... I 'm sorely afraid, Tony, that we will have to class Hayward 's story, like that of so many others, as pure, unadulterated B.S. As a clerk at headquarters I had occasion to look over the morning reports of at least the six troops at Lincoln almost daily, and never saw his name there, or among the list of scouts employed from time to time... I am hoping that some day all of these damned fakirs will die and it will be safe for actual participants in the battle to admit and insist that they were there, without being branded and looked upon as a lot of damned liars. Actually, there have been times when I have been tempted to deny that I ever heard of the 7th Cavalry, much less participated with it in that engagement... My Medal of Honor and its inscription have served me as proof positive that I was at least in the vicinity at the time in question, otherwise I should be tempted to deny all knowledge of the event.
The only documented and verified survivor of Custer 's command (having been actually involved in Custer 's part of the battle) was Captain Keogh 's horse, Comanche. The wounded horse was discovered on the battlefield by General Terry 's troops, and although other cavalry mounts survived they had been taken by the Indians. Comanche eventually was returned to the fort and became the regimental mascot. Several other badly wounded horses were found and destroyed at the scene. Writer Evan S. Connell noted in Son of the Morning Star:
Comanche was reputed to be the only survivor of the Little Bighorn, but quite a few Seventh Cavalry mounts survived, probably more than one hundred, and there was even a yellow bulldog. Comanche lived on another fifteen years, and when he died, he was stuffed and to this day remains in a glass case at the University of Kansas. So, protected from moths and souvenir hunters by his humidity - controlled glass case, Comanche stands patiently, enduring generation after generation of undergraduate jokes. The other horses are gone, and the mysterious yellow bulldog is gone, which means that in a sense the legend is true. Comanche alone survived.
For more on survivor claims, see Custer Survivors in Little Bighorn Folklore.
The site of the battle was first preserved as a United States national cemetery in 1879 to protect the graves of the 7th Cavalry troopers. In 1946, it was re-designated as the Custer Battlefield National Monument, reflecting its association with Custer. In 1967, Major Marcus Reno was re-interred in the cemetery with honors, including an eleven - gun salute. Beginning in the early 1970s, there was concern within the National Park Service over the name Custer Battlefield National Monument failing to adequately reflect the larger history of the battle between two cultures. Hearings on the name change were held in Billings on June 10, 1991, and during the following months Congress renamed the site the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument.
United States memorialization of the battlefield began in 1879 with a temporary monument to the U.S. dead. In 1881, the current marble obelisk was erected in their honor. In 1890, marble blocks were added to mark the places where the U.S. cavalry soldiers fell.
Nearly 100 years later, ideas about the meaning of the battle have become more inclusive. The United States government acknowledged that Native American sacrifices also deserved recognition at the site. The 1991 bill changing the name of the national monument also authorized an Indian Memorial to be built near Last Stand Hill in honor of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The commissioned work by native artist Colleen Cutschall is shown in the photograph at right. On Memorial Day 1999, in consultation with tribal representatives, the U.S. added two red granite markers to the battlefield to note where Native American warriors fell. As of December 2006, a total of ten warrior markers have been added (three at the Reno -- Benteen Defense Site and seven on the Little Bighorn Battlefield).
The Indian Memorial, themed "Peace Through Unity '' l is an open circular structure that stands 75 yards (69 metres) from the 7th Cavalry obelisk. Its walls have some of the names of Indians who died at the site, as well as native accounts of the battle. The open circle of the structure is symbolic, as for many tribes, the circle is sacred. The "spirit gate '' window facing the Cavalry monument is symbolic as well, welcoming the dead cavalrymen into the memorial.
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when is a stem and leaf plot used | Stem - and - leaf display - wikipedia
A stem - and - leaf display or stem - and - leaf plot is a device for presenting quantitative data in a graphical format, similar to a histogram, to assist in visualizing the shape of a distribution. They evolved from Arthur Bowley 's work in the early 1900s, and are useful tools in exploratory data analysis. Stemplots became more commonly used in the 1980s after the publication of John Tukey 's book on exploratory data analysis in 1977. The popularity during those years is attributable to their use of monospaced (typewriter) typestyles that allowed computer technology of the time to easily produce the graphics. Modern computers ' superior graphic capabilities have meant these techniques are less often used.
A stem - and - leaf display is also called a stemplot, but the latter term often refers to another chart type. A simple stem plot may refer to plotting a matrix of y values onto a common x axis, and identifying the common x value with a vertical line, and the individual y values with symbols on the line.
Unlike histograms, stem - and - leaf displays retain the original data to at least two significant digits, and put the data in order, thereby easing the move to order - based inference and non-parametric statistics.
A basic stem - and - leaf display contains two columns separated by a vertical line. The left column contains the stems and the right column contains the leaves.
To construct a stem - and - leaf display, the observations must first be sorted in ascending order: this can be done most easily if working by hand by constructing a draft of the stem - and - leaf display with the leaves unsorted, then sorting the leaves to produce the final stem - and - leaf display. Here is the sorted set of data values that will be used in the following example:
Next, it must be determined what the stems will represent and what the leaves will represent. Typically, the leaf contains the last digit of the number and the stem contains all of the other digits. In the case of very large numbers, the data values may be rounded to a particular place value (such as the hundreds place) that will be used for the leaves. The remaining digits to the left of the rounded place value are used as the stem.
In this example, the leaf represents the ones place and the stem will represent the rest of the number (tens place and higher).
The stem - and - leaf display is drawn with two columns separated by a vertical line. The stems are listed to the left of the vertical line. It is important that each stem is listed only once and that no numbers are skipped, even if it means that some stems have no leaves. The leaves are listed in increasing order in a row to the right of each stem.
It is important to note that when there is a repeated number in the data (such as two 72s) then the plot must reflect such (so the plot would look like 7 2 2 5 6 7 when it has the numbers 72 72 75 76 77).
Rounding may be needed to create a stem - and - leaf display. Based on the following set of data, the stem plot below would be created:
For negative numbers, a negative is placed in front of the stem unit, which is still the value X / 10. Non-integers are rounded. This allowed the stem and leaf plot to retain its shape, even for more complicated data sets. As in this example below:
Stem - and - leaf displays are useful for displaying the relative density and shape of the data, giving the reader a quick overview of distribution. They retain (most of) the raw numerical data, often with perfect integrity. They are also useful for highlighting outliers and finding the mode. However, stem - and - leaf displays are only useful for moderately sized data sets (around 15 - 150 data points). With very small data sets a stem - and - leaf displays can be of little use, as a reasonable number of data points are required to establish definitive distribution properties. A dot plot may be better suited for such data. With very large data sets, a stem - and - leaf display will become very cluttered, since each data point must be represented numerically. A box plot or histogram may become more appropriate as the data size increase
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who would become vice president if the president is impeached | United States Presidential line of succession - wikipedia
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which persons may become or act as President of the United States if the incumbent President becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns or is removed from office. (A President can be removed from office by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate.) The line of succession is set by the United States Constitution and the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 as subsequently amended to include newly created cabinet offices. The succession follows the order of Vice President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the heads of federal executive departments who form the Cabinet of the United States, which currently has fifteen members, beginning with the Secretary of State. Those heads of departments who are ineligible to act as President are also ineligible to succeed the President by succession, for example most commonly if they are not a natural - born U.S. citizen.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency, and in 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission raised a number of other issues with the current line of succession.
The current presidential order of succession is as follows:
Cabinet officers are in line according to the chronological order of their department 's creation or the department of which their department is the successor (the Department of Defense being successor to the Department of War, and the Department of Health and Human Services being successor to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare).
To be eligible to serve as President, a person must be a natural - born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years of age, and a resident within the United States for at least 14 years. These eligibility requirements are specified both in the U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 5, and in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (3 U.S.C. § 19 (e)).
Acting officers may be eligible. In 2009, the Continuity of Government Commission, a private non-partisan think tank, reported,
The language in the current Presidential Succession Act is less clear than that of the 1886 Act with respect to Senate confirmation. The 1886 Act refers to "such officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate to the office therein named... '' The current act merely refers to "officers appointed, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Read literally, this means that the current act allows for acting secretaries to be in the line of succession as long as they are confirmed by the Senate for a post (even for example, the second or third in command within a department). It is common for a second in command to become acting secretary when the secretary leaves office. Though there is some dispute over this provision, the language clearly permits acting secretaries to be placed in the line of succession. (We have spoken to acting secretaries who told us they had been placed in the line of succession.)
Two months after succeeding Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Harry S. Truman proposed that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate be granted priority in the line of succession over the Cabinet so as to ensure the President would not be able to appoint his successor to the Presidency.
The Secretary of State and the other Cabinet officials are appointed by the President, while the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate are elected officials. The Speaker is chosen by the U.S. House of Representatives, and every Speaker has been a member of that body for the duration of their term as Speaker, though this is not technically a requirement; the President pro tempore is chosen by the U.S. Senate and customarily the Senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service fills this position. The Congress approved this change and inserted the Speaker and President pro tempore in line, ahead of the members of the Cabinet in the order in which their positions were established.
In his speech supporting the changes, Truman noted that the House of Representatives is more likely to be in political agreement with the President and Vice President than the Senate. The succession of a Republican to a Democratic Presidency would further complicate an already unstable political situation. However, when the changes to the succession were signed into law, they placed Republican House Speaker Joseph W. Martin first in the line of succession after the Vice President.
Some of Truman 's critics said that his ordering of the Speaker before the President pro tempore was motivated by his dislike of the then - current holder of the latter rank, Senator Kenneth McKellar. Further motivation may have been provided by Truman 's preference for House Speaker Sam Rayburn to be next in the line of succession, rather than Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.
The line of succession is mentioned in three places in the Constitution:
Article II, Section 1 of the United States Constitution provides that:
In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President... until the disability be removed, or a President elected.
This originally left open the question whether "the same '' refers to "the said office '' or only "the powers and duties of the said office. '' Some historians, including Edward Corwin and John D. Feerick, have argued that the framers ' intention was that the Vice President would remain Vice President while executing the powers and duties of the Presidency; however, there is also much evidence to the contrary, the most compelling of which is Article I, section 3, of the Constitution itself, the relevant text of which reads:
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse (sic) their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.
This text appears to answer the hypothetical question of whether the office or merely the powers of the Presidency devolved upon the Vice President on his succession. Thus, the 25th Amendment merely restates and reaffirms the validity of existing precedent, apart from adding new protocols for Presidential disability. Not everyone agreed with this interpretation when it was first actually tested, and it was left to Vice President John Tyler, the first presidential successor in U.S. history, to establish the precedent that was respected in the absence of the 25th Amendment.
Upon the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 and after a brief hesitation, Tyler took the position that he was the President and not merely acting President upon taking the presidential oath of office. However, some contempories -- including John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and other members of Congress Whig party leaders and even Tyler 's own cabinet -- believed that he was only acting as President and did not have the office itself.
Nonetheless, Tyler adhered to his position, even returning, unopened, mail addressed to the "Acting President of the United States '' sent by his detractors. Tyler 's view ultimately prevailed when the Senate voted to accept the title "President, '' and this precedent was followed thereafter. The question was finally resolved by Section 1 of the 25th Amendment, which specifies that "In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. '' The Amendment does not specify whether officers other than the Vice President can become President rather than Acting President in the same set of circumstances. The Presidential Succession Act refers only to other officers acting as President rather than becoming President.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1792 was the first succession law passed by Congress. The act was contentious because the Federalists did not want the then Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, who had become the leader of the Democratic - Republicans, to follow the Vice President in the succession. There were also separation of powers concerns over including the Chief Justice of the United States in the line. The compromise they worked out established the President pro tempore of the Senate as next in line after the Vice President, followed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
In either case, these officers were to "act as President of the United States until the disability be removed or a president be elected. '' The Act called for a special election to be held in November of the year in which dual vacancies occurred (unless the vacancies occurred after the first Wednesday in October, in which case the election would occur the following year; or unless the vacancies occurred within the last year of the presidential term, in which case the next election would take place as regularly scheduled). The people elected President and Vice President in such a special election would have served a full four - year term beginning on March 4 of the next year, but no such election ever took place.
In 1881, after the death of President Garfield, and in 1885, after the death of Vice President Hendricks, there had been no President pro tempore in office, and as the new House of Representatives had yet to convene, no Speaker either, leaving no one at all in the line of succession after the vice president. When Congress convened in December 1885, President Cleveland asked for a revision of the 1792 act, which was passed in 1886. Congress replaced the President pro tempore and Speaker with officers of the President 's Cabinet with the Secretary of State first in line. In the first 100 years of the United States, six former Secretaries of State had gone on to be elected President, while only two congressional leaders had advanced to that office. As a result, changing the order of the line of succession seemed reasonable.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1947, signed into law by President Harry S. Truman, added the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore back in the line, but switched the two from the 1792 order. It remains the sequence used today. Since the reorganization of the military in 1947 had merged the War Department (which governed the Army) with the Department of the Navy into the Department of Defense, the Secretary of Defense took the place in the order of succession previously held by the Secretary of War. The office of Secretary of the Navy, which had existed as a Cabinet - level position since 1798, had become subordinate to the Secretary of Defense in the military reorganization, and so was dropped from the line of succession in the 1947 Succession Act.
Until 1971, the Postmaster General, the head of the Post Office Department, was a member of the Cabinet, initially the last in the presidential line of succession before new officers were added. Once the Post Office Department was re-organized into the United States Postal Service, a special agency independent of the executive branch, the Postmaster General ceased to be a member of the Cabinet and was thus removed from the line of succession.
The United States Department of Homeland Security was created in 2002. On March 9, 2006, pursuant to the renewal of the Patriot Act as Pub. L. 109 -- 177, the Secretary of Homeland Security was added to the line of succession. The order of Cabinet members in the line has always been the same as the order in which their respective departments were established. Despite custom, many in Congress had wanted the Secretary to be placed at number eight on the list -- below the Attorney General, above the Secretary of the Interior, and in the position held by the Secretary of the Navy prior to the creation of the Secretary of Defense -- because the Secretary, already in charge of disaster relief and security, would presumably be more prepared to take over the presidency than some of the other Cabinet secretaries. Despite this, the 2006 law explicitly specifies that the "Secretary of Homeland Security '' follows the "Secretary of Veterans Affairs '' in the succession, effectively at the end of the list.
While nine Vice Presidents have succeeded to the office upon the death or resignation of the President, and two Vice Presidents have temporarily served as acting President, no other officer has ever been called upon to act as President. On March 4, 1849, President Zachary Taylor 's term began, but he declined to be sworn in on a Sunday, citing religious beliefs, and the Vice President was not sworn either. As the last President pro tempore of the Senate, David Rice Atchison was thought by some to be next in line after the Vice President, and his tombstone claims that he was US President for the day. However, Atchison took no oath of office to the presidency either, and his term as Senate President pro tempore had by then expired.
In 1865, when Andrew Johnson assumed the Presidency on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the office of Vice President became vacant. At that time, the Senate President pro tempore was next in line to the presidency. In 1868, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives and subjected to impeachment trial in the Senate, and if he had been convicted and thereby removed from office, Senate President pro tempore Benjamin Wade would have become acting President. This posed a conflict of interest, as Wade 's own vote on removal could have helped to determine whether he would have assumed the presidential powers and duties.
In his book The Shadow Presidents, which he published in 1979, Michael Medved describes a situation that arose prior to the 1916 election, when the First World War was raging in Europe. In view of the current international turmoil, President Woodrow Wilson thought that if he lost the election it would be better for his opponent to begin his administration straight away, instead of waiting through the lame duck period, which at that time had a duration of almost four months. President Wilson and his aides formed a plan to exploit the rule of succession so that his rival Charles Evans Hughes could take over the Presidency as soon as the result of the election was clear. The plan was that Wilson would appoint Hughes to the post of Secretary of State. Wilson and his Vice President Thomas R. Marshall would then resign, and as the Secretary of State was at that time designated next in line of succession, Hughes would become President immediately. As it happened, President Wilson won re-election, so the plan was never put into action.
Since the 25th Amendment 's ratification, its Second Section, which addresses Vice Presidential succession as noted above, has been invoked twice.
During the 1973 Vice Presidential vacancy, House Speaker Carl Albert was first in line. As the Watergate scandal made President Nixon 's removal or resignation possible, Albert would have become Acting President and -- under Title 3, Section 19 (c) of the U.S. Code -- would have been able to "act as President until the expiration of the then current Presidential term '' on January 20, 1977. Albert openly questioned whether it was appropriate for him, a Democrat, to assume the powers and duties of the presidency when there was a public mandate for the Presidency to be held by a Republican. Albert announced that should he need to assume the Presidential powers and duties, he would do so only as a caretaker. However, with the nomination and confirmation of Gerald Ford to the Vice Presidency, which marked the first time the Second Section of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked, these series of events were never tested. Albert again became first - in - line during the first four months of Ford 's Presidency, before the confirmation of Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, which marked the second time Section 2 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked.
In 1981, when President Ronald Reagan was shot, Vice President George H.W. Bush was traveling in Texas. Secretary of State Alexander Haig responded to a reporter 's question regarding who was running the government by stating:
"Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the President, the Vice President and the Secretary of State in that order, and should the President decide he wants to transfer the helm to the Vice President, he will do so. He has not done that. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending return of the Vice President and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course. ''
A bitter dispute ensued over the meaning of Haig 's remarks. Most people believed that Haig was referring to the line of succession and erroneously claimed to have temporary Presidential authority, due to his implied reference to the Constitution. Haig and his supporters, noting his familiarity with the line of succession from his time as White House Chief of Staff during Richard Nixon 's resignation, said he only meant that he was the highest - ranking officer of the Executive branch on - site, managing things temporarily until the Vice President returned to Washington.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency. James Madison, one of the authors of the Constitution, raised similar constitutional questions about the Presidential Succession Act of 1792 in a 1792 letter to Edmund Pendleton. Two of these issues can be summarized:
In 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission suggested that the current law has "at least seven significant issues... that warrant attention '', specifically:
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how many stadiums are there in the us | List of U.S. stadiums by capacity - Wikipedia
The following is a list of stadiums in the United States. They are ordered by capacity, which is the maximum number of spectators the stadium can accommodate. All U.S. stadiums with a current capacity of 20,000 or more are included in the list. The majority of these stadiums are used for American football, either in college football or the NFL. Most of the others are Major League Baseball ballparks or Major League Soccer stadiums.
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short summary of room on the roof by ruskin bond | The Room on the Roof - wikipedia
The Room on the Roof is a novel written by Ruskin Bond. It was Bond 's first literary venture. The novel revolves around Rusty, an orphaned seventeen - year - old Anglo - Indian boy living in Dehradun. Due to his guardian, Mr. Harrison 's strict ways, he runs away from his home to live with his Indian friends. Bond wrote the novel when he was seventeen and won the John Llewellyn Rhys Memorial Prize in 1957.
Rusty, a seventeen - year old Anglo - Indian boy, is orphaned and has to live with Mr. Harrison in the European area of Dehradun. Being unhappy with Mr. Harrison 's stern behaviour and constant efforts of turning him into an Englishman, Rusty runs away from his home. He meets a group of Indian kids (Somi, Ranbir and Suri) and is enchanted by the Indian customs, festivals and foods (golgappa and patties). Soon he realizes that life on his own is not going to be as easy as he had perceived. Somi gets Rusty a job at Mr. Kapoor 's house, to teach a boy - Kishen in the neighbourhood and in return he is given a room of their attic for shelter. Later he develops a liking for Meena, Kishen 's mother. But because of a trip she dies. After a period of grief then Rusty and Kishen live together happily.
Upon release, the book received positive reviews. Santha Rama Rau of The New York Times commented "Like an Indian bazaar itself, the book is filled with the smells, sights, sounds, confusion and subtle organization of ordinary Indian life ''. Herald Tribune said that the book "has a special magic of its own ''. San Francisco Chronicle said that the book has "considerable charm and spontaneity ''. The Guardian called the book "very engaging ''. The Scotsman commented "Moving in its simplicity and underlying tenderness... a novel of marked originality ''. The New Statesman said that "Mr Bond is a writer of great gifts ''. The Hindu said that "This story keeps you hooked with the many unexpected incidents... It 's a book worth reading! It will be enjoyed by readers greatly ''.
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lad's colour in grand nationals of the 1970s | Grand National - wikipedia
The Grand National is a National Hunt horse race held annually at Aintree Racecourse in Liverpool, England. First run in 1839, it is a handicap steeplechase over 4 miles 514 yards (6.907 km) with horses jumping 30 fences over two laps. It is the most valuable jump race in Europe, with a prize fund of £ 1 million in 2017. An event that is prominent in British culture, the race is popular amongst many people who do not normally watch or bet on horse racing at other times of the year.
The course over which the race is run features much larger fences than those found on conventional National Hunt tracks. Many of these, particularly Becher 's Brook, The Chair and the Canal Turn, have become famous in their own right and, combined with the distance of the event, create what has been called "the ultimate test of horse and rider ''.
The Grand National has been broadcast live on free - to - air terrestrial television in the United Kingdom since 1960. From then until 2012 it was broadcast by the BBC. Between 2013 and 2016 it was shown by Channel 4; the UK broadcasting rights transferred to ITV from 2017. An estimated 500 to 600 million people watch the Grand National in over 140 countries. It has also been broadcast on radio since 1927; BBC Radio held exclusive rights until 2013, however, Talksport also now holds radio commentary rights.
The most recent running of the race, in 2017, was won by One For Arthur, ridden by jockey Derek Fox for trainer Lucinda Russell. The next Grand National will start on 12 April 2018 and finish on 14 April 2018. As of 2017, the race and accompanying festival are sponsored by Randox Health.
The Grand National was founded by William Lynn, a syndicate head and proprietor of the Waterloo Hotel, on land he leased in Aintree from William Molyneux, 2nd Earl of Sefton. Lynn set out a course, built a grandstand, and Lord Sefton laid the foundation stone on 7 February 1829. There is much debate regarding the first official Grand National; most leading published historians, including John Pinfold, now prefer the idea that the first running was in 1836 and was won by The Duke. This same horse won again in 1837, while Sir William was the winner in 1838. These races have long been disregarded because of the belief that they took place at Maghull and not Aintree. However, some historians have unearthed evidence in recent years that suggest those three races were run over the same course at Aintree and were regarded as having been Grand Nationals up until the mid-1860s. Contemporary newspaper reports place all the 1836 - 38 races at Aintree although the 1839 race is the first described as "national ''. To date, though, calls for the Nationals of 1836 -- 1838 to be restored to the record books have been unsuccessful. The Duke was ridden by Martin Becher. The fence Becher 's Brook is named after him and is where he fell in the next year 's race.
In 1838 and 1839 three significant events occurred to transform the Liverpool race from a small local affair to a national event. Firstly, the Great St. Albans Chase, which had clashed with the steeplechase at Aintree, was not renewed after 1838, leaving a major hole in the chasing calendar. Secondly, the railway arrived in Liverpool, enabling transport to the course by rail for the first time. Finally, a committee was formed to better organise the event. These factors led to a more highly publicised race in 1839 which attracted a larger field of top quality horses and riders, greater press coverage and an increased attendance on race day. Over time the first three runnings of the event were quickly forgotten to secure the 1839 race its place in history as the first official Grand National. It was won by rider Jem Mason on the aptly named, Lottery
By the 1840s, Lynn 's ill - health blunted his enthusiasm for Aintree. Edward Topham, a respected handicapper and prominent member of Lynn 's syndicate, began to exert greater influence over the National. He turned the chase into a handicap in 1843 after it had been a weight - for - age race for the first four years, and took over the land lease in 1848. One century later, the Topham family bought the course outright.
Later in the century the race was the setting of a thriller by the popular novelist Henry Hawley Smart.
For three years during the First World War, while Aintree Racecourse was taken over by the War Office, an alternative race was run at Gatwick Racecourse, a disused course on land now occupied by Gatwick Airport. The first of these races, in 1916, was called the Racecourse Association Steeplechase, and in 1917 and 1918 the race was called the War National Steeplechase. The races at Gatwick are not always recognised as "Grand Nationals '' and their results are often omitted from winners ' lists.
On the day of the 1928 Grand National, before the race had begun, Tipperary Tim 's jockey William Dutton heard a friend call out to him: "Billy boy, you 'll only win if all the others fall down! '' These words turned out to be true, as 41 of the 42 starters fell during the race. This year 's National was run during misty weather conditions with the going very heavy. As the field approached the Canal Turn on the first circuit, Easter Hero fell, causing a pile - up from which only seven horses emerged with seated jockeys. By the penultimate fence this number had reduced to three, with Great Span looking most likely to win ahead of Billy Barton and Tipperary Tim. Great Span 's saddle then slipped, leaving Billy Barton in the lead until he too then fell. Although Billy Barton 's jockey Tommy Cullinan managed to remount and complete the race, it was Tipperary Tim who came in first at outside odds of 100 / 1. With only two riders completing the course, this remains a record for the lowest number of finishers.
Although the Grand National was run as normal in 1940 and most other major horse races around the world were able to be held throughout the war, the commandeering of Aintree Racecourse for defence use in 1941 meant no Grand National could be held from 1941 to 1945.
During the 1950s the Grand National was dominated by Vincent O'Brien, who trained different winners of the race for three consecutive years between 1953 and 1955. Early Mist secured O'Brien's first victory in 1953; Royal Tan won in 1954, and Quare Times completed the Irish trainer 's hat - trick in 1955.
The Queen Mother on Devon Loch 's collapse moments from certain victory
The running of the 1956 Grand National witnessed one of the chase 's most bizarre incidents. Devon Loch, owned by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, had cleared the final fence in leading position, five lengths clear of E.S.B. Forty yards from what seemed like certain victory, Devon Loch suddenly, and inexplicably, half - jumped into the air and collapsed in a belly - flop on the turf. Despite efforts by jockey Dick Francis, Devon Loch was unable to complete the race, leaving E.S.B. to cross the finishing line first. Responding to the commiserations of E.S.B. 's owner, the Queen Mother famously commented: "Oh, that 's racing! ''
Had Devon Loch completed the race he might have set a new record for the fastest finishing time, which E.S.B. missed by only four - fifths of a second. Many explanations have been offered for Devon Loch 's behaviour on the run - in, but the incident remains inexplicable. In modern language, the phrase "to do a Devon Loch '' is sometimes used to describe a last - minute failure to achieve an expected victory.
Commentator Michael O'Hehir describes the chaotic scene at the 23rd fence in 1967
In the 1967 Grand National, most of the field were hampered or dismounted in a mêlée at the 23rd fence, allowing a rank - outsider, Foinavon, to become a surprise winner at odds of 100 / 1. A loose horse named Popham Down, who had unseated his rider at the first jump, suddenly veered across the leading group at the 23rd, causing them to either stop, refuse or unseat their riders. Racing journalist Lord Oaksey described the resulting pile - up by saying that Popham Down had "cut down the leaders like a row of thistles ''. Some horses even started running in the wrong direction, back the way they had come. Foinavon, whose owner had such little faith in him that he had travelled to Worcester that day instead, had been lagging some 100 yards behind the leading pack, giving his jockey, John Buckingham, time to steer his mount wide of the havoc and make a clean jump of the fence on the outside. Although 17 jockeys remounted and some made up considerable ground, particularly Josh Gifford on 15 / 2 favourite Honey End, none had time to catch Foinavon before he crossed the finishing line. The 7th / 23rd fence was officially named the ' Foinavon fence ' in 1984.
The 1970s were mixed years for the Grand National. In 1973, eight years after Mrs. Mirabel Topham announced she was seeking a buyer, the racecourse was finally sold to property developer Bill Davies. Davies tripled the admission prices, and consequently, the attendance at the 1975 race, won by L'Escargot, was the smallest in living memory. It was after this that bookmaker Ladbrokes made an offer, signing an agreement with Davies allowing them to manage the Grand National.
Commentator Peter O'Sullevan describes Red Rum 's record third Grand National win in 1977
During this period, Red Rum was breaking all records to become the most successful racehorse in Grand National history. Originally bought as a yearling in 1966 for 400 guineas (£ 420), he passed through various training yards before being bought for 6,000 guineas (£ 6,300) by Ginger McCain on behalf of Noel le Mare. Two days after the purchase while trotting the horse on Southport beach, McCain noticed that Red Rum appeared lame. The horse was suffering from pedal osteitis, an inflammatory bone disorder. McCain had witnessed many lame carthorses reconditioned by being galloped in sea - water. He successfully used this treatment on his newly acquired racehorse.
Red Rum became, and remains as of 2018, the only horse to have won the Grand National three times, in 1973, 1974, and 1977. He also finished second in the two intervening years, 1975 and 1976.
In 1973, he was in second place at the last fence, 15 lengths behind champion horse Crisp, who was carrying 23 lbs more. Red Rum made up the ground on the run - in and, two strides from the finishing post, he pipped the tiring Crisp to win by three - quarters of a length in what is arguably the most memorable Grand National of all time. Red Rum finished in 9 minutes 1.9 seconds, taking 18.3 seconds off the previous record for the National which had been set in 1935 by Reynoldstown. His record was to stand for the next seventeen years.
Two years before the 1981 Grand National, jockey Bob Champion had been diagnosed with testicular cancer and given only months to live by doctors. But by 1981 he had recovered and was passed fit to ride in the Grand National. He rode Aldaniti, a horse deprived in its youth and which had only recently recovered from chronic leg problems. Despite a poor start, the pair went on to win four - and - a-half lengths ahead of the much - fancied Spartan Missile, ridden by amateur jockey and 54 - year - old grandfather John Thorne. Champion and Aldaniti were instantly propelled to celebrity status, and within two years, their story had been re-created in the film Champions, starring John Hurt.
From 1984 to 1991, Seagram sponsored the Grand National. The Canadian distiller provided a solid foundation on which the race 's revival could be built, firstly enabling the course to be bought from Davies and to be run and managed by the Jockey Club. It is said that Ivan Straker, Seagram 's UK chairman, became interested in the potential opportunity after reading a passionate newspaper article written by journalist Lord Oaksey, who, in his riding days, had come within three - quarters of a length of winning the 1963 National. The last Seagram - sponsored Grand National was in 1991. Coincidentally, the race was won by a horse named Seagram. Martell, then a Seagram subsidiary, took over sponsorship of the Aintree meeting for an initial seven years from 1992, in a £ 4 million deal.
