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who has won the most grammy awards in history | Grammy Award records - wikipedia
Throughout the history of the Grammy Awards, many significant records have been set. This page only includes the competitive awards which have been won by various artists. This does not include the various special awards that are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences such as Lifetime Achievement Awards, Trustees Awards, Technical Awards or Legend Awards. The page however does include other non-performance related Grammys (known as the Craft & Production Fields) that may have been presented to the artist (s).
The record for the most Grammy Awards won in a lifetime is held by Sir Georg Solti, a Hungarian - British conductor who conducted the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for twenty - two years. He has won a total of 31 competitive Grammy Awards out of 74 nominations and was awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996.
Georg Solti has won a total of 31 Grammy Awards.
Alison Krauss has, as a solo artist, collaborator and producer, won 27 Grammy Awards.
U2 holds the record for most Grammy Awards won by a group. They have won 22 awards.
Quincy Jones with 27 awards holds the record for most Grammy Awards won by a producer (and eleven of those were awarded for production duties. Jones also received Grammys as an arranger and a performing artist). Some producers have also won awards as engineers, mixers and / or mastering engineers.
Al Schmitt, with 20 awards, has won more Grammy Awards than any other engineer or mixer.
The Peasall Sisters are the youngest Grammy winners, when they were credited artists on the O Brother, Where Art Thou? soundtrack, which won Album of the Year in 2002. LeAnn Rimes is the youngest individual winner. She was 14 years old when she won her first two awards in 1997. She was also the first Country artist to win the Best New Artist Grammy.
Taylor Swift is the youngest artist to win Album of the Year. She was 20 years old when she won in 2010 for her album Fearless.
Pinetop Perkins is the oldest person to win a Grammy. In 2011 he was awarded Best Traditional Blues Album for Joined At The Hip at 97 years of age.
Note: Sources vary on the birth year of Elizabeth Cotten, with some stating it as 1893, while others say 1895. The above information credits it as 1895. With either year, Cotten is the oldest female Grammy winner.
Santana 's Supernatural and U2 's How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb hold the record for most honoured album having won nine awards. Supernatural won nine awards in 2000 and How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb won three awards in 2005 and won a further six in 2006 giving it a total of nine awards.
The record for most Album of the Year wins is four.
Three recording artists, four record producers, two mastering engineers and three engineer / mixers have won the award three times.
Pat Metheny and his band the Pat Metheny Group have won 20 Grammy Awards in total, including seven consecutive awards for seven consecutive albums. Metheny held the record for Grammy wins in the most different categories as of the 2005 Grammy Awards:
Aretha Franklin holds the record for winning the most consecutive Grammys in the same category. She won the Grammy Award for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance every year from 1968 to 1975, for an eight - year winning streak. She also won in this category in 1982, 1986, and 1988, giving her 11 wins in the category.
After Franklin, Jimmy Sturr, Bill Cosby and John Williams are tied for second place for consecutive Grammy wins in the same category:
Sturr won six years in a row between 1987 and 1992 for Best Polka Album. He also won for three runs of four consecutive years (1996 -- 1999, 2001 -- 2004, and 2006 -- 2009.) He won 18 out of the 24 Best Polka Album Grammys that were awarded since that category was added in 1985. The award was discontinued in 2009.
Cosby won six years in a row between 1965 and 1970 for Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album.
Williams won six years in a row between 1978 and 1983 for Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media.
Lenny Kravitz won the Best Male Rock Vocal Performance award four years in a row (1999, 2000, 2001, 2002).
Tom Coyne won Record of the Year four years in a row (2015 -- 2018).
There have been only two artists who have won all four General Field awards. In 1981, Christopher Cross won Record, Album and Song of the Year as well as Best New Artist. Adele is the second artist to win all four, and the first female to do so. In 2009, she won Best New Artist and in 2012 and 2017, she won Record, Album and Song of the Year.
The Record for Most Grammys won in one night is eight. Michael Jackson won eight in 1984 and Santana tied Jackson 's record in 2000.
Michael Jackson won eight in 1984.
The record most Grammys won by a female artist in one night is six. Beyoncé and Adele each won six in 2010 and 2012, respectively.
In 2000, Santana was awarded a total of 8 awards. They won the awards for Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals, Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals, Best Pop Instrumental Performance, Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals, Best Rock Instrumental Performance and Best Rock Album.
The record for most awards won by a producer in one night is five. Rick Rubin won five awards in 2007 including Record of the Year, Album of the Year and Best Country Album for the Dixie Chicks, Best Rock Album for the Red Hot Chili Peppers as well as Producer of the Year, Non Classical.
The most Grammys won by an engineer or mixer in one night is six. At the 59th Annual Grammy Awards in 2017, Tom Elmhirst won Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Best Pop Vocal Album, Best Engineered Album Non Classical, Best Alternative Music Album and Best Rock Album for his work on Adele 's ' 25 ', David Bowie 's ' Blackstar ' and Cage The Elephant 's ' Tell Me I 'm Pretty '.
Christopher Cross (1981) received all four General Field awards in one night. Cross won the Record of the Year ("Sailing ''), Album of the Year ("Christopher Cross ''), Song of the Year ("Sailing ''), and Best New Artist Grammys in a single ceremony.
The three biggest Grammy Awards are Record of the Year, Album of the Year and Song of the Year. Seven artists have won all three in one night. Adele is the only artist in Grammy history to accomplish this twice.
The most awards awarded to an album in one night is nine. In 2000 Santana 's Supernatural was awarded nine awards. It won Record of the Year, Album of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals, Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals, Best Pop Instrumental Performance, Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals, Best Rock Instrumental Performance and Best Rock Album.
Ray Charles holds the record for most posthumous awards won in one night. He was awarded five Grammy Awards in 2005 including Album of the Year.
Quincy Jones holds the record for the most Grammy nominations with 79.
Michael Jackson holds the record for most Grammy nominations in one night with 12 nominations.
The record for most Grammy nominations without a win is 24, held by Morten Lindberg.
Only ten artists have been nominated for all four General Field awards in one night.
Leah Peasall of the Peasall sisters is the youngest ever Grammy nominee (and winner) as one of the credited artists on the O Brother, Where Art Thou? (soundtrack) in 2002. Deleon Richards is the youngest performer to receive an individual nomination, for Best Soul / Gospel performance.
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which political party is currently in power in ireland | List of political parties in the Republic of Ireland - wikipedia
There are a number of political parties in Ireland, and coalition governments are common. The state is unusual as a developed nation in that politics is not primarily characterised by the left - right political divide. The two largest political parties, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, arose from a split in the original Sinn Féin party in the 1922 -- 1923 Civil War, Fine Gael from the faction (Cumann na nGaedheal) that supported the 1921 Anglo - Irish Treaty and Fianna Fáil from the anti-Treaty faction. This enduring characteristic of the Irish party system is sometimes pejoratively referred to as "Civil War politics ''. The Labour Party was formed in 1912, and it has usually been the third party in parliamentary strength, though it is currently the fourth largest party in Dáil Éireann. In recent years, Sinn Féin has risen to prominence, surpassing the Labour Party in the 2016 general election.
Political party registration is governed by the Electoral Acts, 1992 to 2012. The Register of Political Parties is maintained by the Houses of the Oireachtas. In order to be registered to contest national elections a party must have either at least one member in Dáil Éireann or the European Parliament, or 300 recorded members aged 18 or over. Parties that register only to contest elections in part of the state, in local elections or in elections to Údarás na Gaeltachta need only 100 recorded members aged 18 or over. In either case at least half of the recorded members must be on the register of electors.
Should be noted that attached table tots to 752 members as opposed to 949 therefore almost 25 % of members are not accounted for
Fine Gael is the largest party in the Oireachtas, the second largest party in local government in Ireland and has the largest delegation of MEPs from Ireland. It was founded in 1933 by a merger of the Cumann na nGaedheal, which had supported the Treaty and formed the government between 1922 and 1932, the National Guard (popularly called the Blueshirts) and the small National Centre Party. It is a member of the centre - right European People 's Party and is led by Taoiseach Leo Varadkar. It has been in government in the periods 1922 -- 1932, 1948 -- 1951, 1954 -- 1957, 1973 -- 1977, 1981 -- 82, 1982 -- 1987, 1994 -- 1997, and 2011 to date. On each occasion, it was the leading party of a coalition with the Labour Party, and in three of those cases also with other smaller parties. At the 2011 general election, Fine Gael become the largest party in the Oireachtas with 36.1 % of the vote.
Historically Fine Gael has been characterised as a centre - right party, supported by large farmers and businessmen, though this has not applied uniformly; for a period from the 1960s, for example, with the publication of the Just Society document, Fine Gael espoused some values of social democracy. During the 1980s, Fine Gael leader Garret FitzGerald advocated a liberal agenda in many areas of social reform. A government of Fine Gael and the Labour Party proposed a successful referendum in support of marriage equality in 2015. Historically Fine Gael has tended to support fiscal restraint and law and order domestically while adopting a less nationalist position on Northern Ireland than Fianna Fáil. It generally has the most favourable stance of Irish parties towards the European Union and other international organisation.
Fine Gael has 50 TDs, 13 Senators, 4 MEPs and 234 councillors.
Fianna Fáil is the second largest party in the Oireachtas and has the largest number of city and county council seats. It has been in government more than any other party: 1932 -- 48, 1951 -- 54, 1957 -- 1973, 1977 -- 81, 1982, 1987 -- 1994, and 1997 -- 2011. On all occasions up to 1989, it was in a single - party government; on all occasions since then it was the leading party in a coalition government. It is a member of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party and is led by former minister Micheál Martin.
It was founded in 1926 by Éamon de Valera as a radical anti-Treaty party, drawing support from small farmers and urban workers but has since become a party of the establishment. It was first elected to power in 1932 on a constitutional republican platform, promising to destroy constitutional links with Britain and reduce poverty by creating employment. It oversaw much of the industrial development of the Republic and has consequently drawn support from all social classes, making it a classic populist party. Generally speaking, Fianna Fáil has taken more populist positions on economic and social matters than Fine Gael and the Labour Party. Their classic populist stance was highlighted during the years of Catholic dominance in Ireland before the mid-1980s and during the Celtic Tiger years when engaged in the high levels of public spending while deregulating and cutting taxes.
Bertie Ahern was the Taoiseach from 1997 to 2008 and negotiated numerous social partnership contracts, the Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland, and an agreement among EU heads of government on the European Constitution. He was succeeded by Brian Cowen in May 2008, after resigning due to evidence from the Mahon Tribunal into payments and planning matters. Support for Fianna Fáil collapsed in the 2011 general election, which took place a few years into the financial crisis and soon after the government had sought a bailout from the troika of the IMF / EC / ECB. Fianna Fáil lost more than three - quarters of its seats, coming third behind Fine Gael and the Labour Party. This lack of electoral success was short lived as the Republican Party swept to a resounding victory at the 2014 Local Elections before more than doubling their Dáil seats at the 2016 General Election.
In September 2007, Fianna Fáil announced that they would organise politically in the north, but have yet to contest elections for the Northern Ireland Assembly.
Fianna Fáil has 44 TDs, 14 Senators, one MEP and 262 councillors.
Sinn Féin is the third - largest party in the Oireachtas and the second - largest party in the Northern Assembly. The name Sinn Féin, meaning ' ourselves ', has been used by a number of political organisations in Ireland since 1905, when first used by Arthur Griffith. Sinn Féin was the party of separatism before Irish independence, and broke through in the Westminster election of 1918, where it won 73 of the 105 Irish seats.
The modern - day Sinn Féin party emerged in 1970 after a split in the party, and was often distinguished as Provisional Sinn Féin. It was closely linked to the Provisional Irish Republican Army. It is led by Mary Lou McDonald.
It was the only political party to have seats in the parliaments of both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland until the Green Party organised on an island - wide basis. Since supporting the Peace Process Sinn Féin has seen a dramatic increase in support in Northern Ireland and in the Republic of Ireland. It has emerged as the second largest party in the Northern Ireland Assembly with 27 seats out of 90 and the third largest in the Republic of Ireland with 23 seats in the Dáil in the 2016 general election. With Fine Gael, it is one of only two parties in the Republic of Ireland with MEPs.
Sinn Féin 's platform is primarily focused on achieving the reunification of Ireland and a large scale expansion of Ireland 's social services (such as adopting a universal health care system and creating subsidised housing), reform of the tax system and support for small and co-operative businesses. Their political ideology mainly revolves around democratic socialism, Irish Republicanism, and civic nationalism.
Sinn Féin has 23 TDs, 6 Senators, 3 MEPs and 156 councillors in the Republic of Ireland.
The Labour Party is a social democratic party, founded in 1912 as part of the trade union movement, with which it maintains organisational links. For most of the history of the state, it was the third largest party, though it is currently in fourth position in parliamentary strength. It has been in government in the periods 1922 -- 1932, 1948 -- 1951, 1954 -- 1957, 1973 -- 1977, 1981 -- 82, 1982 -- 1987, 1993 -- 1994, 1994 -- 1997, and 2011 - 2016. On each of those occasions, it was in coalition with Fine Gael, with the exception of the period 1993 to 1994, when it was in coalition with Fianna Fáil.
The Labour Party merged with the smaller Democratic Left party in 1999. It is a member of the Party of European Socialists and is led by Brendan Howlin.
The Labour Party has 7 TDs, 4 Senators and 50 councillors.
Solidarity -- People Before Profit is an alliance between People Before Profit and Solidarity. People Before Profit (PBP) was formed in 2005, primarily by members of the Socialist Workers Party. The Anti-Austerity Alliance (AAA) was formed in 2014, primarily by members of the Socialist Party. In October 2015, they formed a new alliance for electoral purposes as the Anti-Austerity Alliance -- People Before Profit, but continue to organise separately. Both parties have shared platforms on abolishing water charges and the property tax along with tackling homelessness and the housing crisis. The founding TDs have stated their aim to build a mass party of the left and ultimately help form a left - wing government. The AAA rebranded itself as Solidarity in March 2016.
Together they have 6 TDs (three from each of Solidarity and the PBP) and 28 councillors (14 from each of Solidarity and the PBP).
Independents 4 Change has been registered as a political party since 2014. Its registered officer is Wexford TD Mick Wallace. The other deputies are Clare Daly, Joan Collins and Tommy Broughan. Three further TDs, Catherine Connolly, Thomas Pringle, and Maureen O'Sullivan, sit in the I4C Dáil group while not being members of the party: Catherine Connolly, Thomas Pringle, and Maureen O'Sullivan.
They have 4 TDs and 1 councillor.
The Green Party was established in 1981 and is allied to the European Green Party. It won its first seat in the Dáil in 1989, and had continued representation there until 2011. The party advocates ecological and socially liberal policies. In 1994 and again in 1999, two of Ireland 's 15 MEPs were from the Green party, but both seats were lost in 2004.
The Green Party of Northern Ireland voted in 2005 to become a region of the Irish Green Party making it the second party to be organised on an all - Ireland basis. It has Northern Ireland members on the Irish Green Party national executive.
In June 2007, the Green Party entered coalition government with Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats. In January 2011 they left the coalition, and at the 2011 general election, lost all of their Dáil seats. They gained 2 seats at the 2016 general election.
The Green Party has 2 TDs, 1 Senator and 12 councillors.
The Social Democrats were founded in July 2015 by three independent TDs Stephen Donnelly (who has since left the party for Fianna Fáil), Catherine Murphy, and Róisín Shortall, who will share leadership of the party until after the next general election. The Social Democrats describe themselves as being centre - left and in favour of Scandinavian style public services along with promoting indigenous small and medium - sized enterprise.
The Social Democrats have 2 TDs and 6 councillors.
Workers and Unemployed Action (WUA) is a left - wing political organisation formed in 1985 by Séamus Healy in response to lack of employment and the economic situation in the South Tipperary area. Healy along with his brother Paddy Healy, were former members of the Trotskyist League for a Workers Republic. Healy was elected to Dáil Éireann as TD for Tipperary South at a by - election in 2000, holding the seat until 2007. He regained the seat at the 2011 general election. At the time of the 2011 election the WUA formed part of the United Left Alliance, but left in 2012. WUA has one TD and one councillor.
Renua Ireland was founded in March 2015 with Lucinda Creighton as its founding leader. It broadly advocates conservative and social conservative policies, including a flat tax and a three - strikes law at the 2016 general election. The founding parliamentary party deputies all left Fine Gael over their opposition to the Protection of Life During Pregnancy Act 2013. Subsequently Renua Ireland identifies itself as an anti-abortion party.
It has no TDs, having lost all three at the 2016 general election.
Renua Ireland has 2 councillors.
The Workers ' Party is a Marxist -- Leninist party allied with the international workers and communist parties. It emerged from the Irish republican movement and was a continuation of Sinn Féin that did not break away in 1970. It retained links with the Official IRA. It renamed itself Sinn Féin The Workers ' Party in 1977, and adopted its current title in 1982. It is organised in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. During the 1980s it was a significant party on the political scene with 7 TDs elected in 1989 and 1 MEP. A special Ard Fheis (conference) in 1992 designed to re-constitute the party and remove links with the OIRA resulted in a formal split with the bulk of the parliamentary party and councillors leaving to form Democratic Left. Democratic Left voted to merge with the Labour Party in 1999. The Workers ' Party has two councillors, Éilis Ryan on Dublin City Council and Ted Tynan on Cork City Council.
Republican Sinn Féin were formed in 1986 by members of Sinn Féin who did not support the decision made at the party 's ard fheis in that year to end its policy of abstentionism and to allow elected Sinn Féin TDs take their seats in Dáil Éireann. Its first leader was Ruairí Ó Brádaigh, who was a previous leader of Sinn Féin, and had been elected as an abstentionist TD in 1957.
They have one councillor, Tomás Ó Curraoin on Galway County Council. As they are not a registered party, he is officially an independent councillor.
The Kerry Independent Alliance (previously the South Kerry Independent Alliance) have one councillor on Kerry County Council. It is registered to contest elections for Dáil Éireann and in Killarney for local elections.
The Communist Party of Ireland was first founded in 1921, and re-founded in 1933; the current communist party originates from 1970, when the Communist Party of Northern Ireland joined with the Irish Workers ' Party (not related to the current Workers Party). While a registered political party, it rarely stands candidates in elections, and remains quite small. It was historically quite influential in the trade union movement.
The Socialist Party (initially known as Militant Labour) was formed in 1989 by members of the Militant Tendency who were expelled from the Labour Party. It was renamed the Socialist Party in 1996. The party is Trotskyist and is organised in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Joe Higgins was its first member elected at national level. It was part of the United Left Alliance in the 2011 general election, along with the People Before Profit Alliance and the Workers and Unemployed Action Group, but that Alliance disintegrated over the course of the following Dáil term. Its councillors contested the 2014 local elections as part of the Anti-Austerity Alliance. In 2014, it altered its registered name to Stop the Water Tax -- Socialist Party. It now contests elections as part of the Solidarity -- People Before Profit party.
The party is affiliated to the Committee for a Workers ' International (CWI).
The Socialist Workers Party was founded in 1971 as the Socialist Workers Movement. The party was set up by supporters of the International Socialists of Britain living in Ireland.
Just as independent candidates, those standing for unregistered parties may choose either to be listed as "Non-Party '', or to leave the section blank on the ballot paper.
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who wrote the declaration of independence and when was it ratified by the 2nd continental congress | United States Declaration of Independence - Wikipedia
The United States Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall) in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. The Declaration announced that the thirteen American colonies then at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain would regard themselves as thirteen independent sovereign states no longer under British rule. With the Declaration, these new states took a collective first step toward forming the United States of America. The declaration was signed by representatives from New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
The Declaration was passed on July 2 with no opposing votes. A committee of five had drafted it to be ready when Congress voted on independence. John Adams, a leader in pushing for independence, had persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress edited to produce the final version. The Declaration was a formal explanation of why Congress had voted on July 2 to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, "The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America '' -- although Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved.
After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for this printing has been lost and may have been a copy in Thomas Jefferson 's hand. Jefferson 's original draft is preserved at the Library of Congress, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, as well as Jefferson 's notes of changes made by Congress. The best - known version of the Declaration is a signed copy that is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., and which is popularly regarded as the official document. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19 and signed primarily on August 2.
The sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing colonial grievances against King George III and by asserting certain natural and legal rights, including a right of revolution. Having served its original purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his policies and his rhetoric, as in the Gettysburg Address of 1863. Since then, it has become a well - known statement on human rights, particularly its second sentence:
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
This has been called "one of the best - known sentences in the English language '', containing "the most potent and consequential words in American history ''. The passage came to represent a moral standard to which the United States should strive. This view was notably promoted by Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy and argued that it is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted.
The US Declaration of Independence inspired many similar documents in other countries, the first being the 1789 Declaration of Flanders issued during the Brabant Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands (modern - day Belgium). It also served as the primary model for numerous declarations of independence in Europe and Latin America, as well as Africa (Liberia) and Oceania (New Zealand) during the first half of the 19th century.
Believe me, dear Sir: there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose; and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America.
By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had been at war for more than a year. Relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767. Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire.
Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire. The colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies. The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the supreme authority throughout the empire, and so, by definition, anything that Parliament did was constitutional. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, not even Parliament. After the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all. Anticipating the arrangement of the British Commonwealth, by 1774 American writers such as Samuel Adams, James Wilson, and Thomas Jefferson were arguing that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and that the colonies, which had their own legislatures, were connected to the rest of the empire only through their allegiance to the Crown.
The issue of Parliament 's authority in the colonies became a crisis after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts (known as the Intolerable Acts in the colonies) in 1774 to punish the Province of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts as a violation of the British Constitution and thus a threat to the liberties of all of British America. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia to coordinate a response. Congress organized a boycott of British goods and petitioned the king for repeal of the acts. These measures were unsuccessful because King George and the ministry of Prime Minister Lord North were determined not to retreat on the question of parliamentary supremacy. As the king wrote to North in November 1774, "blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this country or independent ''.
Most colonists still hoped for reconciliation with Great Britain, even after fighting began in the American Revolutionary War at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The Second Continental Congress convened at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia in May 1775, and some delegates hoped for eventual independence, but no one yet advocated declaring it. Many colonists no longer believed that Parliament had any sovereignty over them, yet they still professed loyalty to King George, who they hoped would intercede on their behalf. They were disappointed in late 1775, when the king rejected Congress 's second petition, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion, and announced before Parliament on October 26 that he was considering "friendly offers of foreign assistance '' to suppress the rebellion. A pro-American minority in Parliament warned that the government was driving the colonists toward independence.
Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense was published in January 1776, just as it became clear in the colonies that the king was not inclined to act as a conciliator. Paine had only recently arrived in the colonies from England, and he argued in favor of colonial independence, advocating republicanism as an alternative to monarchy and hereditary rule. Common Sense made public a persuasive and impassioned case for independence, which before the pamphlet had not yet been given serious intellectual consideration. Paine connected independence with common dissenting Protestant beliefs as a means to present a distinctly American political identity, structuring it as if it were a sermon, thereby stimulating public debate on a topic that few had previously dared to openly discuss. Public support for separation from Great Britain steadily increased after the publication of Paine 's enormously popular pamphlet.
Some colonists still held out hope for reconciliation, but developments in early 1776 further strengthened public support for independence. In February 1776, colonists learned of Parliament 's passage of the Prohibitory Act, which established a blockade of American ports and declared American ships to be enemy vessels. John Adams, a strong supporter of independence, believed that Parliament had effectively declared American independence before Congress had been able to. Adams labeled the Prohibitory Act the "Act of Independency '', calling it "a compleat Dismemberment of the British Empire ''. Support for declaring independence grew even more when it was confirmed that King George had hired German mercenaries to use against his American subjects.
Despite this growing popular support for independence, Congress lacked the clear authority to declare it. Delegates had been elected to Congress by thirteen different governments, which included extralegal conventions, ad hoc committees, and elected assemblies, and they were bound by the instructions given to them. Regardless of their personal opinions, delegates could not vote to declare independence unless their instructions permitted such an action. Several colonies, in fact, expressly prohibited their delegates from taking any steps towards separation from Great Britain, while other delegations had instructions that were ambiguous on the issue. As public sentiment grew for separation from Great Britain, advocates of independence sought to have the Congressional instructions revised. For Congress to declare independence, a majority of delegations would need authorization to vote for independence, and at least one colonial government would need to specifically instruct (or grant permission for) its delegation to propose a declaration of independence in Congress. Between April and July 1776, a "complex political war '' was waged to bring this about.
In the campaign to revise Congressional instructions, many Americans formally expressed their support for separation from Great Britain in what were effectively state and local declarations of independence. Historian Pauline Maier identifies more than ninety such declarations that were issued throughout the Thirteen Colonies from April to July 1776. These "declarations '' took a variety of forms. Some were formal written instructions for Congressional delegations, such as the Halifax Resolves of April 12, with which North Carolina became the first colony to explicitly authorize its delegates to vote for independence. Others were legislative acts that officially ended British rule in individual colonies, such as the Rhode Island legislature declaring its independence from Great Britain on May 4, the first colony to do so. Many "declarations '' were resolutions adopted at town or county meetings that offered support for independence. A few came in the form of jury instructions, such as the statement issued on April 23, 1776, by Chief Justice William Henry Drayton of South Carolina: "the law of the land authorizes me to declare... that George the Third, King of Great Britain... has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him. '' Most of these declarations are now obscure, having been overshadowed by the declaration approved by Congress on July 2, and signed July 4.
Some colonies held back from endorsing independence. Resistance was centered in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Advocates of independence saw Pennsylvania as the key; if that colony could be converted to the pro-independence cause, it was believed that the others would follow. On May 1, however, opponents of independence retained control of the Pennsylvania Assembly in a special election that had focused on the question of independence. In response, Congress passed a resolution on May 10 which had been promoted by John Adams and Richard Henry Lee, calling on colonies without a "government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs '' to adopt new governments. The resolution passed unanimously, and was even supported by Pennsylvania 's John Dickinson, the leader of the anti-independence faction in Congress, who believed that it did not apply to his colony.
-- John Adams, May 15, 1776
As was the custom, Congress appointed a committee to draft a preamble to explain the purpose of the resolution. John Adams wrote the preamble, which stated that because King George had rejected reconciliation and was hiring foreign mercenaries to use against the colonies, "it is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown should be totally suppressed ''. Adams 's preamble was meant to encourage the overthrow of the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were still under proprietary governance. Congress passed the preamble on May 15 after several days of debate, but four of the middle colonies voted against it, and the Maryland delegation walked out in protest. Adams regarded his May 15 preamble effectively as an American declaration of independence, although a formal declaration would still have to be made.
On the same day that Congress passed Adams 's radical preamble, the Virginia Convention set the stage for a formal Congressional declaration of independence. On May 15, the Convention instructed Virginia 's congressional delegation "to propose to that respectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the Crown or Parliament of Great Britain ''. In accordance with those instructions, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a three - part resolution to Congress on June 7. The motion was seconded by John Adams, calling on Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan of colonial confederation. The part of the resolution relating to declaring independence read:
Resolved, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.
Lee 's resolution met with resistance in the ensuing debate. Opponents of the resolution conceded that reconciliation was unlikely with Great Britain, while arguing that declaring independence was premature, and that securing foreign aid should take priority. Advocates of the resolution countered that foreign governments would not intervene in an internal British struggle, and so a formal declaration of independence was needed before foreign aid was possible. All Congress needed to do, they insisted, was to "declare a fact which already exists ''. Delegates from Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, and New York were still not yet authorized to vote for independence, however, and some of them threatened to leave Congress if the resolution were adopted. Congress, therefore, voted on June 10 to postpone further discussion of Lee 's resolution for three weeks. Until then, Congress decided that a committee should prepare a document announcing and explaining independence in the event that Lee 's resolution was approved when it was brought up again in July.
Support for a Congressional declaration of independence was consolidated in the final weeks of June 1776. On June 14, the Connecticut Assembly instructed its delegates to propose independence and, the following day, the legislatures of New Hampshire and Delaware authorized their delegates to declare independence. In Pennsylvania, political struggles ended with the dissolution of the colonial assembly, and a new Conference of Committees under Thomas McKean authorized Pennsylvania 's delegates to declare independence on June 18. The Provincial Congress of New Jersey had been governing the province since January 1776; they resolved on June 15 that Royal Governor William Franklin was "an enemy to the liberties of this country '' and had him arrested. On June 21, they chose new delegates to Congress and empowered them to join in a declaration of independence.
Only Maryland and New York had yet to authorize independence towards the end of June. Previously, Maryland 's delegates had walked out when the Continental Congress adopted Adams 's radical May 15 preamble, and had sent to the Annapolis Convention for instructions. On May 20, the Annapolis Convention rejected Adams 's preamble, instructing its delegates to remain against independence. But Samuel Chase went to Maryland and, thanks to local resolutions in favor of independence, was able to get the Annapolis Convention to change its mind on June 28. Only the New York delegates were unable to get revised instructions. When Congress had been considering the resolution of independence on June 8, the New York Provincial Congress told the delegates to wait. But on June 30, the Provincial Congress evacuated New York as British forces approached, and would not convene again until July 10. This meant that New York 's delegates would not be authorized to declare independence until after Congress had made its decision.
Political maneuvering was setting the stage for an official declaration of independence even while a document was being written to explain the decision. On June 11, 1776, Congress appointed a "Committee of Five '' to draft a declaration, consisting of John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut. The committee left no minutes, so there is some uncertainty about how the drafting process proceeded; contradictory accounts were written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, too many years to be regarded as entirely reliable -- although their accounts are frequently cited. What is certain is that the committee discussed the general outline which the document should follow and decided that Jefferson would write the first draft. The committee in general, and Jefferson in particular, thought that Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson and promised to consult with him personally. Considering Congress 's busy schedule, Jefferson probably had limited time for writing over the next seventeen days, and likely wrote the draft quickly. He then consulted the others and made some changes, and then produced another copy incorporating these alterations. The committee presented this copy to the Congress on June 28, 1776. The title of the document was "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled. ''
Congress ordered that the draft "lie on the table ''. For two days, Congress methodically edited Jefferson 's primary document, shortening it by a fourth, removing unnecessary wording, and improving sentence structure. They removed Jefferson 's assertion that Britain had forced slavery on the colonies in order to moderate the document and appease persons in Britain who supported the Revolution. Jefferson wrote that Congress had "mangled '' his draft version, but the Declaration that was finally produced was "the majestic document that inspired both contemporaries and posterity, '' in the words of his biographer John Ferling.
Congress tabled the draft of the declaration on Monday, July 1, and resolved itself into a committee of the whole, with Benjamin Harrison of Virginia presiding, and they resumed debate on Lee 's resolution of independence. John Dickinson made one last effort to delay the decision, arguing that Congress should not declare independence without first securing a foreign alliance and finalizing the Articles of Confederation. John Adams gave a speech in reply to Dickinson, restating the case for an immediate declaration.
A vote was taken after a long day of speeches, each colony casting a single vote, as always. The delegation for each colony numbered from two to seven members, and each delegation voted amongst themselves to determine the colony 's vote. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted against declaring independence. The New York delegation abstained, lacking permission to vote for independence. Delaware cast no vote because the delegation was split between Thomas McKean (who voted yes) and George Read (who voted no). The remaining nine delegations voted in favor of independence, which meant that the resolution had been approved by the committee of the whole. The next step was for the resolution to be voted upon by Congress itself. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina was opposed to Lee 's resolution but desirous of unanimity, and he moved that the vote be postponed until the following day.
On July 2, South Carolina reversed its position and voted for independence. In the Pennsylvania delegation, Dickinson and Robert Morris abstained, allowing the delegation to vote three - to - two in favor of independence. The tie in the Delaware delegation was broken by the timely arrival of Caesar Rodney, who voted for independence. The New York delegation abstained once again since they were still not authorized to vote for independence, although they were allowed to do so a week later by the New York Provincial Congress. The resolution of independence had been adopted with twelve affirmative votes and one abstention. With this, the colonies had officially severed political ties with Great Britain.
John Adams predicted in a famous letter, written to his wife on the following day, that July 2 would become a great American holiday. He thought that the vote for independence would be commemorated; he did not foresee that Americans -- including himself -- would instead celebrate Independence Day on the date when the announcement of that act was finalized.
"I am apt to believe that (Independence Day) will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more. ''
After voting in favor of the resolution of independence, Congress turned its attention to the committee 's draft of the declaration. Over several days of debate, they made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text and, on July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved and sent to the printer for publication.
There is a distinct change in wording from this original broadside printing of the Declaration and the final official engrossed copy. The word "unanimous '' was inserted as a result of a Congressional resolution passed on July 19, 1776:
Resolved, That the Declaration passed on the 4th, be fairly engrossed on parchment, with the title and stile of "The unanimous declaration of the thirteen United States of America, '' and that the same, when engrossed, be signed by every member of Congress.
Historian George Billias says:
The declaration is not divided into formal sections; but it is often discussed as consisting of five parts: introduction, preamble, indictment of King George III, denunciation of the British people, and conclusion.
Asserts as a matter of Natural Law the ability of a people to assume political independence; acknowledges that the grounds for such independence must be reasonable, and therefore explicable, and ought to be explained.
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature 's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
Outlines a general philosophy of government that justifies revolution when government harms natural rights.
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.
A bill of particulars documenting the king 's "repeated injuries and usurpations '' of the Americans ' rights and liberties.
Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness of his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
This section essentially finishes the case for independence. The conditions that justified revolution have been shown.
Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
The signers assert that there exist conditions under which people must change their government, that the British have produced such conditions and, by necessity, the colonies must throw off political ties with the British Crown and become independent states. The conclusion contains, at its core, the Lee Resolution that had been passed on July 2.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.
The first and most famous signature on the engrossed copy was that of John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress. Two future presidents (Thomas Jefferson and John Adams) and a father and great - grandfather of two other presidents (Benjamin Harrison) were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26) was the youngest signer, and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) was the oldest signer. The fifty - six signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows (from north to south):
Historians have often sought to identify the sources that most influenced the words and political philosophy of the Declaration of Independence. By Jefferson 's own admission, the Declaration contained no original ideas, but was instead a statement of sentiments widely shared by supporters of the American Revolution. As he explained in 1825:
Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion.
Jefferson 's most immediate sources were two documents written in June 1776: his own draft of the preamble of the Constitution of Virginia, and George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights. Ideas and phrases from both of these documents appear in the Declaration of Independence. They were, in turn, directly influenced by the 1689 English Declaration of Rights, which formally ended the reign of King James II. During the American Revolution, Jefferson and other Americans looked to the English Declaration of Rights as a model of how to end the reign of an unjust king. The Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320) and the Dutch Act of Abjuration (1581) have also been offered as models for Jefferson 's Declaration, but these models are now accepted by few scholars.
Jefferson wrote that a number of authors exerted a general influence on the words of the Declaration. English political theorist John Locke is usually cited as one of the primary influences, a man whom Jefferson called one of "the three greatest men that have ever lived ''. In 1922, historian Carl L. Becker wrote, "Most Americans had absorbed Locke 's works as a kind of political gospel; and the Declaration, in its form, in its phraseology, follows closely certain sentences in Locke 's second treatise on government. '' The extent of Locke 's influence on the American Revolution has been questioned by some subsequent scholars, however. Historian Ray Forrest Harvey argued in 1937 for the dominant influence of Swiss jurist Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, declaring that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles '' in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson 's use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness '' instead of "property ''. Other scholars emphasized the influence of republicanism rather than Locke 's classical liberalism. Historian Garry Wills argued that Jefferson was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, particularly Francis Hutcheson, rather than Locke, an interpretation that has been strongly criticized.
Legal historian John Phillip Reid has written that the emphasis on the political philosophy of the Declaration has been misplaced. The Declaration is not a philosophical tract about natural rights, argues Reid, but is instead a legal document -- an indictment against King George for violating the constitutional rights of the colonists. Historian David Armitage has argued that the Declaration was strongly influenced by de Vattel 's The Law of Nations, the dominant international law treatise of the period, and a book that Benjamin Franklin said was "continually in the hands of the members of our Congress ''. Armitage writes, "Vattel made independence fundamental to his definition of statehood ''; therefore, the primary purpose of the Declaration was "to express the international legal sovereignty of the United States ''. If the United States were to have any hope of being recognized by the European powers, the American revolutionaries first had to make it clear that they were no longer dependent on Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence does not have the force of law domestically, but nevertheless it may help to provide historical and legal clarity about the Constitution and other laws.
The Declaration became official when Congress voted for it on July 4; signatures of the delegates were not needed to make it official. The handwritten copy of the Declaration of Independence that was signed by Congress is dated July 4, 1776. The signatures of fifty - six delegates are affixed; however, the exact date when each person signed it has long been the subject of debate. Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams all wrote that the Declaration had been signed by Congress on July 4. But in 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not then present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date.
The Declaration was transposed on paper, adopted by the Continental Congress, and signed by John Hancock, President of the Congress, on July 4, 1776, according to the 1911 record of events by the U.S. State Department under Secretary Philander C. Knox. On August 2, 1776, a parchment paper copy of the Declaration was signed by 56 persons. Many of these signers were not present when the original Declaration was adopted on July 4. Signer Matthew Thornton from New Hampshire was seated in the Continental Congress in November; he asked for and received the privilege of adding his signature at that time, and signed on November 4, 1776.
Historians have generally accepted McKean 's version of events, arguing that the famous signed version of the Declaration was created after July 19, and was not signed by Congress until August 2, 1776. In 1986, legal historian Wilfred Ritz argued that historians had misunderstood the primary documents and given too much credence to McKean, who had not been present in Congress on July 4. According to Ritz, about thirty - four delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and the others signed on or after August 2. Historians who reject a July 4 signing maintain that most delegates signed on August 2, and that those eventual signers who were not present added their names later.
Two future U.S. presidents were among the signatories: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who presumably signed first as President of Congress. Hancock 's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and the term John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature ''. A commonly circulated but apocryphal account claims that, after Hancock signed, the delegate from Massachusetts commented, "The British ministry can read that name without spectacles. '' Another apocryphal report indicates that Hancock proudly declared, "There! I guess King George will be able to read that! ''
Various legends emerged years later about the signing of the Declaration, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together '', and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately. '' The quotation did not appear in print until more than fifty years after Franklin 's death.
The Syng inkstand used at the signing was also used at the signing of the United States Constitution in 1787.
After Congress approved the final wording of the Declaration on July 4, a handwritten copy was sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of John Dunlap. Through the night, Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides for distribution. Before long, the Declaration was read to audiences and reprinted in newspapers throughout the thirteen states. The first official public reading of the document was by John Nixon in the yard of Independence Hall on July 8; public readings also took place on that day in Trenton, New Jersey and Easton, Pennsylvania. A German translation of the Declaration was published in Philadelphia by July 9.
President of Congress John Hancock sent a broadside to General George Washington, instructing him to have it proclaimed "at the Head of the Army in the way you shall think it most proper ''. Washington had the Declaration read to his troops in New York City on July 9, with thousands of British troops on ships in the harbor. Washington and Congress hoped that the Declaration would inspire the soldiers, and encourage others to join the army. After hearing the Declaration, crowds in many cities tore down and destroyed signs or statues representing royal authority. An equestrian statue of King George in New York City was pulled down and the lead used to make musket balls.
British officials in North America sent copies of the Declaration to Great Britain. It was published in British newspapers beginning in mid-August, it had reached Florence and Warsaw by mid-September, and a German translation appeared in Switzerland by October. The first copy of the Declaration sent to France got lost, and the second copy arrived only in November 1776. It reached Portuguese America by Brazilian medical student "Vendek '' José Joaquim Maia e Barbalho, who had met with Thomas Jefferson in Nîmes.
The Spanish - American authorities banned the circulation of the Declaration, but it was widely transmitted and translated: by Venezuelan Manuel García de Sena, by Colombian Miguel de Pombo, by Ecuadorian Vicente Rocafuerte, and by New Englanders Richard Cleveland and William Shaler, who distributed the Declaration and the United States Constitution among Creoles in Chile and Indians in Mexico in 1821. The North Ministry did not give an official answer to the Declaration, but instead secretly commissioned pamphleteer John Lind to publish a response entitled Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress. British Tories denounced the signers of the Declaration for not applying the same principles of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '' to African Americans. Thomas Hutchinson, the former royal governor of Massachusetts, also published a rebuttal. These pamphlets challenged various aspects of the Declaration. Hutchinson argued that the American Revolution was the work of a few conspirators who wanted independence from the outset, and who had finally achieved it by inducing otherwise loyal colonists to rebel. Lind 's pamphlet had an anonymous attack on the concept of natural rights written by Jeremy Bentham, an argument that he repeated during the French Revolution. Both pamphlets asked how the American slaveholders in Congress could proclaim that "all men are created equal '' without freeing their own slaves.
William Whipple, a signer of the Declaration of Independence who had fought in the war, freed his slave Prince Whipple because of revolutionary ideals. In the postwar decades, other slaveholders also freed their slaves; from 1790 to 1810, the percentage of free blacks in the Upper South increased to 8.3 percent from less than one percent of the black population. All Northern states abolished slavery by 1804.
The official copy of the Declaration of Independence was the one printed on July 4, 1776, under Jefferson 's supervision. It was sent to the states and to the Army and was widely reprinted in newspapers. The slightly different "engrossed copy '' (shown at the top of this article) was made later for members to sign. The engrossed version is the one widely distributed in the 21st century. Note that the opening lines differ between the two versions.
The copy of the Declaration that was signed by Congress is known as the engrossed or parchment copy. It was probably engrossed (that is, carefully handwritten) by clerk Timothy Matlack. A facsimile made in 1823 has become the basis of most modern reproductions rather than the original because of poor conservation of the engrossed copy through the 19th century. In 1921, custody of the engrossed copy of the Declaration was transferred from the State Department to the Library of Congress, along with the United States Constitution. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the documents were moved for safekeeping to the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox in Kentucky, where they were kept until 1944. In 1952, the engrossed Declaration was transferred to the National Archives and is now on permanent display at the National Archives in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom ''.
The document signed by Congress and enshrined in the National Archives is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, but historian Julian P. Boyd argued that the Declaration, like Magna Carta, is not a single document. Boyd considered the printed broadsides ordered by Congress to be official texts, as well. The Declaration was first published as a broadside that was printed the night of July 4 by John Dunlap of Philadelphia. Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides, of which 26 are known to survive. The 26th copy was discovered in The National Archives in England in 2009.
In 1777, Congress commissioned Mary Katherine Goddard to print a new broadside that listed the signers of the Declaration, unlike the Dunlap broadside. Nine copies of the Goddard broadside are known to still exist. A variety of broadsides printed by the states are also extant.
Several early handwritten copies and drafts of the Declaration have also been preserved. Jefferson kept a four - page draft that late in life he called the "original Rough draught ''. It is not known how many drafts Jefferson wrote prior to this one, and how much of the text was contributed by other committee members. In 1947, Boyd discovered a fragment of an earlier draft in Jefferson 's handwriting. Jefferson and Adams sent copies of the rough draft to friends, with slight variations.
During the writing process, Jefferson showed the rough draft to Adams and Franklin, and perhaps to other members of the drafting committee, who made a few more changes. Franklin, for example, may have been responsible for changing Jefferson 's original phrase "We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable '' to "We hold these truths to be self - evident ''. Jefferson incorporated these changes into a copy that was submitted to Congress in the name of the committee. The copy that was submitted to Congress on June 28 has been lost and was perhaps destroyed in the printing process, or destroyed during the debates in accordance with Congress 's secrecy rule.
On April 21, 2017, it was announced that a second engrossed copy had been discovered in an archive in Sussex, England. Named by its finders the "Sussex Declaration '', it differs from the National Archives copy (which the finders refer to as the "Matlack Declaration '') in that the signatures on it are not grouped by States. How it came to be in England is not yet known, but the finders believe that the randomness of the signatures points to an origin with signatory James Wilson, who had argued strongly that the Declaration was made not by the States but by the whole people.
The Declaration was given little attention in the years immediately following the American Revolution, having served its original purpose in announcing the independence of the United States. Early celebrations of Independence Day largely ignored the Declaration, as did early histories of the Revolution. The act of declaring independence was considered important, whereas the text announcing that act attracted little attention. The Declaration was rarely mentioned during the debates about the United States Constitution, and its language was not incorporated into that document. George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights was more influential, and its language was echoed in state constitutions and state bills of rights more often than Jefferson 's words. "In none of these documents '', wrote Pauline Maier, "is there any evidence whatsoever that the Declaration of Independence lived in men 's minds as a classic statement of American political principles. ''
Many leaders of the French Revolution admired the Declaration of Independence but were also interested in the new American state constitutions. The inspiration and content of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) emerged largely from the ideals of the American Revolution. Its key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working closely in Paris with his friend Thomas Jefferson. It also borrowed language from George Mason 's Virginia Declaration of Rights. The declaration also influenced the Russian Empire. The document had a particular impact on the Decembrist revolt and other Russian thinkers.
According to historian David Armitage, the Declaration of Independence did prove to be internationally influential, but not as a statement of human rights. Armitage argued that the Declaration was the first in a new genre of declarations of independence that announced the creation of new states.
Other French leaders were directly influenced by the text of the Declaration of Independence itself. The Manifesto of the Province of Flanders (1790) was the first foreign derivation of the Declaration; others include the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence (1811), the Liberian Declaration of Independence (1847), the declarations of secession by the Confederate States of America (1860 -- 61), and the Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence (1945). These declarations echoed the United States Declaration of Independence in announcing the independence of a new state, without necessarily endorsing the political philosophy of the original.
Other countries have used the Declaration as inspiration or have directly copied sections from it. These include the Haitian declaration of January 1, 1804, during the Haitian Revolution, the United Provinces of New Granada in 1811, the Argentine Declaration of Independence in 1816, the Chilean Declaration of Independence in 1818, Costa Rica in 1821, El Salvador in 1821, Guatemala in 1821, Honduras in (1821), Mexico in 1821, Nicaragua in 1821, Peru in 1821, Bolivian War of Independence in 1825, Uruguay in 1825, Ecuador in 1830, Colombia in 1831, Paraguay in 1842, Dominican Republic in 1844, Texas Declaration of Independence in March 1836, California Republic in November 1836, Hungarian Declaration of Independence in 1849, Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand in 1835, and the Czechoslovak declaration of independence from 1918 drafted in Washington D.C. with Gutzon Borglum among the drafters. The Rhodesian declaration of independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one as well; however, it omits the phrases "all men are created equal '' and "the consent of the governed ''. The South Carolina declaration of secession from December 1860 also mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence, though it, like the Rhodesian one, omits references to "all men are created equal '' and "consent of the governed ''.
Interest in the Declaration was revived in the 1790s with the emergence of the United States 's first political parties. Throughout the 1780s, few Americans knew or cared who wrote the Declaration. But in the next decade, Jeffersonian Republicans sought political advantage over their rival Federalists by promoting both the importance of the Declaration and Jefferson as its author. Federalists responded by casting doubt on Jefferson 's authorship or originality, and by emphasizing that independence was declared by the whole Congress, with Jefferson as just one member of the drafting committee. Federalists insisted that Congress 's act of declaring independence, in which Federalist John Adams had played a major role, was more important than the document announcing it. But this view faded away, like the Federalist Party itself, and, before long, the act of declaring independence became synonymous with the document.
A less partisan appreciation for the Declaration emerged in the years following the War of 1812, thanks to a growing American nationalism and a renewed interest in the history of the Revolution. In 1817, Congress commissioned John Trumbull 's famous painting of the signers, which was exhibited to large crowds before being installed in the Capitol. The earliest commemorative printings of the Declaration also appeared at this time, offering many Americans their first view of the signed document. Collective biographies of the signers were first published in the 1820s, giving birth to what Garry Wills called the "cult of the signers ''. In the years that followed, many stories about the writing and signing of the document were published for the first time.
When interest in the Declaration was revived, the sections that were most important in 1776 were no longer relevant: the announcement of the independence of the United States and the grievances against King George. But the second paragraph was applicable long after the war had ended, with its talk of self - evident truths and unalienable rights. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights lacked sweeping statements about rights and equality, and advocates of groups with grievances turned to the Declaration for support. Starting in the 1820s, variations of the Declaration were issued to proclaim the rights of workers, farmers, women, and others. In 1848, for example, the Seneca Falls Convention of women 's rights advocates declared that "all men and women are created equal ''.
John Trumbull 's painting Declaration of Independence has played a significant role in popular conceptions of the Declaration of Independence. The painting is 12 - by - 18 - foot (3.7 by 5.5 m) in size and was commissioned by the United States Congress in 1817; it has hung in the United States Capitol Rotunda since 1826. It is sometimes described as the signing of the Declaration of Independence, but it actually shows the Committee of Five presenting their draft of the Declaration to the Second Continental Congress on June 28, 1776, and not the signing of the document, which took place later.
Trumbull painted the figures from life whenever possible, but some had died and images could not be located; hence, the painting does not include all the signers of the Declaration. One figure had participated in the drafting but did not sign the final document; another refused to sign. In fact, the membership of the Second Continental Congress changed as time passed, and the figures in the painting were never in the same room at the same time. It is, however, an accurate depiction of the room in Independence Hall, the centerpiece of the Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Trumbull 's painting has been depicted multiple times on U.S. currency and postage stamps. Its first use was on the reverse side of the $100 National Bank Note issued in 1863. A few years later, the steel engraving used in printing the bank notes was used to produce a 24 - cent stamp, issued as part of the 1869 Pictorial Issue. An engraving of the signing scene has been featured on the reverse side of the United States two - dollar bill since 1976.
The apparent contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal '' and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration was first published. As mentioned above, Jefferson had included a paragraph in his initial draft that strongly indicted Great Britain 's role in the slave trade, but this was deleted from the final version. Jefferson himself was a prominent Virginia slave holder, having owned hundreds of slaves. Referring to this seeming contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter, "If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves. ''
In the 19th century, the Declaration took on a special significance for the abolitionist movement. Historian Bertram Wyatt - Brown wrote that "abolitionists tended to interpret the Declaration of Independence as a theological as well as a political document ''. Abolitionist leaders Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garrison adopted the "twin rocks '' of "the Bible and the Declaration of Independence '' as the basis for their philosophies. "As long as there remains a single copy of the Declaration of Independence, or of the Bible, in our land, '' wrote Garrison, "we will not despair. '' For radical abolitionists such as Garrison, the most important part of the Declaration was its assertion of the right of revolution. Garrison called for the destruction of the government under the Constitution, and the creation of a new state dedicated to the principles of the Declaration.
The controversial question of whether to add additional slave states to the United States coincided with the growing stature of the Declaration. The first major public debate about slavery and the Declaration took place during the Missouri controversy of 1819 to 1821. Antislavery Congressmen argued that the language of the Declaration indicated that the Founding Fathers of the United States had been opposed to slavery in principle, and so new slave states should not be added to the country. Proslavery Congressmen led by Senator Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina argued that the Declaration was not a part of the Constitution and therefore had no relevance to the question.
With the antislavery movement gaining momentum, defenders of slavery such as John Randolph and John C. Calhoun found it necessary to argue that the Declaration 's assertion that "all men are created equal '' was false, or at least that it did not apply to black people. During the debate over the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in 1853, for example, Senator John Pettit of Indiana argued that the statement "all men are created equal '' was not a "self - evident truth '' but a "self - evident lie ''. Opponents of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, including Salmon P. Chase and Benjamin Wade, defended the Declaration and what they saw as its antislavery principles.
The Declaration 's relationship to slavery was taken up in 1854 by Abraham Lincoln, a little - known former Congressman who idolized the Founding Fathers. Lincoln thought that the Declaration of Independence expressed the highest principles of the American Revolution, and that the Founding Fathers had tolerated slavery with the expectation that it would ultimately wither away. For the United States to legitimize the expansion of slavery in the Kansas - Nebraska Act, thought Lincoln, was to repudiate the principles of the Revolution. In his October 1854 Peoria speech, Lincoln said:
Nearly eighty years ago we began by declaring that all men are created equal; but now from that beginning we have run down to the other declaration, that for some men to enslave others is a "sacred right of self - government ''.... Our republican robe is soiled and trailed in the dust.... Let us repurify it. Let us re-adopt the Declaration of Independence, and with it, the practices, and policy, which harmonize with it.... If we do this, we shall not only have saved the Union: but we shall have saved it, as to make, and keep it, forever worthy of the saving.
The meaning of the Declaration was a recurring topic in the famed debates between Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in 1858. Douglas argued that the phrase "all men are created equal '' in the Declaration referred to white men only. The purpose of the Declaration, he said, had simply been to justify the independence of the United States, and not to proclaim the equality of any "inferior or degraded race ''. Lincoln, however, thought that the language of the Declaration was deliberately universal, setting a high moral standard to which the American republic should aspire. "I had thought the Declaration contemplated the progressive improvement in the condition of all men everywhere, '' he said. During the seventh and last joint debate with Steven Douglas at Alton, Illinois on October 15, 1858, Lincoln said about the declaration:
I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not mean to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not mean to say all men were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development, or social capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what they did consider all men created equal -- equal in "certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. '' This they said, and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were then actually enjoying that equality, or yet that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact, they had no power to confer such a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society which should be familiar to all, constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, everywhere.
According to Pauline Maier, Douglas 's interpretation was more historically accurate, but Lincoln 's view ultimately prevailed. "In Lincoln 's hands, '' wrote Maier, "the Declaration of Independence became first and foremost a living document '' with "a set of goals to be realized over time ''.
Abraham Lincoln, 1858
Like Daniel Webster, James Wilson, and Joseph Story before him, Lincoln argued that the Declaration of Independence was a founding document of the United States, and that this had important implications for interpreting the Constitution, which had been ratified more than a decade after the Declaration. The Constitution did not use the word "equality '', yet Lincoln believed that the concept that "all men are created equal '' remained a part of the nation 's founding principles. He famously expressed this belief in the opening sentence of his 1863 Gettysburg Address: "Four score and seven years ago (i.e. in 1776) our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. ''
Lincoln 's view of the Declaration became influential, seeing it as a moral guide to interpreting the Constitution. "For most people now, '' wrote Garry Wills in 1992, "the Declaration means what Lincoln told us it means, as a way of correcting the Constitution itself without overthrowing it. '' Admirers of Lincoln such as Harry V. Jaffa praised this development. Critics of Lincoln, notably Willmoore Kendall and Mel Bradford, argued that Lincoln dangerously expanded the scope of the national government and violated states ' rights by reading the Declaration into the Constitution.
In July 1848, the first woman 's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mary Ann McClintock, and Jane Hunt. In their "Declaration of Sentiments '', patterned on the Declaration of Independence, the convention members demanded social and political equality for women. Their motto was that "All men and women are created equal '' and the convention demanded suffrage for women. The suffrage movement was supported by William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass.
The Declaration was chosen to be the first digitized text (1971).
The Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence was dedicated in 1984 in Constitution Gardens on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., where the signatures of all the original signers are carved in stone with their names, places of residence, and occupations.
The new One World Trade Center building in New York City (2014) is 1776 feet high to symbolize the year that the Declaration of Independence was signed.
The adoption of the Declaration of Independence was dramatized in the 1969 Tony Award -- winning musical 1776 and the 1972 movie version, as well as in the 2008 television miniseries John Adams.
In 1970, The 5th Dimension recorded the opening of the Declaration, through the phrase "for their future Security ''. It is the only known musical setting of any portion of the Declaration, which was not sung in 1776. The name of the song is "Declaration, '' and it was performed on the Ed Sullivan Show on December 7, 1969. At the time, it was taken as a song of protest against the Vietnam War.
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how did the spread of free market economies help promote globalization | Economic globalization - wikipedia
Economic globalization is one of the three main dimensions of globalization commonly found in academic literature, with the two other being political globalization and cultural globalization, as well as the general term of globalization. Economic globalization refers to the free movement of goods, capital, services, technology and information. It is the increasing economic integration and interdependence of national, regional, and local economies across the world through an intensification of cross-border movement of goods, services, technologies and capital. Whereas globalization is a broad set of processes concerning multiple networks of economic, political, and cultural interchange, contemporary economic globalization is propelled by the rapid growing significance of information in all types of productive activities and marketization, and by developments in science and technology.
Economic globalization primarily comprises the globalization of production, finance, markets, technology, organizational regimes, institutions, corporations, and labour. While economic globalization has been expanding since the emergence of trans - national trade, it has grown at an increased rate due to an increase in communication and technological advances under the framework of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and World Trade Organization, which made countries gradually cut down trade barriers and open up their current accounts and capital accounts. This recent boom has been largely supported by developed economies integrating with majority world through foreign direct investment and lowering costs of doing business, the reduction of trade barriers, and in many cases cross border migration
While globalization has radically increased incomes and economic growth in developing countries and lowered consumer prices in developed countries, it also changes the power balance between developing and developed countries and affects the culture of each affected country. And the shifting location of goods production has caused many jobs to cross borders, requiring some workers in developed countries to change careers.
International commodity markets, labor markets, and capital markets make up the economy and define economic globalization.
Beginning as early as 6500 BCE, people in Syria were trading livestock, tools, and other items. In Sumer, an early civilization in Mesopotamia, a token system was one of the first forms of commodity money. Labor markets consist of workers, employers, wages, income, supply and demand. Labor markets have been around as long as commodity markets. The first labor markets provided workers to grow crops and tend livestock for later sale in local markets. Capital markets emerged in industries that require resources beyond those of an individual farmer.
Globalization is about interconnecting people around the world beyond the physical barrier of geographical boundaries.
These advances in economic globalization were disrupted by World War I. Most of the global economic powers constructed protectionist economic policies and introduced trade barriers that slowed trade growth to the point of stagnation. This caused a slowing of worldwide trade and even led to other countries introducing immigration caps. Globalization did not fully resume until the 1970s, when governments began to emphasize the benefits of trade. Today, follow - on advances in technology have led to the rapid expansion of global trade.
Three suggested factors accelerated economic globalization: advancement of science and technology, market oriented economic reforms, and contributions by multinational corporations.
The 1956 invention of containerized shipping, along with increases in ship sizes, were a major part of the reduction in shipping costs.
Economic globalization is one of the three main dimensions of globalization commonly found in academic literature, with the two other being political globalization and cultural globalization, as well as the general term of globalization. (1)
The GATT / WTO framework led participating countries to reduce their tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade. Governments shifted their economies from central planning to markets. These internal reforms allowed enterprises to adapt more quickly and exploit opportunities created by technology shifts.
Multinational corporations reorganized production to take advantage of these opportunities. Labor - intensive production migrated to areas with lower labor costs, later followed by other functions as skill levels increased. Networks raised the level of wealth consumption and geographical mobility. This highly dynamic worldwide system and powerful ramifications.
On 27 October 1986, the London Stock Exchange enacted newly deregulated rules that enabled global interconnection of markets, with an expectation of huge increases in market activity. This event came to be known as the Big Bang.
An intergovernmental organization or international governmental organization (IGO) refers to an entity created by treaty, involving two or more nations, to work in good faith, on issues of common interest. IGO 's strive for peace, security and deal with economic and social questions. Examples include: The United Nations, The World Bank and on a regional level The North Atlantic Treaty Organization among others.
Despite its activity within one nation, NGOs work towards solutions that can benefit undeveloped countries that face the backlash of economic globalization. Classified as any non-profit, voluntary citizens ' group which is organized on a local, national or international level. NGOs perform various services and humanitarian functions, bring citizen concerns to Governments, advocate and monitor policies and encourage political participation through provision of information.
One of the many changes they have brought to developing countries is increased automation, which may damage less - automated local firms and require their workers to develop new skills in order to transition into the changing economy, leaving some behind. The necessary education infrastructure is often not present, requiring a redirection of the government 's focus from social services to education. Corporations have outsourced in recent years. In business, outsourcing involves the contracting out of a business process (e.g. payroll processing, claims processing) and operational, and / or non-core functions (e.g. manufacturing, facility management, call center support) to another party (see also business process outsourcing).
ECLAC states that in order to create better economic relations globally, international lending agencies must work with developing countries to change how and where credit is concentrated as well as work towards accelerating financial development in developing countries. ECLAC further suggests that the United Nations expand its agenda to work more rigorously with international lending agencies and that they become more inclusive of all nations. Key factors in achieving universal competition is the spread of knowledge at the State level through education, training and technological advancements. Economist Jagdish Bhagwati suggested that programs to help developing countries adjust to the global economy would be beneficial for international economic relations.
Several movements, such as the fair trade movement and the anti-sweatshop movement, claim to promote a more socially just global economy. The fair trade movement works towards improving trade, development and production for disadvantaged producers. The fair trade movement has reached 1.6 billion US dollars in annual sales. The movement works to raise consumer awareness of exploitation of developing countries. Fair trade works under the motto of "trade, not aid '', to improve the quality of life for farmers and merchants by participating in direct sales, providing better prices and supporting the community. Meanwhile, the anti-sweatshop movement is to protest the unfair treatment caused by some companies. Some global brands were found to do that before but they took some methods to support the labors soon after. The movement is taken to decrease the wrongdoing and gain the profits for labors.
Globalization is sometimes perceived as a cause of a phenomenon called the "race to the bottom '' that implies that multinational companies are constantly attempting to maintain or increase their influence in countries that are already reliant on foreign investment alone. Multinationals tend to target export dependent countries. Due to a rise in competition, underdeveloped countries are undercutting their competitors through lowering their labor standards thus lowering the labor costs for the multinational companies investing into them. Companies will deliberately move into countries with the most relaxed laws and regulations for labor standards allowing them to do whatever they want. This results in factories with harsh labor conditions, low wages, and job insecurity.
According to prominent Chinese economist Gao Shanguan, economic globalization is an irreversible trend due to the fact that world markets are in great need of science and information technologies. With the growing demands of science and technology, Gao states that with world markets take on an "increasing cross-border division of labor ''.
However, Princeton University professor Robert Gilpin argues that nations ' economic policies have mistakenly slowed their own growth by resisting globalization, showing that globalization is not irreversible. Antonio L. Rappa agrees that economic globalization is reversible and cites International Studies professor Peter J. Katzenstein.
Economic growth accelerated and poverty declined globally following the acceleration of globalization.
Per capita GDP growth in the post-1980 globalizers accelerated from 1.4 percent a year in the 1960s and 2.9 percent a year in the 1970s to 3.5 percent in the 1980s and 5.0 percent in the 1990s. This acceleration in growth is even more remarkable given that the rich countries saw steady declines in growth from a high of 4.7 percent in the 1960s to 2.2 percent in the 1990s. Also, the non-globalizing developing countries did much worse than the globalizers, with the former 's annual growth rates falling from highs of 3.3 percent during the 1970s to only 1.4 percent during the 1990s. This rapid growth among the globalizers is not simply due to the strong performances of China and India in the 1980s and 1990s -- 18 out of the 24 globalizers experienced increases in growth, many of them quite substantial. ''
According to the International Monetary Fund, growth benefits of economic globalization are widely shared. While several globalizers have seen an increase in inequality, most notably China, this increase in inequality is a result of domestic liberalization, restrictions on internal migration, and agricultural policies, rather than a result of international trade.
Poverty has been reduced as evidenced by a 5.4 percent annual growth in income for the poorest fifth of the population of Malaysia. Even in China, where inequality continues to be a problem, the poorest fifth of the population saw a 3.8 percent annual growth in income. In several countries, those living below the dollar - per - day poverty threshold declined. In China, the rate declined from 20 to 15 percent and in Bangladesh the rate dropped from 43 to 36 percent.
Globalizers are narrowing the per capita income gap between the rich and the globalizing nations. China, India, and Bangladesh, once among the poorest countries in the world, have greatly narrowed inequality due to their economic expansion.
The global supply chain consists of complex interconnected networks that allow companies to produce handle and distribute various goods and services to the public worldwide.
Corporations manage their supply chain to take advantage of cheaper costs of production. A supply chain is a system of organizations, people, activities, information, and resources involved in moving a product or service from supplier to customer. Supply chain activities involve the transformation of natural resources, raw materials, and components into a finished product that is delivered to the end customer. In sophisticated supply chain systems, used products may re-enter the supply chain at any point where residual value is recyclable. Supply chains link value chains. Supply and demand can be very fickle, depending on factors such as the weather, consumer demand, and large orders placed by multinational corporations.
Labor unions were established during industrialization as a solution to poor and unregulated working conditions. Unregulated businesses allowed for low wages, job insecurity and poor working conditions. Trade unions responded by implementing a technique called collective bargaining, where the workers could legally negotiate wages as well as working conditions. As a direct result, labors rights increased as policy and regulation were enforced. Alongside globalization, outsourcing developed which increased corporate power. As a solution, Labor Unions continue to fight for global labor rights standards through trans - national organizations.
Capital flight occurs when assets or money rapidly flow out of a country because of that country 's recent increase in unfavorable financial conditions such as taxes, tariffs, labor costs, government debt or capital controls. This is usually accompanied by a sharp drop in the exchange rate of the affected country or a forced devaluation for countries living under fixed exchange rates. Currency declines improve the terms of trade, but reduce the monetary value of financial and other assets in the country. This leads to decreases in the purchasing power of the country 's assets.
A 2008 paper published by Global Financial Integrity estimated capital flight to be leaving developing countries at the rate of "$850 billion to $1 trillion a year. '' But capital flight also affects developed countries. A 2009 article in The Times reported that hundreds of wealthy financiers and entrepreneurs had recently fled the United Kingdom in response to recent tax increases, relocating to low tax destinations such as Jersey, Guernsey, the Isle of Man and the British Virgin Islands. In May 2012 the scale of Greek capital flight in the wake of the first "undecided '' legislative election was estimated at € 4 billion a week.
Capital flight can cause liquidity crises in directly affected countries and can cause related difficulties in other countries involved in international commerce such as shipping and finance. Asset holders may be forced into distress sales. Borrowers typically face higher loan costs and collateral requirements, compared to periods of ample liquidity, and unsecured debt is nearly impossible to obtain. Typically, during a liquidity crisis, the interbank lending market stalls.
While within - country income inequality has increased throughout the globalization period, globally inequality has lessened as developing countries have experienced much more rapid growth. Economic inequality varies between societies, historical periods, economic structures or economic systems, ongoing or past wars, between genders, and between differences in individuals ' abilities to create wealth. Among the various numerical indices for measuring economic inequality, the Gini coefficient is most often - cited.
Economic inequality affects equity, equality of outcome and subsequent equality of opportunity. Although earlier studies considered economic inequality as necessary and beneficial, some economists see it as an important social problem. Early studies suggesting that greater equality inhibits economic growth did not account for lags between inequality changes and growth changes. Later studies claimed that one of the most robust determinants of sustained economic growth is the level of income inequality.
International inequality is inequality between countries. Income differences between rich and poor countries are very large, although they are changing rapidly. Per capita incomes in China and India doubled in the prior twenty years, a feat that required 150 years in the US. According to the United Nations Human Development Report for 2013, for countries at varying levels of the UN Human Development Index the GNP per capita grew between 2004 and 2013 from 24,806 to 33,391 or 35 % (very high human development), 4,269 to 5,428 or 27 % (medium) and 1,184 to 1,633 or 38 % (low) PPP $, respectively (PPP $ = purchasing power parity measured in United States dollars).
Certain demographic changes in the developing world after active economic liberalization and international integration resulted in rising welfare and hence, reduced inequality. According to Martin Wolf, in the developing world as a whole, life expectancy rose by four months each year after 1970 and infant mortality rate declined from 107 per thousand in 1970 to 58 in 2000 due to improvements in standards of living and health conditions. Also, adult literacy in developing countries rose from 53 % in 1970 to 74 % in 1998 and much lower illiteracy rate among the young guarantees that rates will continue to fall as time passes. Furthermore, the reduction in fertility rates in the developing world as a whole from 4.1 births per woman in 1980 to 2.8 in 2000 indicates improved education level of women on fertility, and control of fewer children with more parental attention and investment. Consequentially, more prosperous and educated parents with fewer children have chosen to withdraw their children from the labor force to give them opportunities to be educated at school improving the issue of child labor. Thus, despite seemingly unequal distribution of income within these developing countries, their economic growth and development have brought about improved standards of living and welfare for the population as a whole.
Recent developments, such as just - in - time manufacturing, have affected those working manufacturing jobs and agricultural work more than others. When larger companies or others who control the supply chain decide to reduce manufacturing, these people oftentimes find themselves out of a job with little or no assistance.
Alongside globalization there is an increasing internationalization of health risks. Corporations resort to outsourced employment in developing nations, which in turn forces low income foreigners at the bottom of the "food chain, '' as individuals drudge for pennies on the dollar under unregulated, unsanitary and implacable conditions. Women in agriculture, for example, are often asked to work long hours handling chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers without any protection. There are adverse health consequences from working long hours and individuals that burden themselves from working within vasts global supply chains.
Seth, Divya, and Nimali Singh published research evidence linking a wide range of health risks and overworking. The article argued that time is of the essence; in short time is a necessity for an individual 's health whether the subject is behavior, vising the doctor 's office, and essential care. There is a direct correlation with stress and has been the cause for 24 % of cardiovascular disease cases including strokes and heart attacks. Although both men and women experience shortcomings with health, the final reports stated that women, with the double burden of domestic and paid work experience an increased the risk of psychological distress and suboptimal health. Strazdins concluded that negative work - family spillover especially is associated with health problems among both women and men, and negative family - work spillover is related to a poorer health status among women. ''
It is common for the work lifestyle to bring forth adverse health conditions or even death due to weak safety measure policies. After the tragic collapse of the Rana Plaza factory in Bangladesh where over 800 deaths occurred the country has since then made efforts in boosting up their safety policies to better accommodate workers.
Corporations set their place of production usually in areas with little to no labor regulations, and as a result low labor cost occurs. With the low labor regulations, there are risks for mistreatment of some workers, especially women and children. Poor working conditions and sexual harassment are just some of the mistreatment faced by women in the textile supply chain. Marina Prieto - Carrón shows in her research in Central America that women in sweatshops are not even supplied with toilet paper in the bathroom everyday. The reason it costs corporations more is because people can not work to their full potential in poor conditions, affecting the global marketplace. Furthermore, when corporations decide to change manufacturing rates or locations in industries that employ more women, they are often left with no job nor assistance. This kind of sudden reduction or elimination in hours is seen in industries such as the textile industry and agriculture industry, both which employ a higher amount of women than men. One solution to mistreatment of women in the supply chain is more involvement from the corporation and trying to regulate the outsourcing of their product.
A tax haven is a state, country or territory where certain taxes are levied at a low rate or not at all, which are used by businesses for tax avoidance and tax evasion. Individuals and / or corporate entities can find it attractive to move themselves to areas with reduced taxation. This creates a situation of tax competition among governments. Taxes vary substantially across jurisdictions. Sovereign states have theoretically unlimited powers to enact tax laws affecting their territories, unless limited by previous international treaties. The central feature of a tax haven is that its laws and other measures can be used to evade or avoid the tax laws or regulations of other jurisdictions. In its December 2008 report on the use of tax havens by American corporations, the U.S. Government Accountability Office was unable to provide a satisfactory definition of a tax haven, but regarded the following characteristics as indicative of it: nil or nominal taxes; lack of effective exchange of tax information with foreign tax authorities; lack of transparency in the operation of legislative, legal or administrative provisions; no requirement for a substantive local presence; and self - promotion as an offshore financial center.
A 2012 report from the Tax Justice Network estimated that between USD $21 trillion and $32 trillion is sheltered from taxes in tax havens worldwide. If such hidden offshore assets are considered, many countries with governments nominally in debt would be net creditor nations. However, the tax policy director of the Chartered Institute of Taxation expressed skepticism over the accuracy of the figures. Daniel J. Mitchell of the US - based Cato Institute says that the report also assumes, when considering notional lost tax revenue, that 100 % of the money deposited offshore is evading payment of tax.
The tax shelter benefits result in a tax incidence disadvantaging the poor. Many tax havens are thought to have connections to "fraud, money laundering and terrorism. '' Accountants ' opinions on the propriety of tax havens have been evolving, as have the opinions of their corporate users, governments, and politicians, although their use by Fortune 500 companies and others remains widespread. Reform proposals centering on the Big Four accountancy firms have been advanced. Some governments appear to be using computer spyware to scrutinize corporations ' finances.
The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) has proposed an agenda to support conditions for developing countries to improve their standing in the global economy. However, the advantaged countries continue to control the economic agenda. Lechner and Boli state that the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund must give voice to developing countries.
Economic globalization may affect culture. Populations may mimic the international flow of capital and labor markets in the form of immigration and the merger of cultures. Foreign resources and economic measures may affect different native cultures and may cause assimilation of a native people. As these populations are exposed to the English language, computers, western music, and North American culture, changes are being noted in shrinking family size, immigration to larger cities, more casual dating practices, and gender roles are transformed.
Yu Xintian noted two contrary trends in culture due to economic globalization. Yu argued that culture and industry not only flow from the developed world to the rest, but trigger an effort to protect local cultures. He notes that economic globalization began after World War II, whereas internationalization began over a century ago.
George Ritzer wrote about the McDonaldization of society and how fast food businesses spread throughout the United States and the rest of the world, attracting other places to adopt fast food culture. Ritzer describes other businesses such as The Body Shop, a British cosmetics company, that have copied McDonald 's business model for expansion and influence. In 2006, 233 of 280 or over 80 % of new McDonald 's opened outside the US. In 2007, Japan had 2,828 McDonald 's locations.
Global media companies export information around the world. This creates a mostly one - way flow of information, and exposure to mostly western products and values. Companies like CNN, Reuters and the BBC dominate the global airwaves with western points of view. Other media news companies such as Qatar 's Al Jazeera network offer a different point of view, but reach and influence fewer people.
"With an estimated 210 million people living outside their country of origin (International Labour Organization (ILO) 2010), international migration has touched the lives of almost everyone in both the sending and receiving countries of the Global South and the Global North ''. Because of advances made in technology, human beings as well as goods are able to move through different countries and regions with relative ease.
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who elected the president of india in hindi | President of India - wikipedia
The President of the Republic of India is the ceremonial head of state of India and the commander - in - chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
The president is indirectly elected by an electoral college comprising the Parliament of India (both houses) and the legislative assemblies of each of India 's states and territories, who themselves are all directly elected.
Although the Article 53 of the Constitution of India states that the president can exercise his powers directly or by subordinate authority, with few exceptions, all of the executive powers vested in the president are, in practice, exercised by the prime minister (a subordinate authority) with the help of the Council of Ministers. The president is bound by the constitution to act on the advice of the prime minister and cabinet as long as the advice is not violating the constitution.
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-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Political parties
National coalitions:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- State governments
Legislatures:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Local governments: Rural bodies:
Urban bodies:
India achieved independence from the British on 15 August 1947, initially as a dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with George VI as king, represented in the country by a governor - general. Still, following this, the Constituent Assembly of India, under the leadership of B.R. Ambedkar, undertook the process of drafting a completely new constitution for the country. The Constitution of India was eventually enacted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950, making India a republic. The offices of monarch and governor - general were replaced by the new office of President of India, with Rajendra Prasad as its first incumbent.
The Indian constitution accords with the president, the responsibility and authority to defend and protect the Constitution of India and its rule of law. Invariably, any action taken by the executive or legislature entities of the constitution shall become law only after the President 's assent. The president shall not accept any actions of the executive or legislature which are unconstitutional. The president is the foremost, most empowered and prompt defender of the constitution (Article 60), who has pre-emptive power for ensuring constitutionality in the actions of the executive or legislature. The role of the judiciary in upholding the Constitution of India is the second line of defence in nullifying any unconstitutional actions of the executive and legislative entities of the Indian Union.
The primary duty of the president is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India as made part of his oath (Article 60 of Indian constitution). The president is the common head of all independent constitutional entities. All his actions, recommendations (Article 3, Article 111, Article 274, etc.) and supervisory powers (Article 74 (2), Article 78 c, Article 108, Article 111, etc.) over the executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution. There is no bar on the actions of the president to contest in the court of law.
Legislative power is constitutionally vested by the Parliament of India of which the president is the head, to facilitate the lawmaking process per the constitution (Article 78, Article 86, etc.). The president summons both the houses (The House of the People and ' The Council of States ') of the parliament and prorogues them. He can dissolve the Lok Sabha.
The president inaugurates parliament by addressing it after the general elections and also at the beginning of the first session every year per Article 87 (1). The Presidential address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government.
All bills passed by the parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the president per Article 111. After a bill is presented to him, the president shall declare either that he assents to the Bill, or that he withholds his assent from it. As a third option, he can return a bill to parliament, if it is not a money bill, for reconsideration. President may be of the view that a particular bill passed under the legislative powers of parliament is violating the constitution, he can send back the bill with his recommendation to pass the bill under the constituent powers of parliament following the Article 368 procedure. When, after reconsideration, the bill is passed accordingly and presented to the president, with or without amendments, the president can not withhold his assent from it. The president can also withhold his assent to a bill when it is initially presented to him (rather than return it to parliament) thereby exercising a pocket veto on the advice of prime minister or council of ministers per Article 74 if it is inconsistent to the constitution. Article 143 gave power to the president to consult the supreme court about the constitutional validity of an issue. The president shall assent to constitutional amendment bills without power to withhold the bills per Article 368 (2).
When either of the two Houses of the Parliament of India is not in session, and if the government feels the need for an immediate procedure, the president can promulgate ordinances which have the same force and effect as an act passed by parliament under its legislative powers. These are in the nature of interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval. Ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier. Under Article 123, the president as the upholder of the constitution shall be satisfied that immediate action is mandatory as advised by the union cabinet and he is confident that the government commands majority support in the parliament needed for the passing of the ordinance into an act and parliament can be summoned to deliberate on the passing of the ordinance as soon as possible. The promulgated ordinance is treated as an act of parliament when in force and it is the responsibility of the president to withdraw the ordinance as soon as the reasons for promulgation of the ordinance are no longer applicable. Bringing laws in the form of ordinances has become a routine matter by the government and President, but the provisions made in Article 123 are meant for mitigating unusual circumstances where immediate action is inevitable when the extant provisions of the law are inadequate. Re-promulgation of an ordinance after failing to get approval within the stipulated time of both houses of parliament is an unconstitutional act by the president. The President should not incorporate any matter in an ordinance which violates the constitution or requires an amendment to the constitution. The president should take moral responsibility when an ordinance elapses automatically or is not approved by the parliament or violates the constitution.
Per Article 53, the executive power of the country is vested in the president and is exercised by President either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the constitution. When parliament thinks fit it may accord additional executive powers to the president per Article 70 which may be further delegated by the president to the governors of states per Article 160. Union cabinet with prime minister as its head, should aid and advice the president in performing his functions. Per Article 74 (2), the council of ministers or prime minister are not accountable legally to the advice tendered to the president but it is the sole responsibility of the president to ensure compliance with the constitution in performing his duties. President or his subordinate officers is bound by the provisions of the constitution notwithstanding any advice by union cabinet.
Per Article 142, it is the duty of President to enforce the decrees of the supreme court.
The primary duty of the president is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India per Article 60. The president appoints the Chief Justice of India and other judges on the advice of the chief justice. He dismisses the judges if and only if the two Houses of the parliament pass resolutions to that effect by a two - thirds majority of the members present.
Attorney General for India -- who is the Indian government 's chief legal adviser -- is appointed by the President of India under Article 76 (1) and holds office during the pleasure of the president. If the president considers a question of law or a matter of public importance has arisen, he can also ask for the advisory opinion of the supreme court per Article 143. Per Article 88, President can ask the Attorney General to attend the parliamentary proceedings and report to him any unlawful functioning if any.
The president appoints as prime minister, the person most likely to command the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). the president then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the prime minister. The Council of Ministersa remains in power at the ' pleasure ' of the president.
The president appoints 12 members of the Rajya Sabha from amongst persons who have special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service. President may nominate not more than two members of Anglo Indian community as Lok Sabha members per Article 331
Governors of states are also appointed by the president who shall work at the pleasure of the president. Per Article 156, President is empowered to dismiss a governor who has violated the constitution in his acts.
The president is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include:
All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on behalf of the president. However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the prime minister along with his Cabinet (especially the Foreign Minister). Also, such treaties are subject to the approval of the parliament. The president represents India in international forums and affairs where such a function is chiefly ceremonial. The president may also send and receive diplomats, i.e. the officers from the Indian Foreign Service. The president is the first citizen of the country.
The president is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The president can declare war or conclude peace, on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers headed by the prime minister. All important treaties and contracts are made in the President 's name.
As mentioned in Article 72 of the Indian constitution, the president is empowered with the powers to grant pardons in the following situations:
The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the prime minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most cases, however, the president exercises his executive powers on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet.
The president can declare three types of emergencies: national, state and financial, under articles 352, 356 & 360 in addition to promulgating ordinances under article 123.
A national emergency can be declared in the whole of India or a part of its territory for causes of war or armed rebellion or an external aggression. Such an emergency was declared in India in 1962 (Indo - China war), 1971 (Indo - Pakistan war), and 1975 to 1977 (declared by Indira Gandhi).
Under Article 352 of the India constitution, the president can declare such an emergency only on the basis of a written request by the cabinet of ministers headed by the prime minister. Such a proclamation must be approved by the parliament with an at least two - thirds majority within one month. Such an emergency can be imposed for six months. It can be extended by six months by repeated parliamentary approval - there is no maximum duration.
In such an emergency, Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens can be suspended. The six freedoms under Right to Freedom are automatically suspended. However, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty can not be suspended (Article 21).
The president can make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on which the state governments can make laws). Also, all money bills are referred to the president for approval. The term of the Lok Sabha can be extended by a period of up to one year, but not so as to extend the term of parliament beyond six months after the end of the declared emergency.
National Emergency has been proclaimed 3 times in India till date. It was declared first in 1962 by President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, during the Sino - Indian War. This emergency lasted through the Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 and up to 1968. It was revoked in 1968. The second emergency in India was proclaimed in 1971 by President V.V. Giri on the eve of the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971. The first two emergencies were in the face of external aggression and War. They were hence external emergencies. Even as the second emergency was in progress, another internal emergency was proclaimed by President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, with Indira Gandhi as prime minister in 1975. In 1977, the second and the third emergencies were together revoked.
If the president is fully satisfied, on the basis of the report of the governor of the concerned state or from other sources that the governance in a state can not be carried out according to the provisions in the constitution, he can proclaim under Article 356 a state of emergency in the state. Such an emergency must be approved by the parliament within a period of 2 months.
Under Article 356 of the Indian constitution, it can be imposed from six months to a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. If the emergency needs to be extended for more than three years, this can be achieved by a constitutional amendment, as has happened in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.
During such an emergency, the president can take over the entire work of the executive, and the governor administers the state in the name of the president. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in suspended animation. The parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list (see National emergency for explanation).
A State Emergency can be imposed via the following:
This type of emergency needs the approval of the parliament within 2 months. It can last up to a maximum of three years via extensions after each 6 - month period. However, after one year it can be extended only if
The Sarkaria Commission held that presidents have unconstitutionally misused the provision of Article 356 many times for achieving political motives, by dismissing the state governments although there was no constitutional break down in the states. During 2005, President 's rule was imposed in Bihar state, misusing Article 356 unconstitutionally to prevent the democratically elected state legislators to form a government after the state elections.
There is no provision in the constitution to re-promulgate president 's rule in a state when the earlier promulgation ceased to operate for want of parliaments approval within two months duration. During 2014 in Andhra Pradesh, president 's rule was first imposed on 1 March 2014 and it ceased to operate on 30 April 2014. President 's rule was promulgated after being fully aware that the earliest parliament session is feasible at the end of May 2014 after the general elections. It was reimposed again unconstitutionally on 28 April 2014 by the president.
Article 282 accords financial autonomy in spending the financial resources available with the states for public purpose. Article 293 gives liberty to states to borrow without any limit to its ability for its requirements within the territory of India without any consent from the Union government. However, Union government can insist for compliance of its loan terms when a state has outstanding loan charged to the consolidated fund of India or an outstanding loan in respect of which a guarantee has been given by the Government of India under the liability of consolidated fund of India.
Under article 360 of the constitution, President can proclaim a financial emergency when the financial stability or credit of the nation or of any part of its territory is threatened. However, until now no guidelines defining the situation of financial emergency in the entire country or a state or a union territory or a panchayat or a municipality or a corporation have been framed either by the finance commission or by the central government.
Such an emergency must be approved by the parliament within two months by a simple majority. It has never been declared. A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the president.
The president can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the supreme court and high courts, in cases of a financial emergency. All money bills passed by state legislatures are submitted to the president for approval. He can direct the state to observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters.
Article 58 of the constitution sets the principal qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the president. A President must be:
A person shall not be eligible for election as President if he holds any office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any State or under any local or other authority subject to the control of any of the said Governments.
Certain office - holders, however, are permitted to stand as Presidential candidates. These are:
In the event that the vice-president, a state governor or a minister is elected President, they are considered to have vacated their previous office on the date they begin serving as President.
A member of parliament or of a State Legislature can seek election to the office of the president but if he is elected as President, he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in parliament or State Legislature on the date on which he enters upon his office as President (Article 59 (1)).
Article 57 provides that a person who holds, or who has held, office as President shall, subject to the other provisions of this constitution, be eligible for re-election to that office.
Under The Presidential and Vice-Presidential Elections Act, 1952, a candidate to be nominated for the office of president needs 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders for his name to appear on the ballot.
Article 56 (1) of the constitution provides that the president shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office. According to Article 62, an election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiration of the term of office of President shall be completed before the expiration of the term. An election to fill a vacancy in the office of President occurring by reason of his death, resignation or removal, or otherwise shall be held as soon as possible after, and in no case later than six months from, the date of occurrence of the vacancy; and the person elected to fill the vacancy shall, subject to the provisions of Article 56, be entitled to hold office for the full term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office. To meet the contingency of an election to the office of President not being completed in time due to unforeseen circumstances like countermanding of election due to death of a candidate or on account of postponement of the poll for any valid reason, Article 56 (1) (c) provides that the president shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term, continue to hold office until his successor enters upon his office.
Certain conditions, per Article 59 of the Indian constitution, debar an otherwise eligible citizen from contesting the presidential elections. The conditions are:
Whenever the office becomes vacant, the new President is chosen by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses of parliament (M.P.s), the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabha) of all States and the elected members of the legislative assemblies (MLAs) of two union territories, i.e., National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi and Union Territory of Puducherry. The election process of President is more extensive process than prime minister who is also elected indirectly (not elected by people directly) by the Lok Sabha members only. Whereas President being the constitutional head with duties to protect, defend and preserve the constitution and rule of law in a constitutional democracy with constitutional supremacy, is elected in an extensive manner by the members of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and state legislative assemblies in a secret ballot procedure.
The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of the president must be subscribed by at least 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders. Each candidate has to make a security deposit of ₹ 15,000 (US $220) in the Reserve Bank of India. The security deposit is liable to be forfeited in case the candidate fails to secure one - sixth of the votes polled.
The election is held in accordance with the system of proportional representation (PR) by means of the single transferable vote (STV) method. The voting takes place by a secret ballot system. The manner of election of President is provided by Article 55 of the constitution.
Each elector casts a different number of votes. The general principle is that the total number of votes cast by Members of parliament equals the total number of votes cast by State Legislators. Also, legislators from larger states cast more votes than those from smaller states. Finally, the number of legislators in state matters; if a state has few legislators, then each legislator has more votes; if a state has many legislators, then each legislator has fewer votes.
The actual calculation for votes cast by a particular state is calculated by dividing the state 's population by 1000, which is divided again by the number of legislators from the State voting in the electoral college. This number is the number of votes per legislator in a given state. Every elected member of the parliament enjoys the same number of votes, which may be obtained by dividing the total number of votes assigned to the members of legislative assemblies by the total number of elected representatives of the parliament.
Although Indian presidential elections involve actual voting by MPs and MLAs, they tend to vote for the candidate supported by their respective parties.
The president is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the Chief Justice of India -- or in his absence, the senior-most judge of the supreme court -- an oath or affirmation that he / she shall protect, preserve and defend the constitution as follows:
I, (name), do swear in the name of God (or solemnly affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President (or discharge the functions of the President) of the Republic of India, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law, and that I will devote myself to the service and well - being of the people of the Republic of India.
The President of India used to receive ₹ 10,000 (US $100) per month per the Second Schedule of the constitution. This amount was increased to ₹ 50,000 (equivalent to ₹ 160,000 or US $2,300 in 2017) in 1998. On 11 September 2008, the Government of India increased the salary of the president to ₹ 1.5 lakh (equivalent to ₹ 3.0 lakh or US $4,300 in 2017). This amount was further increased to ₹ 5 lakh (US $7,300) in the 2018 Union budget of India. However, almost everything that the president does or wants to do is taken care of by an annual ₹ 225 million (equivalent to ₹ 450 million or US $6.5 million in 2017) budget that the Government allots for his or her upkeep. Rashtrapati Bhavan, the president 's official residence, is the largest presidential palace in the world. The Rashtrapati Nilayam at Bolarum, Hyderabad and Retreat Building at Chharabra, Shimla are the official Retreat Residences of the President of India. The official state car of the president is a custom - built heavily armoured Mercedes Benz S600 (W221) Pullman Guard.
The former presidents and spouses of deceased Presidents are eligible for pension, furnished accommodation, security, various allowances, etc.
Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official residence of the president, located at New Delhi
Rashtrapati Nilayam is the official retreat of the president located in Hyderabad.
The President 's Bodyguards is an elite household cavalry regiment of the Indian Army.
Air India One is the call sign of any aircraft carrying the president. The aircraft are operated as VIP flights by the Indian Air Force.
A chopper of IAF 's special VIP fleet meant for carrying the President of India
Supreme court shall inquire and decide regarding all doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with the election of a president per Article 71 (1) of the constitution. supreme court can remove the president for the electoral malpractices or upon being not eligible to be Lok Sabha member under the Representation of the People Act, 1951. Subject to Article 71 (3), parliament made applicable rules / procedure to petition the supreme court for resolving the disputes only that arise during the election process of the president but not the doubts that arise from his unconstitutional actions / deeds or changing Indian citizenship during the tenure of president which may violate the requisite election qualifications.
The president may also be removed before the expiry of the term through impeachment for violating the Constitution of India by the Parliament of India. The process may start in either of the two houses of the parliament. The house initiates the process by levelling the charges against the president. The charges are contained in a notice that has to be signed by at least one - quarter of the total members of that house. The notice is sent up to the president and 14 days later, it is taken up for consideration.
A resolution to impeach the president has to be passed by a two - thirds majority of the total number of members of the originating house. It is then sent to the other house. The other house investigates the charges that have been made. During this process, the president has the right to defend oneself through an authorised counsel. If the second house also approves the charges made by special majority again, the president stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated their office from the date when such a resolution stands passed. No president has faced impeachment proceedings so the above provisions have never been used.
Under Article 361 of the constitution, though the president can not be summoned for questioning except on his voluntary willingness to testify in the court in support of his controversial deeds, the unconstitutional decisions taken by the president would be declared invalid by the courts. The case would be decided by the courts based on the facts furnished by the Union government for the president 's role. As clarified by the supreme court in the case Rameshwar Prasad & Ors vs Union Of India & Anr on 24 January 2006; though the president can not be prosecuted and imprisoned during his term of office, he can be prosecuted after he / she steps down from the post for the guilty committed during the term of presidency as declared earlier by the courts. No president has resigned on impropriety to continue in office for declaring and nullifying his unconstitutional decisions by the courts till now. No criminal case at least on the grounds of disrespecting constitution is lodged till now against former presidents to punish them for their unconstitutional acts; though many decisions taken during the term of a president have been declared by the supreme court as unconstitutional, mala fides, void, ultra vires, etc.
The Office of the president falls vacant in the following scenarios:
Article 65 of the Indian constitution says that the Vice-President of India will have to discharge the duties, if the office falls vacant due to any reason other than the expiry of the term. The vice-president reverts to their office when a new President is elected and enters office. When the president is unable to act because of absence, illness or any other cause, the vice-president discharges the President 's functions until the president resumes the duties.
A vice-president who acts as or discharges the functions of the president has all the powers and immunities of the president and is entitled to the same emoluments as the president. When a vice-president discharges the duties of the president, he / she does not function as the Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha.
The Indian parliament has enacted the law -- The President (Discharge of Functions) Act, 1969 -- for the discharge of the functions of the president when vacancies occur in the offices of the president and of the vice-president simultaneously, owing to removal, death, resignation of the incumbent or otherwise. In such an eventuality, the chief justice -- or in his absence, the senior most judge of the Supreme Court of India available -- discharges the functions of the president until a newly elected President enters upon his office or a newly elected Vice-president begins to act as President under Article 65 of the constitution, whichever is the earlier. For example, in 1969, when President Zakir Husain died in Office, Vice-President V.V. Giri served as the acting President of India. However, later, V.V Giri resigned from both posts (Acting President of India and Vice-President of India) as he became a candidate in the 1969 Presidential election in India. In this event, the then Chief Justice of India, Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah served as the acting President of India until the next President was elected.
The President 's role as defender of the constitution and the powers as Head of State, especially in relation to those exercised by the prime minister as leader of the government, have changed over time. In particular, Presidents have made a number of interventions into government and lawmaking, which have established and challenged some conventions concerning Presidential intervention.
In 1979, Prime Minister Charan Singh, did not enjoy a parliamentary majority. He responded to this by simply not advising the president to summon parliament. Since then, Presidents have been more diligent in directing incoming Prime Ministers to convene parliament and prove their majority within reasonable deadlines (2 to 3 weeks). In the interim period, the Prime Ministers are generally restrained from making policy decisions.
Since the 1990s, Parliamentary elections have generally not resulted in a single party or group of parties having a distinct majority, until the 2014 Lok Sabha elections when BJP received a clear majority. In such cases, Presidents have used their discretion and directed Prime Ministerial aspirants to establish their credentials before being invited to form the government. Typically, the aspirants have been asked to produce letters from various party leaders, with the signatures of all the MPs who are pledging support to their candidature. This is in addition to the requirement that a prime minister prove he has the support of the Lok Sabha (by a vote on the floor of the house) within weeks of being sworn into office.
Since the Indian constitution does not provide any time limit within which the president is to declare his assent or refusal, the president could exercise a "pocket veto '' by not taking any action for an indefinite time. The veto was used in 1986 by President Zail Singh over the Postal Bill. the president did not give assent to the bill, arguing that its scope was too sweeping and would give the government arbitrary powers to intercept postal communications indiscriminately.
In the late 1990s, President K.R. Narayanan introduced explaining to the nation (by means of Rashtrapati Bhavan communiqués), the thinking that led to the various decisions he took while exercising his discretionary powers; this has led to openness and transparency in the functioning of the president.
The constitution gives the president the power to return a bill unsigned but it circumscribes the power to send it back only once for reconsideration. If the parliament sends back the bill with or without changes, the president is obliged to sign it. In mid-2006, President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam sent back a controversial bill regarding the exclusion of certain offices from the scope of ' offices of profit ', the holding of which would disqualify a person from being a member of parliament. The combined opposition, the NDA, hailed the move. The UPA chose to send the bill back to the president without any changes and, after 17 days, Kalam gave his assent on 18 August 2006.
Arunachal Pradesh governor who was earlier appointed by the ruling party at the centre, has been sacked by the president after the supreme court has quashed his unconstitutional acts.
There are two living former Indian presidents:
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who creates the most pollution in the world | List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions - wikipedia
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015. The following table lists the 2015 annual CO emissions estimates (in thousands of CO tonnes) along with a list of emissions per capita (in tonnes of CO per year) from same source. The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture, but not emissions from land use, land - use change and forestry. Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures, which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports. The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total. Other powerful, more potent greenhouse gases, including methane, are not included in this data.
General:
The contents of this article comes from the latest figures from the millennium indicators as of 2009 - 07 - 14:
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eminem i am whatever you say i am meaning | The Way I Am (Eminem song) - wikipedia
"The Way I Am '' is a song by American rapper Eminem from his third album The Marshall Mathers LP (2000). "The Way I Am '' was released as the second single from the album on September 7, 2000. It is also featured on his 2005 compilation album, Curtain Call: The Hits. In the tradition of most of Eminem 's follow - up singles, "The Way I Am '' is one of the songs for which he has sole songwriting credit. It features a much darker and emotionally driven sound than the album 's lead single, which was "The Real Slim Shady ''.
The song is a prominent hardcore hip - hop track for its angst - ridden lyrics and hostile, aggressive delivery by Eminem. It is ostensibly directed towards the record executives who had greatly stressed Eminem to top the success of his last album. As of the time of writing, which was shortly before the album 's end of production, Eminem had yet to create any such singles that might replicate his previous success with "My Name Is '', though he would soon pen "The Real Slim Shady '', which would go on to be his most successful single to date. The song is directed at those who he perceived were placing undue burdens upon him and also lashes out at overzealous fans, telling them they should respect his privacy rather than harass him and his family.
It features the first beat Eminem produced on his own, featuring an ominous bass line, a piano loop, and bell chimes. In the song, Eminem lashes out at people he feels are putting too much pressure on him, including overzealous fans and record executives expecting him to top the success of his hit single "My Name Is '', though in fact he went on to do so with "The Real Slim Shady, '' as well as other songs. He delivers each line extremely aggressively, almost shouting them out, representing the angry, resentful tone taken by the lyrics. The song contains the line "When a dude 's gettin bullied and shoots up his school, and they blame it on Marilyn... '', referring to either Eric Harris or Dylan Klebold, the bullied perpetrators of the Columbine High School massacre which took place the previous year, and the resulting media backlash against Marilyn Manson. The song has also been remixed by Danny Lohner featuring Marilyn Manson, who has performed the song with Eminem live on stage. The song reached number 8 in the United Kingdom, while in the United States it did not fare as well, not charting on the top 50. In 2005 it was re-released on the album Curtain Call: The Hits. "The Way I Am '' was certified Gold in Sweden, selling over 20,000 copies.
In 2008, Eminem released a second autobiography titled The Way I Am.
From the perspective of traditional poetic theory, almost the entire song, excluding the chorus, can be described as being written in anapestic tetrameter. Eminem 's short - short - long "anapestic '' rhythm is in a highly syncopated manner which is completely off the beat: he rests on the beat itself, 1, 2, 3, 4, and delivers his words on the other 16th notes (e & a), accenting the last 16th note, the same place where the kick drum hits. This syncopated rhythm gives this piece much of its dramatic tension and is identical to the rhythm of the piano accompaniment.
The chorus adapts lines from the song "As the Rhyme Goes On '' from Eric B. and Rakim 's debut album Paid in Full in which Rakim raps,
I 'm the R, the A, to the K, I, M; if I was n't, then why would I say I am?
Cynthia Fuchs of PopMatters was positive: "In "The Way I Am, '' Eminem expounds, "Since birth I 've been cursed with this curse to just curse / And just blurt this berserk and bizarre shit that works / And it sells and it helps in itself to relieve / All this tension, dispensin ' these sentences. '' So there it is: he 's performing therapy. '' AllMusic highlighted the song. Sputnikmusic described this song as "Amityville 's portrayal of the Detroit he grew up in; The Way I Am as a whole ''. Same critic listed it in Recommended Downloads and praising the single: "Built over doomy, gothic arpeggios, rumbling bass, and church bells, Eminem lays down one of the most perfectly formed lyrics of his career, weaving in and out of a tight rhyme scheme that echoes the loping piano motif. Interesting aside: this is one of the first Eminem songs that gives him 100 % of the writing credits. '' IGN praised the song: "Eminem is an angry ass white boy and the vitriol continues on "I Way I Am, '' in which he soundly states "I am whatever you say I am / If I was n't why would I say I am? '' And when he complains that he 's "so sick and tired of being admired... '' one almost believes that he 'll hang up the mic and disappear (but Em obviously loves the attention so that 's not an option at this point in the game). The throbbing, tubular bell and piano laced beat only add to the intensity of the track (incidentally it was crafted by Em himself and it 's one of the more stellar examples of his often hit or miss production techniques). '' Sal Cinquemani called this song: "He (Eminem) revels in the fact that there 's teen violence in upper - class cities on the epic "The Way I Am. '' The song was named the 35th Best Song of the decade by the magazine Complex. The same magazine, in April 2011, ranked the song at # 3 on their 100 Best Eminem Songs list.
The music video at the beginning plays a slow instrumental of his song "Kim '', after the ' Kim ' instrumental is played, the song carries on as normal and when the song starts, it shows him about to jump out the window of a tall building, and shows him falling through the sky, in a sequence inspired by the Coen brothers film The Hudsucker Proxy, in which the hero also falls slowly from a skyscraper window. Marilyn Manson appears behind Eminem when the song refers to him -- and a few more times thereafter. Other shots show fans coming up to him, asking for his autograph, as well as Eminem in his neighborhood in front of an old house. At the end of the video, when Eminem hits the ground, it bounces him safely like a giant mattress. It was named the 19th Best Music Video of the 2000s by Complex magazine. In the music video version of the song wind sound effects can be heard when Eminem is singing the intro, the first & last chorus. This ca n't be heard in the album version. The music video removes Eminem saying ' whatever '.
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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what happened to legolas and gimli after the return of the king | Fourth Age - wikipedia
The Fourth Age is one of the divisions of history in J.R.R. Tolkien 's fictional world of Middle - earth. Because most of his fiction deals with earlier ages, there is relatively little material on the ages that followed the Third Age.
The Fourth Age followed the defeat of Sauron and the destruction of his One Ring, but did not officially begin until after the Bearers of the Three Rings left Middle - earth for Valinor, the ' Uttermost West '.
Some events of the first centuries of the Fourth Age can be gleaned from the Appendices in The Lord of the Rings, and follow below.