The result of the 1993 Grand National was declared void after a series of incidents commentator Peter O'Sullevan later called "the greatest disaster in the history of the Grand National. ''
While under starter 's orders, one jockey was tangled in the starting tape which had failed to rise correctly. A false start was declared, but due to a lack of communication between course officials, 30 of the 39 jockeys did not realise this and began the race.
Course officials tried to stop the runners by waving red flags, but many jockeys continued to race, believing that they were protesters (a group of whom had invaded the course earlier), while Peter Scudamore only stopped because he saw his trainer, Martin Pipe, waving frantically at him.
Seven horses completed the course, meaning the result was void. The first past the post was Esha Ness (in the second - fastest time ever), ridden by John White and trained by Jenny Pitman.
The 1997 Grand National was postponed after two coded bomb threats were received from the Provisional Irish Republican Army. The course was secured by police who then evacuated jockeys, race personnel, and local residents along with 60,000 spectators. Cars and coaches were locked in the course grounds, leaving some 20,000 people without their vehicles over the weekend. With limited accommodation available in the city, local residents opened their doors and took in many of those stranded. This prompted tabloid headlines such as "We 'll fight them on the Becher 's '', in reference to Winston Churchill 's war - time speech. The race was run 48 hours later on the Monday, with the meeting organisers offering 20,000 tickets with free admission.
Red Rum 's trainer Ginger McCain returned to the Grand National in 2004, 31 years after Red Rum 's epic run - in defeat of Crisp to secure his first of three wins. McCain 's Amberleigh House came home first, ridden by Graham Lee, overtaking Clan Royal on the final straight. Hedgehunter, who would go on to win in 2005, fell at the last while leading. McCain had equalled George Dockeray and Fred Rimell 's record feat of training four Grand National winners.
In 2005 John Smith 's took over from Martell as main sponsors of the Grand National and many of the other races at the three - day Aintree meeting for the first time. In 2006 John Smith 's launched the John Smith 's People 's Race which gave ten members of the public the chance to ride in a flat race at Aintree on Grand National day. In total, thirty members of the public took part in the event before it was discontinued in 2010.
In 2009, Mon Mome became the longest - priced winner of the National for 42 years when he defied outside odds of 100 / 1 to win by 12 lengths. The victory was also the first for trainer Venetia Williams, the first female trainer to triumph since Jenny Pitman in 1995. The race was also the first National ride for Liam Treadwell.
In 2010 the National became the first horse race to be televised in high - definition in the UK.
In August 2013 Crabbie 's was announced as the new sponsor of the Grand National. The three - year deal between the alcoholic ginger beer producer and Aintree saw the race run for a record purse of £ 1 million in 2014.
In March 2016 it was announced that Randox Health would take over from Crabbie 's as official partners of the Grand National festival from 2017, for at least five years. The sponsorship is controversial as Aintree 's chairperson, Rose Paterson, is married to a Member of Parliament who also earns a £ 50,000 annual fee as a consultant for Randox.
The Grand National is run over the National Course at Aintree and consists of two laps of 16 fences, the first 14 of which are jumped twice. Horses completing the race cover a distance of 4 miles 514 yards (6.907 km), the longest of any National Hunt race in Britain. As part of a review of safety following the 2012 running of the event, from 2013 to 2015 the start was moved 90 yards (82 m) forward away from the crowds and grandstands, reducing the race distance by 110 yards (100 m) from the historical 4 miles 856 yards (7.220 km). The course is also notable for having one of the longest run - ins from the final fence of any steeplechase, at 494 yards (452 m).
The Grand National was designed as a cross-country steeplechase when it was first officially run in 1839. The runners started at a lane on the edge of the racecourse and raced away from the course out over open countryside towards the Leeds and Liverpool Canal. The gates, hedges and ditches that they met along the way were flagged to provide them with the obstacles to be jumped along the way with posts and rails erected at the two points where the runners jumped a brook. The runners returned towards the racecourse by running along the edge of the canal before re-entering the course at the opposite end. The runners then ran the length of the racecourse before embarking on a second circuit before finishing in front of the stands. The majority of the race therefore took place not on the actual Aintree Racecourse but instead in the adjoining countryside. That countryside was incorporated into the modern course but commentators still often refer to it as "the country ''.
There are 16 fences on the National Course topped with spruce from the Lake District. The cores of 12 fences were rebuilt in 2012 and they are now made of a flexible plastic material which is more forgiving compared to the traditional wooden core fences. They are still topped with at least 14 inches (36 cm) of spruce for the horses to knock off. Some of the jumps carry names from the history of the race. All 16 are jumped on the first lap, but on the final lap the runners bear to the right onto the run - in for home, avoiding The Chair and the Water Jump. The following is a summary of all 16 fences on the course:
Height: 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m) Often met at great speed, which can lead to several falls, the highest being 12 runners in 1951. The drop on the landing side was reduced after the 2011 Grand National.
Height: 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 m) Prior to 1888 the first two fences were located approximately halfway between the first to second and second to third jumps. The second became known as The Fan, after a mare who refused the obstacle three years in succession. The name fell out of favour with the relocation of the fences.
Height: 4 feet 10 inches (1.47 m); fronted by a 6 feet (1.83 m) ditch The first big test in the race as horses are still adapting to the obstacles.
Height: 4 feet 10 inches (1.47 m) A testing obstacle that often leads to falls and unseated riders. In 2011 the 20th became the first fence in Grand National history to be bypassed on the final lap, following an equine fatality.
Height: 5 feet (1.52 m) A plain obstacle which precedes the most famous fence on the course. It was bypassed on the final lap for the first time in 2012 so that medics could treat a jockey who fell from his mount on the first lap and had broken a leg.
Height: 5 feet (1.52 m), with the landing side 6 inches (15 cm) to 10 inches (25 cm) lower than the takeoff side The drop at this fence often catches runners by surprise. Becher 's has always been a popular vantage point as it can present one of the most spectacular displays of jumping when the horse and rider meet the fence right. Jockeys must sit back in their saddles and use their body weight as ballast to counter the steep drop. It takes its name from Captain Martin Becher who fell there in the first Grand National and took shelter in the small brook running along the landing side of the fence while the remainder of the field thundered over. It is said that Becher later reflected: "Water tastes disgusting without the benefits of whisky. '' It was bypassed in 2011 along with fence 20 on the final lap, after an equine casualty.
Height: 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m) One of the smallest on the course, it was named in 1984 after the 1967 winner who avoided a mêlée at the fence to go on and win the race at outside odds of 100 / 1.
Height: 5 ft (1.52 m) Noted for its sharp 90 - degree left turn immediately after landing. Before the First World War it was not uncommon for loose horses to continue straight ahead after the jump and end up in the Leeds and Liverpool Canal itself. There was once a ditch before the fence but this was filled in after a mêlée in the 1928 race. It was bypassed for the first time in 2015 on the final lap as vets arrived to treat a horse who fell on the first lap.
Height: 5 feet (1.52 m) with a 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m) brook The fence was originally known as the Second Brook but was renamed after a horse named Valentine was reputed to have jumped the fence hind legs first in 1840. A grandstand was erected alongside the fence in the early part of the 20th century but fell into decline after the Second World War and was torn down in the 1970s.
Height: 5 feet (1.52 m) A plain obstacle that leads the runners alongside the canal towards two ditches.
Height: 5 feet (1.52 m), with a 6 feet (1.83 m) ditch on the takeoff side
Height: 5 feet (1.52 m), with a 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m) ditch on the landing side
The runners then cross the Melling Road near to the Anchor Bridge, a popular vantage point since the earliest days of the race. This also marks the point where the runners are said to be re-entering the "racecourse proper ''. In the early days of the race it is thought there was an obstacle near this point known as the Table Jump, which may have resembled a bank similar to those still seen at Punchestown in Ireland. In the 1840s the Melling Road was also flanked by hedges and the runners had to jump into the road and then back out of it.
Height: 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 m) A plain obstacle that comes at a point when the runners are usually in a good rhythm and thus rarely causes problems.
Height: 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m) The last fence on the final lap and which has often seen very tired horses fall. Despite some tired runners falling at the 30th and appearing injured, no horse deaths have occurred at the 30th fence to date.
On the first lap of the race, runners continue around the course to negotiate two fences which are only jumped once:
Height: 5 feet 2 inches (1.57 m), preceded by a 6 ft (1.83 m) wide ditch This fence is the site of the accident that claimed the only human life in the National 's history: in 1862, Joe Wynne fell here and died from his injuries, although a coroner 's inquest revealed that the rider was in a gravely weakened condition through consumption. This brought about the ditch on the take - off side of the fence in an effort to slow the horses on approach. The fence was the location where a distance judge sat in the earliest days of the race. On the second circuit he would record the finishing order from his position and declare any horse that had not passed him before the previous runner passed the finishing post as "distanced '', meaning a non-finisher. The practise was done away with in the 1850s but the monument where the chair stood is still there. The ground on the landing side is six inches higher than on the takeoff side, creating the opposite effect of the drop at Becher 's. The fence was originally known as the Monument Jump but The Chair came into more regular use in the 1930s. Today it is one of the most popular jumps on the course for spectators.
Height: 2 feet 6 inches (0.76 m) Originally a stone wall in the very early Nationals. The Water Jump was one of the most popular jumps on the course, presenting a great jumping spectacle for those in the stands and was always a major feature in the newsreels ' coverage of the race. As the newsreels made way for television in the 1960s, so in turn did the Water Jump fall under the shadow of its neighbour, The Chair, in popularity as an obstacle.
On the final lap, after the 30th fence the remaining runners bear right, avoiding The Chair and Water Jump, to head onto a "run - in '' to the finishing post. The run - in is not perfectly straight: an "elbow '' requires jockeys to make a slight right before finding themselves truly on the home straight. It is on this run - in -- one of the longest in the United Kingdom at 494 yards (452 m) -- that many potential winners have had victory snatched away, such as Devon Loch in 1956, Crisp in 1973, What 's Up Boys in 2002 and Sunnyhillboy in 2012.
Leading horse:
Leading jockey:
Leading trainers:
Leading owners:
The following table lists the winners of the last ten Grand Nationals:
When the concept of the Grand National was first envisaged it was designed as a race for gentlemen riders, meaning men who were not paid to compete, and while this was written into the conditions of the early races many of the riders who weighed out for the 1839 race were professionals for hire. Throughout the Victorian era the line between the amateur and professional sportsman existed only in terms of the rider 's status, and the engagement of an amateur to ride in the race was rarely considered a handicap to a contender 's chances of winning. Many gentleman riders won the race prior to the First World War.
Although the number of amateurs remained high between the wars their ability to match their professional counterparts gradually receded. After the Second World War it became rare for any more than four or five amateurs to take part in any given year. The last amateur rider to win the race is Marcus Armytage, who (as of now) set the still - standing course record of 8: 47.80, when winning on Mr Frisk in 1990. By the 21st century however, openings for amateur riders had become very rare with some years passing with no amateur riders at all taking part. Those that do in the modern era are most usually talented young riders who are often close to turning professional. In the past, such amateur riders would have been joined by army officers, such as David Campbell who won in 1896, and sporting aristocrats, farmers or local huntsmen and point to point riders, who usually opted to ride their own mounts. But all these genres of rider have faded out in the last quarter of a century with no riders of military rank or aristocratic title having taken a mount since 1982.
The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 made it possible for female jockeys to enter the race. The first female jockey to enter the race was Charlotte Brew on the 200 / 1 outsider Barony Fort in the 1977 race. The first female jockey to complete the race was Geraldine Rees on Cheers in 1982. The 21st century has not seen a significant increase in female riders but it has seen them gain rides on mounts considered to have a genuine chance of winning. In 2005, Carrie Ford finished fifth on the 8 / 1 second - favourite Forest Gunner. In 2012, Katie Walsh achieved the best result yet for a female jockey, finishing third on the 8 / 1 joint - favourite Seabass. In 2015, Nina Carberry became the first female jockey to take a fifth ride in the Grand National, her best placing being seventh in 2010.
Professionals now hold dominance in the Grand National and better training, dietary habits and protective clothing has ensured that riders ' careers last much longer and offer more opportunities to ride in the race. Of the 34 riders who have enjoyed 13 or more rides in the race, 19 had their first ride in the 20th century and 11 had careers that continued into or started in the 21st century. Despite that, the record of 19 rides in the race was set by Tom Olliver back in 1859 and was not equalled until 2014 by A.P. McCoy. Longevity is no guarantee of success, however, as 13 of the 34 never tasted the glory of winning the race. McCoy is the only rider to successfully remove himself from the list after winning at the 15th attempt in 2010. Richard Johnson set a record of 20 failed attempts to win the race from 1997 -- 2016, having finished second twice, but is still competing. The other 14 riders who never won or have not as yet won, having had more than 12 rides in the race are:
Peter Scudamore technically lined up for thirteen Grand Nationals without winning but the last of those was the void race of 1993, which meant that he officially competed in twelve Nationals.
Many other well - known jockeys have failed to win the Grand National. These include champion jockeys such as Terry Biddlecombe, John Francome, Josh Gifford, Stan Mellor, Jonjo O'Neill (who never finished the race) and Fred Rimell. Three jockeys who led over the last fence in the National but lost the race on the run - in ended up as television commentators: Lord Oaksey (on Carrickbeg in 1963), Norman Williamson (on Mely Moss in 2000), and Richard Pitman (on Crisp in 1973). Dick Francis also never won the Grand National in 8 attempts although he did lead over the last fence on Devon Loch in the 1956 race, only for the horse to collapse under him when well in front only 40 yards from the winning post. Pitman 's son Mark also led over the last fence, only to be pipped at the post when riding Garrison Savannah in 1991. David Dick luckily won the 1956 Grand National on E.S.B. when Devon Loch collapsed and he also holds the record for the number of clear rounds -- nine times. Since 1986, any jockey making five or more clear rounds has been awarded the Aintree Clear Rounds Award.
For every 1,000 horses taking part in modern steeplechase races, the number of fatalities is just over four, according to the British Horseracing Authority; research by Anglia Ruskin University states the rate is six per 1,000 horses. However, deaths in the Grand National are higher than the average steeplechase, with six deaths per 439 horses between 2000 and 2010. Due to the high number of injuries and deaths suffered by participating horses, animal rights groups have campaigned to have the race modified or abolished.
Over the years, Aintree officials have worked in conjunction with animal welfare organisations to reduce the severity of some fences and to improve veterinary facilities. In 2008, a new veterinary surgery was constructed in the stable yard which has two large treatment boxes, an X-ray unit, video endoscopy, equine solarium, and sandpit facilities. Further changes in set - up and procedure allow vets to treat horses more rapidly and in better surroundings. Those requiring more specialist care can be transported by specialist horse ambulances, under police escort, to the nearby Philip Leverhulme Equine Hospital at the University of Liverpool at Leahurst. A mobile on - course X-ray machine assists in the prompt diagnosis of leg injuries when horses are pulled up, and oxygen and water are available by the final fence and finishing post. Five vets remain mobile on the course during the running of the race and can initiate treatment of injured fallers at the fence. Additional vets are stationed at the pull - up area, finishing post, and in the surgery.
Some of the National 's most challenging fences have also been modified, while still preserving them as formidable obstacles. After the 1989 Grand National, in which two horses died in incidents at Becher 's Brook, Aintree began the most significant of its modifications to the course. The brook on the landing side of Becher 's was filled in and, after the 2011 race which also saw an equine fatality at the obstacle, the incline on the landing side was levelled out and the drop on was reduced by between 4 and 5 inches (10 -- 13 cm) to slow the runners. Other fences have also been reduced in height over the years, and the entry requirements for the race have been made stricter. Screening at the Canal Turn now prevents horses being able to see the sharp left turn and encourages jockeys to spread out along the fence, rather than take the tight left - side route. Additionally, work has been carried out to smooth the core post infrastructure of the fences with protective padding to reduce impact upon contact, and the height of the toe - boards on all fences has been increased to 14 inches (36 cm). These orange - coloured boards are positioned at the base of each fence and provide a clear ground line to assist horses in determining the base of the fence.
Parts of the course were widened in 2009 to allow runners to bypass fences if required. This was utilised for the first time during the 2011 race as casualties at fences 4 and 6 (Becher 's Brook) resulted in marshals diverting the remaining contenders around those fences on the final lap.
Welfare groups have suggested a reduction in the size of the field (currently limited to a maximum of 40 horses) should be implemented. Opponents point to previous unhappy experience with smaller fields such as only 29 runners at the 1954 Grand National, only 31 runners in 1975, and a fatality each at the 1996 and 1999 Nationals despite smaller fields, and the possible ramifications in relation to the speed of such races in addition to recent course modifications (part of the "speed kills '' argument).
Some within the horseracing community, including those with notable achievements in the Grand National such as Ginger McCain and Bob Champion, have argued that the lowering of fences and the narrowing of ditches, primarily designed to increase horse safety, has had the adverse effect by encouraging the runners to race faster. During the 1970s and 1980s, the Grand National saw a total of 12 horses die (half of which were at Becher 's Brook); in the next 20 - year period from 1990 to 2010, when modifications to the course were most significant, there were 17 equine fatalities. The 2011 and 2012 races each yielded two deaths, including one each at Becher 's Brook. In 2013, when further changes were made to introduce a more flexible fence structure, there were no fatalities in the race itself although two horses died in run - up races over the same course. There have been no equine fatalities in the main Grand National race since 2012, however the animal welfare charity League Against Cruel Sports counts the number of horse deaths over the three - day meeting from the year 2000 to 2013 at 40.
In 2009, the race sponsors John Smith 's launched a poll to determine five personalities to be inducted into the inaugural Grand National Legends initiative. The winners were announced on the day of the 2010 Grand National and inscribed on commemorative plaques at Aintree. They were:
A panel of experts also selected three additional legends:
In 2011, nine additional legends were added:
John Smith 's also added five "people 's legends '' who were introduced on Liverpool Day, the first day of the Grand National meeting. The five were:
A public vote announced at the 2012 Grand National saw five more additions to the Legends hall:
The selection panel also inducted three more competitors:
In the 70 races of the post-war era (excluding the void race in 1993), the favourite or joint - favourite have only won the race nine times (in 1950, 1960, 1973, 1982, 1996, 1998, 2005, 2008 and 2010), and have failed to complete the course in 37 Nationals.
Since its inception, 13 mares have won the race:
Three greys have won:
Since 1977, women have ridden in 20 Grand Nationals. Geraldine Rees became the first to complete the course, in 1982. In 2012 Katie Walsh became the first female jockey to earn a placed finish in the race, finishing third.
The 1900 winner Ambush II was owned by HRH Prince of Wales, later to become King Edward VII. In 1950 Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother had her first runner in the race in Monaveen, who finished fifth. Six years later she would witness her Devon Loch collapse on the run - in, just yards from a certain victory.
The favourite for the 1968 race, Different Class, was owned by actor Gregory Peck.
The 1963 winner Ayala and the 1976 winner Rag Trade were both part - owned by celebrity hairdresser Raymond Bessone.
1994 winner Miinnehoma was owned by comedian Freddie Starr.
What A Friend ran in 2011 and 2013 when part - owned by Alex Ferguson, the former manager of Manchester United.
Notes
Sources
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who sings is you is on tom and jerry | Is You Is or Is You Ai n't My Baby - Wikipedia
"Is You Is or Is You Ai n't My Baby '' is a Louis Jordan song, recorded on October 4, 1943, and released as the B - side of a single with "G.I. Jive ''. The song reached No. 1 on the US folk / country charts, number two for three weeks on the pop chart, and number three on the R&B chart. This was Jordan 's second and last country chart No. 1, and the last No. 1 country chart topper for an African American artist until Charley Pride 's "All I Have to Offer You (Is Me) '' in 1969.
The song was co-written by Jordan and Billy Austin. Austin (March 6, 1896 -- July 24, 1964) was a songwriter and author, born in Denver, Colorado. The phrase "is you is or is you ai n't '' is dialect, apparently first recorded in a 1921 story by Octavus Roy Cohen, a Jewish writer from South Carolina who wrote humorous black dialect fiction.
In the 1932 American film Harlem Is Heaven, dancer Bill "Bojangles '' Robinson, accompanied by jazz pianist Putney Dandridge, sings "Is You Is or Is You Ai n't. '' The song in the film has different lyrics; but, in addition to its title, its melody is at times similar to that later used for "Is You Is or Is You Ai n't My Baby. ''
Glenn Miller recorded this song on a radio broadcast from Europe during World War II. Bing Crosby and The Andrews Sisters recorded the song on June 30, 1944 for Decca Records and it too reached the No. 2 spot in the Billboard charts during a 12 - week stay.
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when did dancing with the stars start 2018 | Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 26) - wikipedia
Season twenty - six of Dancing with the Stars, titled Dancing with the Stars: Athletes, premiered on April 30, 2018, on the ABC network. The four - week season, the shortest ever, features a cast of current and former athletes.
On May 21, 2018, Olympic figure skater Adam Rippon and professional dancer Jenna Johnson were announced the winners, marking the first win for Johnson. Rippon is the first openly gay winner. NFL player Josh Norman, with Sharna Burgess, and former Olympic Figure Skater Tonya Harding, with Sasha Farber, were both announced as runners - up during the live finale show. However, it was revealed later that Josh and Sharna placed second, while Tonya and Sasha placed third.
The professional dancers were announced on April 12, 2018. The eight professionals returning from last season are Lindsay Arnold, Alan Bersten, Sharna Burgess, Witney Carson, Artem Chigvintsev, Keo Motsepe, Gleb Savchenko, and Emma Slater. The two remaining professional dancers were both in the troupe last season, and have previously been professional dancers on the show: Sasha Farber (last competed in season 24) and Jenna Johnson (last competed in season 23). The five professionals from last season that are not returning are Cheryl Burke, Mark Ballas, Maksim Chmerkovskiy, Peta Murgatroyd, and Valentin Chmerkovskiy.
The cast was announced on April 13 on Good Morning America.
Tom Bergeron and Erin Andrews returned as hosts, while Carrie Ann Inaba, Len Goodman, and Bruno Tonioli returned as judges. On May 7, season 24 champion Rashad Jennings returned as a guest judge. On May 14, season 24 runner - up David Ross returned as a guest judge.
The dance troupe for season 26 consists of season 25 troupe members Artur Adamski, Brandon Armstrong, Hayley Erbert, and Britt Stewart. Additionally, professional dancer Morgan Larson, who performed on the Dancing with the Stars: Light Up the Night tour, joined the troupe for season 26.
This table only counts dances scored on a 30 - point scale (scores by guest judges and points awarded in the dance - offs are excluded).
The best and worst performances in each dance according to the judges ' 30 - point scale (scores by guest judges are excluded) are as follows:
Scores are based upon a potential 30 - point maximum (team dances and scores by guest judges are excluded).
Individual judges ' scores in the charts below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Len Goodman, Bruno Tonioli.
The couples danced the cha - cha - cha, foxtrot, salsa or Viennese waltz.
For the first time in the show 's history, viewers were able to vote for the couples live online so that the results of the vote could be used to determine the first two eliminees that same evening.
Individual judges ' scores in the charts below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Rashad Jennings, Len Goodman, Bruno Tonioli.
The couples performed one unlearned dance and a team dance celebrating an iconic decade in sports. Paso doble and quickstep are introduced.
Individual judges ' scores in the charts below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, David Ross, Len Goodman, Bruno Tonioli.
The couples performed one unlearned dance dedicated to the "MVP '' in their lives, and participated in "ballroom battle '' dance - offs for extra points. Former contestants were brought in to mentor the couples for the ballroom battles. Nastia Liukin mentored Jennie & Keo and Tonya & Sasha. Meryl Davis mentored Adam & Jenna and Mirai & Alan. Von Miller mentored Chris & Witney and Josh & Sharna. Contemporary, jive and rumba are introduced.
The final three couples performed one unlearned dance inspired by their journey on the show and a freestyle. Jazz is introduced.
The celebrities and professional partners will dance one of these routines for each corresponding week:
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what is box office collection of tiger zinda hai | Tiger Zinda Hai - Wikipedia
Tiger Zinda Hai (Translation: Tiger is alive) is a 2017 Indian Hindi - language action thriller film, directed and co-written by Ali Abbas Zafar. The film stars Salman Khan, Katrina Kaif and Sajjad Delfrooz in leading roles, with Angad Bedi, Kumud Mishra, Nawab Shah, Girish Karnad and Paresh Rawal in supporting roles. The film is the sequel to the 2012 film Ek Tha Tiger and the second installment of the Tiger film series, and is based on the 2014 abduction of Indian nurses by ISIL.
The first look of the poster was revealed by Salman Khan through his official Twitter account on 18 October 2017 on the occasion of Diwali. The official trailer was released on 7 November. The film was released on 22 December 2017. With a budget of ₹ 2.1 billion (US $32 million), it is the one of the most expensive Hindi films and one of the most expensive Indian films of all time. It has grossed more than ₹ 5.5 billion (US $84 million) at the box office, becoming one of the highest - grossing Indian films of all time. At the 63rd Filmfare Awards, Tom Struthers won the Filmfare Award for Best Action.
During a dark night in Iraq, an American journalist types a warning message to CIA before he is slaughtered by some guards. Abu Usman is the head of ISC, a terrorist organisation which kills American journalists. While carrying a rally in Ikrit, Usman is shot in the arm by the Iraqi Army. He is taken to the city hospital. Abu Usman holds hostage of the Indian and Pakistani nurses and makes the hospital as his center. USA decides to launch an airstike at the city to kill Usman. Indian nurse Maria calls the Indian Embassy of Iraq, informing about the incident.
The chairman of the RAW, Shenoy, has talks with CIA who give him 7 days of time to rescue the nurses after which they will not hold the airstrike. Shenoy feels that only Tiger would be able to rescue the nurses and that too within a period of 7 days. Eight years after the events of Ek Tha Tiger, Tiger and Zoya are living in Innsbruck, and have a son, Junior. Several days later, Tiger is called by Shenoy. He meets his deputy Karan who informs him about the abduction of nurses. Tiger has the whole information recorded in his pen drive but refuses to carry the mission as he thinks RAW would not forgive him. But after Zoya insists him, he sets to carry the mission.
Tiger travels to Syria. Karan suggests him the plan and members but Tiger refuses and brings his own gang of RAW members consisting of Azaan, a sharpshooter, Namit a bomb - defuser, and Rakesh a senior - citizen but expert hacker. They reach an oil refinery controlled by Baghdavi and carry out the plan but face difficulty after the arrival of Firdauz, who has the duty of checking the workers. In the hospital a Pakistani Nurse Sana gets caught while escaping by an ISC member which results in her getting shot. One day, Tiger spots Hassan, a child sent by Abu Usman as a human bomb whom Tiger rescues and flees with the help of Zoya and her ISI team members Abrar and Javed.
That night, Tiger and his gang set fire in the refinery and pretend to get burned so that they are taken to the hospital. Baghdavi reluctantly agrees to send them after assertion of Firdauz. En route to the hospital, they are joined by Zoya, Abrar and Javed. Firdauz reveals that he is a secret RAW agent working from the past 25 years. They go the hospital while Zoya leaves Tiger to first kill Baghdavi and his troops which she does with the help of some Syrian girls.
At the hospital, Tiger orders Rakesh to poison the food served to Usman 's troops. On the day of the airstrike, the troops are food poisoned and Usman is angry. Tiger fights and defeats the troops and rescues the nurses from the hospital. Abu Usman holds Zoya in hostage which causes him to surrender. Everyone is captured by ISC and Tiger is tortured in a poison chamber. Tiger flees from the chamber and rescues the nurses and his team but Azaan is shot while fighting. He requests Captain Javed to raise the Indian Flag after the success of the mission. As they escape, they are joined by Firdauz who crashes an oil tanker which kills ISC members. Tiger disguises everyone in the execution robes of American journalists in order for a safe passage out of Ikrit.
Tiger leaves to rescue Zoya. As he tries to break the chains in the tunnel, he is beaten up by Usman but Tiger stabs and wounds him in a fierce encounter and moves to rescue Zoya. Zoya insists Tiger to leave her for the verve of Junior. A missile blows the chamber. In the bus boarding back to India without Tiger, Javed raises Indian and Pakistani flags above the bus keeping Azaan 's promise and also as a signal of friendship, meanwhile Firdauz takes Usman to a desert in his car and shoots him dead.
One year later, Shenoy is called by Tiger from Greece. A flashback shows that Tiger broke the chain and rescued Zoya. Tiger and Zoya have adopted Hassan. Though Tiger goes into hiding once again due to his belief that the RAW will never let him go, he assures Shenoy that he will always be there for his country in trouble.
Filming took place in Abu Dhabi, Austria, Greece and Morocco. The last song of the movie was shot in the Aegean island of Naxos, Greece in October 2017. Iranian actor Sajjad Delafrooz was roped in to play the role of Abu Usman, leader of terrorist organisation ISC. Sajjad Delafrooz had worked in the 2015 Hindi film Baby.
The film 's production budget is reportedly ₹ 210 crore (US $32 million), or ₹ 140 crore (US $21 million) excluding Salman Khan 's fees. This would make it one of the most expensive Yash Raj Films productions, along with Dhoom 3, Sultan and Thugs of Hindostan.
The film 's trailer was released on 6 November 2017. Within 24 hours, it broke many records for Hindi film trailers on YouTube, with more than 29 million views, 480 thousand likes and 250 thousand shares. On 11 November, it became the most liked film trailer on YouTube with 700 thousand likes, surpassing Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) then. The record was later surpassed by the trailer of Avengers: Infinity War (2018) with about 2 million likes.
The film was released on 22 December 2017 worldwide. The film received U / A certificate from Central Board of Film Certification. Despite having a song featuring Pakistani singer Atif Aslam, the film has not been given No - Objection Certificate by Central Board of Film Censors in Pakistan, stating the reason as was said for Ek Tha Tiger that "The image of Pakistan and its law enforcement agencies '' have been compromised.
Tiger Zinda Hai was in controversy on its release and faced protests from Valmiki community, when Salman Khan allegedly made a casteist slur, where he compared his dancing skills to a sanitation worker, "or "bhangi '' in a dance show. Shilpa Shetty also laughed along with him, and said that she also looked like one. Valmiki group is made up of a cluster of dalit communities -- a few of whom are Bhangi, Mehtar, Chuhra, Lal Beghi and Halalkhor. Valmiki community filed a legal case against both actors for hurting their sentiments.