"The Third Age was held to have ended when the Three Rings passed away in September 3021, but for the purposes of records in Gondor F.A. 1 (the first calendar year of the Fourth Age) began on March 25, 3021. ''
Realms of Men prospered, as the reunited Númenórean kingdoms in exile (as the Reunited Kingdom of Gondor and Arnor) under King Elessar and later his son Eldarion. Elessar (who reigned until year 120 of the Fourth Age) rebuilt the once - ruined northern city of Annúminas and often dwelt there although his throne remained in Gondor. Allied realms such as Rohan and Dale also prospered, as did the protected enclaves of the Shire and the Woses of Ghân - buri - Ghân.
Despite the fall of Sauron, there were significant kingdoms of evil Men that had to be dealt with before the White Tree could grow in peace. In the appendices Tolkien states that Éomer fulfilled the oath of Eorl by riding with Elessar to war on the plains of Harad and beyond the Sea of Rhûn, so it is clear that fighting continued with at least some of the Men who had allied with Sauron in the past. It has been suggested that ultimately these campaigns were successful, as the Easterlings and Haradrim were at least subdued, or even became part of the Reunited Kingdom. Many former slaves of Sauron were freed and were given land in Mordor, around the Sea of Núrnen, for their own.
The end of the Third Age was marked by the departure of many prominent Elves from Middle - earth, including Elrond, Galadriel and Gildor. However some remained in the Fourth Age.
After repulsing assaults from Dol Guldur and destroying it with the power of Galadriel 's ring during the end of the War of the Ring, the elves of Lothlórien and Mirkwood subsequently managed to rid the great forest of all the forces of evil. Thranduil and Celeborn then met in the midst of the forest and renamed it Eryn Lasgalen, or Wood of Greenleaves, and divided it among several parties. Thranduil 's kingdom remained in the northern part of Mirkwood, from the northern edge to the Mountains of Mirkwood while Celeborn expanded Lothlórien into the southern portion of Mirkwood and named it East Lorien. The forest between the two elven kingdoms were given to men, although this area probably expanded as the elven realms diminished with their populations gradually departing to the West.
For at least a while, an Elven colony led by Legolas was founded in Ithilien, and the land once again became the "fairest country in all the westlands. ''
However, the elves continued to depart to the West, as the Fourth Age marked the beginning of the Age of Men. By the time of King Elessar 's death, the elven realms of Rivendell and Lorien became mostly abandoned as the last elven ships set sail to Valinor. The few elves who remained eventually faded and became invisible spirits to all of Middle - earth.
The Dwarves of Durin 's Folk prospered in Erebor (its first Fourth - Age king being Thorin III), and there are indications Gimli led a group of dwarves to Aglarond.
Mining expeditions were sent to Khazad - dûm where mithril was again mined, used to restore the gates of Minas Tirith, but Khazad - dûm was not immediately recolonized. There are, however, indications that a Durin the Last later did rebuild this Dwarf - kingdom, returning Durin 's Folk to their ancestral homes.
Apparently Dwarves as a race began to dwindle by the end of the Fourth Age, for their women made up less than a third of their population. Often, the women would not desire to marry, or want a husband that they could n't have. Similarly, many male Dwarves were too engrossed in their crafts and did not have the time to take a wife and have children.
The ultimate fate of Dwarves is unclear. Tolkien lamented they were "a race abandoned to folk - tales, where at least a shadow of truth is preserved, or at last to nonsense - stories in which they have become mere figures of fun. ''
Gandalf, Frodo Baggins and Boromir departed Middle - earth (in one way or another) at the end of the Third Age, leaving six members of the Fellowship of the Ring surviving in the Fourth Age.
Aragorn, crowned King Elessar, ruled the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor until his death in the 120th year of the Fourth Age. He ruled with his Queen Arwen, and their son Eldarion succeeded Aragorn on his death. Aragorn and Arwen also had multiple daughters; Arwen later travelled to the ruins of Lothlorien and there died.
Of the remaining members of the Fellowship, it is recorded that Samwise Gamgee became Mayor of the Shire, and was an advisor of King Elessar. His daughter Elanor became one of Arwen 's handmaidens. Near the end of his life he is believed to have left for Valinor on one of the last ships of Círdan, as he too was a Ring - bearer, having borne the One Ring during Frodo 's captivity by orcs.
Meriadoc Brandybuck and Peregrin Took became Master of Buckland and Thain of the Shire respectively in due time. They remained in close friendship with the royal houses of Rohan and Gondor. When of advanced age they departed for Gondor and Rohan together, and both died around Spring F.A. 63. They were buried in Rath Dínen with the greats of Gondor.
Legolas is said to have, after the death of King Elessar in Fourth Age 120, built a ship and finally sailed to the West. According to an entry in the Red Book of Westmarch, Gimli left with him -- the only Dwarf to ever do so, evidently due to their strong friendship and out of his desire to once more see Galadriel.
Orcs and Trolls fled to the far east, and never fully recovered. Either during the end of Eldarion 's rule (or 100 years after) or near the end of Aragorn 's, there was some talk of "Orc - cults '' although these seem to have been founded and run by humans.
The future of the Ents and Huorns is unclear. Aragorn granted them Fangorn Forest as an enclave and gave them permission to expand the forest again west into the vast wastes of Eriador where once a vast primeval forest had spread, but Treebeard lamented that while the forests may spread again the Ents would not, as the entwives had not been found up to date (nor would likely ever be found). Over time they dwindled off and more of them became increasingly "tree - ish '' and it does not appear that they ever enter into the affairs of other races again (it is unclear if a non-communicative tree - ish Ent can be considered "dead '' or if in a sense they persist to the present day).
Dragons will be still present but they will not interfere until later ages according to letter 144 of Tolkien. Some stray answers. Dragons. They had not stopped; since they were active in far later times, close to our own. Have I said anything to suggest the final ending of dragons? If so it should be altered. The only passage I can think of is Vol. I p. 70: ' there is not now any dragon left on earth in which the old fire is hot enough '. But that implies, I think, that there are still dragons, if not of full primeval stature.... -
Tolkien 's writing does not provide information on more than the first few centuries of this age, so it is not known when it ended. It is stated that the Fourth Age was when Men became dominant and powerful in Middle - earth, and the Fading of the Elves began. As such, the Fourth Age marks the bridge from the fantastic fictional prehistory of earth to the real history. He notes elsewhere in The Silmarillion, however, that the Elves count their own dwindling from the time of the first rise of the Sun, and some epithets for the Sun by the Elves refer to it in that context.
Tolkien said that he thought the time between the end of the Third Age and the 20th century AD was about 6,000 years, and that in 1958 it should have been around the end of the Fifth Age if the Fourth and Fifth Ages were about the same length as the Second and Third Ages. He said, however, in a letter written in 1958 that he believed the Ages had quickened and that it was about the end of the Sixth Age / beginning of the Seventh.
While Tolkien originally described Middle - earth as a fictional early history of the real Earth he later adjusted this slightly to describe it as a mythical time within the history of Earth. This ' mythical ' distinction served to remove the stories of Middle - earth from any specific time period where they might contradict known details of actual history. He made references to his story taking place as "... a brief episode in History '' of Earth as late as 1971.
Determining the epoch of a Fifth Age is important for those who apply the Tolkien calendar to present dates. For example, Issue 42 of Mallorn, the journal of The Tolkien Society (August 2004), carried a lengthy article analyzing Tolkien 's works as well as his possible Theosophist beliefs, concluding that the Years of the Sun began on March 25, 10160 BC, the Second Age on December 26, 9564 BC, the Third Age on December 24, 6123 BC, and the Fourth Age on March 18, 3102 BC. On this scheme the Fifth Age is equivalent to the Anno Domini system of dating.
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how many times can you franchise tag a player in the nfl | Franchise tag - wikipedia
In the National Football League (NFL), the franchise tag is a designation a team may apply to a player scheduled to become an unrestricted free agent. The tag binds the player to the team for one year if certain conditions are met. Each team only has one franchise tag (of either the exclusive or non-exclusive forms) and one transition tag per year. The transition tag can only be used if the team does not use a franchise tag.
Perhaps originally designed to reduce player movement to bigger markets, which is often evidenced in the other major pro sports leagues, the NFL revenue sharing and a hard salary cap have placed teams on an even playing field relative to salaries. The tag options allow NFL franchises an extended bargaining period for a player that they feel is key to their success. Usually reserved for players of great skill or of high importance to the team, a franchise tag allows a team 's general manager the privilege of strategically retaining valuable free - agent players while seeking talent through the NFL draft or other acquisitions without exceeding the League 's salary cap.
The designated franchise player will have his one - year salary guaranteed if he elects to play for the team that designated him with the franchise tag and if he does not negotiate a contract with another team.
The National Football League introduced the franchise tag in 1993. There are two types of franchise tag designations: the exclusive rights franchise tag, and non-exclusive rights franchise tag:
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when did the pinta island tortoise become extinct | Pinta Island tortoise - wikipedia
The Pinta Island tortoise (Chelonoidis abingdonii), also known as the Pinta giant tortoise, Abingdon Island tortoise, or Abingdon Island giant tortoise, is a species of Galápagos tortoise native to Ecuador 's Pinta Island that is most likely extinct.
The species was described by Albert Günther in 1877 after specimens arrived in London. By the end of the 19th century, most of the Pinta Island tortoises had been wiped out due to hunting. By the mid-20th century, the species was assumed to be extinct until a single male was discovered on the island in 1971. Efforts were made to mate the male, named Lonesome George, with other species, but no viable eggs were produced. Lonesome George died on 24 June 2012 and the species was believed to have become extinct with his death. However, 17 first - generation hybrids were reported in 2012 to have been found at Wolf Volcano on Isabela Island during a trip by Yale University researchers. As these specimens were juveniles, their parents might still be alive. The species is now declared extinct by the IUCN red list.
"Lonesome George '' along with other of the tortoises on Pinta Island, belong to a genus of 21 species. Giant tortoises were widespread on most of the continents except for Australia and Antarctica. Not only do the Galapagos tortoises remain the largest living tortoises, but in the Galapagos, distinct populations survived in multiple localities.
Several of the surviving species of Galapagos tortoises are seriously endangered. Lonesome George was the perfect example. It is said that the decline of the population began in the 17th century, due to buccaneers and whalers. They hunted tortoises as a source of fresh meat, and took away about 200,000 tortoises collectively.
This species was originally described in 1877 by German - born British herpetologist Albert Günther, who named it Testudo abingdonii, a new species, in his book The Gigantic Land - tortoises (Living and Extinct) in the Collection of the British Museum. The name, abingdonii, derives from Abingdon Island, now more commonly known as Pinta Island. The knowledge of its existence was derived from short statements of the voyages of Captain James Colnett in 1798 and Basil Hall in 1822. In 1876, Commander William Cookson brought three male specimens (along with other species of Galápagos tortoise) to London aboard the Royal Navy ship HMS Peterel.
Some synonyms of Chelonoidis abingdonii are: Testudo abingdonii Günther, 1877; Testudo elephantopus abingdonii -- Mertens & Wermuth, 1955; Geochelone elephantopus abingdonii -- Pritchard, 1967; Geochelone nigra abingdonii -- Iverson, 1992; Geochelone abingdonii -- Valverde, 2004.
The origin and systematic relationships are still unresolved today, it even captivated Charles Darwin himself. Scientists used DNA sequencing and decided to collect a few tortoises from the Pinta Island in 1906. With DNA sequencing as their method, their results show that the three best candidates for the closest living relative of the Galapagos tortoises are all located in South America. It is the yellow - footed tortoise (Geochelone denticulata), the red - footed tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria), and the Chaco tortoise (Geochelone chilensis). These 3 species are known as extant species.
During their time on the island, the Galapagos Tortoise, including the Pinta Island species, was observed many times and it was concluded that the tortoises rest about 16 hours a day. The Galapagos tortoises are herbivores who feed primarily on greens, grasses, native fruit, and cactus pads. These tortoises also drink heavy quantities of water which they can then store in their bodies for long periods of time and utilize later. They can reportedly survive up to six months without any food or water.
For breeding, the tortoises are most active during the "hot season '' (January to May) and then during the cool season (June to November), female tortoises migrate to nesting zones in order to lay out their offspring.
The effort to conserve species to increase biodiversity is a very important aspect of life involving economic, social and cultural values with phylogenetic, biogeographic, ecological and demographic indulgence. Galapagos giant tortoises provide a great example of this as they represent the top mega-herbivores that aid in shaping Galapagos ecosystems. They provide critical ecosystem services by seed dispersing and by being ecological engineers through herbivory and nutrient cycling. Due to the extinction of many of these large herbivores, ecosystem functioning has diminished worldwide.
On the Island of Santa Cruz near the geographic center of the Galapagos, there was a study done by Blake et al. on seed dispersal by Galapagos tortoises. In order to determine the number of seeds spread, they identified and counted intact seeds from 120 fresh dung piles in both the agricultural and natural park land. To obtain the distance seeds were moved by tortoises they used an estimated digesta retention time from captive tortoises as a proxy for retention times of wild tortoises and data for the tracking of the tortoises was obtained from GPS telemetry. Germination trials were administered for five plant species to determine whether germination success was influence by tortoises. In the results, it was found that there were over 45 plant seeds still intact. On average tortoises defecated 464 (SE 95) and 2.8 (SE 0.2) species per dung pile. Seeds were found over long distances where turtles had transported them. However, there was no evidence found that tortoise ingestion or the presence of dung influenced the success of seed germination. In conclusion, it was discovered that Galapagos tortoises are colossal seed dispersers, regularly transporting a vast amount of seeds over distances. More extensive research is needed to quantify germination success, demography of plants under natural conditions, with and without tortoise dispersal to determine the seed dispersal effectiveness of Galapagos tortoises.
In 1958, goats immigrated to Pinta Island, Galápagos began eating much of the herbs and shrubs to the detriment of the natural habitat. A prolonged effort to exterminate the goats was initiated. As the goat populations declined, the vegetation underwent an amazing recovery. Small trees began regenerating from the stumps left by the goats. Highland shrub species, forest tree seedlings, Opuntia cactus, and other endemic species increased. In 2003, Pinta Island was declared "goat - free ''.
In addition to current conservation efforts such as the elimination of goat populations in the Galápagos, there has been a new effort to revive a number of species of Galápagos tortoise. There is new information which states that from 12 females and 3 male tortoises there came around 1700 offspring which now live in the Galápagos area. Many of these offspring also coincide with many species of Galápagos tortoise, such as the vital Pinta Island Galápagos tortoise. The statistics also show that compared to a 3 % hatching rate in 2004, in 2007 there was a 24 % hatching rate which gave an unprecedented rise in tortoise population. This also shows that the number of animals in a species can rise despite genetic variation.
The last known individual of the species was a male named Lonesome George (Spanish: El Solitario Jorge / George), who died on 24 June 2012. In his last years, he was known as the rarest creature in the world. George served as a potent symbol for conservation efforts in the Galápagos and internationally.
George was first seen on the island of Pinta on 1 December 1971 by Hungarian malacologist József Vágvölgyi. Relocated for his safety to the Charles Darwin Research Station on Santa Cruz Island, George was penned with two females of a different species. Although eggs were produced, none hatched. The Pinta tortoise was pronounced functionally extinct as George was in captivity.
Over the decades, all attempts at mating Lonesome George had been unsuccessful, possibly due to the lack of females of his own species.
On 24 June 2012, at 8: 00 am local time, Director of the Galápagos National Park Edwin Naula announced that Lonesome George had been found dead by his caretaker of 40 years, Fausto Llerena. Naula suspects that the cause of death was heart failure consistent with the end of the natural lifecycle of a tortoise.
In 2006, Peter Pritchard, one of the world 's foremost authorities on Galápagos tortoises, suggested that a male tortoise residing in the Prague Zoo might be a Pinta Island tortoise due to its shell structure. Subsequent DNA analysis, however, revealed it was more likely to be from Pinzón Island, home of the species C. duncanensis.
Whalers and pirates of the past used Isabela Island, the central and largest of the Galápagos Islands, as a tortoise dumping ground. Today, the remaining tortoises that live around Wolf Volcano have combined genetic markers from several species. In May 2007, analysis of genomic microsatellites (DNA sequences) suggested that individuals from a translocated group of C. n. abingdonii may still exist in the wild on Isabela. Researchers have identified one male tortoise from the Volcano Wolf region, which has half his genes in common with George 's species. This animal must be a first - generation intergrade between the species of the islands Isabela and Pinta. A pure Pinta tortoise possibly lives among the 2,000 tortoises on Isabela.
The identification of eight individuals of mixed ancestry among only 27 individuals sampled (estimated Volcano Wolf population size 1,000 -- 2,000)... suggests the need to mount an immediate and comprehensive survey... to search for additional individuals of Pinta ancestry.
A recent trek to Isabela by Yale University researchers revealed that there are 17 first - generation hybrids living at Wolf Volcano. The researchers plan on returning to Isabela in the spring of 2013 to look for surviving Pinta and to try to collect hybrids in an effort to start a captive selective - breeding program and to hopefully reintroduce Pintas back to their native island.
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in a state judicial branch the supreme court hears appeals | United States courts of appeals - wikipedia
The United States courts of appeals or circuit courts are the intermediate appellate courts of the United States federal court system. A court of appeals decides appeals from the district courts within its federal judicial circuit, and in some instances from other designated federal courts and administrative agencies.
The United States courts of appeals are considered among the most powerful and influential courts in the United States. Because of their ability to set legal precedent in regions that cover millions of Americans, the United States courts of appeals have strong policy influence on U.S. law. Moreover, because the U.S. Supreme Court chooses to review fewer than 2 % of the more than 7,000 to 8,000 cases filed with it annually, the U.S. courts of appeals serve as the final arbiter on most federal cases. The Ninth Circuit in particular is very influential, covering 20 % of the American population.
There are currently 179 judgeships on the U.S. courts of appeals authorized by Congress in 28 U.S.C. § 43 pursuant to Article III of the U.S. Constitution. These judges are nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate. They have lifetime tenure, earning (as of 2016) an annual salary of $215,400.
There are thirteen U.S. courts of appeals, although there are other tribunals that have "Court of Appeals '' in their titles, such as the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, which hears appeals in court - martial cases, and the United States Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims, which reviews final decisions by the Board of Veterans ' Appeals in the Department of Veterans Affairs. The eleven numbered circuits and the D.C. Circuit are geographically defined. The thirteenth court of appeals is the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has nationwide jurisdiction over certain appeals based on their subject matter. All of the courts of appeals also hear appeals from some administrative agency decisions and rulemaking, with by far the largest share of these cases heard by the D.C. Circuit. The Federal Circuit hears appeals from specialized trial courts, primarily the United States Court of International Trade and the United States Court of Federal Claims, as well as appeals from the district courts in patent cases and certain other specialized matters.
Decisions of the U.S. courts of appeals have been published by the private company West Publishing in the Federal Reporter series since the courts were established. Only decisions that the courts designate for publication are included. The "unpublished '' opinions (of all but the Fifth and Eleventh Circuits) are published separately in West 's Federal Appendix, and they are also available in on - line databases like LexisNexis or Westlaw. More recently, court decisions have also been made available electronically on official court websites. However, there are also a few federal court decisions that are classified for national security reasons.
The circuit with the smallest number of appellate judges is the First Circuit, and the one with the largest number of appellate judges is the geographically large and populous Ninth Circuit in the Far West. The number of judges that the U.S. Congress has authorized for each circuit is set forth by law in 28 U.S.C. § 44, while the places where those judges must regularly sit to hear appeals are prescribed in 28 U.S.C. § 48.
Although the courts of appeals are frequently called "circuit courts '', they should not be confused with the former United States circuit courts, which were active from 1789 to 1911, during the time when long - distance transportation was much less available, and which were primarily first - level federal trial courts that moved periodically from place to place in "circuits '' in order to serve the dispersed population in towns and the smaller cities that existed then. The current "courts of appeals '' system was established in the Judiciary Act of 1891, also known as the Evarts Act.
Because the courts of appeals possess only appellate jurisdiction, they do not hold trials. Only courts with original jurisdiction hold trials and thus determine punishments (in criminal cases) and remedies (in civil cases). Instead, appeals courts review decisions of trial courts for errors of law. Accordingly, an appeals court considers only the record (that is, the papers the parties filed and the transcripts and any exhibits from any trial) from the trial court, and the legal arguments of the parties. These arguments, which are presented in written form and can range in length from dozens to hundreds of pages, are known as briefs. Sometimes lawyers are permitted to add to their written briefs with oral arguments before the appeals judges. At such hearings, only the parties ' lawyers speak to the court.
The rules that govern the procedure in the courts of appeals are the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure. In a court of appeals, an appeal is almost always heard by a "panel '' of three judges who are randomly selected from the available judges (including senior judges and judges temporarily assigned to the circuit). Some cases, however, receive an en banc hearing. Except in the Ninth Circuit Courts, the en banc court consists of all of the circuit judges who are on active status, but it does not include the senior or assigned judges (except that under some circumstances, a senior judge may participate in an en banc hearing when he or she participated at an earlier stage of the same case).
Many decades ago, certain classes of federal court cases held the right of an automatic appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States. That is, one of the parties in the case could appeal a decision of a court of appeals to the Supreme Court, and it had to accept the case. The right of automatic appeal for most types of decisions of a court of appeals was ended by an Act of Congress, the Judiciary Act of 1925. This law was urged by Chief Justice William Howard Taft, and it also reorganized many other things in the federal court system.
The current procedure is that a party in a case may apply to the Supreme Court to review a ruling of the circuit court. This is called petitioning for a writ of certiorari, and the Supreme Court may choose, in its sole discretion, to review any lower court ruling. In extremely rare cases, the Supreme Court may grant the writ of certiorari before the judgment is rendered by the court of appeals, thereby reviewing the lower court 's ruling directly. Certiorari before judgment was granted in the Watergate scandal - related case, United States v. Nixon, and in the 2005 decision involving the Federal Sentencing Guidelines, United States v. Booker.
A court of appeals may also pose questions to the Supreme Court for a ruling in the midst of reviewing a case. This procedure was formerly used somewhat commonly, but now it is quite rare. The Second Circuit, sitting en banc, attempted to use this procedure in the case United States v. Penaranda, as a result of the Supreme Court 's decision in Blakely v. Washington, but the Supreme Court dismissed the question after resolving the same issue in another case, which had come before the Court through the standard procedure. The last instance of the Supreme Court accepting a set of questions and answering them was in a case in 1982.
A court of appeals may convene a Bankruptcy Appellate Panel to hear appeals in bankruptcy cases directly from the bankruptcy court of its circuit. As of 2008, only the First, Sixth, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Circuits have established a Bankruptcy Appellate Panel. Those circuits that do not have a Bankruptcy Appellate Panel have their bankruptcy appeals heard by the District Court.
Courts of appeals decisions, unlike those of the lower federal courts, establish binding precedents. Other federal courts in that circuit must, from that point forward, follow the appeals court 's guidance in similar cases, regardless of whether the trial judge thinks that the case should be decided differently.
Federal and state laws can and do change from time to time, depending on the actions of Congress and the state legislatures. Therefore, the law that exists at the time of the appeal might be different from the law that existed at the time of the events that are in controversy under civil or criminal law in the case at hand. A court of appeals applies the law as it exists at the time of the appeal; otherwise, it would be handing down decisions that would be instantly obsolete, and this would be a waste of time and resources, since such decisions could not be cited as precedent. "(A) court is to apply the law in effect at the time it renders its decision, unless doing so would result in manifest injustice, or there is statutory direction or some legislative history to the contrary. ''
However, the above rule can not apply in criminal cases if the effect of applying the newer law would be to create an ex post facto law to the detriment of the defendant.
In order to serve as counsel in a case appealed to a circuit court the attorney must be admitted to the bar of that circuit. Admission to the bar of a circuit court is granted as a matter of course to any attorney who is admitted to practice law in any state of the United States. The attorney submits an application, pays a fee, and takes the oath of admission. Local practice varies as to whether the oath is given in writing or in open court before a judge of the circuit, and most courts of appeals allow the applicant attorney to choose which method he or she prefers.
When the courts of appeals were created in 1891, one was created for each of the nine circuits then existing, and each court was named the "United States Circuit Court of Appeals for the _____ Circuit ''. When a court of appeals was created for the District of Columbia in 1893, it was named the "Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia '', and it was renamed to the "United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia '' in 1934. In 1948, Congress renamed all of the courts of appeals then existing to their current formal names: the court of appeals for each numbered circuit was named the "United States Court of Appeals for the _____ Circuit '', and the "United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia '' became the "United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ''. The Tenth Circuit was created in 1929 by subdividing the existing Eighth Circuit, and the Eleventh Circuit was created in 1981 by subdividing the existing Fifth Circuit. The Federal Circuit was created in 1982 by the merger of the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and the appellate division of the United States Court of Claims.
Judicial councils are panels in each circuit that are charged with making "necessary and appropriate orders for the effective and expeditious administration of justice '' within their circuits. Among their responsibilities is judicial discipline, the formulation of circuit policy, the implementation of policy directives received from the Judicial Conference of the United States, and the annual submission of a report to the Administrative Office of the United States Courts on the number and nature of orders entered during the year that relate to judicial misconduct. Judicial councils consist of the chief judge of the circuit and an equal number of circuit judges and district judges of the circuit.
District of Columbia Circuit (Washington)
First Circuit (Boston)
Second Circuit (New York City)
Third Circuit (Philadelphia)
Fourth Circuit (Richmond)
Fifth Circuit (New Orleans)
Sixth Circuit (Cincinnati)
Seventh Circuit (Chicago)
Eighth Circuit (St. Louis)
Ninth Circuit (San Francisco)
Tenth Circuit (Denver)
Eleventh Circuit (Atlanta)
Federal Circuit (Washington)
Based on 2010 United States Census figures, the population residing in each circuit is as follows.
The Judiciary Act of 1789 established three circuits, which were groups of judicial districts in which United States circuit courts were established. Each circuit court consisted of two Supreme Court justices and the local district judge; the three circuits existed solely for the purpose of assigning the justices to a group of circuit courts. Some districts (generally the ones most difficult for an itinerant justice to reach) did not have a circuit court; in these districts the district court exercised the original jurisdiction of a circuit court. As new states were admitted to the Union, Congress often did not create circuit courts for them for a number of years.
The Midnight Judges Act reorganized the districts into six circuits, and created circuit judgeships so that Supreme Court justices would no longer have to ride circuit. This Act, however, was repealed in March 1802, and Congress provided that the former circuit courts would be revived as of July 1 of that year. But it then passed the new Judiciary Act of 1802 in April, so that the revival of the old courts never took effect. The 1802 Act restored circuit riding, but with only one justice to a circuit; it therefore created six new circuits, but with slightly different compositions than the 1801 Act. These six circuits later were augmented by others. Until 1866, each new circuit (except the short - lived California Circuit) was accompanied by a newly created Supreme Court seat.
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who won last season's worst cooks in america | Worst Cooks in America - Wikipedia
Worst Cooks in America is an American reality television series that premiered on January 3, 2010, on the Food Network. The show takes 12 to 16 contestants (referred to as "recruits '') with very poor cooking skills through a culinary boot camp, to earn a cash prize of $25,000 and a Food Network cooking set. The recruits are trained on the various basic cooking techniques including: baking, knife skills, temperature, seasoning and preparation. The final challenge is to cook a restaurant quality three - course meal for three food critics.
The show premiered on January 3, 2010. The show was initially hosted by chef Anne Burrell and chef Beau MacMillan in Season 1. MacMillan was replaced by chef Robert Irvine on Season 2, followed by chef Bobby Flay for Seasons 3 -- 5. On November 20, 2014, a Food Network press release announced that chef Tyler Florence will be paired with chef Burrell to host Season 6, to debut on January 4, 2015. Burrell was the winning instructor in seasons 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 and 8 with Flay winning in Seasons 4 -- 5. Rachael Ray and Burrell hosted the Season 7 special celebrity edition, which premiered September 23, 2015. During the finale of Season 7, a trailer previewing Season 8 was shown and was aired in January 2016 with the return of Tyler Florence.
Chefs Beau MacMillan and Anne Burrell lead an intense culinary boot camp. They have six recruits each, and every week they must eliminate one recruit from each of their teams until there is only one from each team left. The final two create a three - course meal to fool a panel of restaurant critics into believing that the meal was created by the acclaimed chefs.
Twelve chefs competed in the first season of Worst Cooks in America. Hometowns and occupations are available from the Food Network website. Chef Anne 's team was known as the Red Team and Chef Beau 's team was known as the Blue Team.
Casting for season 2 of Worst Cooks in America was held at the LA Marriott Burbank Airport, Hotel & Convention Center on March 27, 2010. The Food Network also began accepting online video applications for season 2. Food Network 's website announced that Robert Irvine would replace Beau MacMillan for season 2. Season 2 debuted on January 2, 2011. In this season the chefs had eight recruits each.
In the first episode, a group of selected novice cooks were to prepare a dish from scratch so the chefs would get an idea of how poor their skills were. After tasting all the items, the chefs took turns picking team members for their rival chef. The first season started off with 24 novice cooks but only the worst 12 were chosen for a team. In the second season, the first episode began with 16 amateurs and all took part for the remainder of that episode.
In the penultimate episode of the season, the remaining four recruits learned and replicated a dessert. After this, in the first season, the recruits had to instruct a group of high school students how to replicate the dessert recipe. In the second one, the recruits were assigned the dessert to serve after both chefs, and a special guest enjoyed a main dish.
After learning and replicating a dessert, the recruits had to prepare a meal for both chefs and a surprise guest, usually a spouse or other family member. The first season 's main dishes were an improved version of the recruits ' audition meal. The special guests in the second season got to choose what they wanted the students to make them.
Two recruits remained in the final episode and had to prepare an appetizer, main dish, and dessert for a panel of three food critics. The critics in season 1 thought that the final meal was prepared by the chefs until after they sampled all the courses. In season 2, the critics learned their meal was prepared by the recruits immediately after entering the restaurant.
Anne Burrell and Bobby Flay hosted season 3.
^ Note 1: In Episode 3, Team Bobby (blue team) won the first challenge, he therefore got to choose one person from Team Anne (red team) to go to his team, and then choose one person from his team to go to the other team. He chose David to go to Team Anne 's team and chose Melissa from Team Anne 's team to join his team.
^ Note 1: In Episode 3 Team Anne (red team) won the first challenge, she therefore got to choose one person from Team Bobby (blue team) to go to her team, and then chose one person from her team to go to the other team. She chose Stephanie to go to Team Bobby 's team and chose Carie from Team Bobby 's team to join her team.
Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host seasons 6, replacing Bobby Flay after 3 seasons. The season premiered on January 4, 2015 to 2,123,000 viewers. The second episode was lower at 1,456,000 viewers, with the third episode rising to 1,732,000 viewers and the fourth episode reached 1,689,000 viewers. the 5th episode reached 1,634,000 viewers. The sixth episode received 1.55 million viewers.
Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 7. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. Because this season had only 7 total recruits, each team 's worst recruit from that week 's Main Dish challenge competed head to head in a quickfire elimination challenge instead of eliminating both recruits each week. This challenge involved more basic cooking techniques (e.g. knife skills) and the winner would be decided by a blind judging from both Anne and Rachael. The winning recruit stayed in the competition while the losing recruit was eliminated.
Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 8.
Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 2 of the Celebrity Edition. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. The season premiered on September 14, 2016 to 1,185,000 viewers.
Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 10. The season premiered on January 1, 2017.
In Episode 6, Both Chef Anne and Chef Rachael decided not to send anyone from their teams home.
Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 3 of the Celebrity Edition. The season premiered on August 23, 2017
Note: Vivica was originally eliminated on September 20. In Episode 7, airing on October 4, both Vivica and Sean returned to the competition for a redemption skill drill. Vivica won the drill, re-entered the competition and was then eliminated following the main challenge.
Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 12.
Tyler Florence returns with Anne Burrell to host season 4 of the Celebrity Edition. The season will premiere on April 15, 2018
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role of spores in the development of c. difficile disease | Clostridium difficile infection - Wikipedia
Clostridium difficile infection (CDI or C - dif) is a symptomatic infection due to the spore - forming bacterium, Clostridium difficile. Symptoms include watery diarrhea, fever, nausea, and abdominal pain. It makes up about 20 % of cases of antibiotic - associated diarrhea. Complications may include pseudomembranous colitis, toxic megacolon, perforation of the colon, and sepsis.
Clostridium difficile infection is spread by bacterial spores found within feces. Surfaces may become contaminated with the spores with further spread occurring via the hands of healthcare workers. Risk factors for infection include antibiotic or proton pump inhibitors use, hospitalization, other health problems, and older age. Diagnosis is by stool culture or testing for the bacteria 's DNA or toxins. If a person tests positive but has no symptoms, the condition is known as C. difficile colonization rather than an infection.
Prevention is by hand washing, terminal room cleaning in hospital, and limiting antibiotic use. Discontinuation of antibiotics may result in resolution of symptoms within three days in about 20 % of those infected. Often the antibiotics metronidazole, vancomycin or fidaxomicin will cure the infection. Retesting after treatment, as long as the symptoms have resolved, is not recommended, as the person may remain colonized. Recurrences have been reported in up to 25 % of people. Some tentative evidence indicates fecal microbiota transplantation and probiotics may decrease the risk of recurrence.
C. difficile infections occur in all areas of the world. About 453,000 cases occurred in the United States in 2011, resulting in 29,000 deaths. Rates of disease globally have increased between 2001 and 2016. Women are more often affected than men. The bacterium was discovered in 1935 and found to be disease - causing in 1978. In the United States, healthcare - associated infections increase the cost of care by US $1.5 billion each year.
Signs and symptoms of CDI range from mild diarrhea to severe life - threatening inflammation of the colon.
In adults, a clinical prediction rule found the best signs to be significant diarrhea ("new onset of more than three partially formed or watery stools per 24 - hour period ''), recent antibiotic exposure, abdominal pain, fever (up to 40.5 ° C or 105 ° F), and a distinctive foul odor to the stool resembling horse manure. In a population of hospitalized patients, prior antibiotic treatment plus diarrhea or abdominal pain had a sensitivity of 86 % and a specificity of 45 %. In this study with a prevalence of positive cytotoxin assays of 14 %, the positive predictive value was 18 % and the negative predictive value was 94 %.
In children, the most prevalent symptom of a CDI is watery diarrhea with at least three bowel movements a day for two or more days, which may be accompanied by fever, loss of appetite, nausea, and / or abdominal pain. Those with a severe infection also may develop serious inflammation of the colon and have little or no diarrhea.
Infection with C. difficile bacteria are responsible for C. difficile diarrhea.
Clostridia are anaerobic motile bacteria, ubiquitous in nature, and especially prevalent in soil. Under the microscope, they appear as long, irregular (often drumstick - or spindle - shaped) cells with a bulge at their terminal ends. Under Gram staining, C. difficile cells are Gram - positive and show optimum growth on blood agar at human body temperatures in the absence of oxygen. When stressed, the bacteria produce spores that are able to tolerate extreme conditions that the active bacteria can not tolerate.
C. difficile may become established in the human colon; it is present in 2 -- 5 % of the adult population.
Pathogenic C. difficile strains produce multiple toxins. The most well - characterized are enterotoxin (Clostridium difficile toxin A) and cytotoxin (Clostridium difficile toxin B), both of which may produce diarrhea and inflammation in infected patients, although their relative contributions have been debated. Toxins A and B are glucosyltransferases that target and inactivate the Rho family of GTPases. Toxin B (cytotoxin) induces actin depolymerization by a mechanism correlated with a decrease in the ADP - ribosylation of the low molecular mass GTP - binding Rho proteins. Another toxin, binary toxin, also has been described, but its role in disease is not fully understood.
Antibiotic treatment of CDIs may be difficult, due both to antibiotic resistance and physiological factors of the bacteria (spore formation, protective effects of the pseudomembrane). The emergence of a new and highly toxic strain of C. difficile that is resistant to fluoroquinolone antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin, said to be causing geographically dispersed outbreaks in North America, was reported in 2005. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta warned of the emergence of an epidemic strain with increased virulence, antibiotic resistance, or both.
C. difficile is transmitted from person to person by the fecal - oral route. The organism forms heat - resistant spores that are not killed by alcohol - based hand cleansers or routine surface cleaning. Thus, these spores survive in clinical environments for long periods. Because of this, the bacteria may be cultured from almost any surface. Once spores are ingested, their acid - resistance allows them to pass through the stomach unscathed. Upon exposure to bile acids, they germinate and multiply into vegetative cells in the colon.
In 2005, molecular analysis led to the identification of the C. difficile strain type characterized as group BI by restriction endonuclease analysis, as North American pulse - field - type NAP1 by pulsed - field gel electrophoresis and as ribotype 027; the differing terminology reflects the predominant techniques used for epidemiological typing. This strain is referred to as C. difficile BI / NAP1 / 027.
C. difficile colitis is associated most strongly with the use of these antibiotics: fluoroquinolones, cephalosporins, and clindamycin.
Some research suggests the routine use of antibiotics in the raising of livestock is contributing to outbreaks of bacterial infections such as C. difficile.
People are most often infected in hospitals, nursing homes, or other medical institutions, although infection outside medical settings is increasing. Individuals can develop the infection if they touch objects or surfaces that are contaminated with feces and then touch their mouth or mucous membranes. Healthcare workers could possibly spread the bacteria to patients or contaminate surfaces through hand contact. The rate of C. difficile acquisition is estimated to be 13 % in patients with hospital stays of up to two weeks, and 50 % with stays longer than four weeks.
Long - term hospitalization or residence in a nursing home within the previous year are independent risk factors for increased colonization.
Increasing rates of community - acquired CDI are associated with the use of medication to suppress gastric acid production: H2 - receptor antagonists increased the risk 1.5-fold, and proton pump inhibitors by 1.7 with once - daily use and 2.4 with more than once - daily use.
As a result of suppression of healthy bacteria, via a loss of bacterial food source, prolonged use of an elemental diet elevates the risk of developing C. difficile infection.
The use of systemic antibiotics, including any penicillin - based antibiotic such as ampicillin, cephalosporins, and clindamycin, causes the normal microbiota of the bowel to be altered. In particular, when the antibiotic kills off other competing bacteria in the intestine, any bacteria remaining will have less competition for space and nutrients. The net effect is to permit more extensive growth than normal of certain bacteria. C. difficile is one such type of bacterium. In addition to proliferating in the bowel, C. difficile also produces toxins. Without either toxin A or toxin B, C. difficile may colonize the gut, but is unlikely to cause pseudomembranous colitis. The colitis associated with severe infection is part of an inflammatory reaction, with the "pseudomembrane '' formed by a viscous collection of inflammatory cells, fibrin, and necrotic cells.
Prior to the advent of tests to detect C. difficile toxins, the diagnosis most often was made by colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy. The appearance of "pseudomembranes '' on the mucosa of the colon or rectum is highly suggestive, but not diagnostic of the condition. The pseudomembranes are composed of an exudate made of inflammatory debris, white blood cells. Although colonoscopy and sigmoidoscopy are still employed, now stool testing for the presence of C. difficile toxins is frequently the first - line diagnostic approach. Usually, only two toxins are tested for -- toxin A and toxin B -- but the organism produces several others. This test is not 100 % accurate, with a considerable false - negative rate even with repeat testing.
C. difficile toxins have a cytopathic effect in cell culture, and neutralization of any effect observed with specific antisera is the practical gold standard for studies investigating new CDI diagnostic techniques. Toxigenic culture, in which organisms are cultured on selective media and tested for toxin production, remains the gold standard and is the most sensitive and specific test, although it is slow and labor - intensive.
Assessment of the A and B toxins by enzyme - linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for toxin A or B (or both) has a sensitivity of 63 -- 99 % and a specificity of 93 -- 100 %.
Previously, experts recommended sending as many as three stool samples to rule out disease if initial tests are negative, but evidence suggests repeated testing during the same episode of diarrhea is of limited value and should be discouraged. C. difficile toxin should clear from the stool of previously infected patients if treatment is effective. Many hospitals only test for the prevalent toxin A. Strains that express only the B toxin are now present in many hospitals, however, so testing for both toxins should occur. Not testing for both may contribute to a delay in obtaining laboratory results, which is often the cause of prolonged illness and poor outcomes.
Stool leukocyte measurements and stool lactoferrin levels also have been proposed as diagnostic tests, but may have limited diagnostic accuracy.
Testing of stool samples by real - time polymerase chain reaction is able to detect C. difficile about 93 % of the time and when positive is incorrectly positive about 3 % of the time. This is more accurate than cytotoxigenic culture or cell cytotoxicity assay. Other benefits are that the result can be achieved within three hours. Drawbacks include a higher cost and the fact that the test only looks for the gene for the toxin and not the toxin itself. The later means that if the test is used without confirmation, overdiagnosis may occur. Repeat testing may be misleading, and testing specimens more than once every seven days in people without new symptoms is highly unlikely to yield useful information.
Self containment by housing people in private rooms is important to prevent the spread of C. difficile between patients. Contact precautions are an important part of preventing the spread of C. difficile. C. difficile does not often occur in people who are not taking antibiotics so limiting use of antibiotics decreases the risk.
The most effective method for preventing CDI is proper antimicrobial prescribing. In the hospital setting, where CDI is most common, nearly all patients who develop CDI are exposed to antimicrobials. Although proper antimicrobial prescribing is highly recommended, about 50 % of antimicrobial use is considered inappropriate. This is consistent whether in the hospital, clinic, community, or academic setting. A decrease in CDI by limiting antibiotics or by limiting unnecessary antimicrobial prescriptions in general, both in an outbreak and nonoutbreak setting has been demonstrated to be most strongly associated with reduced CDI. Further, reactions to medication may be severe: CDI infections were the most common contributor to adverse drug events seen in U.S. hospitals in 2011. In some regions of the UK, reduced used of fluoroquinolone antibiotics seems to lead to reduced rates of CDI.
Some evidence indicates probiotics may be useful to prevent infection and recurrence. Treatment with Saccharomyces boulardii in those who are not immunocompromised with C. difficile also may be useful. Initially, in 2010, the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommended against their use due to the risk of complications. Subsequent reviews, however, did not find an increase in adverse effects with treatment, and overall treatment appears safe.
Rigorous infection protocols are required to minimize this risk of transmission. Infection control measures, such as wearing gloves and noncritical medical devices used for a single person with CDI, are effective at prevention. This works by limiting the spread of C. difficile in the hospital setting. In addition, washing with soap and water will eliminate the spores from contaminated hands, but alcohol - based hand rubs are ineffective. These precautions should remain in place among those in hospital for at least 2 days after the diarrhea has stopped.
Bleach wipes containing 0.55 % sodium hypochlorite have been shown to kill the spores and prevent transmission between patients. Installing lidded toilets and closing the lid prior to flushing also reduces the risk of contamination.
Those who have CDIs should be in rooms with other people with CDIs or by themselves when in hospital.
Common hospital disinfectants are ineffective against C. difficile spores, and may promote spore formation, but disinfectants containing a 10: 1 ratio of water to bleach effectively kill the spores. Hydrogen peroxide vapor (HPV) systems used to sterilize a patient room after discharge have been shown to reduce infection rates and to reduce risk of infection to subsequent patients. The incidence of CDI was reduced by 53 % or 42 % through use of HPV. Ultraviolet cleaning devices and housekeeping staff especially dedicated to disinfecting the rooms of patients infected with C. difficile after discharge may be effective.
Carrying C. difficile without symptoms is common. Treatment in those without symptoms is controversial. In general, mild cases do not require specific treatment. Oral rehydration therapy is useful in treating dehydration associated with the diarrhea.
Several different antibiotics are used for C. difficile, with the available agents being more or less equally effective.
Medications used to slow or stop diarrhea, such as loperamide, have been thought to have the potential to worsen C. difficile disease, so are not generally recommended. Evidence to support worse outcomes with use however is poor. Cholestyramine, an ion exchange resin, is effective in binding both toxin A and B, slowing bowel motility, and helping prevent dehydration. Cholestyramine is recommended with vancomycin. A last - resort treatment in those who are immunosuppressed is intravenous immunoglobulin.
Evidence to support the use of probiotics in the treatment of active disease is insufficient. Thus in this situation, they are recommended neither as an add - on to standard therapy nor for use alone.
Fecal bacteriotherapy, also known as a stool transplant, is roughly 85 % to 90 % effective in those for whom antibiotics have not worked. It involves infusion of the microbiota acquired from the feces of a healthy donor to reverse the bacterial imbalance responsible for the recurring nature of the infection. The procedure replenishes the normal colonic microbiota that had been wiped out by antibiotics, and re-establishes resistance to colonization by Clostridium difficile. Side effects, at least initially, are few.
Some evidence looks hopeful that fecal transplant can be delivered in the form of a pill. They are available in the United States, but are not FDA - approved as of 2015.
In those with severe C. difficile colitis, colectomy may improve the outcomes. Specific criteria may be used to determine who will benefit most from surgery.
After a first treatment with metronidazole or vancomycin, C. difficile recurs in about 20 % of people. This increases to 40 % and 60 % with subsequent recurrences.
C. difficile diarrhea is estimated to occur in eight of 100,000 people each year. Among those who are admitted to hospital, it occurs in between four and eight people per 1,000. In 2011, it resulted in about half a million infections and 29,000 deaths in the United States.
Due in part to the emergence of a fluoroquinolone - resistant strain, C. difficile - related deaths increased 400 % between 2000 and 2007 in the United States. According to the CDC, "C. difficile has become the most common microbial cause of healthcare - associated infections in U.S. hospitals and costs up to $4.8 billion each year in excess health care costs for acute care facilities alone. ''
Initially named Bacillus difficilis by Hall and O'Toole in 1935 because it was resistant to early attempts at isolation and grew very slowly in culture, it was renamed in 1970.
Pseudomembranous colitis first was described as a complication of C. difficile infection in 1978, when a toxin was isolated from patients suffering from pseudomembranous colitis and Koch 's postulates were met.
The anglicized pronunciation / klɒsˈtrɪdiəm dɪˈfɪsɪliː / is common, though a restored pronunciation / dɪˈfɪkɪleɪ / is also used. The classical Latin pronunciation is reconstructed as (klōsˈtrɪdiũ dɪfˈfɪkɪlɛ). Difficile commonly is mispronounced / diːfiˈsiːl /, as though it were French. The word is from the Greek kloster (κλωστήρ), "spindle '', and Latin difficile, "difficult, obstinate ''.
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rotary motion of the steering wheel is converted to reciprocating motion by | Reciprocating motion - Wikipedia
Reciprocating motion, also called reciprocation, is a repetitive up - and - down or back - and - forth linear motion. It is found in a wide range of mechanisms, including reciprocating engines and pumps. The two opposite motions that comprise a single reciprocation cycle are called strokes.
A crank can be used to convert circular motion into reciprocating motion, or conversely turn reciprocating motion into circular motion.
For example, inside an internal combustion engine (a type of reciprocating engine), the expansion of burning fuel in the cylinders periodically pushes the piston down, which, through the connecting rod, turns the crankshaft. The continuing rotation of the crankshaft drives the piston back up, ready for the next cycle. The piston moves in a reciprocating motion, which is converted into circular motion of the crankshaft, which ultimately propels the vehicle or does other useful work.
Reciprocating motion is close to, but different from, sinusoidal simple harmonic motion. The point on the crankshaft which connects to the connecting rod, rotates smoothly at a constant velocity in a circle. Thus, the horizontal displacement, of that point, is indeed exactly sinusoidal by definition. However, during the cycle, the angle of the connecting rod changes continuously. So, the horizontal displacement of the "far '' end of the connecting rod (i.e., connected to the piston) differs from sinusoidal.
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ep thompson time work discipline and industrial capitalism | Time discipline - wikipedia
In sociology and anthropology, time discipline is the general name given to social and economic rules, conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and awareness of time measurements, and people 's expectations concerning the observance of these customs by others.
The concept of "time discipline '' as a field of special attention in sociology and anthropology was pioneered by E.P. Thompson in Time, Work - Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism, published in 1967. Coming from a Marxist viewpoint, Thompson argued that observance of clock - time is a consequence of the European industrial revolution, and that neither industrial capitalism nor the creation of the modern state would have been possible without the imposition of synchronic forms of time and work discipline. The new clock time imposed by government and capitalist interests replaced earlier, collective perceptions of time that Thompson believed flowed from the collective wisdom of human societies. While in fact it appears likely that earlier views of time were imposed instead by religious and other social authorities prior to the industrial revolution, Thompson 's work identified time discipline as an important concept for study within the social sciences.
In societies based around agriculture, hunting, and other pursuits that involve human interaction with the natural world, time discipline is a matter governed by astronomical and biological factors. Specific times of day or seasons of the year are defined by reference to these factors, and measured, to the extent that they need measuring, by observation. Different peoples ' needs with respect to these things mean sharply differing cultural perceptions of time. For example, it surprises many non-Muslims that the Islamic calendar is entirely lunar and makes no reference at all to the seasons; the desert - dwelling Arabs who devised it were nomads rather than agriculturalists, and a calendar that made no reference to the seasons was no inconvenience for most of them.
In more urban societies, some of these natural phenomena were no longer at hand, and most were of much less consequence to the inhabitants. Artificial means of dividing and measuring time were needed. Plautus complained of the social effect of the invention of such divisions in his lines complaining of the sundial:
Plautus 's protagonist here complains about the social discipline and expectations that arose when these measurements of time were introduced. The invention of artificial units of time measurement made the introduction of time management possible, and time management was not universally appreciated by those whose time was managed.
In western Europe, the practice of Christian monasticism introduced new factors into the time discipline observed by members of religious communities. The rule of Saint Benedict introduced canonical hours; these were religious observances that were held on a daily basis, and based on factors again mostly unrelated to natural phenomena. It is no surprise, then, that religious communities were likely the inventors, and certainly the major consumers, of early clocks. The invention of the mechanical clock in western Europe, and its subsequent technical developments, enabled a public time discipline even less related to natural phenomena. (Highly sophisticated clepsydras existed in China, where they were used by astrologers connected with the imperial court; these water clocks were quite large, and their use limited to those who were professionally interested in precise timekeeping.)
The English word clock comes from an Old French word for "bell, '' for the striking feature of early clocks was a greater concern than their dials. Shakespeare 's Sonnet XII begins, "When I do count the clock that tells the time. '' Even after the introduction of the clock face, clocks were costly, and found mostly in the homes of aristocrats. The vast majority of urban dwellers had to rely on clock towers, and outside the sight of their dials or the sound of their bells, clock time held no sway. Clock towers did define the time of day, at least for those who could hear and see them. As the saying goes, "a person with a clock always knows what time it is; a person with two clocks is never sure. ''
The discipline imposed by these public clocks still remained lax by contemporary standards. A clock that only strikes the hours can only record the nearest hour that has passed; most early clocks had only hour hands in any case. Minute hands did not come into widespread use until the pendulum enabled a large leap in the accuracy of clocks; for watches, a similar leap in accuracy was not made possible before the invention of the balance spring. Before these improvements, the equation of time, the difference between apparent and mean solar time, was not even noticed.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, private ownership of clocks and watches became more common, as their improved manufacture made them available for purchase by at least the bourgeoisie of the cities. Their proliferation had many social and even religious consequences for those who could afford and use them.
Before time became standardized, clock masters used "True Time ''. The day work began and ended with the sun. This time period was divided into 12 equal hours. This meant that these hours would vary with the seasons, as the length of daylight changed. Each town would have their own variance of this "True Time ''. Eventually, cities adopted "Mean Time '', which is how we think of time nowadays. Astronomers used the Earth 's rotation and the stars to calculate the time, and divided the day into 24 uniform and equal hours. Geneva was the first city to adopt mean time in 1780, followed by London in 1792, Berlin in 1810, Paris in 1816, and Vienna in 1823.
Religious texts of the period make many more references to the irreversible passage of time, and artistic themes appeared at this time such as Vanitas, a reminder of death in the form of a still life, which always included a watch, clock, or some other timepiece. The relentless ticking of a clock or watch, and the slow but certain movement of its hands, functioned as a visible and audible memento mori. Clocks and sundials would be decorated with mottos such as ultima forsan ("perhaps the last '' (hour)) or vulnerant omnes, ultima necat ("they all wound, and the last kills ''). Even today, clocks often carry the motto tempus fugit, "time flies. '' Mary, Queen of Scots was said to have owned a large watch made in the shape of a silver skull.
Economically, their impact was even greater; an awareness that time is money, a limited commodity not to be wasted, also appears during this period. Because Protestantism was at this time chiefly a religion of literate city dwellers, the so - called "Protestant work ethic '' came to be associated with this newly fashioned time discipline. Production of clocks and watches during this period shifted from Italy and Bavaria to Protestant areas such as Geneva, the Netherlands, and England; the names of French clockmakers during this time disclose a large number of commonly Huguenot names from the Old Testament.
In the nineteenth century, the introduction of standard time and time zones divorced the "time of day '' from local mean solar time and any links to astronomy. Time signals, like the bells and dials of public clocks, once were relatively local affairs; the ball that is dropped in Times Square on New Year 's Eve in New York City once served as a time signal whose original purpose was for navigators to check their marine chronometers. However, when the railroads began running trains on complex schedules, keeping a schedule that could be followed over distances of hundreds of miles required synchronization on a scale not attempted before. Telegraphy and later shortwave radio were used to broadcast time signals from the most accurate clocks available. Radio and television broadcasting schedules created a further impetus to regiment everyone 's clock so that they all told the same time within a very small tolerance; the broadcasting of time announcements over radio and television enabled all the households in their audience to get in synch with the clocks at the network.
The mass production of clocks and watches further tightened time discipline in the Western world; before these machines were made, and made to be more accurate, it would be pointless to complain about someone 's being fifteen, or five, minutes late. For many employees, the time clock was the clock that told the time that mattered: it was the clock that recorded their hours of work. By the time that time clocks became commonplace, public, synchronized clock time was considered a fact of life. Uniform, synchronized, public clock time did not exist until the nineteenth century.
When one speaks about the intellectual history of time, one essentially is stating that changes have occurred in the way humans experience and measure time. Our conceived abstract notions of time have presumably developed in accordance with our art, our science, and our social infrastructure. (See also horology.)
The units of time first developed by humans would likely have been days and months (moons). In some parts of the world the cycle of seasons is apparent enough to lead to people speaking about years and seasons (e.g. 4 summers ago, or 4 floods ago). With the invention of agriculture in the 3rd millennium BC, people relied heavily on the cycle of the seasons for planting and harvesting crops. Most humans came to live in settled societies and the whole community relied upon accurate predictions of the seasonal cycle. This led to the development of calendars. Over time, some people came to recognize patterns of the stars with the seasons. Learning astronomy became an assigned duty for certain people so they could coordinate the lunar and solar calendars by adding days or months to the year.
At about the same time, sundials were developed, likely marked first at noon, sunrise and sunset. In ancient Sumer and Egypt, numbers were soon used to divide the day into 12 hours; the night was similarly divided. In Egypt there is not as much seasonal variation in the length of the day, but those further from the equator would need to make many more modifications in calibrating their sundials to deal with these differences. Ancient traditions did not begin the day at midnight, some starting at dawn instead, others at dusk (both being more obvious).
Since a sundial has only one "hand, '' a minute probably only meant "a short time. '' It took centuries for technology to make measurements precise enough for minutes (and later seconds) to become fixed meaningful units -- longer still for milliseconds, nanoseconds, and further subdivisions.
When the water clock was invented, time could also be measured at night -- though there was significant variation in flow rate and less accuracy and precision. With water clocks, and also candle clocks, modifications were made to have them make sounds on a regular basis.
With the invention of the hourglass (perhaps as early as the 11th century), hours and units of time smaller than an hour could be measured much more reliably than with water clocks and candle clocks.
The earliest reasonably accurate mechanical clocks are the 13th century tower clocks probably developed for (and perhaps by) monks in Northern Italy. Using gears and gradually falling weights, these were adjusted to conform with canonical hours -- which varied with the length of the day. As these were used primarily to ring bells for prayer, the clock dial likely only came later. When dials were eventually incorporated into clocks, they were analogous to the dials on sundials, and, like a sundial, the clocks themselves had only one hand.
A possible explanation for the shift from having the first hour being the one after dawn, to having the hour after noon being designated as 1 pm (post meridiem), is that these clocks would likely regularly be reset at local high noon each day. This, of course, results in midnight becoming 12 o'clock.
Peter Henlein, a locksmith and burgher of Nuremberg, Germany, invented a spring - powered clock around 1510. It had only one hand, had no glass cover, and was rather imprecise because it slowed down as the spring unwound. In fact, Henlein went so far as to develop the first portable watch; it was six inches high. People usually carried it by hand, or wore it around their necks or in large pockets. The first reported person to actually wear a watch on the wrist was the French mathematician and philosopher, Blaise Pascal (1623 -- 1662). He attached his pocket watch to his wrist with a piece of string.
In 1577, the minute hand was added by a Swiss clock maker, Jost Burgi (who also is a contender for the invention of logarithms), and was incorporated into a clock Burgi made for astronomer Tycho Brahe, who had a need for more accuracy as he charted the heavens.
With invention of the pendulum clock in 1656 by Christiaan Huygens, came isochronous time, with a fixed pace of 3600 seconds per hour. By 1680, both a minute hand and then a second hand were added. Some of the first of these had a separate dial for the minute hand (turning counter-clockwise), and a second hand that took 5 minutes per cycle. Even as late as 1773, towns were content to order clocks without minute hands.
But the clocks were still aligned with the local noonday sun. Following the invention of the locomotive in 1830, time had to be synchronized across vast distances in order to organize the train schedules. This eventually led to the development of time zones, and, thus, global isochronous time. These time changes were not accepted everywhere right away, because many people 's lives were still tied closely to the length of the daytime. With the invention in 1879 of the light bulb, that changed too.
The isochronous clock changed lives. Appointments are rarely "within the hour, '' but at quarter hours (and being five minutes late is often considered being tardy). People often eat, drink, sleep, and even go to the bathroom in adherence to some time - dependent schedule.
While Thompson 's theory of industrial time - discipline has dominated the field for more than 40 years, critics of his work have emerged.
Paul Glennie and Nigel Thrift posit an alternative perspective on the development of time - consciousness in "Reworking E.P. Thompson 's ' Time, Work - Discipline and Industrial Capitalism ' '' (1996). According to Glennie and Thrift, Thompson and subsequent theorists on modern time competence in England have theorized that industrial work - discipline centered on the clock is responsible for spreading a unitary concept of time rooted in materialist realities. In contrast, Glennie and Thrift explore the role of symbolic, qualitative, and multiple time - senses in the West. Different kinds of work and multiple means of measuring time problematize the centrality of factory work and the clock. Generally, they argue that time - discipline was evident before the spread of industrialization and that it did not trigger a significant change in time - sense. Because it rests on the argument that disparate, spatial temporalities can not be unified, critics have argued that their analysis seems incomplete. In short, they offer poignant critiques of the dominant theory without positing a stronger theory in its place.
Michael J. Sauter argues that Thompson 's approach to time discipline is "gendered and Eurocentric ''. Time discipline did not arise because of the Industrial Revolution, but had been a phenomenon since the Middle Ages as the government, religion, and economics played larger roles in day - to - day life. In Sauter 's article "Clockwaters and Stargazers: Time Discipline in Early Modern Berlin '', he argues that time discipline came from the streets, and was part of the rise of "local knowledge '' as public clocks were used by public event planners. People began to learn where clocks were located and which social groups used which ones. Furthermore, Sauter argues that time discipline is not "externally imposed '' on people, but "a standard that is determined by people with specialized knowledge and skills ''. Prior to the rise of mechanical timekeeping, clocks were based on the easily accessed sun, and after 1800 precise timekeeping again returned to the Earth 's position in relationship to the stars, as measured by scientists using specialized instruments.
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can a senior in high school play junior varsity | Junior varsity team - wikipedia
Junior varsity (often called "JV '') players are the members of a team who are not the main players in a competition (such as any football, basketball, or baseball game), usually at the high school and college levels in the United States. The main players comprise the varsity team. Although the intensity of the JV team may vary from place to place, most junior varsity teams consist of players who are in their freshman and sophomore years in school, though occasionally upperclassmen may play on JV teams. For this reason, junior varsity teams are also often called freshman / sophomore teams. Especially skilled or physically mature freshmen and sophomores may compete at the varsity level. Some private school associations may permit very skilled seventh - or eighth - graders to compete on varsity teams. At larger schools, there may be two junior varsity teams for some sports, with a lower - level team typically consisting only of freshmen.
Members of a junior varsity team are underclassmen determined by the coaching staff to have less experience or ability than those on the varsity roster. As such, junior varsity teams are used to prepare these athletes to compete at the varsity level. In other schools, the line between JV and varsity is arbitrary, with all players at a certain grade level (usually seniors and, in smaller schools, juniors) at varsity and all others below that grade level at JV, with only a few exceptions for highly talented (or well - connected) student athletes, or much smaller schools where - due to their low enrollment - are limited in the number of upperclassmen athletes.
Some teams require participation on a junior varsity team before being eligible to try out for a varsity team. These players can provide the varsity team with extra depth, with their service as back - up players. The NCAA previously prohibited true freshmen from playing varsity college football and basketball; as a result, numerous junior - varsity "freshmen teams '' appeared on many major college campuses. The NCAA repealed this limitation in the 1970s; to the extent that junior varsity teams exist at the college level, many are classified as club squads.
Many sports teams have assistant coaches responsible for developing the talent of junior varsity players.
A coach may call on one or more junior varsity players during a varsity game, especially when a varsity player is injured, is not performing well, or (because of a violation or poor grades) is disqualified from further competition. If a junior varsity player does well, they will see more playing time in the future or may even get moved up to the varsity level.
A team will have many talented players, but the coach is unable to come up with a rotation that allows everyone to play. The decision of when to play junior varsity players in a one - sided game is often at the coach 's discretion. This depends on the coach 's strategy, the time remaining in the game, the point margin, and the game situation. The coach of a losing team -- especially if the players are not very good or they are inexperienced players -- sometimes may continue to play the main players against the winning team 's junior varsity players to give the team experience.
When the winning team is ahead by a substantial margin late in the game, the coaches of both the winning and losing teams may "empty their benches '' -- that is, they remove the varsity players and play the junior varsity players for the remainder of the game. The junior varsity players can impress coaches during this "garbage time '' in hopes of gaining more playing time in subsequent games, while at the same time reducing the risk of serious injury by varsity players by resting them in a game whose outcome has been effectively decided.
Some games have rules which allow unlimited use of junior varsity players, such as basketball. Other sports have different ways of determining junior varsity participants. For instance, in high school wrestling, there can only be one wrestler competing for a team at a particular weight class in a given varsity match. The team 's representative is often determined by a "challenge match, '' in which the top two wrestlers at that weight compete for the right to participate in the varsity match. The loser wrestles that night 's junior varsity match.
A similar format is used for golf, tennis, and badminton, with players who lose to varsity opponents participating in the junior varsity part of the meet.
Junior varsity games are specially - scheduled events in which junior varsity players play to gain skills and experience. These games may be played immediately before a varsity contest; or if a school has a sophomore or freshman team, the junior varsity game will take place on another night or, in some cases, an off - peak time slot such as Saturday morning. Records and statistics are kept for the junior varsity team, and some leagues offer a junior varsity championship. An assistant coach acts as the head coach for these games.
In some sports, such as tennis and golf, a junior varsity meet will take place simultaneously with the varsity event; however, the scores are separately tabulated. In track and field, a junior varsity "heat '' of a particular event may take place either before or after the varsity "heat '' (again, implementing separate tabulation of meet results).
An underclassman who plays on a junior varsity team one year is expected to gain enough experience to be one of the varsity players the next season. A team 's head coach will attend a junior varsity games to evaluate skill and decide if a player is ready to play in the main part of a varsity game.
Junior varsity teams may or may not travel with or take the field / court with the varsity team, or in particularly well - organized hierarchies (especially in sports such as football) may alternate home and away schedules with the varsity squad to ensure at least one of the two teams plays at home each week. This is often dependent on the size of the varsity team, availability of transportation and policies invoked by either the coach, school or league. A JV can sometimes completely replace a varsity team in a game with little to no importance.
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what's the name of the latest game of thrones episode | List of Game of Thrones episodes - wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R.R. Martin. The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert 's chief advisor) dies mysteriously.
The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R.R. Martin. Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain. Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm Eastern Time, and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length. The first six seasons are available on DVD and Blu - ray.
The series was renewed for a seventh season in April 2016, which premiered on July 16, 2017 and consisted of seven episodes. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes. As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season. The show 's episodes have won numerous awards including two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.
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when is power season 5 episode 8 coming out uk | List of Power episodes - wikipedia
Power is an American television drama broadcast on Starz created by Courtney A. Kemp. The series follows James St. Patrick (played by Omari Hardwick), nicknamed "Ghost '', owner of a popular New York City nightclub, and a major player in one of the city 's biggest illegal drug networks. He struggles to balance these two lives, and the balance topples when he realizes he wants to leave the drug ring in order to support his legitimate business, and commit to his mistress. The series premiered on June 7, 2014. As of September 9, 2018, 49 episodes of Power have aired. The fifth season of Power premiered on July 1, 2018. Power has also been renewed for a sixth season.
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where are they now cast of operation repo | Operation Repo - Wikipedia
Operation Repo (formerly known as Operación Repo) is an American television program that depicts the world of car repossession with a team that portrays fictionalized tales of repossessions from California 's San Fernando Valley.
Operation Repo consists of what are purported to be actual stories of repossession incidents; however, the show depicts scripted and Dramatized re-enactments in which the cast "recreates '' incidents using actors and staged action footage.
Operation Repo was first produced in a Spanish - language version, Operación Repo on Telemundo in October 2006, becoming the number - one rated show on the network. The show later crossed over to English - language and moved to truTV, where it started airing on March 31, 2008.
Operation Repo also airs on OLN in Canada and RTL7 in the Netherlands, and on One In Australia. In Spain it airs on Energy, in Norway on Viasat 4, in Italy on Italia 2 and in the United Kingdom it airs on DMAX.
The eleventh season resumed on December 18, 2013 and has concluded, along with the series, on February 5, 2014.
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when was the statue of liberty given to the united states from france | Statue of Liberty - wikipedia
The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; French: La Liberté éclairant le monde) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and built by Gustave Eiffel. The statue was dedicated on October 28, 1886.
The Statue of Liberty is a figure of a robed woman representing Libertas, a Roman liberty goddess. She holds a torch above her head with her right hand, and in her left hand carries a tabula ansata inscribed in Roman numerals with "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' (July 4, 1776), the date of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. A broken chain lies at her feet. The statue became an icon of freedom and of the United States, and was a welcoming sight to immigrants arriving from abroad.
Bartholdi was inspired by a French law professor and politician, Édouard René de Laboulaye, who is said to have commented in 1865 that any monument raised to U.S. independence would properly be a joint project of the French and U.S. peoples. Because of the post-war instability in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue and the U.S. provide the site and build the pedestal. Bartholdi completed the head and the torch - bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions.
The torch - bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and in Madison Square Park in Manhattan from 1876 to 1882. Fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened by lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer, of the New York World, started a drive for donations to finish the project and attracted more than 120,000 contributors, most of whom gave less than a dollar. The statue was built in France, shipped overseas in crates, and assembled on the completed pedestal on what was then called Bedloe 's Island. The statue 's completion was marked by New York 's first ticker - tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland.
The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National Park Service. Public access to the balcony around the torch has been barred for safety since 1916.
According to the National Park Service, the idea for the Statue of Liberty was first proposed by Édouard René de Laboulaye the president of the French Anti-Slavery Society and a prominent and important political thinker of his time. The project is traced to a mid-1865 conversation between de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. In after - dinner conversation at his home near Versailles, Laboulaye, an ardent supporter of the Union in the American Civil War, is supposed to have said: "If a monument should rise in the United States, as a memorial to their independence, I should think it only natural if it were built by united effort -- a common work of both our nations. '' The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, and that the statue was most likely conceived in 1870. In another essay on their website, the Park Service suggested that Laboulaye was minded to honor the Union victory and its consequences, "With the abolition of slavery and the Union 's victory in the Civil War in 1865, Laboulaye 's wishes of freedom and democracy were turning into a reality in the United States. In order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, the French people would be inspired to call for their own democracy in the face of a repressive monarchy. ''
According to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulaye 's comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi. Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no immediate action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Bartholdi was in any event busy with other possible projects; in the late 1860s, he approached Isma'il Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, with a plan to build Progress or Egypt Carrying the Light to Asia, a huge lighthouse in the form of an ancient Egyptian female fellah or peasant, robed and holding a torch aloft, at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal in Port Said. Sketches and models were made of the proposed work, though it was never erected. There was a classical precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes: an ancient bronze statue of the Greek god of the sun, Helios. This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet (30 m) high, and it similarly stood at a harbor entrance and carried a light to guide ships.
Any large project was further delayed by the Franco - Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed. Bartholdi 's home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians, and a more liberal republic was installed in France. As Bartholdi had been planning a trip to the United States, he and Laboulaye decided the time was right to discuss the idea with influential Americans. In June 1871, Bartholdi crossed the Atlantic, with letters of introduction signed by Laboulaye.
Arriving at New York Harbor, Bartholdi focused on Bedloe 's Island (now named Liberty Island) as a site for the statue, struck by the fact that vessels arriving in New York had to sail past it. He was delighted to learn that the island was owned by the United States government -- it had been ceded by the New York State Legislature in 1800 for harbor defense. It was thus, as he put it in a letter to Laboulaye: "land common to all the states. '' As well as meeting many influential New Yorkers, Bartholdi visited President Ulysses S. Grant, who assured him that it would not be difficult to obtain the site for the statue. Bartholdi crossed the United States twice by rail, and met many Americans who he thought would be sympathetic to the project. But he remained concerned that popular opinion on both sides of the Atlantic was insufficiently supportive of the proposal, and he and Laboulaye decided to wait before mounting a public campaign.
Bartholdi had made a first model of his concept in 1870. The son of a friend of Bartholdi 's, U.S. artist John LaFarge, later maintained that Bartholdi made the first sketches for the statue during his U.S. visit at La Farge 's Rhode Island studio. Bartholdi continued to develop the concept following his return to France. He also worked on a number of sculptures designed to bolster French patriotism after the defeat by the Prussians. One of these was the Lion of Belfort, a monumental sculpture carved in sandstone below the fortress of Belfort, which during the war had resisted a Prussian siege for over three months. The defiant lion, 73 feet (22 m) long and half that in height, displays an emotional quality characteristic of Romanticism, which Bartholdi would later bring to the Statue of Liberty.
Bartholdi and Laboulaye considered how best to express the idea of American liberty. In early American history, two female figures were frequently used as cultural symbols of the nation. One of these symbols, the personified Columbia, was seen as an embodiment of the United States in the manner that Britannia was identified with the United Kingdom and Marianne came to represent France. Columbia had supplanted the earlier figure of an Indian princess, which had come to be regarded as uncivilized and derogatory toward Americans. The other significant female icon in American culture was a representation of Liberty, derived from Libertas, the goddess of freedom widely worshipped in ancient Rome, especially among emancipated slaves. A Liberty figure adorned most American coins of the time, and representations of Liberty appeared in popular and civic art, including Thomas Crawford 's Statue of Freedom (1863) atop the dome of the United States Capitol Building.
Artists of the 18th and 19th centuries striving to evoke republican ideals commonly used representations of Libertas as an allegorical symbol. A figure of Liberty was also depicted on the Great Seal of France. However, Bartholdi and Laboulaye avoided an image of revolutionary liberty such as that depicted in Eugène Delacroix 's famed Liberty Leading the People (1830). In this painting, which commemorates France 's Revolution of 1830, a half - clothed Liberty leads an armed mob over the bodies of the fallen. Laboulaye had no sympathy for revolution, and so Bartholdi 's figure would be fully dressed in flowing robes. Instead of the impression of violence in the Delacroix work, Bartholdi wished to give the statue a peaceful appearance and chose a torch, representing progress, for the figure to hold.
Crawford 's statue was designed in the early 1850s. It was originally to be crowned with a pileus, the cap given to emancipated slaves in ancient Rome. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis, a Southerner who would later serve as President of the Confederate States of America, was concerned that the pileus would be taken as an abolitionist symbol. He ordered that it be changed to a helmet. Delacroix 's figure wears a pileus, and Bartholdi at first considered placing one on his figure as well. Instead, he used a diadem, or crown, to top its head. In so doing, he avoided a reference to Marianne, who invariably wears a pileus. The seven rays form a halo or aureole. They evoke the sun, the seven seas, and the seven continents, and represent another means, besides the torch, whereby Liberty enlightens the world.
Bartholdi 's early models were all similar in concept: a female figure in neoclassical style representing liberty, wearing a stola and pella (gown and cloak, common in depictions of Roman goddesses) and holding a torch aloft. According to popular accounts, the face was modeled after that of Charlotte Beysser Bartholdi, the sculptor 's mother, but Regis Huber, the curator of the Bartholdi Museum is on record as saying that this, as well as other similar speculations, have no basis in fact. He designed the figure with a strong, uncomplicated silhouette, which would be set off well by its dramatic harbor placement and allow passengers on vessels entering New York Bay to experience a changing perspective on the statue as they proceeded toward Manhattan. He gave it bold classical contours and applied simplified modeling, reflecting the huge scale of the project and its solemn purpose. Bartholdi wrote of his technique:
The surfaces should be broad and simple, defined by a bold and clear design, accentuated in the important places. The enlargement of the details or their multiplicity is to be feared. By exaggerating the forms, in order to render them more clearly visible, or by enriching them with details, we would destroy the proportion of the work. Finally, the model, like the design, should have a summarized character, such as one would give to a rapid sketch. Only it is necessary that this character should be the product of volition and study, and that the artist, concentrating his knowledge, should find the form and the line in its greatest simplicity.
Bartholdi made alterations in the design as the project evolved. Bartholdi considered having Liberty hold a broken chain, but decided this would be too divisive in the days after the Civil War. The erected statue does rise over a broken chain, half - hidden by her robes and difficult to see from the ground. Bartholdi was initially uncertain of what to place in Liberty 's left hand; he settled on a tabula ansata, used to evoke the concept of law. Though Bartholdi greatly admired the United States Constitution, he chose to inscribe "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' on the tablet, thus associating the date of the country 's Declaration of Independence with the concept of liberty.
Bartholdi interested his friend and mentor, architect Eugène Viollet - le - Duc, in the project. As chief engineer, Viollet - le - Duc designed a brick pier within the statue, to which the skin would be anchored. After consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget, Gauthier & Co., Viollet - le - Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used to shape it, repoussé, in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers. An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume, as the copper need be only 0.094 inches (2.4 mm) thick. Bartholdi had decided on a height of just over 151 feet (46 m) for the statue, double that of Italy 's Sancarlone and the German statue of Arminius, both made with the same method.
By 1875, France was enjoying improved political stability and a recovering postwar economy. Growing interest in the upcoming Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia led Laboulaye to decide it was time to seek public support. In September 1875, he announced the project and the formation of the Franco - American Union as its fundraising arm. With the announcement, the statue was given a name, Liberty Enlightening the World. The French would finance the statue; Americans would be expected to pay for the pedestal. The announcement provoked a generally favorable reaction in France, though many Frenchmen resented the United States for not coming to their aid during the war with Prussia. French monarchists opposed the statue, if for no other reason than it was proposed by the liberal Laboulaye, who had recently been elected a senator for life. Laboulaye arranged events designed to appeal to the rich and powerful, including a special performance at the Paris Opera on April 25, 1876, that featured a new cantata by composer Charles Gounod. The piece was titled La Liberté éclairant le monde, the French version of the statue 's announced name.
Despite its initial focus on the elites, the Union was successful in raising funds from across French society. Schoolchildren and ordinary citizens gave, as did 181 French municipalities. Laboulaye 's political allies supported the call, as did descendants of the French contingent in the American Revolutionary War. Less idealistically, contributions came from those who hoped for American support in the French attempt to build the Panama Canal. The copper may have come from multiple sources and some of it is said to have come from a mine in Visnes, Norway, though this has not been conclusively determined after testing samples. According to Cara Sutherland in her book on the statue for the Museum of the City of New York, 90,800 kilos (200,000 pounds) was needed to build the statue, and the French copper industrialist Eugène Secrétan donated 58,100 kilos (128,000 pounds) of copper.
Although plans for the statue had not been finalized, Bartholdi moved forward with fabrication of the right arm, bearing the torch, and the head. Work began at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop. In May 1876, Bartholdi traveled to the United States as a member of a French delegation to the Centennial Exhibition, and arranged for a huge painting of the statue to be shown in New York as part of the Centennial festivities. The arm did not arrive in Philadelphia until August; because of its late arrival, it was not listed in the exhibition catalogue, and while some reports correctly identified the work, others called it the "Colossal Arm '' or "Bartholdi Electric Light ''. The exhibition grounds contained a number of monumental artworks to compete for fairgoers ' interest, including an outsized fountain designed by Bartholdi. Nevertheless, the arm proved popular in the exhibition 's waning days, and visitors would climb up to the balcony of the torch to view the fairgrounds. After the exhibition closed, the arm was transported to New York, where it remained on display in Madison Square Park for several years before it was returned to France to join the rest of the statue.
During his second trip to the United States, Bartholdi addressed a number of groups about the project, and urged the formation of American committees of the Franco - American Union. Committees to raise money to pay for the foundation and pedestal were formed in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The New York group eventually took on most of the responsibility for American fundraising and is often referred to as the "American Committee ''. One of its members was 19 - year - old Theodore Roosevelt, the future governor of New York and president of the United States. On March 3, 1877, on his final full day in office, President Grant signed a joint resolution that authorized the President to accept the statue when it was presented by France and to select a site for it. President Rutherford B. Hayes, who took office the following day, selected the Bedloe 's Island site that Bartholdi had proposed.
On his return to Paris in 1877, Bartholdi concentrated on completing the head, which was exhibited at the 1878 Paris World 's Fair. Fundraising continued, with models of the statue put on sale. Tickets to view the construction activity at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop were also offered. The French government authorized a lottery; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a terracotta model of the statue. By the end of 1879, about 250,000 francs had been raised.
The head and arm had been built with assistance from Viollet - le - Duc, who fell ill in 1879. He soon died, leaving no indication of how he intended to transition from the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier. The following year, Bartholdi was able to obtain the services of the innovative designer and builder Gustave Eiffel. Eiffel and his structural engineer, Maurice Koechlin, decided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron truss tower. Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid structure, which would force stresses to accumulate in the skin and lead eventually to cracking. A secondary skeleton was attached to the center pylon, then, to enable the statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Harbor and as the metal expanded on hot summer days, he loosely connected the support structure to the skin using flat iron bars which culminated in a mesh of metal straps, known as "saddles '', that were riveted to the skin, providing firm support. In a labor - intensive process, each saddle had to be crafted individually. To prevent galvanic corrosion between the copper skin and the iron support structure, Eiffel insulated the skin with asbestos impregnated with shellac.
Eiffel 's design made the statue one of the earliest examples of curtain wall construction, in which the exterior of the structure is not load bearing, but is instead supported by an interior framework. He included two interior spiral staircases, to make it easier for visitors to reach the observation point in the crown. Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided, but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder, 40 feet (12 m) long. As the pylon tower arose, Eiffel and Bartholdi coordinated their work carefully so that completed segments of skin would fit exactly on the support structure. The components of the pylon tower were built in the Eiffel factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois - Perret.
The change in structural material from masonry to iron allowed Bartholdi to change his plans for the statue 's assembly. He had originally expected to assemble the skin on - site as the masonry pier was built; instead he decided to build the statue in France and have it disassembled and transported to the United States for reassembly in place on Bedloe 's Island.
In a symbolic act, the first rivet placed into the skin, fixing a copper plate onto the statue 's big toe, was driven by United States Ambassador to France Levi P. Morton. The skin was not, however, crafted in exact sequence from low to high; work proceeded on a number of segments simultaneously in a manner often confusing to visitors. Some work was performed by contractors -- one of the fingers was made to Bartholdi 's exacting specifications by a coppersmith in the southern French town of Montauban. By 1882, the statue was complete up to the waist, an event Barthodi celebrated by inviting reporters to lunch on a platform built within the statue. Laboulaye died in 1883. He was succeeded as chairman of the French committee by Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal. The completed statue was formally presented to Ambassador Morton at a ceremony in Paris on July 4, 1884, and de Lesseps announced that the French government had agreed to pay for its transport to New York. The statue remained intact in Paris pending sufficient progress on the pedestal; by January 1885, this had occurred and the statue was disassembled and crated for its ocean voyage.
The committees in the United States faced great difficulties in obtaining funds for the construction of the pedestal. The Panic of 1873 had led to an economic depression that persisted through much of the decade. The Liberty statue project was not the only such undertaking that had difficulty raising money: construction of the obelisk later known as the Washington Monument sometimes stalled for years; it would ultimately take over three - and - a-half decades to complete. There was criticism both of Bartholdi 's statue and of the fact that the gift required Americans to foot the bill for the pedestal. In the years following the Civil War, most Americans preferred realistic artworks depicting heroes and events from the nation 's history, rather than allegorical works like the Liberty statue. There was also a feeling that Americans should design American public works -- the selection of Italian - born Constantino Brumidi to decorate the Capitol had provoked intense criticism, even though he was a naturalized U.S. citizen. Harper 's Weekly declared its wish that "M. Bartholdi and our French cousins had ' gone the whole figure ' while they were about it, and given us statue and pedestal at once. '' The New York Times stated that "no true patriot can countenance any such expenditures for bronze females in the present state of our finances. '' Faced with these criticisms, the American committees took little action for several years.
The foundation of Bartholdi 's statue was to be laid inside Fort Wood, a disused army base on Bedloe 's Island constructed between 1807 and 1811. Since 1823, it had rarely been used, though during the Civil War, it had served as a recruiting station. The fortifications of the structure were in the shape of an eleven - point star. The statue 's foundation and pedestal were aligned so that it would face southeast, greeting ships entering the harbor from the Atlantic Ocean. In 1881, the New York committee commissioned Richard Morris Hunt to design the pedestal. Within months, Hunt submitted a detailed plan, indicating that he expected construction to take about nine months. He proposed a pedestal 114 feet (35 m) in height; faced with money problems, the committee reduced that to 89 feet (27 m).
Hunt 's pedestal design contains elements of classical architecture, including Doric portals, as well as some elements influenced by Aztec architecture. The large mass is fragmented with architectural detail, in order to focus attention on the statue. In form, it is a truncated pyramid, 62 feet (19 m) square at the base and 39.4 feet (12.0 m) at the top. The four sides are identical in appearance. Above the door on each side, there are ten disks upon which Bartholdi proposed to place the coats of arms of the states (between 1876 and 1889, there were 38 U.S. states), although this was not done. Above that, a balcony was placed on each side, framed by pillars. Bartholdi placed an observation platform near the top of the pedestal, above which the statue itself rises. According to author Louis Auchincloss, the pedestal "craggily evokes the power of an ancient Europe over which rises the dominating figure of the Statue of Liberty ''. The committee hired former army General Charles Pomeroy Stone to oversee the construction work. Construction on the 15 - foot - deep (4.6 m) foundation began in 1883, and the pedestal 's cornerstone was laid in 1884. In Hunt 's original conception, the pedestal was to have been made of solid granite. Financial concerns again forced him to revise his plans; the final design called for poured concrete walls, up to 20 feet (6.1 m) thick, faced with granite blocks. This Stony Creek granite came from the Beattie Quarry in Branford, Connecticut. The concrete mass was the largest poured to that time.
Norwegian immigrant civil engineer Joachim Goschen Giæver designed the structural framework for the Statue of Liberty. His work involved design computations, detailed fabrication and construction drawings, and oversight of construction. In completing his engineering for the statue 's frame, Giæver worked from drawings and sketches produced by Gustave Eiffel.
Fundraising for the statue had begun in 1882. The committee organized a large number of money - raising events. As part of one such effort, an auction of art and manuscripts, poet Emma Lazarus was asked to donate an original work. She initially declined, stating she could not write a poem about a statue. At the time, she was also involved in aiding refugees to New York who had fled anti-Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe. These refugees were forced to live in conditions that the wealthy Lazarus had never experienced. She saw a way to express her empathy for these refugees in terms of the statue. The resulting sonnet, "The New Colossus '', including the iconic lines "Give me your tired, your poor / Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free '', is uniquely identified with the Statue of Liberty and is inscribed on a plaque in the museum in its base.
Even with these efforts, fundraising lagged. Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York, vetoed a bill to provide $50,000 for the statue project in 1884. An attempt the next year to have Congress provide $100,000, sufficient to complete the project, also failed. The New York committee, with only $3,000 in the bank, suspended work on the pedestal. With the project in jeopardy, groups from other American cities, including Boston and Philadelphia, offered to pay the full cost of erecting the statue in return for relocating it.
Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World, a New York newspaper, announced a drive to raise $100,000 -- the equivalent of $2.3 million today. Pulitzer pledged to print the name of every contributor, no matter how small the amount given. The drive captured the imagination of New Yorkers, especially when Pulitzer began publishing the notes he received from contributors. "A young girl alone in the world '' donated "60 cents, the result of self denial. '' One donor gave "five cents as a poor office boy 's mite toward the Pedestal Fund. '' A group of children sent a dollar as "the money we saved to go to the circus with. '' Another dollar was given by a "lonely and very aged woman. '' Residents of a home for alcoholics in New York 's rival city of Brooklyn -- the cities would not merge until 1898 -- donated $15; other drinkers helped out through donation boxes in bars and saloons. A kindergarten class in Davenport, Iowa, mailed the World a gift of $1.35. As the donations flooded in, the committee resumed work on the pedestal.
On June 17, 1885, the French steamer Isère, laden with the Statue of Liberty, reached the New York port safely. New Yorkers displayed their new - found enthusiasm for the statue, as the French vessel arrived with the crates holding the disassembled statue on board. Two hundred thousand people lined the docks and hundreds of boats put to sea to welcome the Isère. After five months of daily calls to donate to the statue fund, on August 11, 1885, the World announced that $102,000 had been raised from 120,000 donors, and that 80 percent of the total had been received in sums of less than one dollar.
Even with the success of the fund drive, the pedestal was not completed until April 1886. Immediately thereafter, reassembly of the statue began. Eiffel 's iron framework was anchored to steel I - beams within the concrete pedestal and assembled. Once this was done, the sections of skin were carefully attached. Due to the width of the pedestal, it was not possible to erect scaffolding, and workers dangled from ropes while installing the skin sections. Nevertheless, no one died during the construction. Bartholdi had planned to put floodlights on the torch 's balcony to illuminate it; a week before the dedication, the Army Corps of Engineers vetoed the proposal, fearing that ships ' pilots passing the statue would be blinded. Instead, Bartholdi cut portholes in the torch -- which was covered with gold leaf -- and placed the lights inside them. A power plant was installed on the island to light the torch and for other electrical needs. After the skin was completed, renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, co-designer of New York 's Central Park and Brooklyn 's Prospect Park, supervised a cleanup of Bedloe 's Island in anticipation of the dedication.
A ceremony of dedication was held on the afternoon of October 28, 1886. President Grover Cleveland, the former New York governor, presided over the event. On the morning of the dedication, a parade was held in New York City; estimates of the number of people who watched it ranged from several hundred thousand to a million. President Cleveland headed the procession, then stood in the reviewing stand to see bands and marchers from across America. General Stone was the grand marshal of the parade. The route began at Madison Square, once the venue for the arm, and proceeded to the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan by way of Fifth Avenue and Broadway, with a slight detour so the parade could pass in front of the World building on Park Row. As the parade passed the New York Stock Exchange, traders threw ticker tape from the windows, beginning the New York tradition of the ticker - tape parade.
A nautical parade began at 12: 45 p.m., and President Cleveland embarked on a yacht that took him across the harbor to Bedloe 's Island for the dedication. De Lesseps made the first speech, on behalf of the French committee, followed by the chairman of the New York committee, Senator William M. Evarts. A French flag draped across the statue 's face was to be lowered to unveil the statue at the close of Evarts 's speech, but Bartholdi mistook a pause as the conclusion and let the flag fall prematurely. The ensuing cheers put an end to Evarts 's address. President Cleveland spoke next, stating that the statue 's "stream of light shall pierce the darkness of ignorance and man 's oppression until Liberty enlightens the world ''. Bartholdi, observed near the dais, was called upon to speak, but he declined. Orator Chauncey M. Depew concluded the speechmaking with a lengthy address.
No members of the general public were permitted on the island during the ceremonies, which were reserved entirely for dignitaries. The only females granted access were Bartholdi 's wife and de Lesseps 's granddaughter; officials stated that they feared women might be injured in the crush of people. The restriction offended area suffragists, who chartered a boat and got as close as they could to the island. The group 's leaders made speeches applauding the embodiment of Liberty as a woman and advocating women 's right to vote. A scheduled fireworks display was postponed until November 1 because of poor weather.
Shortly after the dedication, The Cleveland Gazette, an African American newspaper, suggested that the statue 's torch not be lit until the United States became a free nation "in reality '':
"Liberty enlightening the world, '' indeed! The expression makes us sick. This government is a howling farce. It can not or rather does not protect its citizens within its own borders. Shove the Bartholdi statue, torch and all, into the ocean until the "liberty '' of this country is such as to make it possible for an inoffensive and industrious colored man to earn a respectable living for himself and family, without being ku - kluxed, perhaps murdered, his daughter and wife outraged, and his property destroyed. The idea of the "liberty '' of this country "enlightening the world, '' or even Patagonia, is ridiculous in the extreme.
When the torch was illuminated on the evening of the statue 's dedication, it produced only a faint gleam, barely visible from Manhattan. The World characterized it as "more like a glowworm than a beacon. '' Bartholdi suggested gilding the statue to increase its ability to reflect light, but this proved too expensive. The United States Lighthouse Board took over the Statue of Liberty in 1887 and pledged to install equipment to enhance the torch 's effect; in spite of its efforts, the statue remained virtually invisible at night. When Bartholdi returned to the United States in 1893, he made additional suggestions, all of which proved ineffective. He did successfully lobby for improved lighting within the statue, allowing visitors to better appreciate Eiffel 's design. In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt, once a member of the New York committee, ordered the statue 's transfer to the War Department, as it had proved useless as a lighthouse. A unit of the Army Signal Corps was stationed on Bedloe 's Island until 1923, after which military police remained there while the island was under military jurisdiction.
The statue rapidly became a landmark. Many immigrants who entered through New York saw it as a welcoming sight. Oral histories of immigrants record their feelings of exhilaration on first viewing the Statue of Liberty. One immigrant who arrived from Greece recalled,
I saw the Statue of Liberty. And I said to myself, "Lady, you 're such a beautiful! (sic) You opened your arms and you get all the foreigners here. Give me a chance to prove that I am worth it, to do something, to be someone in America. '' And always that statue was on my mind.
Originally, the statue was a dull copper color, but shortly after 1900 a green patina, also called verdigris, caused by the oxidation of the copper skin, began to spread. As early as 1902 it was mentioned in the press; by 1906 it had entirely covered the statue. Believing that the patina was evidence of corrosion, Congress authorized US $62,800 (equivalent to $1,710,486 in 2017) for various repairs, and to paint the statue both inside and out. There was considerable public protest against the proposed exterior painting. The Army Corps of Engineers studied the patina for any ill effects to the statue and concluded that it protected the skin, "softened the outlines of the Statue and made it beautiful. '' The statue was painted only on the inside. The Corps of Engineers also installed an elevator to take visitors from the base to the top of the pedestal.
On July 30, 1916, during World War I, German saboteurs set off a disastrous explosion on the Black Tom peninsula in Jersey City, New Jersey, in what is now part of Liberty State Park, close to Bedloe 's Island. Carloads of dynamite and other explosives that were being sent to Britain and France for their war efforts were detonated, and seven people were killed. The statue sustained minor damage, mostly to the torch - bearing right arm, and was closed for ten days. The cost to repair the statue and buildings on the island was about US $100,000 (equivalent to $2,248,930 in 2017). The narrow ascent to the torch was closed for public - safety reasons, and it has remained closed ever since.
That same year, Ralph Pulitzer, who had succeeded his father Joseph as publisher of the World, began a drive to raise US $30,000 (equivalent to $674,679 in 2017) for an exterior lighting system to illuminate the statue at night. He claimed over 80,000 contributors, but failed to reach the goal. The difference was quietly made up by a gift from a wealthy donor -- a fact that was not revealed until 1936. An underwater power cable brought electricity from the mainland and floodlights were placed along the walls of Fort Wood. Gutzon Borglum, who later sculpted Mount Rushmore, redesigned the torch, replacing much of the original copper with stained glass. On December 2, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson pressed the telegraph key that turned on the lights, successfully illuminating the statue.
After the United States entered World War I in 1917, images of the statue were heavily used in both recruitment posters and the Liberty Bond drives that urged American citizens to support the war financially. This impressed upon the public the war 's stated purpose -- to secure liberty -- and served as a reminder that embattled France had given the United States the statue.
In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge used his authority under the Antiquities Act to declare the statue a National Monument. The only successful suicide in the statue 's history occurred five years later, when a man climbed out of one of the windows in the crown and jumped to his death, glancing off the statue 's breast and landing on the base.
In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the statue to be transferred to the National Park Service (NPS). In 1937, the NPS gained jurisdiction over the rest of Bedloe 's Island. With the Army 's departure, the NPS began to transform the island into a park. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) demolished most of the old buildings, regraded and reseeded the eastern end of the island, and built granite steps for a new public entrance to the statue from its rear. The WPA also carried out restoration work within the statue, temporarily removing the rays from the statue 's halo so their rusted supports could be replaced. Rusted cast - iron steps in the pedestal were replaced with new ones made of reinforced concrete; the upper parts of the stairways within the statue were replaced, as well. Copper sheathing was installed to prevent further damage from rainwater that had been seeping into the pedestal. The statue was closed to the public from May until December 1938.
During World War II, the statue remained open to visitors, although it was not illuminated at night due to wartime blackouts. It was lit briefly on December 31, 1943, and on D - Day, June 6, 1944, when its lights flashed "dot - dot - dot - dash '', the Morse code for V, for victory. New, powerful lighting was installed in 1944 -- 1945, and beginning on V-E Day, the statue was once again illuminated after sunset. The lighting was for only a few hours each evening, and it was not until 1957 that the statue was illuminated every night, all night. In 1946, the interior of the statue within reach of visitors was coated with a special plastic so that graffiti could be washed away.
In 1956, an Act of Congress officially renamed Bedloe 's Island as Liberty Island, a change advocated by Bartholdi generations earlier. The act also mentioned the efforts to found an American Museum of Immigration on the island, which backers took as federal approval of the project, though the government was slow to grant funds for it. Nearby Ellis Island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument by proclamation of President Lyndon Johnson in 1965. In 1972, the immigration museum, in the statue 's base, was finally opened in a ceremony led by President Richard Nixon. The museum 's backers never provided it with an endowment to secure its future and it closed in 1991 after the opening of an immigration museum on Ellis Island.
In 1970, Ivy Bottini led a demonstration at the statue where she and others from the National Organization for Women 's New York chapter draped an enormous banner over a railing which read "WOMEN OF THE WORLD UNITE! ''
Beginning December 26, 1971, 15 anti-Vietnam War veterans occupied the statue, flying a US flag upside down from her crown. They left December 28 following a Federal Court order. The statue was also several times taken over briefly by demonstrators publicizing causes such as Puerto Rican independence, opposition to abortion, and opposition to US intervention in Grenada. Demonstrations with the permission of the Park Service included a Gay Pride Parade rally and the annual Captive Baltic Nations rally.
A powerful new lighting system was installed in advance of the American Bicentennial in 1976. The statue was the focal point for Operation Sail, a regatta of tall ships from all over the world that entered New York Harbor on July 4, 1976, and sailed around Liberty Island. The day concluded with a spectacular display of fireworks near the statue.
The statue was examined in great detail by French and American engineers as part of the planning for its centennial in 1986. In 1982, it was announced that the statue was in need of considerable restoration. Careful study had revealed that the right arm had been improperly attached to the main structure. It was swaying more and more when strong winds blew and there was a significant risk of structural failure. In addition, the head had been installed 2 feet (0.61 m) off center, and one of the rays was wearing a hole in the right arm when the statue moved in the wind. The armature structure was badly corroded, and about two percent of the exterior plates needed to be replaced. Although problems with the armature had been recognized as early as 1936, when cast iron replacements for some of the bars had been installed, much of the corrosion had been hidden by layers of paint applied over the years.
In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca, to raise the funds needed to complete the work. Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group raised more than $350 million in donations. The Statue of Liberty was one of the earliest beneficiaries of a cause marketing campaign. A 1983 promotion advertised that for each purchase made with an American Express card, the company would contribute one cent to the renovation of the statue. The campaign generated contributions of $1.7 million to the restoration project.
In 1984, the statue was closed to the public for the duration of the renovation. Workers erected the world 's largest free - standing scaffold, which obscured the statue from view. Liquid nitrogen was used to remove layers of paint that had been applied to the interior of the copper skin over decades, leaving two layers of coal tar, originally applied to plug leaks and prevent corrosion. Blasting with baking soda powder removed the tar without further damaging the copper. The restorers ' work was hampered by the asbestos - based substance that Bartholdi had used -- ineffectively, as inspections showed -- to prevent galvanic corrosion. Workers within the statue had to wear protective gear, dubbed "moon suits '', with self - contained breathing circuits. Larger holes in the copper skin were repaired, and new copper was added where necessary. The replacement skin was taken from a copper rooftop at Bell Labs, which had a patina that closely resembled the statue 's; in exchange, the laboratory was provided some of the old copper skin for testing. The torch, found to have been leaking water since the 1916 alterations, was replaced with an exact replica of Bartholdi 's unaltered torch. Consideration was given to replacing the arm and shoulder; the National Park Service insisted that they be repaired instead. The original torch was removed and replaced in 1986 with the current one, whose flame is covered in 24 - carat gold. The torch reflects the sun 's rays in daytime and is lighted by floodlights at night.
The entire puddled iron armature designed by Gustave Eiffel was replaced. Low - carbon corrosion - resistant stainless steel bars that now hold the staples next to the skin are made of Ferralium, an alloy that bends slightly and returns to its original shape as the statue moves. To prevent the ray and arm making contact, the ray was realigned by several degrees. The lighting was again replaced -- night - time illumination subsequently came from metal - halide lamps that send beams of light to particular parts of the pedestal or statue, showing off various details. Access to the pedestal, which had been through a nondescript entrance built in the 1960s, was renovated to create a wide opening framed by a set of monumental bronze doors with designs symbolic of the renovation. A modern elevator was installed, allowing handicapped access to the observation area of the pedestal. An emergency elevator was installed within the statue, reaching up to the level of the shoulder.
July 3 -- 6, 1986, was designated "Liberty Weekend '', marking the centennial of the statue and its reopening. President Reagan presided over the rededication, with French President François Mitterrand in attendance. July 4 saw a reprise of Operation Sail, and the statue was reopened to the public on July 5. In Reagan 's dedication speech, he stated, "We are the keepers of the flame of liberty; we hold it high for the world to see. ''
Following the September 11 attacks, the statue and Liberty Island were immediately closed to the public. The island reopened at the end of 2001, while the pedestal and statue remained off - limits. The pedestal reopened in August 2004, but the National Park Service announced that visitors could not safely be given access to the statue due to the difficulty of evacuation in an emergency. The Park Service adhered to that position through the remainder of the Bush administration. New York Congressman Anthony Weiner made the statue 's reopening a personal crusade. On May 17, 2009, President Barack Obama 's Secretary of the Interior, Ken Salazar, announced that as a "special gift '' to America, the statue would be reopened to the public as of July 4, but that only a limited number of people would be permitted to ascend to the crown each day.
The statue, including the pedestal and base, closed on October 29, 2011, for installation of new elevators and staircases and to bring other facilities, such as restrooms, up to code. The statue was reopened on October 28, 2012, only to close again a day later due to Hurricane Sandy. Although the storm did not harm the statue, it destroyed some of the infrastructure on both Liberty Island and Ellis Island, severely damaging the dock used by the ferries bearing visitors to the statue. On November 8, 2012, a Park Service spokesperson announced that both islands would remain closed for an indefinite period for repairs to be done. Due to lack of electricity on Liberty Island, a generator was installed to power temporary floodlights to illuminate the statue at night. The superintendent of Statue of Liberty National Monument, David Luchsinger, whose home on the island was severely damaged, stated that it would be "optimistically... months '' before the island was reopened to the public. The statue and Liberty Island reopened to the public on July 4, 2013. Ellis Island remained closed for repairs for several more months but reopened in late October 2013. For part of October 2013, Liberty Island was closed to the public due to the United States federal government shutdown of 2013, along with other federally funded museums, parks, monuments, construction projects and buildings.
On October 7, 2016, construction started on a new Statue of Liberty museum on Liberty Island. The new $70 million, 26,000 - square - foot (2,400 m) museum will be able to accommodate all of the island 's visitors when it opens in 2019, as opposed to the current museum, which only 20 % of the island 's visitors can visit. The original torch will be relocated here, and in addition to exhibits relating to the statue 's construction and history, there will be a theater where visitors can watch an aerial view of the statue. The museum, designed by FXFOWLE Architects, will integrate with the parkland around it. It is being funded privately by Diane von Fürstenberg, Michael Bloomberg, Jeff Bezos, Coca - Cola, NBCUniversal, the family of Laurence Tisch and Preston Robert Tisch, Mellody Hobson, and George Lucas. Von Fürstenberg heads the fundraising for the museum, and the project had garnered more than $40 million in fundraising as of groundbreaking.