Maharashtra Navnirman Sena also unsuccessfully protested urging Mumbai multiplexes to promote Marathi film Deva instead of Tiger Zinda Hai. Their leaders raised issue about the loss of screens to Marathi films like Deva and Ek Atrangi which released alongside.
Tiger Zinda Hai opened to generally favourable reviews. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave 4.5 stars, and said "Salman is the lifeline, the real treasure of Tiger Zinda Hai. He sinks his teeth into the character and, in several sequences, peels off the mask of super-stardom and brings the actor to the fore. Katrina is in solid form, in action sequences specifically. Commands attention. '' Umesh Punwani of Koimoi gave 4 stars, and said "Katrina Kaif is brilliant! She has very few dialogues, and no that 's not the reason she 's good. Working amazingly well with her expressions, she has turned into an athlete for this one. Performing few major action sequences, she is flawless. '' Aarti Jhurani of The National gave 4 stars, and said "While logic is not a very important factor in Khan 's films, emotions certainly are, and the director made sure to hit all the soft spots -- from patriotism to Indo - Pakistan bonding to a multitude of cheesy dialogues -- which is a smart move, and sure to bring in both Indian and Pakistani audiences. '' Lasyapriya Sundaram of The Times of India gave 3.5 stars, and said "The film is visually stunning in parts and Salman Khan plays Tiger with roaring confidence and dialogues packed with punch. Of course, his fans get a true - blue Salman Khan moment when he bares his torso. '' Rachit Gupta of Filmfare gave 3.5 stars, and said "It may look like a Hollywood action thriller, but at its heart, Tiger Zinda Hai is an unabashed masala movie. The heady mixture of an international looking action film and the regular tropes of Hindi cinema make it a pleasing watch. ''
Rohit Bhatnagar of Deccan Chronicle gave 3 stars, and said "Ali Abbas Zafar smoothly takes Ek Tha Tiger franchise ahead by telling a real story and inserting whole lot of drama and thrill. The film also touches upon relationships between India and Pakistan but subtly. The biggest hiccup of the film is its length. '' Rajeev Masand of News 18 gave 3 stars, and said "The film has some thrilling action, while logic and subtlety are sacrificed at the altar of spectacle and sentiment. Katrina gets some terrific action moments and she executes them well, but make no mistake, the heavy lifting here is left to Salman Khan, and he 's clearly up for the challenge. '' Richa Barua of Asianet News gave the film a rating of 4.5 stars, and states that the film "keeps you glued to the seats. ''
Raja Sen of NDTV India gave 2.5 stars, and said "Tiger Zinda Hai breaks for intermission at a point when most self - respecting action films would have rushed into the climax. Long before the finish eventually rolled around, I found myself wishing Tiger would croak just so I could make it out alive. '' Rohit Vats of Hindustan Times gave 2.5 stars, and said "It 's better for the filmmakers to set a character trajectory that matches the star 's current image rather than basking in the glory of the past. '' Anna M.M. Vetticad of Firstpost gave 2.5 stars, stating that both Salman Khan and Katrina Kaif delivered fun with equal parts swag, silliness and schmaltz. Shubhra Gupta of Indian Express gave 2.5 stars, and said "Only once in a while, the film gives in and provides us a killing which sobers us up, but very quickly it 's back to the base, with Bhai taking over, and everyone including Nurse Poorna and Zoya making way for him. But you can see she enjoys kicking butt: you wish she had more to do. ''
Tiger Zinda Hai made a new non-holiday record in India as it collected ₹ 34.1 crore nett on its first day. It went on to collect ₹ 35.30 crore nett gross on second day. The film recorded the second highest day of all time (after third day of Bahubali 2: The Conclusion) on its third day with net - gross of ₹ 45.53 crore and the highest ever for the Hindi film industry. With three day nett gross collections of over ₹ 1.14 billion, Tiger Zinda Hai had the second highest opening weekend of all time (after Bahubali 2: The Conclusion) and the highest opening weekend of all time in the Bollywood film industry. Tiger Zinda Hai grossed Rs 154 crore in first four days in India.
Tiger Zinda Hai grossed $2 million in two days, $450,000 on day one in US / Canada and around £ 150,000 in the UK. The film grossed $7 million in its opening weekend in overseas, including $2,535,825 in US / Canada. The film grossed ₹ 190 crore worldwide in its opening weekend. As of 25 February 2018, the film has grossed US $87.32 million (₹ 569 crore) worldwide, including ₹ 434.82 crore (US $67.11 million) in India, and US $20.3 million (₹ 128.9 crore) overseas.
The music of the film is composed by Vishal - Shekhar while lyrics are penned by Irshad Kamil. The background score is composed by Julius Packiam. The first song of the film titled as Swag Se Swagat which is sung by Vishal Dadlani and Neha Bhasin was released on 21 November 2017. It has become the most liked Bollywood song on YouTube and the fastest Bollywood song to cross 100 million views on YouTube. The second song of the film, Dil Diyan Gallan which is sung by Atif Aslam was released by Salman Khan and Katrina Kaif at Big Boss Season 11 on 2 December 2017. The album was released on 12 December 2017 by YRF Music. The Arabic version of "Swag Se Swagat '' was sung by Rabih Baroud and Brigitte Yaghi.
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what is the measurement of an acre in square feet | Acre - wikipedia
The acre is a unit of land area used in the imperial and US customary systems. It is defined as the area of 1 chain by 1 furlong (66 by 660 feet), which is exactly equal to ⁄ of a square mile, 43,560 square feet, approximately 4,047 m, or about 40 % of a hectare.
The acre is commonly used in many countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India, Ghana, Liberia, and others.
The international symbol of the acre is ac. The most commonly used acre today is the international acre. In the United States both the international acre and the US survey acre are in use, but differ by only two parts per million; see below. The most common use of the acre is to measure tracts of land. One international acre is defined as exactly 4,046.856 422 4 square metres.
An acre was defined in the Middle Ages as the area of land that could be ploughed in one day by a yoke of oxen.
One acre equals 0.0015625 square miles, 4,840 square yards, 43,560 square feet or about 4,047 square metres (0.4047 hectares) (see below). While all modern variants of the acre contain 4,840 square yards, there are alternative definitions of a yard, so the exact size of an acre depends on which yard it is based. Originally, an acre was understood as a selion of land sized at forty perches (660 ft, or 1 furlong) long and four perches (66 ft) wide; this may have also been understood as an approximation of the amount of land a yoke of oxen could plough in one day. A square enclosing one acre is approximately 69.57 yards, or 208 feet 9 inches (63.61 metres) on a side. As a unit of measure, an acre has no prescribed shape; any area of 43,560 square feet is an acre.
In the international yard and pound agreement of 1959 the United States and five countries of the Commonwealth of Nations defined the international yard to be exactly 0.9144 metres. Consequently, the international acre is exactly 4,046.856 422 4 square metres.
Both the international acre and the US survey acre contain ⁄ of a square mile or 4,840 square yards, but alternative definitions of a yard are used (see survey foot and survey yard), so the exact size of an acre depends upon which yard it is based. The US survey acre is about 4,046.872 609 874 252 square metres; its exact value (4046 13,525,426 / 15,499,969 m) is based on an inch defined by 1 metre = 39.37 inches exactly, as established by the Mendenhall Order. Surveyors in the United States use both international and survey feet, and consequently, both varieties of acre.
Since the difference between the US survey acre and international acre is only about a quarter of the size of an A4 sheet of paper (0.016 square metres, 160 square centimetres or 24.8 square inches), it is usually not important which one is being discussed. Areas are seldom measured with sufficient accuracy for the different definitions to be detectable.
The acre is commonly used by Antigua and Barbuda, American Samoa, the Bahamas, Belize, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Canada, Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Grenada, Ghana, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Ireland, Jamaica, Montserrat, Myanmar, Pakistan, Samoa, St. Lucia, St. Helena, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Turks and Caicos, the United Kingdom, the United States and the US Virgin Islands.
In India, residential plots are measured in cents or decimal, which is one hundredth of an acre, or 435.60 square feet (40.469 m). In Sri Lanka the division of an acre into 160 perches or 4 roods is common.
1 international acre is equal to the following metric units:
1 United States survey acre is equal to:
1 acre (both variants) is equal to the following customary units:
Perhaps the easiest way for US residents to envision an acre is as a rectangle measuring 88 yards by 55 yards ( ⁄ of 880 yards by ⁄ of 880 yards), about ⁄ the size of a standard American football field.
To be more exact, one acre is 90.75 % of a 100 - yd - long by 53.33 - yd - wide American football field (without the end zones). The full field, including the end zones, covers about 1.32 acres (0.53 ha).
For residents of other countries, the acre might be envisioned as approximately half of a 105 - m - long by 68 - m - wide association football (soccer) pitch.
It may also be remembered as 44,000 square feet, less 1 %.
The word "acre '' is derived from Old English æcer originally meaning "open field '', cognate to west coast Norwegian ækre and Swedish åker, German Acker, Dutch akker, Latin ager, Sanskrit ajr, and Greek αγρός (agros). In English, it was historically spelled aker.
The acre was roughly the amount of land tillable by a yoke of oxen in one day. This explains one definition as the area of a rectangle with sides of length one chain and one furlong. A long, narrow strip of land is more efficient to plough than a square plot, since the plough does not have to be turned so often. The word "furlong '' itself derives from the fact that it is one furrow long.
Before the enactment of the metric system, many countries in Europe used their own official acres. These were differently sized in different countries, for instance, the historical French acre was 4,221 square metres, whereas in Germany as many variants of "acre '' existed as there were German states.
Statutory values for the acre were enacted in England, and subsequently, the United Kingdom, by acts of:
Historically, the size of farms and landed estates in the United Kingdom was usually expressed in acres (or acres, roods, and perches), even if the number of acres was so large that it might conveniently have been expressed in square miles. For example, a certain landowner might have been said to own 32,000 acres of land, not 50 square miles of land.
The acre is related to the square mile, with 640 acres making up one square mile. One mile is 5280 feet (1760 yards). In western Canada and the western United States, divisions of land area were typically based on the square mile, and fractions thereof. If the square mile is divided into quarters, each quarter has a side length of ⁄ mile (880 yards) and is ⁄ square mile in area, or 160 acres. These subunits would typically then again be divided into quarters, with each side being ⁄ mile long, and being ⁄ of a square mile in area, or 40 acres. In the United States, farmland was typically divided as such, and the phrase "the back 40 '' would refer to the 40 - acre parcel to the back of the farm. Most of the Canadian Prairie Provinces and the US Midwest are on square - mile grids for surveying purposes.
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who were born from the mid-1990s to the mid-2000s | Generation Z - wikipedia
Generation Z is the demographic cohort after the Millennials. Currently, there are many competing names used in connection with them in the media. There are no precise dates for when this cohort starts or ends, but demographers and researchers typically use the mid-1990s to mid-2000s as starting birth years. However, there is little consensus regarding ending birth years.
Most of Generation Z have used the Internet since a young age, and they are usually thought to be comfortable with technology and with interacting on social media. Some commentators have suggested that growing up through the Great Recession has given the generation a feeling of unsettlement and insecurity.
William Strauss and Neil Howe wrote several books on the subject of generations and are widely credited with coining the term Millennials. Howe has said "No one knows who will name the next generation after the Millennials ''. In 2005, their company sponsored an online contest in which respondents voted overwhelmingly for the name Homeland Generation. That was not long after the September 11th terrorist attacks, and one fallout of the disaster was that Americans may have felt more safe staying at home. Howe has described himself as "not totally wed '' to the name and cautioned that "names are being invented by people who have a great press release. Everyone is looking for a hook. ''
In 2012, USA Today sponsored an online contest for readers to choose the name of the next generation after the Millennials. The name Generation Z was suggested, although journalist Bruce Horovitz thought that some might find the term "off - putting ''. Some other names that were proposed included: iGeneration, Gen Tech, Gen Wii, Net Gen, Digital Natives, and Plurals.
Post-Millennial is a name given by the US Dept. of Health and Human Services and Pew Research, in statistics published in 2016 showing the relative sizes and dates of the generations. The same sources showed that as of April 2016, the Millennial generation surpassed the population of Baby Boomers in the USA (77 million vs. 76 million in 2015 data), however, the Post-Millennials were ahead of the Millennials in another Health and Human Services survey (69 million vs. 66 million).
iGeneration (or iGen) is a name that several persons claim to have coined. Stanford rapper MC Lars used the term in his 2006 song "iGeneration '', which made it into popular rotation on MTVu. Psychology professor and author Jean Twenge claims that the name iGen "just popped into her head '' while she was driving near Silicon Valley, and that she had intended to use it as the title of her 2006 book Generation Me about the Millennial generation, until it was overridden by her publisher. Demographer Cheryl Russell claims to have first used the term in 2009. In 2012, Ad Age magazine thought that iGen was "the name that best fits and will best lead to understanding of this generation ''. In 2014, an NPR news intern noted that iGeneration "seems to be winning '' as the name for the post-Millennials. It has been described as "a wink and nod to Apple 's iPod and iPhone ''.
Frank N. Magid Associates, an advertising and marketing agency, nicknamed this cohort "The Pluralist Generation '' or ' Plurals '. Turner Broadcasting System also advocated calling the post-millennial generation ' Plurals '.
MTV has labeled the generation "The Founders '', based on the results of a survey they conducted in March 2015. MTV President Sean Atkins commented, "they have this self - awareness that systems have been broken, but they ca n't be the generation that says we 'll break it even more. '' Kantar Futures has named this cohort "The Centennials ''.
Statistics Canada has noted that the cohort is sometimes referred to as "the Internet generation, '' as it is the first generation to have been born after the popularization of the Internet. In Japan, the cohort is described as "Neo-Digital Natives '', a step beyond the previous cohort described as "Digital Natives ''. Digital Natives primarily communicate by text or voice, while neo-digital natives use video or movies. This emphasizes the shift from PC to mobile and text to video among the neo-digital population.
Statistics Canada defines Generation Z as starting with the birth year 1993. Statistics Canada does not recognize a traditional Millennials cohort and instead has Generation Z directly follow what it designates as Children of Baby boomers (born 1972 -- 1992).
Randstad Canada describes Generation Z as those born between 1995 -- 2014. Australia 's McCrindle Research Centre defines Generation Z as those born between 1995 -- 2009, starting with a recorded rise in birth rates, and fitting their newer definition of a generational span with a maximum of 15 years. A 2014 report from Sparks and Honey describes Generation Z as those born in 1995 or later. Author Jean Twenge describes the iGen as those born from 1995 -- 2012.
In their 2011 book How Cool Brands Stay Hot, authors Joeri van den Bergh and Mattias Behrer define Generation Z as those born after 1996. In Japan, generations are defined by a ten - year span with "Neo-Digital natives '' beginning after 1996.
The Futures Company, marketing agency Frank N. Magid Associates, Ernst and Young, Turner Broadcasting, and The Shand Group use 1997 as the first year of birth for this cohort, with Frank N. Magid considering the cohort to extend to at least 2014. A 2016 report from multinational banking firm Goldman Sachs describes Generation Z as those born since 1998.
MTV described Generation Z as those born after December 2000, for a survey conducted by the network regarding possible names for the cohort. The Asia Business Unit of Corporate Directions, Inc describes Gen Z as born between 2001 - 2015, and Philippine Retailers Association describes Generation Z as born after 2001.
The American Marketing Association describes Generation Z as those born after September 11, 2001, suggesting the cohort should be dubbed Gen 9 / 11 arguing "all children born after Sept. 11, 2001, will experience a world totally different from all generations that preceded it ''.
Author Neil Howe defines the cohort as people born from approximately 2005 -- 2025, but describes the dividing line between Generation Z and Millennials as "tentative '' saying, "you ca n't be sure where history will someday draw a cohort dividing line until a generation fully comes of age ''. Howe says that the Millennials ' range beginning in 1982 points to the next generation 's window starting between 2000 and 2006.
According to Forbes (2015), the generation after Millennials, Generation Z, made up 25 % of the U.S. population, making them a larger cohort than the Baby Boomers or Millennials. Frank N. Magid Associates estimates that in the United States, 55 % of Generation Z are non-Hispanic Caucasians, 24 % are Hispanic, 14 % are African - American, 4 % are Asian, and 4 % are multiracial or other.
Generation Z are predominantly the children of Generation X, but they also have parents who are Millennials. According to the marketing firm Frank N. Magid they are "the least likely to believe that there is such a thing as the American Dream '' because "Generation X, the most influential parents of Plurals (Generation Z), demonstrates the least credence in the concept of the American Dream among adult generations. '' According to Public Relations Society of America, the Great Recession has taught Generation Z to be independent, and has led to an entrepreneurial desire, after seeing their parents and older siblings struggle in the workforce.
A 2013 survey by Ameritrade found that 47 % of Generation Z in the United States (considered here to be those between the ages of 14 and 23) were concerned about student debt, while 36 % were worried about being able to afford a college education at all. This generation is faced with a growing income gap and a shrinking middle - class, which all have led to increasing stress levels in families.
Both the September 11 terrorist attacks and the Great Recession have greatly influenced the attitudes of this generation in the United States. Since even the oldest members of Generation Z were young children or not yet born when the 9 / 11 attacks occurred, there is no generational memory of a time the United States was not at war with the loosely defined forces of global terrorism. Turner suggests it is likely that both events have resulted in a feeling of unsettlement and insecurity among the people of Generation Z with the environment in which they were being raised. The economic recession of 2008 is particularly important to historical events that have shaped Generation Z, due to the ways in which their childhoods may have been affected by the recession 's shadow; that is, the financial stresses felt by their parents. Although the Millennials experienced these events during their coming of age, Generation Z lived through them as part of their childhood, affecting their realism and world - view.
A 2014 study Generation Z Goes to College found that Generation Z students self - identify as being loyal, compassionate, thoughtful, open - minded, responsible, and determined. How they see their Generation Z peers is quite different from their own self - identity. They view their peers as competitive, spontaneous, adventuresome, and curious; all characteristics that they do not see readily in themselves. In addition, some authors consider that some of their competencies, such as reading competence, are being transformed due to their familiarity with digital devices, platforms and texts.
A 2016 U.S. study found that church attendance during young adulthood was 41 % among Generation Z, compared to 18 percent for Millennials at the same ages, 21 percent of Generation X, and 26 percent of baby boomers.
Generation Z is generally more risk - averse in certain activities than earlier generations. In 2013, 66 % of teenagers (older members of Generation Z) had tried alcohol, down from 82 % in 1991. Also in 2013, 8 % of Gen. Z teenagers never or rarely wear a seat belt when riding in a car with someone else, as opposed to 26 % in 1991.
Research from the Annie E. Casey Foundation conducted in 2016 found Generation Z youth had lower teen pregnancy rates, less substance abuse, and higher on - time high school graduation rates compared with Millennials. The researchers compared teens from 2008 and 2014 and found a 40 % drop in teen pregnancy, a 38 % drop in drug and alcohol abuse, and a 28 % drop in the percentage of teens who did not graduate on time from high school.
According to The Daily Telegraph, Generation Z is keen to look after their money and make the world a better place. In a quote by journalist Harry Wallop, he states, "Unlike the older Gen Y, they are smarter, safer, more mature and want to change the world. Their pin - up is Malala Yousafzai, the Pakistani education campaigner, who survived being shot by the Taliban, and who became the world 's youngest ever Nobel Prize recipient. ''
Generation Z is the first cohort to have Internet technology readily available at a young age. With the web revolution that occurred throughout the 1990s, they have been exposed to an unprecedented amount of technology in their upbringing. As technology became more compact and affordable, the popularity of smartphones in the United States grew exponentially. With 77 % of 12 -- 17 year olds owning a cellphone in 2015, technology has strongly influenced Generation Z in terms of communication and education. Forbes suggested that by the time Generation Z entered the workplace, digital technology would be an aspect of almost all career paths. Anthony Turner characterizes Generation Z as having a ' digital bond to the Internet ', and argues that it may help youth to escape from emotional and mental struggles they face offline. According to U.S. consultants Sparks and Honey in 2014, 41 % of Generation Z spend more than three hours per day using computers for purposes other than schoolwork, compared with 22 % in 2004.
In 2015, Generation Z composed the largest portion of the U.S. population, at nearly 26 %, edging out Millennials (24.5 %), and this group is estimated to generate $44 billion in annual spending. About three - quarters of 13 -- 17 years olds use their cellphones daily, more than they watch TV. Over half of surveyed mothers say the demo influences them in purchasing decisions for toys, apparel, dinner choices, entertainment, TV, mobile and computers. Among social media, Instagram and Snapchat are the most popular in the demo.
In 2015, an estimated 150,000 apps, 10 % of those in Apple 's App Store, were educational and aimed at children up to college level. While researchers and parents agree the change in educational paradigm is significant, the results of the changes are mixed. On one hand, smartphones offer the potential for deeper involvement in learning and more individualized instruction, thereby making this generation potentially better educated and more well - rounded. On the other hand, some researchers and parents are concerned that the prevalence of smart phones may cause technology dependence and a lack of self - regulation that may hinder child development.
An online newspaper about texting, SMS and MMS writes that teens own cellphones without necessarily needing them. As children become teenagers, receiving a phone is considered a rite of passage in some countries, allowing the owner to be further connected with their peers and it is now a social norm to have one at an early age. An article from the Pew Research Center stated that "nearly three - quarters of teens have or have access to a smartphone and 30 % have a basic phone, while just 12 % of teens 13 to 17 say they have no cell phone of any type ''. These numbers are only on the rise and the fact that the majority of Gen Z 's own a cell phone has become one of this generations defining characteristics. As a result of this "24 % of teens go online ' almost constantly ' ''.
One study has shown that teenagers in 2012 were more likely to share different types of information than teenagers in 2006 were. However, they will take certain steps to protect certain information that they do not want being shared. They are more likely to "follow '' others on social media than "share '' and use different types of social media for different purposes. Focus group testing found that while teens may be annoyed by many aspects of Facebook, they continue to use it because participation is important in terms of socializing with friends and peers. Twitter and Instagram are seen to be gaining popularity in member of Generation Z, with 24 % (and growing) of teens with access to the Internet having Twitter accounts. This is, in part, due to parents not typically using these social networking sites. Snapchat is also seen to have gained attraction in Generation Z because videos, pictures, messages send much faster than regular messaging. Speed and reliability are important factors in members of Generation Z choice of social networking platform. This need for quick communication is presented in popular Generation Z apps like Vine and the prevalent use of emojis.
One study found that young people use the Internet as a way to gain access to information and to interact with others. Mobile technology, social media, and Internet use have become increasingly important to modern adolescents over the past decade. Very few, however, are changed from what they gain access to online. Youths are using the Internet as a tool to gain social skills, that they then apply to real life situations, and learn about things that interest them. Teens spend most of their time online in private communication with people they interact with outside the Internet on a regular basis. While social media is used for keeping up with global news and connections, it is mainly used for developing and maintaining relationships with people with whom they are close in proximity. The use of social media has become integrated into the daily lives of most Gen Z'ers who have access to mobile technology. They use it on a daily basis to keep in contact with friends and family, particularly those who they see every day. As a result, the increased use of mobile technology has caused Gen Z'ers to spend more time on their smartphones, and social media and has caused online relationship development to become a new generational norm. Gen Z'ers are generally against the idea of "photoshopping '' (deleting imperfections in photos) and they are against changing themselves to be considered perfect. The parents of the Gen Z'ers fear the overuse of the Internet by their children. Parents dislike the ease of access to inappropriate information and images as well as social networking sites where children can gain access to people worldwide. Children reversely feel annoyed with their parents and complain about parents being overly controlling when it comes to their Internet usage. Gen Z uses social media and other sites to strengthen bonds with friends and to develop new ones. They interact with people who they otherwise would not have met in the real world, becoming a tool for identity creation.
They are the first generation to grow up in the public eye, and updating their lives on social media makes them a self - conscious generation. As a result, they experience more social pressure than previous generations. This exposure to technology has influenced their expectations and behavior. The boom of social media has a psychological impact on Generation Z because they attach great importance to personal appearance. According to the recent report by Fung Global, Generation Zers spent around $829.5 billion with $66 billion of which spent on discretionary categories, while most of the expenses were spent on essential categories: housing, good, transportation and so on. The survey of US teenagers from an advertising agency J. Walter Thomson claims that the majority of teenagers are concerned about how their posting will be perceived by people or their friends. 72 % of respondents said they were using social media on a daily basis, and 82 % said they thought carefully about what they post on social media. Moreover, 43 % said they had regrets about previous posts.
Jason Dorsey, who runs the Center for Generational Kinetics, stated in a TEDxHouston talk that this generation begins after 1996 to present. He stressed notable differences in the way that Millennials and Generation Z consume technology, in terms of smartphone usage at an earlier age. 18 % of Generation Z thinks that it is okay for a 13 - year - old to have a smartphone compared with earlier generations that say 4 %.
The development of technology gave mobility and immediacy to Generation Z 's consumption habits. The on - demand economy, defined as "the economic activity created by technology companies that fulfill consumer demand via the immediate provisioning of goods and service '', has made changes in the way goods or services are delivered to consumers. Only the generation that grows up in the center of this transformation period will establish themselves as an immediacy demanding consumer.
According to a Northeastern University Survey, 81 % of Generation Z believes obtaining a college degree is necessary in achieving career goals. As Generation Z enters high school, and they start preparing for college, a primary concern is paying for a college education without acquiring debt. Students report working hard in high school in hopes of earning scholarships and the hope that parents will pay the college costs not covered by scholarships. Students also report interest in ROTC programs as a means of covering college costs. According to NeaToday, a publication by the National Education Association, two thirds of Gen Zers entering college are concerned about affording college. One third plan to rely on grants and scholarships and one quarter hope that their parents will cover the bulk of college costs. While the cost of attending college is incredibly high for most Gen Zers, according to NeaToday, 65 % say the benefits of graduating college exceed the costs.
Generation Z college students prefer intrapersonal and independent learning over group work, yet like to do their individual work alongside others when studying. They like their learning to be practical and hands - on and want their professors to help them engage with and apply the content rather than simply share what they could otherwise find on their own online.
"Generation Z '' is revolutionizing the educational system in many aspects. Thanks in part to a rise in the popularity of entrepreneurship and advancements in technology, high schools and colleges across the globe are including entrepreneurship in their curriculum. Parents of Generation Z might have the image of their child 's first business being a lemonade stand or car wash. While these are great first businesses, Generation Z now has access to social media platforms, website builders, 3d printers, and drop shipping platforms which provides them with additional opportunities to start a business at a young age. The internet has provided a store front for Generation Z to sell their ideas to people around the world without ever leaving their house.
According to the Hispanic Heritage Foundation, U.S. members of Generation Z tend to be more conservative than Millennials. According to a survey of 83,298 Gen Z - aged students (defined here as those aged 14 to 18 in 2016) in the United States done by My College Options and the Hispanic Heritage Foundation in September and October 2016, 32 % of participants supported Donald Trump, while 22 % supported Hillary Clinton with 31 % choosing to not vote in the election. By contrast, in a 2016 mock election of upper elementary, middle, and high school students conducted by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Hillary Clinton beat Donald Trump among the students, with Clinton receiving 46 % of the vote, Donald Trump receiving 41 %, and other candidates receiving 12 %.
According to Generation Z Goes to College by Corey Seemiller and Meghan Grace, people who are part of Generation Z tend to be fiscally conservative and socially liberal. According to this survey, 84 % of Generation Zers identify as fiscally moderate or conservative and 75 % say they do not want government involvement in gun ownership, access to abortion, euthanasia or marriage.
Goldman Sachs analysts Robert Boroujerdi and Christopher Wolf describe Generation Z as "more conservative, more money - oriented, more entrepreneurial and pragmatic about money compared with Millennials ''. According to a 2016 survey published from The Gild, a global brand consultancy, British Gen Zers, defined here as those born 2001 and onwards, are more conservative than Millennials, Gen Xers and Baby Boomers with respect to marijuana legalization, transgender issues and same sex marriage. However, some argue that this study has several methodological problems such as non-random selection and double - barreled questions, rendering the study 's findings unreliable in discerning the political ideologies of the generation.
In a study conducted in 2015 the Center for Generational Kinetics found that American Generation Zers, defined here as those born 1996 and onwards, are less optimistic about the state of the US economy than their generation predecessors, Millennials. In the same study, American Gen Zers were found to be less optimistic about the United States ' trajectory in general, less concerned about illegal immigration than previous generations, and more concerned about the state of minorities in the US. Despite this, 78 % of American Gen Zers believed the American Dream was attainable.
According to Hal Brotheim in Introducing Generation Z, they will be better future employees. With the skills needed to take advantage of advanced technologies, they will be significantly more helpful to the typical company in today 's high tech world. Brotheim argues that their valuable characteristics are their acceptance of new ideas and a different conception of freedom from the previous generations.
Despite the technological proficiency they possess, members of Generation Z actually prefer person - to - person contact as opposed to online interaction. As a result of the social media and technology they are accustomed to, Generation Z is well prepared for a global business environment. Another important note to point out is Generation Z no longer wants just a job: they seek more than that. They want a feeling of fulfillment and excitement in their job that helps move the world forward. Generation Z is eager to be involved in their community and their futures. Before college, Generation Z is already out in their world searching how to take advantage of relevant professional opportunities that will give them experience for the future.
In India, a 2016 survey by JobBuzz.in, an employee engagement and employer rating platform, showed Generation Z professionals started out better in the job market compared with the older Generation Y.
Matt Carmichael, former director of data strategy at Advertising Age, noted in 2015 that many groups were "competing to come up with the clever name '' for the generation following Generation Z. Mark McCrindle has suggested "Generation Alpha '' and "Generation Glass '' as names for the cohort following Generation Z. McCrindle has predicted that this next generation will be "the most formally educated generation ever, the most technology supplied generation ever, and globally the wealthiest generation ever ''. He chose the name "Generation Alpha '', noting that scientific disciplines often move to the Greek alphabet after exhausting the Roman alphabet.