The statue is situated in Upper New York Bay on Liberty Island south of Ellis Island, which together comprise the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Both islands were ceded by New York to the federal government in 1800. As agreed in an 1834 compact between New York and New Jersey that set the state border at the bay 's midpoint, the original islands remain New York territory despite their location on the New Jersey side of the state line. Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York. Land created by reclamation added to the 2.3 acres (0.93 ha) original island at Ellis Island is New Jersey territory.
No charge is made for entrance to the national monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service that all visitors must use, as private boats may not dock at the island. A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953. The ferries, which depart from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and Battery Park in Lower Manhattan, also stop at Ellis Island when it is open to the public, making a combined trip possible. All ferry riders are subject to security screening, similar to airport procedures, prior to boarding. Visitors intending to enter the statue 's base and pedestal must obtain a complimentary museum / pedestal ticket along with their ferry ticket. Those wishing to climb the staircase within the statue to the crown purchase a special ticket, which may be reserved up to a year in advance. A total of 240 people per day are permitted to ascend: ten per group, three groups per hour. Climbers may bring only medication and cameras -- lockers are provided for other items -- and must undergo a second security screening.
There are several plaques and dedicatory tablets on or near the Statue of Liberty.
A group of statues stands at the western end of the island, honoring those closely associated with the Statue of Liberty. Two Americans -- Pulitzer and Lazarus -- and three Frenchmen -- Bartholdi, Eiffel, and Laboulaye -- are depicted. They are the work of Maryland sculptor Phillip Ratner.
In 1984, the Statue of Liberty was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The UNESCO "Statement of Significance '' describes the statue as a "masterpiece of the human spirit '' that "endures as a highly potent symbol -- inspiring contemplation, debate and protest -- of ideals such as liberty, peace, human rights, abolition of slavery, democracy and opportunity. ''
Hundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty are displayed worldwide. A smaller version of the statue, one - fourth the height of the original, was given by the American community in Paris to that city. It now stands on the Île aux Cygnes, facing west toward her larger sister. A replica 30 feet (9.1 m) tall stood atop the Liberty Warehouse on West 64th Street in Manhattan for many years; it now resides at the Brooklyn Museum. In a patriotic tribute, the Boy Scouts of America, as part of their Strengthen the Arm of Liberty campaign in 1949 -- 1952, donated about two hundred replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper and 100 inches (2,500 mm) in height, to states and municipalities across the United States. Though not a true replica, the statue known as the Goddess of Democracy temporarily erected during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 was similarly inspired by French democratic traditions -- the sculptors took care to avoid a direct imitation of the Statue of Liberty. Among other recreations of New York City structures, a replica of the statue is part of the exterior of the New York - New York Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.
As an American icon, the Statue of Liberty has been depicted on the country 's coinage and stamps. It appeared on commemorative coins issued to mark its 1986 centennial, and on New York 's 2001 entry in the state quarters series. An image of the statue was chosen for the American Eagle platinum bullion coins in 1997, and it was placed on the reverse, or tails, side of the Presidential Dollar series of circulating coins. Two images of the statue 's torch appear on the current ten - dollar bill. The statue 's intended photographic depiction on a 2010 forever stamp proved instead to be of the replica at the Las Vegas casino.
Depictions of the statue have been used by many regional institutions. Between 1986 and 2000, New York State issued license plates with an outline of the statue to either the front or the side of the serial number. The Women 's National Basketball Association 's New York Liberty use both the statue 's name and its image in their logo, in which the torch 's flame doubles as a basketball. The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League depicted the statue 's head on their third jersey, beginning in 1997. The National Collegiate Athletic Association 's 1996 Men 's Basketball Final Four, played at New Jersey 's Meadowlands Sports Complex, featured the statue in its logo. The Libertarian Party of the United States uses the statue in its emblem.
The statue is a frequent subject in popular culture. In music, it has been evoked to indicate support for American policies, as in Toby Keith 's song "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American) '', and in opposition, appearing on the cover of the Dead Kennedys ' album Bedtime for Democracy, which protested the Reagan administration. In film, the torch is the setting for the climax of director Alfred Hitchcock 's 1942 movie Saboteur. The statue makes one of its most famous cinematic appearances in the 1968 picture Planet of the Apes, in which it is seen half - buried in sand. It is knocked over in the science - fiction film Independence Day and in Cloverfield the head is ripped off. In Jack Finney 's time - travel novel Time and Again, the right arm of the statue, on display in the early 1880s in Madison Square Park, plays a crucial role. Robert Holdstock, consulting editor of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, wondered in 1979,
Where would science fiction be without the Statue of Liberty? For decades it has towered or crumbled above the wastelands of deserted (E) arth -- giants have uprooted it, aliens have found it curious... the symbol of Liberty, of optimism, has become a symbol of science fiction 's pessimistic view of the future.
Notes
Bibliography
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who does finn wolf hard play in stranger things | Finn Wolfhard - Wikipedia
Finn Wolfhard (born December 23, 2002) is a Canadian actor and musician best known for his roles as Mike Wheeler in the Netflix series Stranger Things and Richie Tozier in the 2017 film adaptation of Stephen King 's It.
Wolfhard was born in Vancouver, Canada, to a family of French, German and Jewish descent.
Wolfhard got his first acting job from Craigslist. He made his television debut as Zoran in The 100, followed by a role as Jordie Pinsky in Supernatural.
In 2016, Wolfhard plays Mike Wheeler in the Netflix series Stranger Things. He auditioned for the role via video after seeing an open casting call. The cast of the series won a SAG Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series.
He played Richie Tozier in the film adaptation of Stephen King 's It, which was released on September 8, 2017. The casting of Wolfhard in both Stranger Things and It, set in the ' 80s, had been a coincidence. According to Wolfhard, he had been initially cast as Richie when Cary Fukunaga was attached as director and co-writer, but when Fukunaga left the project over creative differences, the role fell through which allowed him to pursue Stranger Things. Once Andy Muschietti became attached to It, Wolfhard had to re-audition for the role of Richie.
In the Netflix animated series Carmen Sandiego, he will voice "Player '', the titular character 's chief accomplice and friend. The series, consisting of twenty episodes, is due to premiere in 2019.
On September 22, 2017, it was announced that Wolfhard had been cast as Tyler, an altruistic and thoughtful pizza delivery boy, in the Ken Marino directed film, Dog Days. In addition, Wolfhard was also cast in Amblin 's haunted house film The Turning, based off the adaptation of Henry James 's novella The Turn of the Screw.
In 2018, Wolfhard joined the cast of The Goldfinch, the John Crowley - directed adaptation of the Donna Tartt 's Pulitzer Prize - winning novel, playing Young Boris Pavlikovsky, a Ukrainian student and troublemaker.
Aside from acting, Wolfhard is the lead vocalist and guitarist for a Vancouver - based alternative band named Calpurnia. Calpurnia signed to DIY / Independent record label, Royal Mountain Records in November 2017. They are due to release an EP in early 2018.
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song from the ground up by dan and shay | From the Ground up (song) - wikipedia
"From the Ground Up '' is a song written and recorded by American country music duo Dan + Shay for their second studio album, Obsessed (2016). It was released to digital retailers on February 6, 2016, through Warner Bros. Nashville as the album 's lead single and impacted American country radio on February 22, 2016. "From the Ground Up '' was co-written by Chris DeStefano and was produced by group member Dan Smyers with Scott Hendricks.
The song 's accompanying music video, released concurrently on February 5, was directed by Shaun Silva. Prior to its official radio release, "From the Ground Up '' debuted at number 37 on the Billboard Country Airplay chart dated February 20, 2016 as the week 's hot shot debut and most - added single. It has since become their second consecutive single to top the chart.
"From the Ground Up '' is a country ballad written by Dan Smyers, Shay Mooney, and Chris DeStefano about finding true love and building a life together with that person. Inspired by the love shared by the duo member 's respective grandparents, the song was written shortly after Dan lost his grandfather and while Shay 's was in the hospital, and has been described by the duo as "the most special song we 've ever written. '' The song was recorded at Ocean Waves Studios in Nashville, Tennessee and features a string section, Gordon Mote on piano, Bryan Sutton on guitar, and Nir Z on drums.
Markos Papadatos of Digital Journal rated the song an A, writing that "both Dan and Shay soar on harmonies '' and that the song will be popular at weddings.
"From the Ground Up '' first entered the Country Airplay chart of February 20, 2016 at No. 37, and then debuted on the Hot Country Songs chart at No. 23 the following week when it was made available for download, selling 21,000 copies in its first week. The song reached No. 1 on the Country Airplay chart in August 2016, their second consecutive No. 1 on the chart. It peaked at number three on Hot Country Songs, making it their highest - charting single on that chart. "From the Ground Up '' also debuted at number 18 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart dated February 27, 2016 and spent eleven weeks on the chart, reaching a peak of six. It debuted at number 90 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart dated June 11, 2016. The song reached a peak position of 48 on the chart dated August 6, 2016, becoming the duo 's second top - 50 single. It was certified Platinum by RIAA on January 23, 2017. The song has sold 607,000 copies in the US as of January 2017.
In Canada, the song debuted at number 49 on the Country airplay chart dated May 21, 2016. It reached a peak position of 10 on the chart dated August 27, 2016. On the Canadian Hot 100, the song debuted and peaked at number 77 on the chart dated August 6, 2016 and remained on the chart for a single week. In December 2016, the single was certified Gold by Music Canada, indicating sales of over 40,000 units.
The music video for "From the Ground Up '' was directed by Shaun Silva and premiered February 5, 2016. Alternating between scenes of the past and present, the video depicts a grandmother sharing stories of her younger years and wedding to her granddaughter as the younger woman plans a wedding of her own, and centers around the concept of lasting love.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what is the largest auto company in the world | Automotive industry - wikipedia
The automotive industry is a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles, some of them are called automakers. It is one of the world 's most important economic sectors by revenue. The automotive industry does not include industries dedicated to the maintenance of automobiles following delivery to the end - user, such as automobile repair shops and motor fuel filling stations.
The term automotive was created from Greek autos (self), and Latin motivus (of motion) to represent any form of self - powered vehicle. This term was proposed by Elmer Sperry.
The automotive industry began in the 1860s with hundreds of manufacturers that pioneered the horseless carriage. For many decades, the United States led the world in total automobile production. In 1929, before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, and the U.S. automobile industry produced over 90 % of them. At that time the U.S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After World War II, the U.S. produced about 75 percent of world 's auto production. In 1980, the U.S. was overtaken by Japan and then became world 's leader again in 1994. In 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U.S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. With 19.3 million units manufactured in 2012, China almost doubled the U.S. production, with 10.3 million units, while Japan was in third place with 9.9 million units. From 1970 (140 models) over 1998 (260 models) to 2012 (684 models), the number of automobile models in the U.S. has grown exponentially.
Safety is a state that implies to be protected from any risk, danger, damage or cause of injury. In the automotive industry, safety means that users, operators or manufacturers do not face any risk or danger coming from the motor vehicle or its spare parts. Safety for the autmobiles themselves, implies that there is no risk of damage.
Safety in the automotive industry is particularly important and therefore highly regulated. Automobiles and other motor vehicles have to comply with a certain number of norms and regulations, whether local or international, in order to be accepted on the market. The standard ISO 26262, is considered as one of the best practice framework for achieving automotive functional safety.
In case of safety issues, danger, product defect or faulty procedure during the manufacturing of the motor vehicle, the maker can request to return either a batch or the entire production run. This procedure is called product recall. Product recalls happen in every industry and can be production - related or stem from the raw material.
Product and operation tests and inspections at different stages of the value chain are made to avoid these product recalls by ensuring end - user security and safety and compliance with the automotive industry requirements. However, the automotive industry is still particularly concerned about product recalls, which cause considerable financial consequences.
Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 980 billion litres (980,000,000 m) of gasoline and diesel fuel yearly. The automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, one - third of world demand will be in the four BRIC markets (Brazil, Russia, India and China). Meanwhile, in the developed countries, the automotive industry has slowed down. It is also expected that this trend will continue, especially as the younger generations of people (in highly urbanized countries) no longer want to own a car anymore, and prefer other modes of transport. Other potentially powerful automotive markets are Iran and Indonesia. Emerging auto markets already buy more cars than established markets. According to a J.D. Power study, emerging markets accounted for 51 percent of the global light - vehicle sales in 2010. The study, performed in 2010 expected this trend to accelerate. However, more recent reports (2012) confirmed the opposite; namely that the automotive industry was slowing down even in BRIC countries. In the United States, vehicle sales peaked in 2000, at 17.8 million units.
1960s: Post war increase
1970s: Oil crisis and tighter safety and emission regulation.
1990s: production started in NICs
2000s: rise of China as top producer
1950s: UK, Germany and France restarted production.
1960s: Japan started production and increased volume through the 1980s. US, Japan, Germany, France and UK produced about 80 % of motor vehicles through the 1980s.
1990s: Korea became a volume producer. In 2004, Korea became No. 5 passing France.
2000s: China increased its production drastically, and 2009 became the world largest producing country.
The OICA counts over 50 countries which assemble, manufacture or disseminate automobiles. Of that figure, only 13, boldfaced in the list below, possess the capability to design automobiles from the ground up.
"Production Statistics ''. OICA.
This is a list of the 15 largest manufacturers by production in 2016.
It is common for automobile manufacturers to hold stakes in other automobile manufacturers. These ownerships can be explored under the detail for the individual companies.
Notable current relationships include:
The table below shows the world 's 10 largest motor vehicle manufacturing groups, along with the marques produced by each one. The table is ranked by 2016 production figures from the International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers (OICA) for the parent group, and then alphabetically by marque. Joint ventures are not reflected in this table. Production figures of joint ventures are typically included in OICA rankings, which can become a source of controversy.
The table below lists most car brands and their parent companies.
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buddy holly that'll be the day meaning | That 'll Be the Day - wikipedia
"That 'll Be the Day '' is a song written by Buddy Holly and Jerry Allison. It was first recorded by Buddy Holly and the Three Tunes in 1956 and was re-recorded in 1957 by Holly and his new band, the Crickets. The 1957 recording achieved widespread success. Holly 's producer, Norman Petty, was credited as a co-writer, although he did not contribute to the composition.
Many other versions have been recorded. It was the first song recorded (as a demonstration disc) by the Quarrymen, the skiffle group that evolved into the Beatles.
The 1957 recording was certified gold (for over a million US sales) by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 1969. It was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1998. It was placed in the National Recording Registry, a list of sound recordings that "are culturally, historically, or aesthetically important, and / or inform or reflect life in the United States '', in 2005.
In June 1956, Holly, Allison and Sonny Curtis went to see the movie The Searchers, starring John Wayne, in which Wayne repeatedly used the phrase "that 'll be the day ''. This line of dialogue inspired the young musicians.
The song was first recorded by Buddy Holly and the Three Tunes for Decca Records at Bradley 's Barn, in Nashville, on July 22, 1956. Decca, displeased with Holly 's previous two singles, did not issue recordings from this session. After the song was re-recorded by the Crickets in 1957 and became a hit, Decca released the original recording as a single (Decca D30434) on September 2, 1957, with "Rock Around with Ollie Vee '' as the B - side. It was also the title track of the 1958 album That 'll Be the Day. Despite Holly 's newfound stardom, the single did not chart.
Holly 's contract with Decca prohibited him from re-recording any of the songs recorded in the 1956 Nashville sessions for five years, even if Decca never released them. To evade this restriction, the producer Norman Petty credited the Crickets as the artist on his re-recording of "That 'll Be the Day '' for Brunswick Records. Brunswick was a subsidiary of Decca. Once the cat was out of the bag, Decca re-signed Holly to another of its subsidiaries, Coral Records, so he ended up with two recording contracts. Recordings with the Crickets were to be issued by Brunswick, and his solo recordings were to be on Coral.
The second recording of the song was made on February 25, 1957, seven months after the first, at the Norman Petty studios in Clovis, New Mexico, and issued by Brunswick on May 27, 1957. This version is on the debut album by the Crickets, The "Chirping '' Crickets, issued on November 27, 1957.
The Brunswick recording of "That 'll Be the Day '' is considered a classic of rock and roll. It was ranked number 39 on Rolling Stone 's list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''.
The final phrase of the song 's lyrics -- predicting "that 'll be the day - ay - ay when I die '' -- seemed eerily prescient after Holly, then only 22, and fellow singers Ritchie Valens and J.P. "The Big Bopper '' Richardson were killed in a plane crash on Feb. 3, 1959, a tragically iconic event later memorialized as The Day the Music Died.
The Brunswick single was a number - one hit on Billboard magazine 's Best Sellers in Stores chart in 1957. It went to number two on Billboard 's R&B singles chart. The song peaked at number 1 in the UK Singles Chart in November 1957 and stayed in that position for three weeks.
On December 20, 1969, a reissue of the single by Coral Records was awarded a "gold single '' by the RIAA.
On September 20, 1986, the song appeared on the UK Singles Chart at number 85 and left the chart a week later.
February 25, 1957, Norman Petty Recording Studio
July 22, 1956, Bradley 's Barn, Nashville
Linda Ronstadt recorded "That 'll Be the Day '' for her 1976 Grammy Award -- winning platinum album Hasten Down the Wind, produced by Peter Asher and issued by Asylum Records. Her version reached number 11 on both the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and the Cash Box Top 100 and number 27 on the Billboard Country Singles chart. In Canada, her version peaked at number 2 on the singles chart and was the 35th biggest hit of 1976. It also made the adult contemporary charts in the United States and Canada. This recording is included on the album Linda Ronstadt 's Greatest Hits (1976) and on the 2011 tribute album Listen to Me: Buddy Holly.
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when did stephen crane write the red badge of courage | The Red Badge of Courage - wikipedia
The Red Badge of Courage is a war novel by American author Stephen Crane (1871 -- 1900). Taking place during the American Civil War, the story is about a young private of the Union Army, Henry Fleming, who flees from the field of battle. Overcome with shame, he longs for a wound, a "red badge of courage, '' to counteract his cowardice. When his regiment once again faces the enemy, Henry acts as standard - bearer, who carries a flag.
Although Crane was born after the war, and had not at the time experienced battle first - hand, the novel is known for its realism. He began writing what would become his second novel in 1894, using various contemporary and written accounts (such as those published previously by Century Magazine) as inspiration. It is believed that he based the fictional battle on that of Chancellorsville; he may also have interviewed veterans of the 124th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment, commonly known as the Orange Blossoms. Initially shortened and serialized in newspapers in December 1894, the novel was published in full in October 1895. A longer version of the work, based on Crane 's original manuscript, was published in 1983.
The novel is known for its distinctive style, which includes realistic battle sequences as well as the repeated use of color imagery, and ironic tone. Separating itself from a traditional war narrative, Crane 's story reflects the inner experience of its protagonist (a soldier fleeing from combat) rather than the external world around him. Also notable for its use of what Crane called a "psychological portrayal of fear '', the novel 's allegorical and symbolic qualities are often debated by critics. Several of the themes that the story explores are maturation, heroism, cowardice, and the indifference of nature. The Red Badge of Courage garnered widespread acclaim, what H.G. Wells called "an orgy of praise '', shortly after its publication, making Crane an instant celebrity at the age of twenty - four. The novel and its author did have their initial detractors, however, including author and veteran Ambrose Bierce. Adapted several times for the screen, the novel became a bestseller. It has never been out of print and is now thought to be Crane 's most important work and a major American text.
Stephen Crane published his first novel, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets, in March 1893 at the age of 22. Maggie was not a success, either financially or critically. Most critics thought the unsentimental Bowery tale crude or vulgar, and Crane chose to publish the work privately after it was repeatedly rejected for publication. Crane found inspiration for his next novel while spending hours lounging in a friend 's studio in the early summer of 1893. There, he became fascinated with issues of Century Magazine that were largely devoted to famous battles and military leaders from the Civil War. Frustrated with the dryly written stories, Crane stated, "I wonder that some of those fellows do n't tell how they felt in those scraps. They spout enough of what they did, but they 're as emotionless as rocks. '' Returning to these magazines during subsequent visits to the studio, he decided to write a war novel. He later stated that he "had been unconsciously working the detail of the story out through most of his boyhood '' and had imagined "war stories ever since he was out of knickerbockers. ''
At the time, Crane was intermittently employed as a free - lance writer, contributing articles to various New York City newspapers. He began writing what would become The Red Badge of Courage in June 1893, while living with his older brother Edmund in Lake View, New Jersey. Crane conceived the story from the point of view of a young private who is at first filled with boyish dreams of the glory of war, only to become disillusioned by war 's reality. He took the private 's surname, "Fleming, '' from his sister - in - law 's maiden name. He would later relate that the first paragraphs came to him with "every word in place, every comma, every period fixed. '' Working mostly nights, he wrote from around midnight until four or five in the morning. Because he could not afford a typewriter, he carefully wrote in ink on legal - sized paper, occasionally crossing through or overlying a word. If he changed something, he would rewrite the whole page. He later moved to New York City, where he completed the novel in April 1894.
The title of Crane 's original, 55,000 - word manuscript was "Private Fleming / His various battles '', but in order to create the sense of a less traditional Civil War narrative, he ultimately changed the title to The Red Badge of Courage: An Episode of the American Civil War. In early 1894, Crane submitted the manuscript to S.S. McClure, who held on to it for six months without publication. Frustrated, the author asked for the manuscript to be returned, after which he gave it to Irving Bacheller in October. An abbreviated version of Crane 's story was first serialized in The Philadelphia Press in December 1894. This version of the story, which was culled to 18,000 words by an editor specifically for the serialization, was reprinted in newspapers across America, establishing Crane 's fame. Crane biographer John Berryman wrote that the story was published in at least 200 small city dailies and approximately 550 weekly papers. In October 1895, a version, which was 5,000 words shorter than the original manuscript, was printed in book form by D. Appleton & Company. This version of the novel differed greatly from Crane 's original manuscript; the deletions were thought by some scholars to be due to demands by an Appleton employee who was afraid of public disapproval of the novel 's content. Parts of the original manuscript removed from the 1895 version include all of the twelfth chapter, as well as the endings to chapters seven, ten and fifteen.
Crane 's contract with Appleton allowed him to receive a flat ten percent royalty of all copies sold. However, the contract also stipulated that he was not to receive royalties from the books sold in Great Britain, where they were released by Heinemann in early 1896 as part of its Pioneer Series. In 1982, W.W. Norton & Company published a version of the novel based on Crane 's original 1894 manuscript of 55,000 words. Edited by Henry Binder, this version is questioned by those who believe Crane made the original edits for the 1895 Appleton edition on his own accord. Since its initial publication, the novel has never gone out of print.
On a cold day, the fictional 304th New York Regiment awaits battle beside a river. Eighteen - year - old Private Henry Fleming, remembering his romantic reasons for enlisting as well as his mother 's resulting protests, wonders whether he will remain brave in the face of fear or turn and run. He is comforted by one of his friends from home, Jim Conklin, who admits that he would run from battle if his fellow soldiers also fled. During the regiment 's first battle, Confederate soldiers charge, but are repelled. The enemy quickly regroups and attacks again, this time forcing some of the unprepared Union soldiers to flee. Fearing the battle is a lost cause, Henry deserts his regiment. It is not until after he reaches the rear of the army that he overhears a general announcing the Union 's victory.
The Red Badge of Courage, Chapter eleven
Ashamed, Henry escapes into a nearby forest, where he discovers a decaying body in a peaceful clearing. In his distress, he hurriedly leaves the clearing and stumbles upon a group of injured men returning from battle. One member of the group, a "tattered soldier '', asks Henry where he is wounded, but the youth dodges the question. Among the group is Jim Conklin, who has been shot in the side and is suffering delirium from blood loss. Jim eventually dies of his injury, defiantly resisting aid from his friend, and an enraged and helpless Henry runs from the wounded soldiers. He next joins a retreating column that is in disarray. In the ensuing panic, a man hits Henry on the head with his rifle, wounding him. Exhausted, hungry, thirsty, and now wounded, Henry decides to return to his regiment regardless of his shame. When he arrives at camp, the other soldiers believe his injury resulted from a grazing bullet during battle. The other men care for the youth, dressing his wound.
The next morning Henry goes into battle for the third time. His regiment encounters a small group of Confederates, and in the ensuing fight Henry proves to be a capable soldier, comforted by the belief that his previous cowardice had not been noticed, as he "had performed his mistakes in the dark, so he was still a man ''. Afterward, while looking for a stream from which to obtain water with a friend, he discovers from the commanding officer that his regiment has a lackluster reputation. The officer speaks casually about sacrificing the 304th because they are nothing more than "mule drivers '' and "mud diggers. '' With no other regiments to spare, the general orders his men forward.
In the final battle, Henry acts as the flag - bearer after the color sergeant falls. A line of Confederates hidden behind a fence beyond a clearing shoots with impunity at Henry 's regiment, which is ill - covered in the tree - line. Facing withering fire if they stay and disgrace if they retreat, the officers order a charge. Unarmed, Henry leads the men while entirely escaping injury. Most of the Confederates run before the regiment arrives, and four of the remaining men are taken prisoner. The novel closes with the following passage:
It rained. The procession of weary soldiers became a bedraggled train, despondent and muttering, marching with churning effort in a trough of liquid brown mud under a low, wretched sky. Yet the youth smiled, for he saw that the world was a world for him, though many discovered it to be made of oaths and walking sticks. He had rid himself of the red sickness of battle. The sultry nightmare was in the past. He had been an animal blistered and sweating in the heat and pain of war. He turned now with a lover 's thirst to images of tranquil skies, fresh meadows, cool brooks, an existence of soft and eternal peace.
Over the river a golden ray of sun came through the hosts of leaden rain clouds.
Although Crane once wrote in a letter, "You can tell nothing... unless you are in that condition yourself, '' he wrote The Red Badge of Courage without any experience of war. He would, however, later serve as a war correspondent during the Greco - Turkish and Spanish -- American Wars. Nevertheless, the realistic portrayal of the battlefield in The Red Badge of Courage has often misled readers into thinking that Crane (despite being born six years after the end of the Civil War) was himself a veteran. While trying to explain his ability to write about battle realistically, Crane stated: "Of course, I have never been in a battle, but I believe that I got my sense of the rage of conflict on the football field, or else fighting is a hereditary instinct, and I wrote intuitively; for the Cranes were a family of fighters in the old days ''.
Crane drew from a variety of sources in order to realistically depict battle. Century 's "Battles and Leaders '' series served as direct inspiration for the novel, and one story in particular (Warren Lee Goss 's "Recollections of a Private '') contains many parallels to Crane 's work. Thomas Beer wrote in his problematic 1923 biography that Crane was challenged by a friend to write The Red Badge of Courage after having announced that he could do better than Émile Zola 's La Débâcle. This anecdote, however, has not been substantiated. The metaphor of the "red badge of courage '' itself may have been inspired by true events; historian Cecil D. Eby, Jr. noted that Union officer Philip Kearny 's insisted his troops wear bright red unit insignia patches, which became known as marks of valor and bravery. While the 304th New York Volunteer Infantry is fictional, many strategies and occurrences in the novel echo actual events during the Civil War. Details concerning specific campaigns during the war, especially regarding battle formations and actions during the Battle of Chancellorsville, have been noted by critics.
It is believed that Crane listened to war stories in the town square of Port Jervis, New York (where his family at times resided) told by members of the 124th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment, commonly known as the Orange Blossoms. The Orange Blossoms first saw battle at Chancellorsville, which is believed by local historians to have been the inspiration for the battle depicted in The Red Badge of Courage. Furthermore, there was a Private James Conklin who served in the 124th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment, and Crane 's short story "The Veteran '', which was published in McClure 's Magazine the year after The Red Badge of Courage, depicts an elderly Henry Fleming who specifically identifies his first combat experience as having occurred at Chancellorsville.
The Red Badge of Courage, Chapter one
The Red Badge of Courage has a distinctive style, which is often described as naturalistic, realistic, impressionistic or a mixture of the three. Told in a third - person limited point of view, the novel reflects the inner - experience of Henry Fleming, a young soldier who flees from combat, rather than upon the external world around him. The Red Badge of Courage is notable in its vivid descriptions and well - cadenced prose, both of which help create suspense within the story. Critics in particular have pointed to the repeated use of color imagery throughout the novel, both literal and figurative, as proof of the novel 's use of Impressionism. Blue and gray uniforms are mentioned, as are yellow and orange sunlight, and green forests, while men 's faces grow red with rage or courage, and gray with death. Crane also uses animalistic imagery to comment upon people, nature, and war itself. For example, the novel begins by portraying the army as a living entity that is "stretched out on the hills, resting. ''
While the novel takes place during a series of battles, The Red Badge of Courage is not a traditional Civil War narrative. Focusing on the complex internal struggle of its main character, rather than on the war itself, Crane 's novel often divides readers as to whether the story is intended to be either for or against war. By avoiding political, military, and geographic details of the conflict between the states, the story becomes divorced from its historical context. Notably lacking are the dates in which the action takes place, and the name of the battle; these omissions effectively shift attention away from historical patterns in order to concentrate on the emotional violence of battle in general. The writer alluded to as much in a letter, in which he stated he wished to depict war through "a psychological portrayal of fear. ''
Writing more than thirty years after the novel 's debut, author Joseph Conrad agreed that the novel 's main struggle was internal rather than external, and that Fleming "stands before the unknown. He would like to prove to himself by some reasoning process that he will not ' run from the battle '. And in his unblooded regiment he can find no help. He is alone with the problem of courage. '' Crane 's realistic portrayal of the psychological struck a chord with reviewers; as one contemporary critic wrote for The New York Press: "At times the description is so vivid as to be almost suffocating. The reader is right down in the midst of it where patriotism is dissolved into its elements and where only a dozen men can be seen, firing blindly and grotesquely into the smoke. This is war from a new point of view. ''
The Red Badge of Courage, Chapter nine
With its heavy use of irony, symbolism and metaphor, the novel also lends itself to less straightforward readings. As with many of Crane 's fictional works, the novel 's dialogue often uses distinctive local dialects, contributing to its apparent historicity; for example, Jim Conklin muses at the beginning of the novel: "I s'pose we must go reconnoiterin ' ' round th ' kentry jest t ' keep ' em from gittin ' too clost, or t'develope 'm, or something ''. The ironic tone increases in severity as the novel progresses, especially in terms of the ironic distance between the narrator and protagonist. The title of the work itself is ironic; Henry wishes "that he, too, had a wound, a red badge of courage '', echoing a wish to have been wounded in battle. The wound he does receive (from the rifle butt of a fleeing Union soldier), however, is not a badge of courage but a badge of shame.
By substituting epithets for characters ' names ("the youth '', "the tattered soldier ''), Crane injects an allegorical quality into his work, making his characters point to a specific characteristic of man. There have been numerous interpretations concerning hidden meanings within The Red Badge of Courage. Beginning with Robert W. Stallman 's 1968 Crane biography, several critics have explored the novel in terms of Christian allegory. In particular, the death of Henry Fleming 's Christ - like friend, Jim Conklin, is noted for evidence of this reading, as well as the concluding sentence of chapter nine, which refers to the sun as "fierce wafer '' in the sky. John Berryman was one of the first critics to interpret the novel as a modern wasteland through which the protagonist plays the role of an Everyman. Still others read the novel as having a Naturalist structure, comparing the work to those by Theodore Dreiser, Frank Norris and Jack London.
As the title of the work suggests, the main theme of the novel deals with Henry Fleming 's attempt to prove himself a worthy soldier by earning his "red badge of courage ''. The first twelve chapters, until he receives his accidental wound, expose his cowardice. The following chapters detail his growth and apparently resulting heroism. Before the onset of battle, the novel 's protagonist romanticized war; what little he knew about battle he learned from books: "He had read of marches, sieges, conflicts, and he had longed to see it all ''. Therefore, when confronted by the harsh realities of war, Henry is shocked, and his idealism falters. Finding solace in existential thoughts, he internally fights to make sense of the senseless world in which he finds himself. When he seems to come to terms with his situation, he is yet again forced into the fears of battle, which threaten to strip him of his enlightened identity. Joseph Hergesheimer wrote in his introduction to the 1925 Knopf edition of the novel that, at its heart, The Red Badge of Courage was a "story of the birth, in a boy, of a knowledge of himself and of self - command. ''
However, the text is ambiguous, making it questionable that Henry ever matures. As critic Donald Gibson stated in The Red Badge of Courage: Redefining the Hero, "the novel undercuts itself. It says there is no answer to the questions it raises; yet it says the opposite... It says that Henry Fleming finally sees things as they are; it says he is a deluded fool. It says that Henry does not see things as they are; but no one else does either. '' Although Crane critic and biographer Stallman wrote of Henry 's "spiritual change '' by the end of the story, he also found this theme difficult to champion in light of the novel 's enigmatic ending. Although Henry "progresses upwards toward manhood and moral triumph '', as he begins to mature by taking leave of his previous "romantic notions, '' "the education of the hero ends as it began: in self deception. '' Critic William B. Dillingham also noted the novel 's heroism paradox, especially in terms of the introspective Henry 's lapse into unreasoning self - abandon in the second half of the book. Dillingham stated that "in order to be courageous, a man in time of physical strife must abandon the highest of his human facilities, reason and imagination, and act instinctively, even animalistically. ''
The indifference of the natural world is a reoccurring theme in Crane 's work. At the beginning of the novel, as the regiments advance toward battle, the sky is described as being an innocuous "fairy blue. '' In chapter seven, Henry notes the inexplicable tranquility of nature, "a woman with a deep aversion to tragedy '', even as the battle rages on. Similarly, Heaven itself is indifferent to the slaughter he encounters on the battlefield. The dichotomy between nature 's sweetness and war 's destructiveness is further described in chapter eighteen: "A cloud of dark smoke as from smoldering ruins went up toward the sun now bright and gay in the blue, enameled sky. '' After his desertion, however, Henry finds some comfort in the laws of nature, which seem to briefly affirm his previous cowardice:
This landscape gave him assurance. A fair field holding life. It was the religion of peace. It would die if its timid eyes were compelled to see blood... He threw a pine cone at a jovial squirrel, and he ran with chattering fear. High in a treetop he stopped, and, poking his head cautiously from behind a branch, looked down with an air of trepidation. The youth felt triumphant at this exhibition. There was the law, he said. Nature had given him a sign. The squirrel, immediately upon recognizing danger, had taken to his legs without ado. He did not stand stolidly baring his furry belly to the missile, and die with an upward glance at the sympathetic heavens. On the contrary, he had fled as fast as his legs could carry him.
The Red Badge of Courage received generally positive reviews from critics on its initial publication; in particular, it was said to be a remarkably modern and original work. Appleton 's 1895 publication went through ten editions in the first year alone, making Crane an overnight success at the age of twenty - four. H.G. Wells, a friend of the author, later wrote that the novel was greeted by an "orgy of praise '' in England and the United States. An anonymous reviewer for The New York Press wrote shortly after the novel 's initial publication that "One should be forever slow in charging an author with genius, but it must be confessed that The Red Badge of Courage is open to the suspicion of having greater power and originality than can be girdled by the name of talent. '' The reviewer for The New York Times was impressed by Crane 's realistic portrayal of war, writing that the book "strikes the reader as a statement of facts by a veteran '', a sentiment that was echoed by the reviewer for The Critic, who called the novel "a true book; true to life, whether it be taken as a literal transcript of a soldier 's experiences in his first battle, or... a great parable of the inner battle which every man must fight. ''
The novel, however, did have its initial detractors. Some critics found Crane 's young age and inexperience troubling, rather than impressive. For example, one reviewer wrote, "As Mr. Crane is too young a man to write from experience, the frightful details of his book must be the outcome of a very feverish imagination. '' Crane and his work also received criticism from veterans of the war; one in particular, Alexander C. McClurg, a brigadier general who served through the Chickamauga and Chattanooga campaigns, wrote a lengthy letter to The Dial (which his publishing company owned) in April 1896, lambasting the novel as "a vicious satire upon American soldiers and American armies. '' Author and veteran Ambrose Bierce, popular for his Civil War - fiction, also expressed contempt for the novel and its writer. When a reviewer for The New York Journal referred to The Red Badge of Courage as a poor imitation of Bierce 's work, Bierce responded by congratulating them for exposing "the Crane freak ''. Some reviewers also found fault with Crane 's narrative style, grammar mistakes, and apparent lack of traditional plot.
While it eventually became a bestseller in the United States, The Red Badge of Courage was more popular and sold more rapidly in England when it was published in late 1895. Crane was delighted with his novel 's success overseas, writing to a friend: "I have only one pride and that is that the English edition of The Red Badge of Courage has been recieved (sic) with great praise by the English reviewers. I am proud of this simply because the remoter people would seem more just and harder to win. '' Critic, veteran and Member of Parliament George Wyndham called the novel a "masterpiece '', applauding Crane 's ability to "stage the drama of man, so to speak, within the mind of one man, and then admits you as to a theatre. '' Harold Frederic wrote in his own review that "If there were in existence any books of a similar character, one could start confidently by saying that it was the best of its kind. But it has no fellows. It is a book outside of all classification. So unlike anything else is it that the temptation rises to deny that it is a book at all ''. Frederic, who would later befriend Crane when the latter relocated to England in 1897, juxtaposed the novel 's treatment of war to those by Leo Tolstoy, Émile Zola and Victor Hugo, all of whose works he believed to be "positively... cold and ineffectual '' when compared to The Red Badge of Courage.
Crane himself later wrote about the novel: "I do n't think The Red Badge to be any great shakes but then the very theme of it gives it an intensity that the writer ca n't (sic) reach every day. '' For the remainder of Crane 's short career (he died from tuberculosis at the age of 28) The Red Badge of Courage served as the standard against which the rest of his works were compared. Appleton republished the novel again in 1917, shortly after the US entered World War I, reissuing it three additional times that same year.
Since the resurgence of Crane 's popularity in the 1920s, The Red Badge of Courage has been deemed a major American text, and Crane 's most important work. While modern critics have noted Crane 's "anticipation of the modern spectacle of war '', others, such as Crane scholar Stanley Wertheim, believe the work to be "unquestionably the most realistic novel about the American Civil War ''. Donald Gibson called the novel "ahead of its time '' because it did "not conform to very many contemporary notions about what literature should be and do. '' The novel has been anthologized numerous times, including in Ernest Hemingway 's 1942 collection Men at War: The Best War Stories of All Time. In the introduction, Hemingway wrote that the novel "is one of the finest books of our literature, and I include it entire because it is all as much of a piece as a great poem is. '' Robert W. Stallman 's introduction to the Modern Library 's 1951 edition of The Red Badge of Courage contained one of the first modern assessments of the novel. This novel is followed by other works by Crane, such as the short story, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets.
The novel has been adapted several times for the screen. A 1951 film by the same name was directed by John Huston, starring Medal of Honor - recipient Audie Murphy as Henry Fleming. Written by Huston and Albert Band, the film suffered from a troubled production history, went over budget, and was cut down to only seventy minutes despite objections from the director. A made - for - television movie was released in 1974, starring Richard Thomas as Fleming, while the 2008 Czech film Tobruk was partly based on The Red Badge of Courage. In 2018, a film titled The Red Badge of Courage: A Soldier 's Tale, was announced on IMDb as ' in development ' which would be made into a epic trilogy and loosely based on the original novel.
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when did five finger death punch become a band | Five Finger Death Punch - Wikipedia
Five Finger Death Punch, often shortened to Death Punch and abbreviated as 5FDP or FFDP, is an American heavy metal band from Las Vegas, Nevada. Formed in 2005, the band 's name comes from the kung fu movie The Five Fingers of Death, to which Quentin Tarantino later made reference in his movie Kill Bill. The band originally consisted of vocalist Ivan Moody, guitarist Zoltan Bathory, guitarist Caleb Andrew Bingham, bassist Matt Snell, and drummer Jeremy Spencer. Bingham was replaced by guitarist Darrell Roberts in 2006, who was then replaced by Jason Hook in 2009. Bassist Matt Snell departed from the band in 2010, and was replaced by Chris Kael in 2011.
Five Finger Death Punch 's debut album The Way of the Fist was released in 2007, which began achieving rapid success and selling over 500,000 copies each in the United States. The 2009 follow - up album War Is the Answer further increased their popularity, selling over 1,000,000 copies and got certified platinum by the RIAA, The band 's third album, American Capitalist, was released on October 11, 2011 and achieved Gold status within the year. The following 3 albums (Wrong Side Of Heaven Vol 1. and Vol 2., and "Got Your Six '') all had been certified gold making 5FDP one of the most successful Heavy Metal bands of the decade. The band has played international music festivals including Mayhem Festival in 2008, 2010 and 2013, and Download Festival in 2009, 2010, 2013, 2015 and 2017.
Five Finger Death Punch are the recipients of the Radio Contraband Rock Radio Awards for "Indie Artist of the Year '' in 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014. They were also honored with the Radio Contraband Rock Radio Award for Album (American Capitalist) and Song of the Year ("Coming Down '') in 2012 and "Video of the Year '' for "Wrong Side of Heaven '' in 2014.
Five Finger Death Punch was founded in 2005 by former U.P.O. bassist Zoltan Bathory and drummer Jeremy Spencer, Zoltan deriving the band 's name from classic martial arts cinema. Bassist Matt Snell joined in early 2006. Later that year, Bathory contacted former Motograter vocalist Ivan Moody, sending him some of the material the band had recorded and asked him to audition for the vocalist position. Moody flew from his home in Denver, Colorado to Los Angeles and quickly began recording material with the band.
By the end of 2006, their debut album, The Way of the Fist had been recorded and entirely self - produced. The album was recorded with Stevo "Shotgun '' Bruno and Mike Sarkisyan and was mixed by guitarist Logan Mader. After searching for a second guitarist, they found Caleb Bingham who played some shows with the band, but was later replaced by Darrell Roberts. Shortly after recording the album, they signed a record deal with Firm Music, a branch of "The Firm ''. On July 10, 2007, they released an EP, Pre-Emptive Strike exclusively through the American iTunes Store. The album 's lead single, "The Bleeding '', was released on July 13, 2007. The Way of the Fist was released on July 31, 2007. The album entered the Billboard 200 at number 199 and was certified gold in 2011.
From July 30 -- September 2, 2007, the band went on their first major tour cycle as one of the supporting acts on Korn 's Family Values Tour. They were also a supporting act of the North American leg of Korn 's Bitch We Have a Problem Tour from September 22 -- October 27, 2007. They were set to tour with Chimaira and All That Remains from January through March 2008, but due to singer Moody developing cysts on his vocal cords they were forced to pull out. He made a full recovery and they began to tour again. They supported Disturbed on their Indestructible US Tour from April through May 2008.
The Way of the Fist was re-released on May 13, 2008, with 3 bonus tracks. One of the bonus tracks, "Never Enough '' was released as the album 's second single on July 15, 2008. Later that year they were a part of the 2008 Mayhem Festival playing the Jägermeister Stage. The third single from The Way of the Fist, "Stranger Than Fiction '' was released on September 17, 2008. The Way of the Fist was released through Spinefarm Records in Canada on November 4, 2008, and in Europe on January 19, 2009. In January 2009 Darrell Roberts was asked to leave the band and was replaced by guitarist Jason Hook. They ended their support for their first album playing the main stage at the 2009 Download Festival.
In May 2009, Five Finger Death Punch announced their second studio album, War Is the Answer. The album was produced by Kevin Churko and mixed by Randy Staub. The album debuted at number 7 on the Billboard 200 and has been certified platinum by the RIAA. The first single from the album, "Hard to See '', was released on July 21, 2009. To promote War Is the Answer, Five Finger Death Punch embarked on "The Shock and Raw '' US Tour. Main support on the tour was provided by Shadows Fall, with additional support coming from Otep and 2Cents. Upon completing the US run of the tour, Five Finger Death Punch then brought the Shock and Raw tour to Europe, finishing off with a run of dates in the UK. Main support for these dates was again Shadows Fall, and opening acts for the UK portion of the tour were Rise To Remain and Magnacult.
The second single from War Is the Answer, "Walk Away '', was released on November 2, 2009. The album also spawned two UK - only singles, "Dying Breed '', released on November 16, 2009, and "No One Gets Left Behind '', released on March 8, 2010. During March 2010, Five Finger Death Punch traveled to Iraq and played 10 shows for the United States troops. The band 's cover of Bad Company 's self - titled song was released as the fifth single from War Is the Answer on May 17, 2010. On their way to perform at Rock am Ring and Rock im Park Zoltan Bathory, Matt Snell and Jeremy Spencer were detained by German police for alleged international weapons violations. After recognizing the event as a misunderstanding, German police released the band members and they appeared at both Rock im Park on June 4, 2010 and Rock am Ring June 6, 2010 as scheduled.
Five Finger Death Punch also played the Maurice Jones Main Stage at the 2010 Download Festival on June 12, 2010. While playing the song "Dying Breed '', their set was cut due to too many people crowd surfing up to the stage. They were allowed to play one final song, "The Bleeding ''. They played the main stage at Mayhem Festival 2010 with Korn, Rob Zombie and Lamb of God from July 10 until August 14, 2010. On August 17, 2010 they performed the songs "Bad Company '' and "Hard to See '' on the ABC show Jimmy Kimmel Live!. On September 16, 2010, The band released "Far from Home '' as the sixth single from War Is the Answer. They supported Godsmack on their "The Oracle 2010 '' tour from October 3 -- November 4, 2010. The song, "Dying Breed '' was featured on the soundtrack for Namco Bandai Games ' remake of Splatterhouse, released on November 23, 2010.
The band began to record their third studio album in November 2010 at The Hideout studios in Las Vegas, Nevada. Bassist Matt Snell departed from the band in December 2010, and in June 2011, Chris Kael was announced as Snell 's replacement. The band 's third album, titled American Capitalist, was released October 11, 2011. Production for the album was handled again by Kevin Churko. The first single from American Capitalist, entitled "Under and Over It '', was released on July 27, 2011, following a music video in September 2011. In support of the album, Five Finger Death Punch embarked on their "Share the Welt '' tour from October 16 -- December 14, 2011 with support from All That Remains, Hatebreed and Rains and their "Furious and Deadly '' tour from March 23 -- April 12, 2012 with support from Soulfly, Windowpane, and Persist. The song "Back For More '' is included on the soundtrack for the video game Madden NFL 12. "Back for More '' was released as a digital single on September 13, 2011. "Remember Everything '' was released as the second official single for American Capitalist in November 2011, with a music video following in February 2012. "Coming Down '' was released as the third official single from American Capitalist in April 2012, with a music video, directed by Nick Peterson, following in June 2012. The song also won the band an Independent Music Award in 2013 for Best Metal / Hardcore Song.
From July 13 -- August 28, 2012, Five Finger Death Punch took part in Metal Hammer 's "Trespass America Festival '' with support from Battlecross, God Forbid, Emmure, Pop Evil, Trivium and Killswitch Engage.
On February 15, 2013, Five Finger Death Punch stated on Facebook that they were working on a fourth album, due in the summer. On February 28, the band posted a picture on Facebook of Moody recording vocals for the album. On March 12, an update video was posted to YouTube. On March 18, the band was announced to be playing Mayhem Festival 2013. On March 18, Five Finger Death Punch posted a promotional video for their next tour with a new song "Here to Die ''.
On May 1, 2013, Five Finger Death Punch announced the release of their next two studio albums collectively titled The Wrong Side of Heaven and the Righteous Side of Hell with Volume 1 being released on July 30, and Volume 2 following on November 19. During the fifth annual Golden Gods Awards, Five Finger Death Punch performed a new song with Rob Halford of Judas Priest entitled "Lift Me Up ''. The song was released as a single on May 14.
On June 6, Five Finger Death Punch revealed the artwork for The Wrong Side of Heaven and the Righteous Side of Hell, Volume 1 and also released a snippet of future single "Dot Your Eyes '' Volume 1 reached the # 2 position on the Billboard 200 with 113,000 copies sold in its first week, making it the band 's most successful debut to date. The Wrong Side of Heaven and the Righteous Side of Hell Volume 1 has sold over 210,000 copies as of August 2013.
On September 9, 2013, Five Finger Death Punch released a new single: "Battle Born '', in anticipation of their fifth studio album The Wrong Side of Heaven and the Righteous Side of Hell, Volume 2. It sold 77,000 copies in its first week, and once again landed in the number 2 position on the Billboard 200.
On August 11, 2014, Five Finger Death Punch released a video for the song "Wrong Side of Heaven ''. The video is about homeless veterans suffering from PTSD, TBI and depression after serving in the military, and not receiving the help they need despite this.
On December 12, 2013, Five Finger Death Punch revealed in a radio interview that they had already begun working on a sixth studio album.
On January 14, 2015, Five Finger Death Punch announced US Spring headline tour dates from April 25 to May 9, 2015 and their intention to enter the studio to write and record a new album.
On May 2, 2015, the band released the title of their sixth album, Got Your Six as well as a teaser for a new song titled "Ai n't My Last Dance '' on their official Facebook page. The album, which was slated for release on August 28, 2015, was later pushed back by a week.
On May 19, 2015, the band announced a co-headlining North American Tour with Papa Roach to promote the upcoming album and were accompanied by In This Moment as special guests with support from From Ashes To New for the tour. The band also performed on the main stage as part of Download Festival 2015.
On April 27, 2016, Billboard reported that Five Finger Death Punch 's record label Prospect Park had filed a lawsuit against the band on April 21, 2016 for breaching their contract. The basis of the claim cites that the band began working on a new album without Prospect Park 's consent and will be working with Rise Records. In a recent interview, vocalist Ivan Moody has said he will be completing the current tour and leave the band at the end of 2017. The next day however, an announcement was published on the official site of FFDP, where it was revealed, that rumours about Ivan 's departure are false. According to the announcement, the vocalist plans to start a side project beside Five Finger Death Punch, which does not mean he has plans on leaving.
However, during a concert in The Netherlands, Moody did n't show up to perform the first song, which were sung by Tommy Vext, with Moody saying he was running "a little bit late ''. Vext also sung a second song during the set later in the evening whilst Moody walked off stage. During the show all of the members left the stage for long periods on several occasions, and Hook also threw his guitar down and walked offstage at one point. During the set, Moody said that "there is no other singer for Five Finger Death Punch '', and then later said "This is my last show with Five Finger Death Punch '' before making a slit - throat gesture. Bathory shortly after the show tweeted that the events that transpired were "not a publicity stunt. ''
The day after the show in Tilburg, Netherlands, the band announced a headline European tour with In Flames and Of Mice And Men in late 2017. Later that same day, the band released a statement addressing what happened at the show via their Facebook page, stating that bands that tour as heavily as they do will "inevitably have a few derailments, but the train always keeps on moving '', implying that all shows will proceed as planned and that Moody will remain as the band 's frontman. As of yet, Ivan Moody has checked himself in rehab and will sit out the current tour. Tommy Vext will be filling in for Moody as he seeks treatment.
Five Finger Death Punch plans to release two new albums before the end of 2018.
Five Finger Death Punch has been described as heavy metal, groove metal, thrash metal, alternative metal and hard rock. Thom Jurek of AllMusic wrote that Five Finger Death Punch 's "instantly recognizable sound is comprised of equal parts melodic and meaty guitar riffs, fat vamps, catchy hooks, tight, flashy solos, and hard - grooving bass and drums ''. Five Finger Death Punch vocalist Ivan Moody 's vocals are usually singing and screaming. Five Finger Death Punch also occasionally play ballads.
Bathory described Five Finger Death Punch as "a straight - up heavy metal band with a hint of thrash metal -- maybe a hint of the Euro stuff in there '' and then said, "that 's pretty much what we are ''. Spencer described Five Finger Death Punch as "kind of like stepping on a garden rake while looking at a supermodel. Blissful yet fucking devastating ''. He then said, "We have an energy and a rhythmical style that 's different than what 's happening out there. We have songs that grab you and stay with you and rip your face off. Hooks, balls, melodies and energy -- that 's us ''.
Five Finger Death Punch guitarist Zoltan Bathory cited Pantera as an influence. Ivan Moody cited vocalists such as Mike Patton, Phil Anselmo, Layne Staley and Lynn Strait as influences. Moody also said, "Pantera is one of our biggest influences ''. Jeremy Spencer cited drummers such as Lars Ulrich, Dave Lombardo, Gene Hoglan, Dave Grohl, Buddy Rich and Tommy Aldridge as influences. Spencer also cited Prince and David Bowie as influences.
Current members
Former members
Touring musicians
Revolver Golden Gods Awards
Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards
Kerrang! Awards
Radio Contraband Rock Radio Awards
Bandit Rock Awards
Loudwire Music Awards
SiriusXM Octane Music Awards
iHeartRadio Music Awards
Media related to Five Finger Death Punch at Wikimedia Commons
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what motor is in the ford focus st | Ford Focus (third generation) - wikipedia
The Ford Focus (third generation), also known as the Focus Mk III, (Code name: C346) debuted at the 2010 North American International Auto Show as a 2012 model. The cars shown were a 4 - door sedan and 5 - door hatchback, also debuting a new 2.0 L direct injection I4 engine. A 5 - door estate (wagon) was previewed at the Geneva auto show a month later.
This generation of Focus would be the first Ford vehicle designed under the tenure of CEO Alan Mulally and his "One Ford '' plan, which aimed to leverage Ford 's global resources into creating more competitive vehicles that could be sold globally in each segment with minimal changes.
The "One Ford '' plan would reunite the North American and global Focus line. The previous North American version was thus discontinued, and the new model was launched simultaneously in North America and Europe on 2 May 2011, both having started production near the end of 2010. Production in Asia, Africa, and South America followed later.
Ford debuted the all - electric Ford Focus Electric at the Consumer Electronics Show in 2011 to compete with the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt and announced the hot hatch ST model at the Paris Motor Show in September 2010.
The Ford Focus was the best - selling car in the world for 2012.
The design was built on Ford 's Kinetic Design. The lights at the front have a different shape. The trapezoidal grille has triangular features. At the rear, the hatchback tail lights are positioned lower, similar to the Ford Fiesta. The interior has been changed from the second generation in the NA and International versions. Ford wanted to make the Focus more upmarket so it offers two types of central consoles: the basic is associated with smaller engines and the premium is available to more powerful engines.
This generation of Focus incorporated a redesigned cabin, changed materials, and a new "infotainment '' system. Following the industry trend towards decontenting, and in keeping with the sedan 's downmarket "economy car '' image vs. the "premium '' hatchback, the earlier sedan 's space - saving gas strut trunk hinges are replaced with cheaper, intrusive goose neck hinges. The Focus also has Ford 's patented capless fuel tank, which does n't require a cap to prevent siphoning.
The Focus is being promoted as a global car, built in several different factories around the world, with changes to engine line - ups and trim levels to suit regional markets and regulations. Production locations include:
Along with the Ford Fiesta, the Focus equipped with the Ford DPS6 PowerShift transmission has received much criticism due to transmission shuddering, including several lemon law claims. The issue is due to the dry type clutches associated with gasoline models. Ford 's current response is to replace the clutch pack assembly (with updated parts) when shuddering exceeds 250 rpm (upon customer complaint).
There have been at least 6 revisions of clutch packs and transmission control modules since inception. Newer clutch packs and transmissions are more resistant to wear and fluid contamination, as the source of many shudder issues involved an improperly installed seal which was leaking transmission fluid onto the dry clutches. Ford also claims there are "Changes to the clutch material for better performance across temperature ranges (new for 2016). '' Some consumer complaints are due to the normal operating characteristics of the transmission, because the DPS6 does not contain a torque converter fluid coupling and does not behave similarly to traditional torque converter transmissions, instead sharing some characteristics found in traditional manual transmissions.
Like in most other non-European markets, only the 4 - door sedan and 5 - door hatchback are offered in the United States and Canada. The EPA rated fuel economy at 28 city / 38 hwy MPG for the 6 - speed automatic, and 26 city / 36 hwy MPG for the 5 - speed manual. The SFE package, which can only be added to the sedan SE trim with PowerShift semi-automatic dual - clutch transmission, improves highway fuel economy to 40 MPG. The platform that the new Focus is based on is 25 % stronger than the previous North American version.
The Focus was launched with only one engine option, a 2.0 - litre Duratec 20 direct injected, Ti - VCT 4 - cylinder, producing 160 hp (119 kW). Mid-2012, Flex Fuel capability was added., except for states in the United States that adhere to partial zero - emissions vehicle regulations. The engine is a derivative of the port fuel - injected 2.0 - liter engine in the previous generation Focus. In late 2012, the range was joined by the Focus ST, with a turbocharged 2.0 - litre producing 252 hp (188 kW) (available only with a manual transmission).
For the 2015 refresh, the EcoBoost 1.0 litre three - cylinder began to be offered in North America as an extra-cost option for SE trim level.
2016 model added 2.3 litre EcoBoost for the new RS trim level
Color choices were restricted during summer 2011, due to supply issues caused by the 2011 Japanese earthquake / tsunami. When black and dark blue returned they were replaced by different shades, although the phaseout of Kona Blue in favor of Sonic Blue had been planned.
In January 2012, Ford announced that the formerly automatic - only Titanium model would be offered with a manual transmission. In March 2012, Ford revised the ordering guide for the Titanium models to also have a MyFord Touch delete option, replacing it with the non-touch version of MyFord. Although MyFord Touch is an $995 option on SEL models and the PowerShift automatic a $1095 option on S and SE, no discount is applied to either manual or non-Touch Titanium models.
2013 model year changes for non-STs are; SE models gain standard SYNC and alloy wheels, the SEL trim is discontinued in favor of an "SE Appearance package '' that includes most of the SEL features but with standard trim choices limited to black leather, while Titanium models also pick up standard leather upholstery. All now come standard with the 5 - speed manual leaving the SFE pack as the last remaining automatic - only Focus (apart from the direct - drive electric), and color choices are rearranged.
Along with the Ford Fiesta, the Focus equipped with the Ford PowerShift transmission has received much criticism due to transmission shuddering, including several lemon law claims. The issue is due to the dry type clutches associated with petrol models. Ford 's current response is to replace the clutch pack assembly (with the same parts) when shuddering exceeds 250 rpm (upon customer complaint).
Ford claims that the transmission, a semi-automatic transmission, is designed to improve fuel economy and has issued several software upgrades for the transmission. To date, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has not required Ford to issue a recall, nor has Ford done so voluntarily. Focus models equipped with the conventional manual transmission have not been affected by the reliability issues.
The UK range is available in hatchback and estate (wagon) in a large number of trim variants including. Most other European countries, including the Republic of Ireland, also include the four - door saloon, unlike Britain, as previous generation sales did not sell as well in comparison with the hatchback and estate.
In 2017, Ford recalled Ford Focus with 1.6 EcoBoost engines because of a risk of engine fires caused by a "lack of coolant circulation ''. There were 29 fires related to the engine in the U.S. and Canada reported to Ford. The recall partly contributed to a charge of US $300 million by Ford.
Announced in 2010, the Australian Focus was set for arrival in August 2011. Going on sale would be a hatch and a sedan, in 4 trim levels and 3 powertrains. The Focus range starts with the base Ambiente, Trend, mid-range Sport and top - of - the - line Titanium. Powering the Ford Focus are 2 petrol, a 1.6 petrol with 92KW and 159NM, a 2.0 petrol with 118KW and 198NM, and one diesel, a 2.0 turbo diesel with 120KW and 340NM. Ambiente coming with the 1.6, and the Trend, Sport and Titanium standard with the 2.0 petrol, with the 2.0 diesel available as an option. Power was sent through a 5 speed manual on all except Titanium, and a 6 speed Dual - Clutch powershift standard on Titanium, and optional on all others (Standard with diesel.)
In March 2012, the Focus was launched to the ASEAN markets at the Bangkok International Motor Show. The Thailand range included: 1.6 Ambiente, 1.6 Trend, 2.0 Sport 5 - door, 2.0 Titanium sedan, 2.0 Sport+ 5 - door and 2.0 Titanium+ sedan trim levels, while in Malaysia, there is the 2 - liter variants only.
In Taiwan, Assembly started by the end of 2012. 2 petrol engines (1.6 L Ti - VCT 125 PS and 2.0 L GDI 170 PS) and 1 diesel engine (2.0 L TDCi 163 PS) available, all come with PowerShift transmission as the manual transmission model was unavailable. 8 trim levels: Hatchback: 1.6 Ti - VCT Trend, 2.0 GDI Trend, 2.0 GDI Sport, 2.0 TDCi Sport Sedan: 1.6 Ti - VCT Ambiente, 1.6 Ti - VCT Trend, 1.6 Ti - VCT GHIA, 2.0 TDCi Trend
In the Korean market, 2.0 L TDCi Duratorq Diesel is the only available engine (available in 140 hp and 163 hp configuration), and all come with the PowerShift transmission as the manual transmission model was unavailable. 3 Trim Levels: Trend (140 hp), Sport (163 hp), Titanium (163 hp), all available in both hatchback and sedan body style.
In Japan, the 2.0 L Ti - VCT GDI Sport five door hatchback with either the five speed, dual clutch manual transmission, or the six speed "Power Shift '' automatic transmission was the only model currently offered. The assembly changed from the Saarlouis Body & Assembly to the AutoAlliance Thailand facility. Its width dimensions at 1,810 mm (71.3 in) are not within the favorable Japanese compact car tax classification.
5 - door hatchback model, availability varies between markets
The Ford Focus facelift (Mk 3.5) was shown at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show, and features a raft of changes made to both the exterior, interior and engine line up.
Revisions made to the body were thinner and sharper headlights, a new trapezoidal grille, giving the front more sporting intent than the previous model. The new front end is similar to that of the 2014 Mondeo as well as the facelifted 2013 Fiesta, while also inspired by the 2011 Ford Evos concept as well as various Aston Martin vehicles. (Ford owns an 8 % interest in Aston Martin.) The 2015 facelifted Ford C - Max and Grand C - Max, the 2015 S - Max and Galaxy, have also incorporated the new family face. On Titanium and Titanium X the grille is chrome, and on other versions it is black mesh. The ST features a Black honeycomb grille. The front fog - lights were also changed. At the rear on the hatchback, the rear lights were changed, so that they appear sharper, and less clumsy. The estate and saloon, (saloon is not available in Britain), also had subtle revisions to their rears too.
Inside, the multitude of buttons on the dashboard were been removed, and replaced by an all - new eight - inch touchscreen. The quality of plastics improved, and the steering wheel was changed to a three - spoke. Trim levels in the UK consist of Studio, Style (instead of Edge due to the Ford Mondeo based SUV), Zetec, Zetec S (including special Red and Black editions) - later replaced in 2016 by ST - Line, Titanium, Titanium X and ST. Trim levels in Europe are similar to the pre-facelift model including Ambiente, Trend, Trend +, Titanium and ST. The new 1.5 TDCi Duratorq diesel (95 and 120 hp) and 1.5 EcoBoost (150 and 180 hp) has been added to the line - up. The 2.0 TDCi Duratorq diesel has been updated to produce 150 and 185 hp.
The new third - generation RS model went on sale in 2016, with pricing from around £ 31,000 and the new 2.3 EcoBoost from the Ford Mustang, but updated to produce 350 hp. It was revealed in the production variant at the 2015 Geneva Motor Show, and featured at the 2015 Goodwood Festival of Speed.
Mechanical improvements to the facelifted Ford Focus are chassis revisions to all versions, to make the car more planted on the road, and the steering is also sharper than the pre-facelift model, while also offering greater feedback for greater driving pleasure and fun, which has been the trademark of the Focus since it launched back in 1998.
Award - winning three - cylinder engine is produced in two variants, with 100 and 125 hp (75 -- 93 kW). They both come with 170 newton metres (130 lbf ⋅ ft) of torque.
This engine - an updated version of the same engine from the previous model, allowing it to breathe better with improved intake and exhaust manifolds. The improvements also mean that the engine has been updated to EU5 norms (from 2015 - EU6 norms). From 2014, the 1.6 Ti - VCT was available in three versions: 85 hp (63 kW), 105 and 125 hp (78 -- 93 kW), but in some European markets also as 86 kW / 117 hp, with factory LPG (i.e.: German market - as 1.6 LPG Bivalenten Autogasmotor / English: BiFuel LPG Engine). It was discontinued in 2016.
This all - new engine replaces the 1.6 - litre EcoBoost with the same power, but with improved economy. The engine comes equipped with either Ford - Getrag 's Durashift B6 manual gearbox or with a new Torque Converter automatic (6F35) available on the Focus for the first time. In the Focus it is available with 177 HP (132KW) and 240NM of torque, the only engine on offer in the Australian Trend, Sport and Titanium models.
Exclusive to the ST range, this engine continues to produce 252 hp (188 kW), and is available only with the 6 - speed manual, producing 360 newton metres (270 lbf ⋅ ft) of torque.
This all - new engine is already used in the new - generation Ford Mustang, and used by the third - generation Focus RS since 2016 with an output of 350 HP (257KW).
Just like the petrol Duratec, this diesel engine was upgraded for emissions and economy for the third - generation Focus. It produced 95 hp (71 kW) and 230 newton metres (170 lbf ⋅ ft) in the basic version and 115 hp (86 kW) and 270 newton metres (200 lbf ⋅ ft) of torque in the more potent version. For the Focus Econetic model, the engine produced 105 hp (78 kW). The engine as of 2016 has been replaced by the 1.5 - litre TDCi engine
An all - new engine as of 2014, replaces the older 1.6 - litre Duratorq diesel (despite running side - by - side for a few years) from 2016, and comes in three variants: 95 hp (71 kW) with 250 newton metres (180 lbf ⋅ ft) of torque, and 120 hp (89 kW) with 270 newton metres (200 lbf ⋅ ft) of torque. An Econetic option is also available, with 105 hp, but tuned for economy rather than performance.
The top of the range diesel engine is highly revised and updated and available with Ford PowerShift transmission, and the 6 - speed manual. It now comes in two new versions, 150 hp (110 kW) with 370 newton metres (270 lbf ⋅ ft) of torque and 185 hp (138 kW) with 400 newton metres (300 lbf ⋅ ft) of torque, the latter also available in the ST.
The second generation Focus ECOnetic for 2011 includes new technologies as Auto - Start - Stop system, Smart Regenerative Charging, Eco mode, Active Grille Shutter, ultra-low rolling resistance tyres, Shift Indicator Light and revised final drive ratio targeting 95g / km average CO emissions and 80mpg. Third generation Focus ECOnetic will have improved Ford 's Duratorq 1.6 - litre 105 hp engine with standard coated Diesel particulate filter (cDPF).
In January 2011 Ford launched its pre-production version based on the Focus Mark III under the new name of Ford Focus Electric at the Consumer Electronics Show, rather than the traditional North American Auto Show. with sales scheduled in the U.S. market by late 2011 and in Europe by 2013. The concept electric car was unveiled at the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show as the Ford Focus BEV. The Focus BEV was based on the European second generation Focus.
For the Focus Electric, Ford used a complete electric drive train developed and supplied by Magna Steyr, and uses a 23 kWh, liquid - cooled lithium - ion battery pack, has a range of 100 mi (160 km) on a charge, and a top speed of 84 mph (135 km / h).
The Focus Electric will be built at the Michigan Assembly Plant in Wayne, Michigan on the same line as the gasoline - powered version of the Focus, the C - Max Energi plug - in hybrid and the C - Max Hybrid. Initial production will be limited, with production to be ramped up in 2012.
Ford announced that sales of the Ford Focus BEV are slated for late 2011, and it will be available initially only in 19 metropolitan areas including Atlanta, Houston and Austin, Texas, Boston, Chicago, Denver, Detroit, Los Angeles, San Francisco, San Diego, New York City, Orlando, Florida, Phoenix and Tucson, Arizona, Portland, Oregon, Raleigh - Durham, Richmond, Virginia, Seattle, and Washington, D.C.
The Ford Focus Electric was awarded the 2011 Green Car Vision Award at the 2011 Washington Auto Show.
A new EV Focus is available in Europe with DC fast charge and a larger 33KWh battery.
Beginning Summer 2012 (UK) / late 2012 in the US, Ford offered a new performance - oriented hot hatch Focus ST, as first revealed at the 2010 Paris Motor Show and then at the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show when more details were announced, including the availability of an estate (wagon) version for European markets, and the possibility of a sports sedan version for North American markets.
The ST features a new, more aggressive exterior design, including a redesigned front bumper with larger air intakes and grille, larger rear wing, wider side sills, center exit exhaust, and alloy wheels. Inside, the car receives a trio of additional gauges mounted in the dashboard, faux - carbon fiber trim, and sport seats with body colored inserts and stitching. The car will be offered three trim options: ST1, ST2 and ST3; the same three options that were available with the MkII ST.
Differences between the US and European models besides the lack of the wagon model outside Europe and Federally - required amber side reflectors are limited to paint and trim: Euro ST1s get all - cloth Recaro seats while U.S. - spec ST1s use the same seats as the 2012 SE Sport Package; Red seat accents on the Recaro seats are not available on American ST2s; Euro ST3s feature a leather Recaro rear seat setup; The rear headrests are different in each market; Red is the only exterior color included in the base price in Europe while yellow is the only extra-cost color in the U.S.; The optional MyFord Touch system that is fitted to ST2 / ST3 models in the U.S. is not offered in Europe; The North American ST utilizes a full - size spare tire while the Euro ST features a mini spare or fix - a-flat setup, depending on what audio system is fitted; The Euro ST offers further options (some grouped in option packages) compared to the North American models including: red brake calipers (standard on all ST trim levels in U.S.), pop - out door guards, heated windshield, lane departure system, and active speed limiter; Headlight washers are fitted to the Euro ST3; Only the ST3 model in the United States features the handbrake, armrest, and cup holder design from the Focus Titanium, while all Euro and Canadian Focus STs have that setup; The Euro Focus ST features a height - adjustable front passenger seat.
The ST will use a 252 hp (188 kW) & 366 N ⋅ m (270 lb ⋅ ft) version of the 4 - cylinder 2.0 L EcoBoost engine, a gain of 25 hp above the previous Focus ST which used a larger 2.5 L 5 - cylinder engine. It is resultantly estimated that the ST will reach 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph) in 6.1 seconds, while its top speed will be 248 kilometres per hour (154 mph). Compared to the previous ST, the new model has the same 0 to 100 km / h time and has a 2 mph higher top speed. Another significant improvement is weight; the new car is 30 kilograms (66 lb) lighter than its 5 - cylinder powered predecessor.
The ST was featured in the 2012 film The Sweeney, a remake of the 1970s TV series of the same name. Ford gave six ST - badged Focuses to the production team.
For the 2015 model year, the ST continued to use the 252 HP (184 kW) 2.0 L EcoBoost with a 6 - speed manual gearbox in ST1, ST2 and ST3 trims for the European and US markets, and the single ST trim in the Australian market. Updates were made to the front and rear fascias to coincide with the changes implemented in the standard Focus, including the lights, grille, and rear diffuser. The availability of 5 - door hatchback and estate (wagon) body styles remained unchanged. For the European markets, a 2.0 L TDCi Duratorq Diesel engine was available for the ST with a 6 - speed Powershift Automated - Manual gearbox to rival the likes of the Volkswagen Golf GTD and the SEAT León FR. The 2.0 L Duratorq 's rated output is 182 HP (136 kW), and 300 lb - ft (400 N-m) of torque in the ST. Pricing and badging is the same for petrol and diesel models.
Following the merger of Ford 's North American Special Vehicle Team (SVT), the European TeamRS and the Australian FPV divisions to the development of Ford 's global performance vehicles, Ford 's Advanced Product Creation and Performance Vehicles director Hermann Salenbauch announced that the decision to sell Ford Focus RS / SVT to North America depended on feedback from the media and customers. However, the product would only appear 2 years after the release of the third generation Focus models. On 4 August 2011 Ford 's global boss for small cars, Gunnar Herrmann, revealed to magazine Drive that the third iteration of the hot - hatch was in the works. The new RS was expected to arrive towards the end of 2015 in Europe and the rest of the world; in North America it will arrive after 2015. On 21 January 2015, Ford released a teaser video previewing the 2015 Ford Focus RS and announced a 3 February 2015 web - streaming reveal event from Cologne, Germany. At the 2015 Geneva Motor Show the production ready MKIII Ford Focus RS was unveiled packing the turbocharged 2.3 L; 138.0 cu in (2,261 cc) EcoBoost engine found in the Mustang with over 320 hp (240 kW). In the Focus RS, the engine itself produces 350 bhp (355 PS; 261 kW) at 6000 rpm and 350 lb ⋅ ft (475 N ⋅ m) at 3200 rpm of torque. Power is sent to all four wheels via Ford 's all - new Torque - Vectoring All - Wheel - Drive system with a rear drive unit designed by GKN, as well as upgraded suspension and brakes. As well as that, the new Focus RS will be fitted with Drive Modes -- including an industry - first Drift Mode that allows controlled oversteer drifts -- and Launch Control. The RS will boast a model specific aerodynamic package that helps to differentiate it from other Focus models. The RS is capable of accelerating to 100 km / h (62 mph) in 4.7 seconds. 2018 marked the final model year for the Ford Focus RS. Ford Performance released Final Edition vehicles with a new Quaife mechanical - slip differential. However, there were no upgrades to the power and torque figures from previous model years. The 2018 Focus RS was only available in 2 colors, Race Red and Nitrous Blue. Gloss black roof, spoiler and mirror caps were added to differentiate the Final Edition. Only 1,000 2018 Ford Focus RS were available for U.S drivers and 500 for Canada.
The Ford Focus was promoted in The Amazing Race, a reality show featuring 11 teams racing around the world. The Focus was used in a few seasons as the mode of transportation for the racers. In the 18th installment, the 2012 Ford Focus was also used as a prize for the first team that completes a leg of the race.
Chip Ganassi Racing with Felix Sabates entered a Ford Focus in the IMSA Continental Tire Sports Car Challenge Street Tuner class in 2014.
Hoonigan Racing Division fields two Ford Focus RS rallycross cars in the 2016 FIA World Rallycross Championship, with drivers Steve Arpin and Ken Block.
In April 2018, it was announced by the Ford Motor Company that production of the third - generation Ford Focus would end in May 2018. On May 4, 2018, the final 2018 Ford Focus was assembled at Ford Motor Company 's Michigan Assembly Plant in Wayne, Michigan. The Michigan Assembly Plant will continue to produce the all - new 2019 Ford Ranger for North America. A crossover named the Ford Focus Active was planned to be imported from China. It was planned to be sold in North America for the 2020 model year. In August 2018, Ford announced the cancellation of plans to import the Chinese - built Focus Active to North America, citing tariff concerns.
Only models sold in Continental Europe are shown, overseas territories often have different offerings.
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what is larry from the amazing world of gumball | List of the Amazing World of Gumball characters - wikipedia
The British - American animated comedy television series The Amazing World of Gumball features a wide array of primary and supporting characters, all of whom reside in the fictional American city of Elmore. The series primarily revolves around the daily life of Gumball Watterson (Logan Grove, seasons 1 -- 2 and season 3 episode: "The Kids ''; Jacob Hopkins, rest of season 3 to season 5 to "The Copycats '', Nicolas Cantu, rest of season 5 onward), a cat, and his family -- adoptive brother and best friend Darwin (Kwesi Boakye, seasons 1 -- 2 and season 3 episode: "The Kids ''; Terrell Ransom, Jr., rest of season 3 - season 5 to "The Copycats '' Donielle T. Hansley Jr., rest of season 5 ownard), sister Anais (Kyla Rae Kowalewski), and parents Nicole and Richard (Teresa Gallagher and Dan Russell, respectively). Gumball 's fellow Elmore Junior High students also have frequent recurring roles throughout the series. Creator Ben Bocquelet conceived The Amazing World of Gumball in 2007 while working as a development artist for Cartoon Network Development Studio Europe, and based several of its characters on previous sketches characters he had created for commercials.
Gumball (formerly Zach) Tristopher Watterson (voiced by Logan Grove, seasons 1 -- 2 and season 3 episode: "The Kids ''; Jacob Hopkins, rest of seasons 3 - 4 and season 5 episodes: "The Rerun '' - "The Copycats '' and "The Fuss ''; Nicolas Cantu, rest of season 5 - present) is a 12 - year - old (13 in Season 5) mostly mischievous light blue cat who lives with his family in the fictional California city of Elmore. He attends Elmore Junior High in the seventh grade with his brother Darwin, who is 10 years old. Often finding himself and Darwin in various antics which end up getting them into trouble, episodes in the series ' first season characterized Gumball as well - meaning in his actions, but with naive tendencies; throughout the show 's progression, he has since established himself as a more serious character capable of logical thinking and prone to sarcasm.
Despite his rambunctious behavior and occasional lapses in judgement, he is ultimately a loyal, straightforward, and kindhearted person at heart. A recurring theme throughout the series is his crush on his classmate Penny Fitzgerald, who in turn shares the same feelings for him. They initially struggle to properly express their feelings for each other until the episode "The Shell '', where he finally works up the nerve to express his feelings to her after she reveals her true form, and they begin dating. It was revealed in "The Name '' that Gumball real name is actually Zach, though by the end of the episode, he legally changes his name to Gumball. In the premiere of season 3 it is revealed that Gumball and Darwin are part of a small fraction of people who do n't age past a certain point, which by the end of the episode causes them to regress to a point slightly before puberty. His middle name was supposed to be Christopher, but Richard confused it for Tristopher and it stuck.
Darwin Raglan Caspian Ahab Poseidon Nicodemius Watterson III (voiced by Kwesi Boakye, seasons 1 -- 2 and season 3 episode: "The Kids ''; Terrell Ransom Jr., rest of seasons 3 - 4; season 5 episodes: "The Rerun '' - "The Copycats '' and "The Fuss ''; Donielle T. Hansley Jr., rest of season 5 - present) is a 10 year old (11 in Season 5) orange goldfish, is Gumball 's best friend and adoptive brother. Initially given to Gumball as a pet, Darwin later sprouted legs and subsequently became a full member of the Watterson family. The series ' first season depicted Darwin with a tendency to be more naive and gullible than others, due to his sudden introduction into the world; subsequent seasons established his more serious side, including the ability to think logically and, in "The Words '', speak his mind freely. Although Gumball can sometimes be a negative influence on him, Darwin is extremely loyal to Gumball and often helps him out of sticky situations. He is sometimes shown to not exhibit normal behaviour, such as calling his adoptive parents Mr. Dad and Mrs. Mom.
Anais Watterson (voiced by Kyla Rae Kowalewski), a pink rabbit, is Gumball and Darwin 's precocious 4 - year - old sister. She is one grade above her brothers, as revealed in "The Others ''. Gumball resents the fact that she is always telling him what to do, but nonetheless loves her and acknowledges her good intentions. Although impatient with her brother, she often tags along with him on his misadventures as a voice of reason, usually having to help Gumball out of situations caused by these misadventures. She has, however, been shown to not be above manipulating her family to get what she wants. Despite her intellectualism, she still shows typical childlike behavior, including an obsession with the children 's television character Daisy the Donkey, and has tried to fit in with Gumball and Darwin on numerous occasions. She attends eighth grade at Elmore Junior High, which Gumball and Darwin are unaware of due to them "filtering '' out anyone or anything that is n't part of their lives.
Nicole Watterson (née Senicourt) (voiced by Teresa Gallagher), a blue cat who looks much like Gumball, is Gumball, Darwin and Anais ' mother, who carries the main responsibility of her family 's upkeep, performing house chores and working long hours at The Rainbow Factory. A workaholic, she is often over-stressed and possesses a short temper. She acts as a guide to her sons, Gumball and Darwin when they get in a tough spot with their misadventures. Competitive by nature, Nicole is a master martial artist, and is very agile and flexible. Despite her overstressed and short - tempered personality, she is still sweet and kindhearted and shows much affection for her family, keeping them safe (and alive) as much as she can. She is implied to have graduated high school around the year of 1985, and the show takes most likely takes place in 2011, making her around 44 years old.
Richard Watterson (voiced by Dan Russell) is an anthropomorphic pink rabbit. He is Gumball, Darwin and Anais ' father. Being a stay - at - home dad, he spends most of his time sleeping, eating, watching TV and playing video games. He was named "the laziest person in Elmore '' since 1983, and has a large appetite and is a voracious eater. Richard often serves as a third - wheel to his sons ' misadventures and cares deeply for his family despite his lethargic nature. He can be very naive at some times and may be called "dumb '' or similar words by other characters throughout the series. In the episode "The Job '' it appears that Richard ca n't hold a job or else the universe will be destroyed which is why he must remain unemployed. He may be the same age as Nicole (44), as he went to school with her.
Frankie Watterson (voiced by Rich Fulcher) is the conman rat and ex-husband of Granny Jojo and the father of Richard who abandoned them a long time ago. In "The Signature '', after his apartment was re-possessed due to his overdue rent, he returns to the Watterson household, and he reunited with Richard, only to scam him of taking over the house. The Wattersons stop him, while Frankie looks back to the day he left his son. He then decides to reunite the whole Watterson family. In "The Outside '', Frankie comes for a visit, but gets treated like a prisoner, because of a misunderstanding. He is most likely around 67 - 68 years old, as he is in - between the ages of Jojo, who is 63, and Louie, who is 72.
Joanna "Granny Jojo '' Watterson (voiced by Sandra Dickinson) is the Watterson children 's grandmother and also Richard 's mother. She is a pink rabbit who speaks in a New York accent. In the season 1 episode "The Kiss '', she is depicted as a general annoyance to the family, doing nothing but watching police dramas on television, and with Nicole and Richard always leaving the house whenever she makes a visit. She was previously married to a traveling conman named Frankie Watterson, who abandoned her and a young Richard under the pretense of going out to buy milk; she later remarries to Louie, a local Elmore senior citizen, in "The Signature '', despite Richard 's initial disapproval. She is 63 years old.
Louie (voiced by Shane Rimmer) is a black mouse and a former member of a close - knit crew of Elmore senior citizens which includes Betty, Donald, and Marvin Finklehimer. In "The Man '' it is revealed that he was dating Joanna Watterson, whom he marries in "The Signature '', making him Richard 's stepfather and Gumball, Darwin, and Anais ' stepgrandfather. He is 72 years old.
Mr. and Mrs. Senicourt (voiced by Clive Russell and Liza Ross) are Nicole 's parents, seen in flashbacks during the season 5 episode "The Choices ''. Mr. Senicourt is a short, fat cat (resembling Grumpy Cat) with a short temper, while Mrs. Senicourt is tall and thin, yet snobbish. They both disapprove of their daughter 's relationship with Richard; Mr Senicourt slammed the door in his face when he came to visit Nicole, and neither parent showed up to their wedding. Mrs. Senicourt, however, burst into tears when Nicole moved out, showing a perhaps softer side. Mr. Senicourt just turned and went back inside. It is loosely implied that Nicole is presently estranged from them. Mr. Senicourt is 102 years old.
Penny Fitzgerald (voiced by Teresa Gallagher) is a living peanut with antlers growing out of her head and, following the events of the episode "The Shell '', Gumball 's girlfriend. Their mutual affection and incapability of expressing their feelings for one another was a running theme in the series until "The Shell '', where Gumball finally directly reveals his feelings for her and they have their first kiss in the woods. In the same episode, it is revealed that underneath Penny 's shell lies a yellow, fairy - like inner alien self which shape - shifts based on her emotional state. Penny 's father Patrick, the head of a local construction company, is extremely overprotective of his daughter, and does not trust Gumball until he saves her from getting run over by his own car in the episode "The Knights '' and "The Shell '' for helping his daughter through her emotions She is member of the Elmore Junior High cheerleading and synchronized swimming teams.
Tobias Wilson (voiced by Rupert Degas, season 1; Hugo Harrison, season 2 onward) is a multicolored, cloud - shaped humanoid who is heavily interested in sports and possesses an overbearing self - confidence. He thinks of himself as a heavily built jock, despite actually being rather weak, and appears to be quite wealthy. He makes his debut appearance in "The Third '', where Gumball and Darwin pay him twenty dollars to become their friend. In "The Knights '', Tobias holds a mock medieval battle with Gumball for the affection of Penny. Despite this, he has been seen hanging out with Gumball and Darwin on several occasions, including having a starring role in one of the duo 's home movies. He has an older sister, Rachel (voiced by Jessica McDonald), who considers herself of higher status than Tobias and his "dweeb loser baby friends ''.
Carrie Krueger (voiced by Jessica McDonald) is an emo ghost who lives in a malevolent mansion and "enjoys being depressed ''. She has the abilities to teleport and possess living bodies, and in "The Ghost '' she uses the latter ability on Gumball in order to feel the satisfaction of being able to eat again. In "Halloween '', she turns the Watterson siblings into ghosts so they can attend a ghost - exclusive Halloween party at her mansion, and in the process almost gets them trapped in the Underworld. Carrie is the daughter of a mortal man who formed a romantic relationship with a female ghost and, as a result of using a forbidden spell, was cursed to live a lonely existence inside mirrors and subsequently rechristened "The Snatcher '' -- until, that is, his soul is set free by his daughter in "The Mirror '' and they are happily reunited. In "The Matchmaker '' - She and Darwin become a couple.
Banana "Joe '' Joseph (voiced by Mic Graves) is a hyperactive banana and the class clown of Gumball 's Elmore Junior High class, with the tendency to crack a joke whenever possible. His jokes often serve as a source of irritation to others, with Gumball describing him as a "one - trick pony '' in his debut appearance. While he is often classified as the class clown, he can mostly be a bully in a mean way, usually to Gumball and Darwin. He is killed by Rob in "the Rerun '' but this event was erased from the timeline by a reformed Rob.
Tina Rex (voiced by Dan Russell, season 1; Stefan Ashton Frank, season 2 onward) is a Tyrannosaurus who lives in the Elmore city junkyard, and who is Elmore Junior High 's most notorious bully. She often picks on her fellow schoolmates, especially Gumball, and has her own gang of bullies which includes Jamie and, to his reluctance, Anton. As a dinosaur, she is the strongest person in school, contributing to her fearsome and aggressive reputation. Despite this, she also has a softer side not only in general, but also for Gumball; in the episode "The Fight '' she reveals that she considers him to be a friend. Her Cartoon Network biography suggests that she might have animosity toward others because she is "angry at the world for not noticing her femininity ''.
Hector Jotunheim (voiced by Kerry Shale) is a massive but gentle giant who is the largest student in Elmore Junior High, to the point that only his legs and feet are seen on - screen. Hector is the subject of the episode "The Colossus '', where his mother -- a witch who works as a cleaning lady -- reveals that he can be dangerous if he expresses too much emotion, such as anger, sadness or excitement. In the same episode, he goes on a rampage around Elmore after Gumball and Darwin, unaware of Hector 's need to control his emotions, describe him as being too boring. His surname is a reference to Jötunheimr, the homeland of giants in Norse mythology.
Masami Yoshida (voiced by Jessica McDonald) is a living cloud who is the wealthy daughter of the Rainbow Factory 's owner. Spoiled by her parents, she is tantrum - prone and has apparently threatened to have her classmates ' parents fired if she does n't have her way; in "The Gift '', several of her classmates panic about getting her a perfect birthday gift out of fear of such a scenario, though it is later indicated that this has never actually happened and she admits that she simply wants be a treated like a normal person. When angry, she has the ability to develop into a full storm cloud capable of causing massive amounts of damage. The episode "The Storm '' reveals her unrequited crush on Alan, and she manipulates Gumball into getting the two together, albeit temporarily.
Sarah G. Lato (voiced by Jessica McDonald) is a yellow ice cream cone who debuted in "The Banana '' as a transferee to Elmore Junior High from nearby Richwood High and makes her first major role in "The Sweaters '', where she attempts to defend Gumball and Darwin from two uptight human students, only to lead them into more trouble. In "The Fan '', she is depicted as an obsessive fan of Gumball and Darwin.
Bobert (voiced by Kerry Shale) is a robot who is one of the smartest students at Elmore Junior High but constantly struggles to understand emotion and develop a social life. He is the primary focus of the episode "The Robot '', where Darwin and Gumball 's efforts to help him fit in ultimately end with him stealing Gumball 's identity. Multiple times in the series, he has showcased his ability to transform into a much larger form by triggering his "defense mode ''. In the episode "The Bet '', he is forced to become Gumball 's personal slave for a day after losing a bet. Bobert is also the primary focus of the episode "The Upgrade '', where he has an update with his software that Gumball and Darwin struggle getting used to and go to the Bobert Store to get a downgrade. The manager gave them a new Bobert. By the end of the episode, however, he obtains a downgrade due to Gumball 's awareness of his actual age.
Carmen (voiced by Teresa Gallagher, season 1; Alix Wilton Regan, season 2 onward) is a small green cactus who is considered to be a leader among her female classmates. She is in a relationship with her balloon classmate Alan, though the danger of her spikes bursting him is a constant hindrance. Their relationship in the cafeteria annoys their classmates, who are frequently annoyed by their romantic gestures and deem them "too perfect '' and Alan interrupts and yells at Gumball. In "The Storm '', Alan is too jealous of Gumball and Gumball and Carmen briefly break, runs away from Gumball without crying and the boys (who are n't Darwin) and Carrie, Tina and Jamie bullied Gumball after Gumball accidentally kisses Carmen, but he succeeds in getting them back together by the end. In "The Best, '' it is shown that Carmen was once a trouble making student at her old school, so much so that she ended up on the news. Carmen is also one of the cheerleaders for her school. She is best friends with Penny Fitzgerald, Sarah, and Molly.
Alan Keane (voiced by Kerry Shale, season 1; Hugo Harrison, season 2 onward) is a teal - colored balloon who, despite their physical incompatibility, is in a romantic relationship with Carmen and sits at lunch with her. He is overly nice and even - tempered, never showing anger or raising his voice even when the subject of insults or physical attacks, much to the annoyance of his classmates. Being filled with helium, Alan regularly speaks in a high - pitched voice. In "The Photo '', Gumball envies him for having a beautiful face. Alan rebuffs this, but Gumball replies: "Dude, even your mole looks better than me ''. In "the Vision '' it is revealed Alan secretly plans to take over the world and rule it as a dictator, brainwashing people to eradicate sadness. After discovering this, Gumall and Darwin attempt to assassinate Alan, which they succeed in after many failed attempts - though he reappears in subsequent episodes without any explanation.
Leslie (voiced by Kerry Shale) is an effeminate, friendly daisy who plays flute in the school band and can often be found hanging around the girls. He is Penny 's cousin, and Gumball 's mistaken assumption that he is her boyfriend is his major source of jealousy in the episode "The Flower ''.
Teri (voiced by Teresa Gallagher) is a hypochondriac paper bear usually found in the nurse 's office. Although somewhat self - absorbed and paranoid, she is very nice and is one of the school 's cheerleaders. Her mother works as a doctor and maintains a website discussing the dangers of germs.
Idaho (voiced by Kerry Shale, season 1; Hugo Harrison, season 2 onward) is a free - spirited potato from the rural countryside with old - fashioned beliefs, Idaho is one of the less popular students of Elmore Junior High. In "The Bumpkin '', Gumball, disillusioned with his suburban lifestyle, seeks Idaho 's help in teaching his family how to live a simple lifestyle. However, Gumball eventually finds himself unable to resist his modern lifestyle, and one night Idaho walks in on him indulging in video games and junk food. Gumball talks him into trying out his modern lifestyle and eventually sends him into severe culture shock, which his rural family cure by burying him in soil.
Anton (voiced by Anthony Hull) is a simple - minded piece of toast who was forcibly drafted into Tina 's gang despite his unwillingness to do so, and only appeases them to avoid their anger. He is prone to being killed in various freak accidents, only to be resurrected by his parents after each occasion with a toaster which creates a new copy of him.
Juke (voiced by Hugo Harrison, music by Beatbox Hobbit) is a native of the continent of Boomboxemburg who moved to Elmore, and is, as described by Gumball, a "boombox head '' who speaks entirely in beatboxing. In "The Boombox '', he spoke it. As a result, nobody in Elmore Junior High can understand him. He is able to speak comprehensible English if he is switched from "Music Mode '' to "Voice Mode '' through a button on the back of his head, but his arms are too short to reach the button and his attempts to communicate this fact to others end in failure.
Sussie (face by Aurelie Charbonnier, voiced by Fergus Craig) is an upside - down chin with googly eyes and puppet - like characteristics. She is talkative, odd, and obnoxious, and as a result is generally avoided by the rest of her classmates. She was the main problem for Darwin in "The Words ''.
Clayton (voiced by Rupert Degas, season 1; Max Cazier, season 2 onward) is a red ball of clay who is a compulsive liar, with a tendency of making up absurd stories about himself. In the episode "The Skull '', Clayton begins an on - and - off friendship with Gumball and Darwin, and displays his ability to transform into different people and objects. At the end of the episode, he tells Principal Brown the truth for the first time. In "The Move '' he reveals that he lies because he is insecure and feels like a loser, though Gumball and Darwin help him and presumably cure his lying habit.
Rachel Wilson (voiced by Jessica McDonald) is Tobias ' older sister, who disgusts his "dweeb loser baby friends. '' In "the Party '', however, her friends after her friends do n't show up to the party Tobias invited all of Elmore Junior High to, Darwin helps her feel better and fixes the trashed house, so she kisses Darwin. The directing staff did not like the character, so Rachel made a handful of cameos in the second season before being dropped from the show. Rachel does make a brief cameo in a flashback in "the Matchmaker ''.
Harry "Ocho '' Tootmorsel (voiced by Max Cazier) is a Space Invaders character - like 8 - bit spider and a generally friendly person, but often overreacts to what people say about him in a negative manner, such as to Darwin and Gumball after the latter accidentally sends him an insulting text message. In the show 's first season, he spoke solely in video game blips; since the second season, however, he has started speaking in comprehensible, albeit distorted, English. In season five, his real name is revealed to be Harry Tootmorsel. A name that he only tells to his most trusted friends.
The Frank and Bean Eggheads (voiced by Kerry Shale and Rupert Degas, season 1; Kerry Shale and Hugo Harrison, season 2 onward) are a pair of egg brothers who are two of the most intelligent students and bullies at Elmore Junior High, speaking in English accents and considering themselves to be much smarter than their classmates. They are not very popular, and as such are members of the "Reject Club '' with Bobert and Ocho.
Jamie Russo (voiced by Jessica McDonald, seasons 1 -- 2; Maria Teresa Creasey, season 3 onward) is a "half - cow, half - troglodyte '' creature who is a bully of Elmore Junior High and member of Tina 's gang. As a result of Miss Simian holding her back a year, she has grown resentful of her new classmates and of authority in general. Her mother is Elmore Junior High 's gym coach, whom she listens to and respects despite her disapproval towards Jamie 's bullying.
William (internal monologue narrated by Mic Graves) is a flying eyeball who is Miss Simian 's personal spy and only talks when reporting information to her. The episode "The Voice '' reveals that he has psychic abilities, which he uses to wreak havoc on Gumball and Darwin after they accidentally block him on the social networking site Elmore Plus. The same episode shows that he actually expresses a desire to interact with his classmates, which is hindered by his lack of a mouth; his inner thoughts are narrated to the viewers.
Molly Collins (voiced by Jessica McDonald) is a shy sauropod who is a member of the cheerleading team and, as shown in "The Pressure '', the owner of a treehouse where she and the other girls hang out in. She made several appearances in the show 's first season, but was absent for the entire second season; no reason was given for her disappearance until the third - season episode "The Void '', where Gumball, Darwin, and Mr. Small realize that all traces of Molly have vanished and nobody else seems to have any memory of her. Investigating further, they eventually open up a portal at the former location of Molly 's home and are sucked into a void containing "all the mistakes the world has ever made '', where they find and rescue her.
Rob (voiced by Hugo Harrison) was one of the less prominent Elmore Junior High students, and later on in the series, Rob is the main antagonist and Gumball 's sworn enemy. Rob is formerly a tall blue cyclops, and is later a disfigured polygon white cyclops. He tries to have some friendly conversation with Gumball and Darwin in "The Pony '', only to discover -- much to his annoyance -- that the two do not even know his name. He is later seen in the void of all the world 's mistakes in the episode "The Void ''. However, in "The Nobody '', he manages to escape the void, gets disfigured as a result and takes residence in the Wattersons ' basement. As a result, he remembers that Gumball and Darwin left him and swears revenge on them for not noticing him. After hundreds of traps he tries to use on Gumball and Darwin go failed an unnoticed, Gumball and Darwin help re-invent Rob, with a new wardrobe and voice (voiced by David Warner) to become Dr. Wrecker. In "The Bus '', he attempts to blow up everybody and the hijacked bus up as well, but his plans were foiled thanks to Gumball and Richard. In "The Ex '', it is seen that Banana Joe was his new nemesis. But toward the end he resumes his hatred with Gumball.
Hot Dog Guy is a guy who, when in contact, is awkward with Gumball. He made periodic appearances prior to the episode "The Hug '', when Gumball hugs him several times to prove he is not predictable to Darwin. In "The Awkwardness '', Gumball wants to buy ketchup for a hot dog before running into Hot Dog Guys many other times in the episode. In "the Nest '' he is seemingly eaten by the carnivorous baby turtles.
Principal Nigel Brown (voiced by Lewis MacLeod, season 1; Steve Furst, season 2 onward) is a furry slug who is Elmore Junior High 's principal and Miss Simian 's love interest. His Cartoon Network biography states that their romance has been detrimental to his profession, leaving him incapable of properly running Elmore Junior High. In "The Fraud '', it is revealed that Principal Brown has worked as a principal for 20 years with a fake diploma.
Ms. Lucy Simian (voiced by Lewis MacLeod, season 1; Hugo Harrison, season 2 onward) is a baboon and the sadistic teacher of Gumball and Darwin 's class as well as a major antagonist. She takes great pleasure in giving her students pop quizzes and being generally unpleasant, and as such is widely reviled by the entire school body, save for Principal Brown, her love interest. She has a generally antagonistic relationship with Gumball, often suspecting him of being nothing but a troublemaker, but once faked friendship with the Wattersons in order to win a teacher 's appreciation award, and offered a genuine apology to Gumball and Darwin for her rash judgement against them in "The Apology ''. Her face intentionally resembles that of the Grim Reaper.
Mr. Steve Small (voiced by Lewis MacLeod, season 1; Adam Long, season 2 onward) is the Elmore Junior High guidance counselor, a cloud man who is interested in New Age culture and possesses hippie - like qualities in terms of appearance and behavior. Mr. Small 's eccentric and unconventional teaching methods are usually more confusing to the children than helpful, and despite his good intentions they often leave his office confused and not any better, if not worse from the time they entered. It is revealed in the episode "The Fraud '' that he is not a U.S. citizen, though it is unclear if he was merely born elsewhere or renounced his citizenship. He also mentions he lost his love Janice, which in the episode "The Void, '' is revealed to be a purple van that runs on "good vibes. ''
Rockwell "Rocky '' Robinson (voiced by Lewis MacLeod, season 1; Hugo Harrison, season 2, Simon Lipkin, season 3 onwards) is an orange, fuzzy Muppet - like character who performs various odd jobs around Elmore Junior High, mostly as the janitor, but also as a cafeteria worker, a school bus driver, and, in "The Curse '', the clerk at the lost and found office. He is the son of Gaylord and Margaret Robinson, the Wattersons ' next - door neighbors, and is generally good - natured and gets along with the children well.
The Elmore Junior High P.E. coach Russo (voiced by Dan Russell) is a large, pink 3 - dimensional cube who is Jamie 's mother. The newest member of the faculty, she works to ensure that all of the students are fit like her daughter. She makes her debut appearance in "The Coach '' and speaks in a consistently deadpan tone, never showing emotion facially or in her speech.
Gaylord and Margaret Robinson (voiced by Rupert Degas and Teresa Gallagher, season 1; Stefan Ashton Frank and Teresa Gallagher, season 2 onward) are the Wattersons ' stuck - up, grouchy next door neighbors, and Rocky 's parents. They are grey Muppet - like characters and hate their neighbors with a passion. Gaylord deeply despises Gumball and Darwin for annoying him all the time; the boys, however, look up to him as their idol. Margaret never speaks, only vocalizing through hoarse whispers. Their constant bickering is a focal point of their relationship, though they actually enjoy doing so. Gaylord owns a prized 1970 Cadillac Coupe de Ville Convertible which often ends up getting damaged by the Wattersons, much to his annoyance.
Laurence "Larry '' Needlemeyer (voiced by Kerry Shale) is a rock man who works at almost every establishment in Elmore, including the grocery store, the gas station convenience store and the DVD rental shop amongst other places. He had previously been known as "Lazy Larry '', the laziest person in Elmore, until he lost his title to Richard in the summer of 1983 and subsequently morphed into a hard worker. Larry was generally distrusting of the Wattersons, as they often get him into trouble at his various occupations until "The Pizza ''. It was revealed that he works everywhere just to pay the damages the Wattersons created that involves him.
Marvin Finklehimer (voiced by Dan Russell) is an red humanoid who lives at the local retirement home. In the episode "The Watch '', he feuds with Gumball and Darwin over possession of a gold watch, an heirloom which the Wattersons and Finklehimers have feuded over for several generations. Towards the end of the episode, the two sides chase each other to claim the watch and cash it in for its $700 value. Marvin is eaten by the Evil Turtle in "the Nest '', though he reappears unharmed in later episodes.
Doughnut Sheriff (voiced by Lewis MacLeod, season 1, Dan Russell, season 2 onwards) is a pink - frosted doughnut who, as his name suggests, is an officer in Elmore 's police force. He is rather oblivious and has displayed incompetency on the job, often finding himself involved in the Watterson 's antics. In the episode "The Car '', his name is "Ergo ''.
Sal Left Thumb (voiced by Kerry Shale) is one of Elmore 's most wanted criminals, a walking fingerprint whose weapon of choice is a rusty spoon. He is often seen robbing the local convenience store, and in "The Spoon '' Gumball and Darwin become unwitting accomplices in one of his crimes.
Felicity Parham is an orange background character on the show along with her blue son Billy (as shown in "The Extras). Billy appears to be an intelligent boy who usually just asks his mother random questions about life. After Season 3, he gained more of an active role and was rejected from Anais Watterson 's heart. So, he then became a big mouthed, smart aleck - like individual.
Mr. Rex is Tina Rex 's father. He loves to eat invaders at home. He fought with Nicole when she tried to speak with him about the fight that Tina had with Gumball, leaving his ultimate fate currently unknown, although it 's likely that he is still unharmed. His true appearance was originally written to be shown in the episode "The Rex '', but this episode was ultimately cancelled and not produced, but later his true appearance is revealed in "The Routine '', where he fought Richard while getting mayonnaise.
Two teenage human boys from Richwood High that first appeared in "The Sweaters '', where they taunted Gumball and Darwin. Carlton later appears in "The Society '' in a mascot costume and was kidnapped by Gumball.
A goat and frog pair who mimic Gumball and Darwin in "The Copycats ''.
A monstrous blob monster created by gross stuff.
Harold is the father of Tobias Wilson. He seems to have been making fun of Richard Watterson ever since he played a prank on him in high school, as seen in "The Cycle. ''
Penny 's stern father.
A cupcake who works as a bureaucrat, a job she greatly detests, and rarely smiles.
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who are the original members of the traveling wilburys | Traveling Wilburys - Wikipedia
The Traveling Wilburys (sometimes shortened to the Wilburys) were a British - American supergroup consisting of Bob Dylan, George Harrison, Jeff Lynne, Roy Orbison, and Tom Petty. The band recorded two albums, the first in 1988 and the second in 1990, though Orbison died before the second was recorded.
The project 's work received much anticipation given the diverse nature of the singer - songwriters. Their debut album Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1 proved an enduring critical success, in 1989 and 1990 winning accolades such as a Grammy for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group.
George Harrison first mentioned the Traveling Wilburys publicly during a radio interview with Bob Coburn on the show Rockline in February 1988. When asked how he planned to follow up the success of his Cloud Nine album, Harrison replied: "What I 'd really like to do next is... to do an album with me and some of my mates... It 's this new group I got (in mind): it 's called the Traveling Wilburys, I 'd like to do an album with them and then later we can all do our own albums again. '' According to Jeff Lynne, who co-produced Cloud Nine, Harrison introduced the idea of the two of them starting a band together around two months into the sessions for his album, which began in early January 1987. When discussing who the other members might be, Harrison chose Bob Dylan and Lynne opted for Roy Orbison. The term "Wilbury '' also originated during the Cloud Nine sessions. Referring to recording errors created by faulty equipment, Harrison jokingly remarked to Lynne, "We 'll bury ' em in the mix. '' Thereafter, they used the term for any small error in performance. Harrison first suggested "the Trembling Wilburys '' as the group 's name; at Lynne 's suggestion, they amended it to "Traveling Wilburys ''.
During his Rockline interview, Harrison voiced his support for Dylan, at a time when the latter was experiencing an artistic and commercial low point in his career. Harrison and Lynne became friends with Tom Petty in October 1987, when Petty and his band, the Heartbreakers, toured Europe as Dylan 's backing group. The friendship continued in Los Angeles later that year. There, Harrison struck up a musical rapport with Petty based on their shared love of 1950s rock ' n ' roll, and Lynne began collaborating with Petty on what became the latter 's debut solo album, Full Moon Fever, and writing songs with Orbison, Lynne 's longtime musical hero, for his comeback album, Mystery Girl. According to Petty, Harrison 's dream for the Wilburys was to handpick the participants and create "the perfect little band '', but the criteria for inclusion was governed most by "who you could hang out with ''. The five musicians also bonded over a shared appreciation of the English comedy troupe Monty Python. Harrison, who had worked with the members of Monty Python on various productions by his company HandMade Films since the late 1970s, particularly appreciated Orbison 's gift for impersonation and his ability to recite entire sketches by the troupe.
The band came together in April 1988, when Harrison was in Los Angeles to oversee the filming of his HandMade production Checking Out. At that time, Warner Bros. Records asked Harrison for a new song to serve as the B - side for the European release of his third single from Cloud Nine, "This Is Love ''. During a meal with Lynne and Orbison, Harrison asked Lynne to help him record the track and invited Orbison to attend the session, which he then arranged to take place at Dylan 's garage studio in Malibu since no professional studios were available at such short notice. Petty 's involvement came about when Harrison went to retrieve his guitar from Petty 's house and invited him to attend also.
Working on a song that Harrison had recently started writing, the ensemble completed the track, which they titled "Handle with Care '' after a label on a box in Dylan 's garage. When Harrison presented the recording to Warner Bros., the executives insisted that the song was too good to be used as "filler '' on a European single. In Petty 's recollection, Harrison and Lynne then decided to realise their idea of forming a Wilburys band, and first invited him to join before phoning Dylan, who also agreed to join. That night, Harrison, Lynne and Petty drove to Anaheim to see Orbison perform at the Celebrity Theatre and recruited him for the group shortly before he went on stage. In Petty 's description, Orbison performed an "unbelievable show '', during which "we 'd punch each other and go, ' He 's in our band, too. '... We were all so excited. ''
The band members decided to create a full album together, Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1. Video footage of the creative process was partly shot by British photographer NJ Latham and later edited by Harrison. The album was recorded primarily over a ten - day period in May 1988 to allow for Dylan 's limited availability as he prepared for his upcoming US tour. These sessions were held in the house of Eurythmics member Dave Stewart, in Los Angeles. The five band members sat in a circle playing acoustic guitars in Stewart 's kitchen; once each song 's basic track had been written and recorded there (with accompaniment from a drum machine), the group recorded their vocals in another room, usually after dinner each night. Petty recalled that, as a friend but also an avowed fan of Dylan 's, Harrison felt the need to clear the air on the first day by saying to him: "We know that you 're Bob Dylan and everything, but we 're going to just treat you and talk to you like we would anybody else. '' Dylan replied: "Well, great. Believe it or not, I 'm in awe of you guys, and it 's the same for me. '' While most of the songs had a primary composer, all of the band members were creative equals. Petty later described Harrison as the Wilburys ' "leader and manager '', and credited him with being a bandleader and producer that had a natural instinct for bringing out the best in people and keeping a recording session productive. As the group 's producers, Harrison and Lynne directed the sessions, with Harrison often auditioning each member to decide who should sing a particular lead vocal part. The two producers then flew back to England; Lynne recalls that, throughout the flight, he and Harrison enthused about how to turn the sparse, acoustic - based tracks into completed recordings. Overdubs and further recording took place at Harrison 's studio, FPSHOT, with "Sideburys '' Jim Keltner (drums), Jim Horn (saxophones) and Ray Cooper (percussion). Harrison described the band 's sound as "skiffle for the 1990s ''.
The album was released on 18 October 1988. Distributed by Warner Bros., it appeared on the new Wilbury record label rather than on Harrison 's Dark Horse label, in the interests of maintaining the group identity. Over the months following the end of recording in the summer, contractual issues had been successfully negotiated between Warner 's and the record companies representing Dylan, Petty, Lynne and Orbison. As was the case in 1971 when EMI prepared Harrison 's multi-artist live album from the Concert for Bangladesh for release, Columbia, Dylan 's label, presented the main stumbling block. In the album credits, the "Wilburys '' joke was extended further, with the band members listed under various pseudonyms and pretending to be half - brothers -- sons of a fictional Charles Truscott Wilbury, Sr. During promotion for the album, Orbison played along with the mock history, saying: "Some people say Daddy was a cad and a bounder, but I remember him as a Baptist minister. ''
Vol. 1 was a critical and commercial success, and revitalised the careers of Dylan, Orbison and Petty. As Harrison had intended, the album defied contemporary musical trends such as hip hop, acid house and synthesised pop; author Alan Clayson likens its release to "a Viking longship docking in a hovercraft terminal ''. The album produced two successful singles and went on to achieve triple - platinum certification for sales in the United States. It was nominated for several awards and won the 1990 Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group. Liner notes on the album cover were written by Monty Python 's Michael Palin under a pseudonym. Palin 's essay was based on an idea by Derek Taylor, who wrote an extensive fictional history of the Wilburys family that otherwise went unused. Harrison planned a feature film about the band, to be produced by HandMade and directed by David Leland, but contractual problems ended the project.
Roy Orbison died of a heart attack on 6 December 1988. In tribute to him, the music video for the band 's second single, "End of the Line '', shows Orbison 's guitar rocking in a chair as the rest of the group play, along with a photo of him in the background. Although there was speculation in the press that Del Shannon or Roger McGuinn might join the Wilburys, the remaining members never considered replacing Orbison. Lynne later said: "We 'd become this unit, we were all good pals... We always knew we were going to do another one, and now it 's just the four of us. ''
In March 1990, Harrison, Lynne, Petty and Dylan reunited to work on a second Wilburys album, which they intentionally misnumbered Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3. It was preceded by a non-album single, a cover of "Nobody 's Child '', which the band recorded for Olivia Harrison 's Romanian Angel Appeal charity project. The duration of the main album sessions was again dictated by Dylan 's touring schedule and limited availability. Having asked Dylan to record a lead vocal for all the songs before his departure, Harrison was then loath to replace many of the parts, resulting in a greater prominence for Dylan as a lead singer. Although he ceded his own role as a lead vocalist to Dylan and to Petty, Harrison took over more of the production and contributed more prominently as a lead guitarist than before. Petty described the album as "a little more rough and ready, a bit more raucous '' than Vol. 1, while Dylan said the new songs were more developed as compositions relative to the "scraped up from jam tapes '' approach to the band 's debut.
Vol. 3 was released on 29 October 1990. It was dedicated to Orbison, as "Lefty Wilbury '', the pseudonym that Orbison had used in 1988 in honour of his hero Lefty Frizzell. The album met with less success than the previous one. According to Warner Bros. head Mo Ostin, the choice of album title came about through "George being George ''; apparently Harrison was making a wry reference to the appearance of a bootleg that served as a sort of Volume 2. The album 's liner notes were written by Eric Idle, another Python member, who again adopted a pseudonym. For the band 's final single, "Wilbury Twist '', they filmed a video in which Idle, John Candy and other comedic actors attempt to master the song 's eponymous dance style. The clip was filmed in Los Angeles and completed on 28 February 1991.
According to Jim Keltner, the Wilburys ' drummer, the decision on the group 's future after Vol. 3 lay with Harrison. Keltner said that from his conversations with Lynne, Petty and Dylan, they were all keen to reunite, whereas Harrison wavered in his enthusiasm. While Harrison was against the idea of touring, Petty recalled: "I kept getting down on my knees in front of George, saying, ' Please, it 's so much money! ''
After his 1991 tour of Japan -- his first series of concerts since 1974 -- Harrison spoke of a possible Traveling Wilburys tour:
That would be something I 'd like to experience. I 've always played around in my own mind what a Wilburys tour could be. Would each person do a solo set and then do Wilburys at the end, or would we all go right on from beginning to end and make everything Wilburys? It 's an intriguing thought. We could have a great band up there and the four of us could play acoustic if we wanted to. We could all sing "Blowin ' in the Wind '' and Bob could sing "Something ''. Or we could just sing our individual songs and make them Wilbury tunes, as if we 'd recorded them that way. Whatever it was, we could do it.
The Wilburys tour never came about. Petty said about the Wilburys touring:
I think it would work, if we wanted to do it. I do n't think we ever considered it, really. There were a lot of nights when the conversation would roll around to that. But I do n't think anybody ever took it seriously. I think it would ruin it in a way. Then you 're obligated to be responsible and it 's not in the character of that group. It would make it very formal and that would be the wrong spirit.
In the Rolling Stone Press book The New Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll, the Traveling Wilburys are described as "the ultimate supergroup '', with a line - up that represented four eras of rock music history and included "three indisputable gods '' in Dylan, Harrison and Orbison. The editors also recognise the band as "the antithesis of a supergroup '', however, due to the musicians ' adoption of fraternal alter egos and the humour inherent in the project. AllMusic managing editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine has similarly written: "It 's impossible to picture a supergroup with a stronger pedigree than that (all that 's missing is a Rolling Stone), but in another sense it 's hard to call the Wilburys a true supergroup, since they arrived nearly two decades after the all - star craze of the ' 70s peaked, and they never had the self - important air of nearly all the other supergroups. That, of course, was the key to their charm... '' Speaking to music journalist Paul Zollo in 2004, Petty agreed that humour and self - effacement had been key factors in the Wilburys ' success, adding: "We wanted to make something good in a world that seemed to get uglier and uglier and meaner and meaner... And I 'm really proud that I was part of it. Because I do think that it brought a little sunshine into the world. ''
Harrison said the project was an opportunity to "put a finger up to the rules '' by challenging the norms associated with the music industry. Discussing the Wilburys in Peter Bogdanovich 's 2007 documentary Runnin ' Down a Dream, Petty said that one of the strengths behind the concept was that it was free of any intervention from record company, management or marketing concerns, and instead developed naturally from a spirit of co-operation and mutual admiration among five established artists. Author Simon Leng recognises the venture as primarily a channel through which Harrison and Dylan could escape the restrictions of their serious media images, but also, in its guise as a "phantom band '', a development by Harrison of the Rutles ' satirical approach to the Beatles ' legacy, in this case by "de-mythologizing '' rock history.
Inspired by the Traveling Wilburys ' success and particularly its benefit to Petty and Orbison as artists, Warner 's executive and staff producer Lenny Waronker encouraged American guitarist Ry Cooder to form the band Little Village. The group, comprising Cooder, Keltner, John Hiatt and Nick Lowe, released a self - titled album in 1992. Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune described the Notting Hillbillies ' Missing... Presumed Having a Good Time as a Traveling Wilburys - type side project for Mark Knopfler of Dire Straits. Writing in New York magazine in late 1990, Elizabeth Wurtzel cited the Notting Hillbillies ' album and the self - titled debut by Hindu Love Gods (a band consisting of Warren Zevon and members of R.E.M.) as examples of a trend whereby, following the Wilburys ' Vol. 1, "more and more albums seem to be the rock - and - roll equivalents of bowling night. ''
Writing in The Encyclopedia of Popular Music, Colin Larkin cites the Wilburys ' contemporary skiffle as evidence of Lonnie Donegan 's continued influence on popular music long after the early 1960s. In his book Lonnie Donegan and the Birth of British Rock & Roll, Patrick Humphries describes the Wilburys as "a makeshift quintet whose roots were firmly and joyously planted in low - key, low - tech skiffle music ''. He credits the band with inspiring a brief revival of Donegan 's "DIY skiffle '', which included Knopfler 's Notting Hillbillies.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the two Traveling Wilburys albums had limited availability and were out of print in most areas. Harrison, as primary holder of the rights, did not reissue them before his death. In June 2007, the two albums were reissued as The Traveling Wilburys Collection, a box set including both albums on CD (with bonus tracks) and a DVD featuring a 25 - minute documentary titled The True History of the Traveling Wilburys and a collection of music videos. The box set was released in three editions; the standard edition, with both CDs and DVD in a double Digipak package and a 16 - page booklet; a "deluxe '' boxed edition with the CDs and DVD and an extensive 40 - page booklet, artist postcards, and photographs; or a "deluxe '' boxed edition on vinyl. This version omits the DVD, but adds a 12 - inch vinyl disc with rare versions of the songs. The release debuted at number 1 in the UK and Australia, and in other countries. On the US Billboard 200 it reached number 9. The collection sold 500,000 copies worldwide during the first three weeks and remained in the UK top 5 for seven weeks after its release.
In November 2009, Genesis Publications, a company with which Harrison had been associated since the late 1970s, announced the release of a limited edition fine - bound book titled The Traveling Wilburys. Compiled by Olivia Harrison, the book includes rare photographs, recording notes, handwritten lyrics, sketches, and first - hand commentary on the band 's history, together with a foreword by Lynne. Petty, Lynne, Olivia Harrison, Barbara Orbison, Keltner and Idle were among those who attended the US launch at a Beverly Hills bookshop in March 2010. In an interview to publicise the book, Lynne expressed his sadness at the deaths of Harrison and Orbison, and reflected: "The Wilburys was such a wonderful band, such a marvellous thing to be part of. They were the best people I could ever wish to work with. Every day was like, ' Wow! '... it was fun from day one. ''
Jim Keltner, the session drummer and percussionist, was not listed as a Wilbury on either album. However, he is seen in all of the group 's music videos, and on the DVD released in 2007, he is given the nickname "Buster Sidebury ''. Overdubs to the bonus tracks "Maxine '' and "Like a Ship '' also credited as "Ayrton Wilbury '', a pseudonym for Dhani Harrison. The name Ayrton was used in honour of F1 racer Ayrton Senna. Jim Horn played saxophone on both albums. The lead guitar on the Volume 3 song "She 's My Baby '' was played by rock guitarist Gary Moore ("Ken Wilbury '').
The Traveling Wilburys contributed the title track, "Nobody 's Child '', to the Romanian Angel Appeal benefit album Nobody 's Child: Romanian Angel Appeal, released on 24 July 1990. Harrison appeared as Nelson Wilbury on Warner Bros. Records ' 1988 holiday promo album Winter Warnerland (which also included Paul Reubens as "Pee Wee Wilbury ''). In his capacity as producer, Harrison credited himself as "Spike and Nelson Wilbury '' on his 1992 live album Live in Japan. The same year, the Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers single "Christmas All Over Again '' contained a greeting that read "Merry Christmas from Nelson and Pee Wee Wilbury. ''
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how to add my company name in wikipedia | Wikipedia: FAQ / organizations - Wikipedia
Help FAQs Organizations
FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions)
The fact that anyone can edit Wikipedia means that it attracts public - relations professionals, as well as employees and supporters of a variety of organizations -- from businesses to government agencies, the military and non-profits -- who may decide to edit pages about their organizations. Such employees, as well as individuals who seek to edit articles about themselves or friends, have a conflict of interest.
This FAQ is about Wikipedia 's approach to conflicts of interest.
If you are paid to edit Wikipedia, you must disclose certain information under the Wikimedia Foundation 's Terms of Use. The Terms of Use were updated in 2014 with the following section, which requires transparency for users who are paid for their contributions to Wikipedia:
Paid contributions without disclosure
These Terms of Use prohibit engaging in deceptive activities, including misrepresentation of affiliation, impersonation, and fraud. As part of these obligations, you must disclose your employer, client, and affiliation with respect to any contribution for which you receive, or expect to receive, compensation. You must make that disclosure in at least one of the following ways:
Wikimedia created an FAQ on disclosure of paid contributions when it implemented the new Terms of Use.
Editors who are not paid to edit to Wikipedia, but have a different kind of conflict of interest, should disclose their interest on their user pages and on the talk page of the article in question, under Wikipedia 's conflict of interest guideline. They may request changes or make suggestions on talk pages. Using the template ((Request edit)) will help draw attention to the request.
If you hire someone to write an article, then you should verify that they follow the above rules, and you probably should n't pay the full price until it 's stayed un-deleted for at least 90 days.
Instead, please have your organization 's representative register an individual account (which may usually include your company name, e.g., "Mark at Widgets Company '') and declare the affiliation on the account 's user page. Corporate usernames are very often blocked on sight.
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who did the voice of yoda in empire strikes back | Frank Oz - wikipedia
Frank Oz (born Frank Richard Oznowicz; May 25, 1944) is an English - born American actor, puppeteer, director and producer. His career began as a puppeteer, where he performed the Muppet characters of Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Animal, and Sam Eagle in The Muppet Show, and Cookie Monster, Bert, and Grover in Sesame Street. He is also known for the role of Yoda in the Star Wars series, in which he has performed and provided the voice for the character in several films and television series.
His work as a director includes Little Shop of Horrors (1986), Dirty Rotten Scoundrels (1988), What About Bob? (1991), In & Out (1997), Bowfinger (1999), The Score (2001), Death at a Funeral (2007), and an episode of the US TV series, Leverage (2011).
Oz was born in Hereford, England, United Kingdom; the son of Frances (née Ghevaert; 1910 - 1989) and Isidore Oznowicz (1916 - 1998), both of whom were puppeteers. His father was also a window trimmer. His parents moved to England after fighting the Nazis with the Dutch Brigades. Oz 's Dutch / Polish father was Jewish and his Flemish mother was a Lapsed Catholic. They left England when he was six months old and lived in Belgium until he was five. Oz and his family moved to Montana in 1951. They eventually settled in Oakland, California. Oz attended Oakland Technical High School and Oakland City College. He worked as an apprentice puppeteer at Children 's Fairyland as a teenager with the Vagabond Puppets, a production of the Oakland Recreation Department, where Lettie Connell was his mentor.
Oz is known for his work as a puppeteer, performing with Jim Henson 's Muppets. His characters have included Miss Piggy, Fozzie Bear, Animal, and Sam Eagle on The Muppet Show, and Grover, Cookie Monster and Bert on Sesame Street.
In addition to performing a variety of characters, Oz has been one of the primary collaborators responsible for the development of the Muppets over the last 30 years. Oz has performed as a Muppet performer in over 75 productions including Labyrinth, video releases, and television specials, as well as countless other public appearances, episodes of Sesame Street, and other Jim Henson series. His puppetry work spans from 1963 to the present, although he semi-retired from performing his Muppets characters in 2001. In 2001, his characters were taken over primarily by Eric Jacobson (with David Rudman as Cookie Monster).
Oz explained why he decided on leaving the Muppets in a 2007 interview:
"One was that I was a dad, I have four kids. The reason was that I was constantly asked to do stuff. And also, I 'd done this for 30 years, and I 'd never wanted to be a puppeteer in the first place. I wanted to be a journalist, and really what I wanted to do was direct theatre and direct movies. So it was more a slow progression, working with Jim, but I felt limited. As an actor and a performer, you always feel limited because you 're not the source of the creation, and I wanted to be the source. I wanted to be the guy and give my view of the world. And if I screw it up, I screw it up, but at least I tried. And as a director, what you 're really showing is you 're showing the audience your view of the world... I 've always enjoyed, more than anything else in the world, bringing things to life, whether it 's characters or actors in a scene or moments in movies. I 've done so much with the puppets, that I 'd always wanted to work with actors. ''
Oz is also known as the performer of Jedi Master Yoda from George Lucas ' Star Wars series. Jim Henson had originally been contacted by Lucas about possibly performing Yoda. Henson was preoccupied and instead suggested Oz to be assigned as chief puppeteer of the character, as well as a creative consultant. Oz performed the puppet and provided the voice for Yoda in The Empire Strikes Back (1980), Return of the Jedi (1983), Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace (1999), and Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017). Oz also provided the voice of the computer - generated imagery (CGI) Yoda in Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones (2002) and Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith (2005). The conversion to CGI was met with some criticism among fans, but Oz himself said that was "exactly what (Lucas) should have done. '' Oz had a great deal of creative input on the character and was himself responsible for creating the character 's trademark syntax. Oz returned to voice Yoda in Disney 's Star Tours -- The Adventures Continue attractions and in the Star Wars Rebels episodes, "Path of the Jedi '' and "Shroud of Darkness. ''
Inspiration as a filmmaker came to Oz upon a viewing of the Orson Welles film Touch of Evil (1958), the director told Robert K. Elder in an interview for The Film That Changed My Life:
"I think it opened up my view of film -- that there 's so much more that could be done. Actually, by breaking so many rules, he allowed other people to say, ' Hey, I can maybe think of some stuff, too! ' He just opened up the possibilities more for me. That 's what he did. ''
Oz began his behind - the - camera work when he co-directed the fantasy film The Dark Crystal with long - time collaborator Jim Henson. The film featured the most advanced puppets ever created for a movie. Oz further employed those skills in directing 1984 's The Muppets Take Manhattan, as well as sharing a screenwriting credit.
In 1986, he directed his first film that did not involve Henson, Little Shop Of Horrors. The musical film starred Rick Moranis and Ellen Greene, as well as Vincent Gardenia, Steve Martin, Bill Murray, John Candy, Christopher Guest, Jim Belushi and a 15 - foot - tall talking plant (voiced by Levi Stubbs) which at times required up to 40 puppeteers to operate. The film allowed Oz to show his ability to work with live actors and led to opportunities to direct films that did not include puppetry.
Usually helming comedic productions, Oz went on to direct Dirty Rotten Scoundrels in 1988, starring Steve Martin and Michael Caine, What About Bob? in 1991, starring Bill Murray and Richard Dreyfuss, and Housesitter in 1992, starring Steve Martin and Goldie Hawn (all of which were scored by Miles Goodman). Later films include The Indian in the Cupboard (1995), In & Out (1997), Bowfinger (1999), The Score (2001), the 2004 remake of The Stepford Wives, and the original Death at a Funeral (2007).
Oz has frequently experienced on - set tension while directing his films, notably during the productions of What About Bob?, In & Out, The Score and The Stepford Wives. Oz was also considered to direct other films such as Mermaids (1990) and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2002).
As an actor, Oz appeared in one scene as a Prison Storeroom Keeper in The Blues Brothers (1980), directed by John Landis. He appeared in a similar role and scene in Trading Places (1983), also directed by Landis. He had roles in several other Landis films including An American Werewolf in London (1981), Spies Like Us (1985), Innocent Blood (1992) and Blues Brothers 2000 (1998). In 2001 he had a voice acting role in the Pixar film Monsters, Inc. as Randall 's scare assistant, Fungus. In 2005, he had a minor part in the Columbia film Zathura as the voice of the robot.
Other cameos have included playing a surgeon in scenes cut from the theatrical release of Superman III, The Muppet Movie, The Great Muppet Caper, The Muppets Take Manhattan and several other Jim Henson - related films that did not involve just his puppeteering.
Even if he does not appear in a Landis movie, his name is often spoken in the background. During airport scenes in Into the Night and Coming to America, there are announcements on the PA system for ' Mr. Frank Oznowicz '.
Oz was previously married to Robin Garsen. He is now married to Victoria Labalme. Oz is the father of four sons. He maintained a residence in England for nine years and currently resides in Manhattan (as of 2012).
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when did i cross my heart come out | I Cross My Heart - Wikipedia
"I Cross My Heart '' is a song written by Steve Dorff and Eric Kaz, and performed by American country music artist George Strait. It was released in September 1992 as the first single to his album Pure Country, which is also the soundtrack to the movie of the same title. It reached number - one in both the United States and Canada. The song is featured as the movie 's finale.
The music video was directed by Charley Randazzo, and is completely made from scenes from the movie, Strait 's next music video "Heartland '' also uses scenes from Pure Country. The two videos were released back to back as were the singles, while the rest of George Strait 's music videos were made between every few singles.
"I Cross My Heart '' debuted at number 58 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of October 3, 1992 and peaked at number one on December 5, 1992. Since it became available for digital download, the song has sold 992,000 digital copies in the United States as of January 2015.
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who wrote gathering flowers for the master's bouquet | The Stanley Brothers - wikipedia
The Stanley Brothers were an American bluegrass duo made up of brothers Carter Stanley (1925 -- 1966) and Ralph Stanley (1927 -- 2016). Ralph and Carter performed as The Stanley Brothers with their band, The Clinch Mountain Boys, from 1946 to 1966. Ralph kept the band name when he continued as a solo after Carter 's death, from 1967 until his own death in 2016.
Carter and Ralph Stanley were born on a small farm in Dickenson County, Virginia, near McClure. Music was a part of their lives even in their early years, and they listened to the likes of the Monroe Brothers, J.E. Mainer 's Mountaineers and the Grand Ole Opry on local radio.
The brothers formed a band, the Lazy Ramblers, and performed as a duo on WJHL radio in Johnson City, Tennessee. World War II interrupted their musical career, but once both brothers returned from the United States Army, they resumed their musical pursuits. They formed their band, the Stanley Brothers and the Clinch Mountain Boys, in 1946 as the first band to copy the Monroe sound. Carter played guitar and sang lead, while Ralph played banjo and sang with a strong, high tenor voice. Additional members of this early band were Darrell "Pee Wee '' Lambert on mandolin and Bobby Sumner on fiddle. Sumner was soon to be replaced by Leslie Keith.
On December 26, 1946, the band began performing at radio station WCYB in Bristol, Tennessee as stalwarts of the famed Farm and Fun Time radio show. They made their recording debut in September 1947 for Rich - R - Tone Records which had been founded the year before. Their records sold well, "outselling even Eddy Arnold '' regionally. Up to now, Ralph had been playing his banjo with two fingers on recordings and in concerts, but in 1948, he switched to the three - finger style (popularised by Earl Scruggs). In March 1949, the Stanley Brothers began recording for Columbia Records. During this time, Bill Monroe was not particularly fond of groups like the Stanley Brothers and Flatt & Scruggs who he believed "stole '' his music by copying it; they were seen as "economic threats. ''
Financially hard times in the early 1950s forced the brothers to take a short break in their musical career. They began working for the Ford Motor Company in Detroit. Eventually, Monroe and the Stanley Brothers became friends, and Carter performed for several months with Bill Monroe in the summer of 1951. In August 1951, Ralph was involved in a serious automobile accident that almost ended his career. Following his recovery, Carter and Ralph reunited to front their Clinch Mountain Boys.
As bluegrass music grew less popular in the late 1950s, the Stanley Brothers moved to Live Oak, Florida, and headlined the weekly Suwannee River Jamboree radio show on WNER from 1958 to 1962. The three - hour show was also syndicated across the Southeast. In 1966, the brothers toured Europe, and upon returning home they continued to perform together until Carter 's death in December 1966.
Many years later, Ralph revived the Clinch Mountain Boys. He performed with them through 2013. He recorded one last album in 2014, Side By Side, with his son, Ralph II. Among the musicians who have played in the revived Clinch Mountain Boys were Ricky Skaggs, Keith Whitley, Larry Sparks, Curly Ray Cline, Jack Cooke, Roy Lee Centers, Charlie Sizemore, Ray Goins, and Ralph Stanley II. Ralph 's career received a big boost with his prominent role on the very successful soundtrack recording of the 2000 feature film, O Brother, Where Art Thou?, which featured the song "Man of Constant Sorrow '' among others.
Carter Stanley died in December 1966.
Ralph Stanley died on June 23, 2016.
The Stanley Brothers were inducted into the International Bluegrass Music Hall of Honor in 1992. In 2005, The Barter State Theatre of Virginia premiered an original stage production, Man of Constant Sorrow: The Story of the Stanley Brothers, written by Dr. Douglas Pote.
The University Press of Mississippi published the first full - length biography of the Stanley Brothers, Lonesome Melodies: The Lives and Music of the Stanley Brothers by David W. Johnson, on February 1, 2013. The paperback edition was published March 1, 2014.
Among the Stanley Brothers ' best known recordings are:
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when did tolkien write the lord of the rings | The Lord of the Rings - wikipedia
The Lord of the Rings is an epic high fantasy novel written by English author and scholar J.R.R. Tolkien. The story began as a sequel to Tolkien 's 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit, but eventually developed into a much larger work. Written in stages between 1937 and 1949, The Lord of the Rings is one of the best - selling novels ever written, with over 150 million copies sold.
The title of the novel refers to the story 's main antagonist, the Dark Lord Sauron, who had in an earlier age created the One Ring to rule the other Rings of Power as the ultimate weapon in his campaign to conquer and rule all of Middle - earth. From quiet beginnings in the Shire, a hobbit land not unlike the English countryside, the story ranges across Middle - earth, following the course of the War of the Ring through the eyes of its characters, not only the hobbits Frodo Baggins, Samwise "Sam '' Gamgee, Meriadoc "Merry '' Brandybuck and Peregrin "Pippin '' Took, but also the hobbits ' chief allies and travelling companions: the Men Aragorn son of Arathorn, a Ranger of the North, and Boromir, a Captain of Gondor; Gimli son of Glóin, a Dwarf warrior; Legolas Greenleaf, an Elven prince; and Gandalf, a Wizard.
The work was initially intended by Tolkien to be one volume of a two - volume set, the other to be The Silmarillion, but this idea was dismissed by his publisher. For economic reasons, The Lord of the Rings was published in three volumes over the course of a year from 29 July 1954 to 20 October 1955. The three volumes were titled The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers and The Return of the King. Structurally, the novel is divided internally into six books, two per volume, with several appendices of background material included at the end. Some editions combine the entire work into a single volume. The Lord of the Rings has since been reprinted numerous times and translated into 38 languages.
Tolkien 's work has been the subject of extensive analysis of its themes and origins. Although a major work in itself, the story was only the last movement of a larger epic Tolkien had worked on since 1917, in a process he described as mythopoeia. Influences on this earlier work, and on the story of The Lord of the Rings, include philology, mythology, religion and the author 's distaste for the effects of industrialization, as well as earlier fantasy works and Tolkien 's experiences in World War I. These inspirations and themes have often been denied by Tolkien himself. The Lord of the Rings in its turn is considered to have had a great effect on modern fantasy; the impact of Tolkien 's works is such that the use of the words "Tolkienian '' and "Tolkienesque '' have been recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary.
The enduring popularity of The Lord of the Rings has led to numerous references in popular culture, the founding of many societies by fans of Tolkien 's works, and the publication of many books about Tolkien and his works. The Lord of the Rings has inspired, and continues to inspire, artwork, music, films and television, video games, and subsequent literature. Award - winning adaptations of The Lord of the Rings have been made for radio, theatre, and film. In 2003, it was named Britain 's best - loved novel of all time in the BBC 's The Big Read.
Thousands of years before the events of the novel, the Dark Lord Sauron had forged the One Ring to rule the other Rings of Power and corrupt those who wore them: the leaders of Men, Elves and Dwarves. Sauron was defeated by an alliance of Elves and Men led by Gil - galad and Elendil, respectively. In the final battle, Isildur, son of Elendil, cut the One Ring from Sauron 's finger, causing Sauron to lose his physical form. Isildur claimed the Ring as an heirloom for his line, but when he was later ambushed and killed by the Orcs, the Ring was lost in the River Anduin at Gladden Fields.
Over two thousand years later, the Ring was found by one of the river - folk called Déagol. His friend Sméagol fell under the Ring 's influence and strangled Déagol to acquire it. Sméagol was banished and hid under the Misty Mountains. The Ring gave him long life and changed him over hundreds of years into a twisted, corrupted creature called Gollum. Gollum lost the Ring, his "precious '', and as told in The Hobbit, Bilbo Baggins found it. Meanwhile, Sauron assumed a new form and took back his old realm of Mordor. When Gollum set out in search of the Ring, he was captured and tortured by Sauron. Sauron learned from Gollum that "Baggins '' of the Shire had taken the Ring. Gollum was set loose. Sauron, who needed the Ring to regain his full power, sent forth his powerful servants, the Nazgûl, to seize it.
The story begins in the Shire, where the hobbit Frodo Baggins inherits the Ring from Bilbo Baggins, his cousin and guardian. Neither hobbit is aware of the Ring 's nature, but Gandalf the Grey, a wizard and an old friend of Bilbo, suspects it to be Sauron 's Ring. Many years later, after Gandalf confirms his guess, he tells Frodo the history of the Ring and counsels him to take it away from the Shire. Frodo sets out, accompanied by his gardener and friend, Samwise ("Sam '') Gamgee, and two cousins, Meriadoc Brandybuck, called Merry, and Peregrin Took, called Pippin. They are nearly caught by the Black Riders but shake off their pursuers by cutting through the Old Forest. There they are aided by Tom Bombadil, a strange and merry fellow who lives with his wife Goldberry in the forest.
The Hobbits reach the town of Bree, where they encounter a Ranger named Strider, whom Gandalf had mentioned in a letter. Strider persuades the hobbits to take him on as their guide and protector. Together, they leave Bree after another close escape from the Black Riders. On the hill of Weathertop, they are again attacked by the Black Riders, who wound Frodo with a cursed blade. Strider fights them off with fire and leads the hobbits towards the Elven refuge of Rivendell. Frodo falls deathly sick from the wound. The Black Riders nearly overtake Frodo at the Ford of Bruinen, but flood waters summoned by Elrond, master of Rivendell, rise up and overwhelm them.
Frodo recovers in Rivendell under Elrond 's care. The Council of Elrond discusses the history of Sauron and the Ring. Strider is revealed to be Aragorn, Isildur 's heir. Gandalf reports that Sauron has corrupted Saruman, chief of the wizards. The Council decides that the Ring must be destroyed, but that can only be done by sending it to the Fire of Mount Doom in Mordor, where it was forged. Frodo takes this task upon himself. Elrond, with the advice of Gandalf, chooses companions for him. The Company of the Ring are nine in number: Frodo, Sam, Merry, Pippin, Aragorn, Gandalf, Gimli the Dwarf, Legolas the Elf, and the Man Boromir, son of the Ruling Steward Denethor of the land of Gondor.
After a failed attempt to cross the Misty Mountains through the Redhorn Pass, the Company are forced to take a perilous path through the Mines of Moria. They are attacked by the Watcher in the Water before the doors of Moria. Inside Moria, they learn of the fate of Balin and his colony of Dwarves. After surviving an attack, they are pursued by Orcs and by an ancient demon called a Balrog. Gandalf faces the Balrog, and both of them fall into the abyss. The others escape and find refuge in the Elven forest of Lothlórien, where they are counselled by Galadriel and Celeborn.
With boats and gifts from Galadriel, the Company travel down the River Anduin to the hill of Amon Hen. There, Boromir tries to take the Ring from Frodo, but Frodo puts it on and disappears. After the Company scatters to search for Frodo, they are attacked by Orcs. Frodo chooses to go alone to Mordor, but Sam guesses what he intends and goes with him.
Orcs sent by Saruman and Sauron kill Boromir and take Merry and Pippin. Aragorn, Gimli and Legolas debate amongst themselves which pair of hobbits to follow. They decide to pursue the Orcs bearing Merry and Pippin to Saruman. In the kingdom of Rohan, the Orcs are slain by a company of the Rohirrim. Merry and Pippin escape into Fangorn Forest, where they are befriended by Treebeard, the oldest of the tree - like Ents. Aragorn, Gimli and Legolas track the hobbits to Fangorn. There they unexpectedly meet Gandalf. Gandalf explains that he slew the Balrog; darkness took him, but he was sent back to Middle - earth to complete his mission. He is clothed in white and is now "Gandalf the White '', for he has taken Saruman 's place as the chief of the wizards. Gandalf assures his friends that Merry and Pippin are safe. Together they ride to Edoras, capital of Rohan. Gandalf frees Théoden, King of Rohan, from the influence of Saruman 's spy Gríma Wormtongue. Théoden musters his fighting strength and rides with his men to the ancient fortress of Helm 's Deep, while Gandalf departs to seek help from Treebeard.
Meanwhile, the Ents, roused by Merry and Pippin from their peaceful ways, attack Isengard, Saruman 's stronghold, and trap the wizard in the tower of Orthanc. Gandalf convinces Treebeard to send an army of Huorns to Théoden 's aid. Gandalf brings an army of Rohirrim to Helm 's Deep, and they defeat the Orcs, who flee into the waiting shadow of the trees, never to be seen again. Gandalf offers Saruman a chance to turn away from evil. When Saruman refuses to listen, Gandalf strips him of his rank and most of his powers. Pippin picks up a palantír, a seeing - stone that Saruman used to speak with Sauron and through which Saruman was ensnared, and is seen by Sauron. Gandalf rides for Minas Tirith, chief city of Gondor, taking Pippin with him.
Frodo and Sam capture Gollum, who has followed them from Moria. They force him to guide them to Mordor. They find that the Black Gate of Mordor is too well guarded, so instead they travel to a secret way Gollum knows. On the way, they encounter Faramir, who, unlike his brother Boromir, resists the temptation to seize the Ring. Gollum -- who is torn between his loyalty to Frodo and his desire for the Ring -- betrays Frodo by leading him to the great spider Shelob in the tunnels of Cirith Ungol. Frodo falls to Shelob 's sting. But with the help of Galadriel 's gifts, Sam fights off the spider. Believing Frodo to be dead, Sam takes the Ring to continue the quest alone. Orcs find Frodo; Sam overhears them and learns that Frodo is still alive.
Sauron sends a great army against Gondor. Gandalf arrives at Minas Tirith to warn Denethor of the attack, while Théoden musters the Rohirrim to ride to Gondor 's aid. Minas Tirith is besieged. Denethor is deceived by Sauron and falls into despair. He burns himself alive on a pyre, nearly taking his son Faramir with him. Aragorn, accompanied by Legolas, Gimli and the Rangers of the North, takes the Paths of the Dead to recruit the Dead Men of Dunharrow, who are bound by a curse which denies them rest until they fulfil their long - ago forsworn oath to fight for the King of Gondor. Following Aragorn, the Army of the Dead strikes terror into the Corsairs of Umbar invading southern Gondor. Aragorn defeats the Corsairs and uses their ships to transport the men of southern Gondor up the Anduin, reaching Minas Tirith just in time to turn the tide of battle. Éowyn, Théoden 's niece, slays the Lord of the Nazgûl with help from Merry. Together, Gondor and Rohan defeat Sauron 's army in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, though at great cost. Théoden is slain, and Éowyn and Merry are injured.
Meanwhile, Sam rescues Frodo from the tower of Cirith Ungol. They set out across Mordor. Aragorn leads an army of men from Gondor and Rohan to march on the Black Gate to distract Sauron from his true danger. His army is vastly outnumbered by the great might of Sauron. Frodo and Sam reach the edge of the Cracks of Doom, but Frodo can not resist the Ring any longer. He claims it for himself and puts it on his finger. Gollum suddenly reappears. He struggles with Frodo and bites off Frodo 's finger with the Ring still on it. Celebrating wildly, Gollum loses his footing and falls into the Fire, taking the Ring with him. When the Ring is destroyed, Sauron loses his power forever. The Nazgûl perish, and his armies are thrown into such disarray that Aragorn 's forces emerge victorious.
Aragorn is crowned Elessar, King of Arnor and Gondor, and weds Arwen, daughter of Elrond. The four hobbits make their way back to the Shire, only to find out that it has been taken over by men led by Sharkey. The hobbits raise a rebellion and liberate the Shire. Sharkey turns out to be Saruman. Frodo stops the hobbits from killing the wizard, but Gríma turns on him and kills him in front of Bag End, Frodo 's home. He is slain in turn by hobbit archers, and the War of the Ring comes to its true end on Frodo 's very doorstep.
Merry and Pippin are celebrated as heroes. Sam marries Rosie Cotton and uses his gifts from Galadriel to help heal the Shire. But Frodo is still wounded in body and spirit, having borne the Ring for so long. A few years later, in the company of Bilbo and Gandalf, Frodo sails from the Grey Havens west over the Sea to the Undying Lands to find peace.
In the appendices, Sam gives his daughter Elanor the Red Book of Westmarch, which contains the story of Bilbo 's adventures and the War of the Ring as witnessed by the hobbits. Sam is then said to have crossed west over the Sea himself, the last of the Ring - bearers.
Some characters in The Lord of the Rings are unequivocal protagonists, and others are absolute antagonists. However despite criticism that the book 's characters "are all either black or white '', some of the ' good ' characters have darker sides that feature in the story, and likewise some of the villains have "good impulses ''. Therefore the categorization of characters as either ' protagonists ' or ' antagonists ' below indicates their general role in the story.
The Lord of the Rings started as a sequel to J.R.R. Tolkien 's work The Hobbit, published in 1937. The popularity of The Hobbit had led George Allen & Unwin, the publishers, to request a sequel. Tolkien warned them that he wrote quite slowly, and responded with several stories he had already developed. Having rejected his contemporary drafts for The Silmarillion, putting on hold Roverandom, and accepting Farmer Giles of Ham, Allen & Unwin thought more stories about hobbits would be popular. So at the age of 45, Tolkien began writing the story that would become The Lord of the Rings. The story would not be finished until 12 years later, in 1949, and would not be fully published until 1955, when Tolkien was 63 years old.
Persuaded by his publishers, he started "a new Hobbit '' in December 1937. After several false starts, the story of the One Ring emerged. The idea for the first chapter ("A Long - Expected Party '') arrived fully formed, although the reasons behind Bilbo 's disappearance, the significance of the Ring, and the title The Lord of the Rings did not arrive until the spring of 1938. Originally, he planned to write a story in which Bilbo had used up all his treasure and was looking for another adventure to gain more; however, he remembered the Ring and its powers and thought that would be a better focus for the new work. As the story progressed, he also brought in elements from ' The Silmarillion ' mythology.
Writing was slow, because Tolkien had a full - time academic position, and needed to earn further money as a university examiner. Tolkien abandoned The Lord of the Rings during most of 1943 and only restarted it in April 1944, as a serial for his son Christopher Tolkien, who was sent chapters as they were written while he was serving in South Africa with the Royal Air Force. Tolkien made another concerted effort in 1946, and showed the manuscript to his publishers in 1947. The story was effectively finished the next year, but Tolkien did not complete the revision of earlier parts of the work until 1949. The original manuscripts, which total 9,250 pages, now reside in the J.R.R. Tolkien Collection at Marquette University.
The influence of the Welsh language, which Tolkien had learned, is summarized in his essay English and Welsh: "If I may once more refer to my work. The Lord of the Rings, in evidence: the names of persons and places in this story were mainly composed on patterns deliberately modelled on those of Welsh (closely similar but not identical). This element in the tale has given perhaps more pleasure to more readers than anything else in it. ''
The Lord of the Rings developed as a personal exploration by Tolkien of his interests in philology, religion (particularly Roman Catholicism), fairy tales, Norse and general Germanic mythology, and also Celtic, Slavic, Persian, Greek, and Finnish mythology. Tolkien acknowledged, and external critics have verified, the influences of George MacDonald and William Morris and the Anglo - Saxon poem Beowulf. The question of a direct influence of Wagner 's The Nibelung 's Ring on Tolkien 's work is debated by critics.
Tolkien included neither any explicit religion nor cult in his work. Rather the themes, moral philosophy, and cosmology of The Lord of the Rings reflect his Catholic worldview. In one of his letters Tolkien states, "The Lord of the Rings is of course a fundamentally religious and Catholic work; unconsciously so at first, but consciously in the revision. That is why I have not put in, or have cut out, practically all references to anything like ' religion ', to cults or practices, in the imaginary world. For the religious element is absorbed into the story and the symbolism. ''
Some locations and characters were inspired by Tolkien 's childhood in Birmingham, where he first lived near Sarehole Mill, and later near Edgbaston Reservoir. There are also hints of the Black Country, which is within easy reach of north west Edgbaston. This shows in such names as "Underhill '', and the description of Saruman 's industrialization of Isengard and The Shire. It has also been suggested that The Shire and its surroundings were based on the countryside around Stonyhurst College in Lancashire where Tolkien frequently stayed during the 1940s. The work was influenced by the effects of his military service during World War I, to the point that Frodo has been "diagnosed '' as suffering from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, or "shell - shock '', which was first diagnosed under that name at the Battle of the Somme, at which Tolkien served.
A dispute with his publisher, George Allen & Unwin, led to the book being offered to Collins in 1950. Tolkien intended The Silmarillion (itself largely unrevised at this point) to be published along with The Lord of the Rings, but A&U were unwilling to do this. After Milton Waldman, his contact at Collins, expressed the belief that The Lord of the Rings itself "urgently wanted cutting '', Tolkien eventually demanded that they publish the book in 1952. Collins did not; and so Tolkien wrote to Allen and Unwin, saying, "I would gladly consider the publication of any part of the stuff '', fearing his work would never see the light of day.
For publication, the book was divided into three volumes to minimize any potental financial loss due to the high cost of type - setting and modest anticiptated sales: The Fellowship of the Ring (Books I and II), The Two Towers (Books III and IV), and The Return of the King (Books V and VI plus six appendices) Delays in producing appendices, maps and especially an index led to the volumes being published later than originally hoped -- on 29 July 1954, on 11 November 1954 and on 20 October 1955 respectively in the United Kingdom. In the United States, Houghton Mifflin published The Fellowship of the Ring on 21 October 1954, The Two Towers on 21 April 1955, and The Return of the King on 5 January 1956. The Return of the King was especially delayed due to Tolkien revising the ending and preparing appendices (some of which had to be left out because of space constraints). Tolkien did not like the title The Return of the King, believing it gave away too much of the storyline, but deferred to his publisher 's preference. He suggested the title The Two Towers in a deliberately ambiguous attempt to link the unconnected books III and IV, and as such the eponymous towers could be either Orthanc and Barad - dûr, or Minas Tirith and Barad - dûr, or Orthanc and Cirith Ungol.
Tolkien was initially opposed to titles being given to each two - book volume, preferring instead the use of book titles: e.g. The Lord of the Rings: Vol. 1, The Ring Sets Out and The Ring Goes South; Vol. 2, The Treason of Isengard and The Ring Goes East; Vol. 3, The War of the Ring and The End of the Third Age. However these individual book titles were later scrapped, and after pressure from his publishers, Tolkien initially suggested the titles: Vol. 1, The Shadow Grows; Vol. 2, The Ring in the Shadow; Vol. 3, The War of the Ring or The Return of the King.
The books were published under a profit - sharing arrangement, whereby Tolkien would not receive an advance or royalties until the books had broken even, after which he would take a large share of the profits. It has ultimately become one of the best - selling novels ever written, with over 150 million copies sold.
In the early 1960s Donald A. Wollheim, science fiction editor of the paperback publisher Ace Books, claimed that The Lord of the Rings was not protected in the United States under American copyright law because Houghton Mifflin, the US hardcover publisher, had neglected to copyright the work in the United States. Then, in 1965, Ace Books proceeded to publish an edition, unauthorized by Tolkien and without paying royalties to him. Tolkien took issue with this and quickly notified his fans of this objection. Grass - roots pressure from these fans became so great that Ace Books withdrew their edition and made a nominal payment to Tolkien. Authorized editions followed from Ballantine Books and Houghton Mifflin to tremendous commercial success. Tolkien undertook various textual revisions to produce a version of the book that would be published with his consent and establish an unquestioned US copyright. This text became the Second Edition of The Lord of the Rings, published in 1965. The first Ballantine paperback edition was printed in October that year, and sold a quarter of a million copies within ten months. On September 4 1966, the novel debuted on New York Times ' Paperback Bestsellers list as number three, and was number one by December 4, a position it held for eight weeks. Houghton Mifflin editions after 1994 consolidate variant revisions by Tolkien, and corrections supervised by Christopher Tolkien, which resulted, after some initial glitches, in a computer - based unified text.
In 2004, for the 50th Anniversary Edition, Wayne G. Hammond and Christina Scull, under supervision from Christopher Tolkien, studied and revised the text to eliminate as many errors and inconsistencies as possible, some of which had been introduced by well - meaning compositors of the first printing in 1954, and never been corrected. The 2005 edition of the book contained further corrections noticed by the editors and submitted by readers. Further corrections were added to the 60th Anniversary Edition in 2014.
Several editions, notably the 50th Anniversary Edition, combine all three books into one volume, with the result that pagination varies widely over the various editions.
From 1988 to 1992 Christopher Tolkien published the surviving drafts of The Lord of The Rings, chronicling and illuminating with commentary the stages of the text 's development, in volumes 6 -- 9 of his History of Middle - earth series. The four volumes carry the titles The Return of the Shadow, The Treason of Isengard, The War of the Ring, and Sauron Defeated.
The novel has been translated, with various degrees of success, into at least 38 languages. Tolkien, an expert in philology, examined many of these translations, and made comments on each that reflect both the translation process and his work. As he was unhappy with some choices made by early translators, such as the Swedish translation by Åke Ohlmarks, Tolkien wrote a "Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings '' (1967). Because The Lord of the Rings purports to be a translation of the fictitious Red Book of Westmarch, with the English language representing the Westron of the "original '', Tolkien suggested that translators attempt to capture the interplay between English and the invented nomenclature of the English work, and gave several examples along with general guidance.
While early reviews for The Lord of the Rings were mixed, reviews in various media have been, on the whole, highly positive and acknowledge Tolkien 's literary achievement as a significant one. The initial review in the Sunday Telegraph described it as "among the greatest works of imaginative fiction of the twentieth century ''. The Sunday Times echoed this sentiment, stating that "the English - speaking world is divided into those who have read The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit and those who are going to read them ''. The New York Herald Tribune also seemed to have an idea of how popular the books would become, writing in its review that they were "destined to outlast our time ''. W.H. Auden, an admirer of Tolkien 's writings, regarded The Lord of the Rings as a "masterpiece '', further stating that in some cases it outdid the achievement of John Milton 's Paradise Lost.
New York Times reviewer Judith Shulevitz criticized the "pedantry '' of Tolkien 's literary style, saying that he "formulated a high - minded belief in the importance of his mission as a literary preservationist, which turns out to be death to literature itself ''. Critic Richard Jenkyns, writing in The New Republic, criticized the work for a lack of psychological depth. Both the characters and the work itself are, according to Jenkyns, "anemic, and lacking in fibre ''. Even within Tolkien 's literary group, The Inklings, reviews were mixed. Hugo Dyson complained loudly at its readings. However, another Inkling, C.S. Lewis, had very different feelings, writing, "here are beauties which pierce like swords or burn like cold iron. Here is a book which will break your heart. '' Despite these reviews and its lack of paperback printing until the 1960s, The Lord of the Rings initially sold well in hardback.
In 1957, The Lord of the Rings was awarded the International Fantasy Award. Despite its numerous detractors, the publication of the Ace Books and Ballantine paperbacks helped The Lord of the Rings become immensely popular in the United States in the 1960s. The book has remained so ever since, ranking as one of the most popular works of fiction of the twentieth century, judged by both sales and reader surveys. In the 2003 "Big Read '' survey conducted in Britain by the BBC, The Lord of the Rings was found to be the "Nation 's best - loved book ''. In similar 2004 polls both Germany and Australia also found The Lord of the Rings to be their favourite book. In a 1999 poll of Amazon.com customers, The Lord of the Rings was judged to be their favourite "book of the millennium ''. The Lord of the Rings was awarded the Prometheus Hall of Fame Award in 2009.
Although The Lord of the Rings was published in the 1950s, Tolkien insisted that the One Ring was not an allegory for the atomic bomb, nor were his works a strict allegory of any kind, but were open to interpretation as the reader saw fit.
A few critics have found what they consider to be racial elements in the story, generally based upon their views of how Tolkien 's imagery depicts good and evil, characters ' race (e.g. Elf, Dwarf, Hobbit, Southron, Númenórean, Orc); and that the character 's race is seen as determining their behaviour. Counter-arguments note that race - focused critiques often omit relevant textual evidence to the contrary, cite imagery from adaptations rather than the work itself; ignore the absence of evidence of racist attitudes or events in the author 's personal life, and claim that the perception of racism is itself a marginal view.
Critics have also seen social class rather than race as being the determining factor in the portrayal of good and evil. Commentators such as science fiction author David Brin have interpreted the work to hold unquestioning devotion to a traditional elitist social structure. In his essay "Epic Pooh '', science fiction and fantasy author Michael Moorcock critiques the world - view displayed by the book as deeply conservative, in both the ' paternalism ' of the narrative voice and the power - structures in the narrative. Tom Shippey cites the origin of this portrayal of evil as a reflection of the prejudices of European middle - classes during the inter-war years towards the industrial working class.
Other observers have cited Christian and Catholic themes in The Lord of the Rings.
The book has been read as fitting the model of Joseph Campbell 's "monomyth ''.
The Lord of the Rings has been adapted for film, radio and stage.
The book has been adapted for radio four times. In 1955 and 1956, the BBC broadcast The Lord of the Rings, a 12 - part radio adaptation of the story. In the 1960s radio station WBAI produced a short radio adaptation. A 1979 dramatization of The Lord of the Rings was broadcast in the United States and subsequently issued on tape and CD. In 1981, the BBC broadcast The Lord of the Rings, a new dramatization in 26 half - hour instalments. This dramatization of The Lord of the Rings has subsequently been made available on both tape and CD both by the BBC and other publishers. For this purpose it is generally edited into 13 one - hour episodes.
Following J.R.R. Tolkien 's sale of the film rights for The Lord of the Rings to United Artists in 1969, rock band The Beatles considered a corresponding film project and approached Stanley Kubrick as a potential director; however, Kubrick turned down the offer, explaining to John Lennon that he thought the novel could not be adapted into a film due to its immensity. The eventual director of the film adaptation Peter Jackson further explained that a major hindrance to the project 's progression was Tolkien 's opposition to the involvement of the Beatles.
Two film adaptations of the book have been made. The first was J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings (1978), by animator Ralph Bakshi, the first part of what was originally intended to be a two - part adaptation of the story; it covers The Fellowship of the Ring and part of The Two Towers. A three - issue comic book version of the movie was also published in Europe (but not printed in English), with illustrations by Luis Bermejo. When Bakshi 's investors shied away of financing the second film that would complete the story, the remainder of the story was covered in an animated television special by Rankin - Bass. Stylistically, the two segments are very different. The second and more commercially successful adaptation was Peter Jackson 's live action The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, produced by New Line Cinema and released in three instalments as The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002), and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003). All three parts won multiple Academy Awards, including consecutive Best Picture nominations. The final instalment of this trilogy was the second film to break the one - billion - dollar barrier and won a total of 11 Oscars (something only two other films in history, Ben - Hur and Titanic, have accomplished), including Best Picture, Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay.
The Hunt for Gollum, a fan film based on elements of the appendices to The Lord of the Rings, was released on the internet in May 2009 and has been covered in major media.
Born of Hope, written by Paula DiSante, directed by Kate Madison, and released in December 2009, is a fan film based upon the appendices of The Lord of the Rings.
In 1990, Recorded Books published an audio version of The Lord of the Rings, with British actor Rob Inglis -- who had previously starred in his own one - man stage productions of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings -- reading. A large - scale musical theatre adaptation, The Lord of the Rings was first staged in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in 2006 and opened in London in May 2007.
The enormous popularity of Tolkien 's work expanded the demand for fantasy fiction. Largely thanks to The Lord of the Rings, the genre flowered throughout the 1960s, and enjoys popularity to the present day. The opus has spawned many imitators, such as The Sword of Shannara, which Lin Carter called "the single most cold - blooded, complete rip - off of another book that I have ever read ''. Dungeons & Dragons, which popularized the role - playing game (RPG) genre in the 1970s, features many races found in The Lord of the Rings, most notably halflings (another term for hobbits), elves (who are distinct from dark elves, following Tolkien 's example), dwarves, half - elves, orcs, and dragons. However, Gary Gygax, lead designer of the game, maintained that he was influenced very little by The Lord of the Rings, stating that he included these elements as a marketing move to draw on the popularity the work enjoyed at the time he was developing the game.
Because D&D has gone on to influence many popular role - playing video games, the influence of The Lord of the Rings extends to many of them as well, with titles such as Dragon Quest, the Ultima series, EverQuest, the Warcraft series, and the Elder Scrolls series of games as well as video games set in Middle - earth itself.
Research also suggests that some consumers of fantasy games derive their motivation from trying to create an epic fantasy narrative which is influenced by The Lord of the Rings.
In 1965, songwriter Donald Swann, who was best known for his collaboration with Michael Flanders as Flanders & Swann, set six poems from The Lord of the Rings and one from The Adventures of Tom Bombadil ("Errantry '') to music. When Swann met with Tolkien to play the songs for his approval, Tolkien suggested for "Namárië '' (Galadriel 's lament) a setting reminiscent of plain chant, which Swann accepted. The songs were published in 1967 as The Road Goes Ever On: A Song Cycle, and a recording of the songs performed by singer William Elvin with Swann on piano was issued that same year by Caedmon Records as Poems and Songs of Middle Earth.
In 1988, Dutch composer and trombonist Johan de Meij completed his Symphony No. 1 "The Lord of the Rings '', which encompassed 5 movements, titled "Gandalf '', "Lothlórien '', "Gollum '', "Journey in the Dark '', and "Hobbits ''. In 1989 the symphony was awarded the Sudler Composition Award, awarded biennially for best wind band composition. The Danish Tolkien Ensemble have released a number of albums that feature the complete poems and songs of The Lord of the Rings set to music, with some featuring recitation by Christopher Lee.
Rock bands of the 1970s were musically and lyrically inspired by the fantasy embracing counter-culture of the time; British 70s rock band Led Zeppelin recorded several songs that contain explicit references to The Lord of the Rings ("Ramble On '', "Misty Mountain Hop '', "The Battle of Evermore '', and "Over the Hills and Far Away ''). In 1970, the Swedish musician Bo Hansson released an instrumental concept album based on the book titled Sagan om ringen (translated as "The Saga of the Ring '', which was the title of the Swedish translation of The Lord of the Rings at the time). The album was subsequently released internationally as Music Inspired by Lord of the Rings in 1972. The songs "Rivendell '' and "The Necromancer '' by the progressive rock band Rush were inspired by Tolkien. Styx also paid homage to Tolkien on their "Pieces of Eight '' album with the song "Lords of the Ring '', while Black Sabbath 's song, "The Wizard '', which appeared on their debut album, was influenced by Tolkien 's hero, Gandalf. The heavy metal band Cirith Ungol took their name from a mountain pass in Middle - earth. Progressive rock group Camel paid homage to the text in their lengthy composition "Nimrodel / The Procession / The White Rider '', and Progressive rock band Barclay James Harvest was inspired by the character Galadriel to write a song by that name, and used "Bombadil '', the name of another character, as a pseudonym under which their 1972 single "Breathless '' / "When the City Sleeps '' was released; there are other references scattered through the BJH oeuvre.
Later, from the 1980s to the present day, many heavy metal acts have been influenced by Tolkien. Blind Guardian has written many songs relating to Middle - earth, including the full concept album Nightfall in Middle Earth. Almost the entire discography of Battlelore are Tolkien - themed. Summoning 's music is based upon Tolkien and holds the distinction of the being the only artist to have crafted a song entirely in the Black Speech of Mordor. Gorgoroth and Amon Amarth take their names from an area of Mordor, and Burzum take their name from the Black Speech of Mordor. The Finnish metal band Nightwish and the Norwegian metal band Tristania have also incorporated many Tolkien references into their music. American heavy metal band Megadeth released two song titled This Day We Fight! and How the Story Ends which were both inspired by the Lord of the Rings series. German folk metal band Eichenschild is named for Thorin Oakenshield, and naturally has a number of Tolkien - themed songs. They are not to be confused with the 70s folk rock band Thorin Eichenschild.
Enya wrote an instrumental piece called "Lothlórien '' in 1991, and composed two songs for the film The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring -- "May It Be '' (sung in English and Quenya) and "Aníron '' (sung in Sindarin).
The Lord of the Rings has had a profound and wide - ranging impact on popular culture, beginning with its publication in the 1950s, but especially throughout the 1960s and 1970s, during which time young people embraced it as a countercultural saga. "Frodo Lives! '' and "Gandalf for President '' were two phrases popular amongst United States Tolkien fans during this time.
Parodies like the Harvard Lampoon 's Bored of the Rings, the VeggieTales episode "Lord of the Beans '', the South Park episode "The Return of the Fellowship of the Ring to the Two Towers '', the Futurama film "Bender 's Game '', The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius episode "Lights! Camera! Danger! '', The Big Bang Theory episode "The Precious Fragmentation '', and the American Dad! episode "The Return of the Bling '' are testimony to the work 's continual presence in popular culture.
In 1969, Tolkien sold the merchandising rights to The Lord of The Rings (and The Hobbit) to United Artists under an agreement stipulating a lump sum payment of £ 10,000 plus a 7.5 % royalty after costs, payable to Allen & Unwin and the author. In 1976, three years after the author 's death, United Artists sold the rights to Saul Zaentz Company, who now trade as Tolkien Enterprises. Since then all "authorized '' merchandise has been signed - off by Tolkien Enterprises, although the intellectual property rights of the specific likenesses of characters and other imagery from various adaptations is generally held by the adaptors. Outside any commercial exploitation from adaptations, from the late 1960s onwards there has been an increasing variety of original licensed merchandise, from posters and calendars created by illustrators such as Pauline Baynes and the Brothers Hildebrandt, to figurines and miniatures to computer, video, tabletop and role - playing games. Recent examples include the Spiel des Jahres award winning (for best use of literature in a game) board game The Lord of the Rings by Reiner Knizia and the Golden Joystick award - winning massively multiplayer online role - playing game, The Lord of the Rings Online: Shadows of Angmar by Turbine, Inc...
The Lord of the Rings has been mentioned in numerous songs including The Ballad of Bilbo Baggins by Leonard Nimoy, Led Zeppelin 's Misty Mountain Hop, Over the Hills and Far Away, Ramble On, and The Battle of Evermore, Genesis ' song "Stagnation '' (from Trespass, 1970) was about Gollum, and Argent included the song "Lothlorien '' on the 1971 album Ring of Hands.
Steve Peregrin Took (born Stephen Ross Porter) of British rock band T. Rex took his name from the hobbit Peregrin Took (better known as Pippin). Took later recorded under the pseudonym ' Shagrat the Vagrant ', before forming a band called Shagrat in 1970.
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allison harvard america's next top model portfolio | Allison Harvard - wikipedia
Allison Elizabeth Harvard (born January 8, 1988) is an American model, artist, actress, and Internet celebrity, best known as the runner - up of both cycle 12 of America 's Next Top Model and America 's Next Top Model: All - Stars. Harvard has appeared on the cover of magazines such as Harper 's Bazaar, ONE, WeTheUrban, and one of the Philippines ' leading fashion megazines, Mega. She also featured as the brand endorser of Belo Medical Group and covered their special edition magazine.
Harvard was born in Houston, Texas and raised in New Orleans, Louisiana. She attended Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge before transferring to the University of New Orleans, where she studied art during the spring semester. Her artwork is featured in the 2007 novel The Story Told at Night by Liza Kuznetsova.
In 2005, before her appearance on America 's Next Top Model, Harvard gained notoriety as an Internet meme on 4chan, where she became known as Creepy - chan.
After being contacted through email by a casting agent who had seen her look online, Harvard successfully auditioned for cycle 12 of America 's Next Top Model. During the audition process, Harvard stated that she thought nosebleeds were pretty, and that she was fascinated by blood.
Harvard was called first by Tyra Banks four times, in episodes two, ten, twelve and thirteen (the first part of the finale). Harvard was in the bottom two twice. In episode four, she landed in the bottom two with contestant Nijah Harris because she was said to have over-analyzed her shoot. In episode seven, she landed in the bottom two with contestant Tahlia Brookins because of her lackluster commercial and her one - dimensional look, leading the judges to question her versatility.
During the finale episode of America 's Next Top Model, Harvard gave a convincing CoverGirl commercial and was hailed for her improvement from the previous commercial. In the final runway walk, Harvard was deemed the most improved despite being deemed the worst walker out of the bunch at the beginning of the competition. Despite her improvements and strong look, Harvard lost the competition to Teyona Anderson, making Harvard the runner - up.
In 2011, Harvard participated in cycle 17 of America 's Next Top Model, the first All - Stars edition of the show, where she was the runner - up for a second time.
Like all the other contestants on Cycle 17, Harvard was given a branding word: "unique ''. During her time on the show she developed her own perfume called "Honey Blood '' and performed in a music video for her song "Underwater ''.
Alongside fellow ANTM All - Star contestants, Harvard modeled for Express, Kardashian Kollection and Michael Cinco.
Harvard made an appearance in the season finale of Cycle 21, taking part in a commercial for Tyra 's new make - up collection along with the final 4 contestants.
Harvard is currently signed with NEXT Model Management and Elite Model Management. In June 2009, Harvard signed with the Los Angeles - based Nous Model Management, but is no longer included on the agency 's current roster. Since America 's Next Top Model, Harvard has modeled for KarmaLoop.com, walked at the 2012 New York Fashion Week for Gemma Kahng and Malan Breton, and was featured in a spread for ONE Magazine. She has also modeled for Chromat and Richie Rich.
In June 2009, she made an Internet video with fourfour titled "Fake Blood '', and was "interviewed '' by Winston, the resident cat at fourfour. Harvard is the face of Michael Cinco 's "Impalpable '' perfume, with international male model Tierry Vilson and walked in the Philippine Fashion Week 2012 with fellow All - Stars contestant Dominique Reighard in the Michael Cinco and Rajo Laurel for Bench fashion shows. Harvard was on the cover of the fifth issue of online publication WeTheUrban. In mid-2012, she appeared in promotional photos for G Fine Body Art, a beauty brand that is set to launch glittery body art services at salons and spas starting later in fall 2012.
In celebration of Bench 's twenty - fifth anniversary, Harvard walked the runway at Bench Universe: The 2012 Denim & Underwear Show in September 2012, along with Reighard and this time with America 's Next Top Model, Cycle 18 winner Sophie Sumner.
On October 6, 2012, Harvard made an appearance in an episode of I Am Meg: Own the World in Style, a Philippine TV Lifestyle show on ETC.
On October 10, 2012, a behind - the - scenes shows Harvard did a fashion shoot for Bello Magazine, titled "Hippie Trail ''. On October 17, Harvard walked for NAVEN at the Los Angeles Fashion Week.
In October 2013, it was announced that Harvard would be one of the hosts of the Philippine television show Mega Fashion Crew: Reloaded on ETC. In 2014, she became one of the judges of the Philippine dance competition television show Celebrity Dance Battle, which premiered on TV5 on March 22. In August 2014, Harvard booked another show for Bench called The Naked Truth and established CatxBench, a watercolor illustration designed by her which part of Bench Collection, in December. Same month, she guested as a judge for the grand finals of Miss Earth 2014. Also an appearance in America 's Next Top Model to shoot in Tyra 's new makeup line called TYRA along with the finalist, took place. She was also featured in the March 2015 issue of High Street Magazine with her boyfriend, Jeremy Burke.
It was confirmed by Harvard herself that she will be judging the Cosplay Authority Global Challenge (The CAGE) co-located with AsiaPOP Comicon Manila 2015 in Manila.
On September 21, 2012 it was announced that Harvard would be making her acting debut as the character Carina in the independent feature film Insensate. The film was released early August 2013 on iTunes. Insensate was later released on Amazon.
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who played too tall in we were soldiers | Ed Freeman - wikipedia
Ed W. "Too Tall '' Freeman (November 20, 1927 -- August 20, 2008) was a United States Army helicopter pilot who received the U.S. military 's highest decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions in the Battle of Ia Drang during the Vietnam War. During the battle, he flew through gunfire numerous times, bringing supplies to a trapped American battalion and flying dozens of wounded soldiers to safety. Freeman was a wingman for Major Bruce Crandall who also received the Medal of Honor for the same missions.
Freeman was born in Neely, Greene County, Mississippi, the sixth of nine children. When he was 13 years old, he saw thousands of men on maneuvers pass by his home in Mississippi. He knew then that he would become a soldier.
He grew up in nearby McLain, Mississippi and graduated from Washington High School. At age 17, before graduating from high school, Freeman served in the U.S. Navy for two years. After the war, he returned to his hometown and graduated from high school. He joined the U.S. Army in September 1948, and married Barbara Morgan on April 30, 1954. They had two sons: Mike, born in 1956, and Doug, born in 1962.
During World War II, Freeman served for two years in the Navy on the USS Cacapon (AO - 52).
By the time of the Korean War, Freeman reached the Army rank of first sergeant. Although he was in the Corps of Engineers, his company fought as an infantry soldier in Korea. He participated in the Battle of Pork Chop Hill and earned a battlefield commission as one of only 14 survivors out of 257 men who made it through the opening stages of the battle. His second lieutenant bars were pinned on by General James Van Fleet personally. He then assumed command of B Company and led them back up Pork Chop Hill.
The commission made him eligible to become a pilot, a childhood dream of his. However, when he applied for pilot training he was told that, at six feet four inches, he was "too tall '' for pilot duty. The phrase stuck, and he was known by the nickname of "Too Tall '' for the rest of his career.
In 1955, the height limit for pilots was raised and Freeman was accepted into flying school. He first flew fixed - wing Army airplanes before switching to helicopters. After the Korean War, he flew the world on mapping missions.
By the time he was sent to Vietnam in 1965, he was an experienced helicopter pilot and was placed second - in - command of his sixteen - aircraft unit. He served as a captain in Company A, 229th Assault Helicopter Battalion, 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile).
On November 14, 1965, Freeman and his unit transported a battalion of American soldiers to the Ia Drang Valley. Later, after arriving back at base, they learned that the soldiers had come under intense fire and had taken heavy casualties. Enemy fire around the landing zones was so heavy that the landing zone was closed to medical evacuation helicopters. Freeman and his commander, Major Bruce Crandall, volunteered to fly their unarmed, lightly armored UH - 1 Huey in support of the embattled troops. Freeman made a total of fourteen trips to the battlefield, bringing in water and ammunition and taking out wounded soldiers under heavy enemy fire in what was later named the Battle of Ia Drang.
Freeman was subsequently promoted to the rank of major, designated as a Master Army Aviator, and was sent home from Vietnam in 1966.
Freeman 's commanding officer nominated him for the Medal of Honor for his actions at Ia Drang, but not in time to meet a two - year deadline then in place. He was instead awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. The Medal of Honor nomination was disregarded until 1995, when the two - year deadline was removed. He was formally presented with the medal on July 16, 2001, in the East Room of the White House by President George W. Bush.
Freeman 's official Medal of Honor citation reads:
Captain Ed W. Freeman, United States Army, distinguished himself by numerous acts of conspicuous gallantry and extraordinary intrepidity on 14 November 1965 while serving with Company A, 229th Assault Helicopter Battalion, 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile). As a flight leader and second in command of a 16 - helicopter lift unit, he supported a heavily engaged American infantry battalion at Landing Zone X-Ray in the Ia Drang Valley, Republic of Vietnam. The unit was almost out of ammunition after taking some of the heaviest casualties of the war, fighting off a relentless attack from a highly motivated, heavily armed enemy force. When the infantry commander closed the helicopter landing zone due to intense direct enemy fire, Captain Freeman risked his own life by flying his unarmed helicopter through a gauntlet of enemy fire time after time, delivering critically needed ammunition, water and medical supplies to the besieged battalion. His flights had a direct impact on the battle 's outcome by providing the engaged units with timely supplies of ammunition critical to their survival, without which they would almost surely have gone down, with much greater loss of life. After medical evacuation helicopters refused to fly into the area due to intense enemy fire, Captain Freeman flew 14 separate rescue missions, providing life - saving evacuation of an estimated 30 seriously wounded soldiers -- some of whom would not have survived had he not acted. All flights were made into a small emergency landing zone within 100 to 200 meters of the defensive perimeter where heavily committed units were perilously holding off the attacking elements. Captain Freeman 's selfless acts of great valor, extraordinary perseverance and intrepidity were far above and beyond the call of duty or mission and set a superb example of leadership and courage for all of his peers. Captain Freeman 's extraordinary heroism and devotion to duty are in keeping with the highest traditions of military service and reflect great credit upon himself, his unit and the United States Army.
He retired from the military in 1967. Freeman and his family settled in the Treasure Valley area of Idaho, his wife Barbara 's home state. He continued to work as a pilot. He flew helicopters for another 20 years, fighting wildfires, conducting animal censuses, and herding wild horses for the Department of the Interior until his second retirement in 1991. By then, he had 17,000 flight hours in helicopters, 22,000 overall.
Freeman died on August 20, 2008 due to complications from Parkinson 's disease. He was buried with full military honors at the Idaho State Veterans Cemetery in Boise.
In the 2002 film We Were Soldiers, which depicted the Battle of Ia Drang, Freeman was portrayed by Mark McCracken.
The post office in Freeman 's hometown of McLain, Mississippi, was renamed the "Major Ed W. Freeman Post Office '' in March 2009.
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who sang my name is tallulah in bugsy malone | Bugsy Malone - wikipedia
Bugsy Malone is a 1976 American - British musical gangster comedy film, directed by Alan Parker and featuring only child actors. Set in New York City, the film is loosely based on events in New York and Chicago from the early 1920s to 1931 during Prohibition, specifically the exploits of real - life gangsters like Al Capone and Bugs Moran, as dramatized in cinema. Parker lightened the subject matter considerably for the children 's market; in the U.S. the film received a G rating.
The film was Parker 's feature - length directorial debut, introduced actor Scott Baio, and featured a 13 - year old Jodie Foster.
A mobster named Roxy Robinson is "splurged '' by members of a gang, using rapid - fire cream - shooting "splurge guns ''. Once splurged, a kid is "all washed up... finished ''. Speakeasy boss Fat Sam introduces himself and Bugsy Malone, a boxing promoter with no money ("Bugsy Malone '').
At Fat Sam 's speakeasy, there is much dancing and singing ("Fat Sam 's Grand Slam ''). Fat Sam is worried that his rival Dandy Dan will try to take control of the speakeasy. Blousey Brown, an aspiring singer, has come for an audition, but Sam is too distracted to see her. Bugsy meets Blousey when he trips over her luggage. He is smitten and flirts with her. Fat Sam 's is raided by Dandy Dan 's men, who shoot up the place. Dandy Dan 's men continue to attack Fat Sam 's empire, eventually taking away rackets and splurging members of Fat Sam 's gang. Fat Sam sends all his available men to see if they can track down the guns. They are trapped at a laundry and all are splurged by Dandy Dan 's gang.
Bugsy returns to Fat Sam 's to arrange a new audition for Blousey. Fat Sam 's girlfriend, the chanteuse Tallulah, makes a pass at him. Although Bugsy rejects her flirtation, Tallulah plants a big kiss on Bugsy 's forehead when Blousey enters; Blousey is jealous. Fat Sam hires Blousey after her audition, but she refuses to speak to Bugsy ("I 'm Feelin ' Fine '').
Fat Sam hires Bugsy to accompany him to a meeting with Dandy Dan. The meeting is a trap, but Bugsy helps Fat Sam escape. Gratefully, Fat Sam pays him $200. Bugsy and Blousey reconcile and have a romantic outing on a lake; Bugsy promises to take her to Hollywood. When he returns Sam 's car to the garage, he is attacked and his money is stolen. Bugsy is saved by Leroy Smith, who assaults the attackers and drives them away. Bugsy realizes that Leroy has the potential to be a great boxer. Bugsy introduces Leroy to Cagey Joe and helps him train ("So You Wanna Be a Boxer? ''). Fat Sam again seeks Bugsy 's aid after his assistant Knuckles is unintentionally killed. Bugsy resists, but Fat Sam offers $400, enough money to keep his promise to Blousey. Blousey is disappointed when she learns that Bugsy has n't bought the tickets to California yet ("Ordinary Fool ''). Bugsy and Leroy follow Dandy Dan 's men to a warehouse, where the guns are being stashed. The two of them ca n't take the place alone, so Bugsy recruits a large group of down - and - out workers at a soup kitchen ("Down and Out '').
They steal the crates of guns and take them to Fat Sam 's, arriving just as Dandy Dan 's gang arrives. Chaos ensues as a massive splurge gun fight erupts, covering everyone (except Bugsy and Blousey) with cream. Unarmed patrons throw cream pies. The piano player is hit from behind and falls onto the keys, striking a single bass note. The tone silences the room, and the cream - covered crowd performs in a final number ("You Give a Little Love ''). They realize they can all be friends, and Bugsy and Blousey leave for Hollywood.
Bugsy Malone was Alan Parker 's first feature film. Parker was trying to find a film project that was not "parochial '' and decided upon an American gangster setting: "I had four young children and we used to go to a cottage in Derbyshire at weekends. On the long, boring car journey up there, I started telling them the story of a gangster called Bugsy Malone. They 'd ask me questions and I 'd make up answers, based on my memories of watching old movie reruns as a kid. '' His eldest son suggested children should be cast as the "heroes ''.
The director chose to cast several unknown actors in the film. To find his Fat Sam, Parker visited a Brooklyn classroom, asking for "the naughtiest boy in class ''. The students were unanimous in selecting John Cassisi, and Parker gave him the role. Florrie Dugger (Blousey) was originally cast in a smaller role; when the actress cast as Blousey suddenly grew taller than Baio, Dugger was promoted. She had been "discovered '' at RAF Chicksands, an air force base in Bedfordshire where her American father was stationed. At the time of filming, all of the cast were under 17 years old.
Parker cast Baio after he slammed down the script and stormed out of his audition. Baio later remembered:
I had quit the business, because I did n't like driving into Manhattan. Well, the long and the short of it is that I wanted to play with my friends after school, but it happened to be raining that day, so I went to the city to meet with Alan Parker. I read it, but I just barely read it. I did n't even want to be there. He was English, but I did n't even know what that was. He was just this weird guy with long hair, and I did n't know what he was. (Laughs.) So I sort of read the script, threw it at him, and walked out the door. That was it: I 'd gotten the part before I got home.
Parker chose Paul Williams to score the film in order to get a more "palatable '' modern sound, and simply because he liked him. Williams had scored Brian De Palma 's commercial failure Phantom of the Paradise, but had also written huge pop - radio hits (such as "We 've Only Just Begun '' (lyrics), and "(Just An) Old Fashioned Love Song ''). In fact, Williams would soon win an Oscar for his song "Evergreen '' from the film A Star Is Born (1976).
Williams felt that "... the challenge for me was to provide songs that reflected the period... and yet maintained an energy that would hold the young audiences attention. '' According to Parker, Williams was writing while on tour, recording songs in different cities, and sending the completed tapes to Hollywood. Arriving during the first pre-shoot rehearsals, the songs had to be accepted and used as they were, with voices by Williams, Archie Hahn and others.
Neither the director nor the songwriter was entirely comfortable with the results. Williams later wrote "I 'm really proud of the work and the only thing I 've ever doubted is the choice of using adult voices. Perhaps I should have given the kids a chance to sing the songs. '' Parker also commented: "Watching the film after all these years, this is one aspect that I find the most bizarre. Adult voices coming out of these kids ' mouths? I had told Paul that I did n't want squeaky kids voices and he interpreted this in his own way. Anyway, as the tapes arrived, scarcely weeks away from filming, we had no choice but to go along with it! ''
The film was rehearsed and shot in England, largely on Pinewood Studios ' "H '' stage, with locations in Black Park Country Park (Wexham, Buckinghamshire) and Reading, Berkshire.
The "splurge firearm '' proved to be problematic. After initial experiments with cream - filled wax balls proved painful, Parker decided to abandon the idea of filming the firearms directly. Instead, the firearms fired ping - pong balls, and a fast cut to a victim being pelted with "splurge '' was used to convey the impression of the rapid - firing firearms.
Baio later said making the film was "awesome '':
A kid 's fantasy: You get to dress up as gangster, you get to shoot guns that fire whipped cream, you get to drive cars with pedals that look like real cars, and you get to talk like a grown - up. I mean, you could n't ask for a better first big gig. Talk about getting you hooked on a business! It was fantastic.
Bugsy Malone was released in late 1976 to generally positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it currently holds a score of 83 % based on 18 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6 / 10. Despite the positive critical reception, Bugsy Malone was not a commercial success in the US, bringing in just over $2.7 million. Paramount gave it a limited release, usually in second - tier theaters in a double - bill with The Bad News Bears, which had already been out for six months and was no longer much of a draw. According to Parker, the film was "quite successful '' in the United Kingdom. By 1985, it had earned an estimated profit of £ 1,854,000.
The film garnered 15 award nominations, including "Best Motion Picture (Musical / Comedy) '', "Best Original Score '' and "Best Original Song '' (for the title track) from the Golden Globes, and an Oscar for "Best Original Song Score '' (Paul Williams). The film was in competition for the Palme d'Or at the 1976 Cannes Film Festival. Actress Jodie Foster received two BAFTAs, "Best Supporting Actress '' and "Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles '', however, both her nominations were for her previous year 's work in Taxi Driver in addition to her work on Bugsy Malone. Alan Parker received the BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay, and a nomination for Best Direction. Geoffrey Kirkland won the BAFTA Award for Best Production Design. Additionally, Paul Williams received a nomination for the Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music, and Monica Howe a Best Costume Design nomination. The film itself received a Best Picture nomination.
In 2008, the American Film Institute nominated this film for its Top 10 Gangster Films list.
In the early eighties, Bugsy Malone was released on VHS. On 16 April 1996, it was re-released by Paramount on VHS. Although the film has never been commercially released on Region 1 DVD, it has been available through Internet sites as an Asian import supporting Region 1 (US). On 9 September 2008, Arista / SME released a Blu - ray version, encoded for "all regions '', as a United Kingdom import. This edition includes a director 's commentary as well as other special features, however, as of October 2009, the Blu - ray version was discontinued. A US DVD (Region 1) release was listed around 2003 / 04 as being available soon, however the film has yet to be released in this format.
The album was originally released as an LP in 1976. In March 1996, Polydor UK released the soundtrack on CD. It has yet to be released in the US on CD but is available through various outlets as an import.
Performers include Paul Williams, Archie Hahn, Julie McWhirter, and Liberty Williams. The track listing is:
A cast recording of the National Youth Music Theatre stage version of Bugsy Malone was released in 1998. Like the stage show, this recording featured two songs originally written by Williams, but not used in the film: "That 's Why They Call Him Dandy '' and "Show Business ''. There is also some additional incidental orchestral score, such as an Overture and Exit Music, with music arranged by John Pearson.
In 2003, Bugsy Malone was voted # 19 on a list of the 100 greatest musicals, as chosen by viewers of Channel 4 in the UK, placing it higher than The Phantom of the Opera, Cats, and The King and I. Bugsy Malone ranks 353rd on Empire Magazine 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time.
Bugsy Malone has been adapted into a stage show in two forms. A 2003 television documentary called Bugsy Malone: After They Were Famous features a reunion and interviews with Jodie Foster, Scott Baio, John Cassisi and Florrie Dugger. The British actors who played Fat Sam 's gang are also reunited at Pinewood Studios. The documentary reported that Dugger, who (unlike her co-stars) had never acted again, had chosen to pursue a career in the United States Air Force Medical Service.
In 2010, UK band Silvery included a cover of "You Give a Little Love '' on their second album ' Railway Architecture ', and Olly Murs, runner up in the 2009 UK series of The X Factor, sampled "So You Wanna Be a Boxer '' in his song "Hold On '' that can be found on his debut album.
In 2011, the film was the most screened film in secondary schools in the United Kingdom.
In 2017, the song "You Give A Little Love '' was sung by a children 's chorus at the end of a Netflix "Black Mirror '' episode (Season 4 episode 3 "Crocodile '').
Parker wrote the book for a stage adaptation of Bugsy Malone, using Williams ' music. This premiered in the West End in 1983 at Her Majesty 's Theatre and ran for 300 performances. It was directed by Michael Dolenz and the cast featured Catherine Zeta - Jones as Tallulah. In 1997, the National Youth Music Theatre mounted an all - youth version. It was revived at the Queen 's Theatre in 1997, starring Sheridan Smith and Jamie Bell. Another revival played in 2015 and again in 2016 at the Lyric Hammersmith theatre, where it was nominated for the Olivier Award for best musical revival.
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when did germany won the football world cup | Germany at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
This is a record of Germany and West Germany 's results at the FIFA World Cup. The FIFA World Cup, sometimes called the Football World Cup, but usually referred to simply as the World Cup, is an international association football competition contested by the men 's national teams of the members of FIFA, the sport 's global governing body.
The tournament consists of two parts, the qualification phase and the final phase (officially called the World Cup Finals). The qualification phase, which currently takes place over the three years going to the Finals, is used to determine which teams qualify for the Finals. The current format of the Finals involves 32 teams competing for the title, at venues within the host nation (or nations) over a period of about a month. The World Cup Finals is the most widely viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the 2006 tournament final.
For Germany 's World Cup history, FIFA considers only the teams managed by the Deutscher Fußball - Bund, comprising three periods: Germany (during Nazi era), West Germany and reunified Germany. The Germany national football team is one of the most successful national teams at the FIFA World Cup, winning four titles, earning second - place and third - place finishes four times each and one fourth - place finish. If you consider 3rd place or better for a winning campaign, Germany 's 12 victories in 19 tournaments add up to at least three more than any other nation. In addition, Germany are the only team which has stood on the podium (3rd place or better) every decade there was a tournament held -- 1930s, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2000s and 2010s. Along with Argentina, Brazil and Spain, they are one of the four national teams to win outside their continental confederation, with the title of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in South America. The team was present in 19 out of the 21 tournaments, the second most frequent, and only did not reach the quarterfinals twice, in 1938 and 2018. With this, Germany 's 8th place or better (quarterfinals) in 17 out of 19 tournaments (89 %) ranks highest in FIFA World Cup Finals history. It makes Germany the better team in the history of the tournament in terms of final positions, if points were awarded proportionally for a title, runner - up finish, third - place finish, semi-final and quarter - final appearances.
Champions Runners - up Third place Fourth place
Only 14 days before the final, Germany played the favoured Hungarian Golden Team in the first round of the tournament and suffered a 3 - 8 loss, their highest World Cup defeat to this day. In the final, Hungary was up by two goals after only eight minutes, so it came as a surprise that the German team not only quickly equalized but turned the game around in the 84th minute with a goal scored by Helmut Rahn.
The strongly contested game between Germany and host nation England went into extra time after a score of 2 - 2 after 90 minutes. Geoff Hurst 's goal in the 101st minute is one of the most controversial in football history: His shot bounced off the cross-bar onto the ground and back away from the goal. After a brief discussion with the Soviet linesman Tofiq Bahramov, referee Gottfried Dienst awarded the goal. With the Germans forced to press for the equalizer, Hurst converted a counter attack in the 120th minute and decided the match for England.
Germany reached the final as host nation in 1974 and were facing their neighbours and rivals from the Netherlands. After an early penalty scored by Johan Neeskens, Germany turned the game around to win their second World Cup trophy.
Paul Breitner became only the third player in World Cup history to have scored in two separate finals, but only after the Italians had already taken a 3 - 0 lead after 81 minutes.
With the highest attendance ever at a FIFA World Cup final, West Germany faced Argentina in Mexico City. Although the South Americans ' star player Diego Maradona was closely guarded by the German team, he assisted the decisive 3 - 2 scored by Jorge Burruchaga, ensuring his country 's second World Cup win. Late during the match, three yellow cards were given to Argentinians for time wasting.
For this re-match of the 1986 Final, Argentina played extremely defensively. Defender Pedro Monzón became the first player ever to receive a red card in a World Cup final, only to be joined by team mate Gustavo Dezotti 22 minutes later. Although West Germany was the dominating side with 23: 1 shots, it is fitting that the rough match was decided by a penalty kick taken by Andreas Brehme.
Franz Beckenbauer achieved the feat to lose and then win a World Cup final each as player (1966, 1974) and manager (1986, 1990).
With only one goal against during the six matches leading up to the final, hopes were on the German defence to withstand Brazil 's star quality strikers. Germany 's playmaker Michael Ballack was suspended for the final after picking his second yellow card of the tournament in the semi-final against South Korea. Two goals from Ronaldo in the middle of the second half decided the match in favour of the South Americans and ensured their record fifth title.
Despite defeating host country Brazil 7 -- 1, Germany was supported by the home fans due to Brazil 's rivalry with Argentina. This record third match - up of two teams in World Cup finals saw good chances for both sides in regular time, but stayed goalless until substitute striker Mario Götze scored during the second half of extra time, in the 113th minute. The fourth title was the first since Germany 's reunification in October 1990.
Lothar Matthäus is the FIFA World Cup 's all - time record player. In addition, along with Antonio Carbajal and Rafael Márquez from Mexico, he is one of the few players to have been fielded in five FIFA World Cups.
Miroslav Klose, who is only one match behind, also holds the record for most victories at FIFA World Cups (17).
Since 2014, Miroslav Klose is the all - time top goalscorer at FIFA World Cup final tournaments. Gerd Müller used to be the holder of that record from 1974 until it was broken by Ronaldo in 2006.
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which of the following did not result from the congress of vienna | Congress of Vienna - wikipedia
The Congress of Vienna (German: Wiener Kongress) was a meeting of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814. The objective of the Congress was to provide a long - term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace. The leaders were conservatives with little use for republicanism or revolution, both of which threatened to upset the status quo in Europe. France lost all its recent conquests while Prussia, Austria and Russia made major territorial gains. Prussia added smaller German states in the west, Swedish Pomerania and 60 % of the Kingdom of Saxony; Austria gained Venice and much of northern Italy. Russia gained parts of Poland. The new Kingdom of the Netherlands had been created just months before, and included formerly Austrian territory that in 1830 became Belgium.
The immediate background was Napoleonic France 's defeat and surrender in May 1814, which brought an end to 25 years of nearly continuous war. Negotiations continued despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon 's dramatic return from exile and resumption of power in France during the Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress 's "final act '' was signed nine days before his final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815.
The Congress has often been criticized for causing the subsequent suppression of the emerging national and liberal movements, and it has been seen as a reactionary movement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. However, others praise it for having created relatively long - term stability and peaceful conditions in most of Europe.
In a technical sense, the "Congress of Vienna '' was not properly a congress: it never met in plenary session, and most of the discussions occurred in informal, face - to - face sessions among the Great Powers of Austria, Britain, France, Russia, and sometimes Prussia, with limited or no participation by other delegates. On the other hand, the congress was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives came together to formulate treaties instead of relying mostly on messages among the several capitals. The Congress of Vienna settlement, despite later changes, formed the framework for European international politics until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by the more important Congress of Vienna of 1814 - 15. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades. Other partial settlements had already occurred at the Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition, and the Treaty of Kiel that covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia. The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress '' should be held in Vienna and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war ''. The opening was scheduled for July 1814.
The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however, a large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls.
The Four Great Powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition. On the verge of Napoleon 's defeat they had outlined their common position in the Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814), and negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) with the Bourbons during their restoration:
These parties had not been part of the Chaumont agreement, but had joined the Treaty of Paris (1814):
Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna -- more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress. In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups -- e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding a copyright law and freedom of the press. The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke it did not move, but danced.
Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils '' in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it, once again abandoning his allies.
The major Allies ' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquis of Labrador, Spain 's representative, were invited on 30 September 1814.
Congress Secretary Friedrich von Gentz reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against the procedure we have adopted and soundly (be) rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget. '' The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it? '' snapped Labrador.
Talleyrand 's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain. Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately, is going to Vienna. '' Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 afrancesados -- Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to Joseph Bonaparte, nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain.
The most dangerous topic at the Congress was the so - called Polish - Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would become king of Poland. Austria was fearful this would make Russia much too powerful, a view which was supported by Britain. The result was deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: Admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations signed a secret treaty on 3 January 1815, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo - Prussian plan from coming to fruition.
When the tsar heard of the secret treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw as a "Kingdom of Poland '' -- called Congress Poland, with the tsar as king ruling it independently of Russia. Russia, however, did not receive the province of Posen (Poznań), which was given to Prussia as the Grand Duchy of Posen, nor Kraków, which became a free city. Furthermore, the tsar was unable to unite the new domain with the parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s. Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony - later known as the Province of Saxony, with the remainder returned to King Frederick Augustus I as his Kingdom of Saxony.
The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (a few days before the Battle of Waterloo). Its provisions included:
The Final Act was signed by representatives of Austria, France, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Sweden - Norway, and Britain. Spain did not sign the treaty but ratified it in 1817.
The Congress 's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France 's loss of the territories annexed between 1795 -- 1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris, were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and the northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty - nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Austria and Prussia.
Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the Treaty of Kiel, Norway had been ceded by the king of Denmark - Norway to the king of Sweden. This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Norway on May 17, 1814 and the subsequent personal Union with Sweden. Austria gained Lombardy - Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North - Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena, and the Duchy of Parma).
The Papal States were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont - Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of Genoa. In Southern Italy, Napoleon 's brother - in - law, Joachim Murat, was originally allowed to retain his Kingdom of Naples, but his support of Napoleon in the Hundred Days led to the restoration of the Bourbon Ferdinand IV to the throne.
A large United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed for the Prince of Orange, including both the old United Provinces and the formerly Austrian - ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands. Other, less important, territorial adjustments included significant territorial gains for the German Kingdoms of Hanover (which gained East Frisia from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and Bavaria (which gained the Rhenish Palatinate and territories in Franconia). The Duchy of Lauenburg was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania. Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played a significant role in European wars for a couple of hundred years: the Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently.
During the wars, Portugal had lost its town of Olivença to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain 's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivença decreed in Article 105 of the Final Act, which stated that the Congress "understood the occupation of Olivença to be illegal and recognized Portugal 's rights ''. Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold - out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted the Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivença and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and this question remains unresolved. Great Britain received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon and the Cape Colony as well as Malta and Heligoland. Under the Treaty of Paris, Britain obtained a protectorate over the United States of the Ionian Islands and the Seychelles.
The Congress of Vienna was frequently criticized by 19 - century and more recent historians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent. It was an integral part in what became known as the Conservative Order, in which the liberties and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized, so that a fair balance of power, peace and stability, might be achieved.
In the 20th century, however, many historians came to admire the statesmen at the Congress, whose work prevented another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815 -- 1914). Among these is Henry Kissinger, who in 1954 wrote his doctoral dissertation, A World Restored, on it. Historian Mark Jarrett argues that the Congress of Vienna and the Congress System marked "the true beginning of our modern era ''. He says the Congress System was deliberate conflict management, and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready, '' Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution. '' Historian Paul Schroeder argues that the old formulae for "balance of power '' were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945.
Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace. Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all the countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression '' as divided into seven parts: Lombardy -- Venetia, Modena, Naples -- Sicily, Parma, Piedmont -- Sardinia, Tuscany, and the Papal States under the control of different powers. Poland remained partitioned among Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created Kingdom of Poland, remaining under Russian control.
The arrangements made by the Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years. Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent some 30 years later.
Coordinates: 48 ° 12 ′ 30 '' N 16 ° 22 ′ 23 '' E / 48.20833 ° N 16.37306 ° E / 48.20833; 16.37306
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who sang didn't i blow your mind this time | Did n't I (Blow Your Mind this Time) - wikipedia
"Did n't I (Blow Your Mind This Time) '' is a song co-written by record producer Thom Bell and William Hart, lead singer of the American R&B / Soul vocal group The Delfonics. It was released by the group in 1969 on the Philly Groove record label and is regarded as a classic, winning a Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group. Considered one of the most notable early Philly soul singles and typical of the genre, "Did n't I '' is a slow love ballad, with layered strings, horns, and chromatic production. Among The Delfonics ' signature songs, "Did n't I (Blow Your Mind This Time) '' was a # 3 hit on the Billboard R&B singles chart, # 10 on the Billboard pop chart in 1970, and # 22 on the UK Singles Chart in 1971.
The song has been extensively covered since 1970, with versions by Aretha Franklin (from "Young, Gifted and Black '' in 1971), brothers David and Jimmy Ruffin, Lisa Fischer, Regina Belle, Jackie Jackson, Millie Jackson (her version peaked # 49 in the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart,) The Trammps, Maxine Nightingale and Patti LaBelle. The song was also featured as a song that actually drives the plot in the motion picture Jackie Brown (Max hears the LP vinyl version for the first time at Jackie 's house and they talk about the Delfonics as he gets to know her, then later he buys the cassette version) and was included in its soundtrack. Daryl Hall and Todd Rundgren covered this song in Episode 40 of Live From Daryl 's House.
A pop version by New Kids on the Block was featured on the group 's 1986 self - titled debut album. The song was later released as a stand - alone single during the group 's Hangin ' Tough era in an attempt to heighten the profile of the album it was from. Their cover of the song, slightly re-titled "Did n't I (Blow Your Mind) '', peaked at number eight on both the US and UK pop charts; in the US, in October 1989; in the UK, a year later in October 1990 as a double A-side with "Let 's Try It Again ''.
Europe 12 '' vinyl (1)
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what is the significance of the war of the roses | Wars of the Roses - wikipedia
Initial Yorkist victory
Eventual Lancastrian victory
House of Lancaster House of Tudor
House of York
Henry VI Henry VII Margaret of Anjou # Prince of Wales † Duke of Somerset Duke of Buckingham † Earl of Shrewsbury † Lord Audley † Duke of Exeter # Earl of Northumberland † Baron Clifford † Baron Neville † Andrew Trollope † Earl of Wiltshire Owen Tudor Earl of Pembroke Baron de Ros Earl of Oxford Earl of Devon † Earl of Warwick † Marquess of Montagu † Thomas Neville
Robin of Redesdale
Edward IV # Richard III † Duke of York † Earl of Salisbury Earl of Kent # Earl of Warwick Lord Montagu Duke of Norfolk # Thomas Neville Earl of Rutland † Duke of Clarence Lord Hastings Baron Howard †
The Wars of the Roses were a series of English civil wars for control of the throne of England fought between supporters of two English rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the House of Lancaster (associated with a red rose), and the House of York (whose symbol was a white rose). The conflict lasted through many sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487; however, there was fighting before and after this period between the houses. The power struggle ignited around social and financial troubles following the Hundred Years ' War, combined with the mental infirmity and weak rule of Henry VI which revived interest in Richard of York 's claim to the throne. Historians disagree about whether the Wars of the Roses were caused by the structural problems of feudalism or Henry VI 's ineffectiveness as king.
With the Duke of York 's death, the claim transferred to his heir, Edward, who later became the first Yorkist king of England, as Edward IV. His son reigned for 78 days as Edward V, but Parliament then decided that Edward and his brother Richard were illegitimate and offered the crown to Edward IV 's younger brother, who became Richard III. The two young princes disappeared within the confines of the Tower of London.
The final victory went to a claimant of the Lancastrian party, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III, at the Battle of Bosworth Field. After assuming the throne as Henry VII, he married Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter and heir of Edward IV, thereby uniting the two claims. The House of Tudor ruled the Kingdom of England until 1603, with the death of Elizabeth I, granddaughter of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York.
The name "Wars of the Roses '' refers to the heraldic badges associated with the two royal houses, the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. Wars of the Roses came into common use in the 19th century after the publication in 1829 of Anne of Geierstein by Sir Walter Scott. Scott based the name on a scene in William Shakespeare 's play Henry VI, Part 1, set in the gardens of the Temple Church, where a number of noblemen and a lawyer pick red or white roses to show their loyalty to the Lancastrian or Yorkist faction respectively.