Author Alexandra Levit has suggested that there may not be a need to name the next generation, as she sees technology as having rendered the traditional 15 -- 20 year cohorts obsolete. Levit notes that she "ca n't imagine my college student babysitter having the same experience as my four - year - old '', despite both being in Generation Z.
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what does the democratic republic of congo flag represent | Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo - wikipedia
The national flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo is a sky blue flag, adorned with a yellow star in the upper left canton and cut diagonally by a red stripe with a yellow fimbriation. It was adopted on 20 February 2006. A new constitution, ratified in December 2005 and which came into effect in February 2006, promoted a return to a flag similar to that flown between 1963 and 1971, with a change from a royal blue to sky blue background. Blue represents peace. Red stands for "the blood of the country 's martyrs '', yellow the country 's wealth; and the star a radiant future for the country. (subscription required)
The previous flag was adopted in 2003. It is similar to the flag used between 1960 and 1963. The flag is based on the flag which was originally used by King Leopold 's Association Internationale Africaine and was first used in 1877. The design was then implemented as the flag of the Congo Free State after the territory was recognized as an official possession of Leopold II at the Berlin Conference. After gaining independence from Belgium on 30 June 1960, the same basic design was maintained. However, six stars were incorporated to symbolise the six provinces of the country at the time. This design was used only from 1960 to 1963. This flag was reimplemented in 1997, when the Mobutu government was overthrown and the country assumed its current designation of Democratic Republic of the Congo, with the 2003 flag only being different by using a lighter shade of blue.
The flag of the first Republic of Mobutu Sese Seko became the official banner after Mobutu established his dictatorship. This flag was used from 1966 -- 1971 and consisted of the same yellow star, now made smaller, situated in the top corner of the hoist side, with a red, yellow - lined band running diagonally across the center. The red symbolized the people 's blood; the yellow symbolized prosperity; the blue symbolized hope; and the star represented unity. This flag was changed when the country was renamed Zaire in 1971. The Zaire flag was created as part of Mobutu 's attempted re-Africanization of the nation and was used officially until Mobutu 's overthrow in the First Congo War. The flag of Zaire was also used as the party flag of the Popular Movement of the Revolution.
Flag of Association Internationale Africaine, the Congo Free State (1877 -- 1908), and the Belgian Congo (1908 -- 1960)
Flag of Congo - Léopoldville from independence June 30, 1960 until 1963. Also used by the rival Congo - Stanleyville from 1960 to 1962.
Flag from 1963 until 1966
Flag from 1966 until 1971
Flag of Zaire 1971 -- 1997
Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (1997 - 2003)
Flag from 2003 until 2006
Flag since February 20, 2006
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what is the east west extent of india in kilometres | Geography of India - Wikipedia
India lies on the Indian Plate, the northern portion of the Indo - Australian Plate, whose continental crust forms the Indian subcontinent. The country is situated north of the equator between 8 ° 4 ' to 37 ° 6 ' north latitude and 68 ° 7 ' to 97 ° 25 ' east longitude. It is the seventh - largest country in the world, with a total area of 3,287,263 square kilometres (1,269,219 sq mi). India measures 3,214 km (1,997 mi) from north to south and 2,933 km (1,822 mi) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,106.7 km (9,387 mi) and a coastline of 7,516.6 km (4,671 mi).
On the south, India projects into and is bounded by the Indian Ocean -- - in particular, by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Lakshadweep Sea to the southwest, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean proper to the South. The Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar separate India from Sri Lanka to its immediate southeast, and the Maldives are some 125 kilometres (78 mi) to the south of India 's Lakshadweep Islands across the Eight Degree Channel. India 's Andaman and Nicobar Islands, some 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) southeast of the mainland, share maritime borders with Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia. Kanyakumari at 8 ° 4 ′ 41 '' N and 77 ° 55 ′ 230 '' E is the southernmost tip of the Indian mainland, while the southernmost point in India is Indira Point on Great Nicobar Island. Northernmost point which is under Indian administration is Indira Col, Siachen Glacier. India 's territorial waters extend into the sea to a distance of 12 nautical miles (13.8 mi; 22.2 km) from the coast baseline.
The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the Himalayan mountain range, where the country borders China, Bhutan, and Nepal. Its western border with Pakistan lies in the Karakoram range, Punjab Plains, the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch salt marshes. In the far northeast, the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested mountainous regions, separate India from Burma. On the east, its border with Bangladesh is largely defined by the Khasi Hills and Mizo Hills, and the watershed region of the Indo - Gangetic Plain.
The Ganga is the longest river originating in India. The Ganga -- Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, central, and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. Kanchanjhunga, in the Indian state of Sikkim, is the highest point in India at 8,586 m (28,169 ft) and the world 's 3rd highest peak. Climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, to alpine and tundra in the upper reaches of the Himalayas.
India is situated entirely on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formed when it split off from the ancient continent Gondwanaland (ancient landmass, consisting of the southern part of the supercontinent of Pangea). The Indo - Australian plate is subdivided into the Indian and Australian plates. About 90 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous Period, the Indian Plate began moving north at about 15 cm / year (6 in / yr). About 50 to 55 million years ago, in the Eocene Epoch of the Cenozoic Era, the plate collided with Asia after covering a distance of 2,000 to 3,000 km (1,243 to 1,864 mi), having moved faster than any other known plate. In 2007, German geologists determined that the Indian Plate was able to move so quickly because it is only half as thick as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwanaland. The collision with the Eurasian Plate along the modern border between India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas. As of 2009, the Indian Plate is moving northeast at 5 cm / yr (2 in / yr), while the Eurasian Plate is moving north at only 2 cm / yr (0.8 in / yr). India is thus referred to as the "fastest continent ''. This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the Indian Plate to compress at a rate of 4 cm / yr (1.6 in / yr).
India is divided into 29 states (further subdivided into districts) and 6 union territories and 1 National capital territory (I.e., Delhi).
India 's borders run a total length of 15,106.70 km (9,386.87 mi).
Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh were delineated according to the Radcliffe Line, which was created in 1947 during Partition of India. Its western border with Pakistan extends up to 3,323 km (2,065 mi), dividing the Punjab region and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch. This border runs along the Indian states of Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Punjab. Both nations delineated a Line of Control (LoC) to serve as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan - administered areas of Kashmir. According to India 's claim, it also shares a 106 km (66 mi) border with Afghanistan in northwestern Kashmir, which is under Pakistani control.
India 's border with Bangladesh runs 4,096.70 km (2,545.57 mi). West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are the States which share the border with Bangladesh. Before 2015, there were 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India were on Bangladeshi soil. These enclaves were eventually exchanged in order to simplify the border. After the exchange, India lost roughly 40 km2 (10,000 acres) to Bangladesh.
The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the effective border between India and the People 's Republic of China. It traverses 4,057 km along the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. The border with Burma (Myanmar) extends up to 1,643 km (1,021 mi) along the southern borders of India 's northeastern states viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. Located amidst the Himalayan range, India 's border with Bhutan runs 699 km (434 mi). Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh are the States, which share the border with Bhutan. The border with Nepal runs 1,751 km (1,088 mi) along the foothills of the Himalayas in northern India. Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim are the States, which share the border with Nepal. The Siliguri Corridor, narrowed sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with the northeastern states.
India can be divided into six physiographic regions. They are:
A great arc of mountains, consisting of the Himalayas of Nepal, Hindu Kush, and Patkai ranges define the northern Indian subcontinent. These were formed by the ongoing tectonic plates collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates. The mountains in these ranges include some of the world 's tallest mountains which act as a natural barrier to cold polar winds. They also facilitate the monsoon winds which in turn influence the climate in India. Rivers originating in these mountains flow through the fertile Indo -- Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by biogeographers as the boundary between two of the Earth 's great ecozones: the temperate Palearctic that covers most of Eurasia and the tropical and subtropical Indomalaya ecozone which includes the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Indonesia.
The Himalayan range is the world 's highest mountain range, with its tallest peak Mt. Everest (8,848 metres (29,029 ft)) on the Nepal -- China border. They form India 's northeastern border, separating it from northeastern Asia. They are one of the world 's youngest mountain ranges and extend almost uninterrupted for 2,500 km (1,600 mi), covering an area of 500,000 km (190,000 sq mi). The Himalayas extend from Jammu and Kashmir in the north to Arunachal Pradesh in the east. These states along with Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Numerous Himalayan peaks rise over 7,000 m (23,000 ft) and the snow line ranges between 6,000 m (20,000 ft) in Sikkim to around 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in Kashmir. Kanchenjunga -- on the Sikkim -- Nepal border -- is the highest point in the area administered by India. Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, North India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.
Kutch Kathiawar plateau is located in Gujarat state.
The Indo - Gangetic plains, also known as the Great Plains are large alluvial plains dominated by three main rivers, the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra. They run parallel to the Himalayas, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east, and drain most of northern and eastern India. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 km (270,000 sq mi). The major rivers in this region are the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra along with their main tributaries -- Yamuna, Chambal, Gomti, Ghaghara, Kosi, Sutlej, Ravi, Beas, Chenab, and Tista -- as well as the rivers of the Ganges Delta, such as the Meghna.
The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions:
The Indo - Gangetic belt is the world 's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources. The plains are one of the world 's most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Other important crops grown in the region include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo - Gangetic plains rank among the world 's most densely populated areas.
The Thar Desert (also known as the deserts) is by some calculations the world 's seventh largest desert, by some others the tenth. It forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of 200,000 to 238,700 km (77,200 to 92,200 sq mi). The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61 % of its geographic area.
About 10 percent of this region comprises sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt - lake bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas. Annual temperatures can range from 0 ° C (32 ° F) in the winter to over 50 ° C (122 ° F) during the summer. Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with the short July -- September southwest monsoon that brings 100 to 500 mm (3.9 to 19.7 in) of precipitation. Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, ranging from 30 to 120 metres (98 to 394 ft) below the ground level. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm (4.7 in) in the extreme west to 375 mm (14.8 in) eastward. The only river in this region is Luni. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy - loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features. The low - lying loams are heavier may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum.
In western India, the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk) for earthquakes. The Kutch city of Bhuj was the epicentre of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, which claimed the lives of more than 1,337 people and injured 166,836 while destroying or damaging near a million homes. The 1993 Latur earthquake in Maharashtra killed 7,928 people and injured 30,000. Other areas have a moderate to low risk of an earthquake occurring.
(The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the oceanic boundary of India. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the east. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri, and Krishna rivers drain these plains. The temperature in the coastal regions often exceeds 30 ° C (86 ° F), and is coupled with high levels of humidity. The region receives both the northeast monsoon and southwest monsoon rains.) The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. (The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Annual rainfall in this region averages between 1,000 and 3,000 mm (39 and 118 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 and 130 km (62 and 81 mi). The plains are divided into six regions -- the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna - Godavari deltas, the Kanyakumari coast, the Coromandel Coast, and sandy coastal).
The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, ranging from 50 to 100 km (31 to 62 mi) in width. It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region. Mostly originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast - flowing, usually perennial, and empty into estuaries. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari. Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but the Malabar Coast moist forests constitute a unique ecoregion. The Western Coastal Plain can be divided into two parts, the Konkan and the Malabar Coast.
(The Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are India 's two major island formations and are classified as union territories.
The Lakshadweep Islands lie 200 to 440 km (120 to 270 mi) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian sea with an area of 32 km (12 sq mi). They consist of twelve atolls, three reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about 35 islands and islets.)
(The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are located between 6 ° and 14 ° north latitude and 92 ° and 94 ° east longitude. They consist of 572 islands, lying in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanma coast running in a North - South axis for approximately 910 km. They are located 1,255 km (780 mi) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 mi) from Cape Negrais in Burma. The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands consist of 572 islands which run in a North - South axis for around 910 km. The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km2 (2,382 sq mi) while the Nicobar group has only 247 islands with an area of 1,765 km2 (681 sq mi). India 's only active volcano, Barren Island is situated here. It last erupted in 2017. The Narcondum is a dormant volcano and there is a mud volcano at Baratang. Indira Point, India 's southernmost land point, is situated in the Nicobar islands at 6 ° 45'10 '' N and 93 ° 49'36 '' E, and lies just 189 km (117 mi) from the Indonesian island of Sumatra, to the southeast. The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m (2,106 ft).
Other significant islands in India include Diu, a former Portuguese colony; Majuli, a river island of the Brahmaputra; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota, a barrier island in Andhra Pradesh. Salsette Island is India 's most populous island on which the city of Mumbai (Bombay) is located. Forty - two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the Marine National Park.
India has around 14,500 km of inland navigable waterways. There are twelve rivers which are classified as major rivers, with the total catchment area exceeding 2,528,000 km (976,000 sq mi). All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds:
The Himalayan river networks are snow - fed and have a perennial supply throughout the year. The other two river systems are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season. The Himalayan rivers that flow westward into Punjab are the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.
(The Ganges - Brahmaputra - Meghana system has the largest catchment area of about 1,600,000 km (620,000 sq mi). The Ganges Basin alone has a catchment of about 1,100,000 km (420,000 sq mi). The Ganges originates from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand. It flows southeast, draining into the Bay of Bengal). (The Yamuna and Gomti rivers also arise in the western Himalayas and join the Ganges in the plains. The Brahmaputra originates in Tibet, China, where it is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo River) (or "Tsangpo ''). It enters India in the far - eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh, then flows west through Assam. The Brahmaputra merges with the Ganges in Bangladesh, where it is known as the Jamuna River.
The Chambal, another tributary of the Ganges, via the Yamuna, originates from the Vindhya - Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward - flowing rivers from this watershed are the Narmada and Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10 % of the total outflow.
(The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers, which include the through Godavari River, Krishna River and Kaveri River, all draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers constitute 20 % of India 's total outflow).
The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, such floods have killed thousands of people and tend to cause displacements of people in such areas.
Major gulfs include the Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch, and the Gulf of Mannar. Straits include the Palk Strait, which separates India from Sri Lanka; the Ten Degree Channel, which separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands; ' and the Eight Degree Channel, which separates the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from the Minicoy Island to the south. Important capes include the Kanyakumari (formerly called Cape Comorin), the southern tip of mainland India; Indira Point, the southernmost point in India (on Great Nicobar Island); Rama 's Bridge, and Point Calimere. The Arabian Sea lies to the west of India, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean lie to the east and south, respectively. Smaller seas include the Laccadive Sea and the Andaman Sea. There are four coral reefs in India, located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and the Gulf of Kutch. Important lakes include Sambhar Lake, the country 's largest saltwater lake in Rajasthan, Vembanad Lake in Kerala, Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh, Loktak Lake in Manipur, Dal Lake in Kashmir, Chilka Lake (lagoon lake) in Orrisa, and Sasthamkotta Lake in Kerala.
India 's wetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid located in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, and those with the wet and humid climate of peninsular India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 71 wetlands for conservation and are part of sanctuaries and national parks. Mangrove forests are present all along the Indian coastline in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. The mangrove area covers a total of 4,461 km (1,722 sq mi), which comprises 7 % of the world 's total mangrove cover. Prominent mangrove covers are located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Sundarbans delta, the Gulf of Kutch and the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers. Parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala also have large mangrove covers.
The Sundarbans delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and spreads across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal. The Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, but is identified separately as the Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and the Sundarbans National Park (India). The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt - tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for its diverse fauna, being home to a large variety of species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. Its most famous inhabitant is the Bengal tiger. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.
The Rann of Kutch is a marshy region located in northwestern Gujarat and the bordering Sindh province of Pakistan. It occupies a total area of 27,900 km (10,800 sq mi). The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces such as earthquakes resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large saltwater lagoon. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turn into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee - depth. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched.
Based on the Köppen system, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. The nation has four seasons: winter (January -- February), summer (March -- May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June -- September) and a post-monsoon period (October -- December) '.
The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. ' Thus, North India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although the Tropic of Cancer -- the boundary between the tropics and subtropics -- passes through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical.
Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures can exceed 40 ° C (104 ° F) during the day. The coastal regions exceed 30 ° C (86 ° F) coupled with high levels of humidity. In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed 45 ° C (113 ° F). The rain - bearing monsoon clouds are attracted to the low - pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea arm moves northwards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by fog during this season. The highest temperature recorded in India was 51 ° C (124 ° F) in Phalodi, Rajasthan. The lowest was − 45 ° C (− 49 ° F) in Kashmir.
India 's geological features are classified based on their era of formation. The Precambrian formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period is spread over western and central India. The Paleozoic formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The Mesozoic Deccan Traps formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan; they are believed to be the result of sub-aerial volcanic activity. The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian System and Triassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic system is seen in the western Himalayas and Rajasthan.
Tertiary imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo - Gangetic plains. The Gondowana system is seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and Assam. The Pleistocene system is found over central India. The Andaman and Nicobar Island are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes. The Himalayas were formed by the convergence and deformation of the Indo - Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by 1 cm each year.
Soils in India can be classified into 8 categories: alluvial, black, red, laterite, forest, arid & desert, saline & alkaline and peaty & organic soils. Alluvial soil constitute the largest soil group in India, constituting 80 % of the total land surface. It is derived from the deposition of silt carried by rivers and are found in the Great Northern plains from Punjab to the Assam valley. Alluvial soil are generally fertile but they lack nitrogen and tend to be phosphoric. National Disaster Management Authority says that 60 % of Indian landmass is prone to earthquake and 8 % susceptible to cyclone risks.
Black soil are well developed in the Deccan lava region of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. These contain high percentage of clay and are moisture retentive. Red soil are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka plateau, Andhra plateau, Chota Nagpur plateau and the Aravallis. These are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. Laterite soils are formed in tropical regions with heavy rainfall. Heavy rainfall results in leaching out all soluble material of top layer of soil. These are generally found in Western ghats, Eastern ghats and hilly areas of northeastern states that receive heavy rainfall. Forest soils occur on the slopes of mountains and hills in Himalayas, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. These generally consist of large amounts of dead leaves and other organic matter called humus.
India 's total renewable water resources are estimated at 1,907.8 km3 / year. Its annual supply of usable and replenshable groundwater amounts to 350 billion cubic metres. Only 35 % of groundwater resources are being utilised. About 44 million tonnes of cargo is moved annually through the country 's major rivers and waterways. Groundwater supplies 40 % of water in India 's irrigation canals. 56 % of the land is arable and used for agriculture. Black soils are moisture - retentive and are preferred for dry farming and growing cotton, linseed, etc. Forest soils are used for tea and coffee plantations. Red soil have a wide diffusion of iron content.
Most of India 's estimated 5.4 billion barrels (860,000,000 m) in oil reserves are located in the Mumbai High, upper Assam, Cambay, the Krishna - Godavari and Cauvery basins. India possesses about seventeen trillion cubic feet of natural gas in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha. Uranium is mined in Andhra Pradesh. India has 400 medium - to - high enthalpy thermal springs for producing geothermal energy in seven "provinces '' -- the Himalayas, Sohana, Cambay, the Narmada - Tapti delta, the Godavari delta and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (specifically the volcanic Barren Island.)
India is the world 's biggest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings. India ranks second amongst the world 's largest producers of barites and chromites. The Pleistocene system is rich in minerals. India is the third - largest coal producer in the world and ranks fourth in the production of iron ore. It is the fifth - largest producer of bauxite, second largest of crude steel as of February 2018 replacing Japan, the seventh - largest of manganese ore and the eighth - largest of aluminium. India has significant sources of titanium ore, diamonds and limestone. India possesses 24 % of the world 's known and economically viable thorium, which is mined along shores of Kerala. Gold had been mined in the now - defunct Kolar Gold Fields in Karnataka.
The only land area antipodal to India is Easter Island, which is antipodal to the western corner of Rajasthan. The triangular island closely reflects the triangle between the cities of Mokal, Kuchchri, and Habur. Habur corresponds to Hanga Roa, and Mokal to the eastern cape.
Photo Gallery
Tso Moriri lake, Ladakh
Valley of flowers, Uttarakhand
Indo - Gangetic Plain
Arawali Hills, near Ajmer
Madhya Pradesh
Shola in western ghats
Anaimudi, the tallest mountain in South India
Backwater in Kerala
Minicoy island, Lakshadweep
Andaman and Nicobar
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who didn't take part in first general election of india | Indian general election, 1951 -- 52 - Wikipedia
Jawaharlal Nehru INC
Jawaharlal Nehru INC
The Indian general election of 1951 -- 52 elected the first Lok Sabha since India became independent in August 1947. Until this point, the Indian Constituent Assembly had served as an interim legislature. See the ' Durations ' section below to find the time - range associated with these elections.
The Indian National Congress (INC) won a landslide victory, winning 364 of the 489 seats and 45 % of the total votes polled. This was over four times as many votes as the second - largest party. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first democratically elected Prime Minister of the country. In the first Lok Sabha polls held in 1951, India had around 173 million voters, out of an overall population of about 360 million. Voter turnout was 45.7 %.
Before Independent India went to the polls, two former cabinet colleagues of Nehru established separate political parties to challenge the INC 's supremacy. While Shyama Prasad Mookerjee went on to found the Jana Sangh in October 1951, First Law Minister Dr. B.R. Ambedkar revived the Scheduled Castes Federation (which was later named the Republican Party). Other parties which started coming to the forefront included the Kisan Mazdoor Praja Parishad, whose prime mover was Acharya Kripalani; the Socialist Party, which had Ram Manohar Lohia and Jayaprakash Narayan 's leadership to boast of; and the Communist Party of India. However, these smaller parties were unable to make an electoral stand against the Indian National Congress.
The first general elections, which were conducted for 489 seats in 401 constituencies, represented 25 Indian states. At that time, there were 314 constituencies with one seat, 86 with two seats and one with three seats. The multi-seat constituencies were abolished in the 1960s. There were also 2 nominated Anglo - Indian members.
First Law Minister B.R. Ambedkar was defeated in the Bombay (North Central) (reserved seat) constituency as Scheduled Castes Federation candidate by his little - known former assistant and Congress Candidate Narayan Sadoba Kajrolkar, who polled 1, 38,137 votes compared to Ambedkar 's 1, 23,576 votes. Dr Ambedkar then entered the parliament as a Rajya Sabha member. He contested by - poll from Bhandara in 1954 to try to enter Lok Sabha but again lost to Mr Borkar of Congress.
Acharya Kripalani lost from Faizabad in UP as KMPP candidate, but his wife Sucheta Kripalani defeated the Congress candidate Manmohini Sahgal in Delhi.
The speaker of the first Lok Sabha was Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar. The first Lok Sabha also witnessed 677 sittings (3,784 hours), the highest recorded count of the number of sitting hours. The Lok Sabha lasted its full term from 17 April 1919 until 31 April 2019
While Indian Government 's official websites and official documents assign the year 1951 to these polls, it is a misrepresentation because all territories except Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir voted in February -- March 1952; no polls were held for Lok Sabha seats in Kashmir until 1967, and only Himachal Pradesh voted in 1951 for the first Lok Sabha because weather tends to be inclement in February and March, heavy snow impending free movement. The rest of the India voted only in February -- March 1952 for the Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha elections. Polling was held between 25 October 1951 and 27 March 1952. The very first votes of the election were cast in the tehsil (district) of Chini in Himachal Pradesh.
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how many episodes in season 1 better call saul | List of Better Call Saul episodes - wikipedia
Better Call Saul is an American television drama series created by Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould, a prequel spin - off of Breaking Bad (2008 -- 13). The series premiered on AMC on February 8, 2015. As of June 19, 2017, 30 episodes of Better Call Saul have aired, concluding the third season. The series was renewed by AMC for a 10 - episode fourth season to air in 2018.
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who had hits in the 70s with the songs lonely boy and never let her slip away | Never Let Her Slip Away - Wikipedia
"Never Let Her Slip Away '' is a song written by Andrew Gold, who recorded it for his third album, All This and Heaven Too. The single reached # 5 on the UK Singles Chart, and # 67 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1978. Queen frontman Freddie Mercury contributed harmony vocals to the song, as an uncredited background singer. A 1992 cover version by dance outfit Undercover was also an international hit.
As revealed in his liner notes for All This and Heaven Too, Gold wrote "Never Let Her Slip Away '' about meeting actress and Saturday Night Live alumna Laraine Newman who was his girlfriend when he composed the song. Besides Freddie Mercury 's, other background vocals were provided by J.D. Souther and Timothy B. Schmit, and the saxophone was played by Ernie Watts.
In 1995, comedians Vic Reeves and Bob Mortimer performed a cover of the song on their show The Smell of Reeves and Mortimer. "Never Let Her Slip Away '' was also featured on the soundtrack of the film Alan Partridge: Alpha Papa (2013), as a personal favourite of the principal character.
British dance group Undercover covered the song on their album Check Out the Groove (1992). This version also reached # 5 in the United Kingdom, as Gold 's original did.
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who kills the hound in game of thrones books | Sandor Clegane - wikipedia
Sandor Clegane, nicknamed The Hound, is a fictional character in the A Song of Ice and Fire series of fantasy novels by American author George R.R. Martin, and its television adaptation Game of Thrones.
Introduced in 1996 's A Game of Thrones, Sandor is the estranged younger brother of Ser Gregor Clegane, from the fictional Seven Kingdoms of Westeros, serving as King Joffrey Baratheon 's personal bodyguard. He subsequently appeared in Martin 's A Clash of Kings (1998), A Storm of Swords (2000) and A Feast for Crows (2005). Sandor is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed mainly through the eyes of Sansa Stark and Arya Stark, with some narrations from other characters such as Ned Stark, Tyrion Lannister, and possibly Brienne of Tarth.
Sandor Clegane is portrayed by Scottish actor Rory McCann in the HBO television adaptation.
Sandor Clegane, known as the Hound, is a retainer to House Lannister and the younger brother of Gregor Clegane, a.k.a. The Mountain. He is regarded as one of the most dangerous and skilled fighters in Westeros. His face is distinguished by gruesome burn scars, which he received as a child when his brother pushed his head into a brazier. Consequently, he fears fire and hates his brother. He is also scornful of knight 's vows, as his brother is a knight, who indulges in rape and murder in spite of his knightly vows. He is described as a tormented man driven by anger and hate, aspiring only to kill his brother.
Sandor Clegane is played by the Scottish actor Rory McCann in the television adaptation of the series of books. McCann has received acclaim for his role.
In A Game of Thrones, he acts as bodyguard and servant to Prince Joffrey Baratheon, who calls him Dog. While escorting Sansa home, he reveals to her how his face was scarred and expresses much resentment of his brutish older brother and towards the concept of knighthood in general. Clegane leads the attack on the Stark forces in the Tower of the Hand.
He is named a knight of Joffrey 's Kingsguard towards the end of A Game of Thrones. Clegane advises Sansa to do whatever Joffrey tells her to do as the best way of staying alive. He is often assigned to guard Sansa, trying to protect her from Joffrey 's abuse in A Clash of Kings. He flees King 's Landing during the Battle of the Blackwater, due to the widespread use of wildfire, a fictional substance similar to Greek fire.
In A Storm of Swords, he is captured by the Brotherhood Without Banners which sentences him to trial by combat. Sandor prevails and is set free. He later kidnaps Arya to ransom her to her brother Robb Stark and hopes to earn a place in Robb 's service. He takes her to the Twins, where Robb is attending a wedding. However, just as they arrive, the Freys begin slaughtering the Starks. Sandor and Arya escape. They encounter three of Gregor 's men at an inn, and Sandor is seriously injured in the ensuing fight. Arya abandons him to his apparent death.
He is mentioned a few times in A Feast for Crows (2005), where the Elder Brother mentions to Brienne of Tarth that he found Sandor, who is now "at rest ''. However, the appearance of a mute gravedigger who matches Sandor physically and the Elder Brother 's refusal to confirm if Sandor is dead imply that he may still be alive.
Clegane accompanies the royal court on Robert Baratheon 's visit to Winterfell. On the way back to King 's Landing, Joffrey falsely accuses a butcher 's boy, Mycah, of threatening him, and Clegane kills the boy, attracting the hatred of Mycah 's friend Arya Stark. During the Tourney of the Hand, Sandor 's sadistic elder brother Gregor tries to kill Ser Loras Tyrell after he is unhorsed, but Sandor defends Loras from Gregor until Robert orders the men to stop fighting. When Ned Stark accuses Joffrey of being a bastard born of incest and orders his arrest, Clegane assists the Lannister soldiers in the subsequent purge of the Stark household and Sansa Stark 's capture, though he later comforts Sansa when Joffrey orders her beaten. With Joffrey 's ascension to the throne, Clegane is named to the Kingsguard to replace the ousted Ser Barristan Selmy, though Clegane refuses to take his knight 's vows.
Sandor continues to defend Sansa, including by covering her after Joffrey orders her stripped and rescuing her from being gang - raped during the King 's Landing riots. He participates in the Battle of the Blackwater against Stannis ' Baratheon 's forces, but is visibly horrified when Tyrion Lannister uses wildfire to incinerate much of Stannis ' fleet, and ultimately deserts after witnessing a man burning alive in the battle. Before he leaves, he offers to take Sansa north to Winterfell, but she ultimately refuses.
In the Riverlands, Clegane is arrested by the Brotherhood Without Banners, a group of knights and soldiers sent by Eddard Stark to kill his brother Gregor and restore order to the Riverlands. While being transported to their stronghold, he meets other members of the Brotherhood who are traveling with Arya Stark, and tells them of her true identity. At the Brotherhood 's hideout, their leader Lord Beric Dondarrion accuses Clegane of being a murderer; though Clegane asserts that the murders were done in order to protect Joffrey, Arya testifies that he had killed Mycah despite the boy not harming Joffrey. Lord Beric sentences Clegane to a trial by combat, which Clegane wins to secure his freedom, although Lord Beric is immediately resurrected by the Red Priest Thoros of Myr. Clegane later captures Arya, intending to ransom her to King Robb Stark at the wedding of Edmure Tully and Roslin Frey at The Twins. However, as they arrive at the Twins the Freys turn on the Starks and attack them, and Clegane and Arya barely escape the massacre.
With the rest of House Stark believed dead and the Riverlands now under the rule of House Frey, Clegane decides to ransom Arya to her aunt Lysa Arryn in the Vale. During their journey, Arya reveals to Clegane that she has not forgiven him for killing Mycah and has vowed to kill him. The duo arrive in the Vale to find that Lysa has ostensibly committed suicide. Returning from the Bloody Gate, they encounter Brienne of Tarth, sworn sword to Arya 's mother Catelyn, who had promised to take the Stark children to safety. When Arya refuses to go with Brienne, she and Clegane engage in a brawl that culminates in her throwing Clegane off a cliff, gravely wounding him. Though he begs Arya to kill him, she instead leaves him to die.