The Yorkist faction used the symbol of the white rose from early in the conflict, but the Lancastrian red rose was apparently introduced only after the victory of Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth, when it was combined with the Yorkist white rose to form the Tudor rose, which symbolised the union of the two houses; the origins of the Rose as a cognizance itself stem from Edward I 's use of "a golden rose stalked proper. '' Often, owing to nobles holding multiple titles, more than one badge was used: Edward IV, for example, used both his sun in splendour as Earl of March, but also his father 's falcon and fetterlock as Duke of York. Badges were not always distinct; at the Battle of Barnet, Edward 's ' sun ' was very similar to the Earl of Oxford 's Vere star, which caused fateful confusion.
Most, but not all, of the participants in the wars wore livery badges associated with their immediate lords or patrons under the prevailing system of bastard feudalism; the wearing of livery was by now confined to those in "continuous employ of a lord '', thus excluding, for example, mercenaries. Another example: Henry Tudor 's forces at Bosworth fought under the banner of a red dragon while the Yorkist army used Richard III 's personal device of a white boar.
Although the names of the rival houses derive from the cities of York and Lancaster, the corresponding duchy and dukedom had little to do with these cities. The lands and offices attached to the Duchy of Lancaster were mainly in Gloucestershire, North Wales and Cheshire, while the estates and castles of the Duke of York were spread throughout England and Wales, although many were in the Welsh Marches.
Although minor armed clashes had occurred previously between supporters of York and Lancaster, the first open fighting broke out in 1455 at the First Battle of St Albans. Several prominent Lancastrians died at the hands of the Yorkists. Although peace was temporarily restored, the Lancastrians were inspired by Margaret of Anjou to contest York 's influence, and a deadly feud between the two branches of the royal family ensued.
Fighting resumed more violently in 1459. York and his supporters were forced to flee the country, but one of his most prominent supporters, the Earl of Warwick, invaded England from Calais and captured Henry VI at the Battle of Northampton. York returned to the country and became Protector of England, but was dissuaded from claiming the throne, though it was agreed that he would become heir to the throne (thus displacing Henry and Margaret 's son, Edward of Westminster, from the line of succession). Margaret and the remaining Lancastrian nobles gathered their army in the north of England.
When York moved north to engage them, he and his second son Edmund were killed at the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460. The Lancastrian army advanced south and released Henry at the Second Battle of St Albans, but failed to occupy London, and subsequently retreated to the north. York 's eldest son, Edward, Earl of March, was proclaimed King Edward IV. He gathered the Yorkist armies and won a crushing victory at the Battle of Towton in March 1461.
After Lancastrian revolts in the north were suppressed in 1464, Henry was captured once again and placed in the Tower of London. Edward fell out with his chief supporter and adviser, the Earl of Warwick (known as the "Kingmaker '') after Edward 's unpopular and secretly conducted marriage with the widow of a Lancastrian supporter, Elizabeth Woodville. Within a few years, it became clear that Edward was favouring his wife 's family and alienating a number of friends closely aligned with Warwick as well.
Furious, Warwick tried first to supplant Edward with his younger brother George, Duke of Clarence, establishing the alliance by marriage to his daughter, Isabel Neville. When that plan failed, due to lack of support from Parliament, Warwick sailed to France with his family and made an alliance with the former Lancastrian Queen, Margaret of Anjou, to restore Henry VI to the throne.
This resulted in two years of rapid changes of fortune, before Edward IV once again won complete victories at Barnet (14 April 1471), where Warwick was killed, and Tewkesbury (4 May 1471) where the Lancastrian heir, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales was killed, or perhaps executed after the battle. Queen Margaret was escorted to London as a prisoner and Henry was murdered in the Tower of London several days later, ending the direct Lancastrian line of succession.
A period of comparative peace followed, ending with the unexpected death of King Edward in 1483. His surviving brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, first moved to prevent the unpopular Woodville family of Edward 's widow from participating in the government during the minority of Edward 's son, Edward V, and then seized the throne for himself, using the suspect legitimacy of Edward IV 's marriage as pretext.
Henry Tudor, a distant relative of the Lancastrian kings who had inherited their claim, defeated Richard III at Bosworth in 1485. He was crowned Henry VII, and married Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV, to unite and reconcile the two houses. Yorkist revolts, directed by John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln and others, flared up in 1487 under the banner of the pretender Lambert Simnel -- who claimed he was Edward, Earl of Warwick (son of George of Clarence), resulting in the last pitched battles.
Though most surviving descendants of Richard of York were imprisoned, sporadic rebellions continued until 1497, when Perkin Warbeck, who claimed he was the younger brother of Edward V, one of the two disappeared Princes in the Tower, was imprisoned and later executed.
William the Conqueror 's son King Henry I of England died in 1135, after his only male heir was killed aboard the White Ship. Following the White Ship disaster, England entered a period of prolonged instability known as The Anarchy. However, following the ascension of Henry of Anjou to the throne in 1154 as Henry II, the crown passed from father to son or brother to brother with little difficulty until 1399.
The question of succession after Edward III 's death in 1377 is said to be the cause of the Wars of Roses. Although Edward III had five legitimate sons there was a "sudden narrowing in the direct line of descent '' near the end of his reign. Edward 's eldest son, Edward, the Black Prince, had died the year before. Edward III was succeeded on the throne by the Black Prince 's only surviving son and offspring Richard II, who was only 10 years old. Richard 's claim to the throne was based on the principle that the son of an elder brother had priority in the succession over his uncles. Since Richard was a minor, and had three living uncles at the time of Edward III 's death, there was considerable uncertainty about who was next in line for the succession.
Edward III 's five sons were as follows: Edward, the Black Prince (1330 -- 1376); Lionel, Duke of Clarence (1338 -- 1368); John of Gaunt (1340 -- 1399); Edmund, Earl of Cambridge (1341 -- 1402); and Thomas, Earl of Buckingham (1355 -- 1397). If Richard II, the only surviving offspring of the 1st son, died without legitimate offspring of his own, his successors under the rules of primogeniture (the traditional method of English succession) would be the descendants of the Duke of Clarence, Edward III 's 2nd son. Clarence had a single daughter named Philippa, who married into the Mortimer family. She had a son, Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March (1374 -- 1398), who, through his most senior descent from Edward III, technically had the best claim to succeed. However, a legal decree issued by Edward III in 1376 introduced some complexity into the question of who would ultimately take the throne. The letters patent issued by Edward III limited the right of succession to male heirs, which placed the king 's 3rd son John of Gaunt ahead of Clarence 's descendants, because the latter 's line of descent passed through a daughter.
Richard II 's reign was marked by increasing dissension between the King and several of the most powerful nobles. In 1399, he exiled Gaunt 's son Henry of Bolingbroke. Richard 's government had become highly unpopular beyond his strongholds in Cheshire and Wales. Throughout his reign, Richard had casted doubt into the question of succession; without a general consensus as to who could succeed him, chances of deposition would likely be reduced (Edward III 's will may have been annulled, which would have returned Roger Mortimer and his successors to the position of heirs to the throne). Nevertheless, when Bolingbroke returned from exile in 1399, initially to reclaim his rights as Duke of Lancaster, he took advantage of the support of most of the nobles to depose Richard and was crowned King Henry IV, establishing the House of Lancaster on the throne.
The House of Lancaster was formed by John of Gaunt, third surviving son of Edward III, and his descendants. Their name derives from John of Gaunt 's primary title of Duke of Lancaster, which he held by right of his spouse, Blanche of Lancaster. They had received explicit preference from Edward III in the line of succession because they formed an unbroken male line of descent from him.
Henry IV 's claim to the throne was through his father, John of Gaunt. At the onset of Richard II 's reign, Gaunt was the official heir presumptive, but due to the intrigues of his turbulent rule, the succession was unclear by the time of his deposition. Therefore, an argument could be made that the legitimate king of England was not Henry IV, but instead was Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, the son of Roger Mortimer (there was little support at the time for his counter-claim). Certainly many people believed it to be the case; as Henry 's initial popularity waned, the Mortimer family 's claim to the throne was a pretext for the major rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr in Wales, and other, less successful, revolts in Cheshire and Northumberland. There were uprisings in support of the Mortimer 's claim throughout Henry IV 's reign, which lasted until 1413.
A peculiarity of Henry IV 's seizure of the throne is demonstrated in the way he announced his claim. He was vague, and he resigned himself to mentioning that he was the rightful heir of Henry III, who had died more than a century before. It has been speculated that by mentioning Henry III, Henry IV was exploiting a legend that Henry III 's second son Edmund Crouchback was in fact his eldest son, and that since Henry IV was Edmund 's heir general through his mother Blanche of Lancaster, he was in fact the rightful king by primogeniture. There is no evidence for the legend, however, though Henry IV 's vagueness might have worked to his advantage.
An important branch of the House of Lancaster was the House of Beaufort, whose members were descended from Gaunt by his mistress, Katherine Swynford. Originally illegitimate, they were made legitimate by an Act of Parliament when Gaunt and Katherine later married. However, Henry IV excluded them from the line of succession to the throne.
Henry IV 's son and successor, Henry V, inherited a temporarily pacified nation, and his military success against France in the Hundred Years ' War bolstered his popularity, enabling him to strengthen the Lancastrian hold on the throne. Nevertheless, one notable conspiracy against Henry, the Southampton Plot, took place during his nine - year reign. This was led by Richard, Earl of Cambridge, who attempted to place Edmund Mortimer, his brother - in - law, in the throne. Cambridge was executed for treason in 1415, at the start of the campaign that led to the Battle of Agincourt.
The founder of the House of York was Edmund of Langley, the fourth son of Edward III and the younger brother of John of Gaunt. His son, Richard, Earl of Cambridge, who was executed by Henry V, had married Anne Mortimer, daughter of Roger Mortimer and sister of Edmund Mortimer. The Mortimers were members of the most powerful marcher family of the fourteenth century. G.M. Trevelyan has written that "the Wars of the Roses were to a large extent a quarrel between Welsh Marcer Lords, who were also great English nobles, closely related to the English throne. '' Anne herself was descended from Edward III through her grandmother, Philippa of Clarence, daughter of Lionel of Antwerp, Edward 's second son.
Anne had died in 1411. When her brother Edmund, Earl of March, who had loyally supported Henry, died childless in 1425, the title and extensive estates of the Earldom of March and the Mortimer claim to the throne thus passed to Anne 's descendants.
Richard of York, the son of Cambridge and Anne Mortimer, was four years old at the time of his father 's execution. Although Cambridge was attainted, Henry V later allowed Richard to inherit the title and lands of Cambridge 's elder brother Edward, Duke of York, who had died fighting alongside Henry at Agincourt and had no issue. Henry, who had three younger brothers and was himself in his prime and recently married (to the French princess, Catherine of Valois) had no doubt that the Lancastrian right to the crown was secure.
Henry 's premature death in 1422, at the age of 36, led to his only son Henry VI coming to the throne as an infant and the country being ruled by a divided Council of regency. Henry V 's younger brothers produced no surviving legitimate issue, leaving only distant cousins (the Beauforts) as alternative Lancaster heirs. As Richard of York grew into maturity and questions were raised over Henry VI 's fitness to rule, Richard 's claim to the throne thus became more significant. The revenue from the York and March estates also made him the wealthiest magnate in the land.
From early childhood, Henry VI was surrounded by quarrelsome councillors and advisors. His younger surviving paternal uncle, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, sought to be named Lord Protector and deliberately courted the popularity of the common people for his own ends but was opposed by his half - uncle Cardinal Henry Beaufort. On several occasions, Beaufort called on John, Duke of Bedford, Humphrey 's older brother, to return from his post as regent in Henry VI 's Kingdom of France, either to mediate or to defend him against Humphrey 's accusations of treason. Some time after Bedford died in 1435, Cardinal Beaufort withdrew from public affairs, partly due to old age and partly because William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, rose to become the dominant personality at court. The void left by the cardinal 's withdrawal from politics was also filled by his Beaufort relatives.
Suffolk and the Beaufort family were widely held to be enriching themselves through their influence on Henry, and were blamed for mismanaging the government and poorly executing the continuing Hundred Years ' War with France. Their influence was bitterly opposed by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, who felt that the lifetime efforts of his brothers, of himself, and of many Englishmen on the war against France were being wasted as the French territories slipped from English hands, and especially since Suffolk and his supporters were trying to make large diplomatic and territorial concessions to the French in a desperate attempt for peace. Richard, Duke of York, who had succeeded Bedford as commander of the English forces in France with the support of Gloucester, also opposed their influence. York was frequently denied much needed resources for his campaigns in France, while Suffolk and his associates would obtain large money and land grants from King Henry VI who, mainly due to their less hawkish and more conciliatory inclinations, tended to favour their faction in court over that of Gloucester and York.
Suffolk eventually succeeded in having Humphrey of Gloucester arrested for treason. Humphrey died while awaiting trial in prison at Bury St Edmunds in 1447. Some authorities date the start of the War of the Roses from the death of Humphrey. However, with severe reverses in France, Suffolk was stripped of office and was murdered on his way to exile. Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, succeeded him as leader of the party seeking peace with France. The Duke of York meanwhile represented those who wished to prosecute the war more vigorously, and criticised the court, and Somerset in particular, for starving him of funds and men during his campaigns in France. Willingly or unwillingly, York came to be associated with the name of Humphrey and was regarded as his political successor, due to his advocacy for good government.
In all these quarrels, Henry VI had taken little part. He was seen as a weak, ineffectual king. In addition, he displayed several symptoms of mental illness that he may have inherited from his maternal grandfather, Charles VI of France. By 1450 many considered Henry incapable of carrying out the duties and responsibilities of a king. Under Henry VI, all the land in France won by Henry V and even the provinces of Guienne and Gascony, which had been held since the reign of Henry II three centuries previously, were lost.
In 1450, there was a violent popular revolt in Kent, Jack Cade 's Rebellion, which is often seen as the prelude to the Wars of the Roses. The rebel manifesto, The Complaint of the Poor Commons of Kent written under Cade 's leadership, accused the crown of extortion, perversion of justice, and election fraud. The rebels occupied parts of London, and executed James Fiennes, 1st Baron Saye and Sele, the unpopular Lord High Treasurer, after a hasty trial. After some of them fell to looting, they were driven out of London by the citizens. They dispersed after they were supposedly pardoned but several, including Cade, were later executed. After the rebellion the rebels ' grievances formed the basis of Richard of York 's opposition to a royal government from which he felt excluded.
Two years later, in 1452, Richard of York returned to England from his new post as Lieutenant of Ireland and marched on London, demanding Somerset 's removal and reform of the government. At this stage, few of the nobles supported such drastic action, and York was forced to submit to superior force at Blackheath. He was imprisoned for much of 1452 and 1453 but was released after swearing not to take arms against the court.
The increasing discord at court was mirrored in the country as a whole, where noble families engaged in private feuds and showed increasing disrespect for the royal authority and for the courts of law. In many cases feuds were fought between old - established families, and formerly minor nobility raised in power and influence by Henry IV in the aftermath of the rebellions against him. The quarrel between the Percys -- long the Earls of Northumberland -- and the comparatively upstart Nevilles was the best - known of these private wars and followed this pattern, as did the Bonville -- Courtenay feud in Cornwall and Devon. A factor in these feuds was the presence of large numbers of soldiers discharged from the English armies that had been defeated in France. Nobles engaged many of these to mount raids, or to pack courts of justice with their supporters, intimidating suitors, witnesses and judges.
This growing civil discontent, the abundance of feuding nobles with private armies, and corruption in Henry VI 's court formed a political climate ripe for civil war. With the king so easily manipulated, power rested with those closest to him at court, in other words, Somerset and the Lancastrian faction. Richard and the Yorkist faction, who tended to be physically placed further away from the seat of power, found their power slowly being stripped away. Royal power and finances also started to slip, as Henry was persuaded to grant many royal lands and estates to the Lancastrians, thereby losing their revenue.
In 1453, Henry suffered the first of several bouts of complete mental collapse, during which he failed even to recognise his new - born son, Edward of Westminster. On 22 March 1454, Cardinal John Kemp, the Chancellor, died. Henry was incapable of nominating a successor. To ensure that the country could be governed, a Council of Regency was set up, headed by the Duke of York, who still remained popular with the people, as Lord Protector. York soon asserted his power with ever - greater boldness (although there is no proof that he had aspirations to the throne at this early stage). He imprisoned Somerset and backed his Neville allies (his brother - in - law, the Earl of Salisbury, and Salisbury 's son, the Earl of Warwick), in their continuing feud with the Earl of Northumberland, a powerful supporter of Henry.
Henry recovered in 1455 and once again fell under the influence of those closest to him at court. Directed by Henry 's queen, the powerful and aggressive Margaret of Anjou, who emerged as the de facto leader of the Lancastrians, Richard was forced out of court. Margaret built up an alliance against Richard and conspired with other nobles to reduce his influence. An increasingly thwarted Richard (who feared arrest for treason) finally resorted to armed hostilities in 1455.
Richard, Duke of York, led a small force toward London and was met by Henry 's forces at St Albans, north of London, on 22 May 1455. The relatively small First Battle of St Albans was the first open conflict of the civil war. Richard 's aim was ostensibly to remove "poor advisors '' from King Henry 's side. The result was a Lancastrian defeat. Several prominent Lancastrian leaders, including Somerset and Northumberland, were killed. After the battle, the Yorkists found Henry hiding in a local tanner 's shop, abandoned by his advisers and servants, apparently having suffered another bout of mental illness. (He had also been slightly wounded in the neck by an arrow.) York and his allies regained their position of influence. With the king indisposed, York was again appointed Protector, and Margaret was shunted aside, charged with the king 's care.
For a while, both sides seemed shocked that an actual battle had been fought and did their best to reconcile their differences, but the problems that caused conflict soon re-emerged, particularly the issue of whether the Duke of York, or Henry and Margaret 's infant son, Edward, would succeed to the throne. Margaret refused to accept any solution that would disinherit her son, and it became clear that she would only tolerate the situation for as long as the Duke of York and his allies retained the military ascendancy.
Henry recovered and in February 1456 he relieved York of his office of Protector. In the autumn of that year, Henry went on royal progress in the Midlands, where the king and queen were popular. Margaret did not allow him to return to London where the merchants were angry at the decline in trade and the widespread disorder. The king 's court was set up at Coventry. By then, the new Duke of Somerset was emerging as a favourite of the royal court. Margaret persuaded Henry to revoke the appointments York had made as Protector, while York was made to return to his post as lieutenant in Ireland.
Disorder in the capital and the north of England (where fighting between the Nevilles and Percys had resumed) and piracy by French fleets on the south coast were growing, but the king and queen remained intent on protecting their own positions, with the queen introducing conscription for the first time in England. Meanwhile, York 's ally, Warwick (later dubbed "The Kingmaker ''), was growing in popularity in London as the champion of the merchants; as Captain of Calais he had fought piracy in the Channel.
In the spring of 1458, Thomas Bourchier, the Archbishop of Canterbury, attempted to arrange a reconciliation. The lords had gathered in London for a Grand Council and the city was full of armed retainers. The Archbishop negotiated complex settlements to resolve the blood - feuds that had persisted since the Battle of St. Albans. Then, on Lady Day (25 March), the King led a "love day '' procession to St. Paul 's Cathedral, with Lancastrian and Yorkist nobles following him, hand in hand. No sooner had the procession and the Council dispersed than plotting resumed.
The next outbreak of fighting was prompted by Warwick 's high - handed actions as Captain of Calais. He led his ships in attacks on neutral Hanseatic League and Spanish ships in the Channel on flimsy grounds of sovereignty. He was summoned to London to face enquiries, but he claimed that attempts had been made on his life, and returned to Calais. York, Salisbury and Warwick were summoned to a royal council at Coventry, but they refused, fearing arrest when they were isolated from their own supporters.
York summoned the Nevilles to join him at his stronghold at Ludlow Castle in the Welsh Marches. On 23 September 1459, at the Battle of Blore Heath in Staffordshire, a Lancastrian army failed to prevent Salisbury from marching from Middleham Castle in Yorkshire to Ludlow. Shortly afterwards the combined Yorkist armies confronted the much larger Lancastrian force at the Battle of Ludford Bridge. Warwick 's contingent from the garrison of Calais under Andrew Trollope defected to the Lancastrians, and the Yorkist leaders fled. York returned to Ireland, and his eldest son, Edward, Earl of March, Salisbury and Warwick fled to Calais.
The Lancastrians were back in total control. York and his supporters were attainted at the Parliament of Devils as traitors. Somerset was appointed Governor of Calais and was dispatched to take over the vital fortress on the French coast, but his attempts to evict Warwick were easily repulsed. Warwick and his supporters even began to launch raids on the English coast from Calais, adding to the sense of chaos and disorder. Being attainted, only by a successful invasion could the Yorkists recover their lands and titles. Warwick travelled to Ireland to concert plans with York, evading the royal ships commanded by the Duke of Exeter. In late June 1460, Warwick, Salisbury and Edward of March crossed the Channel and rapidly established themselves in Kent and London, where they enjoyed wide support. Backed by a papal emissary who had taken their side, they marched north. King Henry led an army south to meet them while Margaret remained in the north with Prince Edward. At the Battle of Northampton on 10 July, the Yorkist army under Warwick defeated the Lancastrians, aided by treachery in the king 's ranks. For the second time in the war, King Henry was found by the Yorkists in a tent, abandoned by his retinue, having apparently suffered another breakdown. With the king in their possession, the Yorkists returned to London.
In the light of this military success, Richard of York moved to press his claim to the throne based on the illegitimacy of the Lancastrian line. Landing in north Wales, he and his wife Cecily entered London with all the ceremony usually reserved for a monarch. Parliament was assembled, and when York entered he made straight for the throne, which he may have been expecting the Lords to encourage him to take for himself as they had acclaimed Henry IV in 1399. Instead, there was stunned silence. York announced his claim to the throne, but the Lords, even Warwick and Salisbury, were shocked by his presumption; they had no desire at this stage to overthrow King Henry. Their ambition was still limited to the removal of his councillors.
The next day, York produced detailed genealogies to support his claim based on his descent from Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence. York 's claim was through a daughter of a second son, Henry 's through the son of a third son. The judges felt that Common law principles could not determine who had priority in the royal succession, and declared the matter "above the law and passed ther lernyng. '' Parliament agreed to consider the matter and accepted that York 's claim was better, but by a majority of five, they voted that Henry VI should remain as king. A compromise was struck in October 1460 with the Act of Accord, which recognised York as Henry 's successor, disinheriting Henry 's six - year - old son, Edward. York accepted this compromise as the best offer. It gave him much of what he wanted, particularly since he was also made Protector of the Realm and was able to govern in Henry 's name.
Queen Margaret and her son had fled to north Wales, parts of which were still in Lancastrian hands. They later travelled by sea to Scotland to negotiate for Scottish assistance. Mary of Gueldres, Queen Consort to James II of Scotland, agreed to give Margaret an army on condition that she cede the town of Berwick to Scotland and Mary 's daughter be betrothed to Prince Edward. Margaret agreed, although she had no funds to pay her army and could only promise booty from the riches of southern England, as long as no looting took place north of the River Trent.
The Duke of York left London later that year with the Earl of Salisbury to consolidate his position in the north against the Lancastrians who were reported to be massing near the city of York. He took up a defensive position at Sandal Castle near Wakefield over Christmas 1460. Then on 30 December, his forces left the castle and attacked the Lancastrians in the open, although outnumbered. The ensuing Battle of Wakefield was a complete Lancastrian victory. Richard of York was slain in the battle, and both Salisbury and York 's 17 - year - old second son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland, were captured and executed. Margaret ordered the heads of all three placed on the gates of York.
The Act of Accord and the events of Wakefield left the 18 - year - old Edward, Earl of March, York 's eldest son, as Duke of York and heir to his claim to the throne. With an army from the pro-Yorkist Marches (the border area between England and Wales), he met Jasper Tudor 's Lancastrian army arriving from Wales, and he defeated them soundly at the Battle of Mortimer 's Cross in Herefordshire. He inspired his men with a "vision '' of three suns at dawn (a phenomenon known as "parhelion ''), telling them that it was a portent of victory and represented the three surviving York sons; himself, George and Richard. This led to Edward 's later adoption of the sign of the sunne in splendour as his personal device.
Margaret 's army was moving south, supporting itself by looting as it passed through the prosperous south of England. In London, Warwick used this as propaganda to reinforce Yorkist support throughout the south -- the town of Coventry switched allegiance to the Yorkists. Warwick 's army established fortified positions north of the town of St Albans to block the main road from the north but was outmanoeuvred by Margaret 's army, which swerved to the west and then attacked Warwick 's positions from behind. At the Second Battle of St Albans, the Lancastrians won another big victory. As the Yorkist forces fled they left behind King Henry, who was found unharmed, sitting quietly beneath a tree.
Henry knighted thirty Lancastrian soldiers immediately after the battle. In an illustration of the increasing bitterness of the war, Queen Margaret instructed her seven - year - old son Edward of Westminster to determine the manner of execution of the Yorkist knights who had been charged with keeping Henry safe and had stayed at his side throughout the battle.
As the Lancastrian army advanced southwards, a wave of dread swept London, where rumours were rife about savage northerners intent on plundering the city. The people of London shut the city gates and refused to supply food to the queen 's army, which was looting the surrounding counties of Hertfordshire and Middlesex.
Edward of March, having joined with Warwick 's surviving forces, advanced towards London from the west at the same time that the queen retreated northwards to Dunstable; as a result, Edward and Warwick were able to enter London with their army. They found considerable support there, as the city was largely Yorkist - supporting. It was clear that Edward was no longer simply trying to free the king from bad councillors, but that his goal was to take the crown. Thomas Kempe, the Bishop of London, asked the people of London their opinion and they replied with shouts of "King Edward ''. The request was quickly approved by Parliament, and Edward was unofficially crowned in an impromptu ceremony at Westminster Abbey; Edward vowed that he would not have a formal coronation until Henry VI and his wife were removed from the scene. Edward claimed Henry had forfeited his right to the crown by allowing his queen to take up arms against his rightful heirs under the Act of Accord. Parliament had already accepted that Edward 's victory was simply a restoration of the rightful heir to the throne.
Edward and Warwick marched north, gathering a large army as they went, and met an equally impressive Lancastrian army at Towton. The Battle of Towton, near York, was the biggest battle of the Wars of the Roses. Both sides agreed beforehand that the issue would be settled that day, with no quarter asked or given. An estimated 40,000 -- 80,000 men took part, with over 20,000 men being killed during (and after) the battle, an enormous number for the time and the greatest recorded single day 's loss of life on English soil. Edward and his army won a decisive victory, and the Lancastrians were routed, with most of their leaders slain. Henry and Margaret, who were waiting in York with their son Edward, fled north when they heard the outcome. Many of the surviving Lancastrian nobles switched allegiance to King Edward, and those who did not were driven back to the northern border areas and a few castles in Wales. Edward advanced to take York, where he replaced the rotting heads of his father, his brother, and Salisbury with those of defeated Lancastrian lords such as the notorious John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford of Skipton - Craven, who was blamed for the execution of Edward 's brother Edmund, Earl of Rutland, after the Battle of Wakefield.
The official coronation of Edward IV took place in June 1461 in London, where he received a rapturous welcome from his supporters.
After the Battle of Towton, Henry VI and Margaret had fled to Scotland, where they stayed with the court of James III and followed through on their promise to cede Berwick to Scotland. Later in the year, they mounted an attack on Carlisle, but, lacking money, they were easily repulsed by Edward 's men, who were rooting out the remaining Lancastrian forces in the northern counties. Several castles under Lancastrian commanders held out for years: Dunstanburgh, Alnwick (the Percy family seat), and Bamburgh were some of the last to fall.
There was also some fighting in Ireland. At the Battle of Piltown in 1462, the Yorkish supporter Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Desmond, defeated the Lancastrian Butlers of Kilkenny. The Butlers suffered more than 400 casualties. Local folklore claims that the battle was so violent that the local river ran red with blood, hence the names Pill River and Piltown (Baile an Phuill, meaning "Town of the blood '').
There were Lancastrian revolts in the north of England in 1464. Several Lancastrian nobles, including the third Duke of Somerset, who had apparently been reconciled to Edward, readily led the rebellion. The revolt was put down by Warwick 's brother, John Neville. A small Lancastrian army was destroyed at the Battle of Hedgeley Moor on 25 April, but because Neville was escorting Scottish commissioners for a treaty to York, he could not immediately follow up this victory. Then on 15 May, he routed Somerset 's army at the Battle of Hexham. Somerset was captured and executed.
The deposed King Henry was later captured for the third time at Clitheroe in Lancashire in 1465. He was taken to London and held prisoner at the Tower of London, where, for the time being, he was reasonably well treated. About the same time, once England under Edward IV and Scotland had come to terms, Margaret and her son were forced to leave Scotland and sail to France, where they maintained an impoverished court in exile for several years. The last remaining Lancastrian stronghold was Harlech Castle in Wales, which surrendered in 1468 after a seven - year - long siege.
The powerful Earl of Warwick ("the Kingmaker '') had meanwhile become the greatest landowner in England. Already a great magnate through his wife 's property, he had also inherited his father 's estates and had been granted much forfeited Lancastrian property. He also held many of the offices of state. He was convinced of the need for an alliance with France and had been negotiating a match between Edward and a French bride. However, Edward had married Elizabeth Woodville, the widow of a Lancastrian knight, in secret in 1464. He later announced the news of his marriage as fait accompli, to Warwick 's considerable embarrassment.
This embarrassment turned to bitterness when the Woodvilles came to be favoured over the Nevilles at court. Many of Queen Elizabeth 's relatives were married into noble families and others were granted peerages or royal offices. Other factors compounded Warwick 's disillusionment: Edward 's preference for an alliance with Burgundy rather than France and reluctance to allow his brothers George, Duke of Clarence and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, to marry Warwick 's daughters Isabel and Anne. Furthermore, Edward 's general popularity was on the wane in this period with higher taxes and persistent disruptions of law and order.
By 1469, Warwick had formed an alliance with Edward 's jealous and treacherous brother George, who married Isabel Neville in defiance of Edward 's wishes in Calais. They raised an army that defeated the king 's forces at the Battle of Edgecote Moor. Edward was captured at Olney, Buckinghamshire, and imprisoned at Middleham Castle in Yorkshire. (Warwick briefly had two Kings of England in his custody.) Warwick had the queen 's father, Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers, and her brother John executed. However, he made no immediate move to have Edward declared illegitimate and place George on the throne. The country was in turmoil, with nobles once again settling scores with private armies (in episodes such as the Battle of Nibley Green), and Lancastrians being encouraged to rebel. Few of the nobles were prepared to support Warwick 's seizure of power. Edward was escorted to London by Warwick 's brother George Neville, the Archbishop of York, where he and Warwick were reconciled, to outward appearances.
When further rebellions broke out in Lincolnshire, Edward easily suppressed them at the Battle of Losecoat Field. From the testimony of the captured leaders, he declared that Warwick and George, Duke of Clarence, had instigated them. They were declared traitors and forced to flee to France, where Margaret of Anjou was already in exile. Louis XI of France, who wished to forestall a hostile alliance between Edward and Edward 's brother - in - law Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, suggested the idea of an alliance between Warwick and Margaret. Neither of those two formerly mortal enemies entertained the notion at first, but eventually they were brought round to realise the potential benefits. However, both were undoubtedly hoping for different outcomes: Warwick for a puppet king in the form of Henry VI or his young son; Margaret to be able to reclaim her family 's realm. In any case, a marriage was arranged between Warwick 's daughter Anne and Margaret 's son Edward of Westminster, and Warwick invaded England in the autumn of 1470.
Edward IV had already marched north to suppress another uprising in Yorkshire. Warwick, with help from a fleet under his nephew, the Bastard of Fauconberg, landed at Dartmouth and rapidly secured support from the southern counties and ports. He occupied London in October and paraded Henry VI through the streets as the restored king. Warwick 's brother John Neville, who had recently received the empty title Marquess of Montagu and who led large armies in the Scottish marches, suddenly defected to Warwick. Edward was unprepared for this event and had to order his army to scatter. He and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, fled from Doncaster to the coast and thence to Holland and exile in Burgundy. They were proclaimed traitors, and many exiled Lancastrians returned to reclaim their estates.
Warwick 's success was short - lived, however. He over-reached himself with his plan to invade Burgundy in alliance with the King of France, tempted by King Louis ' promise of territory in the Netherlands as a reward. This led Edward 's brother - in - law, Charles of Burgundy, to provide funds and troops to Edward to enable him to launch an invasion of England in 1471. Edward landed with a small force at Ravenspur on the Yorkshire coast. Initially claiming to support Henry and to be seeking only to have his title of Duke of York restored, he soon gained the city of York and rallied several supporters. His brother George turned traitor again, abandoning Warwick. Having outmaneuvered Warwick and Montagu, Edward captured London. His army then met Warwick 's at the Battle of Barnet. The battle was fought in thick fog, and some of Warwick 's men attacked each other by mistake. It was believed by all that they had been betrayed, and Warwick 's army fled. Warwick was cut down trying to reach his horse. Montagu was also killed in the battle.
Margaret and her son Edward had landed in the West Country only a few days before the Battle of Barnet. Rather than return to France, Margaret sought to join the Lancastrian supporters in Wales and marched to cross the Severn but was thwarted when the city of Gloucester refused her passage across the river. Her army, commanded by the fourth successive Duke of Somerset, was brought to battle and destroyed at the Battle of Tewkesbury. Her son Prince Edward, the Lancastrian heir to the throne, was killed. With no heirs to succeed him, Henry VI was murdered shortly afterwards, on 21 May 1471, to strengthen the Yorkist hold on the throne.
The restoration of Edward IV in 1471 is sometimes seen as marking the end of the Wars of the Roses proper. Peace was restored for the remainder of Edward 's reign. His youngest brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and Edward 's lifelong companion and supporter, William Hastings, were generously rewarded for their loyalty, becoming effectively governors of the north and midlands respectively. George of Clarence became increasingly estranged from Edward, and was executed in 1478 for association with convicted traitors.
When Edward died suddenly in 1483, political and dynastic turmoil erupted again. Many of the nobles still resented the influence of the queen 's Woodville relatives (her brother, Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers and her son by her first marriage, Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset), and regarded them as power - hungry upstarts (' parvenus '). At the time of Edward 's premature death, his heir, Edward V, was only 12 years old and had been brought up under the stewardship of Earl Rivers at Ludlow Castle.
On his deathbed, Edward had named his surviving brother Richard of Gloucester as Protector of England. Richard had been in the north when Edward died. Hastings, who also held the office of Lord Chamberlain, sent word to him to bring a strong force to London to counter any force the Woodvilles might muster. The Duke of Buckingham also declared his support for Richard.
Richard and Buckingham overtook Earl Rivers, who was escorting the young Edward V to London, at Stony Stratford in Buckinghamshire on 28 April. Although they dined with Rivers amicably, they took him prisoner the next day, and declared to Edward that they had done so to forestall a conspiracy by the Woodvilles against his life. Rivers and his nephew Richard Grey were sent to Pontefract Castle in Yorkshire and executed there at the end of June.
Edward entered London in the custody of Richard on 4 May, and was lodged in the Tower of London. Elizabeth Woodville had already gone hastily into sanctuary at Westminster with her remaining children, although preparations were being made for Edward V to be crowned on 22 June, at which point Richard 's authority as Protector would end. On 13 June, Richard held a full meeting of the Council, at which he accused Hastings and others of conspiracy against him. Hastings was executed without trial later in the day.
Thomas Bourchier, the Archbishop of Canterbury, then persuaded Elizabeth Woodville to allow her younger son, the 9 - year - old Richard, Duke of York, to join Edward in the Tower. Having secured the boys, Robert Stillington, Bishop of Bath and Wells then alleged that Edward IV 's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville had been illegal and that the two boys were therefore illegitimate. Parliament agreed, and enacted the Titulus Regius, which officially named Gloucester as King Richard III. The two imprisoned boys, known as the "Princes in the Tower '', disappeared and were possibly murdered; by whom and under whose orders remains controversial. There was never a trial or judicial inquest on the matter. Perkin Warbeck claimed he was the younger of the Princes from 1490 and was recognised as such in international diplomacy outside England.
Having been crowned in a lavish ceremony on 6 July, Richard then proceeded on a tour of the Midlands and the north of England, dispensing generous bounties and charters and naming his own son as the Prince of Wales.
Opposition to Richard 's rule had already begun in the south when, on 18 October, the Duke of Buckingham (who had been instrumental in placing Richard on the throne and who himself had a distant claim to the crown) led a revolt aimed at installing the Lancastrian Henry Tudor. It has been argued that his supporting Tudor rather than either Edward V or his younger brother, showed Buckingham was aware that both were already dead.
The Lancastrian claim to the throne had descended to Henry Tudor on the death of Henry VI and his son in 1471. Henry 's father, Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, had been a half - brother of Henry VI, but Henry 's claim to royalty was through his mother, Margaret Beaufort. She was descended from John Beaufort, who was a son of John of Gaunt and thus a grandson of Edward III. John Beaufort had been illegitimate at birth, though later legitimised by the marriage of his parents. It had supposedly been a condition of the legitimation that the Beaufort descendants forfeited their rights to the crown. Henry had spent much of his childhood under siege in Harlech Castle or in exile in Brittany. After 1471, Edward IV had preferred to belittle Henry 's pretensions to the crown, and made only sporadic attempts to secure him. However his mother, Margaret Beaufort, had been twice remarried, first to Buckingham 's uncle, and then to Thomas, Lord Stanley, one of Edward 's principal officers, and continually promoted her son 's rights.
Buckingham 's rebellion failed. Some of his supporters in the south rose up prematurely, thus allowing Richard 's Lieutenant in the South, the Duke of Norfolk, to prevent many rebels from joining forces. Buckingham himself raised a force at Brecon in mid-Wales. He was prevented from crossing the River Severn to join other rebels in the south of England by storms and floods, which also prevented Henry Tudor landing in the West Country. Buckingham 's starving forces deserted and he was betrayed and executed.
The failure of Buckingham 's revolt was clearly not the end of the plots against Richard, who could never again feel secure, and who also suffered the loss of his wife and eleven - year - old son, putting the future of the Yorkist dynasty in doubt.
Many of Buckingham 's defeated supporters and other disaffected nobles fled to join Henry Tudor in exile. Richard made an attempt to bribe the Duke of Brittany 's chief Minister Pierre Landais to betray Henry, but Henry was warned and escaped to France, where he was again given sanctuary and aid.
Confident that many magnates and even many of Richard 's officers would join him, Henry set sail from Harfleur on 1 August 1485, with a force of exiles and French mercenaries. With fair winds, he landed in Pembrokeshire six days later and the officers Richard had appointed in Wales, either joined Henry or stood aside. Henry gathered supporters on his march through Wales and the Welsh Marches and defeated Richard at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Richard was slain during the battle, supposedly by the major Welsh landowner Rhys ap Thomas with a blow to the head from his poleaxe. Rhys was knighted three days later by Henry VII.
Henry, having been acclaimed King Henry VII, strengthened his position by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and the best surviving Yorkist claimant, reuniting the two royal houses. Henry merged the rival symbols of the red rose of Lancaster and the white rose of York into the new emblem of the red and white Tudor Rose. Henry shored up his position by killing all other possible claimants whenever he had a pretext, a policy his son Henry VIII continued.
Many historians consider the accession of Henry VII to mark the end of the Wars of the Roses. Others argue that they continued to the end of the fifteenth century, as there were several plots to overthrow Henry and restore Yorkist claimants. Only two years after the Battle of Bosworth, Yorkists rebelled, led by John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, who had been named by Richard III as his heir but had been reconciled with Henry after Bosworth. The conspirators produced a pretender, a boy named Lambert Simnel, who resembled the young Edward, Earl of Warwick (son of George of Clarence), the best surviving male claimant of the House of York. The imposture was shaky, because the young earl was still alive and in King Henry 's custody and was paraded through London to expose the impersonation. At the Battle of Stoke Field, Henry defeated Lincoln 's army. Lincoln died in the battle. Simnel was pardoned for his part in the rebellion and was sent to work in the royal kitchens.
Henry 's throne was challenged again in 1491, with the appearance of the pretender Perkin Warbeck, who claimed he was Richard, Duke of York (the younger of the two Princes in the Tower). Warbeck made several attempts to incite revolts, with support at various times from the court of Burgundy and James IV of Scotland. He was captured after the failed Second Cornish Uprising of 1497 and killed in 1499, after attempting to escape from prison.
During the reign of Henry VII 's son Henry VIII, the possibility of a Yorkist challenge to the throne remained until as late as 1525, in the persons of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk and his brother Richard de la Pole, all of whom had blood ties to the Yorkist dynasty but were excluded by the pro-Woodville Tudor settlement. To an extent, England 's break with Rome was prompted by Henry 's fears of a disputed succession, should he leave only a female heir to the throne or an infant who would be as vulnerable as Henry VI had been to antagonistic or rapacious regents.
Historians debate the extent of impact the wars had on medieval English life. The classical view is that the many casualties among the nobility continued the changes in feudal English society caused by the effects of the Black Death. These included a weakening of the feudal power of the nobles and an increase in the power of the merchant classes, and the growth of a centralised monarchy under the Tudors. The wars heralded the end of the medieval period in England and the movement towards the Renaissance. After the wars the large standing baronial armies that had helped fuel the conflict were suppressed. Henry VII, wary of any further fighting, kept the barons on a very tight leash, removing their right to raise, arm and supply armies of retainers so that they could not make war on each other or the king. The military power of individual barons declined, and the Tudor court became a place where baronial squabbles were decided with the influence of the monarch.
Revisionists, such as the Oxford historian K.B. McFarlane, suggest that the effects of the conflicts have been greatly exaggerated and that there were no wars of the roses. Many places were unaffected by the wars, particularly in the eastern part of England, such as East Anglia. It has also been suggested that the traumatic impact of the wars was exaggerated by Henry VII, to magnify his achievement in quelling them and bringing peace. The effect of the wars on the merchant and labouring classes was far less than in the long drawn - out wars of siege and pillage in Europe, which were carried out by mercenaries who profited from long wars. Although there were some lengthy sieges, such as those of Harlech Castle and Bamburgh Castle, these were in comparatively remote and less populous regions. In the populated areas, both factions had much to lose by the ruin of the country and sought quick resolution of the conflict by pitched battle. Philippe de Commines observed in 1470:
The realm of England enjoys one favour above all other realms, that neither the countryside nor the people are destroyed, nor are buildings burnt or demolished. Misfortune falls on soldiers and nobles in particular...
Exceptions to this claimed general rule were the Lancastrian looting of Ludlow after the largely bloodless Yorkist defeat at Ludford Bridge in 1459, and the widespread pillaging carried out by Queen Margaret 's unpaid army as it advanced south in early 1461. Both events inspired widespread opposition to the Queen, and support for the Yorkists.
Many areas did little or nothing to change their city defences, perhaps an indication that they were left untouched by the wars. City walls were either left in their ruinous state or only partially rebuilt. In the case of London, the city was able to avoid being devastated by convincing the York and Lancaster armies to stay out after the inability to recreate the defensive city walls.
Few noble houses were extinguished during the wars; in the period from 1425 to 1449, before the outbreak of the wars, there were as many extinctions of noble lines from natural causes (25) as occurred during the fighting (24) from 1450 to 1474. The most ambitious nobles died and by the later period of the wars, fewer nobles were prepared to risk their lives and titles in an uncertain struggle.
The kings of France and Scotland and the dukes of Burgundy played the two factions off against each other, pledging military and financial aid and offering asylum to defeated nobles and pretenders, to prevent a strong and unified England from making war on them.
Chronicles written during the Wars of the Roses include:
The above - listed individuals with well - defined sides are coloured with red borders for Lancastrians and blue for Yorkists (The Kingmaker, his relatives and George Plantagenet changed sides, so they are represented with a purple border)
Sources:
The hinge point in the succession dispute is the forced abdication of Richard II and whether it was lawful or not. Following that event, Richard 's legitimate successor would be Henry Bolingbroke if strict Salic inheritance were adhered to, or Anne Mortimer if male - preference primogeniture, which eventually became the standard form of succession, were adhered to.
Following defeat in the Hundred Years ' War, English landowners complained vociferously about the financial losses resulting from the loss of their continental holdings; this is often considered a contributory cause of the Wars of the Roses. The wars were fought largely by the landed aristocracy and armies of feudal retainers, with some mercenaries.
At the end of the Hundred Years ' War large numbers of unemployed soldiery returned to England seeking employment in the growing armies of local nobility. England drifted toward misrule and violence under the weak governance as local noble families like the Nevilles and Percies increasingly relied on their feudal retainers to settle disputes. It became common practice for landowners to bind their mesnie knights to their service with annual payments.
Edward III had developed the contract system where the monarch entered into formal written contracts called indenture with experienced captains who were contractually obliged to provide an agreed upon number of men, at established rates for a given period. Frequently the landed nobility acted the principal or main contractor. Knights, men at arms and archers were often sub-contracted. A lord could find men amongst his tenantry who included landless men and others who would crave the security of maintenance and livery. Skilled archers could command as high a wage as knights. As baronial armies grew in size, the rule of law was weakened.
Support for each house largely depended upon dynastic factors, such as blood relationships, marriages within the nobility and the grants or confiscations of feudal titles and lands. Given the conflicting loyalties of blood, marriage and ambition, it was not uncommon for nobles to switch sides; several battles (such as Northampton and Bosworth) were decided by treachery.. The armies consisted of nobles ' contingents of men - at - arms, with companies of archers and foot - soldiers (such as billmen). There were sometimes contingents of foreign mercenaries, armed with cannon or handguns. The horsemen were generally restricted to "prickers '' and "scourers ''; i.e. scouting and foraging parties.
The rules of military engagement changed as civil war succeeded overseas campaigns. It was customary for the heavy cavalry to fight entirely on foot. In several cases, noblemen dismounted and fought among the common foot - soldiers, to inspire them and to dispel the notion that in the case of defeat they might be ransomed while the common soldiers, being of little value, faced death. It was often claimed that the nobles faced greater risks than the ordinary soldiers as there was little incentive for anyone to take prisoner any high - ranking noble during or immediately after a battle. During the Hundred Years ' War against France, a captured noble would be able to ransom himself for a large sum but in the Wars of the Roses, a captured noble who belonged to a defeated faction had a high chance of being executed as a traitor. Forty - two captured knights were executed after the Battle of Towton. The Burgundian observer Philippe de Commines, who met Edward IV in 1470, reported,
King Edward told me in all the battles which he had won, as soon as he had gained victory, he mounted his horse and shouted to his men that they must spare the common soldiers and kill the lords, of whom none or few escaped.
Even those who escaped execution might be declared attainted therefore possess no property and be of no value to a captor.
The War of the Roses is depicted in the BBC television series The White Queen and the mini-series The White Princess. The White Queen primarily follows the life of Elizabeth Woodville, while The White Princess primarily follows the life of Elizabeth of York.
George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series as well as the HBO adaptation of the series, Game of Thrones, was inspired by various events that happened in the Wars of the Roses.
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who is in the 2018 mens final four | 2018 NCAA Division I men 's basketball tournament - wikipedia
The 2018 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament was a 68 - team single - elimination tournament to determine the men 's National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I college basketball national champion for the 2017 -- 18 season. The 80th edition of the tournament began on March 13, 2018, and concluded with the championship game on April 2 at the Alamodome in San Antonio, Texas.
During the first round, UMBC became the first 16 - seed to defeat a 1 - seed in the men 's tournament by defeating Virginia 74 -- 54. For the first time in tournament history, none of the four top seeded teams in a single region (the South) advanced to the Sweet 16. Also, the tournament featured the first regional final matchup of a 9 - seed (Kansas State) and an 11 - seed (Loyola - Chicago).
Villanova, Michigan, Kansas, and Loyola - Chicago, the "Cinderella team '' of the tournament, reached the Final Four. Villanova defeated Michigan in the championship game, 79 -- 62.
A total of 68 teams entered the 2018 tournament. 32 automatic bids were awarded, one to each program that won their conference tournament. The remaining 36 bids were "at - large '', with selections extended by the NCAA Selection Committee.
Eight teams (the four lowest - seeded automatic qualifiers and the four lowest - seeded at - large teams) played in the First Four (the successor to what had been popularly known as "play - in games '' through the 2010 tournament). The winners of these games advanced to the main draw of the tournament.
The Selection Committee seeded the entire field from 1 to 68.
The following sites were selected to host each round of the 2018 tournament:
First Four
First and Second Rounds
Regional Semifinals and Finals (Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight)
National Semifinals and Championship (Final Four and Championship)
For the fourth time, the Alamodome and city of San Antonio are hosting the Final Four. This is the first tournament since 1994 in which no games were played in an NFL stadium, as the Alamodome is a college football stadium, although the Alamodome hosted some home games for the New Orleans Saints during their 2005 season. The 2018 tournament featured three new arenas in previous host cities. Philips Arena, the home of the Atlanta Hawks and replacement for the previously used Omni Coliseum, hosted the South regional games, and the new Little Caesars Arena, home of the Detroit Pistons and Detroit Red Wings, hosted games. And for the first time since 1994, the tournament returned to Wichita and the state of Kansas where Intrust Bank Arena hosted first round games.
The state of North Carolina was threatened with a 2018 - 2022 championship venue boycott by the NCAA, due to the HB2 law passed in 2016. However, the law was repealed (but with provisos) days before the NCAA met to make decisions on venues in April 2017. At that time, the NCAA board of governors "reluctantly voted to allow consideration of championship bids in North Carolina by our committees that are presently meeting ''. Therefore, Charlotte was eligible and served as a first weekend venue for the 2018 tournament.
Four teams, out of 351 in Division I, were ineligible to participate in the 2018 tournament due to failing to meet APR requirements: Alabama A&M, Grambling State, Savannah State, and Southeast Missouri State. However, the NCAA granted the Savannah State Tigers a waiver which would have allowed the team to participate in the tournament, but the team failed to qualify.
The following 32 teams were automatic qualifiers for the 2018 NCAA field by virtue of winning their conference 's automatic bid.
The tournament seeds were determined through the NCAA basketball tournament selection process. The seeds and regions were determined as follows:
* See First Four
The 2018 tournament was the first time since the 1978 tournament that the six Division I college basketball - playing schools based in the Washington, DC metropolitan area -- American, Georgetown, George Mason, George Washington, Howard, and Maryland -- were collectively shut out of the NCAA Tournament.
All times are listed as Eastern Daylight Time (UTC − 4) * -- Denotes overtime period
During the Final Four round, regardless of the seeds of the participating teams, the champion of the top overall top seed 's region (Virginia 's South Region) plays against the champion of the fourth - ranked top seed 's region (Xavier 's West Region), and the champion of the second overall top seed 's region (Villanova 's East Region) plays against the champion of the third - ranked top seed 's region (Kansas 's Midwest Region).
The Pac - 12 lost all of its teams after the first day of the main tournament draw, marking the first time since the Big 12 began play in 1996 that one of the six major conferences -- defined as the ACC, Big Ten, Big 12, Pac - 12, SEC, and both versions of the Big East -- failed to have a team advance to the tournament 's round of 32.
CBS Sports and Turner Sports had U.S. television rights to the Tournament under the NCAA March Madness brand. As part of a cycle beginning in 2016, TBS held the rights to the Final Four and to the championship game. Additionally, TBS held the rights to the 2018 Selection Show, which returned to a two - hour format, was presented in front of a studio audience, and promoted that the entire field of the tournament would be unveiled within the first ten minutes of the broadcast. The broadcast was heavily criticized for its quality (including technical problems and an embedded product placement segment for Pizza Hut), as well as initially unveiling the 68 - team field in alphabetical order (beginning with automatic qualifiers, followed by the at - large teams) rather than unveiling the matchups region - by - region (which was criticized for having less suspense than the traditional format).
Westwood One had exclusive radio rights to the entire tournament.
Live video of games was available for streaming through the following means:
Live audio of games was available for streaming through the following means:
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the most important power that congress has is the power to | Powers of the president of the United States - wikipedia
The President of the United States has numerous powers, including those explicitly granted by Article II of the United States Constitution.
The Constitution explicitly assigned the president the power to sign or veto legislation, command the armed forces, ask for the written opinion of their Cabinet, convene or adjourn Congress, grant reprieves and pardons, and receive ambassadors. The president may make treaties which need to be ratified by two - thirds of the Senate. The president may also appoint Article III judges and some officers with the advice and consent of the U.S. Senate. In the condition of a Senate recess, the president may make a temporary appointment.
Within the executive branch itself, the president has broad powers to manage national affairs and the priorities of the government. The president can issue rules, regulations, and instructions called executive orders, which have the binding force of law upon federal agencies but do not require approval of the United States Congress. Executive orders are subject to judicial review and interpretation.
The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 put additional responsibilities on the presidency for the preparation of the United States federal budget, although Congress was required to approve it. The act required the Office of Management and Budget to assist the president with the preparation of the budget. Previous presidents had the privilege of impounding funds as they saw fit, however the United States Supreme Court revoked the privilege in 1998 as a violation of the Presentment Clause. The power was available to all presidents and was regarded as a power inherent to the office. The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 was passed in response to large - scale power exercises by President Nixon. The act also created the Congressional Budget Office as a legislative counterpoint to the Office of Management and Budget.
The president, as the Commander in Chief of the United States Armed Forces may also call into federal service individual state units of the National Guard. In times of war or national emergency, the Congress may grant the president broader powers to manage the national economy and protect the security of the United States, but these powers were not expressly granted by the United States Constitution. During the Vietnam War, in 1973, Congress expeditiously passed the War Powers Act and severely limited the ability of the President to conduct warfare without Congressional approval. Congress was constitutionally provided the power to declare the war, but if the president needed to send the troops to other countries for emergency reasons, approved statutes required the notification of Congress within forty - eight hours. For any time beyond sixty days, further congressional approval was required.
The president has several options when presented with a bill from Congress. If the president agrees with the bill, he can sign it into law within ten days of receipt. If the president opposes the bill, he can veto it and return the bill to Congress with a veto message suggesting changes unless the Congress is out of session then the president may rely on a pocket veto.
Presidents are required to approve all of a bill or none of it; selective vetoes have been prohibited. In 1996, Congress gave President Bill Clinton a line - item veto over parts of a bill that required spending federal funds. The Supreme Court, in Clinton v. New York City, found Clinton 's veto of pork - barrel appropriations for New York City to be unconstitutional because only a constitutional amendment could give the president line - item veto power.
When a bill is presented for signature, the president may also issue a signing statement with expressions of their opinion on the constitutionality of a bill 's provisions. The president may even declare them unenforceable but the Supreme Court has yet to address this issue.
Congress may override vetoes with a two - thirds vote in both the House and the Senate. The process has traditionally been difficult and relatively rare. The threat of a presidential veto has usually provided sufficient pressure for Congress to modify a bill so the President would be willing to sign it.
Much of the legislation dealt with by Congress is drafted at the initiative of the executive branch. The president may personally propose legislation in annual and special messages to Congress including the annual State of the Union address and joint sessions of Congress. If Congress has adjourned without acting on proposals, the president may call a special session of the Congress.
Beyond these official powers, the U.S. president, as a leader of his political party and the United States government, holds great sway over public opinion whereby they may influence legislation.
To improve the working relationship with Congress, presidents in recent years have set up an Office of Legislative Affairs. Presidential aides have kept abreast of all important legislative activities.
The President of the United States has several different appointment powers.
Before taking office, the president - elect must appoint more than 6,000 new federal positions. The appointments range from top officials at U.S. government agencies, to the White House Staff, and members of the United States diplomatic corps. Many, but not all, of these positions at the highest levels are appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the United States Senate.
The president also nominates persons to fill federal judicial vacancies, including federal judges, such as members of the United States Courts of Appeals and the U.S. Supreme Court. These nominations require Senate confirmation, and this can provide a major stumbling block for presidents who wish to shape the federal judiciary in a particular ideological stance.
As head of the executive branch, the president appoints the top officials for all federal agencies. These positions are listed in the Plum Book which outlines more than seven thousand appointive positions in the government. Many of these appointments are made by the president. In the case of ten agencies, the president is free to appoint a new agency head. For example, it is not unusual for the CIA 's Director or NASA 's Administrator to be changed by the president. Other agencies that deal with federal regulation such as the Federal Reserve Board or the Securities and Exchange Commission have set terms that will often outlast presidential terms. For example, governors of the Federal Reserve serve for fourteen years to ensure agency independence. The president also appoints members to the boards of directors for government - owned corporations such as Amtrak. The president can also make a recess appointment if a position needs to be filled while Congress is not in session.
In the past, presidents could appoint members of the United States civil service. This use of the spoils system allowed presidents to reward political supporters with jobs. Following the assassination of President James Garfield by Charles J. Guiteau, a disgruntled office seeker, Congress instituted a merit - based civil service in which positions are filled on a nonpartisan basis. The Office of Personnel Management now oversees the staffing of 2.8 million federal jobs in the federal bureaucracy.
The president must also appoint his staff of aides, advisers, and assistants. These individuals are political appointments and are not subject to review by the Senate. All members of the staff serve "at the pleasure of the President ''. Since 1995, the president has been required to submit an annual report to Congress listing the name and salary of every employee of the White House Office. The 2011 report listed 454 employees.
Article II of the United States Constitution gives the president the power of clemency. The two most commonly used clemency powers are those of pardon and commutation. A pardon is an official forgiveness for an acknowledged crime. Once a pardon is issued, all punishment for the crime is waived. The person accepting the pardon must, however, acknowledge that the crime did take place. The president can only grant pardons for federal offences. The president maintains the Office of the Pardon Attorney in the U.S. Department of Justice to review all requests for pardons. The president can also commute a sentence which, in effect, changes the punishment to time served. While the guilty party may be released from custody or not have to serve out a prison term, all other punishments still apply.
Most pardons are issued as oversight of the judicial branch, especially in cases where the Federal Sentencing Guidelines are considered too severe. This power can check the legislative and judicial branches by altering punishment for crimes. Presidents can issue blanket amnesty to forgive entire groups of people. For example, President Jimmy Carter granted amnesty to Vietnam draft dodgers who had fled to Canada. Presidents can also issue temporary suspensions of prosecution or punishment in the form of respites. This power is most commonly used to delay federal sentences of execution.
Pardons can be controversial when they appear to be politically motivated. President George W. Bush commuted the sentence of White House staffer Lewis "Scooter '' Libby.
Under the Constitution, the president is the federal official that is primarily responsible for the relations of the United States with foreign nations. The president appoints ambassadors, ministers, and consuls (subject to confirmation by the Senate) and receives foreign ambassadors and other public officials. With the Secretary of State, the president manages all official contacts with foreign governments.
On occasion, the president may personally participate in summit conferences where heads of state meet for direct consultation. For example, President Wilson led the American delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 after World War I; President Franklin D. Roosevelt met with Allied leaders during World War II; and every president sits down with world leaders to discuss economic and political issues and to reach agreements.
Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments, and negotiate treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two - thirds of the Senate. The president may also negotiate executive agreements with foreign powers that are not subject to Senate confirmation.
The Constitution does not expressly grant the president additional powers in times of national emergency. However, many scholars think that the Framers implied these powers because the structural design of the Executive Branch enables it to act faster than the Legislative Branch. Because the Constitution remains silent on the issue, the courts can not grant the Executive Branch these powers when it tries to wield them. The courts will only recognize a right of the Executive Branch to use emergency powers if Congress has granted such powers to the president.
A claim of emergency powers was at the center of President Abraham Lincoln 's suspension of habeas corpus without Congressional approval in 1861. Lincoln claimed that the rebellion created an emergency that permitted him the extraordinary power of unilaterally suspending the writ. With Chief Justice Roger Taney sitting as judge, the Federal District Court of Maryland struck down the suspension in Ex Parte Merryman, although Lincoln ignored the order.
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt similarly invoked emergency powers when he issued an order directing that all Japanese Americans residing on the West Coast be placed into internment camps during World War II. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld this order in Korematsu v. United States.
Harry Truman declared the use of emergency powers when he nationalized private steel mills that failed to produce steel because of a labor strike in 1952. With the Korean War ongoing, Truman asserted that he could not wage war successfully if the economy failed to provide him with the material resources necessary to keep the troops well - equipped. The U.S. Supreme Court, however, refused to accept that argument in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, voting 6 - 3 that neither Commander in Chief powers nor any claimed emergency powers gave the president the authority to unilaterally seize private property without Congressional legislation.
Executive privilege gives the president the ability to withhold information from the public, Congress, and the courts in national security and diplomatic affairs. George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay 's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, Washington 's action created the precedent for privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed audio tapes to a special prosecutor in the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon that privilege was not absolute. The Court reasoned that the judiciary 's interest in the "fair administration of criminal justice '' outweighed President Nixon 's interest in keeping the evidence secret. Later President Bill Clinton lost in federal court when he tried to assert privilege in the Lewinsky affair. The Supreme Court affirmed this in Clinton v. Jones, which denied the use of privilege in cases of civil suits.
Because of the vast array of presidential roles and responsibilities, coupled with a conspicuous presence on the national and international scene, political analysts have tended to place great emphasis on the president 's powers. Some have even spoken of "the imperial presidency '', referring to the expanded role of the office that Franklin D. Roosevelt maintained during his term.
President Theodore Roosevelt famously called the presidency a "bully pulpit '' from which to raise issues nationally, for when a president raises an issue, it inevitably becomes subject to public debate. A president 's power and influence may be limited, but politically the president is certainly the most important power in Washington and, furthermore, is one of the most famous and influential of all Americans.
Though constrained by various other laws passed by Congress, the president 's executive branch conducts most foreign policy, and their power to order and direct troops as commander - in - chief is quite significant (the exact limits of what a president 's military powers without Congressional authorization are open to debate).
The Separation of Powers devised by the founding fathers was designed to do one primary thing: to prevent the majority from ruling with an iron fist. Based on their experience, the framers shied away from giving any branch of the new government too much power. The separation of powers provides a system of shared power known as "checks and balances ''. For example, the President appoints judges and departmental secretaries, but these appointments must be approved by the Senate. The president can veto bills, or deny them. If he does that, the bill is sent back to Congress.
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who wrote there's nothing holding me back by shawn mendes | There 's Nothing Holdin ' Me Back - wikipedia
"There 's Nothing Holdin ' Me Back '' is a song recorded by Canadian singer and songwriter Shawn Mendes, written by Mendes, Teddy Geiger, Geoff Warburton and Scott Harris, and produced by Geiger and Andrew Maury. The song was included in the reissue of his second studio album Illuminate (2016). It was released as a single on April 20, 2017. The song 's accompanying music video was released on June 20, 2017.
"There 's Nothing Holdin ' Me Back ' '' is a "dance - y '' pop rock track. A Billboard editor noted it features some electric guitar and "strained '' vocals on the chorus. As the upbeat track progresses, it incorporates handclaps, funky guitar riffs, and foot - tapping bass. The pre-chorus was inspired by early works of Timbaland and Justin Timberlake.
Writing for Billboard, Taylor Weatherby noted "the song 's sound falls right in line with the guitar - laced goodness he brought on his sophomore effort, but this time bringing in a little more edge. '' Allison Bowsher for Much opined the sound "is a return to the earworms that launched Mendes ' career back in 2015. Reminiscent of the high energy pop sensibilities of Mendes ' "Something Big, '' today 's new track plays with lifts and falls throughout, allowing Mendes to show off the strength of his voice. '' In MTV News, Madeline Roth thought the track is "more danceable than anything in his catalog. His voice is gritty and hoarse, especially on the passionate, aggressive hook. ''
"There 's Nothing Holdin ' Me Back '' is featured on the Illuminate World Tour setlist. The singer performed the single on The Graham Norton Show on June 9, 2017, at Capital FM 's Summertime Ball 2017 on June 10, The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on June 19 and at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards on August 27th.
In the United States, the song has peaked at number six. It has also reached higher positions on the charts of other countries, such as Australia and the UK, reaching number four in both, and in Mendes ' home country of Canada, where it has achieved number six.
The music video for the song was released on June 20, 2017. The clip, filmed in Paris, Amsterdam and the United Kingdom, sees Mendes and his love interest (played by actress Ellie Bamber) exploring Europe while the singer is out on tour. The couple races through transportation hubs, ride trains and trek along the coastline. The video also shows footage from Mendes ' concerts.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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how did arya stark get her sight back | Arya Stark - wikipedia
Arya Stark is a fictional character in American author George R.R. Martin 's award - winning A Song of Ice and Fire epic fantasy novel series. She is a prominent point of view character in the novels, with the third most viewpoint chapters overall out of all the characters in the series so far, and is the only viewpoint character to appear in every published book of the series.
Introduced in 1996 's A Game of Thrones, Arya is the younger daughter and third child of Lord Eddard Stark and his wife Lady Catelyn Stark. She is tomboyish, headstrong, independent, disdains traditional female pursuits, and is often mistaken for a boy. She wields a smallsword named Needle, a gift from her half - brother, Jon Snow, and is trained in the Braavosi style of sword fighting.
Arya is portrayed by English actress Maisie Williams in HBO 's Emmy - winning television adaptation of the novel series, Game of Thrones. Her performance has garnered critical acclaim, particularly in the second season for her work opposite veteran actor Charles Dance (Tywin Lannister) when she served as his cupbearer. She is among the most popular characters in either version of the story. Williams was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for the role in 2016. She and the rest of the cast were nominated for Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2012, 2014, 2015 and 2016.
Arya is the third child and younger daughter of Eddard and Catelyn Stark, and is nine years old at the beginning of the book series. She has four siblings: an older brother, Robb, two younger brothers Bran and Rickon, and an older sister, Sansa. She also grows very close to her bastard half - brother Jon Snow, who resembles her in looks and is also regarded socially as an outcast.
Arya is left - handed and talented in sums and housekeeping, and is excellent at horse - riding. In contrast to her more praised sister Sansa, who favors activities traditionally befitting a noblewoman and expresses disdain for outdoor activities, Arya shows no interest in dancing, singing and sewing, and revels in fighting and exploring, much to the chagrin of her mother and household tutor Septa Mordane. She is described as "wolf - blooded '', blunt, impulsive and "always difficult to tame '' by her mother, and was given the nickname "Arya Underfoot '' by the guards of Winterfell. She is particularly close to her bastard half - brother Jon Snow, who encourages her to learn how to fight and gives her the smallsword Needle. The sword is well suited to Arya 's slender build and her favored "Water Dance '' (fencing) style which emphasizes speed and agility with a thin, light rapier used in quick thrusting attacks. Throughout her travels, Arya displays great resourcefulness and cunning, and also becomes increasingly ruthless.
Arya is the only one out of her full - siblings to inherit the Stark features and is said to resemble her late aunt Lyanna in both looks and temperament. At the start of the series, she is generally regarded as messy and plain - looking, and often mistaken for a boy; but there are multiple instances in the books of her (favorable) comparison to the beautiful Lyanna, and catching the eye of men later on in the series. She is also a skinchanger, capable of telepathically possessing her direwolf Nymeria in dreams, as well as psychically bonding with a street cat in Braavos.
Arya is in love with her adopted direwolf cub, which she names Nymeria after a legendary warrior queen. She travels with her father, Eddard, to King 's Landing when he is made Hand of the King. Before she leaves, her half - brother Jon Snow has a smallsword made for her as a parting gift, which she names "Needle '' after her least favorite ladylike activity.
While taking a walk together, Prince Joffrey and her sister Sansa happen upon Arya and her friend, the low - born butcher apprentice Mycah, sparring in the woods with broomsticks. Arya defends Mycah from Joffrey 's torments and her direwolf Nymeria helps Arya fight off Joffrey, wounding his arm in the process. Knowing that Nymeria will likely be killed in retribution, Arya chases her wolf away; but Sansa 's direwolf Lady is killed in Nymeria 's stead and Mycah is hunted down and killed by Sandor Clegane, Joffrey 's bodyguard.
In King 's Landing, her father discovers Arya 's possession of Needle, but instead of confiscating it he arranges for fencing lessons under the Braavosi swordsmaster Syrio Forel, who teaches her the style of fighting known as "water dancing ''. After her father 's arrest, Syrio is killed protecting her and Arya narrowly escapes capture. She later witnesses the public execution of her father before falling under the protection of the Night 's Watch recruiter Yoren.
Arya escapes King 's Landing with Yoren and his party of recruits; and on the road, she clashes with the other Night 's Watch child recruits Lommy, Gendry, and Hot Pie but eventually befriends them. On the way, the party is attacked by Amory Lorch when Yoren refuses to yield Gendry, who is actually a bastard son of the late King Robert, to the Lannisters. The Night 's Watch convoy is overrun and massacred, but Arya and the other children escape through a tunnel. Before escaping, she rescues three prisoners locked in a wagon cage, among them a mysterious man named Jaqen H'ghar.
Arya and her friends are later captured by Ser Gregor Clegane and taken to Harrenhal as slave laborers. After witnessing the torture death of her fellow prisoners, Arya begins nightly reciting the names of the people upon whom she wishes to exact revenge. At Harrenhal she re-encounters Jaqen, now under the employ of the Lannisters, who offers to kill for her any three people she names; whereupon she names two people who hurt her at Harrenhal. When Jaqen asks her to name the last target, Arya extorts him to help her free northern prisoners by naming Jaqen himself as the third person. In order to get Arya to retract the name, Jaqen stages a massive prison riot that overwhelms the Lannister garrison. Afterwards, Jaqen offers to take Arya with him, but Arya expresses wish to go home, so he gives Arya a strange Braavosi iron coin to ensure her induction into his guild, the Faceless Men, and tells her to remember the passphrase "Valar Morghulis '' ("All men must die '' in High Valyrian) before leaving. The next morning, Roose Bolton captures the castle, and Arya becomes his personal cupbearer. Eventually, Arya escapes Harrenhal with her friends Gendry and Hot Pie after killing a guard.
While Arya and her companions are making their way north, she begins dreaming of her lost direwolf, Nymeria. Later, she and her companions are discovered by the guerrilla group, the Brotherhood Without Banners, and is recognized as Arya Stark. At the Brotherhood 's secret base, Arya encounters Sandor Clegane, where she accuses him of Mycah 's murder; but the Hound survives a trial by combat and is released.
Arya eventually escapes the Brotherhood alone, but is captured by the Hound, who plans to return her to her family for a ransom. They reach the Twins just as her brother and mother are killed during the Red Wedding, and Sandor knocks her unconscious to prevent her from being killed. That night, Arya skinchanges into Nymeria during sleep and pulls her mother 's corpse out of the river for the Brotherhood to find. Later, Sandor plans to ransom her to her aunt Lysa at the Vale, but is unable to proceed due to the weather. Sandor decides to instead take her to her great - uncle Brynden Tully. On their way to Riverrun, they encounter two men on Arya 's death list, Tickler and Polliver, who were both Gregor Clegane 's men - at - arms at Harrenhal. In the ensuing fight, Arya personally stabs Tickler to death and reclaims her sword Needle from Polliver 's corpse, but Sandor is severely injured. When Sandor becomes gravely ill from his wounds, Arya refuses to give him the gift of mercy and abandons him to die under a tree by the Trident river. She travels to the port town Saltpan and gains passage to Braavos on a merchant galleass, Titan 's Daughter, by presenting the ship 's captain with the iron coin that Jaqen gave her along with the Valyrian phrase "Valar Morghulis. ''
Arriving in Braavos, Arya makes her way to the headquarters of the Faceless Men, the House of Black and White, where she is initiated into the guild by a priest in charge, whom she calls "the Kindly Man ''. The Kindly Man demands her to dispose of all her past possessions, and she complies by throwing in the river but still secretly hides her sword Needle, which is the one thing reminding of her sweet childhood memories. For her training, Arya adopts the identity of "Cat of the Canal '', a street child who helps selling seafood, and continues having increasing more frequent and vivid wolf - dreams, which further prevents her from discarding her old identity. During her training, she briefly meets Samwell Tarly and later vigilantely murders the Night 's Watch deserter Dareon. After admitting her unauthorized killing to her mentor, she is given a milk potion to drink; the next morning, she wakes up blind.
Arya remains blind in the service of the House of Black and White for half a year. She continues to dream through the eyes of her direwolf, Nymeria, but speaks of it to no one. While she is blind, Arya wanders the streets of Braavos under the identity of "Beth '', a blind beggar girl, and becomes better at sensing without her eyes, as well as lying and detecting the lies of others.
After skinchanging into a stray tomcat that followed her back to the temple, Arya is able to identify the Kindly Man as the person who sneak - attacks her with a stick every night and later surprise - hits him. For this achievement she passes the test and regains her vision, and is given her first assassination assignment. When she successfully poisons a crooked insurance salesman without rousing any suspicion or collateral damage, the Kindly Man gives Arya an acolyte 's robe and assigns her to begin her first apprenticeship inserted within a theatrical group.
Arya Stark is played by British actress Maisie Williams in the television adaption of the book series, this being Williams ' first role as an actress.
Arya accompanies her father Ned and her sister Sansa to King 's Landing. Before their departure, Arya 's half - brother Jon Snow gifts Arya a sword which she dubs "Needle ''. On the Kingsroad, Arya is sparring with a butcher 's boy, Mycah, when Sansa 's betrothed Prince Joffrey Baratheon attacks Mycah, prompting Arya 's direwolf Nymeria to bite Joffrey. Arya shoos Nymeria away so she is not killed, but is furious when Sansa later refuses to support her version of events. Mycah is later killed by Joffrey 's bodyguard Sandor "The Hound '' Clegane, earning him Arya 's hatred. Ned arranges for Arya to have sword lessons with the Braavosi Syrio Forel, who later defends her from Ser Meryn Trant after Joffrey ascends to the throne and kills the Stark household. Arya flees the Red Keep, accidentally killing a stable boy in her escape, hiding out as a beggar in the streets of King 's Landing. Ned is eventually taken to the Great Sept of Baelor to face judgment; he spots Arya in the crowd, and alerts the Night 's Watch recruiter Yoren to her presence. Yoren prevents Arya from witnessing Ned 's execution and has her pose as a boy as she joins Yoren 's recruits on the march north.
The recruits are attacked by Lannister soldiers under Ser Amory Lorch, who have been ordered by Cersei Lannister to kill Robert Baratheon 's bastard Gendry, who is part of the party. Needle is confiscated by a soldier, Polliver, who then uses it to kill Arya 's friend Lommy Greenhands (who Arya later claims is Gendry). The recruits are taken to Harrenhal, where Tywin Lannister recognises her as a girl and takes her as his cupbearer. Jaqen offers to kill three people for Arya as reward for saving his life and those of his cellmates during the attack; Arya picks Harrenhal 's torturer The Tickler and Ser Amory. When Arya is unable to have Tywin killed before his departure, she has Jaqen help her, Gendry and her friend Hot Pie escape. Jaqen offers to take Arya to Braavos to join the Faceless Men assassin guild, and although she declines he gives her an iron coin that will allow her to obtain passage to Braavos.
Arya, Gendry, and Hot Pie encounter Thoros of Myr, a Red Priest who is a member of the Brotherhood Without Banners, a group of men sent by Ned to restore order in the Riverlands. As Thoros takes them to the Brotherhood 's hideout they encounter the Hound, a captive of other Brotherhood men. The Hound is brought before the Brotherhood 's leader, Ser Beric Dondarrion, and after Arya accuses him of Mycah 's murder Beric sentences him to trial by combat. The Hound wins, to Arya 's fury, and is released by Dondarrion. Arya is further enraged when the Brotherhood sells Gendry to Melisandre and escapes the Brotherhood. She is captured by the Hound, who intends to take her to The Twins to ransom her to her brother Robb. However, as they arrive the Freys betray the Starks and slaughter their forces, with Arya barely escaping the massacre. In the aftermath of their escape, Arya encounters a Frey soldier bragging about his role in desecrating Robb 's corpse. Arya stabs the soldier to death, marking the first time she has deliberately killed another person.
Arya and the Hound encounter Polliver in a tavern; Arya reclaims Needle and uses it to kill Polliver to avenge Lommy. They also encounter Rorge and Biter, Jaqen 's fellow prisoners, and Arya kills Rorge after recalling he had threatened to rape her. The Hound takes Arya to the Vale to ransom her to her aunt Lysa Arryn, only to be turned away at the Bloody Gate when they are informed that Lysa has apparently committed suicide. Returning from the Bloody Gate, they are approached by Brienne of Tarth, who had sworn to Catelyn Stark to take Arya to safety. Distrusting Brienne 's allegiances, the Hound attempts to kill her but is severely beaten and is seemingly mortally wounded. Arya manages to hide from Brienne in the confusion, and after Brienne leaves Arya takes the Hound 's silver, leaving him to die. She then encounters a Braavosi captain, who offers her passage to Braavos after she gives him the iron coin.
Arya arrives in Braavos and is accepted into the House of Black and White by a man who wears Jaqen H'ghar's face. After impressing Jaqen with her ability to lie undetected by convincing a terminally ill girl to drink poison, she is given the assignment of assassinating a corrupt insurance salesman. However, she is distracted from her mission by the arrival in Braavos of Ser Meryn Trant. Assuming the identity of the girl she had poisoned, Arya disguises herself as a prostitute and infiltrates a brothel, where she kills Meryn. However, when she returns to the House of Black and White she is caught by Jaqen, who chides that Arya has not dissociated from her identity and that as a result wearing another person 's face will poison her. Arya is subsequently struck blind.
Arya is forced to beg on the streets of Braavos, with her fellow acolyte the Waif arriving daily to attack her. Eventually, Jaqen brings Arya back to the House of Black and White and restores her vision. She is tasked to assassinate an actress named Lady Crane, but Arya has a change of heart at the last minute, instead warning Lady Crane of the attempt on her life. The Waif witnesses this disobedience, and is given permission by Jaqen to kill Arya. Aware that she is now in danger, Arya retrieves her sword Needle from its hiding place and arranges for passage out of Braavos, but is stabbed by the Waif and barely escapes. Lady Crane nurses her back to health, but the Waif reappears, kills Lady Crane and pursues a recovering Arya. Arya leads the Waif to her quarters underneath Braavos and extinguishes the only candle in the room, her experience fighting blind ultimately giving her the advantage and allowing her to kill the Waif. She removes the Waif 's face and adds it to the Hall of Faces before telling an impressed Jaqen that she is Arya Stark, and returns to Westeros.
Arya travels to the Twins, assuming the identity of a servant girl. She kills Lord Walder Frey 's sons, Black Walder Rivers and Lothar Frey, before cooking them in a pie that she serves to Walder Frey. After revealing her subterfuge and her true identity to Walder, she cuts his throat, avenging Robb and Catelyn.
Taking the face of Walder Frey, Arya gathers the men of House Frey for a feast before killing them all with poisoned wine. Arya then journeys south, intending to travel to King 's Landing to assassinate Cersei (now Queen of the Seven Kingdoms following the extinction of House Baratheon). However, Arya changes her mind after learning from Hot Pie that Jon has ousted House Bolton from Winterfell and has been crowned King in the North, and decides to return to her ancestral home. Along the way she encounters a wolf pack led by her long - lost direwolf Nymeria. Nymeria recognizes Arya, but she has grown feral and ignores Arya when she asks her to come North with her.
Arriving at Winterfell, Arya finds that Jon has traveled to Dragonstone but is reunited with Sansa and Bran, the latter of whom reveals his knowledge of Arya 's kill list through greenseeing and presents her with a Valyrian steel dagger, which had been given to him by Littlefinger. Arya is also reunited with Brienne, who continues to serve the Starks, and manages to equal the female warrior during sparring despite her smaller size.
Littlefinger seeks to increase his influence on Sansa by driving a wedge between the Stark sisters. To this end, he allows Arya to witness him receiving a confidential message obtained from Maester Luwin 's records. Arya breaks into Littlefinger 's quarters to steal the message, which is a plea sent by Sansa following Ned 's imprisonment to Robb imploring him to bend the knee to Joffrey. Arya, outraged, confronts Sansa, and is unconvinced by her explanation that she did so to try and save Ned 's life. Later, Arya catches Sansa looking at her collection of faces, and threatens Sansa before leaving. Sansa summons Arya to the great hall and begins an accusation of treason and murder; however, the accusation is directed towards Littlefinger, whose crimes have been discovered by Bran 's greenseeing. Despite Littlefinger 's pleas for mercy, Arya cuts his throat. The Stark sisters resolve their differences, and acknowledge that the Starks must stay together to survive winter.
Maisie Williams has received several award nominations for her portrayal of Arya. For her performance in the series she received two Portal Awards for Best Supporting Actress and Best Young Actor in 2012, an EWwy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2014, and a Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Young Actor in a Television Series in 2015.
Williams was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2016. Other nominations include the Portal Award for Best Young Actor in 2011, the SFX Awards for Best Actress in 2012 and 2015, the Gold Derby TV Awards for Breakthrough Performer of the Year in 2012, the Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series by a Supporting Young Actress in 2013, the EWwy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2015, and the Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Young Actor in a Television Series in 2016.
This article incorporates text available under the CC BY - SA 3.0 license.
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when does a study in scarlet take place | A Study in Scarlet - wikipedia
A Study in Scarlet is an 1887 detective novel by British author Arthur Conan Doyle. Written in 1886, the story marks the first appearance of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson, who would become the most famous detective duo in popular fiction. The book 's title derives from a speech given by Holmes, a consulting detective, to his friend and chronicler Watson on the nature of his work, in which he describes the story 's murder investigation as his "study in scarlet '': "There 's the scarlet thread of murder running through the colourless skein of life, and our duty is to unravel it, and isolate it, and expose every inch of it. ''
The story, and its main characters, attracted little public interest when it first appeared. Only 11 complete copies of the magazine in which the story first appeared, Beeton 's Christmas Annual for 1887, are known to exist now and they have considerable value. Although Conan Doyle wrote 56 short stories featuring Holmes, A Study in Scarlet is one of only four full - length novels in the original canon. The novel was followed by The Sign of the Four, published in 1890. A Study in Scarlet was the first work of detective fiction to incorporate the magnifying glass as an investigative tool.
Part I leads with a heading which establishes the role of Dr. Watson as narrator and sets up the narrative stand - point that the work to follow is not fiction, but fact: "Being a Reprint from the Reminiscences of John H. Watson, MD, Late of the Army Medical Department. ''
The story begins in 1881, when Dr. Watson, having returned to London after serving in the Second Anglo - Afghan War, visits the Criterion Restaurant and runs into an old friend named Stamford, who had been a dresser under him at St. Bartholomew 's Hospital. Watson confides in Stamford that, due to a shoulder injury that he sustained at the Battle of Maiwand, he has been forced to leave the armed services and is now looking for a place to live. Stamford mentions that an acquaintance of his, Sherlock Holmes, is looking for someone to split the rent at a flat at 221B Baker Street, but he cautions Watson about Holmes 's eccentricities.
Stamford takes Watson back to St. Bartholomew 's where, in a laboratory, they find Holmes experimenting with a reagent named Annie DeVries, seeking a test to detect human haemoglobin. Holmes explains the significance of bloodstains as evidence in criminal trials. After Stamford introduces Watson to Holmes, Holmes shakes Watson 's hand and comments, "You have been in Afghanistan, I perceive. '' Though Holmes chooses not to explain why he made the comment, Watson raises the subject of their parallel quests for a place to live in London, and Holmes explains that he has found the perfect place in Baker Street. At Holmes 's prompting, the two review their various shortcomings to make sure that they can live together. After seeing the rooms at 221B, they move in and grow accustomed to their new situation.
Watson is amazed by Holmes, who has profound knowledge of chemistry and sensational literature, very precise but narrow knowledge of geology and botany; yet knows little about literature, astronomy, philosophy, and politics. Holmes also has multiple guests visiting him at different intervals during the day.
After much speculation by Watson, Holmes reveals that he is a "consulting detective '' and that the guests are clients. Facing Watson 's doubts about some of his claims, Holmes casually deduces to Watson that one visitor, a messenger from Scotland Yard is also a retired Marine sergeant. When the man confirms this, Watson is astounded by Holmes ' ability to notice details and assemble them.
Holmes reads the telegram requesting consultation in a fresh murder case. He is reluctant to help because credit would go entirely to the officials. Watson urges him to reconsider so Holmes invites him to accompany him as he investigates the crime scene, an abandoned house off the Brixton Road.
Holmes observes the pavement and garden leading up to the house before he and Watson meet Inspectors Gregson and Lestrade. The four observe the crime scene, Holmes using a magnifying lens and tape measure. The male corpse, he 's told, has been identified as Enoch Drebber. Blood has been found in the room but there is no wound on the body. They also learn from documents found on his person that he was in London with his secretary, Joseph Stangerson. On one wall, written in blood, is "RACHE ''. Correcting an erroneous theory of Lestrade 's, Holmes remarks that it is the German word for "revenge. '' He goes on to deduce that the victim died from poison and supplies a description of the murderer: six feet tall, disproportionately small feet, florid complexion, square toed boots, and smoking a Trichinopoly cigar. His right - hand fingernails are long and he arrived in a cab whose horse had three old shoes and a new one. Holmes says "RACHE '' was a ploy to fool the police. Upon moving Drebber 's body, the pair discover a woman 's gold wedding ring.
Soon, Holmes and Watson visit the home of the constable who had first discovered the corpse, paying him a bit for the disturbance. They get little information Holmes did n't already know, other than that a seemingly drunk loiterer had attempted to approach the crime scene. Holmes chastises the officer for not realising that this was the murderer himself in disguise. They leave and Holmes explains that the murderer returned on realising that he 'd forgotten the wedding ring.
Holmes dispatches some telegrams including an order for a newspaper notice about the ring. He also buys a facsimile of it. He guesses that the murderer, having already returned to the scene of the crime for it, would come to retrieve it. The advertisement is answered by an old woman who claims that the ring belongs to her daughter. Holmes gives her the duplicate, follows her, and returns to Watson with the story: she took a cab, he hopped onto the back of it, he found that she had vanished when it stopped. This leads Holmes to believe that it was the murderer 's accomplice in disguise.
A day later, Gregson visits Holmes and Watson, telling them that he has arrested a suspect. He had gone to Madame Charpentier 's Boarding House where Drebber and Stangerson had stayed before the murder. He learned from her that Drebber, a drunk, had attempted to kiss Mrs Charpentier 's daughter, Alice, which caused their immediate eviction. Drebber, however, came back later that night and attempted to grab Alice, prompting her older brother to attack him. He attempted to chase Drebber with a cudgel but claimed to have lost sight of him. Gregson has him in custody on this circumstantial evidence.
Lestrade then arrives revealing that Stangerson has been murdered. Lestrade had gone to interview Stangerson after learning where he had been rooming. His body was found dead near the hotel window, stabbed through the heart. Above his body was written "RACHE ''. The only things Stangerson had with him were a novel, a pipe, and a small box containing two pills. The pillbox Lestrade still has with him. Holmes tests the pills on an old and sickly Scottish terrier in residence at Baker Street. The first pill produces no evident effect, the second kills the terrier. Holmes deduces that one was harmless and the other poison.
Just at that moment, a very young street urchin named Wiggins arrives. He 's the leader of the Baker Street Irregulars, a group of homeless children Holmes employs to help him occasionally. Wiggins states that he 's summoned the cab Holmes wanted. Holmes sends him down to fetch the cabby, claiming to need help with his luggage. When the cabbie comes upstairs and bends for the trunk, Holmes handcuffs and restrains him. He then announces the captive cabby as Jefferson Hope, the murderer of Drebber and Stangerson.
The story flashes back to the Salt Lake Valley in Utah in 1847, where John Ferrier and a little girl named Lucy, the only survivors of a small party of pioneers, lie down near a boulder to die from dehydration and hunger. They are discovered by a large party of Latter - day Saints of Jesus Christ led by Brigham Young. The Saints rescue Ferrier and Lucy on the condition that they adopt and live under their faith. Ferrier, who has proven himself an able hunter, adopts Lucy and is given a generous land grant with which to build his farm after the party constructs Salt Lake City. Years later, a now - grown Lucy befriends and falls in love with a man named Jefferson Hope.
Lucy and Hope become engaged, with the ceremony scheduled to take place after Hope 's return from a two - month - long journey for his job. However, Ferrier is visited by Young, who reveals that it is against the religion for Lucy to marry Hope, a non-Mormon. He states that Lucy should marry Joseph Stangerson or Enoch Drebber -- both sons of members of the church 's Council of Four -- though Lucy may choose which one. Ferrier and Lucy are given a month to decide.
Ferrier, who has sworn to never marry his daughter to a Mormon (Mormon being a slang term to refer to this group of religious peoples), immediately sends out word to Hope for help. When he is visited by Stangerson and Drebber, Ferrier is angered by their arguments over Lucy and throws them out. Every day, however, the number of days Ferrier has left to marry off Lucy is painted somewhere on his farm in the middle of the night. Hope finally arrives on the eve of the last day, and sneaks his love and her adoptive father out of their farm and away from Salt Lake City. However, while he is hunting for food, Hope returns to a horrific sight: a makeshift grave for the elder Ferrier. Lucy is nowhere to be seen. Determined to devote his life to revenge, Hope sneaks back into Salt Lake City, learning that Stangerson murdered Ferrier, and that Lucy was forcibly married to Drebber. Lucy dies a month later from a broken heart; Drebber, who inherited Ferrier 's farm, is indifferent to her death. Hope then breaks into Drebber 's house the night before Lucy 's funeral to kiss her body and remove her wedding ring. Swearing vengeance, Hope stalks the town, coming close to killing Drebber and Stangerson on numerous occasions.
Hope begins to suffer from an aortic aneurysm, causing him to leave the mountains to earn money and recuperate. When he returns several years later, he learns that Drebber and Stangerson have fled Salt Lake City after a schism between the Mormons. Hope searches the United States, eventually tracking them to Cleveland; the pair then flees to Europe, eventually landing in London.
This is the story the handcuffed Hope willingly tells to Holmes, Lestrade, Gregson, and Watson. In London, Hope became a cabby and eventually found Drebber and Stangerson at the train station in Euston about to depart to Liverpool. Having missed the first train, Drebber instructed Stangerson to wait at the station and then returned to Madame Charpentier 's house. After an altercation with Madame Charpentier 's son, Drebber got into Hope 's cab and spent several hours drinking. Eventually Hope took him to the house on Brixton Road, which Drebber drunkenly entered believing it was a hotel. Hope then forced Drebber to recognize him and to choose between two pills, one of which was harmless and the other poison. Drebber took the poisoned pill, and as he died, Hope showed him Lucy 's wedding ring. The excitement coupled with his aneurysm had caused his nose to bleed; he used the blood to write "RACHE '' on the wall above Drebber.
Hope realised, upon returning to his cab, that he had forgotten Lucy 's ring, but upon returning to the house, he found Constable Rance and other police officers, whom he evaded by acting drunk. He then had a friend pose as an old lady to pick up the supposed ring from Holmes 's advertisement.
Hope then began stalking Stangerson 's room at the hotel; but Stangerson, on learning of Drebber 's murder, refused to come out. Hope climbed into the room through the window and gave Stangerson the same choice of pills, but he was attacked by Stangerson and forced to stab him in the heart.
After being told of this, Holmes and Watson return to Baker Street; Hope dies from his aneurysm the night before he is to appear in court, a smile on his face. One morning, Holmes reveals to Watson how he had deduced the identity of the murderer and how he had used the Irregulars, whom he calls "street Arabs, '' to search for a cabby by that name. He then shows Watson the newspaper; Lestrade and Gregson are given full credit. Outraged, Watson states that Holmes should record the adventure and publish it. Upon Holmes 's refusal, Watson decides to do it himself.
Conan Doyle wrote the novel at the age of 27 in less than three weeks. As a general practice doctor in Southsea, Portsmouth, he had already published short stories in several magazines of the day, such as the periodical London Society. The story was originally titled A Tangled Skein, and was eventually published by Ward Lock & Co. in Beeton 's Christmas Annual 1887, after many rejections. The author received £ 25 in return for the full rights (although Conan Doyle had pressed for a royalty instead). It was illustrated by David Henry Friston. The novel was first published as a book in July 1888 by Ward, Lock & Co., and featured drawings by the author 's father, Charles Doyle. A second edition appeared the following year and was illustrated by George Hutchinson; a year later in 1890, J.B. Lippincott & Co. released the first American version. Numerous further editions, translations and dramatisations have appeared since.
As the first Sherlock Holmes story published, A Study in Scarlet was among the first to be adapted to the screen. In 1914, Conan Doyle authorised a silent film be produced by G.B. Samuelson. Holmes was played by James Bragington, an accountant who worked as an actor for the only time of his life. He was hired for his resemblance to Holmes, as presented in the sketches originally published with the story. As early silent films were made with film that itself was made with poor materials, and film archiving was then rare, it is now a lost film. The success of the film allowed for a second version to be produced that same year by Francis Ford, which has also been lost.
The 1933 film entitled A Study in Scarlet, starring Reginald Owen as Sherlock Holmes and Anna May Wong as Mrs Pyke, bears no plot relation to the novel, as the producers had purchased rights to only the title, not the story. (So limited were the purchased rights that the famous Baker Street address is "221A '' in the film rather than the renowned "221B. '') Aside from Holmes, Watson, Mrs. Hudson, and Inspector Lestrade, the only connections to the Holmes canon are a few lifts of character names (Jabez Wilson, etc.). The plot contains an element of striking resemblance to one used several years later in Agatha Christie 's novel And Then There Were None: that of murder victims being counted off by lines from the same nursery rhyme, but the Holmes film takes the precaution of using the phrase "ten little black boys ''.
The book has rarely been adapted in full, but notable instances were an episode broadcast on 23 September 1968 in the second season of the BBC television series Sherlock Holmes, with Peter Cushing in the lead role and Nigel Stock as Dr. Watson, which put more detail into the story, including the actor who claims the ring; the second episode of the 1979 Soviet TV adaptation, Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson (the first episode combines the story of their meeting with "The Adventure of the Speckled Band ''; the second episode adapts the actual Jefferson Hope case.); a 1983 animated version produced by Burbank Films Australia, with Peter O'Toole voicing Holmes; A Study in Scarlet was the first episode of the BBC 's complete Sherlock Holmes on Radio 4 in 1989, dramatised by Bert Coules and starring Clive Merrison as Holmes, Michael Williams as Watson, Donald Gee as Inspector Lestrade, and John Moffatt as Inspector Gregson; and a 2007 episode of the American radio series The Classic Adventures of Sherlock Holmes.
In both the 1968 television adaptation featuring Peter Cushing and the 1983 animated version featuring Peter O'Toole, the story is changed so that Holmes and Watson already know each other and have been living at 221 - B Baker Street for some time.
Other adaptations use only the portions of the first section of the book in which Holmes and Watson 's relationship is established. The Ronald Howard / H. Marion Crawford television series used that section of the book as the basis for the episode "The Case of the Cunningham Heritage ''.
Steven Moffat loosely adapted A Study in Scarlet into "A Study in Pink '' as the first episode of the 2010 BBC television series Sherlock featuring Benedict Cumberbatch as a 21st - century Sherlock Holmes, and Martin Freeman as Dr. Watson. The adaptation retains many individual elements from the story, such as the scribbled "RACHE '' and the two pills, and the killer 's potentially fatal aneurysm (however it is located in his brain rather than his aorta). However, the entire backstory set in America is omitted, and the motivation of the killer is completely different. It also features Moriarty 's presence. Also, the meeting of Holmes and Watson is adapted in the Victorian setting in the special "The Abominable Bride ''.
In 2010, A Study in Scarlet was adapted for the stage by William Amos Jr and Margaret Walther.
In 2014, A Study in Scarlet was adapted again for the stage by Greg Freeman, Lila Whelan and Annabelle Brown in an adaptation for Tacit Theatre. The production premiered at Southwark Playhouse in London in March 2014
"The Deductionist '', an episode of Elementary, contains many elements of Hope 's case, including the motivation of revenge. The story was more closely adapted in the season 4 episode, "A Study in Charlotte. ''
"The First Adventure '', the first episode of the 2014 NHK puppetry series Sherlock Holmes, is loosely based on A Study in Scarlet and "The Adventure of the Six Napoleons ''. In it, Holmes, Watson and Lestrade are pupils at a fictional boarding school called Beeton School. They find out that a pupil called Jefferson Hope has taken revenge on Enoch Drebber and Joseph Stangerson for stealing his watch. "Scarlet Story '', the series ' opening theme tune, is named after the novel and the name of "Beeton School '' is partially inspired by Beeton 's Christmas Annual.
A Study in Scarlet was illustrated by Seymour Moskowitz for Classics Illustrated comics in 1953. It was also adapted to graphic novel form by Innovation Publishing in 1989 (adapted by James Stenstrum and illustrated by Noly Panaligan) and by Sterling Publishing in 2010 (adapted by Ian Edginton and illustrated by I.N.J. Culbard).
According to a Salt Lake City newspaper article, when Conan Doyle was asked about his depiction of the Latter - day Saints ' organisation as being steeped in kidnapping, murder and enslavement, he said: "all I said about the Danite Band and the murders is historical so I can not withdraw that, though it is likely that in a work of fiction it is stated more luridly than in a work of history. It 's best to let the matter rest ''. Conan Doyle 's daughter has stated: "You know, father would be the first to admit that his first Sherlock Holmes novel was full of errors about the Mormons. '' Historians speculate that "Conan Doyle, a voracious reader, would have access to books by Fannie Stenhouse, William A. Hickman, William Jarman, John Hyde and Ann Eliza Young, among others, '' in explaining the author 's early perspective on Mormonism.
Years after Conan Doyle 's death, Levi Edgar Young, a descendant of Brigham Young and a Mormon general authority, claimed that Conan Doyle had privately apologised, saying that "He (Conan Doyle) said he had been misled by writings of the time about the Church '' and had "written a scurrilous book about the Mormons. ''
In August 2011, the Albemarle County, Virginia, School Board removed A Study in Scarlet from the district 's sixth - grade required reading list following complaints from students and parents that the book was derogatory toward Mormons. It was moved to the reading lists for the tenth - graders, and remains in use in the school media centres for all grades.
In his Naked is the Best Disguise (1974), Samuel Rosenberg notes the similarity between Jefferson Hope 's tracking of Enoch Drebber and a sequence in James Joyce 's novel Ulysses, though of course Joyce 's work did not begin to appear in print until 1918. Several other associations between Conan Doyle and Joyce are also listed in Rosenberg 's book.
The British fantasy and comic book writer Neil Gaiman adapted this story to the universe of horror writer H.P. Lovecraft 's Cthulhu Mythos. The new short story is titled "A Study in Emerald '' (2004) and is modelled with a parallel structure.
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how much carbon dioxide do we put in the atmosphere | Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere - wikipedia
Carbon dioxide (CO) is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere. CO is a major greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle, a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans, soil, rocks and the biosphere. Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis. Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds.
Reconstructions show that concentrations of CO in the atmosphere have varied from as high as 7,000 parts per million (ppm) during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years. Global annual mean CO concentration has increased by more than 45 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution. The concentration was 280 ppm during the 10,000 years up to the mid-18th century, increasing to 407 ppm as of mid-2017. The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years. The increase has been caused by human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. This increase of CO and other greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere has produced the current episode of global warming. About 30 -- 40 % of the CO released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans, rivers and lakes, which has produced ocean acidification.
Over the past 400,000 years, CO concentrations have shown several cycles of variation from about 180 parts per million during the deep glaciations of the Holocene and Pleistocene to 280 parts per million during the interglacial periods. Each part per million by volume of CO in the atmosphere contains approximately 2.13 gigatonnes of carbon. Currently CO constitutes about 0.041 % (equal to 410 ppm) by volume of the atmosphere, which corresponds to approximately 3200 gigatons of CO, which includes approximately 870 gigatons of carbon. The global mean CO concentration is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm / year and accelerating.
Following the start of the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric CO concentration has increased to over 400 parts per million and continues to increase. The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013. This has caused the phenomenon of global warming. The global average concentration of CO in Earth 's atmosphere is currently about 0.04 %, or 400 parts per million by volume (ppm). There is an annual fluctuation of about 3 -- 9 ppm which is negatively correlated with the Northern Hemisphere 's growing season. The Northern Hemisphere dominates the annual cycle of CO concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations reach a peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins, and decline to a minimum in October, near the end of the growing season.
Since global warming is attributed to increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases such as CO, scientists closely monitor atmospheric CO concentrations and their impact on the present - day biosphere. At the scientific recording station in Mauna Loa, the concentration reached 400 ppm for the first time in May 2013, although this concentration had already been reached in the Arctic in June 2012. The National Geographic wrote that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is this high "for the first time in 55 years of measurement -- and probably more than 3 million years of Earth history. '' The current concentration may be the highest in the last 20 million years.
Carbon dioxide concentrations have varied widely over the Earth 's 4.54 billion year history. Carbon dioxide is believed to have been present in Earth 's first atmosphere, shortly after Earth 's formation. Earth 's second atmosphere emerged after the lighter gases, hydrogen and helium, escaped to space or like oxygen were bound up in molecules and is thought to have consisted largely of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and inert gases produced by outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by asteroids. The production of free oxygen by cyanobacterial photosynthesis eventually led to the oxygen catastrophe that ended Earth 's second atmosphere and brought about the Earth 's third atmosphere (the modern atmosphere) 2.4 billion years before the present. Carbon dioxide concentrations dropped from 7,000 parts per million during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 parts per million during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years.
On long timescales, atmospheric CO concentration is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock weathering, and volcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the carbon cycle over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO. On a timescale of billions of years, such downward trend appears bound to continue indefinitely as occasional massive historical releases of buried carbon due to volcanism will become less frequent (as earth mantle cooling and progressive exhaustion of internal radioactive heat proceeds further). The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of no relevance to the atmospheric CO concentration over the next hundreds or thousands of years.
In billion - year timescales, it is predicted that plant, and therefore animal, life on land will die off altogether, since by that time most of the remaining carbon in the atmosphere will be sequestered underground, and natural releases of CO by radioactivity - driven tectonic activity will have continued to slow down. The loss of plant life would also result in the eventual loss of oxygen. Some microbes are capable of photosynthesis at concentrations of CO of a few parts per million and so the last life forms would probably disappear finally due to the rising temperatures and loss of the atmosphere when the sun becomes a red giant some four billion years from now.
The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before instrumental sampling is to measure bubbles of air (fluid or gas inclusions) trapped in the Antarctic or Greenland ice sheets. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO concentrations were about 260 -- 280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years. The longest ice core record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800,000 years. During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied between 180 -- 210 ppm during ice ages, increasing to 280 -- 300 ppm during warmer interglacials. The beginning of human agriculture during the current Holocene epoch may have been strongly connected to the atmospheric CO increase after the last ice age ended, a fertilization effect raising plant biomass growth and reducing stomatal conductance requirements for CO intake, consequently reducing transpiration water losses and increasing water usage efficiency.
Various proxy measurements have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations millions of years in the past. These include boron and carbon isotope ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of stomata observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO volume concentrations between 200 and 150 million years ago of over 3,000 ppm, and between 600 and 400 million years ago of over 6,000 ppm. In more recent times, atmospheric CO concentration continued to fall after about 60 million years ago. About 34 million years ago, the time of the Eocene -- Oligocene extinction event and when the Antarctic ice sheet started to take its current form, CO is found to have been about 760 ppm, and there is geochemical evidence that concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 million years ago. Carbon dioxide decrease, with a tipping point of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation. Low CO concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of C4 plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 million years ago.
Ancient - Earth climate reconstruction is a vibrant field with numerous studies and reconstructions that sometimes reinforce one another and sometimes disagree with each other. Academically, one study disputed the claim of stable CO concentrations during the present interglacial of the last 10,000 years. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al. argued that CO levels during the last 7,000 -- 10,000 year period were significantly higher (~ 300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO. Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g. H. J Smith et al.) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from in situ decomposition of calcium carbonate dust found in the ice. When dust concentrations in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between measurements of Antarctic and Greenland CO concentrations.
Earth 's natural greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible and carbon dioxide plays a significant role in providing for the relatively warm temperature that the planet enjoys. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary atmosphere warms the planet 's surface beyond the temperature it would have in the absence of its atmosphere. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth 's temperature would be about − 18 ° C (- 0.4 ° F) compared to Earth 's actual surface temperature of approximately 14 ° C (57.2 ° F).
Carbon dioxide is believed to have played an important effect in regulating Earth 's temperature throughout its 4.7 billion year history. Early in the Earth 's life, scientists have found evidence of liquid water indicating a warm world even though the Sun 's output is believed to have only been 70 % of what it is today. It has been suggested by scientists that higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the early Earth atmosphere might help explain this faint young sun paradox. When Earth first formed, Earth 's atmosphere may have contained more greenhouse gases and CO concentrations may have been higher, with estimated partial pressure as large as 1,000 kPa (10 bar), because there was no bacterial photosynthesis to reduce the gas to carbon compounds and oxygen. Methane, a very active greenhouse gas which reacts with oxygen to produce CO and water vapor, may have been more prevalent as well, with a mixing ratio of 10 (100 parts per million by volume).
Though water is responsible for most (about 36 - 70 %) of the total greenhouse effect, the role of water vapor as a greenhouse gas depends on temperature. On earth, carbon dioxide is the most relevant direct anthropologically influenced greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide is often mentioned in the context of its increased influence as a greenhouse gas since the pre-industrial (1750) era. In the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report the increase in CO was estimated to be responsible for 1.82 W m of the 2.63 W m change in radiative forcing on earth (about 70 %).
The concept of atmospheric CO increasing ground temperature was first published by Svante Arrhenius in 1896. The increased radiative forcing due to increased CO in the earth 's atmosphere is based on the physical properties of CO and the non-saturated absorption windows where CO absorbs outgoing long - wave energy.
Atmospheric carbon dioxide plays an integral role in the Earth 's carbon cycle whereby carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by some natural processes such as photosynthesis and deposition of carbonates, to form limestones for example, and added back to the atmosphere by other natural processes such as respiration and the acid dissolution of carbonate deposits. There are two broad carbon cycles on earth: the fast carbon cycle and the slow carbon cycle. The fast carbon cycle refers to movements of carbon between the environment and living things in the biosphere whereas the slow carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, soil, rocks and volcanism. Both carbon cycles are intrinsically interconnected and atmospheric gaseous carbon dioxide facilitates the carbon cycle.
Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include volcanic outgassing, the combustion of organic matter, wildfires and the respiration processes of living aerobic organisms. Man - made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of fossil fuels for heating, power generation and transport, as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various microorganisms from fermentation and cellular respiration. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria convert carbon dioxide to carbohydrates by a process called photosynthesis. They gain the energy needed for this reaction from absorption of sunlight by chlorophyll and other pigments. Oxygen, produced as a by - product of photosynthesis, is released into the atmosphere and subsequently used for respiration by heterotrophic organisms and other plants, forming a cycle.
Most sources of CO emissions are natural, and are balanced to various degrees by natural CO sinks. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands and the action of forest fires results in the release of about 439 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year, while new growth entirely counteracts this effect, absorbing 450 gigatonnes per year. Although the initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by volcanic activity, modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 megatonnes of carbon dioxide each year. These natural sources are nearly balanced by natural sinks, physical and biological processes which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some is directly removed from the atmosphere by land plants for photosynthesis and it is soluble in water forming carbonic acid. There is a large natural flux of CO into and out of the biosphere and oceans. In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57 % of human - emitted CO is removed by the biosphere and oceans. From pre-industrial era to 2010, the terrestrial biosphere represented a net source of atmospheric CO prior to 1940, switching subsequently to a net sink. The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO to emitted CO is known as the airborne fraction (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short - term averages and is typically about 45 % over longer (5 year) periods. Estimated carbon in global terrestrial vegetation increased from approximately 740 billion tons in 1910 to 780 billion tons in 1990.
Carbon dioxide in the Earth 's atmosphere is essential to life and to the present planetary biosphere. Over the course of Earth 's geologic history CO concentrations have played a role in biological evolution. The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water. Cyanobacteria appeared later, and the excess oxygen they produced contributed to the oxygen catastrophe, which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. In recent geologic times, low CO concentrations below 600 parts per million might have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of C4 plants which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 million years ago over plants that use the less efficient C3 metabolic pathway. At current atmospheric pressures photosynthesis shuts down when atmospheric CO concentrations fall below 150 ppm and 200 ppm although some microbes can extract carbon from the air at much lower concentrations. Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, which is about six times larger than the current power consumption of human civilization. Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100 -- 115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.
Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from CO and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis, since photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than CO, as a source of carbon. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis. Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. However, there are some types of bacteria that carry out anoxygenic photosynthesis, which consumes CO but does not release oxygen.
Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction, so photosynthesis needs to supply both a source of energy to drive this process, and the electrons needed to convert CO into a carbohydrate. This addition of the electrons is a reduction reaction. In general outline and in effect, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration, in which glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce CO and water, and to release exothermic chemical energy to drive the organism 's metabolism. However, the two processes take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments.
Most organisms that utilize photosynthesis to produce oxygen use visible light to do so, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far - red radiation.
A 1993 review of scientific greenhouse studies found that a doubling of CO concentration would stimulate the growth of 156 different plant species by an average of 37 %. The amount of gain varied significantly by species, with some showing much greater gains, and a small number showing a loss. For example, a 1979 greenhouse study compared the dry weights of cotton and maize plants grown in different greenhouses, one with double the CO concentration of the other. In the enriched CO air, the dry weight of 40 - day - old cotton plants doubled, but the dry weight of 30 - day - old maize plants increased by only 20 %.
Because of concerns that greenhouse experiments might not adequately simulate the actual environment (such as competing plants), scientists developed Free - air carbon dioxide enrichment (FACE) experiments. In this procedure, plants are grown outdoors, and the CO concentration of the surrounding air is artificially elevated. FACE experiments, using generally lower CO levels than the greenhouse studies, showed lower gains in growth than greenhouse studies, with the gains depending heavily on the species under study. A 2005 review of 12 experiments at 475 - 600 ppm showed an average gain of 17 % in crop yield, with legumes typically showing a greater response than other species, and C4 plants generally showing less. The review also stated that the reviewed experiments have their own limitations. The studied CO levels were lower, and most of the experiments were carried out in temperate regions.
The Earth 's oceans contain a large amount of CO in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions -- much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:
Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO. Since the right side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO on the left side decreases the pH of sea water, a process which has been termed ocean acidification (pH of the ocean becomes more acidic although the pH value remains in the alkaline range). Reactions between CO and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO. Over hundreds of millions of years, this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.
Ultimately, most of the CO emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean; however, the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain. Even if equilibrium is reached, including dissolution of carbonate minerals, the increased concentration of bicarbonate and decreased or unchanged concentration of carbonate ion will give rise to a higher concentration of un-ionized carbonic acid and dissolved CO. This, along with higher temperatures, would mean a higher equilibrium concentration of CO in the air.
While CO absorption and release is always happening as a result of natural processes, the recent rise in CO levels in the atmosphere is known to be mainly due to human (anthropogenic) activity. There are 4 ways human activity, especially fossil fuel burning, is known to have caused the rapid increase in atmospheric CO over the last few centuries. 1) Various national statistics accounting for fossil fuel consumption, combined with knowledge of how much atmospheric CO is produced per unit of fossil fuel (e.g. liter of gasoline). 2) By examining the ratio of various carbon isotopes in the atmosphere. The burning of long - buried fossil fuels releases CO containing carbon of different isotopic ratios to those of living plants, enabling distinction between natural and human - caused contributions to CO concentration. 3) Higher atmospheric CO concentrations in the northern hemisphere, where most of the world 's population lives (and emissions originate from), compared to the southern hemisphere. This difference has increased as anthropogenic emissions have increased. 4) Atmospheric O levels are decreasing in earth 's atmosphere as it reacts with the carbon in fossil fuels to form CO.
Burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas is the leading cause of increased anthropogenic CO; deforestation is the second major cause. In 2010, 9.14 gigatonnes of carbon (GtC, equivalent to 33.5 gigatonnes of CO or about 4.3 ppm in earth 's atmosphere) were released from fossil fuels and cement production worldwide, compared to 6.15 GtC in 1990. In addition, land use change contributed 0.87 GtC in 2010, compared to 1.45 GtC in 1990. In 1997, human - caused Indonesian peat fires were estimated to have released between 13 % and 40 % of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year. In the period 1751 to 1900, about 12 GtC were released as CO to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels, whereas from 1901 to 2013 the figure was about 380 GtC.
Anthropogenic carbon emissions exceed the amount that can be taken up or balanced out by natural sinks. As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, and as of 2013, its concentration is almost 43 % above pre-industrial levels. Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in carbon dioxide sinks. Currently about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans and remains in the atmosphere.
Excess CO emitted since the pre-industrial era is projected to remain in the atmosphere for centuries to millennia, even after emissions stop. Even if human carbon dioxide emissions were to completely cease, atmospheric temperatures are not expected to decrease significantly for thousands of years.
Global fossil carbon emissions 1800 -- 2007.
False - color image of smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.
Biosphere CO flux in the northern hemisphere summer (NOAA Carbon Tracker).
Biosphere CO flux in the northern hemisphere winter (NOAA Carbon Tracker).
The first reproducibly accurate measurements of atmospheric CO were from flask sample measurements made by Dave Keeling at Caltech in the 1950s. A few years later in March 1958 the first ongoing measurements were started by Keeling at Mauna Loa. Measurements at Mauna Loa have been ongoing since then. Now measurements are made at many sites globally. Additional measurement techniques are also used as well. Many measurement sites are part of larger global networks. Global network data are often made publicly available on the conditions of proper acknowledgement according to the respective data user policies.
There are several surface measurement (including flasks and continuous in situ) networks including NOAA / ERSL, WDCGG, and RAMCES. The NOAA / ESRL Baseline Observatory Network, and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography Network data are hosted at the CDIAC at ORNL. The World Data Centre for Greenhouse Gases (WDCGG), part of GAW, data are hosted by the JMA. The Reseau Atmospherique de Mesure des Composes an Effet de Serre database (RAMCES) is part of IPSL.
From these measurements, further products are made which integrate data from the various sources. These products also address issues such as data discontinuity and sparseness. GLOBALVIEW - CO2 is one of these products.
Ongoing ground - based total column measurements began more recently. Column measurements typically refer to an averaged column amount denoted X, rather than a surface only measurement. These measurements are made by the TCCON. These data are also hosted on the CDIAC, and made publicly available according to the data use policy.
Satellite measurements are also a recent addition to atmospheric X measurements. SCIAMACHY aboard ESA 's ENVISAT made global column X measurements from 2002 - 2012. AIRS aboard NASA 's Aqua satellite makes global X measurements and was launched shortly after ENVISAT in 2012. More recent satellites have significantly improved the data density and precision of global measurements. Newer missions have higher spectral and spatial resolutions. JAXA 's GOSAT was the first dedicated GHG monitoring satellite to successfully achieve orbit in 2009. NASA 's OCO - 2 launched in 2014 was the second. Various other satellites missions to measure atmospheric X are planned.
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what is the basic function of the cookie and where is it stored | HTTP cookie - wikipedia
An HTTP cookie (also called web cookie, Internet cookie, browser cookie, or simply cookie) is a small piece of data sent from a website and stored on the user 's computer by the user 's web browser while the user is browsing. Cookies were designed to be a reliable mechanism for websites to remember stateful information (such as items added in the shopping cart in an online store) or to record the user 's browsing activity (including clicking particular buttons, logging in, or recording which pages were visited in the past). They can also be used to remember arbitrary pieces of information that the user previously entered into form fields such as names, addresses, passwords, and credit card numbers.
Other kinds of cookies perform essential functions in the modern web. Perhaps most importantly, authentication cookies are the most common method used by web servers to know whether the user is logged in or not, and which account they are logged in with. Without such a mechanism, the site would not know whether to send a page containing sensitive information, or require the user to authenticate themselves by logging in. The security of an authentication cookie generally depends on the security of the issuing website and the user 's web browser, and on whether the cookie data is encrypted. Security vulnerabilities may allow a cookie 's data to be read by a hacker, used to gain access to user data, or used to gain access (with the user 's credentials) to the website to which the cookie belongs (see cross-site scripting and cross-site request forgery for examples).
The tracking cookies, and especially third - party tracking cookies, are commonly used as ways to compile long - term records of individuals ' browsing histories -- a potential privacy concern that prompted European and U.S. lawmakers to take action in 2011. European law requires that all websites targeting European Union member states gain "informed consent '' from users before storing non-essential cookies on their device.
The term "cookie '' was coined by web browser programmer Lou Montulli. It was derived from the term "magic cookie '', which is a packet of data a program receives and sends back unchanged, used by Unix programmers.
Magic cookies were already used in computing when computer programmer Lou Montulli had the idea of using them in web communications in June 1994. At the time, he was an employee of Netscape Communications, which was developing an e-commerce application for MCI. Vint Cerf and John Klensin represented MCI in technical discussions with Netscape Communications. MCI did not want its servers to have to retain partial transaction states, which led them to ask Netscape to find a way to store that state in each user 's computer instead. Cookies provided a solution to the problem of reliably implementing a virtual shopping cart.
Together with John Giannandrea, Montulli wrote the initial Netscape cookie specification the same year. Version 0.9 beta of Mosaic Netscape, released on October 13, 1994, supported cookies. The first use of cookies (out of the labs) was checking whether visitors to the Netscape website had already visited the site. Montulli applied for a patent for the cookie technology in 1995, and US 5774670 was granted in 1998. Support for cookies was integrated in Internet Explorer in version 2, released in October 1995.
The introduction of cookies was not widely known to the public at the time. In particular, cookies were accepted by default, and users were not notified of their presence. The general public learned about cookies after the Financial Times published an article about them on February 12, 1996. In the same year, cookies received a lot of media attention, especially because of potential privacy implications. Cookies were discussed in two U.S. Federal Trade Commission hearings in 1996 and 1997.
The development of the formal cookie specifications was already ongoing. In particular, the first discussions about a formal specification started in April 1995 on the www - talk mailing list. A special working group within the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) was formed. Two alternative proposals for introducing state in HTTP transactions had been proposed by Brian Behlendorf and David Kristol respectively. But the group, headed by Kristol himself and Lou Montulli, soon decided to use the Netscape specification as a starting point. In February 1996, the working group identified third - party cookies as a considerable privacy threat. The specification produced by the group was eventually published as RFC 2109 in February 1997. It specifies that third - party cookies were either not allowed at all, or at least not enabled by default.
At this time, advertising companies were already using third - party cookies. The recommendation about third - party cookies of RFC 2109 was not followed by Netscape and Internet Explorer. RFC 2109 was superseded by RFC 2965 in October 2000.
RFC 2965 added a Set - Cookie2 header, which informally came to be called "RFC 2965 - style cookies '' as opposed to the original Set - Cookie header which was called "Netscape - style cookies ''. Set - Cookie2 was seldom used however, and was deprecated in RFC 6265 in April 2011 which was written as a definitive specification for cookies as used in the real world.
A session cookie, also known as an in - memory cookie or transient cookie, exists only in temporary memory while the user navigates the website. Web browsers normally delete session cookies when the user closes the browser. Unlike other cookies, session cookies do not have an expiration date assigned to them, which is how the browser knows to treat them as session cookies.
Instead of expiring when the web browser is closed as session cookies do, a persistent cookie expires at a specific date or after a specific length of time. This means that, for the cookie 's entire lifespan (which can be as long or as short as its creators want), its information will be transmitted to the server every time the user visits the website that it belongs to, or every time the user views a resource belonging to that website from another website (such as an advertisement).
For this reason, persistent cookies are sometimes referred to as tracking cookies because they can be used by advertisers to record information about a user 's web browsing habits over an extended period of time. However, they are also used for "legitimate '' reasons (such as keeping users logged into their accounts on websites, to avoid re-entering login credentials at every visit).
These cookies are however reset if the expiration time is reached or the user manually deletes the cookie.
A secure cookie can only be transmitted over an encrypted connection (i.e. HTTPS). They can not be transmitted over unencrypted connections (i.e. HTTP). This makes the cookie less likely to be exposed to cookie theft via eavesdropping. A cookie is made secure by adding the Secure flag to the cookie.
An HttpOnly cookie can not be accessed by client - side APIs, such as JavaScript. This restriction eliminates the threat of cookie theft via cross-site scripting (XSS). However, the cookie remains vulnerable to cross-site tracing (XST) and cross-site request forgery (XSRF) attacks. A cookie is given this characteristic by adding the HttpOnly flag to the cookie.
Google Chrome 51 recently introduced a new kind of cookie which can only be sent in requests originating from the same origin as the target domain. This restriction mitigates attacks such as cross-site request forgery (XSRF). A cookie is given this characteristic by setting the SameSite flag to Strict or Lax.
Normally, a cookie 's domain attribute will match the domain that is shown in the web browser 's address bar. This is called a first - party cookie. A third - party cookie, however, belongs to a domain different from the one shown in the address bar. This sort of cookie typically appears when web pages feature content from external websites, such as banner advertisements. This opens up the potential for tracking the user 's browsing history, and is often used by advertisers in an effort to serve relevant advertisements to each user.
As an example, suppose a user visits www.example.org. This web site contains an advertisement from ad.foxytracking.com, which, when downloaded, sets a cookie belonging to the advertisement 's domain (ad.foxytracking.com). Then, the user visits another website, www.foo.com, which also contains an advertisement from ad.foxytracking.com, and which also sets a cookie belonging to that domain (ad.foxytracking.com). Eventually, both of these cookies will be sent to the advertiser when loading their advertisements or visiting their website. The advertiser can then use these cookies to build up a browsing history of the user across all the websites that have ads from this advertiser.
As of 2014, some websites were setting cookies readable for over 100 third - party domains. On average, a single website was setting 10 cookies, with a maximum number of cookies (first - and third - party) reaching over 800.
Most modern web browsers contain privacy settings that can block third - party cookies.
A supercookie is a cookie with an origin of a top - level domain (such as. com) or a public suffix (such as. co.uk). Ordinary cookies, by contrast, have an origin of a specific domain name, such as example.com.
Supercookies can be a potential security concern and are therefore often blocked by web browsers. If unblocked by the browser, an attacker in control of a malicious website could set a supercookie and potentially disrupt or impersonate legitimate user requests to another website that shares the same top - level domain or public suffix as the malicious website. For example, a supercookie with an origin of. com, could maliciously affect a request made to example.com, even if the cookie did not originate from example.com. This can be used to fake logins or change user information.
The Public Suffix List helps to mitigate the risk that supercookies pose. The Public Suffix List is a cross-vendor initiative that aims to provide an accurate and up - to - date list of domain name suffixes. Older versions of browsers may not have an up - to - date list, and will therefore be vulnerable to supercookies from certain domains.
The term "supercookie '' is sometimes used for tracking technologies that do not rely on HTTP cookies. Two such "supercookie '' mechanisms were found on Microsoft websites in August 2011: cookie syncing that respawned MUID (machine unique identifier) cookies, and ETag cookies. Due to media attention, Microsoft later disabled this code.
A zombie cookie is a cookie that is automatically recreated after being deleted. This is accomplished by storing the cookie 's content in multiple locations, such as Flash Local shared object, HTML5 Web storage, and other client - side and even server - side locations. When the cookie 's absence is detected, the cookie is recreated using the data stored in these locations.
A cookie consists of the following components:
Cookies were originally introduced to provide a way for users to record items they want to purchase as they navigate throughout a website (a virtual "shopping cart '' or "shopping basket ''). Today, however, the contents of a user 's shopping cart are usually stored in a database on the server, rather than in a cookie on the client. To keep track of which user is assigned to which shopping cart, the server sends a cookie to the client that contains a unique session identifier (typically, a long string of random letters and numbers). Because cookies are sent to the server with every request the client makes, that session identifier will be sent back to the server every time the user visits a new page on the website, which lets the server know which shopping cart to display to the user.
Another popular use of cookies is for logging into websites. When the user visits a website 's login page, the web server typically sends the client a cookie containing a unique session identifier. When the user successfully logs in, the server remembers that that particular session identifier has been authenticated, and grants the user access to its services.
Because session cookies only contain a unique session identifier, this makes the amount of personal information that a website can save about each user virtually limitless -- the website is not limited to restrictions concerning how large a cookie can be. Session cookies also help to improve page load times, since the amount of information in a session cookie is small and requires little bandwidth.
Cookies can be used to remember information about the user in order to show relevant content to that user over time. For example, a web server might send a cookie containing the username last used to log into a website so that it may be filled in automatically the next time the user logs in.
Many websites use cookies for personalization based on the user 's preferences. Users select their preferences by entering them in a web form and submitting the form to the server. The server encodes the preferences in a cookie and sends the cookie back to the browser. This way, every time the user accesses a page on the website, the server can personalize the page according to the user 's preferences. For example, the Google search engine once used cookies to allow users (even non-registered ones) to decide how many search results per page they wanted to see. Also, DuckDuckGo uses cookies to allow users to set the viewing preferences like colors of the web page.
Tracking cookies are used to track users ' web browsing habits. This can also be done to some extent by using the IP address of the computer requesting the page or the referer field of the HTTP request header, but cookies allow for greater precision. This can be demonstrated as follows:
By analyzing this log file, it is then possible to find out which pages the user has visited, in what sequence, and for how long.
Corporations exploit users ' web habits by tracking cookies to collect information about buying habits. The Wall Street Journal found that America 's top fifty websites installed an average of sixty - four pieces of tracking technology onto computers resulting in a total of 3,180 tracking files. The data can then be collected and sold to bidding corporations.
Cookies are arbitrary pieces of data, usually chosen and first sent by the web server, and stored on the client computer by the web browser. The browser then sends them back to the server with every request, introducing states (memory of previous events) into otherwise stateless HTTP transactions. Without cookies, each retrieval of a web page or component of a web page would be an isolated event, largely unrelated to all other page views made by the user on the website. Although cookies are usually set by the web server, they can also be set by the client using a scripting language such as JavaScript (unless the cookie 's HttpOnly flag is set, in which case the cookie can not be modified by scripting languages).
The cookie specifications require that browsers meet the following requirements in order to support cookies:
Cookies are set using the Set - Cookie HTTP header, sent in an HTTP response from the web server. This header instructs the web browser to store the cookie and send it back in future requests to the server (the browser will, of course, ignore this header if it does not support cookies or has disabled cookies).
As an example, the browser sends its first request for the homepage of the www.example.org website:
The server responds with two Set - Cookie headers:
The server 's HTTP response contains the contents of the website 's homepage. But it also instructs the browser to set two cookies. The first, "theme '', is considered to be a session cookie, since it does not have an Expires or Max - Age attribute. Session cookies are intended to be deleted by the browser when the browser closes. The second, "sessionToken '' is considered to be a persistent cookie, since it contains an Expires attribute, which instructs the browser to delete the cookie at a specific date and time.
Next, the browser sends another request to visit the spec. html page on the website. This request contains a Cookie HTTP header, which contains the two cookies that the server instructed the browser to set:
This way, the server knows that this request is related to the previous one. The server would answer by sending the requested page, possibly including more Set - Cookie headers in the response in order to add new cookies, modify existing cookies, or delete cookies.
The value of a cookie can be modified by the server by including a Set - Cookie header in response to a page request. The browser then replaces the old value with the new value.
The value of a cookie may consist of any printable ASCII character (! through ~, Unicode \ u0021 through \ u007E) excluding, and; and whitespace characters. The name of a cookie excludes the same characters, as well as =, since that is the delimiter between the name and value. The cookie standard RFC 2965 is more restrictive but not implemented by browsers.
The term "cookie crumb '' is sometimes used to refer to a cookie 's name -- value pair.
Cookies can also be set by scripting languages such as JavaScript that run within the browser. In JavaScript, the object document. cookie is used for this purpose. For example, the instruction document. cookie = "temperature = 20 '' creates a cookie of name "temperature '' and value "20 ''.
In addition to a name and value, cookies can also have one or more attributes. Browsers do not include cookie attributes in requests to the server -- they only send the cookie 's name and value. Cookie attributes are used by browsers to determine when to delete a cookie, block a cookie or whether to send a cookie to the server.
The Domain and Path attributes define the scope of the cookie. They essentially tell the browser what website the cookie belongs to. For obvious security reasons, cookies can only be set on the current resource 's top domain and its sub domains, and not for another domain and its sub domains. For example, the website example.org can not set a cookie that has a domain of foo.com because this would allow the example.org website to control the cookies of foo.com.
If a cookie 's Domain and Path attributes are not specified by the server, they default to the domain and path of the resource that was requested. However, in most browsers there is a difference between a cookie set from foo.com without a domain, and a cookie set with the foo.com domain. In the former case, the cookie will only be sent for requests to foo.com, also known as a host - only cookie. In the latter case, all sub domains are also included (for example, docs.foo.com). A notable exception to this general rule is Internet Explorer, which always sends cookies to sub domains regardless of whether the cookie was set with or without a domain.
Below is an example of some Set - Cookie HTTP response headers that are sent from a website after a user logged in. The HTTP request was sent to a webpage within the docs.foo.com subdomain:
The first cookie, LSID, has no Domain attribute, and has a Path attribute set to / accounts. This tells the browser to use the cookie only when requesting pages contained in docs.foo.com/accounts (the domain is derived from the request domain). The other two cookies, HSID and SSID, would be used when the browser requests any subdomain in. foo.com on any path (for example www.foo.com/bar). The prepending dot is optional in recent standards, but can be added for compatibility with RFC 2109 based implementations.
The Expires attribute defines a specific date and time for when the browser should delete the cookie. The date and time are specified in the form Wdy, DD Mon YYYY HH: MM: SS GMT, or in the form Wdy, DD Mon YY HH: MM: SS GMT for values of YY where YY is greater than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 69.
Alternatively, the Max - Age attribute can be used to set the cookie 's expiration as an interval of seconds in the future, relative to the time the browser received the cookie. Below is an example of three Set - Cookie headers that were received from a website after a user logged in:
The first cookie, lu, is set to expire sometime on 15 January 2013. It will be used by the client browser until that time. The second cookie, made_write_conn, does not have an expiration date, making it a session cookie. It will be deleted after the user closes their browser. The third cookie, reg_fb_gate, has its value changed to "deleted '', with an expiration time in the past. The browser will delete this cookie right away because its expiration time is in the past. Note that cookie will only be deleted if the domain and path attributes in the Set - Cookie field match the values used when the cookie was created.
As of 2016 Internet Explorer did not support Max - Age.
The Secure and HttpOnly attributes do not have associated values. Rather, the presence of just their attribute names indicates that their behaviors should be enabled.
The Secure attribute is meant to keep cookie communication limited to encrypted transmission, directing browsers to use cookies only via secure / encrypted connections. However, if a web server sets a cookie with a secure attribute from a non-secure connection, the cookie can still be intercepted when it is sent to the user by man - in - the - middle attacks. Therefore, for maximum security, cookies with the Secure attribute should only be set over a secure connection.
The HttpOnly attribute directs browsers not to expose cookies through channels other than HTTP (and HTTPS) requests. This means that the cookie can not be accessed via client - side scripting languages (notably JavaScript), and therefore can not be stolen easily via cross-site scripting (a pervasive attack technique).
Most modern browsers support cookies and allow the user to disable them. The following are common options:
By default, Internet Explorer allows third - party cookies only if they are accompanied by a P3P "CP '' (Compact Policy) field.
Add - on tools for managing cookie permissions also exist.
Cookies have some important implications on the privacy and anonymity of web users. While cookies are sent only to the server setting them or a server in the same Internet domain, a web page may contain images or other components stored on servers in other domains. Cookies that are set during retrieval of these components are called third - party cookies. The older standards for cookies, RFC 2109 and RFC 2965, specify that browsers should protect user privacy and not allow sharing of cookies between servers by default. However, the newer standard, RFC 6265, explicitly allows user agents to implement whichever third - party cookie policy they wish. Most browsers, such as Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera and Google Chrome do allow third - party cookies by default, as long as the third - party website has Compact Privacy Policy published. Newer versions of Safari block third - party cookies, and this is planned for Mozilla Firefox as well (initially planned for version 22 but was postponed indefinitely).
Advertising companies use third - party cookies to track a user across multiple sites. In particular, an advertising company can track a user across all pages where it has placed advertising images or web bugs. Knowledge of the pages visited by a user allows the advertising company to target advertisements to the user 's presumed preferences.
Website operators who do not disclose third - party cookie use to consumers run the risk of harming consumer trust if cookie use is discovered. Having clear disclosure (such as in a privacy policy) tends to eliminate any negative effects of such cookie discovery.
The possibility of building a profile of users is a privacy threat, especially when tracking is done across multiple domains using third - party cookies. For this reason, some countries have legislation about cookies.
The United States government has set strict rules on setting cookies in 2000 after it was disclosed that the White House drug policy office used cookies to track computer users viewing its online anti-drug advertising. In 2002, privacy activist Daniel Brandt found that the CIA had been leaving persistent cookies on computers which had visited its website. When notified it was violating policy, CIA stated that these cookies were not intentionally set and stopped setting them. On December 25, 2005, Brandt discovered that the National Security Agency (NSA) had been leaving two persistent cookies on visitors ' computers due to a software upgrade. After being informed, the NSA immediately disabled the cookies.
In 2002, the European Union launched the Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications, a policy requiring end users ' consent for the placement of cookies, and similar technologies for storing and accessing information on users ' equipment. In particular, Article 5 Paragraph 3 mandates that storing data in a user 's computer can only be done if the user is provided information about how this data is used, and the user is given the possibility of denying this storing operation.
Directive 95 / 46 / EC defines "the data subject 's consent '' as "any freely given specific and informed indication of his wishes by which the data subject signifies his agreement to personal data relating to him being processed. '' Consent must involve some form of communication where individuals knowingly indicate their acceptance.
In 2009, the policy was amended by Directive 2009 / 136 / EC, which included a change to Article 5, Paragraph 3. Instead of having an option for users to opt out of cookie storage, the revised Directive requires consent to be obtained for cookie storage.
In June 2012, European data protection authorities adopted an opinion which clarifies that some cookie users might be exempt from the requirement to gain consent:
The industry 's response has been largely negative. Robert Bond of the law firm Speechly Bircham describes the effects as "far - reaching and incredibly onerous '' for "all UK companies ''. Simon Davis of Privacy International argues that proper enforcement would "destroy the entire industry ''.
The P3P specification offers possibility for a server to state a privacy policy using an HTTP header, which specifies which kind of information it collects and for which purpose. These policies include (but are not limited to) the use of information gathered using cookies. According to the P3P specification, a browser can accept or reject cookies by comparing the privacy policy with the stored user preferences or ask the user, presenting them the privacy policy as declared by the server. However, the P3P specification was criticized by web developers for its complexity. Some websites do not correctly implement it. For example, Facebook jokingly used "HONK '' as its P3P header for a period. Only Internet Explorer provides adequate support for the specification.
Third - party cookies can be blocked by most browsers to increase privacy and reduce tracking by advertising and tracking companies without negatively affecting the user 's web experience. Many advertising operators have an opt - out option to behavioural advertising, with a generic cookie in the browser stopping behavioural advertising.
Most websites use cookies as the only identifiers for user sessions, because other methods of identifying web users have limitations and vulnerabilities. If a website uses cookies as session identifiers, attackers can impersonate users ' requests by stealing a full set of victims ' cookies. From the web server 's point of view, a request from an attacker then has the same authentication as the victim 's requests; thus the request is performed on behalf of the victim 's session.
Listed here are various scenarios of cookie theft and user session hijacking (even without stealing user cookies) which work with websites which rely solely on HTTP cookies for user identification.
Traffic on a network can be intercepted and read by computers on the network other than the sender and receiver (particularly over unencrypted open Wi - Fi). This traffic includes cookies sent on ordinary unencrypted HTTP sessions. Where network traffic is not encrypted, attackers can therefore read the communications of other users on the network, including HTTP cookies as well as the entire contents of the conversations, for the purpose of a man - in - the - middle attack.
An attacker could use intercepted cookies to impersonate a user and perform a malicious task, such as transferring money out of the victim 's bank account.
This issue can be resolved by securing the communication between the user 's computer and the server by employing Transport Layer Security (HTTPS protocol) to encrypt the connection. A server can specify the Secure flag while setting a cookie, which will cause the browser to send the cookie only over an encrypted channel, such as an SSL connection.
If an attacker is able to cause a DNS server to cache a fabricated DNS entry (called DNS cache poisoning), then this could allow the attacker to gain access to a user 's cookies. For example, an attacker could use DNS cache poisoning to create a fabricated DNS entry of f12345.www.example.com that points to the IP address of the attacker 's server. The attacker can then post an image URL from his own server (for example, http://f12345.www.example.com/img_4_cookie.jpg). Victims reading the attacker 's message would download this image from f12345.www.example.com. Since f12345.www.example.com is a sub-domain of www.example.com, victims ' browsers would submit all example.com - related cookies to the attacker 's server.
If an attacker is able to accomplish this, it is usually the fault of the Internet Service Providers for not properly securing their DNS servers. However, the severity of this attack can be lessened if the target website uses secure cookies. In this case, the attacker would have the extra challenge of obtaining the target website 's SSL certificate from a certificate authority, since secure cookies can only be transmitted over an encrypted connection. Without a matching SSL certificate, victims ' browsers would display a warning message about the attacker 's invalid certificate, which would help deter users from visiting the attacker 's fraudulent website and sending the attacker their cookies.
Cookies can also be stolen using a technique called cross-site scripting. This occurs when an attacker takes advantage of a website that allows its users to post unfiltered HTML and JavaScript content. By posting malicious HTML and JavaScript code, the attacker can cause the victim 's web browser to send the victim 's cookies to a website the attacker controls.
As an example, an attacker may post a message on www.example.com with the following link:
When another user clicks on this link, the browser executes the piece of code within the onclick attribute, thus replacing the string document. cookie with the list of cookies that are accessible from the current page. As a result, this list of cookies is sent to the attacker.com server. If the attacker 's malicious posting is on an HTTPS website https://www.example.com, secure cookies will also be sent to attacker.com in plain text.
It is the responsibility of the website developers to filter out such malicious code.
Such attacks can be mitigated by using HttpOnly cookies. These cookies will not be accessible by client - side scripting languages like JavaScript, and therefore, the attacker will not be able to gather these cookies.
In older versions of many browsers, there were security holes in the implementation of the XMLHttpRequest API. This API allows to specify a proxy server that would get the reply, and this proxy server is not subject to the same origin policy. For example, a victim is reading an attacker 's posting on www.example.com, and the attacker 's script is executed in the victim 's browser. The script generates a request to www.example.com with the proxy server attacker.com. Since the request is for www.example.com, all example.com cookies will be sent along with the request, but routed through the attacker 's proxy server. Hence, the attacker would be able to harvest the victim 's cookies.
This attack would not work with secure cookies, since they can only be transmitted over HTTPS connections, and the HTTPS protocol dictates end - to - end encryption (i.e. the information is encrypted on the user 's browser and decrypted on the destination server). In this case, the proxy server would only see the raw, encrypted bytes of the HTTP request.
For example, Bob might be browsing a chat forum where another user, Mallory, has posted a message. Suppose that Mallory has crafted an HTML image element that references an action on Bob 's bank 's website (rather than an image file), e.g.,
If Bob 's bank keeps his authentication information in a cookie, and if the cookie has n't expired, then the attempt by Bob 's browser to load the image will submit the withdrawal form with his cookie, thus authorizing a transaction without Bob 's approval.
Besides privacy concerns, cookies also have some technical drawbacks. In particular, they do not always accurately identify users, they can be used for security attacks, and they are often at odds with the Representational State Transfer (REST) software architectural style.
If more than one browser is used on a computer, each usually has a separate storage area for cookies. Hence cookies do not identify a person, but a combination of a user account, a computer, and a web browser. Thus, anyone who uses multiple accounts, computers, or browsers has multiple sets of cookies.
Likewise, cookies do not differentiate between multiple users who share the same user account, computer, and browser.
The use of cookies may generate an inconsistency between the state of the client and the state as stored in the cookie. If the user acquires a cookie and then clicks the "Back '' button of the browser, the state on the browser is generally not the same as before that acquisition. As an example, if the shopping cart of an online shop is built using cookies, the content of the cart may not change when the user goes back in the browser 's history: if the user presses a button to add an item in the shopping cart and then clicks on the "Back '' button, the item remains in the shopping cart. This might not be the intention of the user, who possibly wanted to undo the addition of the item. This can lead to unreliability, confusion, and bugs. Web developers should therefore be aware of this issue and implement measures to handle such situations.
Some of the operations that can be done using cookies can also be done using other mechanisms.
A JSON Web Token (JWT) is a self - contained packet of information that can be used to store user identity and authenticity information. This allows them to be used in place of session cookies. Unlike cookies, which are automatically attached to each HTTP request by the browser, JWTs must be explicitly attached to each HTTP request by the web application.
The HTTP protocol includes the basic access authentication and the digest access authentication protocols, which allow access to a web page only when the user has provided the correct username and password. If the server requires such credentials for granting access to a web page, the browser requests them from the user and, once obtained, the browser stores and sends them in every subsequent page request. This information can be used to track the user.
Some users may be tracked based on the IP address of the computer requesting the page. The server knows the IP address of the computer running the browser (or the proxy, if any is used) and could theoretically link a user 's session to this IP address.
However, IP addresses are generally not a reliable way to track a session or identify a user. Many computers designed to be used by a single user, such as office PCs or home PCs, are behind a network address translator (NAT). This means that several PCs will share a public IP address. Furthermore, some systems, such as Tor, are designed to retain Internet anonymity, rendering tracking by IP address impractical, impossible, or a security risk.
A more precise technique is based on embedding information into URLs. The query string part of the URL is the part that is typically used for this purpose, but other parts can be used as well. The Java Servlet and PHP session mechanisms both use this method if cookies are not enabled.
This method consists of the web server appending query strings containing a unique session identifier to all the links inside of a web page. When the user follows a link, the browser sends the query string to the server, allowing the server to identify the user and maintain state.
These kinds of query strings are very similar to cookies in that both contain arbitrary pieces of information chosen by the server and both are sent back to the server on every request. However, there are some differences. Since a query string is part of a URL, if that URL is later reused, the same attached piece of information will be sent to the server, which could lead to confusion. For example, if the preferences of a user are encoded in the query string of a URL and the user sends this URL to another user by e-mail, those preferences will be used for that other user as well.
Moreover, if the same user accesses the same page multiple times from different sources, there is no guarantee that the same query string will be used each time. For example, if a user visits a page by coming from a page internal to the site the first time, and then visits the same page by coming from an external search engine the second time, the query strings would likely be different. If cookies were used in this situation, the cookies would be the same.
Other drawbacks of query strings are related to security. Storing data that identifies a session in a query string enables session fixation attacks, referer logging attacks and other security exploits. Transferring session identifiers as HTTP cookies is more secure.
Another form of session tracking is to use web forms with hidden fields. This technique is very similar to using URL query strings to hold the information and has many of the same advantages and drawbacks. In fact, if the form is handled with the HTTP GET method, then this technique is similar to using URL query strings, since the GET method adds the form fields to the URL as a query string. But most forms are handled with HTTP POST, which causes the form information, including the hidden fields, to be sent in the HTTP request body, which is neither part of the URL, nor of a cookie.
This approach presents two advantages from the point of view of the tracker. First, having the tracking information placed in the HTTP request body rather than in the URL means it will not be noticed by the average user. Second, the session information is not copied when the user copies the URL (to bookmark the page or send it via email, for example).
All current web browsers can store a fairly large amount of data (2 -- 32 MB) via JavaScript using the DOM property window.name. This data can be used instead of session cookies and is also cross-domain. The technique can be coupled with JSON / JavaScript objects to store complex sets of session variables on the client side.
The downside is that every separate window or tab will initially have an empty window.name property when opened. Furthermore, the property can be used for tracking visitors across different websites, making it of concern for Internet privacy.
In some respects, this can be more secure than cookies due to the fact that its contents are not automatically sent to the server on every request like cookies are, so it is not vulnerable to network cookie sniffing attacks. However, if special measures are not taken to protect the data, it is vulnerable to other attacks because the data is available across different websites opened in the same window or tab.
Apple uses a tracking technique called "identifier for advertisers '' (IDFA). This technique assigns a unique identifier to every user that buys an Apple iOS device (such as an iPhone or iPad). This identifier is then used by Apple 's advertising network, iAd, to determine the ads that individuals are viewing and responding to.
Because ETags are cached by the browser, and returned with subsequent requests for the same resource, a tracking server can simply repeat any ETag received from the browser to ensure an assigned ETag persists indefinitely (in a similar way to persistent cookies). Additional caching headers can also enhance the preservation of ETag data.
ETags can be flushed in some browsers by clearing the browser cache.
Some web browsers support persistence mechanisms which allow the page to store the information locally for later use.
The HTML5 standard (which most modern web browsers support to some extent) includes a JavaScript API called Web storage that allows two types of storage: local storage and session storage. Local storage behaves similarly to persistent cookies while session storage behaves similarly to session cookies, except that session storage is tied to an individual tab / window 's lifetime (AKA a page session), not to a whole browser session like session cookies.
Internet Explorer supports persistent information in the browser 's history, in the browser 's favorites, in an XML store ("user data ''), or directly within a web page saved to disk.
Some web browser plugins include persistence mechanisms as well. For example, Adobe Flash has Local shared object and Microsoft Silverlight has Isolated storage.
The browser cache can also be used to store information that can be used to track individual users. This technique takes advantage of the fact that the web browser will use resources stored within the cache instead of downloading them from the website when it determines that the cache already has the most up - to - date version of the resource.
For example, a website could serve a JavaScript file that contains code which sets a unique identifier for the user (for example, var userId = 3243242;). After the user 's initial visit, every time the user accesses the page, this file will be loaded from the cache instead of downloaded from the server. Thus, its content will never change.
A browser fingerprint is information collected about a browser 's configuration, such as version number, screen resolution, and operating system, for the purpose of identification. Fingerprints can be used to fully or partially identify individual users or devices even when cookies are turned off.
Basic web browser configuration information has long been collected by web analytics services in an effort to accurately measure real human web traffic and discount various forms of click fraud. With the assistance of client - side scripting languages, collection of much more esoteric parameters is possible. Assimilation of such information into a single string comprises a device fingerprint. In 2010, EFF measured at least 18.1 bits of entropy possible from browser fingerprinting. Canvas fingerprinting, a more recent technique, claims to add another 5.7 bits.
This article is based on material taken from the Free On - line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing '' terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later.
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who are the first 9 in sons of anarchy | List of Sons of Anarchy characters - wikipedia
Becomes SAMCRO 's President following Jax stepping down and being voted to "meet Mr. Mayhem ''.
Alexander "Tig '' Trager (Kim Coates) Is Clay 's most entrusted and right - hand man as his Sergeant - at - Arms. He does much of the dirty work and killings for Clay. He has 2 daughters, Dawn (deceased) and Fawn. He has strange and unusual sexual desires that are mentioned throughout the series. Later he becomes Vice President under Chibs following Jax stepping down and being voted to "meet Mr. Mayhem '' in the series finale.
Happy Lowman (David LaBrava) is SAMCRO 's Sergeant - at - Arms as of Season 6. His real name is never revealed and has the nickname happy because he gets a happy face tattoo every time he does a hit or kill.
Rane Quinn (Rusty Coones) is the former president of the Nomad Charter. He appears in Season 5 to help track down one of his former Nomad soldiers. He becomes a member of the Redwood Original charter.
Allesandro Montez (Jacob Vargas) is a member of the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club 's Reno, NV chapter.
George "Ratboy '' Skogstrom (Niko Nicotera) was originally introduced as a prospect during Season 4. He becomes a patched member and is often entrusted to look after Gemma and the other women.
Taddarius Orwell "T.O. '' Cross (Michael Beach) is the former president of the Grim Bastards Motorcycle Club. He is voted in as full member of SAMCRO in the series finale, after Jax makes a pact with the other SOA clubs to abolish the unwritten bylaw prohibiting blacks as members, and the Grim Bastards are patched over.
Lenny "The Pimp '' Janowitz (Sonny Barger) is convicted of murdering three ATF agents. He is the only surviving member of the First 9.
Jackson "Jax '' Teller (Charlie Hunnam) was the president of the Sons of Anarchy mother charter from the end of season 4 to the end of season 7. Previously he was vice president under the leadership of his stepfather Clay Morrow. Jax took over as president by force at the end of season 4.
Juan Carlos "Juice '' Ortiz (Theo Rossi) was the club 's hacker and intelligence officer. He was stabbed and killed by Ron Tully in prison during a riot that Tully (Marilyn Manson) creates.
Bobby "Elvis '' Munson (Mark Boone Junior) is the even - tempered treasury secretary of SAMCRO. He later becomes vice president when Jax takes over as president. He is murdered by August Marks after being taken hostage and having his eye cut out and fingers cut off and delivered to Jax. He was a victim of Gemma 's lies about how Tara died.
Orlin West, a.k.a. "West '' (Douglas Bennett) is one of the three Sons Bobby recruited into the Redwood Original Charter in Season 6. He was killed at the port warehouse by Lin 's men, in season 7, while guarding the guns the Sons had stolen from Lin.
Clarence "Clay '' Morrow (Ron Perlman), Jax 's stepfather, is the former president of SAMCRO and the youngest original member of the club. He has been married to Gemma since the death of her first husband, John Teller, in 1993. Clay has been struggling with his age and developing arthritis. He is responsible for the death of Donna Winston, Piney Winston and an attempt on Tara 's life, leading Jax to strip him of his patch. Jax frames him for the murder of Damon Pope and later kills him for killing his father, John Teller and his other sins against the club.
GoGo (Chris Browning), a Nomad who comes to Charming, appears in Season 5 and is voted into the club when the Nomad charter closes. He, Frankie, and Greg the Peg are working for Clay and are behind the breakins and attacks. GoGo is killed by Unser with a double - barrel shotgun when he and Greg the Peg go to kill Unser, unaware that Clay is there and has double - crossed them.
Greg the Peg (Kurt Yaeger) is a Nomad who is missing a leg. He appears in Season 5, when he and two other Nomads - Frankie, and GoGo - come to Charming when the Nomad chapter closes, and are voted into SAMCRO. Greg, Frankie, and GoGo are working for Clay and are behind the home invasion attacks. Clay kills Greg by shooting him in the head, when Greg and GoGo attempt to kill Unser, unaware that Clay is there and has double - crossed them.
Frankie Diamonds (Chuck Zito), a New York Nomad who comes to Charming, appears in Season 5 and is voted into the club when the Nomad charter closes. He, GoGo, and Greg the Peg work for Clay and are behind the attacks and break - ins. Frankie kidnaps Nero (Jimmy Smits), and requests $200,000 from the club from the "cartel money. '' Nero hands over $130,000 in cash and a couple of "nice watches '' as payment, in an effort to get Frankie to leave. Frankie shoots Opie 's wife Lyla, and takes Chibs as a hostage. He eventually leaves Charming with Mafia protection and is murdered by the same men he thought would protect him, before giving up Clay as the source of the home invasions.
Kyle Hobart is excommunicated from the club after abandoning Opie during an arson job, leading to Opie 's five - year incarceration. With Clay 's blessing, he returns to Charming to see his teenage son, Charlie Hobart (William F. Nicol), and ends up trying to offer SAMCRO a business deal involving stolen goods to serve as repayment for his past mistake. Opie confronts Kyle and the two settle their beef, but Kyle has failed to perform the club mandate to remove his Sons of Anarchy back tattoo, so he is given a choice of removal methods ("fire or knife? ''). Choosing fire, the tattoo is burned off Kyle 's back with a cutting torch. He loses consciousness during the process, and it is unknown if Kyle is still alive after being left on the steps of St. Thomas Hospital, where his ex-wife, April Hobart (Liane Curtis) is waiting to aid him after being tipped off by Gemma that Kyle would likely need medical care.
Herman Kozik (Kenny Johnson) was a member of the Tacoma chapter of the Sons of Anarchy. He first appeared in the Season 2 episode "The Culling '' where he provided extra muscle when the Charming clubhouse was on lockdown. He is a Former US Marine and an ex-junkie. He appeared again in the Season 3 premiere at Half - Sack 's wake, where he told Clay and Bobby that he wanted to come back to the Charming chapter. When Kozik showed up at SAMCRO with transfer papers, Tig vetoed the vote due to lack of trust. Kozik then decided to stick around to earn Tig 's trust. He and Piney lured the Mayans heroin shipment into SAMCRO 's hands after flattening the van 's tire. Later Kozik and Tig sneak into St. Thomas to silence the Calaveras member from the drive - by as part of SAMCRO 's new deal with the Mayans. Kozik has a contentious relationship with Tig and in episode 3.8, Tig states that it involves a female from both of their pasts. When Tara Knowles and Margaret Murphy are taken hostage, Kozik proves to be useful. When Salazar demands that the club kills Marcus Alvarez, Kozik is the one who convinces Alvarez to play along to help buy time so SAMCRO can find a way to get the women back. Following Tara 's rescue, Tig once again votes against Kozik 's transfer. It is revealed that the "woman '' from both of their pasts was a female dog named Missy. In Season 4, Kozik is revealed to have been patched into SAMCRO after Tig went to Stockton Prison, a fact Tig happily accepts upon being released. He was killed in the episode "Call of Duty '' by stepping on a landmine that exploded while fighting the Cartel, his last words were "You got ta be shittin ' me ''.
Edward Kip "Half - Sack '' Epps (whom Gemma calls Eddie, Cherry calls Kip, and Tig sometimes calls Kippy) was nicknamed Half - Sack because he lost his right testicle in the Iraq War. He is a prospect in seasons 1 - 2, tasked with doing all menial jobs SAMCRO members do n't want to do. He 's not overly bright (he stores a bloody deer 's head under the club 's pool table with the intention of mounting it on the wall, but does n't understand when Jax says it has to be stuffed). He 's loyal, brave, obedient, and earns Jax 's trust. When Clay overhears Half - Sack saying Gemma gives him a "MILF chubby '', Clay evens the score during a run to Indian Hills, Nevada by having sex with Cherry, whom Half - Sack shows romantic interest in. Half - Sack is a lightweight boxing champion, and in season 1 the club earns money from purses and bets on Half - Sack in order to buy guns from the Irish. In season 2, Cameron Hayes stabs Half - Sack to death at Jax 's house, where Half - Sack is trying to protect Jax 's family. He is posthumously made a full patch member of SAMCRO.
In Season 3, Eric Miles a.k.a. "Miles '' (Frank Potter) is SAMCRO 's newest patched - in member. He is introduced in the episode "The Push '' as a prospect. Miles assists the club with tasks such as cleaning the clubhouse, providing backup when they break into Salazar 's house, and watching Gemma to make sure she does n't leave the clubhouse when she is hiding from the law. Miles is murdered by Juice to cover up what really happened with the cocaine stolen from the warehouse.
John Thomas "J.T. '' Teller (May 5, 1940 -- November 13, 1993) (voiced by Nicholas Guest) founded the Sons of Anarchy with Piney Winston and was the club 's first president. He was Gemma 's first husband, and they had two children together, Jax and Thomas. Thomas "Tommy '' Teller (January 8, 1984 -- April 4, 1990), died from a congenital heart defect at only six years old. As Jax reiterates to Opie in Season 2, episode 10 ("Balm ''), J.T. died from injuries sustained from a vehicular accident while riding on I - 580 in California. Gemma states in an earlier episode and is shown in a Charming Police Department report in Season 4, Episode 2 ("Booster ''): after J.T. 's Harley was "sideswiped '' by a semi-trailer truck on November 11, 1993 at 13: 54; J.T. was dragged 178 yards, taken to St. Thomas Hospital, and died two days later. His home address on the police report is 8824 Sandy Creek in Charming, California. Deputy Chief Wayne Unser signed the report. In Season 4, Episode 5 ("Brick ''), Unser says Clay killed J.T. and had Unser cover it up; Clay responds he merely asked Unser to "lose a little paperwork ''. Unser retorts that J.T. had written that Clay would make two attempts on his life. Several times in Season 7, SAMCRO members are seen touching the roadside memorial dedicated to J.T. (e.g., in episode 7 "Greensleeves '' and episode 13 "Papa 's Goods '').
Harry "Opie '' Winston (Ryan Hurst), the son of SAMCRO co-founder Piney, a member of SAMCRO, and best friend of Jax since childhood. Opie 's mother took him away from Piney and Charming when he was 16, but he left her and returned to his father and the club. While married to Donna, Opie is sent to prison for five years, after being caught by police when his getaway driver (Kyle Hobart) abandons him at a crime scene, thus leaving Opie 's wife and two children, Ellie and Kenny, to fend for themselves during his incarceration. Upon his release, Opie 's family has difficulty making ends meet, which contributes to Opie 's decision to resume illegal activity with SAMCRO, against Donna 's wishes. After Donna is murdered, Lyla forms a relationship with Opie, who ultimately marries her. Opie purposely gets himself sent back to prison to help protect Jax and sacrifices himself when Pope wants one of the Sons dead. He is given a final farewell in the clubhouse with all of SAMCRO honouring him.
"Big Otto '' Delaney (Kurt Sutter), was born in Colma, California on September 29, 1963 and was a member of the Sons of Anarchy 's Charming chapter. He was imprisoned in Stockton state prison on charges of second - degree murder and vehicle theft, but is still in contact with the club. He is a powerful man on the inside and is the leader of the "Big House Crew '', a gang of imprisoned Sons of Anarchy members. He takes Chucky Marstein under his protection, and arranges, when Chucky is released, to have SAMCRO protect him from Lin. In Season 2, Zobelle has the Aryan Brotherhood severely beat Otto, to "humble '' Clay, and in the process the AB puts out Otto 's one good eye, leaving him almost blind. Also that season, Otto is heartbroken when Luann is murdered. In Season 6, US Marshall Lee Toric targets Otto, in retaliation for Otto 's having killied Toric 's sister, and has Otto repeatedly raped and beaten in prison. Clay smuggles Otto a shank, which Otto uses to kill Toric and then to threaten the guards, in order to commit "suicide by cop ''.
"Filthy '' Phil (Christopher Douglas Reed) was one of three new prospects taken on after the death of Kip "Half Sack '' Epps. Phil is responsible for guarding the first shipment of cocaine the club receives from the Galindo cartel along with Miles, new prospect Ratboy and Rafi from the Mayans Oakland Chapter. When some of the shipment is stolen Phil and the other guards are the main suspects despite Juice being the true culprit.
Piermont "Piney '' Winston (William Lucking) was a co-founder of SAMCRO and father of Opie Winston. He was a veteran of the Vietnam War and must carry an oxygen tank with him at all times due to emphysema.
"Uncle '' Jury (Michael Shamus Wiles) is President of the friendly Devil 's Tribe Motorcycle Club in Indian Hills, Nevada, which SAMCRO patched over without prior warning in Season 1. Jury and John Teller ("J.T. '') had served together in the same platoon in Vietnam and remained close friends afterwards.
In season 7, SAMCRO called upon "Indian Hills '', and in turn Jury recruited "local muscle '', to help take down Lin 's gun buy (which turned out to include an exchange of guns for heroin) in Selma, and kill Lin 's men and customers. Jax, Chibs, and Bobby later killed the "local muscle '', and framed them for the takedown in Selma. When Jax later learns one of the murdered "local muscle '', Gib O'Leary, was Jury 's son, Jax erroneously assumes Jury took revenge by ratting out SAMCRO to Lin.
In season 7, episode 8 ("Separation of Crows ''), Jury tells Jax that his father did n't die as rumored, in a motorcycle accident resulting from Clay 's having sabotaged his bike (on which John died days after colliding with and being dragged by a semi truck). Rather, Jury said, J.T. deliberately "checked out '' (committed suicide), as "That Panhead was an extension of John. He would have known if anything was wrong with it the second he kicked it over. (...) Maybe it was his sacrifice. A way of letting his club and family survive. '' Jax disagreed, saying: "My old man did n't kill himself. '' After exchanging further words, Jax knocked down Jury, who dropped his gun. When Jury reached for and grabbed it, Jax killed him with a single shot to the head. That action, witnessed by Jury 's VP and SAMCRO members, and Jax 's confession to it, led to Jax 's receiving a unanimous Mayhem vote in the series finale ("Papa 's Goods '').
Needles (Jay Thames) is vice president of the Devil 's Tribe Motorcycle Club chapter. He follows Jury in patching over into a Sons of Anarchy chapter.
Hopper (Steve Howey) is a Sons of Anarchy North Vegas charter member. He is approached by Bobby Munson to join SAMCRO and says he wants in, but changes his mind after being scared off by the bombing of the SAMCRO clubhouse.
Sometime after the events of season one, Needles is no longer the VP of the Indian Hills charter and has been replaced by Gaines. Gaines is voted in as the charter 's President after Jury is killed. Mickey is then voted in as Gaines ' new VP.
"The First 9 '' refers to co-founders John Teller and Piermont "Piney '' Winston, plus the first seven members of the Sons of Anarchy. Lenny "The Pimp '' Janowitz, who is serving a life sentence and speaks through a voicebox, is the only First 9 member still alive. John Teller died in a motorcycle accident in 1993 (purportedly caused by Clay Morrow 's having sabotaged J.T. 's bike, with Gemma 's blessing. Clay was shown to have executed both former SAMBEL president Keith McGee in Belfast, Northern Ireland (by pushing him off a rooftop), for betraying the club, and Piermont "Piney '' Winston at Piney 's cabin (via a shotgun blast to the chest), when Piney threatened to reveal John Teller 's incriminating letters to the rest of the Sons of Anarchy. The other four First 9 members were Wally Grazer, Thomas "Uncle Tom '' Whitney, Chico Villenueva, and Otto "Li'l Killer '' Moran.
Keith McGee (Andy McPhee) was the president of the Sons of Anarchy Belfast chapter (SAMBEL) in Northern Ireland and a member of the First 9.
Liam O'Neill (Arie Verveen) was the Sergeant - At - Arms of the Belfast charter of the Sons of Anarchy for 10 years and was in a relationship with Cherry.
Seamus Ryan (Darin Heames) is the current president of SAMBEL. McGee was the original SAMBEL president and Ryan was the SAMBEL vice president during the betrayals and executions of McGee and Sergeant - at - Arms Liam O'Neill. After McGee and O'Neill are executed, Ryan is tapped as president.
Luther Barkwill (Dominic Keating), is the current vice president of SAMBEL. He was the road captain for the SOA Newcastle chapter and eventually for SAMBEL. Although hesitant at times, he is a quick reactor. An example includes him being hesitant to run the police off the road to prevent them from hauling off SAMCRO, but after Gemma jumped on the accelerator and ran them off the road, Luther jumped out and started firing rapidly.
Padraic Telford (Lorcan O'Toole), Chibs ' nephew, was accidentally killed in an explosion triggered by Liam O'Neill in an attempt to take out SAMCRO.
Following SAMCRO 's arrival in Ireland, in an attempt to bring back Abel, several additional members of the Belfast chapter have appeared on the scene, including Geezer (Jason McDonald), and Scrum (Darren Keefe).
Armando (Lobo Sebastian), president of the Sons of Anarchy Tucson chapter (SAMTAZ) in Tucson, Arizona, was beheaded by a cartel. The rest of his body was discovered in the back of a truck by the Sons of Anarchy and the Mayans, and his body was sent back to his club in Tucson, along with his head.
Benny (Rolando Molina), the Sergeant - at - Arms for the Tucson chapter, was kicked out with vice president Huff for blackmailing a fellow member, Reggie, and murdering another member in order to cover up a non-club - sanctioned meth cook shop.
Huff (Brian Goodman), the vice president of the Tucson chapter, was kicked out for blackmailing a fellow member, Reggie, and murdering another member in order to cover up a non-club - sanctioned meth cook shop.
Reggie (John Bishop), a member of the Sons of Anarchy Tucson chapter (SAMTAZ) in Tucson, Arizona, was caught by former vice president Huff sleeping with another member 's wife. Huff used this information to blackmail Reggie in order to cover up a non-club - sanctioned meth cook shop and the murder of another member, who happened to be Reggie 's sponsor.
Little Paul, a SAMTAZ member, was murdered by Huff and Benny. Another yet - to - be-named member has also appeared, played by Burton Perez.
The Sons of Anarchy San Bernardino chapter (SAMDINO) is led by president Les Packer (Robert Patrick), while John Hensley portrayed Yates - the two actors having previously played father and son, David and Eric Scatino, in The Sopranos.
The Tacoma chapter 's president is Lee (Lee "Hamco '' Staskunas), while other, still unseen, members include Bowie, Donut, and Lorca.
The yet - to - be-named president of the Oregon chapter (Joe Rose) has made one appearance, as have Reno chapter members Montez (Jacob Vargas) and West (Douglas Bennet), and a yet - to - be-named nomad member (Eric "Mancow '' Muller).
Alive
Wendy Case (Drea de Matteo) is Jax Teller 's ex-wife and Abel Teller 's biological mother. Wendy intentionally became pregnant in hopes of it would keep Jax with her. She is a drug addict who used methamphetamine during her pregnancy, which nearly killed Abel, who was born 10 weeks premature with a hereditary heart malfunction and a defect in his abdominal wall (gastroschisis).
Lyla Dvorak - Winston (Winter Ave Zoli), a porn star employed by Luann Delaney, is introduced in Season 2. She and Opie begin to grow close from the time they meet. A single parent like Opie, she helps him with his children and marries him in the first episode of Season 4. After Opie 's death, she continues to raise his children and goes on to run Red Woody in Season 7.
Fiona Larkin (Bellina Logan) is Chibs ' estranged wife, introduced in Season 2. Fiona first appears at Chibs ' bedside when he is hospitalized after nearly being killed by a car bomb. They have a daughter together, and Fiona still loves Chibs, but was taken as Jimmy O 's prize after Jimmy banished Chibs from Ireland.
Precious Ryan (Eileen Grubba) is Bobby 's ex-wife and mother of his son.
Cherry (Taryn Manning) is a "sweet butt '' (pass around club groupie) from Indian Hills, Nevada, whose real name is Rita Zambell. After leaving her abusive husband and burning down their condo, she aligns herself with the Devil 's Tribe. She bonds with Kip "Half - Sack '' Epps and eventually becomes his old lady, but SAMCRO sends her to Canada, then Ireland, to escape arrest for arson. She becomes Liam 's lover in Ireland.
Mary Winston (Julie Ariola) is Piney Winston 's ex-wife and Opie 's mother. She moved away from Charming and took Opie with her after divorcing Piney. However, she returns to temporarily look after her grandchildren when Opie is arrested. She consoles the distraught Opie after Donna 's murder.
Deceased
Gemma Teller - Morrow (Katey Sagal) was the queen of Charming under Clay 's rule and also the female main character from the show. A Machiavellian schemer and expert in psychological manipulation, Gemma was the wife of Clay Morrow, the widow of John Teller and mother of Jax Teller.
Dr. Tara Knowles - Teller (Maggie Siff) was Jax 's main love interest. In Season 5, Jax and Tara become husband and wife. She was also the mother of his son Thomas and stepmother to Abel.
Luann Delaney (Dendrie Taylor) is Gemma 's best friend and runs a pornography studio, CaraCara, having received financial backing from Big Otto, her husband. She reluctantly partners with SAMCRO for protection, after her rival Georgie Caruso makes escalating attacks on her business. She begins a sexual relationship with Bobby Munson to buy his silence, after he discovers she has been skimming money from the CaraCara partnership. Ultimately, Georgie has her killed, which devastates Otto.
Donna Lerner - Winston (Sprague Grayden) is Opie 's wife and the mother of his two children. She does n't trust SAMCRO after Opie serves extensive jail time for the club.
Kerrianne Larkin - Telford (Q'orianka Kilcher) is the teenage daughter of Chibs Telford and Fiona Larkin, raised by Fiona and Jimmy O'Phelan.
Abel Teller is the son of Jax Teller and Wendy Case. Wendy purposely gets pregnant with Abel to try to hold onto Jax.
Thomas Teller is the son of Jax Teller and Tara Knowles. The younger half - brother of Abel Teller, Thomas is named after Jax 's dead brother and Gemma 's second son.
Dawn Trager (Rachel Miner) and Fawn Trager (Lexi Sakowitz) are the daughters of Alex "Tig '' Trager and his ex-wife Colleen. Dawn first appears in the episode "With An X. ''
Ellie and Kenny Winston (Lela Jane Cortines and John Abendroth) are the daughter and son of Opie and Donna Winston.
Agent Estevez (Marcos de la Cruz) is an agent of the Department of Justice, working under Agent Stahl to bring SAMCRO down.
David Hale (Taylor Sheridan) is the deputy chief of the Charming Police Department. Chief Unser nicknames him "Captain America '' for his black - and - white views and squeaky clean image (prior to his involvement with L.O.A.N. and sexual encounter with an ATF agent), adherence to the law and, possibly, because of his square - jawed all - American looks. Who is
Lieutenant Althea Jarry (Annabeth Gish) is the Lieutenant of the San Joaquin Sheriff Department, who is sent to replace the late Eli Roosevelt after his murder. Unser becomes her consultant and helps out in Tara 's murder case. Jarry is also shown to have an attraction to SAMCRO member Chibs Telford, which is mutual as they are shown kissing and even sleeping together. She accepts bribe money from the club as a means to earn their trust and establish a working relationship.
Agent Joshua "Josh '' Kohn (Jay Karnes) is a Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives agent pretending to investigate SAMCRO. He and Dr. Tara Knowles dated in Chicago until he became threatening and she obtained a restraining order against him. He later stalks Tara in Charming becoming increasingly violent and unhinged. This culminates in him trying to rape Tara, who shoots him in the gut. Tara calls Jax because she does n't know what to do with the bleeding out Kohn, and when he insults Tara, Jax kills him. The Santa Rosa Press Democrat called the character "terrifically creepy. ''
Agent Grad Nicholas (David Rees Snell) is an FBI agent assigned to investigate the SAMCRO 's arms trafficking business. He works closely with Assistant U.S. Attorney Lincoln Potter, often by his side during various points in the investigation. The character 's name is a reference to FX network executive Nicholas Grad.
District Attorney Thyne Patterson (C.C.H. Pounder) is the San Joaquin County District Attorney from Stockton assigned to aggressively address the violence plaguing Charming, specifically from a school shooting resulting in the deaths of four children using a gun acquired from the Sons of Anarchy motorcycle club. To do so, she works with former U.S. Marshal Lee Toric to investigate the Sons.
Lincoln "Linc '' Potter (Ray McKinnon), who in Season 4, Episode 2 says he is a Modesto, California native, is an eccentric, manipulative assistant U.S. attorney operating out of Charming in Season 4 and the head of a joint agency task force targeting the Sons of Anarchy 's arms trafficking business under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, as well as the Real IRA and the Galindo cartel. He rides a motorcycle, dresses like a biker, and somewhat resembles John Teller, which causes Gemma to ask Lincoln if she knows him. Lincoln disapproves of Hale 's conflict of interest as both a real estate developer and local government representative, and in the Season 4 finale produces evidence at the Charming city council meeting about Hale 's investor that kiboshes Hale 's proposed luxury real estate project.
Lieutenant Eli Roosevelt (Rockmond Dunbar) is a member of the San Joaquin County Sheriff 's Department and the head of Charming 's law enforcement following the dissolution of the Charming Police Department. Prior to his assignment in Charming, he spent 15 years in Oakland working as part of an anti-gang task force. In the Season 6 finale, Eli finds Tara 's corpse and, while he 's chastising Gemma, Juice shoots him dead to protect Gemma.
In Season 4, Episode 2 Eli 's wife is shown to have fertility problems, and in later episodes that season she helps Gemma, who visits her flower shop for assistance with wilting plants, successfully solicits a $5,000 "Gold Circle Club '' donation from Gemma (donated in Tara 's name), and receives a $75,000 joint donation from Clay and Oswalt, to save the community garden where Gemma 's father taught Gemma to plant seeds. Later in the series Eli 's wife is murdered by men Clay hired to scare the town.
Agent Smith (Derwin Jordan) is Agent Stahl 's ATF partner during the first season.
Agent June Stahl (Ally Walker) is an ATF agent investigating the club 's involvement in arms trafficking after Deputy Chief Hale calls in the ATF in retaliation when Chief Unser does not retire as previously expected. Stahl is responsible for the death of Donna Winston, Opie Winston 's wife, when she frames Opie as a rat to Clay. Later Stahl attempts to frame Chibs. Stahl and Jax make an agreement to get Gemma out of her charges, (that happened when Stahl framed her murder) and for a lighter sentence for the members of SAMCRO. Stahl is killed at the end of season 3, by Opie who tells her, "put your hands on the wheel. This is what she felt '', referring to the moment his wife, Donna, (killer thought was Opie) was mistakenly gunned down, & shot in the back of the head, all because of her lies in framing Opie as a rat to Clay.
Victor "Vic '' Trammel (Glenn Plummer) was the local sheriff, and an ally of the SAMCRO. A close friend of his is murdered by survivalists using guns provided by the Sons, prompting Vic to seriously question his ties to the club.
Amy Tyler (Pamela J. Gray) is an ATF agent who is both June Stahl 's professional and personal partner during the third season.
Wayne Unser (Dayton Callie) is the chief of the Charming Police Department. He also owns Unser Shipping trucking company, and is not above using the SOA for protection and other questionable activities related to his business. He is an ally of Clay Morrow, a longtime resident of Charming, and cares for the town deeply.
Lee Toric (Donal Logue) is a former U.S. Marshal forced into retirement for a variety of reasons, including excessive use of force and racial profiling. His only family is his sister Pamela Toric, who works as a nurse at Stockton prison 's infirmary. When she is killed by former SAMCRO member Otto Delaney to end the RICO case facing the club, Toric vows revenge. Toric has Otto repeatedly beaten up and raped in prison, hoping to force him into confessing against SAMCRO (as well as satisfying his vengeance for Pamela) and even takes Clay to see the injured Otto in the prison infirmary, though Clay slips Otto a shiv. Believing his tactics are working and he has convinced Otto to bring down SAMCRO, he instead finds a vulgar message about Pamela written on the notepad, prompting him to attack Otto. Otto stabs him multiple times with the shiv and finally slits his throat as the prison guards arrive.
Charles "Charlie '' Barosky (Peter Weller) is a corrupt former police officer who still has ties with the local police agency and controls rackets in Stockton. He makes numerous deals with people to provide police protection for money. His main operation center is a bakery he owns in Stockton.
Father Kellan Ashby (James Cosmo) is the consigliere of the Real IRA in Belfast.
Maureen Ashby (Paula Malcomson) is the widow of Keith McGee. She has ties to the SOA through her late husband and ties to the Real IRA through her older brother, Father Kellan Ashby. abel lost
Trinity Ashby (Zoe Boyle) is Maureen Ashby 's adult daughter and McGee 's stepdaughter. Her mother Maureen was 18 when she gave birth to Trinity, who is unaware that John Teller, the founder of the Sons of Anarchy, was her real father.
Declan Brogan (Bart McCarthy), Peter Dooley (Paul Collins) and Brendan Roarke (Bob McCracken) are the council of the Real IRA in Belfast. First seen thanking SAMCRO for proving Jimmy O. to have gone rogue, they later propose developing the relationship between the Sons and True IRA even further.
Brothers Sean and Michael Casey (Dan Hildebrand and Glenn Keogh) are members of the Real IRA in Belfast, and very close to Father Ashby. Maureen Ashby describes them as "being like sons to him. '' Following Father Ashby 's order, they kill Cameron Hayes and dispose of his body. Michael is executed by Jimmy O., who attacks Maureen Ashby 's home when the SOA are on a protection run in the episode "Turas. ''
Donny (Joel Tobeck) is Jimmy 's right - hand man in Belfast. He is a man of reason that tries to keep Jimmy 's wild tendencies under control. He successfully tortures Sean Casey for information about Abel Teller.
Cameron Hayes (Jamie McShane) is McKeavey 's cousin and a member of the Real IRA. He becomes SAMCRO 's new contact and gun runner after McKeavey 's death. Cameron gives back the $200,000 SAMCRO paid for a gun shipment in addition to a month of free guns, as payment for killing Oakland Port Authority Commissioner Brenan Hefner.
Edmond Hayes (Callard Harris) is Cameron Hayes ' son and business partner. He is from South Armagh. Throughout Season 2, he has as much clout in the business as his father, often making deals and judgment calls on his own. Edmond becomes a rat and is later killed by Agent June Stahl when he starts to run, after punching her in abdomen when she says his, "da raised an Irish p * ssy ''. Edmond 's death is framed on Gemma, by Agent Stahl, after she follows Polly inside, and kills her in self - defense, just after Stahl kills Edmond.
Michael McKeavey (Kevin Chapman) is a powerful member of the True IRA who serves as SAMCRO 's contact and helps sell illegal weapons through the Sons of Anarchy. His date of birth was April 1, 1966. McKeavey is an old friend to SAMCRO members, including Clay and Piney.
Luke Moran (Kevin P. Kearns) is Jimmy O. 's second in command in the U.S., and he is glad to follow his boss ' every order. When Jax finds out that Jimmy has been lying to him about Abel 's whereabouts, he kidnaps Luke and delivers him to Agent June Stahl as part of his deal with her.
James O'Phelan (Titus Welliver), better known as "Jimmy O., '' is the leader of the Real IRA group who sells guns to SAMCRO. Jimmy O. makes his first appearance in Season 2 to personally rectify the Hayes ' betrayal of SAMCRO, since the Real IRA has long been dependent on the Sons Of Anarchy 's Belfast chapter. Jimmy is generally regarded as Chibs Telford 's archenemy. When the real IRA have proof of him going behind their backs, he takes Jax 's son, Abel, to exchange for a safe passage back to the US. After a long hunt and search, SAMCRO finds out the Russians are hiding him. SAMCRO makes a deal to hand Jimmy over to them. When Agent Stahl gets custody of Jimmy O from SAMCRO, Chief Unser pulls them over with a ruse about Jimmy 's members waiting ahead in a road block for them. With Stahl 's other agents gone, Chibs & a few other members of SAMCRO show up by bus. Chibs pulls Jimmy O out of the car and slices his mouth, (in the same manner as Jimmy did him years before, scarring Chibs) and then stabs him to death.
Galen O'Shay (Timothy V. Murphy) is a high - ranking member of the Real IRA, directly involved in SAMCRO 's affairs with the Galindo Cartel. He views Jax as impulsive and reckless following an incident stateside and holds him responsible for the death of Father Kellan Ashby. Cutthroat, stubborn, and ruthless, Galen has no remorse for killing anybody who gets in the way of his business arrangements; for example, he has two members of SAMCRO killed to simply send a message after Jax announces his intention to move away from the gun business. Upon breaking Clay out of prison, Galen is shot dead by Jax.
Esai Alvarez (Kevin Alejandro) is a member of the Mayans Motorcycle Club and the son of Marcus Alvarez. Marcus selects his son to perform hits on both the Nords ' leader Ernest Darby and SAMCRO leader Clay Morrow, but Esai and his men botch both hits. Esai was killed by Happy (with his father 's approval) shortly afterwards, in a deal to achieve peace with the Nords and SAMCRO.
Marcus Alvarez (Emilio Rivera) is the president of the Mayans Motorcycle Club, an Oakland - based rival motorcycle club that has allied itself with the Nords in order to break SAMCRO 's iron - fisted control over Charming. He and the Mayans are bitter rivals with the Niners gang.
Lander Jackson (Marcello Thedford) is the vice president of the Grim Bastards Motorcycle Club. He and T.O. had been childhood friends, since age four. He is brutally killed by Edgar, the Sergeant - at - Arms of the rival Calaveras Motorcycle Club; T.O. later kills Edgar in revenge.
Roscoe (Joseph Julian Soria) is a member of the Calaveras Motorcycle Club Lodi chapter. He is appointed the new president by Marcus Alvarez, following the removal of Hector Salazar.
Hector Salazar (Jose Pablo Cantillo) is the former president of the Lodi chapter of the Calaveras Motorcycle Club, a low - ranking club that does dirty work for the Mayans. The Calaveras perform the drive - by at Half - Sack 's wake. He kidnaps Tara and Margaret Murphy and holds them hostage in his sister 's house. This eventually leads to his death by Jax Teller.
James "Jimmy '' Cacuzza (Jeff Wincott) is the leader of a Mafia family and a friend of Clay 's. He and his crew buy weapons from SAMCRO. When the Mayans and Nords blow up SAMCRO 's warehouse, delaying SAMCRO 's delivery of one of the weapons shipments, the SAMCRO hijacks one of Unser 's trucks and gives the contents to the Mafia, taking only 10 % return, as a goodwill gesture.
Ernest Darby (Mitch Pileggi) is the head of the Nordics (also known as "Nords ''), a white supremacist gang mainly involved in meth trafficking. Darby colludes, at various points, with Alvarez, L.O.A.N., and Hale to discredit and eliminate SAMCRO, to bring drugs into Charming, and to burn down CaraCara. He also, initially, accepts money from Hale to persuade Lumpy to sell his boxing club but refuses to use violence and returns the money.
Henry Lin (Chinese: 林 亨利; played by Kenneth Choi) was the Chinese - American leader of a San Francisco - based Triad. His gang is after a man named Chuck Marstein, who was a bookkeeper for their illegal businesses but eventually stole from them. In season 7, he was killed by Juice.
Nate Meineke (Tim De Zarn) is the leader of a local state militia and terrorist group. He served in Vietnam alongside Piney Winston. He and his son, Russell Meineke (James Harvey Ward), buy weapons from SAMCRO and use them to ambush a prison convoy to free one of their members. They plan to go into hiding in Mexico. However, the Sons of Anarchy kill them by bombing their hideout bunker, as they had brought heat onto SAMCRO with the shootings.
Nero Padilla (Jimmy Smits) is a Mexican - American pimp (who refers to himself as a "companionator '') and the head of a Mexican gang known as the Byz Lats. In the Season 5 premiere, "Sovereign '', he is shown to have bonded with Gemma. In Episode 5.2, "Authority Vested '', he provides sanctuary to the Sons, who hide out at his brothel Diosa, when SAMCRO is under attack and planning their next move. Over the next few episodes, Nero forms an alliance with Jax and offers mentorly advice, such as how to deal with Gemma (in "Toad 's Wild Ride ''). Nero has a young son who is disabled and lives in a home.
Romero "Romeo '' Parada (Danny Trejo) is a high - ranking member of the Jose Galindo drug cartel, who has connections to Marcus Alvarez and the Mayans. He is a former Mexican commando that was enlisted by José Galindo to head up the cartel 's strategic enforcement unit. At the end of season 4 its revealed that he and his lieutenant Luis Torres are NCS members working with the CIA to take down rival drug cartels and thus control the Mexican drug trade and stabilize Mexico. Parada and the CIA shut down the RICO case against SAMCRO at the end of season 4 and force Jax to take over leadership of SAMCRO and keep Clay alive to continue the gunrunning operation.
Damon Pope (Harold Perrineau) is first mentioned in Season 4 's finale as the most dangerous gangster in Oakland. A powerful businessman, Damon Pope is also a bloodthirsty, ruthless, and calculating individual who wields influence over many black gangs. He does not hesitate to use extreme violence to demonstrate his power or to make things go his way. After Tig inadvertently kills Pope 's daughter by hitting her with a car aimed at Laroy, Pope orders his henchmen to burn one of Tig 's daughters alive in front of her father. Later, Pope forces SAMCRO to work for him; however, Jax eventually outsmarts him and tricks Pope to meet in a remote area by promising to give up Tig, whom at Jax 's request, Pope agreed to delay killing. After killing Pope 's guards who did not expect an attack, Jax gives a gun to Tig, who shoots Pope in the head.
August Marks (Billy Brown), introduced in Season 5, is Damon Pope 's right - hand man. Like Pope, Marks projects a courteous and friendly front, but is also extremely ruthless. He states he has been working for Pope since he was 17. He also tells Jax what separates him from Pope is that "Damon made his name on the streets by being the smartest. I (August) made mine by being the deadliest ''. In the series finale, Jax shoots him dead in revenge for Bobby 's murder.
Viktor Putlova (Keith Szarabajka) handles the dealings of the Russian mob in California. An old acquaintance of Jimmy O. 's, Putlova is hired by Jimmy to help him escape the Real IRA and SAMCRO. However, Putlova betrays Jimmy and makes a deal with SAMCRO to hand over Jimmy in exchange for $2 million.
Luis Torres (Benito Martinez) is Romeo Parada 's chief lieutenant in the Jose Galindo drug cartel. He is often at Romeo 's side. He is a former Lieutenant first class in the Mexican Special Forces Airmobile Group and Intelligence. He has a masters in Logistics from Universidad Veracruzana. Parada was his commanding officer and Torres left Special Forces two weeks after Parada left. Torres ' last known tour of duty was fighting the Galindo Cartel. Like Parada, Torres was recruited into NCS working with the CIA to fight rival drug cartels and thus control the Mexican drug trade and stabilize Mexico.
Ron Tully (Marilyn Manson) is the leader of the Aryan Brotherhood in the Stockton, California area. He is currently incarcerated in Stockton State prison, where he has great influence as many guards are on his payroll. He becomes an ally to Jax and SAMCRO in Season 7, after Jax viciously beats an AB rat and brings Tully two of the rat 's teeth. Tully develops a romantic interest in Juice, who gets himself arrested purposely so he can kill Lin, after which Tully is charged by SAMCRO to assassinate Juice.
Ule (Jason Matthew Smith) is a member of the League of American Nationals (L.O.A.N.). He has an antagonistic and distrustful relationship with A.J. Weston, and believes that, as Zobelle 's right - hand man, Weston 's ardent white supremacist beliefs are not allowing L.O.A.N. to broaden their horizons. Gradually, Ule takes Weston 's place in L.O.A.N. 's covert activities with the Mayans. When A.J. Weston finds out about the drug trade with the Mayans, he kills the female heroin cookers and executes Ule.
Laroy Wayne (Tory Kittles) is SAMCRO 's contact in the One - Niners street gang and the gang 's leader. Laroy buys weapons from SAMCRO and is often in the company of a man with a burned face called Gill (E.R. Ruiz), possibly his second in command. The fictional One - Niners gang also appears in The Shield. Laroy ends up dead when his body ends up in Damon Pope 's fire pit that Tig is made to watch go up in flames, as it also contains his daughter, Dawn (goes by Margeoux), as retaliation for the death of Pope 's daughter.
A.J. Weston (Henry Rollins) is the muscle, or street leader, of the League of American Nationalists (also known as "L.O.A.N. ''), a white separatist gang trying to gain control in Charming and force SAMCRO out.
Ethan Zobelle (Adam Arkin) is the head of the League of American Nationalists ("L.O.A.N. ''), a white separatist gang who desires to gain a foothold in Charming and force SAMCRO out.
Polly Zobelle (Sarah Jones) is the scheming daughter and accomplice of Ethan Zobelle. She is the one who initially tricks and subdues Gemma prior to her rape. She also rigs the car bomb which nearly kills Chibs. Deputy Hale extorts her to get information about her father 's whereabouts, but she feeds him partially false information, which has extreme repercussions for SAMCRO.
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is swiss gear the same as swiss army | Wenger - wikipedia
Wenger is one of two companies that have manufactured Swiss Army knives. Based in Delémont, Wenger was acquired by rival Victorinox in 2005. Since 2013, Wenger Swiss Army knives are integrated in the Victorinox collection (as the "Delémont collection ''); the brand Wenger remains for watches and licensed products.
The history of Wenger S.A. is strongly linked to the history of the Swiss Army knife.
Founded 1893 at Courtetelle in the Delémont valley in the Canton of Jura, the industrial cutlery house of Paul Boechat & Cie (the future Wenger) received a contract from the Swiss Army to produce knives as the second industrial cutlery manufacturer of Switzerland. In 1897 Theodore Wenger, a minister who had served in the USA, was returning home to Switzerland and was hired by the group of entrepreneurs that had bought Boechat & Cie two years earlier (later renaming the company Wenger et Cie.). One of Wenger 's first acts was to acquire a manufacturer of spoons and forks which he moved to a rented factory in Delémont.
In 1900, a new 18,000 - square - foot (1,700 m) facility was built. Both the utensil operations and the Courtetelle cutlery production were incorporated into the new plant now called Fabrique Suisse de Coutellerie et Services. In 1908 the Swiss Army decided to split the contract, with half of the order going to Victorinox, in the German - speaking canton of Schwyz, and the other half to Wenger in the French - speaking part of the canton of Bern. In 1929, after Theo Wenger 's death, Kaspar Oertli gained majority share in the company.
In 1988, Wenger started producing watches, one year before Victorinox.
After the 9 / 11 attacks all air traveling and related industries were facing a severe crisis. This was also the case for the Swiss Army knife manufacturers especially Wenger S.A. Changing airport security regulations which precluded the carrying of pocket knives diminished the sales of Swiss Army knives at duty - free shops. The crisis led to the acquisition of Wenger by its competitor Victorinox in 2005. With the backing of Victorinox, Wenger was able to maintain its own production and branding of Swiss army knives and watches. Wenger knives are advertised as the "Genuine Swiss Army Knife '' and Victorinox as the "Original Swiss Army Knife ''.
After being acquired by Victorinox, in 2005 Wenger S.A. started to develop new products. In the process of rebranding itself as a provider of multifunctional tools for outdoor adventures, Wenger started to cooperate with individuals such as Ueli Steck and Mike Horn acting as their brand ambassadors providing each of them with a suited multi-functional tool adapted to their specific challenges. Additionally Wenger cooperated with Alinghi providing the sailors with a suited multifunctional tool. Most recently Wenger supports the Patagonia Expedition Race.
On January 30, 2013, Wenger and Victorinox announced that the separate knife brands were going to be merged into one brand: Victorinox. The press release stated that Wenger 's factory in Delémont would continue to produce knives and all employees at this site will retain their jobs. They further elaborated that an assortment of items from the Wenger line - up will remain in production under the Victorinox brand name. Wenger 's U.S. headquarters will be merged with Victorinox 's location in Monroe, Connecticut. Wenger 's watch and licensing business will continue as a separate brand.
On March, 2016, during the Baselworld 2016 expo, Victorinox relaunches Wenger as a brand with Swiss values at a reasonable price. After this event, Wenger started using the slogan "A Swiss Company Since 1893 '' leaving behind the previous slogan "Maker of the genuine Swiss Army Knife '' which was used for decades.
In 2017, Victorinox released a Swiss Army Knife model named "Wenger Red ''. This knife has the Wenger logo and the Wenger brand name in the scale of the knife. This knife is delivered in a box with the Victorinox logo and brand name. This part number is produced in Delémont, Switzerland. This is the only Swiss Army Knife with the Wenger logo and brand name that is being produced and sold as today.
The two main product lines of Wenger S.A. are the "Genuine Swiss Army Knife '' and Wenger Watch. Additionally Wenger S.A. makes kitchen cutlery under the brand names of Swibo, Grand Maitre.
Most of the traditional products produced by Wenger are Pocket Knives with a body size of about 3 '' to 5 '' and blades of about 2 '' to 4 '' accompanied with a varying set of additional functional features like can openers etc. in a red or black colored case.
The Giant
The Swiss Army knife is famous for integrating different tools into one knife. Wenger integrated all of these 87 tools performing 141 functions into one knife and called it The Giant. Integrating 87 functions the giant made it into the book Guinness World Records.
Heritage
Based on the original plans of the Swiss Army knife of 1908 Wenger introduced the limited edition line called Heritage.
TitaniumLine, Alinghi Sui 1, Mike Horn Knife & Patagonia Expedition Race
All three are multifunctional knives developed in cooperation with the individuals and organizations involved suited to their specific challenges. The Titanium Line is a product suited to the challenges a speed climber like Ueli Steck faces. For the Swiss Americas Cup participant Alinghi Wenger developed an easy to use knife for sailors. As the main sponsor of the Wenger Patagonia Expedition Race, Wenger created a knife suited to the challenges the participants of the race have to face. For the adventurer Mike Horn Wenger released a knife in 2009.
Wenger Watches are made in Switzerland. The company 's head office is located in Delémont Switzerland. Wenger watches are supposedly related to the basic ideas and concept of the Swiss Army Knife, having a multifunctional outdoor focus. Additionally Wenger produces several watches focusing only on elegance.
Furthermore, Wenger also creates wallet type notepads. These are in the shape of a wallet and can function as a wallet, but may most appropriately be used as a miniature notepad because it has a small writing pad on the inside of the wallet (which is a twofold).
Wenger produced bayonets for the Swiss Stgw 90 assault rifle. The bayonet has an overall length of 310 mm and a muzzle ring diameter of 22 mm. The 177 mm long blade is single - edged and it has no fuller. The bayonets were manufactured exclusively for the Swiss Army by Wenger and Victorinox (before the two companies merged).
In North America, licensed products using the Wenger and SwissGear trademarks are owned independently from Victorinox SA, and are used to market camping equipment (particularly tents, backpacks and sleeping bags), luggage, backpacks and office / business needs.
Ranger 73
RangerGrip 75
Stgw 90 bayonet
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who played the music in school of rock | School of Rock - wikipedia
School of Rock is a 2003 musical comedy film directed by Richard Linklater, produced by Scott Rudin, and written by Mike White. The film stars Jack Black, Joan Cusack, Mike White, Sarah Silverman, Joey Gaydos Jr. and Miranda Cosgrove. Black plays struggling rock singer and guitarist Dewey Finn, who is kicked out of his band and subsequently disguises as a substitute teacher at a prestigious prep school. After witnessing the musical talent in his students in their music class, Dewey forms a band of fourth - graders to attempt to win the upcoming Battle of the Bands and pay off his rent.
School of Rock was released on October 3, 2003 by Paramount Pictures, grossing $131 million worldwide on a $35 million budget. It was the highest grossing musical comedy of all time until it was overtaken in 2015 by Pitch Perfect 2. A stage musical adaptation opened on Broadway in December 2015, and a television adaptation for Nickelodeon premiered on March 12, 2016.
No Vacancy, a rock band, performs at a nightclub three weeks before auditioning for the Battle of the Bands. Guitarist Dewey Finn creates on - stage antics, including a stage dive that abruptly ends the performance. The next morning, Dewey wakes in the apartment he lives in with Ned Schneebly and his girlfriend, Patty Di Marco. They inform him he must make up for his share of the rent or move out. When Dewey meets No Vacancy at a rehearsal session, he finds out that he has been replaced by another guitarist named Spider. Later, while attempting to sell some of his equipment for rent money, Dewey answers a phone call from Rosalie Mullins, the principal of the Horace Green prep school, inquiring for Ned about a short - term position as a substitute teacher. Desperate for money, Dewey impersonates Ned and is hired. On his first day at the school, Dewey adopts the name "Mr. S '' and spends his first day behaving erratically, much to the class 's confusion.
The next day, Dewey overhears a music class and devises a plan to form them into a new band to audition for Battle of the Bands. He casts Zack Mooneyham as lead guitarist, Freddy Jones as drummer, cello player Katie on bass, Lawrence on keyboard, and himself as lead vocalist and guitarist. He assigns the rest of the class to various roles of backup singers, groupies, roadies, with Summer Hathaway as band manager. The project takes over normal lessons, but helps the students to embrace their talents and overcome their problems. He reassures Lawrence, who feels nerdy, and is worried about not being cool enough for the band, Zack, whose overbearing father disapproves of rock, and Tomika, an overweight girl who is too self - conscious to even audition for backup singer despite an amazing voice. During one eloquent lesson, he teaches the kids that rock and roll is the way to "Stick it to the Man '' and stand up for themselves. Band "groupies '' Michelle and Eleni, with Summer 's approval, pitch the band name "The School of Rock. ''
Two weeks into his hiring, Dewey sneaks his key band members out of school to audition for a spot in the competition, while the rest of the class stay behind to maintain cover. When Freddy wanders off, Dewey retrieves him but the group is rejected because the bill is full. After Summer tricks the staff into thinking that they have a terminal illness, the band is auditioned. The next day, Mullins decides to check on Dewey 's teaching progress, forcing Dewey to teach the actual material. Mullins explains that a parents ' night will take place at the school the day before Battle of the Bands, rendering Dewey somewhat concerned.
As Dewey prepares for the parents ' night, Ned receives a paycheck from the school via mail, soon realizing that Dewey impersonated him. During the parents ' meeting, the parents question what Dewey was teaching the kids until Ned, Patty and the police confront Dewey. With Mullins bursting in to question what is going on, Dewey reveals his true identity, admits he 's not a licensed teacher and flees to his apartment. He and Patty argue and Ned intervenes; however, Ned suggests Dewey should move out.
The next morning, the parents go on an uproar in front of Mullins at her office, while the kids decide not to let their hard work go to waste. When the new substitute discovers that the kids are missing, she informs Mullins, and Mullins and the parents race to the competition. A school bus comes to pick up Dewey, who leads the kids to the Battle of the Bands and decides that they play the song written by Zack earlier in the film. Initially dismissed as a gimmick, the band wins over the entire crowd. Much to Dewey 's dismay, No Vacancy wins, but the audience chant for School of Rock and demand an encore.
Some time later an after school program known as the School of Rock has opened as Dewey continues to coach the students he played with before while Ned teaches beginners, as the credits roll.
Screenwriter Mike White 's concept for the film was inspired by the Langley Schools Music Project. Various aspects of the plot were recognized as being similar to the 1957 Broadway hit The Music Man. Jack Black once witnessed a stage dive gone wrong involving Ian Astbury of rock band The Cult, which made its way into the film; "I went to see a reunion, in Los Angeles, of The Cult... it was just a bunch of jaded Los Angelinos out there, and they did n't catch him and he plummeted straight to the ground. Later I thought it was so hilarious. So that was put into the script. '' Many scenes from the movie were shot around the New York City area. The school portrayed in School of Rock is actually Main Hall at Wagner College in Staten Island, New York. In the commentary, the kids say that all of the hallway scenes were shot in one hallway. One of the theaters used in many of the shots was at Union County Performing Arts Center located in Rahway, New Jersey.
The eponymous album was released on September 30, 2003. Sammy James Jr. of the band The Mooney Suzuki penned the title track with screenwriter Mike White, and the band backed up Jack Black and the child musicians on the soundtrack recording of the song. The film 's director, Richard Linklater, scouted the country for talented 13 - year - old musicians to play the rock and roll music featured on the soundtrack and in the film. The soundtrack includes "Immigrant Song '' by Led Zeppelin, a band that has rarely granted permission for use of their songs in film and television. Richard Linklater came up with the idea to shoot a video on the stage used at the end of the film, with Jack Black begging the band for permission with the crowd extras cheering and chanting behind him. The video was sent directly to the living members of Led Zeppelin, and permission was granted for the song. The video is included on the DVD.
* Featured on the Soundtrack album
School of Rock received an approval rating of 92 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 192 reviews with an average rating of 7.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Black 's exuberant, gleeful performance turns School of Rock into a hilarious, rocking good time. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 82 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
School of Rock opened at # 1 with a weekend gross of $19,622,714 from 2,614 theaters for an average of $7,507 per venue. In its second weekend, the film declined just 21 percent, earning another $15,487,832 after expanding to 2,929 theaters, averaging $5,288 per venue, and bringing the 10 - day gross to $39,671,396. In its third weekend, it dropped only 28 percent, making another $11,006,233 after expanding once again to 2,951 theaters, averaging $3,730 per venue, and bringing the 17 - day gross to $54,898,025. It spent a total of six weeks among the Top 10 films and eventually grossed $81,261,177 in the United States and Canada and another $50,015,772 in international territories for a total gross of $131,282,949 worldwide, almost four times its budget of $35 million. This made School of Rock the highest - grossing musical comedy of all time, until it was overtaken in 2015 by Pitch Perfect 2.
The film was nominated for several awards, including Black receiving a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor -- Comedy or Musical (which he lost to Bill Murray for Lost in Translation), and winning an MTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance.
In 2008, Jack Black said that a sequel was being considered. It was later reported that director Richard Linklater and producer Scott Rudin would return. Mike White was returning as screenwriter, titled School of Rock 2: America Rocks, which picks up with Finn leading a group of summer school students on a cross-country field trip that delves into the history of rock ' n ' roll. In 2012, Black stated that he believed the sequel was unlikely. "I tried really hard to get all the pieces together, '' he said. "I would n't want to do it without the original writer and director, and we never all got together and saw eye - to - eye on what the script would be. It was not meant to be, unfortunately, '' but added, "never say never ''.
On April 5, 2013, Andrew Lloyd Webber announced that he had bought the rights to School of Rock to a stage musical. On December 18, 2014, the musical was officially confirmed and it was announced that the show would receive its world premiere on Broadway in autumn 2015, at the Winter Garden Theatre. The musical has a book by Downton Abbey creator Julian Fellowes. and is directed by Laurence Connor, with choreography by JoAnn M. Hunter, set and costume design by Anna Louizos and lighting by Natasha Katz. The musical features an original score composed by Lloyd Webber, with lyrics by Glenn Slater and sound design by Mick Potter, in addition to music from the original film. School of Rock became Lloyd Webber 's first show opening on Broadway before London since Jesus Christ Superstar in 1971.
On August 29, 2013, a 10 - year anniversary screening of the film was held in Austin, Texas at the Paramount Theatre. Those in attendance included director Richard Linklater, Jack Black, Mike White, Miranda Cosgrove and the rest of the young cast members except for Cole Hawkins (who played Leonard). The event, hosted by the Austin Film Society and Cirrus Logic, included a red carpet, a full cast and crew Q&A after the screening, where the now - grown child stars discussed their current pursuits in life, and a VIP after - party performance by the School of Rock band during which "School of Rock '' and "It 's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock ' n ' Roll) '' were played.
On August 4, 2014, Nickelodeon announced that they were working with Paramount Television on a television show adaptation of the film. Production started in the fall and the series premiered in 2016. It stars Breanna Yde, Ricardo Hurtado, Jade Pettyjohn, Lance Lim, Aidan Miner, and Tony Cavalero.
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what does it mean to be 95 confident in statistics | Confidence interval - wikipedia
In statistics, a confidence interval (CI) is a type of interval estimate (of a population parameter) that is computed from the observed data. The confidence level is the frequency (i.e., the proportion) of possible confidence intervals that contain the true value of their corresponding parameter. In other words, if confidence intervals are constructed using a given confidence level in an infinite number of independent experiments, the proportion of those intervals that contain the true value of the parameter will match the confidence level.
Confidence intervals consist of a range of values (interval) that act as good estimates of the unknown population parameter. However, the interval computed from a particular sample does not necessarily include the true value of the parameter. Since the observed data are random samples from the true population, the confidence interval obtained from the data is also random. If a corresponding hypothesis test is performed, the confidence level is the complement of the level of significance; for example, a 95 % confidence interval reflects a significance level of 0.05. If it is hypothesized that a true parameter value is 0 but the 95 % confidence interval does not contain 0, then the estimate is significantly different from zero at the 5 % significance level.
The desired level of confidence is set by the researcher (not determined by data). Most commonly, the 95 % confidence level is used. However, other confidence levels can be used, for example, 90 % and 99 %.
Factors affecting the width of the confidence interval include the size of the sample, the confidence level, and the variability in the sample. A larger sample size normally will lead to a better estimate of the population parameter.
Confidence intervals were introduced to statistics by Jerzy Neyman in a paper published in 1937.