It is revealed Clegane had been discovered by a warrior turned septon, Ray, who nursed him back to health. Clegane assists Ray and his followers in building a sept, but one day after a brief journey into nearby woods, he returns to the community to find the villagers slaughtered by members of the Brotherhood Without Banners. Clegane takes up arms again to hunt down those responsible, killing four of them before discovering the remaining three about to be hanged by Lord Beric Dondarrion and Thoros of Myr, who inform him that the group were acting independently of the Brotherhood. Lord Beric allows Clegane to kill two of the outlaws, and asks him to join the Brotherhood in their journey north to fight the White Walkers.
During their journey north, the Brotherhood stops at a farm owned by a farmer that Clegane had previously robbed; inside, they find the bodies of the farmer and his daughter. Remorseful, Clegane digs them a grave with the help of Thoros. Thoros has Clegane look into the flames of Brotherhood 's campfire, and in it he sees the White Walkers and their forces marching towards the Wall.
The Brotherhood attempts to cross the Wall via Eastwatch - by - the - Sea, but are intercepted by wildling scouts manning the castle and locked in the ice cells. Soon after, Jon Snow, Davos Seaworth, Jorah Mormont, and Gendry arrive at Eastwatch, intending to capture a wight to present to Cersei (now Queen of the Seven Kingdoms) as evidence of the White Walkers. Clegane, Beric, and Thoros are released to accompany Jon, Jorah, Gendry and Tormund Giantsbane beyond the Wall. The group soon captures a wight but are surrounded by the White Walkers and their army of wights, though not before Gendry flees to Eastwatch to request Daenerys Targaryen 's aid. Daenerys arrives with her dragons before the group can be overrun; though one dragon is killed and reanimated by the Night King, they are able to flee. Clegane joins Jon, Daenerys and Davos as they sail to King 's Landing.
At King 's Landing, he meets Brienne of Tarth. Despite their previous brutal fight, they converse on civil terms. Sandor learns that Arya is alive and with her family, prompting a rare smile. During the summit in the Dragon Pit outside King 's Landing, Sandor confronts his brother, promising that Sandor will eventually kill him. Sandor brings out the trunk containing the wight, revealing to Cersei and Jaime Lannister the threat that lies beyond the wall. In the aftermath, Sandor sails to White Harbor with Daenerys 's forces with the intention of travelling to Winterfell to aid Jon and Daenerys against the Night King.
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which gas is evolved on heating calamine strongly in absence of air | Dry distillation - Wikipedia
Dry distillation is the heating of solid materials to produce gaseous products (which may condense into liquids or solids). The method may not involve pyrolysis or thermolysis. The products are condensed and collected. This method usually requires higher temperatures than classical distillation. The method has been used to obtain liquid fuels from coal and wood. It can also be used to break down mineral salts such as sulfates through thermolysis, in this case producing sulfur dioxide / sulfur trioxide gas which can be dissolved in water to obtain sulfuric acid. By this method sulfuric acid was first identified and artificially produced. When substances of vegetable origin, e.g. coal, oil shale, peat or wood, are heated in the absence of air (dry distillation), they decompose into gas, liquid products and coke / charcoal. The yield and chemical nature of the decomposition products depend on the nature of the raw material and the conditions under which the dry distillation is done. Decomposition within a temperature range of 450 to about 600 ° C is called carbonization or low - temperature degassing. At temperatures above 900 ° C, the process is called coking or high - temperature degassing. If coal is gasified to make coal gas or carbonized to make coke then Coal tar is among the by - products.
When wood is heated above 270 ° C it begins to carbonize. If air is absent the final product, since there is no oxygen present to react with the wood, is charcoal. If air, which contains oxygen, is present, the wood will catch fire and burn when it reaches a temperature of about 400 -- 500 ° C and the fuel product is wood ash. If wood is heated away from air, first the moisture is driven off and until this is complete, the wood temperature remains at about 100 -- 110 ° C. When the wood is dry its temperature rises and at about 270 ° C it begins to spontaneously decompose and, at the same time, heat is evolved. This is the well known exothermic reaction which takes place in charcoal burning. At this stage evolution of the by - products of wood carbonization starts. These substances are given off gradually as the temperature rises and at about 450 ° C the evolution is complete. The solid residue, charcoal, is mainly carbon (about 70 %) and small amounts of tarry substances which can be driven off or decomposed completely only by raising the temperature to above about 600 ° C.
In the common practice of charcoal burning using internal heating of the charged wood by burning a part of it, all the by - product vapors and gas escapes into the atmosphere as smoke. The by - products can be recovered by passing the off - gases through a series of water to yield so - called wood vinegar (pyroligneous acid) and the non-condensible wood gas passes on through the condenser and may be burned to provide heat. The wood gas is only usable as fuel and consists typically of 17 % methane; 2 % hydrogen; 23 % carbon monoxide; 38 % carbon dioxide; 2 % oxygen and 18 % nitrogen. It has a gas calorific value of about 10.8 MJoules per m (290 BTU / cu. ft.) i.e. about one third the value of natural gas. When deciduous tree woods are subjected to distillation, the products are methanol (wood alcohol) and charcoal. The distillation of pine wood causes Pine tar and pitch to drip away from the wood and leave behind charcoal. Birch tar from birch bark is a particularly fine tar, known as "Russian oil '', suitable for leather protection. The by - products of wood tar are turpentine and charcoal.
Tar kilns are dry distillation ovens, historically used in Scandinavia for producing tar from wood. They were built close to the forest, from limestone or from more primitive holes in the ground. The bottom is sloped into an outlet hole to allow the tar to pour out. The wood is split into dimensions of a finger, stacked densely, and finally covered tight with dirt and moss. If oxygen can enter, the wood might catch fire, and the production would be ruined. On top of this, a fire is stacked and lit. After a few hours, the tar starts to pour out and continues to do so for a few days.
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how many wild card teams won super bowl | Wild card (sports) - wikipedia
A wild card (variously spelled wildcard or wild - card, also known as at - large berth) is a tournament or playoff berth awarded to an individual or team that fails to win a division or conference within their league but qualifies for a postseason tournament based on their record compared to others in the same league who also did not win their divisions or conferences.
In international sports, the term is perhaps best known in reference to big international sporting events such as the Olympic Games and Wimbledon. Countries which fail to produce athletes who meet qualification standards are granted "wild cards '', which allow them to enter competitors whose proven abilities are below the standard otherwise required. In some instances, wild cards are given to the host nation in order to boost its chances.
In Olympic and World Championship competitions in track and field and swimming, however, nations are automatically allowed to enter two competitors, so these instances are technically not wild cards. In some other Olympic sports, such as judo, archery, and badminton, wild cards are in use, and they are granted by the respective sport federations.
On rare occasions, a competitor who had gained entry by wild card succeeds in winning a medal or the championship. For example, Kye Sun - Hui won gold in judo at the 1996 Summer Olympics, Ding Junhui won the 2005 China Open snooker championship, Goran Ivanišević won the 2001 Wimbledon Championships, Kim Clijsters won the 2009 US Open, and Lin Dan won the 2013 BWF World Championships.
In North American professional sports leagues, "wild card '' refers to a team that qualifies for the championship playoffs without winning their specific conference or division outright. The number of wild card teams varies. In most cases, the rules of the league call for the wild card team to survive an extra round or to play the majority of their postseason games away from home.
The term "wild card '' does not apply to postseason formats where a set number of teams per division qualify. Former examples include: the American Football League 's 1969 playoffs (qualifying the top two finishers from each division), the National Basketball Association 's 1967 - through - 1970 playoffs (top four finishers from each division) and 1971 -- 1972 playoffs (top two finishers in each division), and the National Hockey League 's 1968 -- 1974 and 1982 -- 1993 playoffs (top four finishers from each division) are not true wild - card formats. When a wild - card playoff format is used, the number of teams in a division that qualify is not fixed; the divisional champion automatically qualifies, but non-division winners qualify, based either on league record or conference record.
In Major League Baseball (MLB), wild - card playoff spots are given to the two teams in each league (four teams overall) with the best records among the non-division winners. The initial wild - card format was implemented after MLB expanded to 28 teams and realigned its two leagues to each have three divisions. Since a three - team playoff would require one team to receive a bye, the wild card was created to allow a fourth team. The wild card has been in effect since 1995, although it was supposed to be used in 1994; the postseason was canceled due to the players ' strike. In 2012, a second wild card was added to each league. The two wild card teams in each league face each other in a one - game playoff, with the winner facing the number 1 seed in the Division Series.
The advantages of the wild card format are that it allows a second - (or third -) place team a chance to win the World Series, even if there is a dominant division winner. As the wild cards are not awarded by division, the additional teams are part of league - wide races for the fourth and fifth spots. Critics of the wild card, such as broadcaster Bob Costas in his book Fair Ball: A Fan 's Case for Baseball, have argued that, of the four major North American sports, baseball, having the most regular - season games (now 162), places the largest importance on the regular season, and the wild cards diminish the importance of the regular season by permitting a "second banana '' team to make the playoffs, and that while it creates a league - wide race, it is for second place (and maybe third place) in a division, and takes away what would otherwise be a pennant race between first - and second - place teams, and can lead to teams playing for the wild card rather than to win the division. The second wild card was added in 2012 to address the issue of teams being content to rest players and win the wild card instead of trying to win the division. Also, because of the "sudden - death '' round, these teams often use their best starting pitcher, leaving them unavailable for much of the Division Series.
A wild - card team must surrender home - field advantage the first two rounds of the playoffs. For the World Series, however, home - field advantage is determined without reference to wild - card status. Prior to 2003, it was decided by alternating each year between the American and National Leagues. From 2003 to 2016, it was granted to the winner of the All - Star Game. Since 2017, it has been granted to the team with the better record. In the 2002 World Series, both the Anaheim Angels and the San Francisco Giants were wild - card teams, as were the Giants and the Kansas City Royals in the 2014 World Series. The World Series champions in 1997, 2003, 2004, and 2011 were also wild - card teams.
In the National Football League (NFL), each of the two conferences sends two wild - card teams along with four division champions to its postseason. The first round of the playoffs is called the "Wild Card Round ''. In this round, each conference 's two best (by regular - season record) division champions are exempted from play and granted automatic berths in the "Divisional Round ''. The four division champions are seeded from # 1 through # 4, while the two wild card teams are seeded # 5 and # 6; within these separations, seeding is by regular - season record. In the "Wild Card Round '', the # 6 team (a wild card team) plays against the # 3 team (a division champion), and the # 5 team (a wild card team) plays against the # 4 team (a division champion). The division champions have automatic home - field advantage in these games. In the "Divisional Round '', the worst seeded remaining team plays the # 1 seeded team, while the best seeded remaining team that played in the wildcard round plays the # 2 seed. Both the # 1 seed and # 2 seed have home - field advantage in the divisional round.
The NFL was the first league ever to use the wild - card format. The decision to implement a Wild Card coincided with the completion of the AFL - NFL merger in 1970. Prior to the merger, the right to compete in the postseason for the NFL title was restricted to division / conference champions. Until 1967, a tiebreaker game was played to resolve a deadlock for first place in either of the two conferences. When the league expanded to 16 teams, it realigned into four divisions and expanded the playoffs to two rounds. Tiebreaker games were eliminated in favor of the use of performance - based criteria to determine division champions. The rival American Football League, which reached a final size of ten teams in two divisions, also restricted its postseason to division winners until the 1969 season (the AFL 's last as a separate league) when it expanded the playoffs to include division runners - up. The runners - up played the winners of the opposite divisions for the right to contest the AFL Championship Game.
Following AFL upsets in the last two Super Bowls prior to the merger, the merged league realigned into two conferences of thirteen teams each, with three "old - line '' NFL teams joining the AFL teams in the newly - formed American Football Conference. The decision to make the conferences equal in size meant they could not feasibly align into anything except three divisions of four and five teams each. This led to a debate as to how the postseason of the merged league should be structured. Both the NFL and AFL playoff formats of 1969 had attracted fierce critics. The NFL format was criticized for its ability to cause a team tied for first overall in the league to miss the playoffs (this happened once, in 1967, when the Baltimore Colts missed the postseason despite a. 917 winning percentage after losing a tiebreaker to the Los Angeles Rams). The AFL 's 1969 playoffs were criticized by NFL purists for breaking with longstanding tradition, also, due to the fact that they allowed runners - up to qualify no matter how much disparity existed between the divisions, the AFL playoff structure could allow a mediocre team to qualify - this did occur when the Houston Oilers, a. 500 team, finished second in the Eastern Division - the Oilers were throttled in the playoffs 56 - 7 by the Western champion Oakland Raiders. The Raiders went on to lose the AFL title game to the Western runner - up (and eventual Super Bowl IV champion) Kansas City Chiefs.
Despite Kansas City 's win, some purists argued for the tradition of having only division champions contest the playoffs to continue. Had they prevailed, the post-merger NFL playoffs would have consisted of six teams and might have closely resembled the playoffs of the modern Canadian Football League, with the regular season champion of each conference earning the right to host the championship game against the winner of a game between the champions of the other two divisions. However, most owners in both conferences wanted to keep the even four - team playoff field in each conference. This was established by having the three division champions in each conference joined by the best second - place finisher in the conference.
As with much of the NFL 's nomenclature, the "wild card '' was not initially referred to as such and was instead referred as the "Best Second - Place Team '' (or sometimes simply as the "Fourth Qualifier ''). The media, however, began referring to the qualifying teams as "wild cards ''. Eventually, the NFL officially adopted the term. During the 1975, 1976, and 1977 seasons, the divisional playoffs featured the # 1 seed hosting the wild card team and the # 2 seed hosting the # 3 seed unless the # 1 seed and wild card team were divisional rivals. In that case, the # 1 seed hosted the # 3 seed and the # 2 seed hosted the wild card team. This was also the format used in Major League Baseball from 1995 through 2011.
In 1978, the playoffs were expanded to 10 teams; however, the restriction against teams in the same division playing each other in the divisional round continued until the playoffs expanded to 12 teams in 1990. During this time, the # 1 seed hosted the winner of the # 4 vs # 5 wild card game, while the # 2 seed played the # 3 seed. If the # 1 seed and the winner of the # 4 vs # 5 wild card game were in the same division, then the # 1 seed played the # 3 seed, while the # 2 seed played the # 4 vs # 5 winner. When Major League Baseball expanded its playoffs to 10 teams in 2012, it also used this format, although teams in the same division could play each other in the Division Series. From 1970 through 1974, the NFL used a rotation to determine which teams would host conference semifinal and final games, and which teams would play which other teams (coincidentally, baseball also used a rotation when it began to have this number of teams, for both of the aforementioned purposes, from 1995 -- 1997 before switching to the seeding method).
The number of wild - card qualifiers was expanded to two per conference in 1978 -- the divisional winners were granted a bye week while the wild card teams played (hence the origin of the phrase "Wild Card Round ''). Like wild card teams before, the wild card game winner played the # 1 seed, or the # 2 seed if they and the # 1 seed were divisional rivals. The playoffs were expanded again to three wild cards per conference in 1990 (or 12 teams total, which remains now) with the lowest ranked divisional winner losing its bye. Following the addition of the Houston Texans in 2002, the league added a fourth division to each conference. The league decided not to change the number of playoff teams, and thus the number of wild card qualifiers was reduced to two per conference, with the two lowest ranked divisional winners not receiving byes. The term "Wild Card Round '' continues to be used for the opening weekend of NFL playoffs, even though that weekend has involved both wild card and non-wild card teams since 1990.
As of the start of the 2018 season, there has never been a meeting of two wild card teams in the Super Bowl.
The 1980 Raiders, 2005 Steelers, and 1992 Bills tied for first in their division but lost a tiebreaker.
While not a wild card team, the 1969 Kansas City Chiefs were the first non-division winner to win the Super Bowl. They finished second in the Western Division of the American Football League, and in that season, the last before the merger, the AFL went from having its two division winners meeting for the league title to adding a second round in which the second place team in each division qualified for the post-season. These teams played cross-division in the semifinal round. Thus the Chiefs, who finished second in the West, defeated the East Division champion New York Jets in the AFL semifinals and then defeated the West Division champion Oakland Raiders to advance to Super Bowl IV, where they beat the Minnesota Vikings. Because the term "wild card '' was not instituted until the following year, the Chiefs are not included in the above list, but are recognized as the first team to win the Super Bowl without winning a division title.
Although the National Basketball Association (NBA) include wild - card teams in their playoff structures, the term "wild card '' is seldom used; instead, each playoff team is most commonly denoted by its seeding position within the conference.
In the NBA, division champions within each conference were given the # 1 - 3 seeds based on their regular - season records. The two fourth - placed wild - card teams are awarded the # 7 and # 8 seeds, respectively, also based on their regular - season records. In the NBA playoffs, home court advantage is determined strictly by regular - season record, without regard to seeding.
Before the 2006 -- 07 NBA season, the NBA seeded its teams in the same manner as the NHL. Until 2015, the NBA seeds the three division winners and the wild - card team with the best record by regular - season record. This means that the wild - card with the best record got a seed as high as # 2 (if that team is in the same division as the team with the best record in the conference); however, the next four wild - card teams will still be limited to the # 5 through # 8 seeds. This change was made to ensure that the two best teams in each conference could not meet until the conference final, and also (allegedly) to try and eliminate incentives for a playoff - bound team to deliberately lose games at the end of the regular season in order to "choose '' a higher - seeded team that has won fewer games (and, due to the unique home - court rules of the NBA, possibly gain home - court advantage for that series).
The notion of "wild cards '' was essentially abolished the 2015 - 16 NBA season, as changes made prior to the season mean the top eight teams in each conference qualify regardless of divisional rank, with the seeded teams ranked by percentage. The only particular advantage to winning a division now is that a divisional title serves as the first tiebreaker for qualification seeding purposes. The new format means it is possible for an especially weak division to send no teams (not even its champion) to the NBA playoffs, although as of the start of the 2017 - 18 season this has not yet occurred.
In the NBA, the winner of the # 1 vs. # 8 series goes on to face the winner of the # 5 vs. # 4 series, while the winner of the # 2 vs. # 7 series faces the winner of the # 6 vs. # 3 series. Notice that the winner of the # 1 vs. # 8 series will usually play against a wild - card team in the Conference Semifinals; this is arranged deliberately to "reward '' the # 1 seeded team by giving it the most winnable matchups in the first and second rounds.
In the National Hockey League (NHL), the first, second, and third place teams in each division qualify for the playoffs automatically, and two additional teams, regardless of divisional alignment, also qualify by having the best records among the remaining teams in the conference. These teams are referred to as the Wild Cards. The division champions play the Wild Cards, while the second and third placed teams in each division play each other; therefore the bracket is fixed, like the NBA. Home ice advantage is given to the higher seed in the divisional rounds, with the better record being used in the Conference Finals and Stanley Cup Finals.
The NHL 's current format is similar in some respects to the "cross-over rule '' used by the Canadian Football League since 1997 in that it the format emphasizes intra-divisional ranking and brackets in the playoff structure and yet allows two teams from one division to qualify for the playoffs at the expense of the two teams finishing with worse records and in the same divisional ranks in another division. The main difference is that the CFL only allows the lowest ranked playoff qualifying team from a division to cross over into the other division 's playoffs, whereas in the NHL it is possible for either Wild Card team to "cross over '' to the other division, or even (in cases where four teams qualify from each division) for the Wild Card teams to swap divisional playoff brackets. Also, unlike the CFL the NHL does not require the second Wild Card qualifier to have an outright better record than a superior - ranked team in the other division - in the event of such a tie at the end of the NHL season standard tie - breaking procedures are used to determine playoff qualification.
From 1999 until 2013, division champions within each conference were given the # 1 - 3 seeds based on their regular - season records. Among the remaining teams within each conference, five additional teams with the best records are awarded seeds # 4 through # 8. The division champions (first - third seeds) and the team with the best record that is n't a division champion (fourth seed) were given home ice advantage in the opening playoff series, in which they face the eighth - seeded through fifth - seeded teams, respectively. However, the playoff format differed slightly from that of the NBA. In the NHL, the highest winning seed of the first round played the lowest winning seed of the first round in the next round of the playoffs. For example, if the # 1, # 4, # 6, and # 7 seeds win their respective first round series then the second round of the playoffs matched the # 1 seed (highest) versus the # 7 seed (lowest) and the # 4 seed (2nd highest) versus the # 6 seed (second lowest). Home ice advantage in each NHL playoff series prior to the Stanley Cup Finals was granted by superior seed, even if the "wild card '' team had a better regular season record. For the Finals, the team with the better record will receive home ice advantage.
Major League Soccer (MLS), the top level of soccer (football) in both countries, used a wild card format starting in its 2011 playoffs. The top three teams from each of its two conferences automatically qualified for the conference semifinals, while the four remaining teams with the highest point totals in league play, without regard to conference, earned "wild cards '' into the playoffs. The wild card matches were single games, with the # 7 seed hosting the # 10 seed and the # 8 seed hosting the # 9 seed. The lowest surviving seed then played the Supporters ' Shield winner (i.e., the team with the highest point total), while the other surviving wild card played the top seed in the other conference.
The "wild card '' format was revamped for the 2012 season. Since 2015, the top six teams from each conference qualify for the playoffs, with the # 1 & # 2 seeds in each conference automatically qualifying for the conference semifinals, and seeds # 3 - 6 in each conference being wild cards. The lowest - seeded winner (played between the # 4 & # 5, and # 3 & # 6 seeds) in each conference plays the # 1 seed, and the next - lowest playing the # 2 seed in the conference semifinals.
Curling Canada introduced Wild Card teams starting with the 2018 Scotties Tournament of Hearts and 2018 Tim Hortons Brier. The change was made as part of a wider set of changes which expanded the tournaments to 17 teams and eliminated the unpopular Pre-Qualifying Tournaments. From 2018, the round robin stage of the Tournament of Hearts and Brier will consist of two seeded "pools '' of eight teams as opposed to the old format consisting a single group of twelve teams. This allows the main tournament to include "Team Canada '' (either the defending champions or, when the champions decline to or are unable to defend their title, the runners - up) and teams representing all fourteen constituent associations representing the ten provinces and three territories plus Northern Ontario. The remaining two participants in the tournament are the Wild Cards, which compete in an MLB - style play - in game prior to the main tournament to determine the sixteenth team in the main tournament. Just as is the case with MLB division titles, the format is designed to give teams an incentive to win their provincial championships. The Wild Cards are the top two teams in the Canadian Team Ranking System (CTRS) standings that did not win either the previous year 's tournament or their respective provincial or territorial championship. The top ranked of these two teams receives the hammer (last rock) to start the game.
The CTRS standings are also used to determine the seeding of all teams in the main tournament, with one important caveat - for the purposes of seeding the round robin pools and so as to allow the main round robin schedule to be drawn up prior to the Wild Card game, the ranking of the top Wild Card team is the ranking that is used for seeding purposes regardless of who wins the game. Whereas teams in the Tournament of Hearts and Brier are traditionally referred to by their respective province or territory (other than Northern Ontario and Team Canada), the team that wins the Wild Card game is referred to as the "Wild Card '' for the duration of the tournament. As is the case with Team Canada, the Wild Card retains that designation even if the team that is representing the same province or territory as the Wild Card team is eliminated prior to the Wild Card team.
With the introduction of pools, the round robin portion of the Tournament of Hearts and Brier now consists of two stages. The top four teams in each pool qualify for the second stage, formally known as the "Championship Pool. '' Unlike most tournaments which use a similar format, teams carry over their entire round robin records from the preliminary stage as opposed to only those results against teams that also qualify. This ensures that each Championship Pool team still plays eleven games that count for the purposes of determining playoff qualification.
The format is designed to ensure that a competitive team fills the Wild Card slot - due to the significant disparity in playing caliber between the top teams of Canada 's fourteen member associations, it is widely expected that the Wild Card will consistently come from one of the provinces with the toughest fields in the playdowns, and that it will consistently be a championship contending team.
In professional tennis tournaments, a wild card refers to a tournament entry awarded to a player at the discretion of the organizers. All ATP and WTA tournaments have a few spots set aside for wild cards in both the main draw, and the qualifying draw, for players who otherwise would not have made either of these draws with their professional ranking. They are usually awarded to players from the home and / or sponsoring country (sometimes after a tournament where the winner is awarded the wild card), promising young players, players that are likely to draw a large crowd, have won the tournament earlier or players who were once ranked higher and are attempting a comeback (for instance, following a long - term injury). High ranked players can also ask for a wild card if they want to enter a non-mandatory tournament after the normal entry deadline, for example because they lost early in another tournament. This means a wild card player sometimes becomes the top seed.
Three of the Grand Slam tournaments swap some wild cards: the Australian Open, French Open, and US Open. A New York Times journalist has described this practice as "nothing more than mutual back scratching '' and "an outdated symbol of elitism ''.
In motorcycle racing the term ' wild card ' is used for competitors only involved in individual rounds of a championship, usually their local round. Local riders taking advantage of their local knowledge (often having raced that circuit on that bike before) and affording to take risks without planning for a championship, often upset established runners. Makoto Tamada and Shaky Byrne have both taken double victories in Superbike World Championship rounds in their home countries. The most famous wild card entry perhaps was the late Daijiro Kato with finishing 3rd at his first appearance in 1996 and then winning the Japanese 250cc Grand Prix back to back in 1997 and 1998 on his way to become the most successful 250cc World Champion of all time in 2001.
Grand Prix motorcycle racing
Each Grand Prix host Federation (FMNR) may nominate 3 wild card entries for the Moto3 and Moto2 classes in their own Grand Prix only.
The MSMA (Motorcycle Sport Manufacturers ' Association) may, at each event, nominate 1 wild card entry for the Moto2 and MotoGP classes.
The FIM may, at each event, nominate 2 wild card entries for the Moto3 and Moto2 classes and FIM / DORNA may, at each event, nominate 1 wild card entry for the MotoGP class.
Superbike World Championship
Each Event host Federation (FMNR) may nominate 4 wild card entries for the Superbike class and 2 wild card entries for the Supersport and Superstock classes, in their own event only.
The FIM may nominate 2 wild card entries for the Superbike class.
Motorcycle Speedway
In Motorcycle Speedway, wild cards compete in the Speedway Grand Prix events in which there is 1 wild card per competition (until 2005 there were 2 per Grand Prix). As of 2014 six wild cards have won a Grand Prix: Mark Loram in 1999, Martin Dugard in 2000, Hans Andersen in 2006 (later that year he replaced a permanent rider and went on to win another GP), Michael Jepsen Jensen in 2012, Adrian Miedziński in 2013 and Bartosz Zmarzlik in 2014.
Wild Card entries are not unknown in auto racing either, although the Concorde Agreement in modern - day Formula One requires all teams to participate in every event. John Love came close to winning the 1967 South African Grand Prix in a wild card type situation, long before the term had been coined. Although the term is rarely used in NASCAR, the concept of a road course ringer is similar. Before the late - 1990s, NEXTEL Cup and Busch Series races in the West and Northeast respectively would have several drivers from the Winston West and Busch North series, as the series regulations were very similar, and until the mid-2000s, ARCA drivers would usually attempt Cup races in the Midwest and at restrictor - plate races.
During the period of the mid-1980s until 2004, individual NASCAR races utilized the "Promoter 's Option '' (also known as Provisionals) to allow a top driver / team that did not qualify for the race, the opportunity for a "wild card '' type starting position at the end of the grid. This allowed track owners to advertise and guarantee to fans that the most popular drivers would participate in the race (pleasing fans in attendance, and preventing no - shows) even if the driver had an unfortunate mishap (e.g., blown engine) or crash during time trials. Starting in 2005, only the Former Champion 's Provisional remains.
During the NASCAR Sprint All - Star Race (a non-points exhibition event) one driver who fails to qualify for the race is awarded a wild card spot via "Fans Choice '' vote. In 2008, Kasey Kahne, was selected as a wild card via fan vote, and went on to win the race.
From 2011 to 2013, NASCAR 's top - level Sprint Cup Series, since renamed the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series, used "wild cards '' in a different context, namely that of qualifying for the season - ending Chase for the Sprint Cup, now rebranded as the NASCAR playoffs. In previous seasons, the top 12 drivers in championship points after the first 26 races of the season automatically qualified for the Chase, with their points reset to a point unreachable by any other driver. Under the 2011 -- 2013 system, only the top 10 drivers automatically qualified. The other two Chase qualifiers were the two drivers ranked from 11th through 20th after 26 races with the most race wins, with tiebreakers used as necessary to restrict the number of "wild cards '' to two. Major changes to the Chase format that took effect in 2014, most notably determining the newly expanded Chase field of 16 mainly by race wins, eliminated this type of "wild card ''.
NCAA tournaments in all of its sports have included wild card berths, typically known as at - large berths at that level. Winners of each athletic conference 's tournament (or, in the case of basketball 's National Invitation Tournament, the team with the best regular season record in that conference) are granted automatic bids into the tournament, and a selection committee fills the remaining slots in the tournament bracket with who it determines to be the best teams who did not win their tournament (in practice, major conferences with stronger reputations and more revenue are invariably favored over mid-majors with similar records).
Although the term "wild card '' is not generally used in this context outside North America, a few competitions effectively employ such a system to determine one or more places in a future phase of a competition.
In the Olympics, several sport governing bodies award wild cards to nations in order to further promote their sport. Sports governing bodies will either make selections or hold a tournament to determine the wild cards. One such notable wild card selection was Equatorial Guinea swimmer Eric Moussambani, who finished last in the 100m meter event in the 2000 Summer Olympics.
The Euroleague, a Europe - wide competition for elite basketball clubs, once had one "wild card '' advancing from its first phase, officially the Regular Season, to its second, called the Top 16. The rule was in place through the 2007 -- 08 season.
At that time, the competition began each year with 24 clubs, divided into three groups. (Today, the competition starts with a preliminary stage of 16 teams playing down to two survivors, who join 22 other teams in the Regular Season.) Then as now, the groups played a double round - robin for the Regular Season, with eight clubs eliminated and the remaining clubs advancing to the Top 16.
Under the rules in place through 2007 -- 08, the top five clubs in each group automatically advanced. The final "wild card '' spot in the Top 16 went to the sixth - place club with the best overall record, with three potential tiebreaking steps. A coin toss is not indicated as a possible step.
Starting in 2008 -- 09, the "wild card '' was abolished when the Regular Season was reorganized into four groups with 6 teams apiece. Now, the top four teams in each group advance to the Top 16. No change to the tiebreakers was made.
The world championship for basketball, the FIBA Basketball World Cup, invites four wild cards to complete its 24 - team field. Teams have to participate in qualifying for the World Cup, have to apply to be one, and FIBA is not allowed more than three teams from the same continent in order to be selected. This setup began in 2006, where Italy, Puerto Rico, Serbia and Montenegro, and Turkey were selected by FIBA; Turkey made the best performance, reaching the quarterfinals. In 2010, FIBA selected Germany, Lithuania, Lebanon, and Russia as the wild cards, with Lithuania finishing third, and Russia making it to the quarterfinals. For the 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup, FIBA selected Brazil, Finland, Greece, and Turkey; 2014 will be the last time FIBA will select wild cards, as the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup would no longer have wild cards when it expands to 32 teams. The perennial top two FIBA Oceania team namely Australia and New Zealand as wild card teams of FIBA Asia Cup 2017 in Lebanon. These two teams are also part of FIBA Asia in Basketball tournaments including FIBA World Qualifying Tournament for FIBA World Cup 2019 in China.
Rugby union 's analogue to the Euroleague is the European Rugby Champions Cup, which replaced the previous top - level club competition, the Heineken Cup, starting with the 2014 -- 15 season. The Champions Cup maintains a system originally created for the Heineken Cup in which some "wild card '' teams advance to the competition 's knockout stages. Also starting in 2014 -- 15, the organiser of the Champions Cup, European Professional Club Rugby, introduced this type of "wild card '' to the second - level European Rugby Challenge Cup.
During the last five seasons of the Heineken Cup (2009 -- 10 to 2013 -- 14), another "wild card '' system allowed teams to parachute into the original European Challenge Cup, which has now been replaced by the current Challenge Cup. This was scrapped with the creation of the current Challenge Cup.
Both the Champions Cup and current Challenge Cup involve 20 clubs (compared to 24 in the Heineken Cup and 20 in the original Challenge Cup), divided into pools of four clubs with each club playing a double round - robin within its pool. In both competitions, eight clubs advance to the knockout stages. The top club in each pool advances; the three "wild card '' places are filled by the second - place clubs with the best overall records. For the Champions Cup, the number of wild cards increased by one from the Heineken Cup era; both versions of the Challenge Cup had three wild cards, but the original version filled them in an entirely different manner.
In the final years of the Heineken Cup, starting in 2009 -- 10 and ending with the 2014 reorganisation of European club rugby, the three second - place teams with the next - best records after those that advanced to the Heineken Cup knockout stage parachuted into the Challenge Cup.
The tiebreaking procedure used to determine overall seeding, which was devised in the Heineken Cup era and carried over intact into the current era, is almost as elaborate as that of the NFL, with a total of seven steps (a coin flip is the last).
Prior to 2009 -- 10, the original Challenge Cup also had "wild card '' teams entering its knockout stages. The top club in each pool advanced to the knockout stage, along with the three second - place teams with the best records, using the same tiebreaking procedure as the Heineken Cup. Starting in 2009 -- 10, only the winner of each pool entered the knockout stage, to be joined by the teams parachuting in from the Heineken Cup. As noted above, with the creation of the new Challenge Cup, that competition abandoned this system in favour of the system used in the Champions Cup.
The Super Rugby competition, involving regional franchises from Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, adopted a new playoff system with "wild cards '' when it expanded to 15 teams in 2011.
In its previous incarnations as Super 12 and Super 14 (each number reflecting the number of teams in the competition), it used a Shaughnessy playoff system in which the top four teams advanced to a knockout stage. The expansion to 15 teams led to major changes in the competition format.
Through the 2015 season, the competition was divided into three conferences of five teams each, with every conference consisting solely of teams from one of the participating countries. At the end of the regular season, the winners of each conference received playoff berths. These teams were joined by three "wild cards '', specifically the three non-winners with the most competition points without regard to conference. (Tiebreakers were employed as necessary.)
With the expansion of Super Rugby to 18 teams in 2016, featuring a permanent sixth franchise for South Africa and new teams based in Argentina and Japan, the competition format was changed again.
The competition is now divided into the Australasian Group, including all Australian and New Zealand teams, and the African Group, consisting of the South African teams plus the Argentine and Japanese franchises. In turn, the Australasian Group is divided into Australia and New Zealand Conferences, and the African Group is split into Africa 1 and Africa 2 Conferences. As in the 2011 -- 15 system, the conference winners will receive playoff berths. The number of wild cards will increase to four, with the three top non-winners from the Australasian Group and the top non-winner from the African Group, again based on competition points, earning those spots.
In the Philippine Basketball Association, the playoffs are done after an elimination (in 2005 - 06, a classification) round where the top two teams with the best records are given semi-final byes, the next 3 are given quarterfinal byes, the next 4 are given entry to the wildcard phase, and the tenth team is eliminated.
The winner of the wild card playoffs, varying in format from a round - robin, a single - elimination or sudden death, usually meets the strongest quarterfinalist (the 3rd seed). The wild card winner 's next opponent for the quarterfinals rested while the wild card phase was ongoing so the chance of advancing to the semi-finals (in which a team rested longer) is slim.
The only wild card champion are the 7th - seeded Barangay Ginebra Kings in the 2004 PBA Fiesta Conference after 7 years of championship drought they made an epic run all the way to the throne, in which the top 2 teams were given semifinal byes while the bottom eight went through a knock - out wild card tournament. Since the addition of the quarterfinal bye, no wild card has entered the Finals, although the Air21 Express won the third - place trophy at the 2005 - 06 PBA Fiesta Conference.
The wild card set up was no longer used when the league reverted to the 3 - conference format starting from the 2010 -- 11 PBA season.
For both the junior and senior Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final (which starting in the 2008 -- 2009 figure skating season will be merged into a single two - division event), the hosting federation may issue a wild card invitation to one of their own skaters should no skater from the host country qualify for the event through the Grand Prix circuit. Use of the wild card has not been common; however, it was used at the 2007 -- 2008 Junior Grand Prix Final by the Polish federation.
The same rationale exists in international association football, specifically FIFA World Cup qualifying stages. In FIFA World Cup qualifying stages in Europe, for example, 2nd placed teams are all ranked by number of points. The team with the most points is guaranteed automatic qualification to the FIFA World Cup, while the team with the least points is eliminated (points from victories against the last - placed team in each country 's respective group being deducted), while teams in between generally play a 2 - game playoff to determine qualification.
Other qualifying regions which use a wild card format include CONMEBOL, CONCACAF, and the AFC.
In the All - Ireland Senior Football Championship, the premier competition in Gaelic football, each of the thirty - two counties in Ireland as well as London and New York play in their respective Provincial Championships through a knock - out cup competition format without seeds. The winners of each of the four Provincial Championships earn one of eight places in the All - Ireland Quarter Finals.
The thirty teams that fail to win their respective Provincial Championships receive a second opportunity to reach the All - Ireland Series via the All Ireland Qualifiers (also known as the ' back door ', similar to a Wild Card).
In road cycling (teams), a wild card refers to an invitation to a race which a particular team would not normally be able to enter. Usually used for top division (currently UCI World Tour) races where the organization want more teams, lower league teams will be invited. It is very common to offer a wild card for teams from the same country to help local sport and to boost national pride. For example, for the 100th "Tour de France '' in 2013, the organisers (the Amaury Sport Organisation) awarded three wild cards to French teams: Cofidis, Sojasun and Team Europcar, all of which were UCI Professional Continental teams at the time and therefore not automatically invited, unlike the UCI ProTeams which made up the vast majority of the entry list. Teams can apply for a wild card.
In January 2015, Team MTN - Qhubeka from South Africa accepted an invitation to participate in the 2015 edition of "Tour de France ''. MTN - Qhubeka was the first African team to receive a wild card entry into the event that was held from 4 to 26 July 2015.
In the current format of the Rugby World Cup, a team that finishes 3rd in their group automatically gains a berth in the next Rugby World Cup (although they do not advance to the next round).
Additionally, the Rugby World Cup qualifying format uses a repechage, in which teams from other regions that did not gain the automatic spot play each other for the final spots in the World Cup.
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who is the leading scorer in ncaa basketball | List of NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball career scoring leaders - wikipedia
In basketball, points are the sum of the score accumulated through free throw or field goal. In National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I basketball, where a player 's career is at most four seasons long, it is considered a notable achievement to reach the 1,000 - points scored threshold. In even rarer instances, players have reached the 2,000 - and 3,000 - point plateaus (no player has ever scored 4,000 or more points at the Division I level). The top 25 highest scorers in NCAA Division I men 's basketball history are listed below. The NCAA did not split into its current divisions format until August 1973. From 1906 to 1955, there were no classifications to the NCAA nor its predecessor, the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS). Then, from 1956 to spring 1973, colleges were classified as either "NCAA University Division (Major College) '' or "NCAA College Division (Small College) ''.
Some of the top 25 scorers in Division I history played before the three - point line was officially instituted in 1986 -- 87. All of the players with a dash through the three - point field goals made column were affected by this rule. Hank Gathers of Loyola Marymount is the only three - point shot era player on this list who did not make a single three - point shot. From the 1986 -- 87 season through the 2007 -- 08 season, the three - point perimeter was marked at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) for both men 's and women 's college basketball. On May 3, 2007, the NCAA men 's basketball rules committee passed a measure to extend the distance of the men 's three - point line back to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m) (the women 's line would remain the same).
Additionally, several of the players on this list played during an era when college freshmen were ineligible to compete at the varsity level and were forced to participate on either freshman or junior varsity teams. Since freshman and junior varsity points do not count toward official NCAA records, three players -- Pete Maravich, Oscar Robertson and Elvin Hayes -- only had three seasons to compile their totals. Larry Bird redshirted (sat out) his freshman year, and therefore, like Maravich, Robertson, and Hayes, his totals also cover only three seasons. With the added benefits of a three - point line and a full extra year of varsity eligibility, their already - historical statistics would have been much higher. Maravich, a guard from LSU, not only owns the three highest single season averages in Division I history, but also the highest career total. Remarkably, he scored 3,667 points (over 400 more than the next closest player) in a mere 83 games. His record is generally considered unbreakable; the only player who could have potentially overtaken him as the top scorer in Division I history is Stephen Curry of Davidson, who had scored 2,635 points through his first three seasons of college basketball. However, Curry opted to forgo his final year of NCAA eligibility and moved on to the National Basketball Association (NBA) following his junior season in 2008 -- 09.
Five players on this list are enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame: Pete Maravich, Oscar Robertson, Elvin Hayes, Larry Bird and David Robinson.
The following list contains current and defunct Division I conferences ' all - time scoring leaders. The "conference founding '' column indicates when each respective conference first began intercollegiate athletic competition, not necessarily when they began basketball. For example, the Great West Conference was established as a football - only conference in 2004 but became an all - sports conference in 2008 (with basketball actually beginning in 2009 -- 10). Also note that some of the schools on this list are no longer in the conference in which they are identified. Utah, for instance, is currently a member of the Pac - 12 Conference, but when Keith Van Horn set the scoring record they were still a member of the Western Athletic Conference. Similarly, BYU is currently in the West Coast Conference, but their final four seasons in the Mountain West Conference were the years in which Jimmer Fredette played at the school and set that conference 's scoring record.
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why is there a dragon on welsh flag | Flag of Wales - wikipedia
The flag of Wales (Welsh: Baner Cymru or Y Ddraig Goch, meaning the red dragon) consists of a red dragon passant on a green and white field. As with many heraldic charges, the exact representation of the dragon is not standardised and many renderings exist.
The flag incorporates the red dragon of Cadwaladr, King of Gwynedd, along with the Tudor colours of green and white. It was used by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, after which it was carried in state to St Paul 's Cathedral. The red dragon was then included as a supporter of the Tudor royal arms to signify their Welsh descent. It was officially recognised as the Welsh national flag in 1959. Several cities include a dragon in their flag design, including Cardiff, the Welsh capital, and the Welsh - founded city of Puerto Madryn in Argentina.
The flag was granted official status in 1959, but the red dragon itself has been associated with Wales for centuries, though the origin of the adoption of the dragon symbol is now lost in history and myth. A possible theory is that the Romans brought the emblem to what is now Wales during their occupation of Britain in the form of the Draco standards borne by the Roman cavalry, itself inspired by the symbols of the Dacians or Parthians. The Olm (Proteus anguinus) of Slovenia bear a similarity in miniature to the Draco standard and they are referred to as baby cave dragons by the locals. The green and white stripes of the flag were additions by the House of Tudor, the Welsh dynasty that held the English throne from 1485 to 1603. Green and white are also the colours of the leek, another national emblem of Wales.
The oldest known use of the dragon to represent Wales is from the Historia Brittonum, written around 830; the text describes a struggle between two serpents deep underground, which prevents King Vortigern from building a stronghold. This story was later adapted into a prophecy made by the wizard Myrddin (or Merlin) of a long fight between a red dragon and a white dragon. According to the prophecy, the white dragon, representing the Saxons, would at first dominate but eventually the red dragon, symbolising the Britons, would be victorious and recapture Lloegr. According to the legend, this victory would be brought about by Y Mab Darogan. This is believed to represent the conflict in the 5th and 6th centuries between the Britons and the invading Saxons. A version of the tale also appears as part of the poem ' Cyfranc Lludd a Llefelys ' in the Mabinogion. One twelfth - century account of this is Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae, where he states Merlin 's prophecies.
The red dragon is popularly believed to have been the battle standard of Arthur and other ancient Celtic / Romano - British leaders. There is considerable evidence to suggest that during this period the dragon was a symbol of the Romano - British monarchy and possibly Romano - British society more broadly, including some from Anglo - Saxon poetry. The dragon is particularly associated in Welsh poetry with Cadwaladr king of Gwynedd from c. 655 to 682. The Dragons of Arthur and Cadwaladr were possibly based on the draco standards carried by Roman cavalry units stationed in Britain. The Draco originated with the Sarmatians, a unit of whom were stationed in Ribchester from the 2nd to 4th centuries.
Despite the close link throughout early Welsh history, the dragon was not used exclusively as a symbol for Wales during this period, and it was used throughout Britain as a symbol of authority. In 1138, it was adopted by the Scottish as a royal standard, and Richard I took a dragon standard to the Third Crusade in 1191. Henry III fought under the dragon at the Battle of Lewes and it was used later by Edward III at the Battle of Crécy.
In 1400, Owain Glyndŵr raised the dragon standard during his revolts against the occupation of Wales by the English crown. Owain 's banner known as Y Ddraig Aur or "The Golden Dragon '' was raised over Caernarfon during the Battle of Tuthill in 1401 against the English. The flag has ancient origins, Glyndŵr chose to fly the standard of a Golden dragon on a white background, the traditional standard. Fifteen years later the English crown, under the rule of Henry V, used the red dragon standard itself during the Battle of Agincourt. The English forces during the battle utilised Welsh longbowmen, along with their own archers. In 1485, the most significant link between the symbol of the red dragon and Wales occurred when Henry Tudor flew the red dragon of Cadwaladr during his invasion of England. Henry was of Welsh descent and after leaving France with an army of 2000, landed at Milford Haven on 7 August. He made capital of his Welsh ancestry in gathering support and gaining safe passage through Wales. Henry met and fought Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth, and in victory took the English throne. After the battle, Henry carried the red dragon standard in state to St Paul 's Cathedral, and later the Tudor livery of green and white was added to the flag.
In 1807, the red dragon on a green mount was adopted as the Royal Badge of Wales, and on 11 March 1953 the motto Y Ddraig goch ddyry cychwyn (' The red dragon gives impetus ' or ' The red dragon leads the way ') was added, a line from the poem by Deio ab Ieuan Du. The badge was the basis of a flag of Wales in which it was placed on a horizontal white and green bicolour. However, the flag was the subject of derision, both because the tail pointed downwards and because the motto was a potential double entendre, used in the original poem to allude to the penis of a copulating bull. In 1959, government use of this flag was dropped in favour of the current flag at the urging of the Gorsedd of Bards. Today the flag can be seen flying from the Senedd in Cardiff, and from the Wales Office in Whitehall, London each day.
Flag of 1807 -- 1953.
Flag of 1953 -- 59, depicting the Royal Badge of Wales after its augmentation of honour.
Flag of Puerto Madryn and Y Wladfa.
The red dragon on the tailfin of an Air Wales ATR 42 aircraft.
The flag of Saint David, a yellow cross on a black field, is used in the emblem of the Diocese of St David 's and is flown on St David 's Day. In recent times the flag has been adopted as a symbol of Welsh nationalism. Some organisations, such as the Christian Party use this flag instead of Y Ddraig Goch, citing their dissatisfaction with the current flag.
However, traditionally, in both Protestant and Catholic traditions, crossed emblems have only been allocated to those martyred in the name of Christianity. Examples are saints such as St Andrew (Scotland), St George (England), St Denis (France), and St Alban (England / Hertfordshire).
The flag of Wales has been used by those in the arts, sport and business to show a sense of patriotism or recognition with Wales. During the 1999 Rugby World Cup, which was hosted in Wales, the opening ceremony used the motif of the dragon several times, though most memorably, the flag was worn on a dress by Welsh singer Shirley Bassey.
Other musicians to have used the flag, include Nicky Wire of Manic Street Preachers, who will often drape the Welsh flag over amps when playing live, and Cerys Matthews who has worn the image on her clothes, while classical singer Katherine Jenkins has taken the flag on stage during live performances.
Roger Waters ' album Radio K.A.O.S. follows the story of a disabled Welsh man, grounded in California, who regularly expresses nostalgia and a hope for return to his home country. The chorus of "Sunset Strip '', the album 's fifth track, uses the imagery of the Welsh flag to further emphasise this:
And I sit in the canyon with my back to the sea There 's a blood - red dragon on a field of green Calling me back, back to the Black Hills again
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who is the girl in the video just the way you are | Nathalie Kelley - Wikipedia
Nathalie Kelley is a Peruvian - born Australian actress known for her role as Neela in the 2006 action film The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift, and for her roles in various television series including Body of Proof (2011 -- 2012), Unreal, The Vampire Diaries and Dynasty.
Nathalie Kelley was born in Lima, Peru, to a Peruvian mother and an Argentine father. She moved to Sydney when she was 2 years old. From a young age, she dreamed about being an actress. She attended North Sydney Girls High School.
In 2005, Charmed executive producers Brad Kern, Aaron Spelling and E. Duke Vincent developed a one - hour pilot for The WB titled Mermaid. Kelley was cast as the series protagonist Nikki, a mermaid who is rescued by a young man when she washes ashore in Miami. The pilot was not picked up as a result of The WB and UPN merging into The CW; the resulting network passed on the show. Kelley has since appeared on both Lone Star and CSI: Crime Scene Investigation.
In June 2006, Kelley received her breakout role as Neela in the film The Fast and The Furious: Tokyo Drift, the third installment of The Fast and the Furious franchise. In March 2008, Kelley appeared in the low - budget drama crime film Loaded alongside Jesse Metcalfe. In March 2011, Kelley had a small role in the retro comedy film Take Me Home Tonight, which starred Topher Grace, Anna Faris and fellow Australian Teresa Palmer. The film was shot in Los Angeles in 2007 but its release was delayed by Universal Pictures for unknown reasons. The following month, Kelley appeared as the protagonist in the low - budget horror film Urban Explorer, which follows a group of four urban explorers who explore an underground world beneath metropolitan Berlin.
In 2010, Kelley played the love interest in the music video for the Bruno Mars song "Just the Way You Are ''. In August 2011, Kelley signed on in a major recurring role in the second season of the ABC crime drama television series Body of Proof. Kelley appeared as Dani Alvarez in ten episodes and made her final appearance in the episode "Going Viral Part One ''. In 2012, Kelley played a vampire princess in the video clip "Luna Llena '' from Puerto Rican reggaeton duo Baby Rasta & Gringo. In 2014, she won a regular role in the Lifetime series Unreal. From 2016 to 2017, Kelly appeared as Sybil in the final season of The CW television series The Vampire Diaries.
In January 2017, Kelley was cast as Cristal in The CW 's Dynasty reboot.
By 2018, Kelley was dating Jordan "Jordy '' Burrows. In April 2018, Kelley confirmed in an Instagram post that she and Burrows are engaged. They married on 29 April 2018.
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what does huac stand for and what is its main objective | House Un-American Activities committee - wikipedia
The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC, or House Committee on Un-American Activities, or HCUA) was an investigative committee of the United States House of Representatives. The HUAC was created in 1938 to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities on the part of private citizens, public employees, and those organizations suspected of having communist ties. In 1969, the House changed the committee 's name to "House Committee on Internal Security ''. When the House abolished the committee in 1975, its functions were transferred to the House Judiciary Committee.
The committee 's anti-communist investigations are often associated with those of Joseph McCarthy who, as a U.S. Senator, had no direct involvement with this House committee. McCarthy was the chairman of the Government Operations Committee and its Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the U.S. Senate, not the House.
The Overman Committee was a subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary chaired by North Carolina Democratic Senator Lee Slater Overman that operated from September 1918 to June 1919. The subcommittee investigated German as well as Bolshevik elements in the United States.
This committee was originally concerned with investigating pro-German sentiments in the American liquor industry. After World War I ended in November 1918, and the German threat lessened, the committee began investigating Bolshevism, which had appeared as a threat during the First Red Scare after the Russian Revolution in 1917. The committee 's hearing into Bolshevik propaganda, conducted February 11 to March 10, 1919, had a decisive role in constructing an image of a radical threat to the United States during the first Red Scare.
Congressman Hamilton Fish III (R - NY), who was a fervent anti-communist, introduced, on May 5, 1930, House Resolution 180, which proposed to establish a committee to investigate communist activities in the United States. The resulting committee, commonly known as the Fish Committee, undertook extensive investigations of people and organizations suspected of being involved with or supporting communist activities in the United States. Among the committee 's targets were the American Civil Liberties Union and communist presidential candidate William Z. Foster. The committee recommended granting the United States Department of Justice more authority to investigate communists, and strengthening of immigration and deportation laws to keep communists out of the United States.
From 1934 to 1937, the Special Committee on Un-American Activities Authorized to Investigate Nazi Propaganda and Certain Other Propaganda Activities, chaired by John William McCormack (D - MA) and Samuel Dickstein (D - NY), held public and private hearings and collected testimony filling 4,300 pages. The committee was widely known as the McCormack - Dickstein committee. Its mandate was to get "information on how foreign subversive propaganda entered the U.S. and the organizations that were spreading it '', and it was replaced with a similar committee that focused on pursuing communists. Its records are held by the National Archives and Records Administration as records related to HUAC.
The committee investigated allegations of a fascist plot to seize the White House, known as the "business plot ''. Although the plot was widely reported as a hoax, the committee confirmed some details of the accusations.
It has been reported that while Dickstein served on this committee and the subsequent Special investigation Committee, he was paid $1,250 a month by the Soviet NKVD, which hoped to get secret congressional information on anti-communists and pro-fascists. It is unclear whether he actually passed on any information.
On May 26, 1938, the House Committee on Un-American Activities was established as a special investigating committee, reorganized from its previous incarnations as the Fish Committee and the McCormack - Dickstein Committee, to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities on the part of private citizens, public employees, and those organizations suspected of having communist or fascist ties; however, it concentrated its efforts on communists. It was chaired by Martin Dies Jr. (D - Tex.), and therefore known as the Dies Committee.
In 1938, Hallie Flanagan, the head of the Federal Theatre Project, was subpoenaed to appear before the committee to answer the charge the project was overrun with communists. Flanagan was called to testify for only a part of one day, while a clerk from the project was called in for two entire days. It was during this investigation that one of the committee members, Joe Starnes (D - Ala.), famously asked Flanagan whether the Elizabethan era playwright Christopher Marlowe was a member of the Communist Party, and mused "Mr. Euripides '' preached class warfare.
In 1939, the committee investigated leaders of the American Youth Congress, a Communist International affiliate organization.
The committee also put together an argument for the internment of Japanese Americans known as the "Yellow Report ''. Organized in response to rumors of Japanese Americans being coddled by the War Relocation Authority (WRA) and news that some former inmates would be allowed to leave camp and Nisei soldiers to return to the West Coast, the committee investigated charges of fifth column activity in the camps. A number of anti-WRA arguments were presented in subsequent hearings, but Director Dillon Myer debunked the more inflammatory claims. The investigation was presented to the 77th Congress, and alleged that certain cultural traits - Japanese loyalty to the Emperor, the number of Japanese fishermen in the US, and the Buddhist faith - were evidence for Japanese espionage. With the exception of Rep. Herman Eberharter (D - Pa.), the members of the committee seemed to support internment, and its recommendations to expedite the impending segregation of "troublemakers '', establish a system to investigate applicants for leave clearance, and step up Americanization and assimilation efforts largely coincided with WRA goals.
In 1946, the committee considered opening investigations into the Ku Klux Klan, but decided against doing so, prompting white supremacist committee member John E. Rankin (D - Miss.) to remark, "After all, the KKK is an old American institution. '' Instead of the Klan, HUAC concentrated on investigating the possibility that the American Communist Party had infiltrated the Works Progress Administration, including the Federal Theatre Project and the Federal Writers ' Project. Twenty years later, in 1965 -- 1966, however, the committee did conduct an investigation into Klan activities under chairman Edwin Willis (D - La.).
The House Committee on Un-American Activities became a standing (permanent) committee in 1945. Democratic Representative Edward J. Hart of New Jersey became the committee 's first chairman. Under the mandate of Public Law 601, passed by the 79th Congress, the committee of nine representatives investigated suspected threats of subversion or propaganda that attacked "the form of government guaranteed by our Constitution ''.
Under this mandate, the committee focused its investigations on real and suspected communists in positions of actual or supposed influence in the United States society. A significant step for HUAC was its investigation of the charges of espionage brought against Alger Hiss in 1948. This investigation ultimately resulted in Hiss 's trial and conviction for perjury, and convinced many of the usefulness of congressional committees for uncovering communist subversion.
In 1947, the committee held nine days of hearings into alleged communist propaganda and influence in the Hollywood motion picture industry. After conviction on contempt of Congress charges for refusal to answer some questions posed by committee members, "The Hollywood Ten '' were blacklisted by the industry. Eventually, more than 300 artists - including directors, radio commentators, actors, and particularly screenwriters - were boycotted by the studios. Some, like Charlie Chaplin, Orson Welles, Paul Robeson, and Yip Harburg, left the U.S or went underground to find work. Others wrote under pseudonyms or the names of colleagues. Only about ten percent succeeded in rebuilding careers within the entertainment industry.
In 1947, studio executives told the committee that wartime films -- such as Mission to Moscow, The North Star, and Song of Russia -- could be considered pro-Soviet propaganda, but claimed that the films were valuable in the context of the Allied war effort, and that they were made (in the case of Mission to Moscow) at the request of White House officials. In response to the House investigations, most studios produced a number of anti-communist and anti-Soviet propaganda films such as The Red Menace (August 1949), The Red Danube (October 1949), The Woman on Pier 13 (October 1949), Guilty of Treason (May 1950, about the ordeal and trial of Cardinal József Mindszenty), I Was a Communist for the FBI (May 1951, Academy Award nominated for best documentary 1951, also serialized for radio), Red Planet Mars (May 1952), and John Wayne 's Big Jim McLain (August 1952). Universal - International Pictures was the only major studio that did not produce such a film.
On July 31, 1948, the committee heard testimony from Elizabeth Bentley, an American who had been working as a Soviet agent in New York. Among those whom she named as communists was Harry Dexter White. The committee subpoenaed Whittaker Chambers for August 3, 1948. Chambers, too, was a former Soviet spy, by then a senior editor of Time magazine.
Chambers named more than a half dozen government officials including White as well as Alger Hiss (and Hiss ' brother Donald). Most of these former officials refused to answer committee questions, citing the Fifth Amendment. White denied the allegations, and died of a heart attack a few days later. Hiss also denied all charges; however, doubts about his testimony, especially those expressed by freshman Congressman Richard Nixon, led to further investigation that strongly suggested Hiss had made a number of false statements. Hiss challenged Chambers to repeat his charges outside of a Congressional committee, which Chambers did. Hiss sued for libel, leading Chambers to produce copies of State Department documents which he claimed Hiss had given him in 1938. Hiss denied this before a grand jury, was indicted for perjury, and was convicted and imprisoned. The present - day House of Representatives website on HUAC states that, "In the 1990s, relying on Soviet archives and records from the Venona project - a secret U.S. program that decrypted Soviet intelligence messages - some scholars argued that Hiss had indeed been a spy on the Kremlin 's payroll. ''
In the wake of the downfall of McCarthy (who never served in the House, nor HUAC), the prestige of HUAC began a gradual decline beginning in the late 1950s. By 1959, the committee was being denounced by former President Harry S. Truman as the "most un-American thing in the country today ''.
In May 1960, the committee held hearings in San Francisco City Hall that led to the infamous "riot '' on May 13, when city police officers fire - hosed protesting students from UC Berkeley, Stanford, and other local colleges and dragged them down the marble steps beneath the rotunda, leaving some seriously injured. Soviet affairs expert William Mandel, who had been subpoenaed to testify, angrily denounced the committee and the police in a blistering statement which was aired repeatedly for years thereafter on Pacifica Radio station KPFA in Berkeley. An anti-communist propaganda film, Operation Abolition, was produced by the committee from subpoenaed local news reports, and shown around the country during 1960 and 1961. In response, the Northern California ACLU produced a film called Operation Correction, which discussed falsehoods in the first film. Scenes from the hearings and protest were later featured in the Academy Award - nominated 1990 documentary Berkeley in the Sixties.