Interval estimates can be contrasted with point estimates. A point estimate is a single value given as the estimate of a population parameter that is of interest, for example, the mean of some quantity. An interval estimate specifies instead a range within which the parameter is estimated to lie. Confidence intervals are commonly reported in tables or graphs along with point estimates of the same parameters, to show the reliability of the estimates.
For example, a confidence interval can be used to describe how reliable survey results are. In a poll of election -- voting intentions, the result might be that 40 % of respondents intend to vote for a certain party. A 99 % confidence interval for the proportion in the whole population having the same intention on the survey might be 30 % to 50 %. From the same data one may calculate a 90 % confidence interval, which in this case might be 37 % to 43 %. A major factor determining the length of a confidence interval is the size of the sample used in the estimation procedure, for example, the number of people taking part in a survey.
Various interpretations of a confidence interval can be given (taking the 90 % confidence interval as an example in the following).
In each of the above, the following applies: If the true value of the parameter lies outside the 90 % confidence interval, then a sampling event has occurred (namely, obtaining a point estimate of the parameter at least this far from the true parameter value) which had a probability of 10 % (or less) of happening by chance.
Confidence intervals are frequently misunderstood, and published studies have shown that even professional scientists often misinterpret them.
"It will be noticed that in the above description, the probability statements refer to the problems of estimation with which the statistician will be concerned in the future. In fact, I have repeatedly stated that the frequency of correct results will tend to α. Consider now the case when a sample is already drawn, and the calculations have given (particular limits). Can we say that in this particular case the probability of the true value (falling between these limits) is equal to α? The answer is obviously in the negative. The parameter is an unknown constant, and no probability statement concerning its value may be made... ''
"It must be stressed, however, that having seen the value (of the data), Neyman - Pearson theory never permits one to conclude that the specific confidence interval formed covers the true value of 0 with either (1 − α) 100 % probability or (1 − α) 100 % degree of confidence. Seidenfeld 's remark seems rooted in a (not uncommon) desire for Neyman - Pearson confidence intervals to provide something which they can not legitimately provide; namely, a measure of the degree of probability, belief, or support that an unknown parameter value lies in a specific interval. Following Savage (1962), the probability that a parameter lies in a specific interval may be referred to as a measure of final precision. While a measure of final precision may seem desirable, and while confidence levels are often (wrongly) interpreted as providing such a measure, no such interpretation is warranted. Admittedly, such a misinterpretation is encouraged by the word ' confidence '. ''
The principle behind confidence intervals was formulated to provide an answer to the question raised in statistical inference of how to deal with the uncertainty inherent in results derived from data that are themselves only a randomly selected subset of a population. There are other answers, notably that provided by Bayesian inference in the form of credible intervals. Confidence intervals correspond to a chosen rule for determining the confidence bounds, where this rule is essentially determined before any data are obtained, or before an experiment is done. The rule is defined such that over all possible datasets that might be obtained, there is a high probability ("high '' is specifically quantified) that the interval determined by the rule will include the true value of the quantity under consideration. The Bayesian approach appears to offer intervals that can, subject to acceptance of an interpretation of "probability '' as Bayesian probability, be interpreted as meaning that the specific interval calculated from a given dataset has a particular probability of including the true value, conditional on the data and other information available. The confidence interval approach does not allow this since in this formulation and at this same stage, both the bounds of the interval and the true values are fixed values, and there is no randomness involved. On the other hand, the Bayesian approach is only as valid as the prior probability used in the computation, whereas the confidence interval does not depend on assumptions about the prior probability.
The questions concerning how an interval expressing uncertainty in an estimate might be formulated, and of how such intervals might be interpreted, are not strictly mathematical problems and are philosophically problematic. Mathematics can take over once the basic principles of an approach to ' inference ' have been established, but it has only a limited role in saying why one approach should be preferred to another: For example, a confidence level of 95 % is often used in the biological sciences, but this is a matter of convention or arbitration. In the physical sciences, a much higher level may be used.
Confidence intervals are closely related to statistical significance testing. For example, if for some estimated parameter θ one wants to test the null hypothesis that θ = 0 against the alternative that θ ≠ 0, then this test can be performed by determining whether the confidence interval for θ contains 0.
More generally, given the availability of a hypothesis testing procedure that can test the null hypothesis θ = θ against the alternative that θ ≠ θ for any value of θ, then a confidence interval with confidence level γ = 1 − α can be defined as containing any number θ for which the corresponding null hypothesis is not rejected at significance level α.
If the estimates of two parameters (for example, the mean values of a variable in two independent groups) have confidence intervals that do not overlap, then the difference between the two values is more significant than indicated by the individual values of α. So, this "test '' is too conservative and can lead to a result that is more significant than the individual values of α would indicate. If two confidence intervals overlap, the two means still may be significantly different. Accordingly, and consistent with the Mantel - Haenszel Chi - squared test, is a proposed fix whereby one reduces the error bounds for the two means by multiplying them by the square root of 1⁄2 (0.707107) before making the comparison.
While the formulations of the notions of confidence intervals and of statistical hypothesis testing are distinct, they are in some senses related and to some extent complementary. While not all confidence intervals are constructed in this way, one general purpose approach to constructing confidence intervals is to define a 100 (1 − α) % confidence interval to consist of all those values θ for which a test of the hypothesis θ = θ is not rejected at a significance level of 100α %. Such an approach may not always be available since it presupposes the practical availability of an appropriate significance test. Naturally, any assumptions required for the significance test would carry over to the confidence intervals.
It may be convenient to make the general correspondence that parameter values within a confidence interval are equivalent to those values that would not be rejected by a hypothesis test, but this would be dangerous. In many instances the confidence intervals that are quoted are only approximately valid, perhaps derived from "plus or minus twice the standard error, '' and the implications of this for the supposedly corresponding hypothesis tests are usually unknown.
It is worth noting that the confidence interval for a parameter is not the same as the acceptance region of a test for this parameter, as is sometimes thought. The confidence interval is part of the parameter space, whereas the acceptance region is part of the sample space. For the same reason, the confidence level is not the same as the complementary probability of the level of significance.
Confidence regions generalize the confidence interval concept to deal with multiple quantities. Such regions can indicate not only the extent of likely sampling errors but can also reveal whether (for example) it is the case that if the estimate for one quantity is unreliable, then the other is also likely to be unreliable.
A confidence band is used in statistical analysis to represent the uncertainty in an estimate of a curve or function based on limited or noisy data. Similarly, a prediction band is used to represent the uncertainty about the value of a new data point on the curve, but subject to noise. Confidence and prediction bands are often used as part of the graphical presentation of results of a regression analysis.
Confidence bands are closely related to confidence intervals, which represent the uncertainty in an estimate of a single numerical value. "As confidence intervals, by construction, only refer to a single point, they are narrower (at this point) than a confidence band which is supposed to hold simultaneously at many points. ''
The basic breakdown of how to calculate a confidence interval for a population mean is as follows:
Let X be a random sample from a probability distribution with statistical parameters θ, which is a quantity to be estimated, and φ, representing quantities that are not of immediate interest. A confidence interval for the parameter θ, with confidence level or confidence coefficient γ, is an interval with random endpoints (u (X), v (X)), determined by the pair of random variables u (X) and v (X), with the property:
The quantities φ in which there is no immediate interest are called nuisance parameters, as statistical theory still needs to find some way to deal with them. The number γ, with typical values close to but not greater than 1, is sometimes given in the form 1 − α (or as a percentage 100 % (1 − α)), where α is a small non-negative number, close to 0.
Here Pr indicates the probability distribution of X characterised by (θ, φ). An important part of this specification is that the random interval (u (X), v (X)) covers the unknown value θ with a high probability no matter what the true value of θ actually is.
Note that here Pr need not refer to an explicitly given parameterized family of distributions, although it often does. Just as the random variable X notionally corresponds to other possible realizations of x from the same population or from the same version of reality, the parameters (θ, φ) indicate that we need to consider other versions of reality in which the distribution of X might have different characteristics.
In a specific situation, when x is the outcome of the sample X, the interval (u (x), v (x)) is also referred to as a confidence interval for θ. Note that it is no longer possible to say that the (observed) interval (u (x), v (x)) has probability γ to contain the parameter θ. This observed interval is just one realization of all possible intervals for which the probability statement holds.
In many applications, confidence intervals that have exactly the required confidence level are hard to construct. But practically useful intervals can still be found: the rule for constructing the interval may be accepted as providing a confidence interval at level γ if
to an acceptable level of approximation. Alternatively, some authors simply require that
which is useful if the probabilities are only partially identified, or imprecise.
When applying standard statistical procedures, there will often be standard ways of constructing confidence intervals. These will have been devised so as to meet certain desirable properties, which will hold given that the assumptions on which the procedure rely are true. These desirable properties may be described as: validity, optimality, and invariance. Of these "validity '' is most important, followed closely by "optimality ''. "Invariance '' may be considered as a property of the method of derivation of a confidence interval rather than of the rule for constructing the interval. In non-standard applications, the same desirable properties would be sought.
For non-standard applications, there are several routes that might be taken to derive a rule for the construction of confidence intervals. Established rules for standard procedures might be justified or explained via several of these routes. Typically a rule for constructing confidence intervals is closely tied to a particular way of finding a point estimate of the quantity being considered.
A machine fills cups with a liquid, and is supposed to be adjusted so that the content of the cups is 250 g of liquid. As the machine can not fill every cup with exactly 250.0 g, the content added to individual cups shows some variation, and is considered a random variable X. This variation is assumed to be normally distributed around the desired average of 250 g, with a standard deviation, σ, of 2.5 g. To determine if the machine is adequately calibrated, a sample of n = 25 cups of liquid is chosen at random and the cups are weighed. The resulting measured masses of liquid are X,..., X, a random sample from X.
To get an impression of the expectation μ, it is sufficient to give an estimate. The appropriate estimator is the sample mean:
The sample shows actual weights x,..., x, with mean:
If we take another sample of 25 cups, we could easily expect to find mean values like 250.4 or 251.1 grams. A sample mean value of 280 grams however would be extremely rare if the mean content of the cups is in fact close to 250 grams. There is a whole interval around the observed value 250.2 grams of the sample mean within which, if the whole population mean actually takes a value in this range, the observed data would not be considered particularly unusual. Such an interval is called a confidence interval for the parameter μ. How do we calculate such an interval? The endpoints of the interval have to be calculated from the sample, so they are statistics, functions of the sample X,..., X and hence random variables themselves.
In our case we may determine the endpoints by considering that the sample mean X from a normally distributed sample is also normally distributed, with the same expectation μ, but with a standard error of:
By standardizing, we get a random variable:
dependent on the parameter μ to be estimated, but with a standard normal distribution independent of the parameter μ. Hence it is possible to find numbers − z and z, independent of μ, between which Z lies with probability 1 − α, a measure of how confident we want to be.
We take 1 − α = 0.95, for example. So we have:
The number z follows from the cumulative distribution function, in this case the cumulative normal distribution function:
and we get:
In other words, the lower endpoint of the 95 % confidence interval is:
and the upper endpoint of the 95 % confidence interval is:
With the values in this example, the confidence interval is:
As the standard deviation of the population σ is known in this case, the distribution of the sample mean X _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ bar (X))) is a normal distribution with μ (\ displaystyle \ mu) the only unknown parameter. In the theoretical example below, the parameter σ is also unknown, which calls for using the Student 's t - distribution.
This might be interpreted as: with probability 0.95 we will find a confidence interval in which the value of parameter μ will be between the stochastic endpoints
and
This does not mean there is 0.95 probability that the value of parameter μ is in the interval obtained by using the currently computed value of the sample mean,
Instead, every time the measurements are repeated, there will be another value for the mean X of the sample. In 95 % of the cases μ will be between the endpoints calculated from this mean, but in 5 % of the cases it will not be. The actual confidence interval is calculated by entering the measured masses in the formula. Our 0.95 confidence interval becomes:
In other words, the 95 % confidence interval is between the lower endpoint 249.22 g and the upper endpoint 251.18 g.
As the desired value 250 of μ is within the resulted confidence interval, there is no reason to believe the machine is wrongly calibrated.
The calculated interval has fixed endpoints, where μ might be in between (or not). Thus this event has probability either 0 or 1. One can not say: "with probability (1 − α) the parameter μ lies in the confidence interval. '' One only knows that by repetition in 100 (1 − α) % of the cases, μ will be in the calculated interval. In 100α % of the cases however it does not. And unfortunately one does not know in which of the cases this happens. That is (instead of using the term "probability '') why one can say: "with confidence level 100 (1 − α) %, μ lies in the confidence interval. ''
The maximum error is calculated to be 0.98 since it is the difference between the value that we are confident of with upper or lower endpoint.
The figure on the right shows 50 realizations of a confidence interval for a given population mean μ. If we randomly choose one realization, the probability is 95 % we end up having chosen an interval that contains the parameter; however, we may be unlucky and have picked the wrong one. We will never know; we are stuck with our interval.
Suppose (X,..., X) is an independent sample from a normally distributed population with unknown (parameters) mean μ and variance σ. Let
Where X is the sample mean, and S is the sample variance. Then
has a Student 's t - distribution with n − 1 degrees of freedom. Note that the distribution of T does not depend on the values of the unobservable parameters μ and σ; i.e., it is a pivotal quantity. Suppose we wanted to calculate a 95 % confidence interval for μ. Then, denoting c as the 97.5 th percentile of this distribution,
("97.5 th '' and "0.95 '' are correct in the preceding expressions. There is a 2.5 % chance that T will be less than − c and a 2.5 % chance that it will be larger than + c. Thus, the probability that T will be between − c and + c is 95 %.)
Consequently,
and we have a theoretical (stochastic) 95 % confidence interval for μ.
After observing the sample we find values x for X and s for S, from which we compute the confidence interval
an interval with fixed numbers as endpoints, of which we can no longer say there is a certain probability it contains the parameter μ; either μ is in this interval or is n't.
Confidence intervals are one method of interval estimation, and the most widely used in frequentist statistics. An analogous concept in Bayesian statistics is credible intervals, while an alternative frequentist method is that of prediction intervals which, rather than estimating parameters, estimate the outcome of future samples. For other approaches to expressing uncertainty using intervals, see interval estimation.
A prediction interval for a random variable is defined similarly to a confidence interval for a statistical parameter. Consider an additional random variable Y which may or may not be statistically dependent on the random sample X. Then (u (X), v (X)) provides a prediction interval for the as - yet - to - be observed value y of Y if
Here Pr indicates the joint probability distribution of the random variables (X, Y), where this distribution depends on the statistical parameters (θ, φ).
A Bayesian interval estimate is called a credible interval. Using much of the same notation as above, the definition of a credible interval for the unknown true value of θ is, for a given γ,
Here Θ is used to emphasize that the unknown value of θ is being treated as a random variable. The definitions of the two types of intervals may be compared as follows.
Note that the treatment of the nuisance parameters above is often omitted from discussions comparing confidence and credible intervals but it is markedly different between the two cases.
In some simple standard cases, the intervals produced as confidence and credible intervals from the same data set can be identical. They are very different if informative prior information is included in the Bayesian analysis, and may be very different for some parts of the space of possible data even if the Bayesian prior is relatively uninformative.
There is disagreement about which of these methods produces the most useful results: the mathematics of the computations are rarely in question -- confidence intervals being based on sampling distributions, credible intervals being based on Bayes ' theorem -- but the application of these methods, the utility and interpretation of the produced statistics, is debated.
An approximate confidence interval for a population mean can be constructed for random variables that are not normally distributed in the population, relying on the central limit theorem, if the sample sizes and counts are big enough. The formulae are identical to the case above (where the sample mean is actually normally distributed about the population mean). The approximation will be quite good with only a few dozen observations in the sample if the probability distribution of the random variable is not too different from the normal distribution (e.g. its cumulative distribution function does not have any discontinuities and its skewness is moderate).
One type of sample mean is the mean of an indicator variable, which takes on the value 1 for true and the value 0 for false. The mean of such a variable is equal to the proportion that has the variable equal to one (both in the population and in any sample). This is a useful property of indicator variables, especially for hypothesis testing. To apply the central limit theorem, one must use a large enough sample. A rough rule of thumb is that one should see at least 5 cases in which the indicator is 1 and at least 5 in which it is 0. Confidence intervals constructed using the above formulae may include negative numbers or numbers greater than 1, but proportions obviously can not be negative or exceed 1. Additionally, sample proportions can only take on a finite number of values, so the central limit theorem and the normal distribution are not the best tools for building a confidence interval. See "Binomial proportion confidence interval '' for better methods which are specific to this case.
Since confidence interval theory was proposed, a number of counter-examples to the theory have been developed to show how the interpretation of confidence intervals can be problematic, at least if one interprets them naïvely.
Welch presented an example which clearly shows the difference between the theory of confidence intervals and other theories of interval estimation (including Fisher 's fiducial intervals and objective Bayesian intervals). Robinson called this example "(p) ossibly the best known counterexample for Neyman 's version of confidence interval theory. '' To Welch, it showed the superiority of confidence interval theory; to critics of the theory, it shows a deficiency. Here we present a simplified version.
Suppose that X 1, X 2 (\ displaystyle X_ (1), X_ (2)) are independent observations from a Uniform (θ − 1 / 2, θ + 1 / 2) distribution. Then the optimal 50 % confidence procedure is
A fiducial or objective Bayesian argument can be used to derive the interval estimate
which is also a 50 % confidence procedure. Welch showed that the first confidence procedure dominates the second, according to desiderata from confidence interval theory; for every θ 1 ≠ θ (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (1) \ neq \ theta), the probability that the first procedure contains θ 1 (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (1)) is less than or equal to the probability that the second procedure contains θ 1 (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (1)). The average width of the intervals from the first procedure is less than that of the second. Hence, the first procedure is preferred under classical confidence interval theory.
However, when X 1 − X 2 ≥ 1 / 2 (\ displaystyle X_ (1) - X_ (2) \ geq 1 / 2), intervals from the first procedure are guaranteed to contain the true value θ (\ displaystyle \ theta): Therefore, the nominal 50 % confidence coefficient is unrelated to the uncertainty we should have that a specific interval contains the true value. The second procedure does not have this property.
Moreover, when the first procedure generates a very short interval, this indicates that X 1, X 2 (\ displaystyle X_ (1), X_ (2)) are very close together and hence only offer the information in a single data point. Yet the first interval will exclude almost all reasonable values of the parameter due to its short width. The second procedure does not have this property.
The two counter-intuitive properties of the first procedure -- 100 % coverage when X 1, X 2 (\ displaystyle X_ (1), X_ (2)) are far apart and almost 0 % coverage when X 1, X 2 (\ displaystyle X_ (1), X_ (2)) are close together -- balance out to yield 50 % coverage on average. However, despite the first procedure being optimal, its intervals offer neither an assessment of the precision of the estimate nor an assessment of the uncertainty one should have that the interval contains the true value.
This counter-example is used to argue against naïve interpretations of confidence intervals. If a confidence procedure is asserted to have properties beyond that of the nominal coverage (such as relation to precision, or a relationship with Bayesian inference), those properties must be proved; they do not follow from the fact that a procedure is a confidence procedure.
Steiger suggested a number of confidence procedures for common effect size measures in ANOVA. Morey et al. point out that several of these confidence procedures, including the one for ω, have the property that as the F statistic becomes increasingly small -- indicating misfit with all possible values of ω -- the confidence interval shrinks and can even contain only the single value ω = 0; that is, the CI is infinitesimally narrow (this occurs when p ≥ 1 − α / 2 (\ displaystyle p \ geq 1 - \ alpha / 2) for a 100 (1 − α) % (\ displaystyle 100 (1 - \ alpha) \ %) CI).
This behavior is consistent with the relationship between the confidence procedure and significance testing: as F becomes so small that the group means are much closer together than we would expect by chance, a significance test might indicate rejection for most or all values of ω. Hence the interval will be very narrow or even empty (or, by a convention suggested by Steiger, containing only 0). However, this does not indicate that the estimate of ω is very precise. In a sense, it indicates the opposite: that the trustworthiness of the results themselves may be in doubt. This is contrary to the common interpretation of confidence intervals that they reveal the precision of the estimate.
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what type of solution is ringer's lactate | Ringer 's lactate solution - wikipedia
Ringer 's lactate solution (RL), also known as sodium lactate solution and Hartmann 's solution, is a mixture of sodium chloride, sodium lactate, potassium chloride, and calcium chloride in water. It is used for replacing fluids and electrolytes in those who have low blood volume or low blood pressure. It may also be used to treat metabolic acidosis in cases other than those caused by lactic acidosis and to wash the eye following a chemical burn. It is given by injection into a vein or applied to the affected area.
Side effects may include allergic reactions, high blood potassium, volume overload, and high blood calcium. It may not be suitable for mixing with certain medications and some recommend against use in the same infusion as a blood transfusion. Ringer 's lactate solution has a lower rate of acidosis as compared with normal saline. Use is generally safe in pregnancy and breastfeeding. Ringer 's lactate solution is in the crystalloid family of medication. It is the same tonicity as blood.
Ringer 's solution was invented in the 1880s with lactate being added in the 1930s. It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. Lactated Ringer 's is available as a generic medication. The wholesale cost in the developing world is about 0.60 to 2.30 USD per liter. For people with poor liver function, Ringer 's acetate may be a better alternative with the lactate replaced by acetate. In Scandinavia Ringer 's acetate is typically used.
Ringer 's lactate solution is very often used for fluid resuscitation after a blood loss due to trauma, surgery, or a burn injury. Ringer 's lactate solution is used because the by - products of lactate metabolism in the liver counteract acidosis, which is a chemical imbalance that occurs with acute fluid loss or renal failure.
The IV dose of Ringer 's lactate solution is usually calculated by estimated fluid loss and presumed fluid deficit. For fluid resuscitation the usual rate of administration is 20 to 30 ml / kg body weight / hour. RL is not suitable for maintenance therapy (i.e., maintenance fluids) because the sodium content (130 mEq / L) is considered too low, particularly for children, and the potassium content (4 mEq / L) is too low, in view of electrolyte daily requirement. Moreover, since the lactate is converted into bicarbonate, longterm use will cause patients to become alkalotic. Ringer 's lactate and other crystalloids are also used as vehicles for the IV delivery of drugs.
In a large - volume resuscitation over several hours, LRS maintains a more stable blood pH than normal saline.
One liter of Ringer 's lactate solution contains:
Ringer 's lactate has an osmolarity of 273 mOsm / L. The lactate is metabolized into bicarbonate by the liver, which can help correct metabolic acidosis. Ringer 's lactate solution alkalinizes via its consumption in the citric acid cycle, the generation of a molecule of carbon dioxide which is then excreted by the lungs. They increase the strong ion difference in solution, leading to proton consumption and an overall alkalinizing effect.
The solution is formulated to have concentrations of potassium and calcium that are similar to the ionized concentrations found in normal blood plasma. To maintain electrical neutrality, the solution has a lower level of sodium than that found in blood plasma or normal saline.
Generally, the sodium, chloride, potassium and lactate come from NaCl (sodium chloride), NaC H O (sodium lactate), CaCl (calcium chloride), and KCl (potassium chloride).
There are slight variations for the composition for Ringer 's as supplied by different manufacturers. As such, the term Ringer 's lactate should not be equated with one precise formulation.
Although its pH is 6.5, it is an alkalizing solution.
Ringer 's saline solution was invented in the early 1880s by Sydney Ringer, a British physician and physiologist. Ringer was studying the beating of an isolated frog heart outside of the body. He hoped to identify the substances in blood that would allow the isolated heart to beat normally for a time. The use of Ringer 's original solution of inorganic salts slowly became more popular. In the 1930s, the original solution was further modified by American pediatrician Alexis Hartmann for the purpose of treating acidosis. Hartmann added lactate, which mitigates changes in pH by acting as a buffer for acid. Thus the solution became known as "Ringer 's lactate solution '' or "Hartmann 's solution ''.
Ringer 's solution technically refers only to the saline component, without lactate. Some countries instead use a Ringer 's acetate solution or Ringer - acetate, which has similar properties and the added benefit of not deranging the blood - lactate level. This may be helpful when analyzing blood - lactate for signs of anaerobic metabolism (e.g. present with septic shock, hypovolemic shock).
It is used for the treatment or palliative care of chronic renal failure in small animals. The solution can be administered both by IV and subcutaneously. Administering the fluids subcutaneously allows the solution to be readily given to the animal by a trained layperson, as it is not required that a vein be located. The solution is slowly absorbed from beneath the skin into the bloodstream of the animal.
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which of the following are types of brake fade | Brake fade - wikipedia
Vehicle braking system fade, or brake fade, is the reduction in stopping power that can occur after repeated or sustained application of the brakes, especially in high load or high speed conditions. Brake fade can be a factor in any vehicle that utilizes a friction braking system including automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, airplanes, and bicycles.
Brake fade is caused by a buildup of heat in the braking surfaces and the subsequent changes and reactions in the brake system components and can be experienced with both drum brakes and disc brakes. Loss of stopping power, or fade, can be caused by friction fade, mechanical fade, or fluid fade. Brake fade can be significantly reduced by appropriate equipment and materials design and selection, as well as good cooling.
Brake fade occurs most often during high performance driving or when going down a long, steep hill. It is more prevalent in drum brakes due to their configuration. Disc brakes are much more resistant to brake fade because the heat can be vented away from the rotor and pads more easily, and have come to be a standard feature in front brakes for most vehicles.
The reduction of friction termed brake fade is caused when the temperature reaches the "kneepoint '' on the temperature - friction curve and gas builds up between disc and pad. All brake lining is cured under mechanical pressure following a heating and cooling curve backstroke, heating the friction material up to 232 ° C (450 ° F) to "cure '' (cross-link) the phenolic resin thermoset polymers: There is no melting of the binding resins, because phenolic resins are thermoset, not thermoplastic. In this form of fade, the brake pedal feels firm but there is reduced stopping ability. Fade can also be caused by the brake fluid boiling, with attendant release of compressible gases. In this type of fade, the brake pedal feels "spongy ''. This condition is worsened when there are contaminants in the fluid, such as water, which most types of brake fluids are prone to absorbing to varying degrees. For this reason brake fluid replacement is standard maintenance.
Various brake designs such as band brakes and many drum brakes are self - assisting: when the brake is applied, some of the braking force feeds back into the brake mechanism to further self - apply the brake. This is called "positive feedback '' or "self - servo ''. Self - assist reduces the input force needed to apply the brake, but exaggerates fade, since a reduction in pad friction material height or thickness also reduces pad force. In contrast, for a brake without self - assist, such as a conventional disc brake, a loss of pad friction material does not change the pad force, so there is no necessary loss in the brake torque reaction for a given amount of input force.
The self - assist mechanism affects the water pump and the amount of fade. For example, the Ausco Lambert and Murphy brakes have self - assist roughly proportional to pad friction, so total braking is reduced as roughly the square of the loss in friction. Many other self - assist designs, such as band brakes and many common drum brakes, have exponential self - assist, described by e μ θ (\ displaystyle e ^ (\ mu \ theta)), where e (\ displaystyle e) is the natural logarithm base, μ (\ displaystyle \ mu) is the coefficient of friction between shoes and drum, and θ (\ displaystyle \ theta) is the angle of engagement between shoes and drum. A small change in friction causes an exponential change in self assist. In many common brakes, a slight increase in friction can lead to wheel lockup with even light application. For example, on damp mornings, drum brakes can lock on first application, skidding to a stop even after the brake pedal has been released. Conversely, a slight decrease in friction can lead to severe brake fade.
Brake fade failures can cascade. For example, a typical 5 - axle truck / trailer combination has 10 brakes. If one brake fades, brake load is transferred to the remaining 9 brakes, causing them to work harder, get hotter, and thus fade more. Where fade is non-uniform, fade may cause a vehicle to swerve. Because of this, heavy vehicles often use disproportionately weak brakes on steered wheels, which hurts the stopping distance and causes brakes on non-steered wheels to work harder, worsening fade. An advantage of low - fade brakes such as disc brakes is steered wheels can do more braking without causing brake steer.
Brake fade typically occurs during heavy or sustained braking. Many high - speed vehicles use disc brakes, and many European heavy vehicles use disc brakes. Many U.S. and third - world heavy vehicles use drum brakes due to their lower purchase price. On heavy vehicles, air drag is often small compared to the weight, so the brakes dissipate proportionally more energy than on a typical car or motorcycle. Thus, heavy vehicles often need to use engine compression braking, and slow down so braking energy is dissipated over a longer interval. Recent studies have been performed in the United States to test the stopping distances of both drum brakes and disc brakes using a North American Standard called FMVSS - 121. The results showed that when newer compounding of friction materials typically used in disc brakes is applied to drum brakes that there is virtually no difference in stopping distance or brake fade. As the United States changed its FMVSS - 121 rules for Class Eight trucks built in 2012 to reduce stopping distances by about 1 / 3rd there was no recommendation to use either drum or disc brakes in the current law.
Newer drum technologies and turbine cooling devices inside of these drums has also eliminated any edge disc brakes may have had in heavy duty applications. By installing brake turbines inside of a specially configured drum, temperatures are many times cut in half and brake fade is nearly eliminated.
Brake failure is also caused by brake drum thermal expansion in which brake shoe clearance becomes excessive from wear. This was largely remedied in the 1950s by self - adjusting brakes. Maladjustment with wear is still a factor in trucks with drum air brakes. A Canadian survey of randomly stopped heavy trucks found over 10 % of trucks using self - adjusting brakes had at least one brake out of adjustment, due either to failure of the self - adjust mechanism or wear beyond the capacity of the self adjuster. Newer brake pistons ("cans '') extend stroke from about 65 mm to about 75 mm; since about 30 mm of stroke is used just putting the pads in contact with the drum, the added 10 mm of stroke is over 25 % increase in useful stroke. Longer stroke reduces especially wear - related fade, but drum brakes are still fundamentally prone to fade when hot.
After cooling, faded brakes usually perform as well as before, with no visible change to the brake shoes and / or pads. However if the brakes have been excessively hot for a prolonged period of time, glazing can occur on both of the friction linings of the shoes and pads. When this happens, the contacting surfaces of the linings will have a smooth, shiny appearance, and will not perform as efficiently to slow the vehicle under braking. This glazing can be easily removed by either gently using emery paper on them, or by driving the vehicle carefully whilst implementing light use of the brakes for several miles.
An incorrect explanation sometimes given for brake fade is heated brake shoes evaporate to generate gas that separate them from the drum. Such effects are easy to imagine, but physically impossible, due to the large volume of gas that would be required for such an effect. A gas bearing would need gas replenishment as fast as the disc or drum moves, since it has no gas on its surface as it approaches the pad or shoe. Also, disc brakes use much the same materials and operate well with little fade, even when the discs are glowing hot. If brake materials outgassed at drum temperatures, they would also outgas at disc temperatures and would fade substantially. Since discs have little fade, they also demonstrate outgassing is not a source of fade. Some disc brakes are drilled or slotted, but smooth discs show no more fade.
Long dual - tire skid marks on highways, made by trucks with drum brakes, are visible examples of non-linearity between brake response and pedal pressure. Large trucks still use drum brakes because they are economical and fit easily where an equivalent disc brake does not. More recently disc brakes for trucks have been promoted listing features such as no fade, possible because they have no self - assist (self - servo).
Railroads have been using disk brakes on passenger cars for more than 60 years, but coupled with a Rolokron anti-lock system to avoid the creation of flat spots (or "square wheels '') when wheels lock and skid on the rail surface (audible as steady bang - bang - bang noise as a train goes by -- not to be confused with the bang - bang... bang - bang... bang - bang sound made by wheels rolling over a rail joint). Usually, brake disks are installed in the center of the axle, but in some applications (such as Bombardier Bi Level commuter cars), only one disk is used, mounted on the axle end outside the truck frame. High speed trains (such as the TGV) may use four disks per axle.
Freight cars (and some passenger cars like multiple - unit cars whose traction motors do not yield room on axles to allow the placement of disk brakes) are equipped with clasp brakes which directly grab the rolling surface of the wheels (much like the old horse buggy brakes of yesteryear). Such brakes are an external - shoe drum brake; but unlike band brakes and many internal - shoe drum brakes, there is no self - assist / self - servo effect, and so they are far less susceptible to locking than self - assist brakes. Due to high stiffness and relatively low power, these clasp brakes are even less prone to lockup than many disc brakes, and so freight cars using them are not equipped with anti-lock systems.
The first development of modern ceramic brakes was made by British engineers working in the railway industry for TGV applications in 1988. The objective was to reduce weight, the number of brakes per axle, as well as provide stable friction from very high speeds and all temperatures. The result was a carbon - fibre - reinforced ceramic process that is now used in various forms for automotive, railway, and aircraft brake applications.
Brake fade and rotor warping can be reduced through proper braking technique; when running down a long downgrade that would require braking simply select a lower gear (for automatic transmissions this may necessitate a brief application of the throttle after selecting the gear). Also, periodic, rather than continuous application of the brakes will allow them to cool between applications. Continuous light application of the brakes can be particularly destructive in both wear and adding heat to the brake system. Finally, new brakes are prone to a phenomenon termed "green fade '', where resin on the brake pad evaporates at the high temperatures involved in heavy braking and the resulting pressurised gas forces the brake lining away from the disk, reducing friction.
High performance brake components provide enhanced stopping power by improving friction while reducing brake fade. Improved friction is provided by lining materials that have a higher coefficient of friction than standard brake pads, while brake fade is reduced through the use of more expensive binding resins with a higher melting point, along with slotted, drilled, or dimpled discs / rotors that reduce the gaseous boundary layer, in addition to providing enhanced heat dissipation. Heat buildup in brakes can be further addressed by body modifications that direct cold air to the brakes.
The "gaseous boundary layer '' is a hot rod mechanics explanation for failing self servo effect of drum brakes because it felt like a brick under the brake pedal when it occurred. To counter this effect, brake shoes were drilled and slotted to vent gas. In spite of that, drum brakes were abandoned for their self - servo effect. Disks do not have that because application force is applied at right angles to the resulting braking force. There is no interaction.
Adherents of gas emission have carried that belief to motorcycles, bicycles and "sports '' cars, while all other disk brake users from the same automotive companies have no holes through the faces of their discs, although internal radial air passages are used. Vents to release gas have not been found on railway, aircraft and passenger car brakes because there is no gas to vent. Meanwhile, heavy trucks still use drum brakes because they) the same space. Railways have never used internal expanding drum brakes because they cause skidding, causing expensive flat spots on steel wheels.
Both disc and drum brakes can be improved by any technique that removes heat from the braking surfaces.
Drum brake fade can be reduced and overall performance enhanced somewhat by an old "hot rodder '' technique of drum drilling. A carefully chosen pattern of holes is drilled through the drum working section; drum rotation centrifugally pumps a small amount air through the shoe to drum gap, removing heat; fade caused by water - wet brakes is reduced since the water is centrifugally driven out; and some brake - material dust exits the holes. Brake drum drilling requires careful detailed knowledge of brake drum physics and is an advanced technique probably best left to professionals. There are performance - brake shops that will make the necessary modifications safely.
Brake fade caused by overheating brake fluid (often called Pedal Fade) can also be reduced through the use of thermal barriers that are placed between the brake pad and the brake caliper piston, these reduce the transfer of heat from the pad to the caliper and in turn hydraulic brake fluid. Some high - performance racing calipers already include such brake heat shields made from titanium or ceramic materials. However, it is also possible to purchase aftermarket titanium brake heat shields that will fit an existing brake system to provide protection from brake heat. These inserts are precision cut to cover as much of the pad as possible. Since they are relatively cheap and easy to install, they are popular with racers and track day enthusiasts.
Another technique employed to prevent brake fade is the incorporation of fade stop brake coolers. Like titanium heat shields the brake coolers are designed to slide between the brake pad backing plate and the caliper piston. They are constructed from a high thermal conductivity, high yield strength metal composite which conducts the heat from the interface to a heat sink which is external to the caliper and in the airflow. They have been shown to decrease caliper piston temperatures by over twenty percent and to also significantly decrease the time needed to cool down. Unlike titanium heat shields, however, the brake coolers actually transfer the heat to the surrounding environment and thus keep the pads cooler.
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what is the traditional food in south africa | South African cuisine - wikipedia
The cuisine of South Africa can be generalised as:
In the precolonial period, indigenous cuisine was characterised by the use of a very wide range of foods including fruits, nuts, bulbs, leaves and other products gathered from wild plants and by the hunting of wild game. The introduction of domestic cattle and grain crops by Bantu speakers who arrived in the southern regions from central Africa since 10,000 BC and the spread of cattle keeping to Khoisan groups enabled products and the availability of fresh meat on demand. The pre-colonial diet consisted primarily of cooked grains, especially sorghum, fermented milk (somewhat like yogurt) and roasted or stewed meat. At some point, maize replaced sorghum as the primary grain, and there is some dispute as to whether maize, a Central American crop, arrived with European settlers (notably the Portuguese) or spread through Africa before white settlement via Africans returning from the Americas during the era of the slave trade. People also kept sheep and goats, and communities often organised vast hunts for the abundant game; but beef was considered the absolutely most important and high status meat. The ribs of any cattle that were slaughtered in many communities were so prized that they were offered to the chief of the village.
In many ways, the daily food of South African families can be traced to the indigenous foods that their ancestors ate. A typical meal in a South African family household that is Bantu - speaking is a stiff, fluffy porridge of maize meal (called "pap, '' and very similar to American grits) with a flavourful stewed meat gravy. Traditional rural families (and many urban ones) often ferment their pap for a few days -- especially if it is sorghum instead of maize -- which gives it a tangy flavor. The Sotho - Tswana call this fermented pap, "ting. ''
The vegetable is often some sort of pumpkin, varieties of which are indigenous to South Africa, although now many people eat pumpkins that originated in other countries. Rice and beans are also very popular even though they are not indigenous. Another common vegetable dish, which arrived in South Africa with its many Irish immigrants, but which has been adopted by South Africans, is shredded cabbage and white potatoes cooked with butter.
For many South Africans meat is the centre of any meal. The Khoisan ate roasted meat, and they also dried meat for later use. The influence of their diet is reflected in the common Southern African love of barbecue (generally called in South Africa by its Afrikaans name, a "braai '') and biltong (dried preserved meat). As in the past, when men kept cattle as their prized possession in the rural areas, South Africans have a preference for beef. Today, South Africans enjoy not only beef, but mutton, goat, chicken and other meats as a centrepiece of a meal. On weekends, many South African families have a "braai, '' and the meal usually consists of "pap and vleis '', which is maize meal and grilled meat. Eating meat even has a ritual significance in both traditional and modern South African culture. In Bantu culture, for weddings, initiations, the arrival of family members after a long trip and other special occasions, families will buy a live animal and slaughter it at home, and then prepare a large meal for the community or neighbourhood. Participants often say that spilling the blood of the animal on the ground pleases the ancestors who invisibly gather around the carcass. On holiday weekends, entrepreneurs will set up pens of live animals along the main roads of townships -- mostly sheep and goats -- for families to purchase, slaughter, cook and eat. Beef being the most prized meat, for weddings, affluent families often purchase a live steer for slaughter at home. Vegetarianism is generally met with puzzlement among Black South Africans, although most meals are served with vegetables such as pumpkin, beans and cabbage.
During the pioneering days of the 17th century, new foods such as biltong, droëwors (dried sausage) and rusks evolved locally out of necessity.
A very distinctive regional style of South African cooking is often referred to as "Cape Dutch ''. This cuisine is characterised by the use of spices such as nutmeg, allspice and chili peppers. The Cape Dutch cookery style owes at least as much to the cookery of the slaves brought by the Dutch East India Company to the Cape from Bengal, Java and Malaysia as it does to the European styles of cookery imported by settlers from the Netherlands, and this is reflected in the use of eastern spices and the names given to many of these dishes. The Cape Malay influence has brought spicy curries, sambals, pickled fish, and variety of fish stews.
Bobotie is a South African dish that has Cape Malay origins. It consists of spiced minced meat baked with an egg - based topping. Of the many dishes common to South Africa, bobotie is perhaps closest to being the national dish, because it is n't commonly found in any other country. The recipe originates from the Dutch East India Company colonies in Batavia, with the name derived from the Indonesian bobotok. It is also made with curry powder leaving it with a slight "tang ''. It is often served with sambal, a hint of its origins from the Malay Archipelago.
French Huguenot refugees from persecution, brought wines as well as their traditional recipes from France.
Curried dishes are popular with lemon juice in South Africa among people of all ethnic origins; many dishes came to the country with the thousands of Indian labourers brought to South Africa in the nineteenth century. The Indians have introduced a different line of culinary practices, including a variety of sweets, chutneys, fried snacks such as samosa, and other savoury foods. Bunny chow, a dish from Durban (which has a large Indian community) consisting of a hollowed - out loaf of bread filled with curry, has adapted into mainstream South African cuisine and has become quite popular.
Beer has been an important beverage in South Africa for hundreds of years among indigenous people long before colonisation and the arrival of Europeans with their own beer drinking traditions. Traditional beer was brewed from local grains, especially sorghum. Beer was so prized that it became central to many ceremonies, like betrothals and weddings, in which one family ceremoniously offered beer to the other family. Unlike European beer, South African traditional beer was unfiltered and cloudy and had a low alcohol content. Around the turn of the centuries, when white owned industry began studying malnutrition among urban workers, it was discovered that traditional beer provided crucial vitamins sometimes not available in the grain heavy traditional diet and even less available in urban industrial slums.
When South Africa 's mines were developed and Black South Africans began to urbanise, women moved to the city also, and began to brew beer for the predominantly male labour force -- a labour force that was mostly either single or who had left their wives back in the rural areas under the migrant labour system. That tradition of urban women making beer for the labour force persists in South Africa to the extent that informal bars and taverns (shebeens) are typically owned by women (shebeen queens). Today, most urban dwellers buy beer manufactured by industrial breweries that make beer that is like beer one would buy in Europe and America, but rural people and recent immigrants to the city still enjoy the cloudy, unfiltered traditional beer.
Compared to an American, Korean or western European diet, milk and milk products are very prominent in the traditional Black South African diet. As cows were considered extremely desirable domestic animals in precolonial times, milk was abundant. In the absence of refrigeration, various kinds of soured milk, somewhat like yogurt, were a dietary mainstay. A visitor to any African village in the 1800s would have been offered a large calabash of cool fermented milk as a greeting. Because milk cows allowed women to wean their children early and become fertile more quickly, local cultures had a number of sayings connecting cattle, milk and population growth, such as the Sotho - Tswana saying, "cattle beget children. '' Today, in the dairy section of South Africa 's supermarkets, one will find a variety of kinds of milk, sour milk, sour cream, and other modern versions of traditional milk products.
South Africa can be said to have a significant "eating out '' culture. While there are some restaurants that specialise in traditional South African dishes or modern interpretations thereof, restaurants featuring other cuisines such as Moroccan, Chinese, West African, Congolese, and Japanese can be found in all of the major cities and many of the larger towns. There are also many home - grown chain restaurants, such as Spur and Dulce Cafe.
There is also a proliferation of fast food restaurants in South Africa. While some international players such as Kentucky Fried Chicken and Wimpy are active in the country, they face stiff competition from local chains such as Nando 's, Galito 's, Steers, Chicken Licken, Barcelos, and King Pie. Many of the restaurant chains originating from South Africa have also expanded successfully outside the borders of the country.
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when was the last time someone was executed | List of most recent executions by jurisdiction - wikipedia
This is a list of the most recent legal executions performed by nations and other entities with criminal law jurisdiction over the people present within its boundaries. Extrajudicial executions and killings are not included. In general, executions performed in the territory of a sovereign state when it was a colony or before the sovereign state gained independence are not included. The colours on the map correspond to and have the same meanings as the colours in the charts.
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when do they play safe and sound in the hunger games | Safe & Sound (Taylor Swift song) - wikipedia
"Safe & Sound '' is a song by American recording artist Taylor Swift and alternative country duo The Civil Wars, taken from The Hunger Games: Songs from District 12 and Beyond, the official soundtrack for the 2012 film The Hunger Games. The artists co-wrote the track with its producer, T - Bone Burnett; the song was written at Burnett 's house within two hours.
The song was released to iTunes in the US December 26, 2011, and was later added to the BBC Radio 1 playlist. The song was critically lauded, with critics praising Swift 's breathy vocals, the simplicity of the music, and its lyrics, some citing it as a welcome return to form for Swift.
"Safe & Sound '' was written by Taylor Swift, Joy Williams, John Paul White, and T - Bone Burnett. In summer 2011, Lionsgate required Burnett to record songs for The Hunger Games: Songs from District 12 and Beyond, and he subsequently corralled a range of artists, including Swift, Maroon 5, The Civil Wars, and Arcade Fire. On a fall night in 2011, Burnett and the production team, as well as Swift and The Civil Wars, came to Burnett 's house in Los Angeles to write the lyrics. After two hours, the song was finished. Swift further elaborated, "The Civil Wars had a show that night in L.A., so they raced right over to T Bone 's house. There 's so many things he could 've done production-wise to make that song bigger sonically than it is, but I think that would have possibly been a mistake. For him to have left the song as a lullaby is brilliant. ''
On December 22, 2011, Swift posted a portion of the song 's lyrics via her Twitter account and said that "Something I 've been (very) excited about for a (very) long time is going to be happening very soon. '' Four days later, the song was released digitally on iTunes Store.
"Safe and Sound '' is a departure of Swift from her previous country pop releases, and is rather described as a moody folk ballad. Rolling Stone deemed the song reminiscent of alternative country music. Written in the key of G major, the track has a moderate slow tempo of 72 beats per minute. Swift 's vocal range on the song spans from the low - note of G to the high - note of D. The song is mainly accompanied by an acoustic guitar and features The Civil Wars ' "harmony '' vocals. According to Swift, the theme of "Safe & Sound '' represents "the empathy and compassion Katniss feels for Rue, Peeta, and Prim in different parts of (The Hunger Games). ''
"Safe & Sound '' received mainly positive reviews from music critics. Jody Rosen from Rolling Stone gave the song four out of five stars, calling it Swift 's "prettiest ballad. '' In a review of The Hunger Games: Songs from District 12 and Beyond, AllMusic 's Heather Phares picked it as one of the highlights on the soundtrack, calling it "the most crucial '' track. Idolator praised Swift 's "breathiness that sounds more eerie than sweet '', while Jason Lipshutz writing for Billboard commended the "non-Swiftian anthem that embraces the folksiness of the soundtrack '' and favored the guest appearance contributed by The Civil Wars. In a less favorable feedback, Darren Franich, and editor from Entertainment Weekly, was not impressed towards the track 's lyrics and Swift 's vocals, writing that "there 's no sense of triumph ''. He further added that "Safe & Sound '' "sounds more like a funeral dirge than a victory chant, especially as the song continues with light percussion that sounds like soldiers marching to their doom. '' The Wall Street Journal 's Christopher John Farley agreed, opining that the song "has a rural feel, but does n't sound like a commercial country song. ''
At the 2012 Country Music Association Awards, "Safe & Sound '' was nominated for Musical Event of the Year. It also garnered a CMT Music Award nomination for Collaborative of the Year in that year. The song was nominated for Best Original Song at the 70th Golden Globe Awards in 2013, but lost to Adele 's "Skyfall ''. At the 2013 Grammy Awards, "Safe & Sound '' received a nomination for Best Country Duo / Group Performance, but lost to "Pontoon '' by Little Big Town, and won the Best Song Written for Visual Media.
During the first week of release, "Safe & Sound '' entered the Billboard Hot Digital Songs at number 19 with 136,000 digital units sold. On the Billboard Hot 100, the single debuted and peaked at number 30. Following the release of the song 's music video, it re-entered the Hot 100 at number 56. In its eleventh week on chart, the song rose number 71 to number 35, prior to the release of The Hunger Games soundtrack. The track was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). As of November 2017, the song has sold 1.9 million copies in the United States.
The track also peaked at number 31 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. Internationally, "Safe & Sound '' attained moderate commercial success. The single peaked at number 38 on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart and stayed on the chart for three weeks. It was more successful in New Zealand, peaking at number 11 on the New Zealand Singles Chart and remained for five weeks. "Safe & Sound '' also charted on the UK Singles Chart at number 67.
The song 's music video, which is directed by Philip Andelman, premiered on February 13, 2012 at 7: 54 p.m. ET on MTV. The video features Swift, walking barefoot through a forest in Watertown, Tennessee, wearing a long white gown. Between scenes, The Civil Wars are seen inside a cottage house sitting in front of a fireplace as they sing along to the song. It contains multiple references to The Hunger Games, including Swift finding a mockingjay pin.
The music video was shot in a cemetery, and features a scene of Swift sitting atop the graves of a couple who died in 1853.
The song was nominated for Best Original Song at the 2013 Golden Globe Awards.
The song won the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards held in 2013.
During the Australian leg of the Speak Now World Tour, Swift added "Safe & Sound '' to the tour 's setlist. Swift performed the track while sitting on a couch onstage, wearing a "sparkling, floor - length gown '', which, according to Brittany Cooper of Taste of Country, was slightly reminiscent of Belle from Disney 's Beauty and the Beast (1991). Cooper provided a positive feedback to the performance, writing that "(Swift) took the song with a whimsical air and gave it all the mystique you would expect from the haunting ballad. ''
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
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who scored most goals in fifa world cup history | FIFA World Cup top goalscorers - wikipedia
More than 2,500 goals have been scored at the 21 editions of the FIFA World Cup final tournaments, not counting penalties scored during shoot - outs. Since the first goal scored by French player Lucien Laurent at the 1930 FIFA World Cup, more than 1,250 footballers have scored goals at the World Cup, of which just 97 have scored at least five.
The top goalscorer of the inaugural competition was Argentina 's Guillermo Stábile with eight goals. Since then, only 22 players have scored more at all the games played at the World Cup than Stábile did throughout the 1930 tournament. The first was Hungary 's Sándor Kocsis with eleven in 1954. At the next tournament, France 's Just Fontaine improved on this record with 13 goals in only six games. Gerd Müller scored 10 for West Germany in 1970 and broke the overall record when he scored his 14th goal at the World Cup during West Germany 's win at the 1974 final. His record stood for more than three decades until Ronaldo 's 15 goals between 1998 and 2006 for Brazil. Germany 's Miroslav Klose went on to score a record 16 goals across four consecutive tournaments between 2002 and 2014. Only two other players have surpassed 10 goals at the World Cup: Pelé with 12 between 1958 and 1970 for Brazil, and Jürgen Klinsmann with 11 between 1990 and 1998 for Germany.
Of all the players who have played at the World Cup, only six have scored, on average, at least two goals per game played: Kocsis, Fontaine, Stábile, Russia 's Oleg Salenko, Switzerland 's Josef Hügi, and Poland 's Ernst Wilimowski -- the latter scored four in his single World Cup game in 1938. The top 97 goalscorers have represented 28 nations, with 14 players scoring for Brazil, and another 14 for Germany or West Germany. In total, 64 footballers came from UEFA (Europe), 29 from CONMEBOL (South America), and only four from elsewhere: Cameroon, Ghana, Australia, and the United States.
Fontaine holds the record for the most goals scored at a single tournament, with 13 goals in 1958. The players that came closest to this record were Kocsis in 1954, Müller in 1970 and Portugal 's Eusébio in 1966, with 11, 10 and 9, respectively. The lowest scoring tournament 's top scorer was in 1962, when six players tied at only four goals each. Across the 21 editions of the World Cup, 30 footballers have been credited with the most tournament goals, and no one has achieved this feat twice. Nine of them scored at least seven goals in a tournament, while Brazil 's Jairzinho became the only footballer to score at least seven goals without being the top goalscorer of that tournament in 1970. These 30 top goalscorers played for 19 nations, the most (five) for Brazil. Another five came from other South American countries, with the remaining 20 coming from Europe. Excluding the 2010 edition, all the top tournament scorers won the Golden Boot.
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where did the jack russell terrier originate from | Jack Russell terrier - wikipedia
The Jack Russell Terrier is a small terrier that has its origins in fox hunting. It is principally white - bodied and smooth, rough or broken - coated but can be any colour.
The Jack Russell is frequently confused with the Parson Russell terrier (see the American Kennel Club) and the Russell terrier, which is a shorter - legged, stockier variety. (Within the Fédération Cynologique Internationale, the "Russell terrier '' is also known as "Jack Russell terrier ''.) The term "Jack Russell '' is also commonly misapplied to other small white terriers. The Jack Russell is a broad type, with a size range of 10 -- 15 inches (25 -- 38 cm). The Parson Russell is limited only to a middle range with a standard size of 12 -- 14 inches (30 -- 36 cm), while the Russell terrier is smaller at 8 -- 12 inches (20 -- 30 cm). Each breed has different physical proportions according to the standards of their breed clubs.
Jack Russells are an energetic breed that rely on a high level of exercise and stimulation and are relatively free from serious health complaints. Originating from dogs bred and used by Reverend John Russell in the early 19th century, from whom the breed takes its name, the Jack Russell has similar origins to the modern Fox terrier. It has gone through several changes over the years, corresponding to different use and breed standards set by kennel clubs. Recognition by kennel clubs for the Jack Russell breed has been opposed by the breed 's parent societies -- which resulted in the breeding and recognition of the Parson Russell terrier. Jack Russells have appeared many times in film, television, and print -- with several historical dogs of note.
The small white fox - working terriers we know today were first bred by the Reverend John Russell, a parson and hunting enthusiast born in 1795, and they can trace their origin to the now extinct English white terrier. Difficulty in differentiating the dog from the creature it was pursuing brought about the need for a mostly white dog, and so in 1819 during his last year of university at Exeter College, Oxford, he purchased a small white and tan terrier female named Trump from a local milkman in the nearby small hamlet of Elsfield or Marston). Trump epitomised his ideal Fox terrier, which, at the time, was a term used for any terrier which was used to bolt foxes out of their burrows. Her colouring was described as "... white, with just a patch of dark tan over each eye and ear; whilst a similar dot, not larger than a penny piece, marks the root of the tail. '' Davies, a friend of Russell 's, wrote: "Trump was such an animal as Russell had only seen in his dreams ''. She was the basis for a breeding program to develop a terrier with high stamina for the hunt as well as the courage and formation to chase out foxes that had gone to ground. By the 1850s, these dogs were recognised as a distinct breed.
An important attribute in this dog was a tempered aggressiveness that would provide the necessary drive to pursue and bolt the fox, without resulting in physical harm to the quarry and effectively ending the chase, which was considered unsporting. Russell was said to have prided himself that his terriers never tasted blood. This line of terriers developed by John Russell was well respected for those qualities, and his dogs were often taken on by hunt enthusiasts. It is unlikely, however, that any dogs alive today can be proven to be descendants from Trump, as Russell was forced to sell all his dogs on more than one occasion because of financial difficulty, and had only four aged (and non-breeding) terriers left when he died in 1883.
The Fox terrier and Jack Russell terrier type dogs of today are all descended from dogs of that period, although documented pedigrees earlier than 1862 have not been found, although several records remain of documented breeding by John Russell between the 1860s and 1880s. The Fox Terrier Club was formed in 1875 with Russell as one of the founder members; its breed standard was aspiration, and not a description of how the breed appeared then. By the start of the 20th century, the Fox terrier had altered more towards the modern breed, but in some parts of the country the old style of John Russell 's terriers remained, and it is from those dogs that the modern Jack Russell type has descended.
Many breeds can claim heritage to the early Fox terrier of this period, including the Brazilian terrier, Japanese terrier, Miniature Fox terrier, Ratonero Bodeguero Andaluz, Rat terrier, and Tenterfield terrier.
Following Russell 's death, the only people who made serious efforts to continue those strains were two men, one in Chislehurst with the surname of East, and another in Cornwall named Archer. East, at one point, had several couples, all of which were descended from one of Russell 's dogs. The type aimed for were not as big as the show Fox terrier and were usually less than 15 pounds (6.8 kg).
Arthur Blake Heinemann created the first breed standard and, in 1894, he founded the Devon and Somerset Badger Club, the aims of which were to promote badger digging rather than fox hunting, and the breeding of terriers suitable for this purpose. Terriers were acquired from Nicholas Snow of Oare, and they were likely descended from Russell 's original dogs, as Russell would probably have hunted at some point with Snow 's hunting club and is likely to have provided at least some of their original terriers. By the turn of the 20th century, Russell 's name had become associated with this breed of dog.
The club was later renamed the Parson Jack Russell Terrier Club. Badger digging required a different type of dog than fox hunting, and it is likely that Bull terrier stock was introduced to strengthen the breed, which may have caused the creation of a shorter legged variety of Jack Russell terrier that started to appear around this period. At the same time that a split was appearing between show and working Fox terriers, a further split was occurring between two different types of white terrier, both carrying Jack Russell 's name. Heinemann was invited to judge classes for working terriers at Crufts with an aim to bring working terriers back into the show ring and influence those that disregard working qualities in dogs. These classes were continued for several years by various judges, but Charles Cruft dropped the attempt as the classes were never heavily competed. Following Heinemann 's death in 1930, the kennel and leadership of the club passed to Annie Harris, but the club itself folded shortly before World War II.
Following World War II, the requirement for hunting dogs drastically declined, and with it the numbers of Jack Russell terriers. The dogs were increasingly used as family and companion dogs. Further crossbreeding occurred, with Welsh corgis, Chihuahuas, and other smaller breeds of terrier. The offspring of these crosses became known as "Puddin ' Dogs '', "Shortie Jacks '', or "Russell Terriers ''.
The Jack Russell Terrier Club of America was formed in 1976 by Ailsa Crawford, one of the first Jack Russell terrier breeders in the United States. Size ranges for dogs were kept broad, with the ability of working dogs awarded higher than those in conformation shows. An open registry was maintained, with restricted line breeding. Registration for the club is made at adulthood for Jack Russells, rather than at birth, to ensure the breed 's qualities remain, given the open registry.
Several breed clubs appeared in the United Kingdom during the 1970s to promote the breed, including the Jack Russell Club of Great Britain (JRTCGB) and the South East Jack Russell Terrier Club (SEJRTC). The JRTCGB promoted the range of sizes that remain in its standards today, whereas the SEJRTC set a minimum height for dogs at 13 inches (33 cm). While the JRTCGB sought to ensure that the breed 's working ability remained through non-recognition with other breed registries, the SEJRTC activity sought recognition with the UK Kennel Club. In 1983, the Parson Jack Russell Club of Great Britain (PJRTCGB) was resurrected to seek Kennel Club recognition for the breed. Although the application was initially rejected, a new standard was created for the PJRTCGB based on the standard of the SEJRTC, and under that standard the breed was recognised by the Kennel Club in 1990 as the Parson Jack Russell terrier. Jack was dropped from the official name in 1999, and the recognised name of the breed became the Parson Russell terrier.
In the late 1990s, the American Kennel Club explored the possibility of recognising the Jack Russell terrier. This move was opposed by the Jack Russell Terrier Club of America as they did not want the breed to lose its essential working characteristics. The Jack Russell Terrier Breeders Association formed and petitioned the AKC; the breed 's admission was granted in 2001. Under the AKC recognised standard, the size of the breed was narrowed from the previous club 's standard, and the name of the AKC recognised Jack Russell terrier was changed to Parson Russell terrier, with the Jack Russell Terrier Breeders Association renamed to the Parson Russell Terrier Association of America.
The Australian National Kennel Council (ANKC) and the New Zealand Kennel Club (NZCK) are some of national kennel associations that register both the Jack Russell terrier and the Parson Russell terrier; however, the size requirements for the Jack Russell terrier under both those standards would classify a dog as a Russell terrier in the United States. In 2009, there were 1073 Jack Russells registered with the ANKC, compared to 18 for the Parson Russell terrier. Other modern breeds are often mistaken for modern Jack Russell terriers, including their cousin the Parson Russell terrier, the Tenterfield terrier, and the Rat Terrier. Several other modern breeds exist that descended from the early Fox Terrier breed, including the Brazilian Terrier, Japanese Terrier, Miniature Fox Terrier, Ratonero Bodeguero Andaluz, Rat Terrier, and Tenterfield Terrier.
Due to their working nature, Jack Russell terriers remain much as they were some 200 years ago. They are sturdy, tough, and tenacious, measuring between 10 -- 15 inches (25 -- 38 cm) at the withers, and weigh 14 -- 18 pounds (6.4 -- 8.2 kg). The body length must be in proportion to the height, and the dog should present a compact, balanced image. Predominantly white in coloration (more than 51 %) with black and / or brown and / or tan markings, they exhibit either a smooth, rough or a combination of both which is known as a broken coat. A broken - coated dog may have longer hair on the tail or face than that which is seen on a smooth - coated dog. The skin can sometimes show a pattern of small black or brown spots, referred to as "ticking '' that do not carry through to the outer coat. All coat types should be dense double coats that are neither silky (in the case of smooth coats) nor woolly (in the case of rough coats).
The head should be of moderate width at the ears, narrowing to the eyes, and slightly flat between the ears. There should be a defined but not overpronounced stop at the end of the muzzle where it meets the head, and a black nose. The jaw should be powerful and well boned with a scissor bite and straight teeth. The eyes are almond shaped and dark coloured and should be full of life and intelligence. Small V - shaped ears of moderate thickness are carried forward on the head. When the dog is alert, the tip of the V should not extend past the outer corner of the eyes. The tail is set high and in the past was docked to approximately five inches in order to provide a sufficient hand - hold for gripping the terrier.
The Jack Russell should always appear balanced and alert. As it is primarily a working terrier, its most important physical characteristic is its chest size, which must not be so large that it prevents the dog from entering and working in burrows. The red fox is the traditional quarry of the Jack Russell terrier, so the working Jack Russell must be small enough to pursue it. Red foxes vary in size, but across the world, they average from 13 -- 17 pounds (5.9 -- 7.7 kg) in weight and have an average chest size of 12 -- 14 inches (30 -- 36 cm) at the widest part.
The Jack Russell terrier and Parson Russell terrier breeds are similar, sharing a common origin, but have several marked differences -- the most notable being the range of acceptable heights. Other differences in the Parson can include a longer head and larger chest as well as overall a larger body size. The height of a Parson Russell at the withers according to the breed standard is 12 -- 14 inches (30 -- 36 cm) which places it within the range of the Jack Russell Terrier Club of America 's standard size for a Jack Russell of 10 -- 15 inches (25 -- 38 cm). However, the Parson Russell is a conformation show standard whereas the Jack Russell standard is a more general working standard.
The Russell terrier, which is also sometimes called the English Jack Russell terrier or the Short Jack Russell terrier is a generally smaller related breed. Both the breed standards of the American Russell Terrier Club and the English Jack Russell Terrier Club Alliance states that at the withers it should be an ideal height of 8 -- 12 inches (20 -- 30 cm). Although sometimes called the English or Irish Jack Russell terrier, this is not the recognised height of Jack Russells in the United Kingdom. According to the Jack Russell Club of Great Britain 's breed standard, it is the same size as the standard for Jack Russells in the United States, 10 -- 15 inches (25 -- 38 cm). Compared to the Parson, the Russell terrier should always be longer than tall at the withers, whereas the Parson 's points should be of equal distance. The Fédération Cynologique Internationale standard for the Jack Russell terrier has this smaller size listed as a requirement. Terrierman Eddie Chapman, who has hunted in Devon for more than 30 years, the same area that John Russell himself hunted, notes that, "I can state categorically that if given the choice, ninety - nine percent of hunt terrier men would buy an under 12 '' worker, if it was available, over a 14 '' one. ''
Jack Russells are first and foremost a working terrier. Originally bred to bolt foxes from their dens during hunts, they are used on numerous ground - dwelling quarry such as groundhog, badger, and red and grey fox. The working JRT is required to locate quarry in the earth, and then either bolt it or hold it in place until they are dug to. To accomplish this, the dog will not bark but will expect attention to the quarry continuously. Because the preservation of this working ability is of highest importance to most registered JRTCA / JRTCGB breeders, Jack Russells tend to be extremely intelligent, athletic, fearless, and vocal dogs. It is not uncommon for these dogs to become moody or destructive if not properly stimulated and exercised, as they have a tendency to bore easily and will often create their own fun when left alone to entertain themselves.
Their high energy and drive make these dogs ideally suited to a number of different dog sports such as flyball or agility. Obedience classes are also recommended to potential owners, as Jack Russells can be stubborn at times and aggressive towards other animals and humans if not properly socialized. Despite their small size, these dogs are not recommended for the condominium or apartment dweller unless the owner is ready to take on the daunting task of providing the dog with the necessary amount of exercise and stimulation. They have a tremendous amount of energy for their size, a fact which can sometimes lead to trouble involving larger animals. They may seem never to tire and will still be energetic after their owner has called it a day. While socialised members of the breed are friendly towards children, they will not tolerate abuse even if it is unintentional.
The breed has a reputation for being healthy with a long lifespan. Breeders have protected the gene pool, and direct in - line breeding has been prevented. Jack Russells can live from 13 to 16 years given proper care. However, certain lines have been noted for having specific health concerns and, therefore, could occur in any line or generation because of recessive genes. These issues can include hereditary cataracts, ectopia lentis, congenital deafness, patellar luxation, ataxia, myasthenia gravis, Legg -- Calvé -- Perthes syndrome, and von Willebrand disease.
Being a hunt - driven dog, the Jack Russell will usually pursue most creatures that it encounters. This includes the skunk, and the breed is prone to skunk toxic shock syndrome. The chemical in the skunk spray is absorbed by the dog and causes the red blood cells to undergo haemolysis, which can occasionally lead to fatal anaemia and kidney failure. If sprayed underground, it can also cause chemical burning of the cornea. Treatments are available to flush the toxin out of the dog 's system.
Lens luxation, also known as ectopia lentis is the most common hereditary disorder in Jack Russell terriers. Even so, this condition is not a common occurrence in the breed. Most frequently appearing in dogs between the ages of 3 and 8 years old, it is where the lens in one or both eyes becomes displaced. There are two types, posterior luxation (where the lens slips to the back of the eye) and anterior luxation (where the lens slips forward). Posterior luxation is the less severe of the two types, as the eye can appear normal although the dog 's eyesight will be affected. In anterior luxation, the lens can slip forward and rub against the cornea, damaging it. Anterior luxation also has a high probability of causing glaucoma which can lead to partial or complete blindness. Treatment is available and may include both medical and surgical options. Secondary lens luxation is caused by trauma to the eye and is not hereditary. The condition appears in a number of terrier breeds as well as the Border collie, Brittany and Cardigan Welsh corgi.
Cataracts can affect any breed of dog and is the same condition as seen in humans. Here the lens of the eye hardens and is characterised by cloudiness in the eye. Cataracts will blur the dog 's vision and can lead to permanent blindness if left untreated. While considered mainly a hereditary disease, it can also be caused by diabetes, old age, radiation, eye injury or exposure to high temperatures.
Patellar luxation, also known as luxating patella, is a hereditary disorder affecting the knees. It is where the kneecap slips off the groove on which it normally sits. The effects can be temporary with the dog running while holding its hind leg in the air before running on it again once the kneecap slipped back into place as if nothing has happened. Dogs can have a problem with both rear knees, and complications can include arthritis or torn knee ligaments. Severe cases can require surgery. Some are prone to dislocation of the kneecaps, inherited eye diseases, deafness and Legg Perthes -- a disease of the hip joints of small dog breeds. Prone to mast cell tumors. Legg -- Calvé -- Perthes syndrome, also called Avascular Necrosis of the Femoral Head, is where the ball section of the femur in the hip joint deteriorates following interruption of the blood flow and is the same condition as in humans. In dogs, this causes lameness of the hind - legs, the thigh muscles to atrophy and pain in the joint. It usually occurs between 6 -- 12 months of age and has been documented in a variety of other terrier breeds including the Border terrier, Lakeland terrier, and Wheaten terrier.
Nipper was a dog born in 1884 who was thought to be a dog of the Jack Russell terrier type. He was the inspiration for the painting Dog looking at and listening to a Phonograph, later renamed to His Master 's Voice. The painting was used by a variety of music related companies including The Gramophone Company, EMI, the Victor Talking Machine Company, and RCA. Today it remains in use incorporated into the logo for HMV in UK and Europe.
A Jack Russell named Bothy made history in 1982 as part of the Transglobe Expedition. Owned by explorers Ranulph and Ginny Fiennes, he became the first dog to travel to both the north and south poles. This feat is unlikely to be repeated, as all dogs have been banned from Antarctica by the Antarctic Treaty nations since 1994, due to fears that they could transmit diseases to the native seal population. Ranulph Fiennes and Charles Burton actually made the trip to the north pole by powered sledges before signalling to the base camp that they had arrived. To celebrate their achievement, a plane was sent out to take the two men champagne, along with Bothy.
On 29 April 2007, a Jack Russell named George saved five children at a carnival in New Zealand from an attack by two pit bulls. He was reported to have charged at them and held them at bay long enough for the children to get away. Killed by the pit bulls, he was posthumously awarded the PDSA Gold Medal in 2009, the animal equivalent of the George Cross. A statue has been erected in Manaia, New Zealand in his memory. A former US Marine also donated to George 's owner a Purple Heart award he had received for service in Vietnam.
In the UK, one of the more recognisable canine stars was restaurateur and chef Rick Stein 's irrepressible terrier Chalky, who frequently upstaged his owner on his various cookery series. He was unique in having his own line of merchandise, including plushes, tea towels, art prints, art paw prints and two real ales -- Chalky 's Bite and Chalky 's Bark, which won gold in the Quality Drink Awards 2009. Chalky was given a BBC obituary when he died in 2007.
Father Moose and son Enzo played the role of Eddie on the long - running TV sitcom Frasier. Eddie belonged to lead character Frasier 's father Martin Crane, and constantly "stole the show '' with his deadpan antics, receiving more fan mail than any other Frasier character. Moose and Enzo also starred as Skip in the 2000 film My Dog Skip.
Wishbone, from the television show of the same name which aired from 1995 to 2001 in the United States, was a Jack Russell terrier. Wishbone 's real name was Soccer and was chosen from over a hundred other dogs vying for the part.
Actor Gene Hackman 's pet in the 1995 movie Crimson Tide was a smooth - coated Jack Russell terrier named "Bear ''. Max, a Jack Russell terrier, played the role of Milo who is one of Stanley Ipkiss 's only friends in the 1994 U.S film The Mask starring Jim Carrey. Max also played the female dog Audrey in the 2000 film Mr. Accident. In the 2009 movie Hotel for Dogs, Friday, one of the main characters is a Jack Russell, played by the dog actor Cosmo. Cosmo went on to appear in the films Paul Blart: Mall Cop and Beginners.
Jack Russell: Dog Detective is a series of children 's books by authors Darrell and Sally Odgers, and published by Scholastic. It is about the adventures of a Jack Russell terrier named Jack Russell and his gang of friends including Jill Russell, Lord "Red '' Setter and Foxie Terrier.
Uggie (2002 - 2015) was an animal actor, appearing in commercials starting in 2005 and most notably cast in Water for Elephants and The Artist, both in 2011. In the same year, based on interest following The Artist, the "Consider Uggie '' campaign was launched, which attempted to gain the dog a nomination for an Academy Award. In 2012, Uggie was named Nintendo 's first - ever spokesdog.
Patrick McDonnell 's comic strip Mutts features a Jack Russell terrier named Earl who is a main character in the comic strip.
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where do the rivers of the northern colombian andes flow | Geography of Colombia - wikipedia
The Republic of Colombia is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in North America. Colombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; and it shares maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. Colombia is the 26th largest nation in the world and the fourth - largest country in South America after Brazil, Argentina, and Peru. Despite its large territory, Colombia 's population is not evenly distributed, with most Colombians living in the mountainous western portion of the country as well as the northern coastline, most living in or near the capital city of Bogotá. The southern and eastern portions of the country are mostly sparsely inhabited tropical rainforest, and inland tropical plains containing large estates or large livestock farms, oil and gas production facilities, small farming communities and indigenous tribes.
Colombia usually classifies its geography into five natural regions, from the Andes mountain range, a region shared with Ecuador, Venezuela; the Pacific Ocean coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean Sea coastal region, shared with Venezuela and Panama; the Llanos (plains), shared with Venezuela; to the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador. Colombia is the only South American country which borders both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Despite this The World Factbook makes no difference between Amazon region of Colombia (predominantly jungle) and the Orinoquia region of Colombia (predominantly plains). The World Factbook considers most appropriate to divide the country into four geographic regions: the Andean highlands, consisting of the three Andean ranges and intervening valley lowlands; the Caribbean lowlands coastal region; the Pacific lowlands coastal region, separated from the Caribbean lowlands by swamps at the base of the Isthmus of Panama; and eastern Colombia, the great plain that lies to the east of the Andes Mountains.
The chief western mountain range, the Cordillera Occidental, is a moderately high range with peaks reaching up to about 15,000 ft (4,572 m) (4,670 m). The Cauca River Valley, an important agricultural region with several large cities on its borders, separates the Cordillera Occidental from the massive Cordillera Central. Several snow - clad volcanoes in the Cordillera Central have summits that rise above 17,000 ft (5,182 m). The valley of the slow - flowing and muddy Magdalena River, a major transportation artery, separates the Cordillera Central from the main eastern range, the Cordillera Oriental. The peaks of the Cordillera Oriental are moderately high. This range differs from Colombia 's other mountain ranges in that it contains several large basins. In the east, the sparsely populated, flat to gently rolling eastern lowlands called llanos cover almost 60 percent of the country 's total land area.
This cross section of the republic does not include two of Colombia 's regions: the Caribbean coastal lowlands and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, both in the northern part of the country. The lowlands in the west are mostly swampy; the reed - filled marshes of the area are called ciénagas by the people of Colombia. The Guajira Peninsula in the east is semiarid. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is a spectacular triangular snowcapped block of rock that towers over the eastern part of this lowland. Here can be found the highest peak of the country named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m).
Near the Ecuadorian frontier, the Andes Mountains divide into three distinct, roughly parallel chains, called cordilleras, that extend northeastward almost to the Caribbean Sea. Altitudes reach more than 18,700 ft (5,700 m), and mountain peaks are permanently covered with snow. The elevated basins and plateaus of these ranges have a moderate climate that provides pleasant living conditions and in many places enables farmers to harvest twice a year. Torrential rivers on the slopes of the mountains produce a large hydroelectric power potential and add their volume to the navigable rivers in the valleys. In the late 1980s, approximately 78 percent of the country 's population lived in the Andean highlands.
The Cordillera Occidental in the west, the Cordillera Central in the center, and the Cordillera Oriental in the east have different characteristics. Geologically, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central form the western and eastern sides of a massive crystalline arch that extends from the Caribbean lowlands to the southern border of Ecuador. The Cordillera Oriental, however, is composed of folded stratified rocks overlying a crystalline core.
The Cordillera Occidental is relatively low and is the least populated of the three cordilleras. Summits are only about 9,840 ft (2,999 m) above sea level and do not have permanent snows. Few passes exist, although one that is about 4,985 ft (1,519 m) above sea level provides the major city of Cali with an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. The relatively low elevation of the cordillera permits dense vegetation, which on the western slopes is truly tropical.
The Cordillera Occidental is separated from the Cordillera Central by the deep rift of the Cauca Valley. The Río Cauca rises within 124 mi (200 km) of the border with Ecuador and flows through some of the best farmland in the country. After the two cordilleras converge, the Cauca Valley becomes a deep gorge all the way to the Caribbean lowlands.
The Cordillera Central is the loftiest of the mountain systems. Its crystalline rocks form a towering wall dotted with snow - covered volcanoes that is 500 mi (805 km) long. There are no plateaus in this range and no passes under 10,825 ft (3,299 m). The highest peak in this range, the Nevado del Huila, reaches 17,602 ft (5,365 m) above sea level. The second highest peak is a volcano, Nevado del Ruiz, which erupted violently on November 13, 1985. Toward its northern end, this cordillera separates into several branches that descend toward the Caribbean coast.
Between the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental flows the Magdalena River. This 1,600 - kilometer (994 mi) - long river rises near a point some 180 km (112 mi) north of the border with Ecuador, where the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central diverge. Its spacious drainage area is fed by numerous mountain torrents originating high in the snowfields. The Magdalena River is generally navigable from the Caribbean Sea as far as the town of Neiva, deep in the interior, but is interrupted midway by rapids. The valley floor is very deep; nearly 800 km (497 mi) from the river 's mouth the elevation is no more than about 300 meters (984 ft).
In the Cordillera Oriental at elevations between 2,500 and 2,700 meters (8,202 and 8,858 ft), three large fertile basins and a number of small ones provide suitable areas for settlement and intensive economic production. In the basin of Cundinamarca, where the Spanish found the Chibcha Indians, the European invaders established the town of Santa Fe de Bogotá (present - day Bogotá) at an elevation of 2,650 meters (8,694 ft) above sea level.
To the north of Bogotá, in the densely populated basins of Chiquinquirá and Boyacá, are fertile fields, rich mines, and large industrial establishments that produce much of the national wealth. Still farther north, where the Cordillera Oriental makes an abrupt turn to the northwest near the border with Venezuela, the highest point of this range, the Sierra Nevada de Cocuy, rises to 5,493 meters (18,022 ft) above sea level. In the department of Santander, the valleys on the western slopes are more spacious, and agriculture is intensive in the area around Bucaramanga. The northernmost region of the range around Cúcuta is so rugged that historically it has been easier to maintain communications and transportation with Venezuela than with the adjacent parts of Colombia.
The Caribbean lowlands consist of all of Colombia north of an imaginary line extending northeastward from the Golfo de Urabá to the Venezuelan frontier at the northern extremity of the Cordillera Oriental. The semiarid Guajira Peninsula and Guajira - Barranquilla xeric scrub, in the extreme north, bear little resemblance to the rest of the region. In the southern part rises the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, an isolated mountain system with peaks reaching heights over 5,700 meters (18,701 ft) and slopes generally too steep for cultivation.
The Caribbean lowlands region is in roughly the shape of a triangle, the longest side of which is the coastline. Most of the country 's commerce moves through Cartagena, Barranquilla, Santa Marta, and the other ports located along this important coast. Inland from these cities are swamps, hidden streams, and shallow lakes that support banana and cotton plantations, countless small farms, and, in higher places, cattle ranches.
The city of Cartagena is a petrochemical, seaport (# 1 in the country) and tourist city (# 1 in the country). Santa Marta is also a seaport and tourist city but is a smaller - scale city by comparison. Barranquilla is located some 25 miles (40 km) from the Caribbean coastline but it is a more developed city with a greater number of industries and commercial places, widely known for its abilities in all forms of metalwork and construction. Its inhabitants have the highest education level of the region and the city is famous for being the starting point and focus of the region and the country 's development as the first city in the country with the use of phones, public lighting, air mail, planes and industrial works.
The Caribbean region merges next to and is connected with the Andean highlands through the two great river valleys. After the Andean highlands, it is the second most important region in economic activity. Approximately 17 % of the country 's population lived in this region in the late 1980s.
The region also includes the peninsular archipelago of San Andres Island and the Insular Territories of Colombia, which are disputed in part by Nicaragua. However, the Colombian Navy protects such territories with the use of force when necessary to avoid foreign invasion and the islands are home to 2 important bases for defense and custom controls, formerly used for research of classified projects with civilian assistance as the local universities often research in the area of oceanography and marine biology but also in the fields of biochemistry, genetics, immunology and Colombia is known for its advances in medical fields in experimental surgery, breast implant development or prosthetics and immunology and these facilities serve as containment and secure experimentation labs to complement those in Barranquilla and other undisclosed locations within the coast territories.
The Insular Region is considered by some as a geopolitical region of Colombia which comprises the areas outside the continental territories of Colombia and includes the San Andrés y Providencia Department in the Caribbean sea and the Malpelo and Gorgona Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Insular region subregions include other group of islands;
The western third of the country is the most geographically complex. Starting at the shore of the Pacific Ocean in the west and moving eastward at a latitude of 5 degrees north, a diverse sequence of features is encountered. In the extreme west are the very narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, which are backed by the Serranía de Baudó, the lowest and narrowest of Colombia 's mountain ranges. Next is the broad region of the Río Atrato / Río San Juan lowland, which has been proposed as a possible alternate to the Panama Canal as a human - made route between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Colombia occupies most of the Andes mountain range northern extremity sharing a bit with Venezuela which splits into three branches between the Colombia - Ecuador border.
In the 1980s, only 3 % of all Colombians resided in the Pacific lowlands, a region of jungle and swamp with considerable but little - exploited potential in minerals and other resources. Buenaventura is the only port of any size on the coast. On the east, the Pacific lowlands are bounded by the Cordillera Occidental, from which numerous streams run. Most of the streams flow westward to the Pacific, but the largest, the navigable Río Atrato, flows northward to the Golfo de Urabá, making the river settlements accessible to the major Atlantic ports and commercially related primarily to the Caribbean lowlands hinterland. To the west of the Río Atrato rises the Serranía de Baudó, an isolated chain of low mountains that occupies a large part of the region. Its highest elevation is less than 1,800 meters, and its vegetation resembles that of the surrounding tropical forest.
The Atrato Swamp -- in Chocó Department adjoining the border with Panama -- is a deep muck sixty - five kilometers in width that for years has challenged engineers seeking to complete the Pan-American Highway. This stretch, near Turbo, where the highway is interrupted is known as the Tapón del Chocó (Chocon Plug). A second major transportation project involving Chocó Department has been proposed. A second interoceanic canal would be constructed by dredging the Río Atrato and other streams and digging short access canals. Completion of either of these projects would do much to transform this region, although it could have devastating consequences on the fragile environment.
The area east of the Andes includes about 699,300 square kilometers, or three - fifths of the country 's total area, but Colombians view it almost as an alien land. The entire area, known as the eastern plains, was home to only 2 % of the country 's population in the late 1980s. The Spanish term for plains (llanos) can be applied only to the open plains in the northern part, particularly the piedmont areas near the Cordillera Oriental, where extensive cattle raising is practiced.
The region is unbroken by highlands except in Meta Department, where the Serranía de la Macarena, an outlier of the Andes has unique vegetation and wildlife believed to be reminiscent of those that once existed throughout the Andes.
Many of the numerous large rivers of eastern Colombia are navigable. The Río Guaviare and the streams to its north flow eastward and drain into the basin of the Río Orinoco, river that crosses into Venezuela and flows into the Atlantic Ocean. Those south of the Río Guaviare flow into the Amazon Basin. The Río Guaviare divides eastern Colombia into the llanos subregion in the north and the tropical rainforest, or selva, subregion in the south.
The striking variety in temperature and precipitation results principally from differences in elevation. Temperatures range from very hot at sea level to relatively cold at higher elevations but vary little with the season. At Bogotá, for example, the average annual temperature is 15 ° C (59 ° F), and the difference between the average of the coldest and the warmest months is less than 1 ° C (1.8 ° F). More significant, however, is the daily variation in temperature, from 5 ° C (41 ° F) at night to 17 ° C (62.6 ° F) during the day.
Colombians customarily describe their country in terms of the climatic zones: the area under 900 meters (2,953 ft) in elevation is called the hot zone (tierra caliente), elevations between 900 and 1,980 meters (2,953 and 6,496 ft) are the temperate zone (tierra templada), and elevations from 1,980 meters (6,496 ft) to about 3,500 meters (11,483 ft) constitute the cold zone (tierra fría). The upper limit of the cold zone marks the tree line and the approximate limit of human habitation. The treeless regions adjacent to the cold zone and extending to approximately 4,500 meters (14,764 ft) are high, bleak areas (usually referred to as the páramos), above which begins the area of permanent snow (nevado).
About 86 % of the country 's total area lies in the hot zone. Included in the hot zone and interrupting the temperate area of the Andean highlands are the long and narrow extension of the Magdalena Valley and a small extension in the Cauca Valley. Temperatures, depending on elevation, vary between 24 and 38 ° C (75.2 and 100.4 ° F), and there are alternating dry and wet seasons corresponding to summer and winter, respectively. Breezes on the Caribbean coast, however, reduce both heat and precipitation.
Rainfall in the hot zone is heaviest in the Pacific lowlands and in parts of eastern Colombia, where rain is almost a daily occurrence and rain forests predominate. Precipitation exceeds 7,600 millimeters (299.2 in) annually in most of the Pacific lowlands, making this one of the wettest regions in the world. The highest average annual precipitation in the world is estimated to be in Lloro, Colombia, with 13,299 mm (523.6 in). In eastern Colombia, it decreases from 6,350 millimeters (250 in) in portions of the Andean piedmont to 2,540 millimeters (100 in) eastward. Extensive areas of the Caribbean interior are permanently flooded, more because of poor drainage than because of the moderately heavy precipitation during the rainy season from May through October.
The temperate zone covers about 8 % of the country. This zone includes the lower slopes of the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central and most of the intermontane valleys. The important cities of Medellín (1,487 meters or 4,879 feet) and Cali (1,030 meters or 3,379 feet) are located in this zone, where rainfall is moderate and the mean annual temperature varies between 19 and 24 ° C (66.2 and 75.2 ° F), depending on the elevation. In the higher elevations of this zone, farmers benefit from two wet and two dry seasons each year; January through March and July through September are the dry seasons.
The cold or cool zone constitutes about 6 % of the total area, including some of the most densely populated plateaus and terraces of the Colombian Andes; this zone supports about onefourth of the country 's total population. The mean temperature ranges between 10 and 19 ° C (50.0 and 66.2 ° F), and the wet seasons occur in April and May and from September to December, as in the high elevations of the temperate zone.
Precipitation is moderate to heavy in most parts of the country; the heavier rainfall occurs in the low - lying hot zone. Considerable variations occur because of local conditions that affect wind currents, however, and areas on the leeward side of the Guajira Peninsula receive generally light rainfall; the annual rainfall of 350 millimeters (13.8 in) recorded at the Uribia station there is the lowest in Colombia. Considerable year - to - year variations have been recorded, and Colombia sometimes experiences droughts.
Colombia 's geographic and climatic variations have combined to produce relatively well - defined "ethnocultural '' groups among different regions of the country: the Costeño from the Caribbean coast; the Caucano in the Cauca region and the Pacific coast; the Antioqueño in Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca departments; the Tolimense in Tolima and Huila departments; the Cundiboyacense in the interior departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá in the Cordillera Oriental; the Santandereano in Norte de Santander and Santander departments; and the Llanero in the eastern plains. Each group has distinctive characteristics, accents, customs, social patterns, and forms of cultural adaptation to climate and topography that differentiates it from other groups. Even with rapid urbanization and modernization, regionalism and regional identification continued to be important reference points, although they were somewhat less prominent in the 1980s than in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Colombia 's proximity to the equator influences its climates. The lowland areas are continuously hot. Altitude affects temperature greatly. Temperatures decrease about 3.5 ° F (1.9 ° C) for every 1,000 - foot (305 m) increase in altitude above sea level. Rainfall varies by location in Colombia, tending to increase as one travels southward. This is especially true in the eastern lowlands. For example, rainfall in parts of the Guajira Peninsula seldom exceeds 30 in (762 mm) per year. Colombia 's rainy southeast, however, is often drenched by more than 200 in (5,080 mm) of rain per year. Rainfall in most of the rest of the country runs between these two extremes.
Altitude affects not only temperature, but also vegetation. In fact, altitude is one of the most important influences on vegetation patterns in Colombia. The mountainous parts of the country can be divided into several vegetation zones according to altitude, although the altitude limits of each zone may vary somewhat depending on the latitude.
The "tierra caliente '' (hot land), below 1,000 m (3,300 ft), is the zone of tropical crops such as bananas. The tierra templada (temperate land), extending from an altitude of 1,000 to 2,000 m (3,300 to 6,600 ft), is the zone of coffee and maize. Wheat and potatoes dominate in the "tierra fría '' (cold land), at altitudes from 2,000 to 3,200 m (6,600 to 10,500 ft). In the "zona forestada '' (forested zone), which is located between 3,200 and 4,000 m (10,500 and 13,100 ft), many of the trees have been cut for firewood. Treeless pastures dominate the páramos, or alpine grasslands, at altitudes of 4,000 to 4,500 m (13,100 to 14,800 ft). Above 4,500 m (14,800 ft), where temperatures are below freezing, is the "tierra helada '', a zone of permanent snow and ice.
Vegetation also responds to rainfall patterns. A scrub woodland of scattered trees and bushes dominates the semiarid northeast. To the south, savannah (tropical grassland) vegetation covers the Colombian portion of the llanos. The rainy areas in the southeast are blanketed by tropical rainforest. In the mountains, the spotty patterns of precipitation in alpine areas complicate vegetation patterns. The rainy side of a mountain may be lush and green, while the other side, in the rain shadow, may be parched.
The Andean range is located in Colombia from the southwest (Ecuador border) toward the northeast (Venezuela border) and is divided in the Colombian Massif (Macizo Colombiano) in three ranges (East Andes, Central Andes and West Andes) that form two long valleys, Magdalena and Cauca follow by the rivers of the same name.
The eastern half of Colombia, comprising more than half its territory, is plain and composed by savanna and rainforest, crossed by rivers belonging to the Amazon and Orinoco basins. The northern part, called "Los Llanos '' is a savanna region, mostly in the Orinoco basin (therefore called also Orinoquía). The southern part is covered by the Amazon rain forest and belongs mostly to the Amazon basin. It is usually called Amazonía.
At the north and west of the Andes range there are some coastal plains. The Caribbean plains at the north and the Pacific plains at the west.
Colombian Pacific Plains are among the most rainy parts in the world, chiefly at the north (Chocó).
The highest mountain in Colombia is not in the Andes but in the Caribbean plain: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta with its highest points named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m) and Pico Simon Bolivar (same elevation). Other mountains in the Caribbean plain include the Montes de María and the Serranía de San Lucas.
In the Pacific Plains there are other mountain formations, chiefly the Serranía del Darién and the Serranía del Baudó.
In the eastern Region, there is the Serranía de la Macarena and there are formations belonging to the Guyana Shield.
The natural resources of Colombia are varied and extensive with most of its territory and oceans still unexplored. Colombia has one of the largest open pit coal mines in the world in the region of Cerrejon in the Guajira Peninsula. It also has oil rigs and natural gas extraction in the eastern plains. Colombia is the main producer of emeralds and an important participant in gold, silver, iron, salt, platinum, petroleum, nickel, copper, hydropower and uranium extraction.
The main environmental issues affecting Colombia are deforestation; soil and water quality damage from overuse of pesticides; air pollution, especially in Bogota, from vehicle emissions and other main cities. The collateral damaged produced by attacks against oil pipeline infrastructure by rebel guerrillas in the Colombian armed conflict has produced long term damage to the environment. The armed groups also deforest large areas to cultivate illegal crops and open unauthorized highways in protected areas.
Snowfields and glaciers in Colombia are limited to the highest peaks and ranges in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental and above the 4,700 - meter elevation on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The total area of snowfields and glaciers was estimated to be about 104 square kilometers in the early 1970s.
Historical, geographical, and pictorial records point toward a consistent and progressive depletion of ice - and - snow masses in the Colombian Andes since the end of the "Little Ice Age '' in the late 1800s. Many glaciers have disappeared during the 20th century, and others are expected to disappear in the coming decades.
Land boundaries: total: 6, 6724 km
Coastline: 3,208 km (Caribbean Sea 1,760 km, North Pacific Ocean 1,448 km)
Climate: tropical along coast and eastern plains; cooler in highlands
Terrain: flat coastal lowlands, central highlands, high Andes Mountains, eastern lowland plains
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Pico Cristobal Colon 5,975 m note: nearby Pico Simon Bolivar also has the same elevation
Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, nickel, gold, copper, emeralds, hydropower
Land use: arable land: 1.43 % permanent crops: 1.68 % other: 96.89 % (2012)
Irrigated land: 10,870 km2 (2011)
Total renewable water resources: 2,132 km (2011)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic / industrial / agricultural): total: 12.65 km (55 % / 4 % / 41 %) per capita: 308 m / yr (2010)
Natural hazards: highlands subject to volcanic eruptions; occasional earthquakes; periodic droughts
Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change - Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin.
The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.
Coordinates: 4 ° N 72 ° W / 4 ° N 72 ° W / 4; - 72
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when was the last thousand dollar bill printed | Large denominations of United States currency - wikipedia
Large denominations of United States currency greater than $100 were circulated by the United States Treasury until 1969. Since then, U.S. dollar banknotes have only been issued in seven denominations: $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100.
Large - denomination currency (i.e., banknotes with a face value of $500 or higher) had been used in the United States since the late 18th century. The first $500 note was issued by the Province of North Carolina, authorized by legislation dated May 10, 1780. Virginia quickly followed suit and authorized the printing of $500 and $1,000 notes on October 16, 1780 and $2,000 notes on May 7, 1781. High - denomination treasury notes were issued, for example during the War of 1812 ($1,000 notes authorized by an act dated June 30, 1812). During the American Civil War Confederate currency included $500 and $1,000 notes. During the Federal banknote issuing period (1861 to present), the earliest high - denomination notes included three - year Interest - bearing notes of $500, $1,000, and $5,000, authorized by Congress on July 17, 1861. In total, 11 different types of U.S. currency were issued in high - denomination notes across nearly 20 different series dates. The obverse of United States banknotes generally depict either historical figures, allegorical figures symbolizing significant concepts (e.g., liberty, justice), or a combination of both. The reverse designs range from abstract scroll - work with ornate denomination identifiers to reproductions of historical art works.
Series 1934 gold certificates ($100, $1,000, $10,000 and $100,000) were issued after the gold standard was repealed and gold was compulsorily confiscated by order of President Franklin Roosevelt on March 9, 1933 (see United States Executive Order 6102). Thus the series 1934 notes were used only for intra-government (i.e., Federal Reserve Bank) transactions and were not issued to the public. This series was discontinued in 1940. The series 1928 gold certificate reverse was printed in black and green. See history of the United States dollar.
Although they are still technically legal tender in the United States, high - denomination bills were last printed on December 27, 1945, and officially discontinued on July 14, 1969, by the Federal Reserve System, due to ' lack of use '. The $5,000 and $10,000 effectively disappeared well before then.
The Federal Reserve began taking high - denomination currency out of circulation (destroying large bills received by banks) in 1969. As of May 30, 2009, only 336 $10,000 bills were known to exist; 342 remaining $5,000 bills; and 165,372 remaining $1,000 bills. Due to their rarity, collectors often pay considerably more than the face value of the bills to acquire them. Some are in museums in other parts of the world.
For the most part, these bills were used by banks and the Federal government for large financial transactions. This was especially true for gold certificates from 1865 to 1934. However, for the most part, the introduction of an electronic money system has made large - scale cash transactions obsolete. When combined with concerns about counterfeiting and the use of cash in unlawful activities such as the illegal drug trade and money laundering, it is unlikely that the U.S. government will re-issue large denomination currency in the near future, despite the amount of inflation that has occurred since 1969 (a $500 bill is now worth less, in real terms, than a $100 bill was worth in 1969). According to the U.S. Department of Treasury website, "The present denominations of our currency in production are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100. The purpose of the United States currency system is to serve the needs of the public and these denominations meet that goal. Neither the Department of the Treasury nor the Federal Reserve System has any plans to change the denominations in use today. ''
The National Numismatic Collection at the Smithsonian Institution contains (among other things) the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) certified proofs and the Treasury Department collection of United States currency. Using a combination of proofs and issued notes, a nearly complete type set of high - denomination currency was compiled. Notably missing are several types of Compound and Interest Bearing Notes. Printed during the early to mid-1860s on very thin paper, these high - denomination notes are virtually non-existent. Their issuance (1861 -- 65) pre-dates the BEP 's responsibility for U.S. Currency (1870s), so it is fortunate that any proofs exist in the current archives.
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hallmark movie william and catherine a royal romance | William & Catherine: a royal Romance - wikipedia
William & Catherine: A Royal Romance is an American 2011 television movie that stars Alice St. Clair as Kate Middleton and Dan Amboyer as HRH Prince William of Wales. The movie also features Jane Alexander as HM The Queen and Victor Garber as HRH The Prince of Wales. The plot summary provided by Internet Movie Database is, "Chronicles Prince William and Kate Middleton, as young students at St. Andrews, William 's Army training at Sandhurst Military Academy, their break - up, reunification, engagement and planning of royal nuptials, and advice from William 's grandmother, the Queen. ''
"We are not afraid to explore the real side of the relationship and the challenges, '' Dan Amboyer, who plays William, said while promoting the movie at a meeting of the Television Critics Association. "Diana features in the film, '' Alice St. Clair, who portrays Middleton, said. "There is just really a great sense of relationships within the family. So there is William 's relationship with his father and his brother, and you see him calling upon Diana 's interview, and watching this interview that Diana did and using her words to kind of guide him through his troubled moments. ''.
Garber, who plays the Prince of Wales, said the recent unavoidable worldwide television wedding event has likely boosted the public mood regarding Britain 's monarchy. "I think it has done an enormous service to the royal family, and I think that this film really sort of attempts to kind of humanize them, '' he said. "I think because enough time has passed since the tragedy of Diana 's death, that they 're sort of being seen in a different way. And I think that William and Kate have definitely had an enormously positive effect on their reputation, on their how they are perceived. '' Even Garber 's character has likely enjoyed a boost in popularity, unthinkable once. "I think that he was vilified in a way, '' he said. "Over time that has sort of softened, and yes, I think I certainly my opinion of him has changed somewhat having played him and listened to him. I think he 's kind of an amazing guy, actually. ''
The movie is directed by and produced by Emmy Award - winning producer Linda Yellen (Playing for Time). The co-producer is Emmy Award nominee Brad Krevoy (Taking Chance).
The movie aired on August 27, 2011 in the United States on the Hallmark Channel. The movie was filmed on location in Bucharest.
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international panel on fissile materials is organ of iaea | International Panel on Fissile Materials - wikipedia
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The Panel is co-chaired by Professor Frank N. von Hippel of PrincetonUniversity and Professor R. Rajaraman of Jawaharlal Nehru University, India. Other members include: James M. Acton, Li Bin, José Goldemberg, Pervez Hoodbhoy, Patricia Lewis, Abdul Hameed Nayyar, M.V. Ramana, and Mycle Schneider.
The Panel produces an annual Global Fissile Material Report which summarizes new information on fissile material stocks and production worldwide, as well as periodic research reports.
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what is the significance of the battle of khanwa | Battle of Khanwa - Wikipedia
The Battle of Khanwa was fought near the village of Khanwa, in Bharatpur District of Rajasthan, on March 17, 1527. It was fought between the invading forces of the first Mughal Emperor Babur and the Rajput forces led by Rana Sanga of Mewar, after the Battle of Panipat. The victory in the battle consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India.
Rajput ruler Rana Sanga had sent an ambassador to Babur at Kabul, offering to join in Babur 's attack on Sultan Ibrahim Lodi of Delhi. Sanga had offered to attack Agra while Babur would be attacking Delhi. However, while Babur did attack Lodi and took over Delhi and Agra, Sanga made no move, apparently having changed his mind. Babur had resented this backsliding; in his autobiography, Babur accuses Rana Sanga of breach of agreement. Historian Satish Chandra speculates that Sanga may have imagined a long, drawn - struggle taking place between Babur and Lodi, following which he would be able to take control of the regions he coveted. Alternatively, writes Chandra, Sanga may have thought that in the event of a Mughal victory, Babur would withdraw from Delhi and Agra, like Timur, once he had seized the treasures of these cities. Once he realized that Babur intended to stay on in India, Sanga proceeded to build a grand coalition that would either force Babur out of India or confine him to Afghanistan. In early 1527 Babur started receiving reports of Sanga 's advance towards Agra. It was treachery of a section of Sanga 's army that resulted in his defeat.
After the First Battle of Panipat, Babur had recognized that his biggest danger came from two quarters: Rana Sanga and the Afghans ruling eastern India at the time. In a council that Babur called, it was decided that the Afghans represented the bigger danger, and consequently Humayun was sent at the head of an army to fight the Afghans in the east. However, upon hearing of Rana Sanga 's advancement on Agra, Humayun was hastily recalled. Military detachments were then sent by Babur to conquer Dholpur, Gwaliyar and Bayana, strong forts forming the outer boundaries of Agra. The commanders of Dholpur and Gwaliyar surrendered their forts to Babur, accepting his generous terms. However, Nizam Khan, the commander of Bayana, opened negotiations with both Babur and Rana Sanga. The force sent by Babur to Bayana was defeated and dispersed by Rana Sanga 's forces. However, subsequently, Bayana surrendered to Babur.
Rana Sanga had succeeded in building a formidable military alliance against Babur. He was joined by virtually all the leading Rajput kings from Rajasthan, including those from Harauti, Jalor, Sirohi, Dungarpur, Dhundhar and Amber. Rao Ganga of Marwar did not join personally, but sent a contingent on his behalf. Rao Medini Rao of Chanderi in Malwa also joined the alliance. Further, Mahmud Lodi, the younger son of Sikandar Lodi, whom the Afghans had proclaimed their new sultan also joined the alliance with a force of 10,000 Afghans under him. Khanzada Hasan Khan Mewati, the ruler of Mewat State, also joined the alliance with a force of 12,000. Babur denounced the Afghans who joined the alliance against him as kafirs and murtads (those who had apostatized from Islam). According to historian Satish Chandra, Babur allied Afghans to unite against Hindus (kafirs), as it was a religious battle. Chandra also argues that the alliance weaved together by Sanga represented a Rajput - Afghan alliance with the proclaimed mission of expelling Babur and restoring the Lodi empire.
According to Babur, Rana Sanga 's army consisted of 200,000 soldiers. However, according to Alexander Kinloch, the army did not exceed 40,000 during his campaign in Gujarat. Even if this figure is exaggerated, Chandra comments that it is indisputable that Sanga 's army greatly outnumbered Babur 's forces. The greater numbers and reported courage of the Rajputs served to instill fear in Babur 's army. An astrologer added to the general unease by his foolish predictions. To raise the flagging morale of his soldiers, Babur proceeded to renounce future consumption of wine, broke his drinking cups, poured out all the stores of liquor on the ground and promulgated a pledge of total abstinence. In his autobiography, Babur writes that:
It was a really good plan, and it had a favorable propagandistic effect on friend and foe.