The committee lost considerable prestige as the 1960s progressed, increasingly becoming the target of political satirists and the defiance of a new generation of political activists. HUAC subpoenaed Jerry Rubin and Abbie Hoffman of the Yippies in 1967, and again in the aftermath of the 1968 Democratic National Convention. The Yippies used the media attention to make a mockery of the proceedings. Rubin came to one session dressed as a United States Revolutionary War soldier and passed out copies of the United States Declaration of Independence to people in attendance. Rubin then "blew giant gum bubbles, while his co-witnesses taunted the committee with Nazi salutes ''. Hoffman attended a session dressed as Santa Claus. On another occasion, police stopped Hoffman at the building entrance and arrested him for wearing the United States flag. Hoffman quipped to the press, "I regret that I have but one shirt to give for my country '', paraphrasing the last words of revolutionary patriot Nathan Hale; Rubin, who was wearing a matching Viet Cong flag, shouted that the police were communists for not arresting him also.
Hearings in August 1966 called to investigate anti-Vietnam war activities were disrupted by hundreds of protesters, many from the Progressive Labor Party. The committee faced witnesses who were openly defiant.
According to The Harvard Crimson:
In the fifties, the most effective sanction was terror. Almost any publicity from HUAC meant the ' blacklist '. Without a chance to clear his name, a witness would suddenly find himself without friends and without a job. But it is not easy to see how in 1969, a HUAC blacklist could terrorize an SDS activist. Witnesses like Jerry Rubin have openly boasted of their contempt for American institutions. A subpoena from HUAC would be unlikely to scandalize Abbie Hoffman or his friends.
In an attempt to reinvent itself, the committee was renamed as the Internal Security Committee in 1969.
The House Committee on Internal Security was formally terminated on January 14, 1975, the day of the opening of the 94th Congress. The Committee 's files and staff were transferred on that day to the House Judiciary Committee.
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where did the name hawaii five-0 come from | Hawaii Five - O - wikipedia
Hawaii Five - O or Hawaii Five - 0 may refer to:
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when did the battle of little bighorn happen | Battle of the Little Bighorn - wikipedia
Up to 160 wounded
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, known to the Lakota and other Plains Indians as the Battle of the Greasy Grass and also commonly referred to as Custer 's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes and the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. The battle, which resulted in the defeat of US forces, was the most significant action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. It took place on June 25 -- 26, 1876, along the Little Bighorn River in the Crow Indian Reservation in southeastern Montana Territory.
The fight was an overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, who were led by several major war leaders, including Crazy Horse and Chief Gall, and had been inspired by the visions of Sitting Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake). The US 7th Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, a force of 700 men led by Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer, suffered a major defeat. Five of the 7th Cavalry 's 12 companies were annihilated and Custer was killed, as were two of his brothers, a nephew and a brother - in - law. The total US casualty count included 268 dead and 55 severely wounded (six died later from their wounds), including four Crow Indian scouts and two Pawnee Indian scouts.
Public response to the Great Sioux War varied in the immediate aftermath of the battle. Custer 's widow soon worked to burnish her husband 's memory, and during the following decades Custer and his troops came to be considered iconic, even heroic, figures in American history, a status that lasted into the 1960s. The battle, and Custer 's actions in particular, have been studied extensively by historians.
In 1805 fur trader Francois Antoine Larocque reported joining a Crow camp in the Yellowstone area. On the way he noted that the Crow hunted buffalo on the "Small Horn River ''. The US built Fort Raymond in 1807 for trade with the Crow. It was located near the confluence of the Yellowstone and the Bighorn, about 40 miles north of the future battlefield. The area is first noted in the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie.
In the latter half of the 19th century tensions increased between the Native inhabitants of the Great Plains of the US and encroaching settlers. This resulted in a series of conflicts known as the Sioux Wars, which took place from 1854 - 90. While some of the indigenous people eventually agreed to relocate to ever - shrinking reservations, a number of them resisted, at times fiercely.
On May 7, 1868, the valley of the Little Bighorn became a tract in the eastern part of the new Crow Indian Reservation in the center of the old Crow country. The battlefield is known as "Greasy Grass '' to the Lakota, Dakota, Cheyenne, and most other Plains Indians; however, in contemporary accounts by participants, it was referred to as the "Valley of Chieftains ''.
Among the Plains Tribes, the long - standing ceremonial tradition known as the Sun Dance was the most important religious event of the year. It is a time for prayer and personal sacrifice on behalf of the community, as well as making personal vows. Towards the end of spring in 1876, the Lakota and the Cheyenne held a Sun Dance that was also attended by a number of "Agency Indians '' who had slipped away from their reservations. During a Sun Dance around June 5, 1876, on Rosebud Creek in Montana, Sitting Bull, the spiritual leader of the Hunkpapa Lakota, reportedly had a vision of "soldiers falling into his camp like grasshoppers from the sky. '' At the same time US military officials were conducting a summer campaign to force the Lakota and the Cheyenne back to their reservations, using infantry and cavalry in a so - called "three - pronged approach ''.
Col. John Gibbon 's column of six companies (A, B, E, H, I, and K) of the 7th Infantry and four companies (F, G, H, and L) of the 2nd Cavalry marched east from Fort Ellis in western Montana on March 30 to patrol the Yellowstone River. Brig. Gen. George Crook 's column of ten companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, I, L, and M) of the 3rd Cavalry, five companies (A, B, D, E, and I) of the 2nd Cavalry, two companies (D and F) of the 4th Infantry, and three companies (C, G, and H) of the 9th Infantry moved north from Fort Fetterman in the Wyoming Territory on May 29, marching toward the Powder River area. Brig. Gen. Alfred Terry 's column, including twelve companies (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, and M) of the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer 's immediate command, Companies C and G of the 17th U.S. Infantry, and the Gatling gun detachment of the 20th Infantry departed westward from Fort Abraham Lincoln in the Dakota Territory on May 17. They were accompanied by teamsters and packers with 150 wagons and a large contingent of pack mules that reinforced Custer. Companies C, D, and I of the 6th U.S. Infantry moved along the Yellowstone River from Fort Buford on the Missouri River to set up a supply depot and joined Terry on May 29 at the mouth of the Powder River. They were later joined there by the steamboat Far West, which was loaded with 200 tons of supplies from Fort Lincoln.
The 7th Cavalry had been created just after the American Civil War. Many men were veterans of the war, including most of the leading officers. A significant portion of the regiment had previously served 4 - 1 / 2 years at Fort Riley, Kansas, during which time it fought one major engagement and numerous skirmishes, experiencing casualties of 36 killed and 27 wounded. Six other troopers had died of drowning and 51 in cholera epidemics. In November 1868, while stationed in Kansas, the 7th Cavalry under Custer had successfully routed Black Kettle 's Southern Cheyenne camp on the Washita River in the Battle of Washita River, an attack which was at the time labeled a "massacre of innocent Indians '' by the Indian Bureau.
By the time of the Little Bighorn, half of the 7th Cavalry 's companies had just returned from 18 months of constabulary duty in the Deep South, having been recalled to Fort Abraham Lincoln to reassemble the regiment for the campaign. About 20 % of the troopers had been enlisted in the prior seven months (139 of an enlisted roll of 718), were only marginally trained and had no combat or frontier experience. A sizable number of these recruits were immigrants from Ireland, England and Germany, just as many of the veteran troopers had been before their enlistments. Archaeological evidence suggests that many of these troopers were malnourished and in poor physical condition, despite being the best - equipped and supplied regiment in the Army.
Of the 45 officers and 718 troopers then assigned to the 7th Cavalry (including a second lieutenant detached from the 20th Infantry and serving in Company L), 14 officers (including the regimental commander, Col. Samuel D. Sturgis) and 152 troopers did not accompany the 7th during the campaign. The ratio of troops detached for other duty (approximately 22 %) was not unusual for an expedition of this size, and part of the officer shortage was chronic, due to the Army 's rigid seniority system: three of the regiment 's 12 captains were permanently detached, and two had never served a day with the 7th since their appointment in July 1866. Three second lieutenant vacancies (in E, H, and L Companies) were also unfilled.
The Army 's coordination and planning began to go awry on June 17, 1876, when Crook 's column retreated after the Battle of the Rosebud, just 30 miles to the southeast of the eventual Little Bighorn battlefield. Surprised and according to some accounts astonished by the unusually large numbers of Native Americans, Crook held the field at the end of the battle but felt compelled by his losses to pull back, regroup, and wait for reinforcements. Unaware of Crook 's battle, Gibbon and Terry proceeded, joining forces in early June near the mouth of Rosebud Creek. They reviewed Terry 's plan calling for Custer 's regiment to proceed south along the Rosebud while Terry and Gibbon 's united forces would move in a westerly direction toward the Bighorn and Little Bighorn rivers. As this was the likely location of native encampments, all army elements had been instructed to converge there around June 26 or 27 in an attempt to engulf the Native Americans. On June 22, Terry ordered the 7th Cavalry, composed of 31 officers and 566 enlisted men under Custer, to begin a reconnaissance in force and pursuit along the Rosebud, with the prerogative to "depart '' from orders if Custer saw "sufficient reason ''. Custer had been offered the use of Gatling guns but declined, believing they would slow his command.
While the Terry -- Gibbon column was marching toward the mouth of the Little Bighorn, on the evening of June 24, Custer 's Indian scouts arrived at an overlook known as the Crow 's Nest, 14 miles (23 km) east of the Little Bighorn River. At sunrise on June 25, Custer 's scouts reported they could see a massive pony herd and signs of the Native American village roughly 15 miles (24 km) in the distance. After a night 's march, the tired officer who was sent with the scouts could see neither, and when Custer joined them, he was also unable to make the sighting. Custer 's scouts also spotted the regimental cooking fires that could be seen from 10 miles (16 km) away, disclosing the regiment 's position.
Custer contemplated a surprise attack against the encampment the following morning of June 26, but he then received a report informing him several hostiles had discovered the trail left by his troops. Assuming his presence had been exposed, Custer decided to attack the village without further delay. On the morning of June 25, Custer divided his 12 companies into three battalions in anticipation of the forthcoming engagement. Three companies were placed under the command of Major Marcus Reno (A, G, and M) and three were placed under the command of Captain Frederick Benteen (H, D, and K). Five companies (C, E, F, I, and L) remained under Custer 's immediate command. The 12th, Company B under Captain Thomas McDougall, had been assigned to escort the slower pack train carrying provisions and additional ammunition.
Unknown to Custer, the group of Native Americans seen on his trail was actually leaving the encampment and did not alert the rest of the village. Custer 's scouts warned him about the size of the village, with Mitch Bouyer reportedly saying, "General, I have been with these Indians for 30 years, and this is the largest village I have ever heard of. '' Custer 's overriding concern was that the Native American group would break up and scatter. The command began its approach to the village at noon and prepared to attack in full daylight.
As the Army moved into the field on its expedition, it was operating with incorrect assumptions as to the number of Indians it would encounter. These assumptions were based on inaccurate information provided by the Indian Agents that no more than 800 hostiles were in the area. The Indian Agents based this estimate on the number of Lakota that Sitting Bull and other leaders had reportedly led off the reservation in protest of U.S. government policies. It was in fact a correct estimate until several weeks before the battle, when the "reservation Indians '' joined Sitting Bull 's ranks for the summer buffalo hunt. The agents did not take into account the many thousands of these "reservation Indians '' who had unofficially left the reservation to join their "uncooperative non-reservation cousins led by Sitting Bull ''. Thus, Custer unknowingly faced thousands of Indians, including the 800 non-reservation "hostiles ''. All Army plans were based on the incorrect numbers. Although Custer was severely criticized after the battle for not having accepted reinforcements and for dividing his forces, it must be understood that he had accepted the same official government estimates of hostiles in the area which Terry and Gibbon had also accepted. Historian James Donovan states that when Custer asked interpreter Fred Gerard for his opinion on the size of the opposition, he estimated the force at between 1,500 to 2,500 warriors.
Additionally, Custer was more concerned with preventing the escape of the Lakota and Cheyenne than with fighting them. From his own observation, as reported by his bugler John Martin (Martini), Custer assumed the warriors had been sleeping in on the morning of the battle, to which virtually every native account attested later, giving Custer a false estimate of what he was up against. When he and his scouts first looked down on the village from the Crow 's Nest across the Little Bighorn River, they could only see the herd of ponies. Looking from a hill 2.5 miles (4.0 km) away after parting with Reno 's command, Custer could observe only women preparing for the day, and young boys taking thousands of horses out to graze south of the village. Custer 's Crow scouts told him it was the largest native village they had ever seen. When the scouts began changing back into their native dress right before the battle, Custer released them from his command. While the village was enormous in size, Custer thought there were far fewer warriors to defend the village. He assumed most of the warriors were still asleep in their tipis.
Finally, Custer may have assumed that in the event of his encountering Native Americans, his subordinate Benteen with the pack train would quickly come to his aid. Rifle volleys were a standard way of telling supporting units to come to another unit 's aid. In a subsequent official 1879 Army investigation requested by Major Reno, the Reno Board of Inquiry (RCOI), Benteen and Reno 's men testified that they heard distinct rifle volleys as late as 4: 30 pm during the battle.
Custer had initially wanted to take a day and scout the village before attacking; however, when men went back after supplies dropped by the pack train, they discovered they were being back - trailed by Indians. Reports from his scouts also revealed fresh pony tracks from ridges overlooking his formation. It became apparent that the warriors in the village were either aware of or would soon be aware of his approach. Fearing that the village would break up into small bands that he would have to chase, Custer began to prepare for an immediate attack.
Custer 's field strategy was designed to engage noncombatants at the encampments on the Little Bighorn so as to capture women, children, and the elderly or disabled to serve as hostages to convince the warriors to surrender and comply with federal orders to relocate. Custer 's battalions were poised to "ride into the camp and secure noncombatant hostages '' and "forc (e) the warriors to surrender ''. Author Evan S. Connell observed that if Custer could occupy the village before widespread resistance developed, the Sioux and Cheyenne warriors "would be obliged to surrender, because if they started to fight, they would be shooting their own families. ''
In Custer 's book My Life on the Plains, published just two years before the Battle of the Little Bighorn, he asserted:
Indians contemplating a battle, either offensive or defensive, are always anxious to have their women and children removed from all danger... For this reason I decided to locate our (military) camp as close as convenient to (Chief Black Kettle 's Cheyenne) village, knowing that the close proximity of their women and children, and their necessary exposure in case of conflict, would operate as a powerful argument in favor of peace, when the question of peace or war came to be discussed.
On Custer 's decision to advance up the bluffs and descend on the village from the east, Lt. Edward Godfrey of Company K surmised:
(Custer) expected to find the squaws and children fleeing to the bluffs on the north, for in no other way do I account for his wide detour. He must have counted upon Reno 's success, and fully expected the "scatteration '' of the non-combatants with the pony herds. The probable attack upon the families and capture of the herds were in that event counted upon to strike consternation in the hearts of the warriors, and were elements for success upon which General Custer fully counted.
The Sioux and Cheyenne fighters were acutely aware of the danger posed by the military engagement of noncombatants and that "even a semblance of an attack on the women and children '' would draw the warriors back to the village, according to historian John S. Gray. Such was their concern that a "feint '' by Capt. Yates ' E and F Companies at the mouth of Medicine Tail Coulee (Minneconjou Ford) caused hundreds of warriors to disengage from the Reno valley fight and return to deal with the threat to the village.
Some authors and historians, based on archaeological evidence and reviews of native testimony, speculate that Custer attempted to cross the river at a point they refer to as Ford D. According to Richard A. Fox, James Donovan, and others, Custer proceeded with a wing of his battalion (Yates ' Troops E and F) north and opposite the Cheyenne circle at that crossing, which provided "access to the (women and children) fugitives. '' Yates 's force "posed an immediate threat to fugitive Indian families... '' gathering at the north end of the huge encampment; he then persisted in his efforts to "seize women and children '' even as hundreds of warriors were massing around Keogh 's wing on the bluffs. Yates ' wing, descending to the Little Bighorn River at Ford D, encountered "light resistance '', undetected by the Indian forces ascending the bluffs east of the village. Custer was almost within "striking distance of the refugees '' before being repulsed by Indian defenders and forced back to Custer Ridge.
The Lone Teepee (or Tipi) was a landmark along the 7th Cavalry 's march. It was where the Indian encampment had been a week earlier, during the Battle of the Rosebud on June 17. The Indians had left a single teepee standing (some reports mention a second that had been partially dismantled), and in it was the body of a Sans Arc warrior, Old She - Bear, who had been wounded in the battle. He had died a couple of days after the Rosebud battle, and it was the custom of the Indians to move camp when a warrior died and leave the body with its possessions. The Lone Teepee was an important location during the Battle of the Little Bighorn for several reasons, including:
The first group to attack was Major Reno 's second detachment (Companies A, G and M) after receiving orders from Custer written out by Lt. William W. Cooke, as Custer 's Crow scouts reported Sioux tribe members were alerting the village. Ordered to charge, Reno began that phase of the battle. The orders, made without accurate knowledge of the village 's size, location, or the warriors ' propensity to stand and fight, had been to pursue the Native Americans and "bring them to battle. '' Reno 's force crossed the Little Bighorn at the mouth of what is today Reno Creek around 3: 00 pm on June 25. They immediately realized that the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne were present "in force and not running away. ''
Reno advanced rapidly across the open field towards the northwest, his movements masked by the thick bramble of trees that ran along the southern banks of the Little Bighorn River. The same trees on his front right shielded his movements across the wide field over which his men rapidly rode, first with two approximately forty - man companies abreast and eventually with all three charging abreast. The trees also obscured Reno 's view of the Native American village until his force had passed that bend on his right front and was suddenly within arrow - shot of the village. The tepees in that area were occupied by the Hunkpapa Sioux. Neither Custer nor Reno had much idea of the length, depth and size of the encampment they were attacking, as the village was hidden by the trees. When Reno came into the open in front of the south end of the village, he sent his Arikara / Ree and Crow Indian scouts forward on his exposed left flank. Realizing the full extent of the village 's width, Reno quickly suspected what he would later call "a trap '' and stopped a few hundred yards short of the encampment.
He ordered his troopers to dismount and deploy in a skirmish line, according to standard army doctrine. In this formation, every fourth trooper held the horses for the troopers in firing position, with five to ten yards separating each trooper, officers to their rear and troopers with horses behind the officers. This formation reduced Reno 's firepower by 25 percent. As Reno 's men fired into the village and killed, by some accounts, several wives and children of the Sioux leader, Chief Gall (in Lakota, Phizí), mounted warriors began streaming out to meet the attack. With Reno 's men anchored on their right by the impassable tree line and bend in the river, the Indians rode hard against the exposed left end of Reno 's line. After about 20 minutes of long - distance firing, Reno had taken only one casualty, but the odds against him had risen (Reno estimated five to one) and Custer had not reinforced him. Trooper Billy Jackson reported that by then, the Indians had begun massing in the open area shielded by a small hill to the left of Reno 's line and to the right of the Indian village. From this position the Indians mounted an attack of more than 500 warriors against the left and rear of Reno 's line, turning Reno 's exposed left flank. They forced a hasty withdrawal into the timber along the bend in the river. Here the Indians pinned Reno and his men down and set fire to the brush to try to drive the soldiers out of their position.
After giving orders to mount, dismount and mount again, Reno told his men, "All those who wish to make their escape follow me, '' and led a disorderly rout across the river toward the bluffs on the other side. The retreat was immediately disrupted by Cheyenne attacks at close quarters. Later, Reno reported that three officers and 29 troopers had been killed during the retreat and subsequent fording of the river. Another officer and 13 -- 18 men were missing. Most of these missing men were left behind in the timber, although many eventually rejoined the detachment. Reno 's hasty retreat may have been precipitated by the death of Reno 's Arikara scout Bloody Knife, who had been shot in the head as he sat on his horse next to Reno, his blood and brains splattering the side of Reno 's face.
Atop the bluffs, known today as Reno Hill, Reno 's shaken troops were joined by Captain Benteen 's column (Companies D, H and K), arriving from the south. This force had been on a lateral scouting mission when it had been summoned by Custer 's messenger, Italian bugler John Martin (Giovanni Martini) with the handwritten message "Benteen. Come on, Big Village, Be quick, Bring packs. P.S. Bring Packs. ''. Benteen 's coincidental arrival on the bluffs was just in time to save Reno 's men from possible annihilation. Their detachments were reinforced by McDougall 's Company B and the pack train. The 14 officers and 340 troopers on the bluffs organized an all - around defense and dug rifle pits using whatever implements they had among them, including knives. This practice had become standard during the last year of the American Civil War, with both Union and Confederate troops utilizing knives, eating utensils, mess plates and pans to dig effective battlefield fortifications.
Despite hearing heavy gunfire from the north, including distinct volleys at 4: 20 pm, Benteen concentrated on reinforcing Reno 's badly wounded and hard - pressed detachment rather than continuing on toward Custer 's position. Benteen 's apparent reluctance to reach Custer prompted later criticism that he had failed to follow orders. Around 5: 00 pm, Capt. Thomas Weir and Company D moved out to make contact with Custer. They advanced a mile, to what is today Weir Ridge or Weir Point, and could see in the distance native warriors on horseback shooting at objects on the ground. By this time, roughly 5: 25 pm, Custer 's battle may have concluded. The conventional historical understanding is that what Weir witnessed was most likely warriors killing the wounded soldiers and shooting at dead bodies on the "Last Stand Hill '' at the northern end of the Custer battlefield. Some contemporary historians have suggested that what Weir witnessed was a fight on what is now called Calhoun Hill. The destruction of Keogh 's battalion may have begun with the collapse of L, I and C Company (half of it) following the combined assaults led by Crazy Horse, White Bull, Hump, Chief Gall and others. Other native accounts contradict this understanding, however, and the time element remains a subject of debate. The other entrenched companies eventually followed Weir by assigned battalions, first Benteen, then Reno, and finally the pack train. Growing native attacks around Weir Ridge forced all seven companies to return to the bluff before the pack train, with the ammunition, had moved even a quarter mile. The companies remained pinned down on the bluff for another day, but the natives were unable to breach the tightly held position.
Benteen was hit in the heel of his boot by an Indian bullet. At one point, he personally led a counterattack to push back Indians who had continued to crawl through the grass closer to the soldier 's positions.
The precise details of Custer 's fight are largely conjectural since none of his men (the five companies under his immediate command) survived the battle. Later accounts from surviving Indians are conflicting and unclear.
While the gunfire heard on the bluffs by Reno and Benteen 's men was probably from Custer 's fight, the soldiers on Reno Hill were unaware of what had happened to Custer until General Terry 's arrival on June 27. They were reportedly stunned by the news. When the army examined the Custer battle site, soldiers could not determine fully what had transpired. Custer 's force of roughly 210 men had been engaged by the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne about 3.5 miles (5.6 km) to the north of Reno and Benteen 's defensive position. Evidence of organized resistance included apparent breastworks made of dead horses on Custer Hill. By the time troops came to recover the bodies, the Lakota and Cheyenne had already removed most of their dead from the field. The troops found most of Custer 's dead stripped of their clothing, ritually mutilated, and in an advanced state of decomposition, making identification of many impossible. The soldiers identified the 7th Cavalry 's dead as best as possible and hastily buried them where they fell.
Custer was found with shots to the left chest and left temple. Either wound would have been fatal, though he appeared to have bled from only the chest wound, meaning his head wound may have been delivered postmortem. He also suffered a wound to the arm. Some Lakota oral histories assert that Custer committed suicide to avoid capture and subsequent torture, though this is usually discounted since the wounds were inconsistent with his known right - handedness. (Other native accounts note several soldiers committing suicide near the end of the battle.) Custer 's body was found near the top of Custer Hill, which also came to be known as "Last Stand Hill ''. There the United States erected a tall memorial obelisk inscribed with the names of the 7th Cavalry 's casualties.
Several days after the battle, Curley, Custer 's Crow scout who had left Custer near Medicine Tail Coulee (a drainage which led to the river), recounted the battle, reporting that Custer had attacked the village after attempting to cross the river. He was driven back, retreating toward the hill where his body was found. As the scenario seemed compatible with Custer 's aggressive style of warfare and with evidence found on the ground, it became the basis of many popular accounts of the battle.
According to Pretty Shield, the wife of Goes - Ahead (another Crow scout for the 7th Cavalry), Custer was killed while crossing the river: "... and he died there, died in the water of the Little Bighorn, with Two - bodies, and the blue soldier carrying his flag ''. In this account, Custer was allegedly killed by a Lakota called Big - nose. However, in Chief Gall 's version of events, as recounted to Lt. Edward Settle Godfrey, Custer did not attempt to ford the river and the nearest that he came to the river or village was his final position on the ridge. Chief Gall 's statements were corroborated by other Indians, notably the wife of Spotted Horn Bull. Given that no bodies of men or horses were found anywhere near the ford, Godfrey himself concluded "that Custer did not go to the ford with any body of men ''.
Cheyenne oral tradition credits Buffalo Calf Road Woman with striking the blow that knocked Custer off his horse before he died.
- Reported words of Lieutenant Colonel Custer at the battle 's outset.
Having isolated Reno 's force and driven them away from the encampment, the bulk of the native warriors were free to pursue Custer. The route taken by Custer to his "Last Stand '' remains a subject of debate. One possibility is that after ordering Reno to charge, Custer continued down Reno Creek to within about a half mile (800 m) of the Little Bighorn, but then turned north and climbed up the bluffs, reaching the same spot to which Reno would soon retreat. From this point on the other side of the river, he could see Reno charging the village. Riding north along the bluffs, Custer could have descended into Medicine Tail Coulee. Some historians believe that part of Custer 's force descended the coulee, going west to the river and attempting unsuccessfully to cross into the village. According to some accounts, a small contingent of Indian sharpshooters opposed this crossing.
White Cow Bull claimed to have shot a leader wearing a buckskin jacket off his horse in the river. While no other Indian account supports this claim, if White Bull did shoot a buckskin - clad leader off his horse, some historians have argued that Custer may have been seriously wounded by him. Some Indian accounts claim that besides wounding one of the leaders of this advance, a soldier carrying a company guidon was also hit. Troopers had to dismount to help the wounded men back onto their horses. The fact that either of the non-mutilation wounds to Custer 's body (a bullet wound below the heart and a shot to the left temple) would have been instantly fatal casts doubt on his being wounded and remounted.
Reports of an attempted fording of the river at Medicine Tail Coulee might explain Custer 's purpose for Reno 's attack, that is, a coordinated "hammer - and - anvil '' maneuver, with Reno 's holding the Indians at bay at the southern end of the camp, while Custer drove them against Reno 's line from the north. Other historians have noted that if Custer did attempt to cross the river near Medicine Tail Coulee, he may have believed it was the north end of the Indian camp, although it was only the middle. Some Indian accounts, however, place the Northern Cheyenne encampment and the north end of the overall village to the left (and south) of the opposite side of the crossing. The precise location of the north end of the village remains in dispute, however.
Edward Curtis, the famed ethnologist and photographer of the Native American Indians, made a detailed personal study of the battle, interviewing many of those who had fought or taken part in it. First he went over the ground covered by the troops with the three Crow scouts White Man Runs Him, Goes Ahead, and Hairy Moccasin, and then again with Two Moons and a party of Cheyenne warriors. He also visited the Lakota country and interviewed Red Hawk, "whose recollection of the fight seemed to be particularly clear ''. Then, he went over the battlefield once more with the three Crow scouts, but also accompanied by General Charles Woodruff "as I particularly desired that the testimony of these men might be considered by an experienced army officer ''. Finally, Curtis visited the country of the Arikara and interviewed the scouts of that tribe who had been with Custer 's command. Based on all the information he gathered, Curtis concluded that Custer had indeed ridden down the Medicine Tail Coulee and then towards the river where he probably planned to ford it. However, "the Indians had now discovered him and were gathered closely on the opposite side ''. They were soon joined by a large force of Sioux who (no longer engaging Reno) rushed down the valley. This was the beginning of their attack on Custer who was forced to turn and head for the hill where he would make his famous "last stand ''. Thus, wrote Curtis, "Custer made no attack, the whole movement being a retreat ''.
Other historians claim that Custer never approached the river, but rather continued north across the coulee and up the other side, where he gradually came under attack. According to this theory, by the time Custer realized he was badly outnumbered, it was too late to break back to the south where Reno and Benteen could have provided assistance. Two men from the 7th Cavalry, the young Crow scout Ashishishe (known in English as Curley) and the trooper Peter Thompson, claimed to have seen Custer engage the Indians. The accuracy of their recollections remains controversial; accounts by battle participants and assessments by historians almost universally discredit Thompson 's claim.
Archaeological evidence and reassessment of Indian testimony has led to a new interpretation of the battle. In the 1920s, battlefield investigators discovered hundreds of. 45 -- 55 shell cases along the ridge line known today as Nye - Cartwright Ridge, between South Medicine Tail Coulee and the next drainage at North Medicine Tail (also known as Deep Coulee). Some historians believe Custer divided his detachment into two (and possibly three) battalions, retaining personal command of one while presumably delegating Captain George W. Yates to command the second.
Evidence from the 1920s supports the theory that at least one of the companies made a feint attack southeast from Nye - Cartwright Ridge straight down the center of the "V '' formed by the intersection at the crossing of Medicine Tail Coulee on the right and Calhoun Coulee on the left. The intent may have been to relieve pressure on Reno 's detachment (according to the Crow scout Curley, possibly viewed by both Mitch Bouyer and Custer) by withdrawing the skirmish line into the timber on the edge of the Little Bighorn River. Had the U.S. troops come straight down Medicine Tail Coulee, their approach to the Minneconjou Crossing and the northern area of the village would have been masked by the high ridges running on the northwest side of the Little Bighorn River.
That they might have come southeast, from the center of Nye - Cartwright Ridge, seems to be supported by Northern Cheyenne accounts of seeing the approach of the distinctly white - colored horses of Company E, known as the Grey Horse Company. Its approach was seen by Indians at that end of the village. Behind them, a second company, further up on the heights, would have provided long - range cover fire. Warriors could have been drawn to the feint attack, forcing the battalion back towards the heights, up the north fork drainage, away from the troops providing cover fire above. The covering company would have moved towards a reunion, delivering heavy volley fire and leaving the trail of expended cartridges discovered 50 years later.
In the end, the hilltop to which Custer had moved was probably too small to accommodate all of the survivors and wounded. Fire from the southeast made it impossible for Custer 's men to secure a defensive position all around Last Stand Hill where the soldiers put up their most dogged defense. According to Lakota accounts, far more of their casualties occurred in the attack on Last Stand Hill than anywhere else. The extent of the soldiers ' resistance indicated they had few doubts about their prospects for survival. According to Cheyenne and Sioux testimony, the command structure rapidly broke down, although smaller "last stands '' were apparently made by several groups. Custer 's remaining companies (E, F, and half of C) were soon killed.
By almost all accounts, the Lakota annihilated Custer 's force within an hour of engagement. David Humphreys Miller, who between 1935 and 1955 interviewed the last Lakota survivors of the battle, wrote that the Custer fight lasted less than one - half hour. Other native accounts said the fighting lasted only "as long as it takes a hungry man to eat a meal. '' The Lakota asserted that Crazy Horse personally led one of the large groups of warriors who overwhelmed the cavalrymen in a surprise charge from the northeast, causing a breakdown in the command structure and panic among the troops. Many of these men threw down their weapons while Cheyenne and Sioux warriors rode them down, "counting coup '' with lances, coup sticks, and quirts. Some Native accounts recalled this segment of the fight as a "buffalo run. ''
Captain Frederick Benteen, battalion leader of Companies D, H and K, recalled his observations on the Custer battlefield on June 27, 1876
I went over the battlefield carefully with a view to determine how the battle was fought. I arrived at the conclusion I (hold) now -- that it was a rout, a panic, until the last man was killed...
There was no line formed on the battlefield. You can take a handful of corn and scatter (the kernels) over the floor, and make just such lines. There were none... The only approach to a line was where 5 or 6 (dead) horses found at equal distances, like skirmishers (part of Lt. Calhoun 's Company L). That was the only approach to a line on the field. There were more than 20 (troopers) killed (in one group); there were (more often) four or five at one place, all within a space of 20 to 30 yards (of each other)... I counted 70 dead (cavalry) horses and 2 Indian ponies.
A Brulé Sioux warrior stated: "In fact, Hollow Horn Bear believed that the troops were in good order at the start of the fight, and kept their organization even while moving from point to point. '' Red Horse, an Oglala Sioux warrior, commented: "Here (Last Stand Hill) the soldiers made a desperate fight. '' One Hunkpapa Sioux warrior, Moving Robe, noted that "It was a hotly contested battle '', while another, Iron Hawk, stated: "The Indians pressed and crowded right in around Custer Hill. But the soldiers were n't ready to die. We stood there a long time. '' In a letter from February 21, 1910, Private William Taylor, Company M, 7th Cavalry, wrote: "Reno proved incompetent and Benteen showed his indifference -- I will not use the uglier words that have often been in my mind. Both failed Custer and he had to fight it out alone. ''
Recent archaeological work at the battlefield indicates that officers on Custer Hill restored some tactical control. E Company rushed off Custer Hill toward the Little Bighorn River but failed to reach it, which resulted in the total destruction of that company. This left about 50 - 60 men, mostly from F Company and the staff, on Last Stand Hill. The remainder of the battle took on the nature of a running fight. Modern archaeology and historical Indian accounts indicate that Custer 's force may have been divided into three groups, with the Indians ' attempting to prevent them from effectively reuniting. Indian accounts describe warriors (including women) running up from the village to wave blankets in order to scare off the soldiers ' horses. One 7th Cavalry trooper claimed finding a number of stone mallets consisting of a round cobble weighing 8 -- 10 pounds (about 4 kg) with a rawhide handle, which he believed had been used by the Indian women to finish off the wounded. Fighting dismounted, the soldiers ' skirmish lines were overwhelmed. Army doctrine would have called for one man in four to be a horseholder behind the skirmish lines and, in extreme cases, one man in eight. Later, the troops would have bunched together in defensive positions and are alleged to have shot their remaining horses as cover. As individual troopers were wounded or killed, initial defensive positions would have been abandoned as untenable.
Under threat of attack, the first U.S. soldiers on the battlefield three days later hurriedly buried the troopers in shallow graves, more or less where they had fallen. A couple of years after the battle, markers were placed where men were believed to have fallen, so the placement of troops has been roughly construed. The troops evidently died in several groups, including on Custer Hill, around Captain Myles Keogh, and strung out towards the Little Bighorn River.
Modern documentaries suggest that there may not have been a "Last Stand '' as traditionally portrayed in popular culture. Instead, archaeologists suggest that, in the end, Custer 's troops were not surrounded but rather overwhelmed by a single charge. This scenario corresponds to several Indian accounts stating Crazy Horse 's charge swarmed the resistance, with the surviving soldiers fleeing in panic. Many of these troopers may have ended up in a deep ravine 300 -- 400 yards away from what is known today as Custer Hill. At least 28 bodies (the most common number associated with burial witness testimony), including that of scout Mitch Bouyer, were discovered in or near that gulch, their deaths possibly the battle 's final actions. Although the marker for Mitch Bouyer has been accounted for as being accurate through archaeological and forensic testing, it is some 65 yards away from Deep Ravine. Other archaeological explorations done in Deep Ravine have found no human remains associated with the battle. According to Indian accounts, about 40 men made a desperate stand around Custer on Custer Hill, delivering volley fire. The great majority of the Indian casualties were probably suffered during this closing segment of the battle, as the soldiers and Indians on Calhoun Ridge were more widely separated and traded fire at greater distances for most of their portion of the battle than did the soldiers and Indians on Custer Hill.
After the Custer force was soundly defeated, the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne regrouped to attack Reno and Benteen. The fight continued until dark (approximately 9: 00 pm) and for much of the next day, with the outcome in doubt. Reno credited Benteen 's luck with repulsing a severe attack on the portion of the perimeter held by Companies H and M. On June 27, the column under General Terry approached from the north, and the natives drew off in the opposite direction. The Crow scout White Man Runs Him was the first to tell General Terry 's officers that Custer 's force had "been wiped out. '' Reno and Benteen 's wounded troops were given what treatment was available at that time; five later died of their wounds. One of the regiment 's three surgeons had been with Custer 's column, while another, Dr. DeWolf, had been killed during Reno 's retreat. The only remaining doctor was Assistant Surgeon Henry R. Porter.
News of the defeat arrived in the East as the U.S. was observing its centennial. The Army began to investigate, although its effectiveness was hampered by a concern for survivors, and the reputation of the officers. Custer 's wife, Elisabeth Bacon Custer, in particular, guarded and promoted the ideal of him as the gallant hero, attacking any who cast an ill light on his reputation.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn had far - reaching consequences for the Natives. It was the beginning of the end of the ' Indian ' Wars and has even been referred to as "the Indians '' last stand '' in the area. Within 48 hours of the battle, the large encampment on the Little Bighorn broke up into smaller groups because there was not enough game and grass to sustain a large congregation of people and horses.
Oglala Sioux Black Elk recounted the exodus this way: "We fled all night, following the Greasy Grass. My two younger brothers and I rode in a pony - drag, and my mother put some young pups in with us. They were always trying to crawl out and I was always putting them back in, so I did n't sleep much. ''
The scattered Sioux and Cheyenne feasted and celebrated during July with no threat from soldiers. After their celebrations, many of the Natives returned to the reservation. Soon the number of warriors amounted to only about 600. Both Crook and Terry remained immobile for seven weeks after the battle, awaiting reinforcements and unwilling to venture out against the Sioux and Cheyenne until they had at least 2,000 men. Crook and Terry finally took the field against the Natives forces in August. General Nelson A. Miles took command of the effort in October 1876. In May 1877, Sitting Bull escaped to Canada. Within days, Crazy Horse surrendered at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. The Great Sioux War ended on May 7 with Miles ' defeat of a remaining band of Miniconjou Sioux.
Ownership of the Black Hills, which had been a focal point of the 1876 conflict, was determined by an ultimatum issued by the Manypenny Commission, according to which the Sioux were required to cede the land to the United States if they wanted the government to continue supplying rations to the reservations. Threatened with forced starvation, the Natives ceded Paha Sapa to the United States, but the Sioux never accepted the legitimacy of the transaction. They lobbied Congress to create a forum to decide their claim and subsequently litigated for 40 years; the United States Supreme Court in the 1980 decision United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians acknowledged that the United States had taken the Black Hills without just compensation. The Sioux refused the money subsequently offered and continue to insist on their right to occupy the land.
Modern - day accounts include Arapaho warriors in the battle, but the five Arapaho men who were at the encampments were there only by accident. While on a hunting trip they came close to the village by the river and were captured and almost killed by the Lakota who believed the hunters were scouts for the U.S. Army. Two Moon, a Northern Cheyenne leader, interceded to save their lives.
The 7th Cavalry was accompanied by a number of scouts and interpreters:
Native Americans
Native Americans
United States Army, Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer, 7th United States Cavalry Regiment, Commanding.
Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer †, commanding.
Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer †
Major Marcus Reno
Captain Frederick Benteen
First Lieutenant Edward Gustave Mathey
Second Lieutenant Charles Varnum (wounded), Chief of Scouts
Estimates of Native American casualties have differed widely, from as few as 36 dead (from Native American listings of the dead by name) to as many as 300. Lakota chief Red Horse told Col. W.H. Wood in 1877 that the Native Americans suffered 136 dead and 160 wounded during the battle. In 1881, Red Horse told Dr. C.E. McChesney the same numbers but in a series of drawings done by Red Horse to illustrate the battle, he drew only sixty figures representing Lakota and Cheyenne casualties. Of those sixty figures only thirty some are portrayed with a conventional Plains Indian method of indicating death. In the last 140 years, historians have been able to identify multiple Indian names pertaining to the same individual, which has greatly reduced previously inflated numbers. Today a list of positively known casualties exists that lists 99 names, attributed and consolidated to 31 identified warriors.
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties
Red Horse pictographic of Lakota casualties at Battle of Little Bighorn (Plate XLV)
Six unnamed Native American women and four unnamed children are known to have been killed at the beginning of the battle during Reno 's charge. Among them were two wives and three children of the Hunkpapa Leader Pizi (Gall).
The 7th Cavalry suffered 52 percent casualties: 16 officers and 242 troopers killed or died of wounds, 1 officer and 51 troopers wounded. Every soldier of the five companies with Custer was killed (except for some Crow scouts and several troopers that had left that column before the battle or as the battle was starting). Among the dead were Custer 's brothers Boston and Thomas, his brother - in - law James Calhoun, and his nephew Henry Reed.
In 1878, the army awarded 24 Medals of Honor to participants in the fight on the bluffs for bravery, most for risking their lives to carry water from the river up the hill to the wounded. Few on the non-Indian side questioned the conduct of the enlisted men, but many questioned the tactics, strategy and conduct of the officers. Indian accounts spoke of soldiers ' panic - driven flight and suicide by those unwilling to fall captive to the Indians. While such stories were gathered by Thomas Bailey Marquis in a book in the 1930s, it was not published until 1976 because of the unpopularity of such assertions. Although soldiers may have believed captives would be tortured, Indians usually killed men outright and took as captive for adoption only young women and children. Indian accounts also noted the bravery of soldiers who fought to the death.
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen+ 2 Indian Government scouts (?)
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen
Red Horse pictographic of dead US cavalrymen & dead cavalry horses
Beginning in July, the 7th Cavalry was assigned new officers and recruiting efforts began to fill the depleted ranks. The regiment, reorganized into eight companies, remained in the field as part of the Terry Expedition, now based on the Yellowstone River at the mouth of the Bighorn and reinforced by Gibbon 's column. On August 8, 1876, after Terry was further reinforced with the 5th Infantry, the expedition moved up Rosebud Creek in pursuit of the Lakota. It met with Crook 's command, similarly reinforced, and the combined force, almost 4,000 strong, followed the Lakota trail northeast toward the Little Missouri River. Persistent rain and lack of supplies forced the column to dissolve and return to its varying starting points. The 7th Cavalry returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln to reconstitute.
The U.S. Congress authorized appropriations to expand the Army by 2,500 men to meet the emergency after the defeat of the 7th Cavalry. For a session, the Democratic Party - controlled House of Representatives abandoned its campaign to reduce the size of the Army. Word of Custer 's fate reached the 44th United States Congress as a conference committee was attempting to reconcile opposing appropriations bills approved by the House and the Republican Senate. They approved a measure to increase the size of cavalry companies to 100 enlisted men on July 24. The committee temporarily lifted the ceiling on the size of the Army by 2,500 on August 15.
As a result of the defeat in June 1876, Congress responded by attaching what the Sioux call the "sell or starve '' rider (19 Stat. 192) to the Indian Appropriations Act of 1876 (enacted August 15, 1876), which cut off all rations for the Sioux until they terminated hostilities and ceded the Black Hills to the United States. The Agreement of 1877 (19 Stat. 254, enacted February 28, 1877) officially took away Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn was the subject of an 1879 U.S. Army Court of Inquiry in Chicago, held at Reno 's request, during which his conduct was scrutinized. Some testimony by non-Army officers suggested that he was drunk and a coward. The court found Reno 's conduct to be without fault. After the battle, Thomas Rosser, James O'Kelly, and others continued to question the conduct of Reno due to his hastily ordered retreat. Defenders of Reno at the trial noted that, while the retreat was disorganized, Reno did not withdraw from his position until it became apparent that he was outnumbered and outflanked by the Indians. Contemporary accounts also point to the fact that Reno 's scout, Bloody Knife, was shot in the head, spraying him with blood, possibly increasing his own panic and distress.
General Terry and others claimed that Custer made strategic errors from the start of the campaign. For instance, he refused to use a battery of Gatling guns, and turned down General Terry 's offer of an additional battalion of the 2nd Cavalry. Custer believed that the Gatling guns would impede his march up the Rosebud and hamper his mobility. His rapid march en route to the Little Bighorn averaged nearly 30 miles (48 km) a day, so his assessment appears to have been accurate. Custer planned "to live and travel like Indians; in this manner the command will be able to go wherever the Indians can '', he wrote in his Herald dispatch.
By contrast, each Gatling gun had to be hauled by four horses, and soldiers often had to drag the heavy guns by hand over obstacles. Each of the heavy, hand - cranked weapons could fire up to 350 rounds a minute, an impressive rate, but they were known to jam frequently. During the Black Hills Expedition two years earlier, a Gatling gun had turned over, rolled down a mountain, and shattered to pieces. Lieutenant William Low, commander of the artillery detachment, was said to have almost wept when he learned he had been excluded from the strike force.
Custer believed that the 7th Cavalry could handle any Indian force and that the addition of the four companies of the 2nd would not alter the outcome. When offered the 2nd Cavalry, he reportedly replied that the 7th "could handle anything. '' There is evidence that Custer suspected that he would be outnumbered by the Indians, although he did not know by how much. By dividing his forces, Custer could have caused the defeat of the entire column, had it not been for Benteen 's and Reno 's linking up to make a desperate yet successful stand on the bluff above the southern end of the camp.
The historian James Donovan believed that Custer 's dividing his force into four smaller detachments (including the pack train) can be attributed to his inadequate reconnaissance; he also ignored the warnings of his Crow scouts and Charley Reynolds. By the time the battle began, Custer had already divided his forces into three battalions of differing sizes, of which he kept the largest. His men were widely scattered and unable to support each other. Wanting to prevent any escape by the combined tribes to the south, where they could disperse into different groups, Custer believed that an immediate attack on the south end of the camp was the best course of action.
Criticism of Custer was not universal. While investigating the battlefield, Lieutenant General Nelson A. Miles wrote in 1877, "The more I study the moves here (on the Little Big Horn), the more I have admiration for Custer. '' Facing major budget cutbacks, the U.S. Army wanted to avoid bad press and found ways to exculpate Custer. They blamed the defeat on the Indians ' alleged possession of numerous repeating rifles and the overwhelming numerical superiority of the warriors.
The widowed Elizabeth Bacon Custer, who never remarried, wrote three popular books in which she fiercely protected her husband 's reputation. She lived until 1933, thus preventing much serious research until most of the evidence was long gone. In addition, Captain Frederick Whittaker 's 1876 book idealizing Custer was hugely successful. Custer as a heroic officer fighting valiantly against savage forces was an image popularized in Wild West extravaganzas hosted by showman "Buffalo Bill '' Cody, Pawnee Bill, and others. It was not until over half a century later that historians took another look at the battle and Custer 's decisions that led to his death and loss of half his command and found much to criticize.
General Alfred Terry 's Dakota column included a single battery of artillery, comprising two Rodman guns (3 - inch Ordnance rifle) and two Gatling guns. (According to historian Evan S. Connell, the precise number of Gatlings has not been established, ranging from two to three.)
Custer 's decision to reject Terry 's offer of the rapid - fire Gatlings has raised questions among historians as to why he refused them and what advantage their availability might have conferred on his forces at the Battle of the Little Bighorn.
One factor concerned Major Marcus Reno 's recent 8 - day reconnaissance - in - force of the Powder - Tongue - Rosebud Rivers, June 10 to 18. This deployment had demonstrated that artillery pieces mounted on gun carriages and hauled by horses no longer fit for cavalry mounts (so - called condemned horses) were cumbersome over mixed terrain and vulnerable to breakdowns. Custer, valuing the mobility of the 7th Cavalry and recognizing Terry 's acknowledgement of the regiment as "the primary strike force '' preferred to remain unencumbered by the Gatling guns. Custer insisted that the artillery was superfluous to his success, in that the 7th Cavalry alone was sufficient to cope with any force they should encounter, informing Terry: "The 7th can handle anything it meets ''. In addition to these practical concerns, a strained relationship with Major James Brisbin induced Custer 's polite refusal to integrate Brisbin 's Second Cavalry unit -- and the Gatling guns -- into his strike force, as it would disrupt any hierarchical arrangements that Custer presided over.
Historians have acknowledged the firepower inherent in the Gatling gun: they were capable of firing 350. 45 - 70 caliber rounds per minute. Jamming caused by black powder residue could lower that rate, raising questions as to their reliability under combat conditions. Researchers have further questioned the effectiveness of the guns under the tactics that Custer was likely to face with the Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The Gatlings, mounted high on carriages, required the battery crew to stand upright during its operation, making them easy targets for Lakota and Cheyenne sharpshooters.
Historian Robert M. Utley, in a section entitled "Would Gatling Guns Have Saved Custer? '' presents two judgments from Custer 's contemporaries: General Henry J. Hunt, expert in the tactical use of artillery in Civil War, stated that Gatlings "would probably have saved the command '', whereas General Nelson A. Miles, participant in the Great Sioux War declared "(Gatlings) were useless for Indian fighting. ''
The Lakota and Cheyenne warriors that opposed Custer 's forces possessed a wide array of weaponry, from Stone Age war clubs and lances to the most advanced firearms of the day. The typical firearms carried by the Lakota and Cheyenne combatants were muzzleloaders, more often a cap - lock smoothbore, the so - called Indian trade musket or Leman guns distributed to Indians by the US government at treaty conventions. Less common were surplus. 58 caliber rifled muskets of American Civil War vintage such as the Enfield and Springfield. Metal cartridge weapons were prized by native combatants, such as the Henry and the Spencer lever - action rifles, as well as Sharps breechloaders. Bows and arrows were utilized by younger braves in lieu of the more potent firearms; effective up to 30 yards (27 meters), the arrows could readily maim or disable an opponent.
Sitting Bull 's forces had no assured means to supply themselves with firearms and ammunition. Nonetheless, they could usually procure these through post-traders, licensed or unlicensed, and from gunrunners who operated in the Dakota Territory: "... a horse or a mule for a repeater... buffalo hides for ammunition. '' Custer 's highly regarded guide, "Lonesome '' Charley Reynolds, informed his superior in early 1876 that Sitting Bull 's forces were amassing weapons, including numerous Winchester repeating rifles and abundant ammunition.
Of the guns owned by Lakota and Cheyenne fighters at the Little Bighorn, approximately 200 were repeating rifles corresponding to about 1 of 10 of the encampment 's two thousand able - bodied fighters who participated in the battle
The troops under Custer 's command carried two regulation firearms authorized and issued by the U.S. Army in early 1876: the breech - loading, single - shot Springfield Model 1873 carbine, and the 1873 Colt single - action revolver. The regulation M1860 saber or "long knives '' were not carried by troopers upon Custer 's order.
With the exception of a number of officers and scouts who opted for personally owned and more expensive rifles and handguns, the 7th Cavalry was uniformly armed.
Ammunition allotments provided 100 carbine rounds per trooper, carried on a cartridge belt and in saddlebags on their mounts. An additional 50 carbine rounds per man were reserved on the pack train that accompanied the regiment to the battlefield. Each trooper had 24 rounds for his Colt handgun. The opposing forces, though not equally matched in the number and type of arms, were comparably outfitted, and neither side held a overwhelming advantage in weaponry.
Two hundred or more Lakota and Cheyenne combatants are known to have been armed with Henry, Winchester, or similar lever - action repeating rifles at the battle. Virtually every trooper in the 7th Cavalry fought with the single - shot, breech - loading Springfield carbine and the Colt revolver.
Historians have asked whether the repeating rifles conferred a distinct advantage on Sitting Bull 's villagers that contributed to their victory over Custer 's carbine - armed soldiers.
Historian Michael L. Lawson offers a scenario based on archaeological collections at the "Henryville '' site, which yielded plentiful Henry rifle cartridge casings from approximately 20 individual guns. Lawson speculates that, though less powerful than the Springfield carbines, the Henry repeaters provided a barrage of fire at a critical point, driving Lieutenant James Calhoun 's L Company from Calhoun Hill and Finley Ridge, forcing them to flee in disarray back to Captain Myles Keogh 's I Company, and leading to the disintegration of that wing of Custer 's Battalion.
After exhaustive testing -- including comparisons to domestic and foreign single - shot and repeating rifles -- the Army Ordnance Board (whose members included officers Marcus Reno and Alfred Terry) authorized the Springfield as the official firearm for the United States Army.
The Springfield, manufactured in a. 45 - 70 long rifle version for the infantry and a. 45 - 55 light carbine version for the cavalry, was judged a solid firearm that met the long - term and geostrategic requirements of the United States fighting forces.
British historian Mark Gallear maintains that US government experts rejected the lever - action repeater designs, deeming them ineffective in the event of a clash with fully equipped European armies, or in case of an outbreak of another American civil conflict. Gallear 's analysis minimizes the allegation that rapid depletion of ammunition in lever - action models influenced the decision in favor of the single - shot Springfield. The Indian War, in this context, appears as a minor theatre of conflict, whose contingencies were unlikely to govern the selection of standard weaponry for an emerging industrialized nation.
The Springfield carbine is praised for its "superior range and stopping power '' by historian James Donovan, and author Charles M. Robinson reports that the rifle could be "loaded and fired much more rapidly than its muzzle loading predecessors, and had twice the range of repeating rifles such as the Winchester, Henry and Spencer. ''
Gallear points out that lever - action rifles, after a burst of rapid discharge, still required a reloading interlude that lowered their overall rate of fire; Springfield breechloaders "in the long run, had a higher rate of fire, which was sustainable throughout a battle. ''
The breechloader design patent for the Springfield 's Erskine S. Allin trapdoor system was owned by the US government and the firearm could be easily adapted for production with existing machinery at the Springfield Armory in Massachusetts. At time when funding for the post-war Army had been slashed, the prospect for economical production influenced the Ordnance Board member selection of the Springfield option.
The question as to whether the reported malfunction of the Model 1873 Springfield carbine issued to the 7th Cavalry contributed to their defeat has been debated for years.
That the weapon experienced jamming of the extractor is not contested, but its contribution to Custer 's defeat is considered negligible. This conclusion is supported by evidence from archaeological studies performed at the battlefield, where the recovery of Springfield cartridge casing, bearing tell - tale scratch marks indicating manual extraction, were rare. The flaw in the ejector mechanism was known to the Army Ordnance Board at the time of the selection of the Model 1873 rifle and carbine, and was not considered a significant shortcoming in the overall worthiness of the shoulder arm. With the ejector failure in US Army tests as low as 1: 300, the Springfield carbine was vastly more reliable than the muzzle - loading Springfields used in the Civil War.
Gallear addresses the post-battle testimony concerning the copper. 45 - 55 cartridges supplied to the troops in which an officer is said to have cleared the chambers of spent cartridges for a number of Springfield carbines. This testimony of widespread fusing of the casings offered to the Chief of Ordnance at the Reno Court of Inquiry in 1879 conflicts with the archaeological evidence collected at the battlefield. Field data showed that possible extractor failures occurred at a rate of approximately 1: 30 firings at the Custer Battlefield and at a rate of 1: 37 at the Reno - Benteen Battlefield.
Historian Thom Hatch observes that the Model 1873 Springfield, despite the known ejector flaw, remained the standard issue shoulder arm for US troops until the early 1890s. when the copper - cased, inside - primed cartridges were replaced with brass.
Soldiers under Custer 's direct command were annihilated on the first day of the battle (except for three Crow scouts and several troopers (including John Martin (Giovanni Martino)) that had left that column before the battle; one Crow scout, Curly, was the only survivor to leave after the battle had begun), although for years rumors persisted of other survivors.
Over 120 men and women would come forward over the course of the next 70 years claiming they were "the lone survivor '' of Custer 's Last Stand. The phenomenon became so widespread that one historian remarked, "Had Custer had all of those who claimed to be ' the lone survivor ' of his two battalions he would have had at least a brigade behind him when he crossed the Wolf Mountains and rode to the attack. ''
The historian Earl Alonzo Brininstool suggested he had collected at least 70 "lone survivor '' stories. Michael Nunnally, an amateur Custer historian, wrote a booklet describing 30 such accounts. W.A. Graham claimed that even Libby Custer received dozens of letters from men, in shocking detail, about their sole survivor experience. At least 125 alleged "single survivor '' tales have been confirmed in the historical record as of July 2012.
Frank Finkel, from Dayton, Washington, had such a convincing story that historian Charles Kuhlman believed the alleged survivor, going so far as to write a lengthy defense of Finkel 's participation in the battle. Douglas Ellison -- mayor of Medora, North Dakota, and an amateur historian -- also wrote a book in support of the veracity of Finkel 's claim, but most scholars reject it.
Some of these survivors held a form of celebrity status in the United States, among them Raymond Hatfield "Arizona Bill '' Gardner and Frank Tarbeaux. A few even published their own autobiographies, including their deeds at the Little Bighorn.
Almost as soon as men came forward implying or directly pronouncing their unique role in the battle, there were others who were equally opposed to any such claims. Theodore Goldin, a battle participant who later became a controversial historian on the event, wrote (in regards to Charles Hayward 's claim to have been with Custer and taken prisoner):
The Indians always insisted that they took no prisoners. If they did -- a thing I firmly believe -- they were tortured and killed the night of the 25th. As an evidence of this I recall the three charred and burned heads we picked up in the village near the scene of the big war dance, when we visited the village with Capt. Benteen and Lieut. Wallace on the morning of the 27th... I 'm sorely afraid, Tony, that we will have to class Hayward 's story, like that of so many others, as pure, unadulterated B.S. As a clerk at headquarters I had occasion to look over the morning reports of at least the six troops at Lincoln almost daily, and never saw his name there, or among the list of scouts employed from time to time... I am hoping that some day all of these damned fakirs will die and it will be safe for actual participants in the battle to admit and insist that they were there, without being branded and looked upon as a lot of damned liars. Actually, there have been times when I have been tempted to deny that I ever heard of the 7th Cavalry, much less participated with it in that engagement... My Medal of Honor and its inscription have served me as proof positive that I was at least in the vicinity at the time in question, otherwise I should be tempted to deny all knowledge of the event.
The only documented and verified survivor of Custer 's command (having been actually involved in Custer 's part of the battle) was Captain Keogh 's horse, Comanche. The wounded horse was discovered on the battlefield by General Terry 's troops, and although other cavalry mounts survived they had been taken by the Indians. Comanche eventually was returned to the fort and became the regimental mascot. Several other badly wounded horses were found and destroyed at the scene. Writer Evan S. Connell noted in Son of the Morning Star:
Comanche was reputed to be the only survivor of the Little Bighorn, but quite a few Seventh Cavalry mounts survived, probably more than one hundred, and there was even a yellow bulldog. Comanche lived on another fifteen years, and when he died, he was stuffed and to this day remains in a glass case at the University of Kansas. So, protected from moths and souvenir hunters by his humidity - controlled glass case, Comanche stands patiently, enduring generation after generation of undergraduate jokes. The other horses are gone, and the mysterious yellow bulldog is gone, which means that in a sense the legend is true. Comanche alone survived.
For more on survivor claims, see Custer Survivors in Little Bighorn Folklore.
The site of the battle was first preserved as a United States national cemetery in 1879 to protect the graves of the 7th Cavalry troopers. In 1946, it was re-designated as the Custer Battlefield National Monument, reflecting its association with Custer. In 1967, Major Marcus Reno was re-interred in the cemetery with honors, including an eleven - gun salute. Beginning in the early 1970s, there was concern within the National Park Service over the name Custer Battlefield National Monument failing to adequately reflect the larger history of the battle between two cultures. Hearings on the name change were held in Billings on June 10, 1991, and during the following months Congress renamed the site the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument.
United States memorialization of the battlefield began in 1879 with a temporary monument to the U.S. dead. In 1881, the current marble obelisk was erected in their honor. In 1890, marble blocks were added to mark the places where the U.S. cavalry soldiers fell.
Nearly 100 years later, ideas about the meaning of the battle have become more inclusive. The United States government acknowledged that Native American sacrifices also deserved recognition at the site. The 1991 bill changing the name of the national monument also authorized an Indian Memorial to be built near Last Stand Hill in honor of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The commissioned work by native artist Colleen Cutschall is shown in the photograph at right. On Memorial Day 1999, in consultation with tribal representatives, the U.S. added two red granite markers to the battlefield to note where Native American warriors fell. As of December 2006, a total of ten warrior markers have been added (three at the Reno -- Benteen Defense Site and seven on the Little Bighorn Battlefield).
The Indian Memorial, themed "Peace Through Unity '' l is an open circular structure that stands 75 yards (69 metres) from the 7th Cavalry obelisk. Its walls have some of the names of Indians who died at the site, as well as native accounts of the battle. The open circle of the structure is symbolic, as for many tribes, the circle is sacred. The "spirit gate '' window facing the Cavalry monument is symbolic as well, welcoming the dead cavalrymen into the memorial.
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