The Battle of Khanwa took place at Khanwa, near Fatehpur - Sikri, on 16 March 1527. Before the battle Babur had carefully inspected the site. Like in Panipat, he strengthened his front by procuring carts that were fastened by iron chains (not leather straps, as at Panipat) in the Ottoman fashion. These were used for providing shelter to horses and for storing artillery. Gaps between the carts were used for horsemen to charge at the opponent at an opportune time. To lengthen the line, ropes made of rawhide were placed over wheeled wooden tripods. Behind the tripods, matchlockmen were placed who could fire and, if required, advance. The flanks were given protection by digging ditches. In addition to the regular force, small contingents were kept apart on the left flank and in front for the tulghuma (flanking) tactic. Thus, a strong offensive - defensive formation had been prepared by Babur. Rana Sanga, fighting in a traditional way, attacked the Mughal army 's flanks. He was prevented from breaking through by reinforcements dispatched by Babur. Once the advance of the Rajputs and their Afghan allies had been contained, Babur 's flanking tactic came into play. The carts and matchlockmen were ordered to advance, hemming in the Rajputs and their allies. At about this time Silhadi of Raisen deserted the Ranas army and went over to Babur 's. Despite putting up a gallant fight, Rana Sanga and his allies suffered a disastrous defeat. Following his victory, Babur ordered a tower of enemy skulls to be erected, a practice formulated by Timur against his adversaries, irrespective of their religious beliefs. According to Chandra, the objective of constructing a tower of skulls was not just to record a great victory, but also to terrorize opponents. Earlier, the same tactic had been used by Babur against the Afghans of Bajaur.
The Battle of Khanwa demonstrated that Rajput bravery was not enough to counter Babur 's superior generalship and organizational skills. Babur himself commented:
Swordsmen though some Hindustanis may be, most of them are ignorant and unskilled in military move and stand, in soldierly counsel and procedure.
Rana Sanga managed to evade capture and escape to Chittor, but the grand alliance he had built collapsed. Quoting Rushbrook Williams, Chandra writes:
The powerful confederacy which depended so largely for its unity upon the strength and reputation of Mewar, was shattered by a single defeat and ceased henceforth to be a dominant factor in the politics of Hindustan.
On 30 January 1528 Rana Sanga died in Chittor, apparently poisoned by his own chiefs, who held his plans of renewing the fight with Babur to be suicidal.
It is suggested that had it not been for the cannon of Babur, Rana Sanga might have achieved victory. Pradeep Barua notes that Babur 's cannon put an end to outdated trends in Indian warfare.
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who has highest score on world of dance | List of highest scores in Figure Skating - wikipedia
The following are the highest scores that have been earned under the ISU Judging System which replaced the previous 6.0 system in 2004. The International Skating Union (ISU) only recognizes best scores set at international competitions run under ISU rules. For example, ISU does not recognize scores which are skated at national championships. The competitions that ISU recognize are Winter Olympics (including team event), Youth Olympics (including team event), World Championships, World Junior Championships, European Championships, Four Continents Championships, GP events, Junior GP events, Challenger Series events and World Team Trophy.
The following main lists includes only personal best score of skaters, not multiple scores from the same skater. The absolute best scores, where multiple scores from the same skater are included, are located separately at the lower part of this page.
Note: The main features of this page are the lists of highest personal best scores and the lists of absolute best scores. Additionally this page has some other features, such as progression of record scores, record technical and component scores, and highest technical element scores. Almost all features include both senior and junior lists.
Note: The following records only include scores which are skated at international competitions run under ISU rules. For example, ISU does not recognize scores which are skated at national championships. 2016 Team Challenge Cup scores are also not recognized under ISU.
Men
Ladies
Pairs
Ice dancing
Historical ice dancing (2003 -- 2010): The compulsory dance and the original dance were eliminated at the end of the 2009 -- 2010 season and replaced by the short dance.
Men
Ladies
Pairs
Ice dancing
Historical ice dancing (2003 -- 2010): The compulsory dance and the original dance were eliminated at the end of the 2009 -- 2010 season and replaced by the short dance.
Note: The following lists only include scores which are skated at international competitions run under ISU rules. For example, ISU does not recognize scores which are skated at national championships. 2016 Team Challenge Cup scores are also not recognized under ISU.
The following main lists includes only personal best score of skaters, not multiple scores from the same skater. The absolute best scores, where multiple scores from the same skater are included, are located separately at the lower part of this page.
All skaters whose personal best score is above 258 points are listed here.
All skaters whose personal best short program score is above 88 points are listed here.
All skaters whose personal best free program score is above 173 points are listed here.
All skaters whose personal best score is above 200 points are listed here.
All skaters whose personal best short program score is above 70 points are listed here.
All skaters whose personal best free program score is above 132 points are listed here.
All teams whose personal best score is above 200 points are listed here.
All teams whose personal best short program score is above 71 points are listed here.
All teams whose personal best free program score is above 131 points are listed here.
All teams whose personal best score is above 170 points are listed here.
All teams whose personal best short dance score is above 68 points are listed here.
All teams whose personal best free dance score is above 102 points are listed here.
All skaters whose personal best score is above 220 points are listed here.
All skaters whose personal best score is above 180 points are listed here.
All teams whose personal best score is above 155 points are listed here.
All teams whose personal best score is above 143 points are listed here.
Multiple scores from one skater are included on the lists.
Note: ISU does not recognize scores which are skated at national championships.
All scores above 290 points are listed here.
All short program scores above 98 points are listed here.
All free program scores above 193 points are listed here.
All scores above 214 points are listed here.
All short program scores above 74 points are listed here.
All free program scores above 142 points are listed here.
All scores above 220 points are listed here.
All short program scores above 78 points are listed here.
All free program scores above 143 points are listed here.
All scores above 188 points are listed here.
All short dance scores above 76 points are listed here.
All free dance scores above 112 points are listed here.
Best total scores
All junior scores above 230 points are listed here.
Best short program scores
Best free program scores
Best total scores
All junior scores above 188 points are listed here.
Best short program scores
Best free program scores
Best total scores
All junior scores above 168 points are listed here.
Best short program scores
Best free program scores
Best total scores
All junior scores above 160 points are listed here.
Lists includes only personal best score of skaters, not multiple scores from the same skater.
Note: The compulsory dance and original dance were eliminated at the end of the 2009 -- 2010 season and replaced by the short dance.
Best total scores
Best compulsory dance scores
Best original dance scores
Best free dance scores
Multiple scores from one skater are included on the lists.
Note: The compulsory dance and original dance were eliminated at the end of the 2009 -- 2010 season and replaced by the short dance.
Best total scores
Best compulsory dance scores
Best original dance scores
Best free dance scores
Note: The following lists are not exactly the same as what ISU have on their website. This is due to the fact that ISU lists scores as a record scores even if previous skater had already scored a better score at the same competition. For example, ISU lists Takahiko Kozuka 's free skating score of 180.79 points at the 2011 World Championships as a record despite the fact that Patrick Chan had already scored 187.96 points at that competition. Another example, at the 2010 Winter Olympics both Aliona Savchenko / Robin Szolkowy in short program and Shen Xue / Zhao Hongbo in free skating have been listed as previous record holders even though at the time of their programs a better score was already scored by another pair in both cases. These kind of non-record scores are not included in the following lists despite the fact that ISU considers them as record scores.
Progression of men 's combined total record score. The list starts from the skater who first scored above 210 points.
Progression of men 's short program record score. The list starts from the skater who first scored above 70 points.
Progression of men 's free skating record score. The list starts from the skater who first scored above 140 points.
Progression of ladies ' combined total record score. The list starts from the skater who first scored above 170 points.
Progression of ladies ' short program record score. The list starts from the skater who first scored above 60 points.
Progression of ladies ' free skating record score. The list starts from the skater who first scored above 110 points.
Progression of pairs ' combined total record score. The list starts from the pair who first scored above 170 points.
Progression of pairs ' short program record score. The list starts from the pair who first scored above 60 points.
Progression of pairs ' free skating record score. The list starts from the pair who first scored above 110 points.
Note: The compulsory dance and original dance were eliminated at the end of the 2009 -- 2010 season and replaced by the short dance.
Progression of combined total record score of ice dancing. The list starts from the team who first scored above 150 points.
Progression of short dance record score. The list starts from the team who first scored above 60 points.
Progression of free dance record score. The list starts from the team who first scored above 90 points.
Note: The compulsory dance and original dance were eliminated at the end of the 2009 -- 2010 season and replaced by the short dance.
Progression of combined total record score of ice dancing. The list starts from the team who first scored above 170 points.
Progression of compulsory dance record score. The list starts from the team who first scored above 40 points.
Progression of original dance record score. The list starts from the team who first scored above 50 points.
Progression of free dance record score. The list starts from the team who first scored above 90 points.
Progression of junior men 's combined total record score. The list starts from the skater who scored the highest score in 2004.
Progression of junior men 's short program record score. The list starts from the skater who scored the highest score in 2004.
Progression of junior men 's free skating record score. The list starts from the skater who scored the highest score in 2004.
Progression of junior ladies ' combined total record score. The list starts from the skater who scored the highest score in 2004.
Progression of junior ladies ' short program record score. The list starts from the skater who scored the highest score in 2004.
Progression of junior ladies ' free skating record score. The list starts from the skater who scored the highest score in 2004.
Progression of junior pairs ' combined total record score. The list starts from the pair who scored the highest score in 2004.
Progression of junior pairs ' short program record score. The list starts from the pair who scored the highest score in 2004.
Progression of junior pairs ' free skating record score. The list starts from the pair who scored the highest score in 2004.
Note: The compulsory dance and original dance were eliminated at the end of the 2009 -- 2010 season and replaced by the short dance.
Progression of combined total record score of junior ice dancing. The list starts from the team who scored the highest score in 2010.
Progression of junior short dance record score. The list starts from the team who scored the highest score in 2010.
Progression of junior free dance record score. The list starts from the team who scored the highest score in 2010.
Note: The compulsory dance and original dance were eliminated at the end of the 2009 -- 2010 season and replaced by the short dance.
Progression of combined total record score of junior ice dancing.
Progression of junior compulsory dance record score.
Progression of junior original dance record score.
Progression of junior free dance record score.
TES = Technical Element Score PCS = Program Component Score
Men
Ladies
Pairs
Ice dancing
TES = Technical Element Score PCS = Program Component Score
Men
Ladies
Pairs
Ice dancing
TES = Technical Element Score
Men; Short program
Men; Free skating
Ladies; Short program
Ladies; Free skating
Pairs; Short program
Pairs; Free skating
Ice dancing; Short dance
Ice dancing; Free dance
TES = Technical Element Score
Men; Short program
Men; Free skating
Ladies; Short program
Ladies; Free skating
Pairs; Short program
Pairs; Free skating
Ice dancing; Short dance
Ice dancing; Free dance
Note: ISU does not officially recognize championships records.
Men
Ladies
Pairs
Ice dancing
Men
Ladies
Pairs
Ice dancing
Men
Ladies
Pairs
Ice dancing
Men
Ladies
Pairs
Ice dancing
Men
Ladies
Pairs
Ice dancing
Men
Ladies
Pairs
Ice dancing
Men
Ladies
Pairs
Ice dancing
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what countries were involved in the mexican revolution | Mexican Revolution - Wikipedia
Revolutionary victory
Counter-revolutionary forces:
Revolutionary forces:
1914 - 1919: Carrancistas
1920: Forces led by Álvaro Obregón Remaining Zapatista forces
1920: Carrancistas
The Mexican Revolution (Spanish: Revolución Mexicana) was a major armed struggle, c. 1910 -- 1920, that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution, it was a "genuinely national revolution ''. Its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35 - year - long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a political crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Wealthy landowner Francisco I. Madero challenged Díaz in the 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, revolted under the Plan of San Luis Potosí. Armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency.
The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election becoming the catalyst for the outbreak of political rebellion. Begun by elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero and Pancho Villa, the revolution expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free and fair election. Opposition to the Madero regime increased from both the conservatives, who saw him as too weak and too liberal, and from former revolutionary fighters and the dispossessed, who saw him as too conservative.
In February 1913 Madero and his vice president Pino Suárez were forced to resign and were assassinated. The counter-revolutionary regime of General Victoriano Huerta came to power, backed by the United States, business interests, and other supporters of the old order. Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. When the revolutionaries ' attempt to reach political agreement failed, Mexico plunged into a civil war (1914 -- 1915). The Constitutionalist faction under wealthy landowner Venustiano Carranza emerged as the victor in 1915, defeating the revolutionary forces of former Constitutionalist Pancho Villa and forcing revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata back to guerrilla warfare. Zapata was assassinated in 1919 by agents of President Carranza.
The armed conflict lasted for the better part of a decade, until around 1920, and had several distinct phases. Over time the Revolution changed from a revolt against the established order under Díaz to a multi-sided civil war in particular regions, with frequently shifting power struggles among factions in the Mexican Revolution. One major result of the revolution was the dissolution of the Federal Army in 1914, which Francisco Madero had kept intact when he was elected in 1911 and General Huerta used to oust Madero. Revolutionary forces unified against Huerta 's reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces. Although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexico 's power struggles. The United States played an especially significant role. Out of Mexico 's population of 15 million, the losses were high, but numerical estimates vary a great deal. Perhaps 1.5 million people died; nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States.
Many scholars consider the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 as the end point of the armed conflict. "Economic and social conditions improved in accordance with revolutionary policies, so that the new society took shape within a framework of official revolutionary institutions '', with the constitution providing that framework. The period 1920 -- 1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, as government power was consolidated, the Catholic clergy and institutions were attacked in the 1920s, and the revolutionary constitution of 1917 was implemented.
This armed conflict is often characterized as the most important sociopolitical event in Mexico and one of the greatest upheavals of the 20th century; it resulted in an important program of experimentation and reform in social organization. The revolution committed the resulting political regime with "social justice '', until Mexico underwent a neoliberal reform process that started in the 1980s.
The Porfiriato is the period in late nineteenth - century Mexican history dominated by General Porfirio Díaz, who became president of Mexico in 1876 and ruled almost continuously (with the exception of 1880 -- 1884) until his forced resignation in 1911. After the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González (1880 -- 1884), Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally served in office until 1911. Under his administration, the constitution had been amended to allow unlimited presidential re-election. Díaz 's had originally challenged Benito Juárez on the platform of "no re-election. '' During the Porfiriato, there were regular elections, marked by contentious irregularities. Although Díaz had publicly announced in an interview with journalist James Creelman that he would not run in the 1910 election, setting off a flurry of political activity, he changed his mind and decided to run again at age 80.
The contested 1910 election was a key political event that contributed to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of presidential succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of vice president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Científico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian, and opposition to it had increased in many sectors of Mexican society.
In the 19th century, he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862 ("Cinco de Mayo ''). Díaz entered politics following the expulsion of the French in 1867. When Benito Juárez was elected in 1871, Díaz alleged fraud. Juárez died in office in 1872, and Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada succeeded him. Díaz unsuccessfully rebelled against Lerdo under the Plan de La Noria but later accepted the amnesty offered to him. However, when Lerdo ran for the presidency in 1876, Díaz successfully rebelled under the Plan de Tuxtepec.
In his early years in the presidency, Díaz was a master politician, playing factions off one another while retaining and consolidating his own power. He used the rurales, an armed police force directly under his control, as a paramilitary force to keep order in the countryside. He rigged elections, arguing that only he knew what was best for his country, and he enforced his belief with a strong hand. "Order and Progress '' were the watchwords of his rule. Although Díaz came to power in 1876 under the banner of "no re-election, '' with the exception of the presidency of Manuel González from 1880 -- 1884, Díaz remained in power continuously from 1884 until 1911, with rigged elections held at regular intervals to give the appearance of democracy.
Díaz 's presidency was characterized by promotion of industry and development of infrastructure by opening the country to foreign investment. He believed opposition needed to be suppressed and order maintained to reassure foreign entrepreneurs that their investments were safe. The modernization and progress in cities came at the expense of the rising working class and the peasantry.
Farmers and peasants both complained of oppression and exploitation. The economy took a great leap during the Porfiriato, as he encouraged the construction of factories and industries, and infrastructure such as roads and dams, as well as improving agriculture. Industrialization resulted in the rise of an urban proletariat and attracted an influx of foreign capital from the United States and Great Britain.
Wealth, political power, and access to education were concentrated among a handful of elite landholding families, overwhelmingly of European and mixed descent. Known as hacendados, they controlled vast swaths of the country by virtue of their huge estates (for example, the Terrazas had one estate in Sonora that alone comprised more than a million acres). Most people in Mexico were landless peasants laboring on these vast estates or industrial workers toiling for little more than slave wages. Foreign companies, mostly from the United Kingdom, France, and the U.S., also exercised influence in Mexico.
Díaz created a formidable political machine, first working with regional strongmen and bringing them into his regime, then replacing them with jefes políticos (political bosses) who were loyal to him. He skillfully managed political conflict and reined in tendencies toward autonomy. He appointed a number of military officers to state governorships, including General Bernardo Reyes, who became governor of the northern state of Nuevo León, but over the years military men were largely replaced by civilians loyal to Díaz.
As a military man himself, and one who had intervened directly in politics to seize the presidency in 1876, Díaz was acutely aware that the Federal Army could oppose him. He augmented the rurales, a police force created by Juárez, making them his personal armed force. The rurales were only 2,500 in number, as opposed to the 30,000 in the Federal Army and another 30,000 in the Federal Auxiliaries, Irregulars, and National Guard. Despite their small numbers, the rurales were highly effective in bringing control to the countryside, especially along the 12,000 miles of railway lines. They were a mobile force, often put on trains with their horses to put down rebellions in relatively remote areas of Mexico.
The construction of railways had been transformative in Mexico (as well as elsewhere in Latin America), accelerating economic activity and increasing the power of the Mexican state. The isolation from the central government that many remote areas had enjoyed or suffered was ending. Telegraph lines constructed next to railroad tracks meant instant communication between distant states and the capital.
The political acumen and flexibility that Díaz had exhibited in the early years of the Porfiriato began to decline. He brought the state governors under his control, replacing them at will. The Federal Army, while large, was increasingly an ineffective force with aging leadership and troops dragooned into service. Díaz attempted the same kind of manipulation he executed with the Mexican political system with business interests, showing favoritism to European interests against those of the U.S.
Rival interests, particularly those of the Americans and the British, further complicated an already complex system of favoritism. As economic activity increased and industries thrived, industrial workers began organizing for better conditions. With the expansion of Mexican agriculture, landless peasants were forced to work for low wages or move to the cities. Peasant agriculture was under pressure as haciendas expanded, such as in the state of Morelos, just south of Mexico City, with its burgeoning sugar plantations. There was what one scholar has called "agrarian compression, '' in which "population growth intersected with land loss, declining wages, and insecure tenancies to produce widespread economic deterioration, '' but the regions under the greatest stress were n't the ones that rebelled.
A number of Mexicans began to organize in opposition to Díaz policies that had welcomed foreign capital and capitalists, suppressed nascent labor unions, and consistently moved against peasants as agriculture flourished. In 1905, the group of Mexican intellectuals and agitators who had created the Mexican Liberal Party (Partido Liberal de México) drew up a radical program of reform, specifically addressing what they considered to be the worst aspects of the Díaz regime. Most prominent in the PLM were Ricardo Flores Magón and his two brothers, Enrique and Jesús. They, along with Luis Cabrera Lobato and Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama, were connected to the anti-Díaz publication El Hijo de Ahuizote. Political cartoons by José Guadalupe Posada lampooned politicians and cultural elites with mordant humor, portraying them as skeletons. The Liberal Party of Mexico founded the anti-Díaz anarchist newspaper Regeneración, which appeared in both Spanish and English. In exile in the United States, Práxedis Guerrero began publishing an anti-Díaz newspaper, Alba Roja (Red Dawn), in San Francisco. Although leftist groups were small in numbers, they became highly influential through their publications which helped articulate opposition to the Díaz regime. Francisco Bulnes described these men as the "true authors '' of the Mexican Revolution for agitating the masses. As the 1910 election approached, Francisco I. Madero, an idealistic political novice and member of one of Mexico 's richest families, funded the newspaper Anti-Reelectionista, in opposition to the continuous re-election of Díaz.
Organized labor conducted strikes for better wages and more just treatment. Demands for better labor conditions were central to the Liberal Party Program, drawn up in 1905. Mexican copper miners in the northern state of Sonora took action in the 1906 Cananea strike. Among other grievances, they were paid less than U.S. nationals working in the mines. In the state of Veracruz, textile workers rioted in January 1907 at the huge Río Blanco factory, the world 's largest, protesting against unfair labor practices. They were paid in credit that could be used only at the company store, binding them to the company.
These strikes were ruthlessly suppressed, with factory owners receiving support from government forces. In the Cananea strike, mine owner William Cornell Greene received support from Díaz 's rurales in Sonora as well as Arizona Rangers called in from across the U.S. border. In the state of Veracruz, the Mexican army gunned down Rio Blanco textile workers and put the bodies on train cars that transported them to Veracruz, "where the bodies were dumped in the harbor as food for sharks ''. Government suppression of strikes was not unique to Mexico, with parallel occurrences both in the United States and Western Europe.
The repressive nature of the Díaz regime attracted the attention of a number of U.S. nationals who joined in international solidarity with Mexicans to oppose Díaz, particularly outraged by U.S. businesses ' direct responsibility for the most horrific Mexican labor practices. Most notably, the leftist journalist John Kenneth Turner posed as a rich businessman exploring investments in Mexico to gain access to some of the most repressive and lucrative enterprises. His series of investigative exposés of Mexico under Díaz was first published in American magazines, then, in 1910, republished as a collection in Barbarous Mexico.
Since the press was suppressed in Mexico under Díaz, little was published that was critical of the regime. Newspapers barely reported on the Rio Blanco textile strike, the Cananea strike, or harsh labor practices on plantations in Oaxaca and Yucatán. Leftist Mexican opponents of the Díaz regime, such as Ricardo Flores Magón and Práxedis Guerrero, went into exile in the relative safety of the United States, but cooperation between the U.S. government and Díaz 's agents resulted in the arrest of some.
Díaz had ruled continuously since 1884. The question of presidential succession was an issue as early as 1900, when Díaz turned 70. It was his "undeclared intention to step down from the presidency in 1904. '' Díaz seems to have considered his finance minister José Yves Limantour as his successor. Limantour was a key member of the Científicos, the circle of technocratic advisers steeped in positivist political science.
Another potential successor was General Bernardo Reyes, Diaz 's Minister of War, who also served as governor of Nuevo León. Reyes, an opponent of the Científicos, was a moderate reformer with a considerable base of support. Díaz became concerned about him as a rival, and forced his resignation from his cabinet. He attempted to marginalize Reyes by sending him on a "military mission '' to Europe, distancing him from Mexico and potential political supporters.
Díaz re-established the office of vice president in 1906, choosing Ramón Corral. Rather than managing political succession, Díaz marginalized Corral, keeping him away from any decision - making.
In a 1908 interview with U.S. journalist James Creelman, Díaz said that Mexico was ready for democracy and that he would step down to allow other candidates to compete for the presidency. If Díaz had kept to this, the presidency and vice presidency would have been open in 1910. Díaz 's later reversal on retiring from the presidency set off tremendous activity among opposition groups.
In 1909, Díaz and U.S. President William Howard Taft conducted a historic summit, held in both El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico; it was the first meeting between a U.S. and Mexican president, and the first time a sitting U.S. president crossed the border into Mexico. Díaz requested the meeting to show that he had American support for his planned eighth run as president. Taft agreed to support Diaz in order to protect the several billion dollars of American capital then invested in Mexico. After nearly 30 years with Díaz in power, U.S. businesses controlled "nearly 90 percent of Mexico 's mineral resources, its national railroad, its oil industry and, increasingly, its land. '' At the meeting, Díaz explained his decision to stay in office, "Since I am responsible for bringing several billion dollars in foreign investments into my country, I think I should continue in my position until a competent successor is found. ''
On 16 October, the day of the summit, Frederick Russell Burnham and Private C.R. Moore, a Texas Ranger, discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham and Moore captured and disarmed the assassin within a few feet of Díaz and Taft.
"The potential challenge from Reyes would remain one of Díaz 's political obsessions through the rest of the decade, which ultimately blinded him to the danger of the challenge of Francisco Madero 's anti-reelectionist campaign. ''
In 1910, Francisco I. Madero, a young man from a wealthy land - owning family in the northern state of Coahuila, announced his intent to challenge Díaz for the presidency in the next election, under the banner of the Anti-Reelectionist Party. Madero chose as his running mate Francisco Vázquez Gómez, a physician who had opposed Díaz. Although similar overall to Díaz in his ideology, Madero hoped for other elites to rule alongside the president. Díaz thought he could control this election, as he had the previous seven; however, Madero campaigned vigorously and effectively. To ensure Madero did not win, Díaz had him jailed before the election. Madero escaped and fled for a short period to San Antonio, Texas. Díaz was announced the winner of the election by a "landslide ''. When it became obvious that the election had been fixed, Madero supporter Toribio Ortega took up arms with a group of followers at Cuchillo Parado, Chihuahua on 10 November 1910.
On 5 October 1910, Madero issued a "letter from jail, '' known as the Plan de San Luis Potosí, with its main slogan Sufragio Efectivo, No Re-elección ("free suffrage and no re-election ''). It declared the Díaz presidency illegal and called for revolt against Díaz, starting on 20 November 1910. Madero 's political plan did not outline major socioeconomic revolution, but it offered the hope of change for many disadvantaged Mexicans.
Madero 's plan was aimed at fomenting a popular uprising against Díaz, but he also understood that the support of the United States and U.S. financiers would be of crucial importance in undermining the regime. The rich and powerful Madero family drew on its resources to make regime change possible, with Madero 's brother Gustavo A. Madero hiring, in October 1910, the firm of Washington lawyer Sherburne Hopkins, the "world 's best rigger of Latin American revolutions '', to encourage support in the U.S. A strategy to discredit Díaz with U.S. business and the U.S. government achieved some success, with Standard Oil representatives engaging in talks with Gustavo Madero. More importantly, the U.S. government "bent neutrality laws for the revolutionaries. ''
In late 1910 revolutionary movements broke out in response to Madero 's Plan de San Luis Potosí. Madero 's vague promises of land reform in Mexico attracted many peasants throughout Mexico. Spontaneous rebellions arose in which ordinary farm laborers, miners, and other working - class Mexicans, along with much of the country 's population of indigenous natives, fought Díaz 's forces, with some success. Madero attracted the forces of rebel leaders such as Pascual Orozco, Pancho Villa, Ricardo Flores Magón, Emiliano Zapata, and Venustiano Carranza. A young and able revolutionary, Orozco, along with governor Abraham González, formed a powerful military union in the north, and, although they were not especially committed to Madero, took Mexicali and Chihuahua City. These victories encouraged alliances with other revolutionary leaders, including Pancho Villa. Against Madero 's wishes, Orozco and Villa fought for and won Ciudad Juárez, bordering El Paso, Texas, on the south side of the Rio Grande. Madero 's call to action had some unanticipated results, such as the Magonista rebellion of 1911 in Baja, California.
With the Federal Army defeated in a string of battles, Diaz 's government began negotiations with the revolutionaries. One of Madero 's representatives in the negotiations was his running mate in the 1910 elections, Francisco Vázquez Gómez. The talks culminated in the 21 May 1911 Treaty of Ciudad Juárez. The signed treaty stated that Díaz would abdicate the presidency along with his vice president Ramón Corral by the end of May 1911, to be replaced by an interim president, Francisco León de la Barra, until elections were held.
Some supporters criticized Madero for displaying weakness in not simply seizing the presidency from Diaz, and for failing to pass immediate reforms; however, by following the electoral process, Madero established a liberal democracy and received support from the United States and popular leaders such as Orozco, Villa, and Zapata. Francisco León de la Barra became interim president of Mexico, pending an election to be held in October 1911. Madero won the election decisively and was inaugurated as president in November 1911.
When Díaz left for exile in Paris, he was reported as saying, "Madero has unleashed a tiger; let us see if he can control it. ''
Madero was an inexperienced politician who had never held office before, but his election as president in October 1911, following the exile of Porfirio Díaz in May 1911 and the interim presidency of Francisco León de la Barra, raised high expectations for positive change. However, the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez guaranteed that the essential structure of the Díaz regime, including the Federal Army, was kept in place. Madero fervently held to his position that Mexico needed real democracy, which included regime change by valid election, a free press, and the right of labor to organize and strike.
The rebels who brought him to power were demobilized and Madero called on these men of action to return to civilian life. According to a story told by Pancho Villa, (one of those who had defeated Díaz 's army and forced his resignation and exile), he told Madero at a banquet in Ciudad Juárez in 1911, "You (Madero), sir, have destroyed the revolution... It 's simple: this bunch of dandies have made a fool of you, and this will eventually cost us our necks, yours included. '' Ignoring the warning, Madero increasingly relied on the Federal Army as armed rebellions broke out in Mexico in 1911 -- 1912, with particularly threatening insurrections led by Emiliano Zapata in Morelos and Pascual Orozco in the north.
The press embraced their new - found freedom and Madero became a target of their criticism. Organized labor, which had been suppressed under Díaz, could and did stage strikes, which foreign entrepreneurs saw as threatening their interests. Although there had been labor unrest under Díaz, labor 's new freedom to organize also came with anti-American currents. The anarcho - syndicalist Casa del Obrero Mundial (House of the World Worker) was founded in September 1912 by Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama, Manuel Sarabia, and Lázaro Gutiérrez de Lara and served as a center of agitation and propaganda, but it was not a formal labor union.
Political parties proliferated, one of the most important being the National Catholic Party, which in a number of regions of Mexico was particularly strong. Several Catholic newspapers were in circulation during the Madero era, including El País and La Nación, only to be later suppressed under the Victoriano Huerta regime (1913 -- 1914).
Madero did not have the experience or the ideological inclination to reward men who had helped bring him to power. Some revolutionary leaders expected personal rewards, such as the young and militarily gifted Pascual Orozco of Chihuahua. Others wanted major reforms, most especially Emiliano Zapata and Andrés Molina Enríquez, who had long worked for land reform in Mexico. Madero met personally with Zapata, telling the guerrilla leader that the agrarian question needed careful study. His meaning was clear: Madero, a member of a rich northern hacendado family, was not about to implement comprehensive agrarian reform for aggrieved peasants.
In response to this lack of action, Zapata promulgated the Plan de Ayala in November 1911, declaring himself in rebellion against Madero. He renewed guerrilla warfare in the state of Morelos. Madero sent the Federal Army to deal with the Zapata, unsuccessfully. Zapata remained true to the demands of the Plan de Ayala and in rebellion against every central government up until his assassination by an agent of President Venustiano Carranza in 1919.
The brilliant northern revolutionary general Pascual Orozco, who had helped take Ciudad Juárez for the revolutionaries, had expected to become governor of Chihuahua, a powerful position. In 1911, although Orozco was "the man of the hour, '' Madero gave the governorship instead to Abraham González, a respectable revolutionary, with the explanation that Orozco had not reached the legal age to serve as governor, a tactic that was "a useful constitutional alibi for thwarting the ambitions of young, popular, revolutionary leaders. ''
Madero had put Orozco in charge of the large force of rurales in Chihuahua, but to a gifted revolutionary fighter who had helped bring about Díaz 's fall, Madero 's reward was insulting. After Madero refused to agree to social reforms calling for better working hours, pay, and conditions, Orozco organized his own army, the "Orozquistas '', also called the Colorados ("Red Flaggers ''). In early 1912 they rebelled against Madero, causing considerable dismay among U.S. businessmen and other foreign investors in the northern region. It was a signal to many that Madero 's government could not maintain the order that was the underpinning of modernization in the era of Porfirio Díaz.
In April 1912, Madero dispatched Gen. Victoriano Huerta of the Federal Army to put down Orozco 's revolt. As president, Madero had kept the Federal Army intact as an institution, using it to put down domestic rebellions against his regime. Huerta was a professional soldier and continued to serve in the Federal Army under the new commander - in - chief, but Huerta 's loyalty lay with General Bernardo Reyes rather than with the civilian Madero. In 1912, under pressure from his cabinet, Madero had called on Huerta to suppress Orozco 's rebellion. With Huerta 's success against Orozco, he emerged as a powerful figure for conservative forces opposing the Madero regime.
During the Orozco revolt, the governor of Chihuahua mobilized the state militia to support the Federal Army, and Pancho Villa, a colonel in the militia, was called up at this time. In mid-April, at the head of 400 irregular troops, he joined the forces commanded by Huerta. Huerta, however, viewed Villa as an ambitious competitor. During a visit to Huerta 's headquarters in June 1912, after an incident in which he refused to return a number of stolen horses, Villa was imprisoned on charges of insubordination and robbery and sentenced to death. Raúl Madero, the President 's brother, intervened to save Villa 's life. Jailed in Mexico City, Villa fled to the United States, later to return and play a major role in the civil wars of 1913 -- 1915.
There were other rebellions, one led by Bernardo Reyes and the other by Félix Díaz, nephew of the former president, that were quickly put down and the generals jailed. They were both in a Mexico City prison, and fomented yet another rebellion in February 1913. This period came to be known as the Ten Tragic Days (la decena trágica), which ended with Madero 's resignation and assassination and Huerta assuming the presidency. Madero placed Huerta in charge of suppressing the Mexico City revolt as interim commander. Madero did not know that Huerta had been invited to join the conspiracy but had held back. During the fighting that took place in the capital, the civilian population was subjected to artillery exchanges, street fighting, and economic disruption.
The Madero presidency was unraveling, to no one 's surprise except perhaps Madero 's, whose support continued to deteriorate, even among his political allies. Madero 's supporters in congress before the coup, the so - called Renovadores ("the renewers '') criticized Madero, saying, "The revolution is heading toward collapse and is pulling the government to which it gave rise down with it, for the simple reason that is not governing with revolutionaries. Compromises and concessions to the supporters of the old (Díaz) regime are the main causes of the unsettling situation in which the government that emerged from the revolution finds itself... The regime appears relentlessly bent on suicide. ''
Huerta allowed the rebels to hold the armory in Mexico City, the Ciudadela, while Huerta consolidated his political power. Huerta changed allegiance from Madero to the rebels under Félix Díaz (Bernardo Reyes having been killed early in the conflict). U.S. Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson, who had done all he could to undermine U.S. confidence in Madero 's presidency, brokered the Pact of the Embassy, which formalized the alliance between Félix Díaz and Huerta, with the backing of the United States. Huerta was to become provisional president of Mexico following the resignations of Madero and his vice president, José María Pino Suárez. Rather than being sent into exile with their families, the two were murdered while being transported to prison, a shocking event, but one that did not prevent the Huerta regime 's recognition by most world governments.
Madero had created no political organization that could survive his death and he had alienated and demobilized the revolutionary fighters who had helped bring him to power. In the aftermath of his assassination and Huerta 's seizure of power via military coup, former revolutionaries had no formal organization through which to raise opposition to Huerta.
Huerta 's presidency is usually characterized as a dictatorship. From the point of view of revolutionaries at the time and the construction of historical memory of the Revolution, it is without any positive aspects. "Despite recent attempts to portray Victoriano Huerta as a reformer, there is little question that he was a self - serving dictator. '' There are few biographies of Huerta, but one of these strongly asserts that Huerta should not be labeled simply as a counter-revolutionary, arguing that his regime consisted of two distinct periods: from the coup in February 1913 up to October 1913, during which time he attempted to legitimize his regime and demonstrate its legality by pursuing reformist policies; and after October 1913, when he dropped all attempts to rule within a legal framework and began murdering political opponents while battling revolutionary forces that had united in opposition to his regime.
Supporting the Huerta regime initially were business interests in Mexico, both foreign and domestic; landed elites; the Roman Catholic Church; as well as the German and British governments. Huerta 's first cabinet comprised men who had supported the February 1913 Pact of the (U.S.) Embassy, among them some who had supported Madero, such as Jesús Flores Magón; supporters of Bernardo Reyes; supporters of Félix Díaz; and Catholic former interim president Francisco León de la Barra. Initially, Huerta was even able to muster the support of Andrés Molina Enríquez, author of The Great National Problems (Los grandes problemas nacionales), a key work urging land reform in Mexico. Huerta was deeply concerned with the issue of land reform since it was a persistent spur of peasant unrest. Specifically, he moved to restore "ejido lands to the Yaquis and Mayos of Sonora and (advanced) proposals for distribution of government lands to small - scale farmers. '' When Huerta refused to move faster on land reform, Molina Enríquez disavowed the regime in June 1913, later going on to advise the 1917 constitutional convention on land reform.
Within a month of the coup, rebellion began to spread throughout Mexico, most prominently led by the governor of the state of Coahuila, Venustiano Carranza, along with Pablo González and old revolutionaries demobilized by Madero, such as Pancho Villa. Upon taking power, Huerta had moved swiftly to consolidate his hold in the North. Carranza might have counted on governor of Chihuahua Abraham González, but Huerta had him arrested and murdered for fear he would foment rebellion.
The Northern revolutionaries fought under the name of the Constitutionalist Army, with Carranza as the "First Chief '' (primer jefe). When northern general Pancho Villa became governor of Chihuahua in 1914, following the ousting of Huerta, he located González 's bones and had them reburied with full honors.
In Morelos, Emiliano Zapata continued his rebellion under the Plan of Ayala (while expunging the name of counter-revolutionary Pascual Orozco from it), calling for the expropriation of land and redistribution to peasants. Huerta offered peace to Zapata, who rejected it.
Lame duck U.S. President Taft, whose term ended 4 March 1913, left the decision of whether to recognize the new government up to the incoming president, Woodrow Wilson. Despite the urging of the U.S. ambassador, Henry Lane Wilson, who had played a key role in the coup d'état, President Wilson not only declined to recognize Huerta 's government, but first supplanted the ambassador by sending his "personal representative '' John Lind, a Swedish - American progressive who sympathized with the Mexican revolutionaries, and then, in the summer of 1913, recalled Wilson. Further, under Wilson, the United States lifted the arms embargo imposed by Taft in order to supply weapons to the landlocked rebels, since while under the complete embargo Huerta had still been able to receive shipments from the British. While urging other European powers to likewise not recognize Huerta 's government, Wilson also attempted to persuade Huerta to call prompt elections "and not present himself as a candidate. '' The United States offered Mexico a loan on the condition that Huerta accept the proposal. He refused. The envoy Lind "clearly threatened a military intervention in case the demands were not met. ''
In the summer of 1913, Mexican conservatives who had supported Huerta sought an elected civilian alternative to Huerta, brought together in body called National Unifying Junta. Political parties proliferated in this period, so that by the time of the October congressional elections there were 26. From Huerta 's point of view, the fragmentation of the conservative political landscape strengthened his own position. For the country 's conservative elite, "there was a growing disillusionment with Huerta, and disgust at his strong - arm methods. '' Huerta dispensed with the legislature on 26 October 1913, having the army surround its building and arresting congressmen perceived to be hostile to his regime. Congressional elections went ahead, but given that congress was dissolved and some members were in jail, the fervor of opposition candidates disappeared. The sham election "brought home to (Woodrow) Wilson 's administration the fatuity of relying on elections to demonstrate genuine democracy. '' The October 1913 elections were the end of any pretension to constitutional rule in Mexico, with civilian political activity banned. Prominent Catholics were arrested and Catholic newspapers were suppressed.
Huerta militarized Mexico to a greater extent than it already was. In 1913 when Huerta seized power, the army had approximately 50,000 men, but Huerta mandated the number rise to 150,000, then 200,000, and, finally in spring 1914, 250,000. Raising that number of men in so short a time would not occur with volunteers, and the army resorted to the leva, forced conscription. The revolutionary forces had no problem with voluntary recruitment. Most Mexican men avoided government conscription at all cost and the ones dragooned into the forces were sent to areas far away from home and were reluctant to fight. Conscripts deserted, mutinied, and attacked and murdered their officers.
In April 1914, American opposition to Huerta culminated in the seizure and occupation of the port of Veracruz by U.S. marines and sailors. Initially intended, in part, to prevent a German merchant vessel from delivering a shipment of arms to the Huerta regime, the muddled operation evolved into a seven - month stalemate resulting in the death of 193 Mexican soldiers, 19 American servicemen, and an unknown number of civilians. The German ship landed its cargo - largely American - made rifles, in a deal brokered by American businessmen - at a different port. U.S. forces eventually left Veracruz in the hands of the Carrancistas, but with lasting damage to U.S. - Mexican relations.
Huerta 's position continued to deteriorate. In mid-July 1914, after his army suffered several defeats, he stepped down and fled to Puerto México. Seeking to get himself and his family out of Mexico, he turned to the German government, which had generally supported his presidency; the Germans were not eager to allow him to be transported into exile on one of their ships, but relented. Huerta carried "roughly half a million marks in gold with him '' as well as paper currency and checks. In exile, Huerta sought to return to Mexico via the United States and made an alliance with his former adversary, Pascual Orozco. U.S. authorities arrested him and he was imprisoned in Fort Bliss, Texas. He died in January 1916, six months after going into exile.
His resignation marked the end of an era since the Federal Army, a spectacularly ineffective fighting force against the revolutionaries, ceased to exist. The revolutionary factions that had united in opposition to Huerta 's regime now faced a new political landscape with the counter-revolutionaries decisively defeated. The revolutionary armies now contended for power and a new era of civil war began.
With the departure of Huerta in July 1914, the revolutionary factions agreed to meet and make "a last ditch effort to avert more intense warfare than that which unseated Huerta. '' Called to meet in Mexico City in October 1914, revolutionaries opposed to Carranza 's influence successfully moved the venue to Aguascalientes. The Convention of Aguascalientes did not, in fact, reconcile the various victorious factions in the Mexican Revolution, but was a brief pause in revolutionary violence. The break between Carranza and Villa became definitive during the Convention.
Carranza had expected to be confirmed in his position as First Chief of revolutionary forces, but his supporters "lost control of the proceedings. '' Opposition to Carranza was strongest in areas where there were popular and fierce demands for reform, particularly in Chihuahua, where Villa was powerful, and Morelos, where Zapata held sway. The Convention of Aguascalientes brought that opposition out in an open forum.
The revolutionary generals of the Convention called on Carranza to resign executive power. Although Carranza agreed to do so, he laid out conditions for it. He would resign if both Pancho Villa and Emililano Zapata, his main rivals for power, would resign and go into exile, and that there should be a preconstitutionalist government "that would take charge of carrying out the social and political reforms the country needs before a fully constitutional government is reestablished. ''
Rather than First Chief Carranza being named president of Mexico at the convention, General Eulalio Gutiérrez was chosen for a term of 20 days. The convention declared Carranza in rebellion against it. Civil war resumed, this time between revolutionary armies that had fought in a united cause to oust Huerta in 1913 -- 1914. Although during the Convention Constitutionalist general Alvaro Obregón had attempted to be a moderate force and had been the one to convey the Convention 's call for Carranza to resign, when the convention forces declared Carranza in rebellion against it, Obregón supported Carranza rather than Villa and Zapata.
Northern general Pancho Villa went into alliance with southern leader Emiliano Zapata to form the Army of the Convention. Their forces moved separately on the capital and took Mexico City, which Carranza 's forces had abandoned, in December 1914. The famous picture of Zapata and Villa, with Villa sitting in the presidential chair in the National Palace, is a classic image of the Revolution. Villa is reported to have said to Zapata that the presidential "chair is too big for us. ''
In practice, the alliance between Villa and Zapata as the Army of the Convention did not function beyond this initial victory against the Constitutionalists. Villa and Zapata left the capital, with Zapata returning to his southern stronghold in Morelos, where he continued to engage in warfare under the Plan of Ayala. Lacking a firm center of power and leadership, the Convention government was plagued by instability. Villa was the real power emerging from the Convention, and he prepared to strengthen his position by winning a decisive victory against the Constitutionalist Army.
Villa had a well - earned reputation as a fierce and successful general, and the combination of forces arrayed against Carranza by Villa, other northern generals, and Zapata was larger than the Constitutionalist Army, so it was not at all clear that Carranza would prevail. Carranza had the advantage of the loyalty of Alvaro Obregón. Despite Obregón 's moderating actions at the Convention of Aguascalientes, even trying to persuade Carranza to resign his position, he ultimately sided with Carranza.
Another advantage of Carranza 's position was the Constitutionalists ' control of Veracruz, even though the United States still occupied it. The United States had concluded that both Villa and Zapata were too radical and hostile to U.S. interests and sided with the moderate Carranza in the factional fighting. The U.S. timed its exit from Veracruz, brokered at the Niagara Falls peace conference, to benefit Carranza, and allowed munitions to flow to the Constitutionalists. The U.S. granted Carranza 's government diplomatic recognition in 1915.
The rival armies of Villa and Obregón met on 6 -- 15 April 1915 in the Battle of Celaya. The frontal cavalry charges of Villa 's forces were met by the shrewd, modern military tactics of Obregón. The victory of the Constitutionalists was complete, and Carranza emerged as the political leader of Mexico, with a victorious army to keep him in that position. Villa retreated north. Carranza and the Constitutionalists consolidated their position as the winning faction, with Zapata remaining a threat until his assassination in 1919. Villa also remained a threat to the Constitutionalists, complicating their relationship with the United States when he raided Columbus, New Mexico in March 1916, prompting the U.S. to send a Punitive Expedition to capture him.
Venustiano Carranza had proclaimed the Plan of Guadalupe a month after Victoriano Huerta seized power in February 1913, uniting northern factions into a movement to oust Huerta, especially under generals Alvaro Obregón and Pancho Villa. Huerta went into exile in July 1914 and the revolutionary factions sought to decide Mexico 's political future in the Convention of Aguascalientes. Villa broke with Carranza and went into alliance with Emiliano Zapata. General Obregón remained loyal to Carranza and led the Constitutionalist Army to victory over Villa in the Battle of Celaya in April 1915.
Carranza had gained recognition from the United States, which enabled arms sales to his forces. Villa had previously been friendly toward the U.S., but its recognition of Carranza, as well as Villa 's decisive defeat at Celaya, finished him as a major force in Mexico. In 1916, Villa attacked Columbus, New Mexico. Under heavy pressure from public opinion to punish the attackers (stoked mainly by the papers of ultra-conservative publisher William Randolph Hearst, who owned a large estate in Mexico), U.S. President Wilson sent Gen. John J. Pershing and around 5000 troops into Mexico in an attempt to capture Villa. The American intervention, known as the Punitive Expedition, was limited to the western sierras of Chihuahua, and was notable as the U.S. Army 's first use of airplanes in military operations. Villa knew the inhospitable terrain intimately and had little trouble evading his pursuers. After nearly a year the hunt was called off, and Pershing 's force returned to the U.S. Carranza asserted Mexican sovereignty and forced the U.S. to withdraw in 1917.
With the outbreak of World War I in Europe in 1914, foreign powers with significant economic and strategic interests in Mexico -- particularly the U.S., Great Britain, and Germany -- made efforts to sway Mexico to their side, but Mexico maintained a policy of neutrality. In the Zimmermann Telegram, a coded cable from the German government to Carranza 's government, Germany attempted to draw Mexico into war with the United States, which was itself neutral at the time. Carranza did not pursue this policy, but the leaking of the telegram pushed the U.S. into war against Germany in 1917.
The 1913 Plan of Guadalupe was narrowly political, but Carranza sought to consolidate his position with support of the masses by policies of social and agrarian reform. As revolutionary violence subsided in 1916, leaders met to draw up a new constitution, thus making principles for which many of the revolutionaries had fought into law. The Mexican Constitution of 1917 was strongly nationalist, giving the Mexican government the power to expropriate foreign ownership of resources and enabling land reform (Article 27). It also had a strong code protecting organized labor (Article 123), and extended state power over the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico in its role in education (Article 3).
Although villistas and zapatistas were excluded from the Constituent Congress, their political challenge pushed the delegates to radicalize the Constitution, which in turn was far more radical than Carranza himself. While he was elected constitutional president in 1917, he did not implement its most radical elements. He was not in a position to do so in any case, since there were still threats to his regime regionally, despite the relative subsidence of violence nationally.
The Constitutionalist Army was renamed the "Mexican National Army '' and Carranza sent some of its most able generals to eliminate threats. In Morelos, Carranza sent General Pablo González Garza to fight Zapata 's Liberating Army of the South. Although the peasants of Morelos under Emiliano Zapata had not expanded beyond their local region of Morelos and parts of the state of Puebla, Carranza sought to eliminate Zapata. Morelos was very close to Mexico City and not having it under Carranza 's control constituted a vulnerability for his government. Agents of the Carranza regime assassinated Zapata in 1919. Carranza sent Generals Francisco Murguía and Manuel M. Diéguez to track down and eliminate Villa. They were unsuccessful, but did capture and execute one of Villa 's top men, Felipe Angeles.
Carranza pushed for the rights of women and gained women 's support. During his presidency, Carranza relied on his personal secretary and close aide, Hermila Galindo de Topete, to rally and secure support for him. Through her efforts he was able to gain the support of women, workers and peasants. Carranza rewarded her efforts by lobbying for women 's equality. He helped change and reform the legal status of women in Mexico.
After all the bloodshed of the revolution concerning the principle of no - re-election, it was politically impossible for Carranza to run again. Carranza chose to back Ignacio Bonillas, a civilian and political unknown. For Northern generals Alvaro Obregón, Plutarco Elías Calles, and Adolfo de la Huerta, who had fought successfully for the revolution, the candidacy of a civilian and potential Carranza puppet was untenable. They led a revolt against Carranza under the Plan of Agua Prieta. Carranza attempted to flee the country and died on the way to the Gulf Coast.
Carranza 's attempt to impose his civilian candidate for the 1920 election and the opposition of the generals who had ousted him meant that Carranza was not honored as a revolutionary hero in the 1920s and 30s, and Carrancismo was seen as a "deviation '', "the tragic interim of the Carrancista period during which the values of la Revolución were transmuted and for a time defeated. '' His remains were not placed in the Monument to the Revolution until 1942, when Manuel Ávila Camacho was president.
Emiliano Zapata was one of the leading figures in the Mexican Revolution and is now considered one of the national heroes of Mexico: towns, streets and housing developments named "Emiliano Zapata '' are common across the country. His image has been used on Mexican banknotes and there is a Zapata Metro station in Mexico City. Opposed to the Porfirio Díaz regime because of the loss of peasant lands to large haciendas in Morelos, Zapata initially supported Francisco I. Madero, whose Plan de San Luis Potosí promised the return of such lands. When Madero did not implement his promise after becoming president of Mexico, Zapata rebelled against him under the Plan de Ayala.
Many peasants and indigenous Mexicans admired Zapata as a practical revolutionary whose populist battle cry, "Tierra y Libertad '' (Land and Liberty), was spelled out in the Plan de Ayala for land reform. He fought for political and economic emancipation of the peasants in southern and central Mexico. Zapata was killed in 1919, by Gen. Pablo González and his aide, Col. Jesús Guajardo, in an elaborate ambush. Guajardo set up the meeting under the pretext of wanting to defect to Zapata 's side. At the meeting, González 's men assassinated Zapata.
"Zapatista '' originally referred to a member of the revolutionary guerrilla movement founded about 1910 by Zapata. His Liberation Army of the South (Ejército Libertador del Sur) fought during the Mexican Revolution for the redistribution of agricultural land. Zapata and his army and allies, including Pancho Villa, fought for agrarian reform in Mexico. Specifically, they wanted to establish communal land rights for Mexico 's peasants, who had lost their land to the wealthy elite.
The majority of Zapata 's supporters were indigenous peasants from Morelos and surrounding areas, but intellectuals from urban areas later joined the Zapatistas and played a significant part in their movement, specifically the structure and communication of the Zapatista ambitions. Zapata himself had received a limited education in Morelos, only going to school for a few years. Educated supporters helped express his political aims. The urban intellectuals were known as "city boys '' and were predominantly young males. They joined the Zapatistas for many reasons, including curiosity, sympathy, and ambition.
Zapata agreed that intellectuals could work on political strategy, but he had the chief role in proclaiming Zapatista ideology. The supporters from the cities also provided medical care, helped promote and instruct supporters in Zapatista ideology, created a plan for agrarian reform, aided in rebuilding villages destroyed by government forces, wrote manifestos and sent messages from Zapata to other revolutionary leaders.
Zapata 's compadre Otilio Montaño was one of the most prominent intellectuals. Before the Revolution Montaño was a professor. During the Revolution he taught Zapatismo, recruited citizens and wrote the Plan de Ayala for land reform. Other well - known intellectuals were Abraham Martínez, Manuel Palafox, Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama, Pablo Torres Burgos, Gildardo Magaña, Dolores Jiménez y Muro, Enrique Villa and Genaro Amezcua.
Since Zapata 's political ambitions and campaign were usually local, women were able to aid the Zapatista soldiers from their homes. There were also female Zapatista soldiers who served from the beginning of the revolution. When Zapata met with President Madero on 12 July 1911, he was accompanied by his troops. Among them were female soldiers, including officers. Women joined the Zapatistas as soldiers for various reasons, including revenge for dead family members or to perform raids.
Perhaps the most popular Zapatista female soldier was Margarita Neri, who was a commander. Some of the Zapatista women soldiers were killed in battle, and long after the revolution ended many continued to wear men 's clothing and carry pistols. Col. María de la Luz Espinosa Barrera was one of the few whose service was formally recognized with a pension as a veteran of the Mexican Revolution.
Under the Porfiriato, rural peasants suffered the most. The regime confiscated large sections of land, which caused major losses to the agrarian work force. In 1883 the government passed a land law giving ownership of more than 27.5 million hectares of land to foreign companies. By 1894 one out of every five acres of Mexican land was owned by a foreign interest. Many wealthy Mexican families already owned huge estates, resulting in landless rural peasants working on the property as virtual slaves. In 1910 at the beginning of the revolution, about half of the rural population lived and worked on such plantations. The rapid and brutal uprooting of the peasantry contributed greatly to the violent furies unleashed in the Mexican Revolution and its subsequent course, giving it the character of a gigantic peasant war for land that attacked the structure of the Mexican state.
Salvador Alvarado, after taking control of Yucatán in 1915, organized a large Socialist Party and carried out extensive land reform. He confiscated the large landed estates and redistributed the land in smaller plots to the liberated peasants.
Maximo Castillo, a revolutionary brigadier general from Chihuahua was annoyed by the slow pace of land reform under the Madero presidency. He ordered the subdivision of six haciendas belonging to Luis Terrazas, which were given to sharecroppers and tenants.
The first time the United States intervened in the revolution was in 1914, during the Ypiranga incident. When United States intelligence agents received word that the Ypiranga, a German merchant ship, contained illegal firepower for Huerta, President Wilson ordered American troops to the port of Veracruz to stop the ship from docking. Wilson never actually declared war on Mexico. The United States skirmished with Huerta 's troops in Veracruz. The Ypiranga successfully docked at another port and unloaded the arms, which greatly angered Wilson. The ABC Powers arbitrated and U.S. troops left Mexican soil, but the incident added to already tense Mexican - American relations.
In 1916, in retaliation for Pancho Villa 's plunder on Columbus, New Mexico, and the death of 16 United States citizens who were killed when a group of Villistas attacked a train on the Mexico North Western Railway, near Santa Isabel, Chihuahua, President Wilson sent forces commanded by Brig. Gen. John J. Pershing into Mexico to capture Villa. Villa was deeply entrenched in the mountains of northern Mexico, and knew the terrain too well to be captured. Pershing could not continue with his mission and was forced to turn back. This event not only damaged the fragile United States - Mexico relationship, but also gave way to a rise in anti-American sentiment among the Mexicans.
From 1876 -- 1911, relations between the Roman Catholic Church and the Mexican government were stable, with the anticlerical laws of the Mexican Constitution of 1857 remaining in place, but not enforced, so conflict was muted.
During Francisco I. Madero 's presidency (1911 -- 1913), Church - state conflict was channeled peacefully. The National Catholic Party became an important political opposition force during the Madero presidency. In June 1912 congressional elections, "militarily quiescent states... the Catholic Party (PCN) did conspicuously well. '' During that period, the Catholic Association of Mexican Youth (ACJM) was founded. Although the National Catholic Party was an opposition party to the Madero regime, "Madero clearly welcomed the emergence of a kind of two party system (Catholic and liberal); he encouraged Catholic political involvement, echoing the exhortations of the episcopate. '' What was emerging during the Madero regime was "Díaz 's old policy of Church - state detente was being continued, perhaps more rapidly and on surer foundations. '' The Catholic Church was working within the new democratic system promoted by Madero, but it had its own interests to promote, some of which were the forces of the old conservative Church, while the new, progressive Church supporting social Catholicism of the 1891 papal encyclical Rerum Novarum was also a current. When Madero was overthrown in February 1913 by counter-revolutionaries, the conservative wing of the Church supported the coup.
During the counter-revolutionary regime of Huerta (1913 -- 1914), the Catholic Church initially supported him. "The Church represented a force for reaction, especially in the countryside. '' However, when Huerta cracked down on political parties and conservative opposition to Huerta. Huerta had "Gabriel Somellera, president of the (National) Catholic Party arrested; La Nación, which, like other Catholic papers, had protested Congress 's dissolution and the rigged elections (of October 1913), locked horns with the official press and was finally closed down. El País, the main Catholic newspaper, survived for a time. ''
In 1916, the revolution was drawing to a close. Carranza was gaining support from peasants with the promise of a new constitution. This caused Emiliano Zapata 's forces to lose some support, pushing their forces further south. Later that year, Carranza also sent General Gonzales after Zapata, causing further troubles for his Liberation Army of the South. In 1917, the situation was growing worse for Zapata.
Zapata was low on supplies and his lines were moving further south. However, a colonel named Jesús Guajardo from the Federal Army approached him, offering to join with Zapata 's forces. Zapata had misgivings, as previous defectors and former Federal Army generals had betrayed him before. To test Guajardo 's loyalty, Zapata had him attack one of Carranza 's strongholds, which he carried out successfully.
As the war went on in 1919, Zapata began to run out of essential supplies, such as ammunition, and decided to acquire them from Guajardo. Zapata went to Guajardo 's camp to negotiate with the colonel, whom he had not met before. However, Zapata had walked into a trap. Guajardo 's soldiers attacked Zapata, killing him and routing his forces. Venustiano Carranza rewarded Guajardo with a promotion to general and a cash prize of 100,000 pesos for having "successfully completed the difficult commission that was conferred to him. ''
Later that year, Carranza assembled the constitutional convention drafting the new constitution. With this, Carranza also gained support of the communists and anarchists, who were formed into Red Battalions to confront the forces of Villa and those remaining of Zapata 's. This further turned the tide, causing Villa to surrender in 1920. He negotiated a peace deal with Carranza, ending all hostilities and granting him a small estate, thus ending the war.
Later that year, Carranza held elections for the presidency. Alvaro Obregón, Carranza 's best general and a reformist who pushed for the new constitution, was to oppose him for the seat. Carranza orchestrated a sham election, allowing Ignacio Bonillas to win. Carranza then fled to Guerrero where he staged a short coup to bring him into the presidency but was killed on horseback while fleeing from Mexico City to Veracruz.
One of the major issues that faced Alvaro Obregón 's early post-revolution government was stabilizing Mexico. Regional caciques (chiefs) were still fighting each other in small skirmishes. The populace was demanding reforms, promised by the 1917 constitution. Many issues faced the working poor, such as debt peonage and company stores that kept the populace poor. The military had generals who wanted to overthrow the regime and take power for themselves. There were also foreign governments, primarily the United States, who feared Mexico would take a communist turn such as Russia was to do in 1918. Obregón was in a difficult position; he had to appeal to both the left and the right to ensure Mexico would not fall back into civil war.
With regard to the masses, Obregón, who was conservative but still a reformer, started listening to demands to appease the populace. Obregón 's first focus, in 1920, was land reform. He had governors in various states push forward the reforms promised in the 1917 constitution. These were, however, quite limited. Former Zapatistas still had strong influence in the post-revolutionary government, so most of the reforms began in Morelos, the birthplace of the Zapatista movement.
Despite pressures from the U.S., Obregón flirted with the newly formed USSR. To appeal to intellectuals and left - leaning peasants, official Mexican propaganda began having a very Marxist spin. Murals with Lenin and Trotsky began to appear in government buildings. Despite the sympathy towards socialism, the government began to ferment nationalism amongst the peasantry. This was accomplished by memorializing revolutionary figures and creating anti-western murals. Among the artists employed was Diego Rivera, who had a Mexican nationalist and Marxist tinge to his government murals. Despite these moves towards an anti-western and pro-socialist regime, Obregón did not separate the Mexican economy from foreign capitalists, allowing free trade with some restrictions.
Regarding the military, one of his first moves was to incorporate the irregulars who fought in the revolution. He tried to weaken the powers of the ultra-conservative officer corps, who were not friendly to his regime. Some of his reforms began to anger the officer corps, leading to an attempted coup in 1924 that Obregón was able to crush with relative ease.
Shortly after the failed coup, Obregón 's term ended and Sonoran revolutionary Plutarco Elías Calles took power. In an attempt to buffer his regime against further coups, Calles began arming peasants and factory workers with surplus weapons. He continued other reforms pushed by his predecessor, such as land reform and anti-clerical laws to prevent the Catholic Church from influencing the state.
One such move, in regard to land reform, was to nationalize most farmland and give it to the peasants across Mexico. He also put into effect a national school system that was largely secular to combat church influence in late 1924. After two years the church protested the movement by refusing to give the blessed sacrament to the populace. Some peasants also joined in the protests, adding greater land reforms to the list of demands by the rebelling priests. The rebellion was openly supported by the Catholic Church and received funding, beginning the Cristero War.
Meanwhile, in 1927, another military coup was attempted, this time receiving support from land owners. Calles quickly crushed the rebellion with help from the newly mobilized peasant battalions, who later on were used to fight against the Church. In the midst of the mobilized worker 's militias, land reform, and anti-church actions, the American government began to openly declare Mexico a Bolshevik regime. To recover from the backlash, Calles began to tone down the radical rhetoric and slowed land reform policies in 1928. A year later, Calles defeated the church ending the rebellion.
After the war ended in 1929, supporters of Calles and Obregón began to form a united political party called the National Revolutionary Party or PNR. This was to unite the various revolutionary factions of the civil war to prevent further Cristero revolts and build stability.
After a series of interim presidents controlled by the party, Lázaro Cárdenas took power in 1934. Cárdenas was a socialist and began to base government policy on class struggle and empowering the masses. However, not all of his reforms were completely socialist, making him somewhat more centrist than purely socialist. Regardless, his rule was the most radical phase of the post revolution, social revolution.
His first acts of reform in 1935, were aimed towards peasants. Former strongmen within the land owning community were losing political power, so he began to side with the peasants more and more. He also tried to further centralize the government 's power by removing regional caciques, allowing him to push reforms easier. To fill the political vacuum, Cárdenas helped the formation of PNR sponsored peasant leagues, empowering both peasants and the government.
Other reforms included nationalization of key industries such as petroleum, land, and the railroads. To appease workers, Cárdenas furthered provisions to end debt peonage and company stores, which were largely eliminated under his rule, except in the most backwater areas of Mexico. To prevent conservative factions in the military from plotting and to put idle soldiers to work, Cárdenas mobilized the military to build public works projects. That same year another Cristero revolt occurred. This was partially caused by Cárdenas ' mandate for secular education early in his presidency in 1934. The revolt was quickly put down due to lack of official support from the Catholic Church, who told rebels to surrender themselves to the government.
The next year, 1936, to further stabilize his rule, Cárdenas further armed the peasants and workers and begins to organize them into formal militias. This proved to be useful later in his presidency as the militias came to his aid in the final military coup in revolutionary Mexico in 1938.
Seeing no opposition from the bourgeoisie, generals, or conservative landlords, in 1936 Cárdenas began building collective farms called ejidos to help the peasantry, mostly in southern Mexico. These appeased the peasants, creating long - lasting stability; however, they were not very good at feeding large populations, causing an urban food crisis. To alleviate this, Cárdenas co-opted the support of capitalists to build large commercial farms to feed the urban population. This put the final nail in the coffin of the feudal hacienda system, making Mexico a mixed economy, combining agrarian socialism and industrial capitalism by 1940. Cárdenas left office in 1940, marking the end of the social revolution and ushering in half a century of relative stability.
Mexico continues to consider the meaning of the Revolution. The construction of historical memory is manifested in the built landscape, such as the Monument to the Revolution in Mexico City, names of Mexico City Metro stations, and names of towns and neighborhoods of major cities. Mexican banknotes also commemorate Mexican revolutionaries, most prominently Plutarco Elías Calles, revolutionary general, president of Mexico, and founder of the political party that has dominated Mexico almost continuously from 1919. Lázaro Cárdenas, revolutionary general and president of Mexico, who is often credited with revitalizing the Revolution, is commemorated on a banknote. In 1996, low denomination Mexican peso notes were printed with the image of peasant revolutionary Emiliano Zapata. The banknotes were withdrawn in 1997. The obverse of the withdrawn banknote depicted the Zapata statue erected in Cuautla in 1932 by Oliverio Martínez showing Zapata in full charro attire seated on a fine horse, placing his hand on the shoulder of a peasant with a machete.
The Monument to the Revolution was created from the partially built Palacio Legislativo, a major project of Díaz 's government. The construction was abandoned with the outbreak of the Revolution in 1910. In 1933 during the Maximato of Plutarco Elías Calles the shell was re-purposed to commemorate the Revolution. Buried in the four pillars are the remains of Francisco I. Madero, Venustiano Carranza, Plutarco Elías Calles, Lázaro Cárdenas, and Francisco (Pancho) Villa. In life, Villa fought Carranza and Calles, but his remains were transferred to the monument in 1979 during the administration of President José López Portillo.
Emiliano Zapata is buried in Cuautla, Morelos, near where he was assassinated in 1919. Since 1920 yearly ceremonies commemorate his assassination at his grave. In 1923, as president of Mexico, Álvaro Obregón sent an envoy to the ceremony in Cuautla and paid the expenses of other officials from the capital to attend.
Another revolutionary monument is to General Álvaro Obregón, who defeated Villa in the 1915 Battle of Celaya; the monument is on the site of the restaurant La Bombilla, where he was assassinated in 1928. Obregón 's preserved arm was entombed there, in "the world 's tallest mausoleum '', a "huge Stalinist chimney commissioned by Aarón Sáenz, '' located off Insurgentes Sur in Mexico City. The Monument to Álvaro Obregón was completed in 1935, during the presidential term of fellow revolutionary general Lázaro Cárdenas and contained Obregón 's arm, preserved in formaldehyde container. In 1989, the government announced the arm would be cremated.
The Mexico City Metro has stations commemorating aspects of the Revolution and the revolutionary era. When it opened in 1969, with line 1 (the "Pink Line ''), two stations alluded to the Revolution. Most directly referencing the Revolution was Metro Pino Suárez, named after Francisco I. Madero 's vice president, who was murdered with him in February 1913. The other was Metro Balderas, whose icon is a cannon, alluding to the Ciudadela armory where the coup against Madero was launched. In 1970, Metro Revolución opened, with the station at the Monument to the Revolution. As the Metro expanded, further stations with names from the revolutionary era opened. In 1980, two popular heroes of the Revolution were honored, with Metro Zapata explicitly commemorating the peasant revolutionary from Morelos. A sideways commemoration was Metro División del Norte, named after the Army that Pancho Villa commanded until its demise in the Battle of Celaya in 1915. The year 1997 saw the opening of the Metro Lázaro Cárdenas station. In 1988, Metro Aquiles Serdán honors the first martyr of the Revolution Aquiles Serdán. In 1994, Metro Constitución de 1917 opened, as did Metro Garibaldi, named after the grandson of Italian fighter for independence, Giuseppi Garibaldi. The grandson had been a participant in the Mexican Revolution. In 1999, the radical anarchist Ricardo Flores Magón was honored with the Metro Ricardo Flores Magón station. Also opening in 1999 was Metro Romero Rubio, named after the leader of Porfirio Díaz 's Científicos, whose daughter Carmen Romero Rubio became Díaz 's second wife. In 2012, a new Metro line opened with a Metro Hospital 20 de Noviembre stop, a hospital named after the date that Francisco I. Madero in his 1910 Plan de San Luis Potosí, called for rebellion against Díaz. There is no Metro stop named for Madero, or for Carranza, Obregón, or Calles, and only an oblique reference to Villa in Metro División del Norte.
In Mexico City, there are colonias (boroughs) named for Alvaro Obregón, Venustiano Carranza, and Gustavo A. Madero, brother of murdered president Francisco I. Madero. There is a portion of the old colonial street Calle de los Plateros leading to the main square zócalo of the capital named Francisco I. Madero.
The popular heroes of the Mexican Revolution are the two radicals who lost: Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. Dynamic equestrian statues of popular revolutionaries Zapata and Villa were erected in their respective strongholds. Zapata 's name was appropriated by the rebels of Chiapas, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) while those who took and held power have a far more muted historical remembrance. Venustiano Carranza led the victorious Constitutionalist faction, but his attempt to impose a civilian presidential successor unacceptable to northern revolutionary generals prompted Carranza 's flight from Mexico City in 1920 and then murder. Carranza is now buried in the Monument to the Revolution and there is a museum in his honor. In that museum, "are the bullets taken from the body of Francisco I. Madero after his murder. Carranza had kept them in his home, perhaps because they were a symbol of a fate and a passive denouement he had always hoped to avoid. '' Revolutionary general Plutarco Elías Calles founded the single-most political party in Mexico 's twentieth century, but his attempt to continue his control to the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas resulted in Cárdenas expelling him from Mexico. Neither Carranza nor Calles has much of note named for them in Mexico, although both are significant figures in the country 's history.
The role of women in the Mexican Revolution has been an important aspect of historical memory. In the Historical Museum of the Mexican Revolution, there is a recreation of Adelita, the idealized female revolutionary combatant or soldadera. The typical image of a soldadera is of a woman with braids, wearing female attire, with ammunition belts across her chest. There were a few revolutionary women, known as coronelas who commanded troops, some of whom dressed and identified as male, who do not fit the image stereotypical soldadera and are not celebrated in historical memory at present.
An important element the Revolution 's legacy is the 1917 Constitution. It was pushed forward by populist generals within Carranza 's government to undermine the popular support that Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata held. It was not written by liberal elites or the military itself, but rather young radicalized professionals, giving the document some authenticity for the peasantry. The document brought numerous reforms demanded by populist factions of the revolution, with article 27 empowering the state to expropriate resources deemed vital to the nation. These included expropriation of hacienda lands and redistribution to peasants. Article 27 also empowered the government to expropriate holdings of foreign companies, most prominently seen in the 1938 expropriation of oil. In Article 123 the constitution codified major labor reforms, including an 8 - hour work day, a right to strike, equal pay laws for women, and an end to exploitative practices such as child labor and company stores. The constitution strengthened restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico. In the early 1990s, the government introduced reforms to the constitution that rolled back the government 's power to expropriate property and its restrictions on religious institutions. Just as the government of Carlos Salinas de Gortari was amending significant provisions of the constitution, Metro Constitución de 1917 station was opened.
The PRI, or Institutional Revolutionary Party is one of the major lasting legacies of the Mexican Revolution; its first iteration was the Partido Nacional Revolucionario founded in 1929 under Northern revolutionary general and president of Mexico (1924 -- 1928) Plutarco Elías Calles, following the assassination of president - elect (and former president) Álvaro Obregón in 1928. The establishment of the party created an enduring structure that managed not only presidential succession but also groups with competing interests. Initially, Calles remained the power behind the presidency during a period known as the Maximato, but his hand - picked presidential candidate, Lázaro Cárdenas, won a power struggle with Calles, expelling him from the country. Cárdenas reorganized the party that Calles founded, creating formal sectors for interest groups, including one for the Mexican military. The reorganized party was named Party of the Mexican Revolution. In 1946, the party again changed its name to the Institutional Revolutionary Party. The party under its various names held the presidency from 1929 to 2000 and since 2012, is the party again in power.
The PRI was built as a big tent corporatist party, to bring many political factions and interest groups (peasantry, labor, urban professionals) together, while excluding conservatives and Catholics, who eventually formed the opposition National Action Party in 1939.
To funnel the populace into the party, Calles and his supporters built various delegations composed of popular, agrarian, labor, and military groupings (the military was dropped from the party when it reorganized as the PRI in 1946), which channeled both political patronage and limited political options of those sectors. This structure strengthened the power of the PRI and the government. Union and peasant leaders themselves gained power of patronage, and the discontent of the membership was channeled through them. If organizational leaders could not resolve a situation or gain benefits for their members, it was they who were blamed for being ineffective brokers. There was the appearance of union and peasant leagues ' power, but the effective power was in the hands of the PRI. Under PRI leadership before the 2000 elections which saw the conservative National Action Party elected most power came from a Central Executive Committee, which budgeted all government projects. This effectively turned the legislature into a rubber stamp for the PRI 's leadership.
The Party 's name expresses the Mexican state 's incorporation of the idea of revolution, and especially a continuous, nationalist, anti-imperialist, Mexican revolution, into political discourse, and its legitimization as a popular, revolutionary party. The Revolution was a powerful memory and its slogans and promises were utilized to bolster the party 's power. Latterly, some historians have written of the "myth '' of the revolution, namely the memory of the revolution was exploited by the party to legitimatize its rule with one historian Macario Schettino writing: "the twentieth century is for Mexico, the century of the Mexican revolution. But this is a concept, not a fact. The Revolution which marks the twentieth century... never happened. The Mexican Revolution, on which was founded the political regime which ruled from 1928 and for nearly seventy years is a cultural construction ''. In 1975, the political scientist Rafael Segovia wrote that "the mythification of the Mexican Revolution is an omnipresent and indisputable fact '' of Mexican life with the memory of the revolution becoming in the words of the British historian Alan Knight a sort of "secular religion '' that justified the Party 's rule. In particular, the memory of the revolution was used as justification for the party 's policies with regard to economic nationalism, educational policies, labour policies, indigenismo and land reform.
The Party has been very authoritarian and hierarchical, leaving little room for opposition. However, it was not interested in oppression for its own sake. Its main goal was to keep order, preferring pragmatism over ideology. Throughout its rule in post-revolutionary Mexico, it avoided empowering one faction too much, preferring to build its own ruling caste rather than side with another. It tended to play off both sides of the political spectrum, both the populists and the emerging middle class.
The tradition of strong - man rule was not completely thrown away, presidentialism (presidencialismo), the political arrangement of a powerful executive branch centered in the presidency, became the favored style of post-revolutionary politics.
In 1988, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of president Lázaro Cárdenas, broke with the PRI, forming an independent leftist party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution, or PRD. It is not by chance that the party used the word "Revolution '' in its name, challenging the Institutional Revolutionary Party 's appropriation of the Mexican Revolution. Earlier, there was a leftist party the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution, which never functioned as a full political party fielding presidential candidates, but asserted its legitimacy as the party of Revolution in Mexico until its demise.
In this the Mexican Revolution was not revolutionary, only making the mechanisms of power less autocratic and more efficient in the attainment of its interests. Octavio Paz wrote that the revolution strengthened the Mexican state more than ever, making Mexico a very state - centered and patrimonialist society. In such a development they betrayed their acknowledged liberal predecessors of the Restored Republic of 1867 -- 1876 which saw the most significant break from authoritarian politics in Mexico 's history.
A more modern legacy is that of another insurgency from the 1990s, taking its name from Emiliano Zapata, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (Ejécito Zapatista de Liberación Nacional). The neo-Zapatista revolt began in Chiapas, which was very reliant and supportive of the revolutionary reforms, especially the ejido system, which it had pioneered before Cárdenas took power. Most revolutionary gains were reversed in the early 1990s by President Salinas, who began moving away from the agrarian socialist policies of the late post revolution period in favor of modern finance capitalism. This culminated in the removal of the ejido system in Chiapas. The destruction of what little the poor starving peasants had caused them to revolt. Calling to Mexico 's revolutionary heritage, the EZLN draws heavily from early revolutionary rhetoric. It is inspired by many of Zapata 's policies, including a call for decentralized local rule.
The Mexican Revolution brought about various social changes. First, the leaders of the Porfiriato lost their political power (but kept their economic power), and the middle class started to enter the public administration. "At this moment the bureaucrat, the government officer, the leader were born (...) ''. The army opened the sociopolitical system and became the main institution of the Revolution. Its importance can be observed in the percentage of government positions occupied by the military: while during Madero 's administration it was 0 %, during Calles ' government it was from 50 % to 60 %. The new ruling class increased its economic power through the possession of real estate and businesses. Nonetheless, they did not become a long - investment type of bourgeoisie, but rather one that amassed a significant number of real estate and spent their money on luxuries and pleasure.
On the other hand, although the proportion between rural and urban population, and the number of workers and the middle class remained practically the same, the Mexican Revolution brought substantial qualitative changes to the cities. Big rural landlords moved to the city escaping from chaos in the rural areas. Some poor farmers also migrated to the cities and they settled on neighborhoods where the Porfiriato elite used to live. The standard of living in the cities grew: it went from contributing to 42 % of the national GDP to 60 % by 1940. However, social inequality remained.
The greatest change occurred among the rural population. The agrarian reform allowed the revolutionary fighters to own lands, thus creating a new social class known as "ejidatarios ''. However, the structure of land ownership did not help rural development and impoverished even more the rural population. "From 1934 to 1940 wages fell 25 % on rural areas, while for city workers wages increased by 20 % ''. "There was a lack of food, there was not much to sell and even less to buy. (...) the habit of sleeping in the floor remains, (...) diet is limited to beans, tortilla, and chili pepper; clothing is poor ''. Peasants temporarily migrated to other regions to work in the production of certain crops where they were frequently exploited, abused, and suffered from various diseases. Others decided to migrate to the United States.
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the concept of a bundle of rights refers to | Bundle of rights - wikipedia
The bundle of rights is a metaphor to explain the complexities of property ownership. Law school professors of introductory property law courses frequently use this conceptualization to describe "full '' property ownership as a partition of various entitlements of different stakeholders.
The bundle of rights is commonly taught in US first - year law school property classes to explain how a property can simultaneously be "owned '' by multiple parties. The term, "bundle of rights, '' likely came into use during the late 19th century and continued to gain ground thereafter. Prior to that, the idea of property entailed more the owner 's dominion over a thing, placing restrictions on others from "messing '' with the owner 's property. "Bundle of rights, '' however, implies rules specifying, proscribing, or authorizing actions on the part of the owner.
Ownership of land is a much more complex proposition than simply acquiring all the rights to it. It is useful to imagine a bundle of rights that can be separated and reassembled. A "bundle of sticks '' - in which each stick represents an individual right -- is a common analogy made for the bundle of rights. Any property owner possesses a set of "sticks '' related directly to the land.
For example, perfection of a mechanic 's lien takes some, but not all, rights out of the bundle held by the owner. Extinguishing that lien returns those rights or "sticks '' to the bundle held by the owner. In the United States (and under common law) the fullest possible title to real estate is called "fee simple absolute. '' Even the US federal government 's ownership of land is restricted in some ways by state property law.
Variations on the division between public and private property use can be found throughout the world. While the bundle of rights concept is strongly rooted in common law, there are comparable ideas in civil law systems and religious law systems. National, sub-national, and municipal laws strongly influence what title owners can do with their property in terms of physical development. Quasi-governmental bodies (such as utility companies) are also permitted to create easements across private property.
Historically the degrees of individual and community control over real property have varied greatly. The differences between capitalism, despotism, socialism, feudalism, and traditional societies often define different standards for land ownership. The bundle of rights concept looks much different when examined by different types of societies. For instance, a laissez - faire government would allow a much different bundle of rights than a communist government.
Bundle of Rights - Simply put are rights inherent with the property. The right to use, the right to sell, right to mortgage, right to lease, right to give away, and right to enter. Or the right to refuse to exercise any of these rights. This is subject to certain limitations.
Community land trusts and land banking are examples of efforts to rearrange the bundle of rights. This is typically done by dividing the responsibilities of ownership and management from the rights to use the property. A typical community land trust strategy is to hold ownership over the land and sell the structural improvements (residential or other buildings) to low - income homebuyers. This allows people to buy a home at a price far below the market rate and to realize the benefits of their property value improving.
Real Estate Investment Trusts divide up the bundle of rights in order to allow commercial investments in real property. These legal structures are becoming more common throughout the developed world.
Squatting presents a non-economic way for people to transfer parts of the bundle of rights. Depending on the applicable laws, a squatter can acquire property rights by simply occupying vacant land for an extended period of time. Areas with high concentrations of squatters are sometimes thought of as informal settlements. Squatters face great instability due to their lack of title and governmental efforts at "blight removal ''.
"Squatting '' can result in "adverse possession '', that in common law, is the process by which title to another 's real property is acquired without compensation, by holding the property in a manner that conflicts with the true owner 's rights for a specified period of time. Circumstances of the adverse possession determine the type of title acquired by the adverse possessor, which may be fee simple title, mineral rights, or another interest in real property.
This table breaks down some of the various rights involved in real property ownership. Several of these rights can be transferred between different parties through sale or trade. Third parties can obtain the rights to access and profit from several of the public use rights without the consent of the title owner. This is often the case with resource extraction companies such as mines.
For example, a husband and wife can be owners (technically, title owners) of real property that is also encumbered by a mortgage and a mechanics lien. Their neighbor may have an easement for a utility line, and a license for entry and exit to a nearby plot of land. Airplanes have the right to fly through their airspace. Constitutionally, the state and federal governments always hold the right to condemnation, also called eminent domain, and the government at multiple levels retains various regulatory rights such as environmental regulation, zoning, and building code enforcement.
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story line of the play merchant of venice | The Merchant of Venice - wikipedia
The Merchant of Venice is a 16th - century play written by William Shakespeare in which a merchant in Venice must default on a large loan provided by a Jewish moneylender. It is believed to have been written between 1596 and 1599. Though classified as a comedy in the First Folio and sharing certain aspects with Shakespeare 's other romantic comedies, the play is most remembered for its dramatic scenes, and it is best known for Shylock and the famous "Hath not a Jew eyes? '' speech on humanity. Also notable is Portia 's speech about "the quality of mercy ''. Critic Harold Bloom listed it among Shakespeare 's great comedies.
Bassanio, a young Venetian of noble rank, wishes to woo the beautiful and wealthy heiress Portia of Belmont. Having squandered his estate, he needs 3,000 ducats to subsidise his expenditures as a suitor. Bassanio approaches his friend Antonio, a wealthy merchant of Venice who has previously and repeatedly bailed him out. Antonio agrees, but since he is cash - poor -- his ships and merchandise are busy at sea to Tripolis, the Indies, Mexico and England -- he promises to cover a bond if Bassanio can find a lender, so Bassanio turns to the Jewish moneylender Shylock and names Antonio as the loan 's guarantor.
Antonio has already antagonized Shylock through his outspoken antisemitism and because Antonio 's habit of lending money without interest forces Shylock to charge lower rates. Shylock is at first reluctant to grant the loan, citing abuse he has suffered at Antonio 's hand. He finally agrees to lend the sum to Bassanio without interest upon one condition: if Antonio is unable to repay it at the specified date, Shylock may take a pound of Antonio 's flesh. Bassanio does not want Antonio to accept such a risky condition; Antonio is surprised by what he sees as the moneylender 's generosity (no "usance '' -- interest -- is asked for), and he signs the contract. With money at hand, Bassanio leaves for Belmont with his friend Gratiano, who has asked to accompany him. Gratiano is a likeable young man, but he is often flippant, overly talkative, and tactless. Bassanio warns his companion to exercise self - control, and the two leave for Belmont.
Meanwhile, in Belmont, Portia is awash with suitors. Her father left a will stipulating each of her suitors must choose correctly from one of three caskets -- one each of gold, silver and lead. If he picks the right casket, he gets Portia. The first suitor, the Prince of Morocco, chooses the gold casket, interpreting its slogan, "Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire '', as referring to Portia. The second suitor, the conceited Prince of Arragon, chooses the silver casket, which proclaims, "Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves '', as he believes he is full of merit. Both suitors leave empty - handed, having rejected the lead casket because of the baseness of its material and the uninviting nature of its slogan, "Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath ''. The last suitor is Bassanio, whom Portia wishes to succeed, having met him before. As Bassanio ponders his choice, members of Portia 's household sing a song that says that "fancy '' (not true love) is "engend'red in the eyes, / With gazing fed ''; Bassanio chooses the lead casket and wins Portia 's hand.
At Venice, Antonio 's ships are reported lost at sea, so the merchant can not repay the bond. Shylock has become more determined to exact revenge from Christians because his daughter Jessica eloped with the Christian Lorenzo and converted. She took a substantial amount of Shylock 's wealth with her, as well as a turquoise ring which Shylock had been given by his late wife, Leah. Shylock has Antonio brought before court.
At Belmont, Bassanio receives a letter telling him that Antonio has been unable to repay the loan from Shylock. Portia and Bassanio marry, as do Gratiano and Portia 's handmaid Nerissa. Bassanio and Gratiano leave for Venice, with money from Portia, to save Antonio 's life by offering the money to Shylock. Unknown to Bassanio and Gratiano, Portia sent her servant, Balthazar, to seek the counsel of Portia 's cousin, Bellario, a lawyer, at Padua.
The climax of the play takes place in the court of the Duke of Venice. Shylock refuses Bassanio 's offer of 6,000 ducats, twice the amount of the loan. He demands his pound of flesh from Antonio. The Duke, wishing to save Antonio but unable to nullify a contract, refers the case to a visitor. He identifies himself as Balthazar, a young male "doctor of the law '', bearing a letter of recommendation to the Duke from the learned lawyer Bellario. The doctor is Portia in disguise, and the law clerk who accompanies her is Nerissa, also disguised as a man. As Balthazar, Portia repeatedly asks Shylock to show mercy in a famous speech, advising him that mercy "is twice blest: It blesseth him that gives and him that takes '' (IV, i, 185). However, Shylock adamantly refuses any compensations and insists on the pound of flesh.
As the court grants Shylock his bond and Antonio prepares for Shylock 's knife, Portia deftly appropriates Shylock 's argument for "specific performance ''. She says that the contract allows Shylock to remove only the flesh, not the "blood '', of Antonio (see quibble). Thus, if Shylock were to shed any drop of Antonio 's blood, his "lands and goods '' would be forfeited under Venetian laws. She tells him that he must cut precisely one pound of flesh, no more, no less; she advises him that "if the scale do turn, But in the estimation of a hair, Thou diest and all thy goods are confiscate. ''
Defeated, Shylock concedes to accepting Bassanio 's offer of money for the defaulted bond, first his offer to pay "the bond thrice '', which Portia rebuffs, telling him to take his bond, and then merely the principal, which Portia also prevents him from doing on the ground that he has already refused it "in the open court ''. She cites a law under which Shylock, as a Jew and therefore an "alien '', having attempted to take the life of a citizen, has forfeited his property, half to the government and half to Antonio, leaving his life at the mercy of the Duke. The Duke pardons Shylock 's life. Antonio asks for his share "in use '' until Shylock 's death, when the principal will be given to Lorenzo and Jessica. At Antonio 's request, the Duke grants remission of the state 's half of forfeiture, but on the condition that Shylock convert to Christianity and bequeath his entire estate to Lorenzo and Jessica (IV, i).
Bassanio does not recognise his disguised wife, but offers to give a present to the supposed lawyer. First she declines, but after he insists, Portia requests his ring and Antonio 's gloves. Antonio parts with his gloves without a second thought, but Bassanio gives the ring only after much persuasion from Antonio, as earlier in the play he promised his wife never to lose, sell or give it. Nerissa, as the lawyer 's clerk, succeeds in likewise retrieving her ring from Gratiano, who does not see through her disguise.
At Belmont, Portia and Nerissa taunt and pretend to accuse their husbands before revealing they were really the lawyer and his clerk in disguise (V). After all the other characters make amends, Antonio learns from Portia that three of his ships were not stranded and have returned safely after all.
The forfeit of a merchant 's deadly bond after standing surety for a friend 's loan was a common tale in England in the late 16th century. In addition, the test of the suitors at Belmont, the merchant 's rescue from the "pound of flesh '' penalty by his friend 's new wife disguised as a lawyer, and her demand for the betrothal ring in payment are all elements present in the 14th - century tale Il Pecorone by Giovanni Fiorentino, which was published in Milan in 1558. Elements of the trial scene are also found in The Orator by Alexandre Sylvane, published in translation in 1596. The story of the three caskets can be found in Gesta Romanorum, a collection of tales probably compiled at the end of the 13th century.
The date of composition for The Merchant of Venice is believed to be between 1596 and 1598. The play was mentioned by Francis Meres in 1598, so it must have been familiar on the stage by that date. The title page of the first edition in 1600 states that it had been performed "divers times '' by that date. Salerino 's reference to his ship the Andrew (I, i, 27) is thought to be an allusion to the Spanish ship St. Andrew, captured by the English at Cádiz in 1596. A date of 1596 -- 97 is considered consistent with the play 's style.
The play was entered in the Register of the Stationers Company, the method at that time of obtaining copyright for a new play, by James Roberts on 22 July 1598 under the title The Merchant of Venice, otherwise called The Jew of Venice. On 28 October 1600 Roberts transferred his right to the play to the stationer Thomas Heyes; Heyes published the first quarto before the end of the year. It was printed again in 1619, as part of William Jaggard 's so - called False Folio. (Afterward, Thomas Heyes ' son and heir Laurence Heyes asked for and was granted a confirmation of his right to the play, on 8 July 1619.) The 1600 edition is generally regarded as being accurate and reliable. It is the basis of the text published in the 1623 First Folio, which adds a number of stage directions, mainly musical cues.
The play is frequently staged today, but is potentially troubling to modern audiences because of its central themes, which can easily appear antisemitic. Critics today still continue to argue over the play 's stance on the Jews and Judaism.
English society in the Elizabethan era has been described as "judeophobic ''. English Jews had been expelled under Edward I in 1290 and were not permitted to return until 1656 under the rule of Oliver Cromwell. In Venice and in some other places, Jews were required to wear a red hat at all times in public to make sure that they were easily identified, and had to live in a ghetto protected by Christian guards.
Shakespeare 's play may be seen as a continuation of this tradition. The title page of the Quarto indicates that the play was sometimes known as The Jew of Venice in its day, which suggests that it was seen as similar to Marlowe 's The Jew of Malta. One interpretation of the play 's structure is that Shakespeare meant to contrast the mercy of the main Christian characters with the vengefulness of a Jew, who lacks the religious grace to comprehend mercy. Similarly, it is possible that Shakespeare meant Shylock 's forced conversion to Christianity to be a "happy ending '' for the character, as, to a Christian audience, it saves his soul and allows him to enter Heaven.
Regardless of what Shakespeare 's authorial intent may have been, the play has been made use of by antisemites throughout the play 's history. The Nazis used the usurious Shylock for their propaganda. Shortly after Kristallnacht in 1938, The Merchant of Venice was broadcast for propagandistic ends over the German airwaves. Productions of the play followed in Lübeck (1938), Berlin (1940), and elsewhere within the Nazi territory.
In a series of articles called Observer, first published in 1785, British playwright Richard Cumberland created a character named Abraham Abrahams, who is quoted as saying, "I verily believe the odious character of Shylock has brought little less persecution upon us, poor scattered sons of Abraham, than the Inquisition itself. '' Cumberland later wrote a successful play, The Jew (1794), in which his title character, Sheva, is portrayed sympathetically, as both a kindhearted and generous man. This was the first known attempt by a dramatist to reverse the negative stereotype that Shylock personified.
The depiction of Jews in literature throughout the centuries bears the close imprint of Shylock. With slight variations much of English literature up until the 20th century depicts the Jew as "a monied, cruel, lecherous, avaricious outsider tolerated only because of his golden hoard ''.
Many modern readers and theatregoers have read the play as a plea for tolerance, noting that Shylock is a sympathetic character. They cite as evidence that Shylock 's "trial '' at the end of the play is a mockery of justice, with Portia acting as a judge when she has no right to do so. The characters who berated Shylock for dishonesty resort to trickery in order to win. In addition, Shakespeare gives Shylock one of his most eloquent speeches:
Salerio. Why, I am sure, if he forfeit, thou wilt not take his flesh. What 's that good for? Shylock. To bait fish withal; if it will feed nothing else, it will feed my revenge. He hath disgraced me and hindered me half a million, laughed at my losses, mocked at my gains, scorned my nation, thwarted my bargains, cooled my friends, heated mine enemies -- and what 's his reason? I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions; fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in that. If a Jew wrong a Christian, what is his humility? Revenge. If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me, I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction.
It is difficult to know whether the sympathetic reading of Shylock is entirely due to changing sensibilities among readers -- or whether Shakespeare, a writer who created complex, multi-faceted characters, deliberately intended this reading.
One of the reasons for this interpretation is that Shylock 's painful status in Venetian society is emphasised. To some critics, Shylock 's celebrated "Hath not a Jew eyes? '' speech redeems him and even makes him into something of a tragic figure; in the speech, Shylock argues that he is no different from the Christian characters. Detractors note that Shylock ends the speech with a tone of revenge: "if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? '' Those who see the speech as sympathetic point out that Shylock says he learned the desire for revenge from the Christian characters: "If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me, I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction. ''
Even if Shakespeare did not intend the play to be read this way, the fact that it retains its power on stage for audiences who may perceive its central conflicts in radically different terms is an illustration of the subtlety of Shakespeare 's characterisations. In the trial Shylock represents what Elizabethan Christians believed to be the Jewish desire for "justice '', contrasted with their obviously superior Christian value of mercy. The Christians in the courtroom urge Shylock to love his enemies, although they themselves have failed in the past. Jewish critic Harold Bloom suggests that, although the play gives merit to both cases, the portraits are not even - handed: "Shylock 's shrewd indictment of Christian hypocrisy delights us, but... Shakespeare 's intimations do not alleviate the savagery of his portrait of the Jew... ''
Antonio 's unexplained depression -- "In sooth I know not why I am so sad '' -- and utter devotion to Bassanio has led some critics to theorise that he is suffering from unrequited love for Bassanio and is depressed because Bassanio is coming to an age where he will marry a woman. In his plays and poetry Shakespeare often depicted strong male bonds of varying homosociality, which has led some critics to infer that Bassanio returns Antonio 's affections despite his obligation to marry:
ANTONIO: Commend me to your honourable wife: Tell her the process of Antonio 's end, Say how I lov 'd you, speak me fair in death; And, when the tale is told, bid her be judge Whether Bassanio had not once a love. BASSANIO: But life itself, my wife, and all the world Are not with me esteemed above thy life; I would lose all, ay, sacrifice them all Here to this devil, to deliver you. (IV, i)
In his essay "Brothers and Others '', published in The Dyer 's Hand, W.H. Auden describes Antonio as "a man whose emotional life, though his conduct may be chaste, is concentrated upon a member of his own sex. '' Antonio 's feelings for Bassanio are likened to a couplet from Shakespeare 's Sonnets: "But since she pricked thee out for women 's pleasure, / Mine be thy love, and my love 's use their treasure. '' Antonio, says Auden, embodies the words on Portia 's leaden casket: "Who chooseth me, must give and hazard all he hath. '' Antonio has taken this potentially fatal turn because he despairs, not only over the loss of Bassanio in marriage but also because Bassanio can not requite what Antonio feels for him. Antonio 's frustrated devotion is a form of idolatry: the right to live is yielded for the sake of the loved one. There is one other such idolator in the play: Shylock himself. "Shylock, however unintentionally, did, in fact, hazard all for the sake of destroying the enemy he hated, and Antonio, however unthinkingly he signed the bond, hazarded all to secure the happiness of the man he loved. '' Both Antonio and Shylock, agreeing to put Antonio 's life at a forfeit, stand outside the normal bounds of society. There was, states Auden, a traditional "association of sodomy with usury '', reaching back at least as far as Dante, with which Shakespeare was likely familiar. (Auden sees the theme of usury in the play as a comment on human relations in a mercantile society.)
Other interpreters of the play regard Auden 's conception of Antonio 's sexual desire for Bassanio as questionable. Michael Radford, director of the 2004 film version starring Al Pacino, explained that, although the film contains a scene where Antonio and Bassanio actually kiss, the friendship between the two is platonic, in line with the prevailing view of male friendship at the time. Jeremy Irons, in an interview, concurs with the director 's view and states that he did not "play Antonio as gay ''. Joseph Fiennes, however, who plays Bassanio, encouraged a homoerotic interpretation and, in fact, surprised Irons with the kiss on set, which was filmed in one take. Fiennes defended his choice, saying "I would never invent something before doing my detective work in the text. If you look at the choice of language... you 'll read very sensuous language. That 's the key for me in the relationship. The great thing about Shakespeare and why he 's so difficult to pin down is his ambiguity. He 's not saying they 're gay or they 're straight, he 's leaving it up to his actors. I feel there has to be a great love between the two characters... there 's great attraction. I do n't think they have slept together but that 's for the audience to decide. ''
The earliest performance of which a record has survived was held at the court of King James in the spring of 1605, followed by a second performance a few days later, but there is no record of any further performances in the 17th century. In 1701, George Granville staged a successful adaptation, titled The Jew of Venice, with Thomas Betterton as Bassanio. This version (which featured a masque) was popular, and was acted for the next forty years. Granville cut the clownish Gobbos in line with neoclassical decorum; he added a jail scene between Shylock and Antonio, and a more extended scene of toasting at a banquet scene. Thomas Doggett was Shylock, playing the role comically, perhaps even farcically. Rowe expressed doubts about this interpretation as early as 1709; Doggett 's success in the role meant that later productions would feature the troupe clown as Shylock.
In 1741, Charles Macklin returned to the original text in a very successful production at Drury Lane, paving the way for Edmund Kean seventy years later (see below).
Arthur Sullivan wrote incidental music for the play in 1871.
Jewish actor Jacob Adler and others report that the tradition of playing Shylock sympathetically began in the first half of the 19th century with Edmund Kean, and that previously the role had been played "by a comedian as a repulsive clown or, alternatively, as a monster of unrelieved evil. '' Kean 's Shylock established his reputation as an actor.
From Kean 's time forward, all of the actors who have famously played the role, with the exception of Edwin Booth, who played Shylock as a simple villain, have chosen a sympathetic approach to the character; even Booth 's father, Junius Brutus Booth, played the role sympathetically. Henry Irving 's portrayal of an aristocratic, proud Shylock (first seen at the Lyceum in 1879, with Portia played by Ellen Terry) has been called "the summit of his career ''. Jacob Adler was the most notable of the early 20th century: Adler played the role in Yiddish - language translation, first in Manhattan 's Yiddish Theater District in the Lower East Side, and later on Broadway, where, to great acclaim, he performed the role in Yiddish in an otherwise English - language production.
Kean and Irving presented a Shylock justified in wanting his revenge; Adler 's Shylock evolved over the years he played the role, first as a stock Shakespearean villain, then as a man whose better nature was overcome by a desire for revenge, and finally as a man who operated not from revenge but from pride. In a 1902 interview with Theater magazine, Adler pointed out that Shylock is a wealthy man, "rich enough to forgo the interest on three thousand ducats '' and that Antonio is "far from the chivalrous gentleman he is made to appear. He has insulted the Jew and spat on him, yet he comes with hypocritical politeness to borrow money of him. '' Shylock 's fatal flaw is to depend on the law, but "would he not walk out of that courtroom head erect, the very apotheosis of defiant hatred and scorn? ''
Some modern productions take further pains to show the sources of Shylock 's thirst for vengeance. For instance, in the 2004 film adaptation directed by Michael Radford and starring Al Pacino as Shylock, the film begins with text and a montage of how Venetian Jews are cruelly abused by bigoted Christians. One of the last shots of the film also brings attention to the fact that, as a convert, Shylock would have been cast out of the Jewish community in Venice, no longer allowed to live in the ghetto. Another interpretation of Shylock and a vision of how "must he be acted '' appears at the conclusion of the autobiography of Alexander Granach, a noted Jewish stage and film actor in Weimar Germany (and later in Hollywood and on Broadway).
The Shakespeare play has inspired several films.
The play contains the earliest known use of the phrase "with bated breath '' (by Shylock, in Act I, Scene 3, "Shall I bend low and, in a bondman 's key, / With bated breath and whisp'ring humbleness, / Say this... ''), which has come into common use to convey the idea of restraining one 's breathing in anticipation or supplicance (in which the archaic "bated '' is often misidentified as "baited '' in modern usage).
Arnold Wesker 's play The Merchant tells the same story from Shylock 's point of view. In this retelling, Shylock and Antonio are fast friends bound by a mutual love of books and culture and a disdain for the crass anti-Semitism of the Christian community 's laws. They make the bond in defiant mockery of the Christian establishment, never anticipating that the bond might become forfeit. When it does, the play argues, Shylock must carry through on the letter of the law or jeopardise the scant legal security of the entire Jewish community. He is, therefore, quite as grateful as Antonio when Portia, as in Shakespeare 's play, shows the legal way out. The play received its American premiere on 16 November 1977 at New York 's Plymouth Theatre, with Joseph Leon as Shylock and Marian Seldes as Shylock 's sister Rivka. This production had a challenging history in previews on the road, culminating (after the first night out of town in Philadelphia on 8 September 1977) with the death of the larger - than - life Broadway star Zero Mostel, who was initially cast as Shylock. The play 's author, Arnold Wesker, wrote a book chronicling the out - of - town tribulations that beset the play and Zero 's death called The Birth of Shylock and the Death of Zero Mostel.
David Henry Wilson 's play Shylock 's Revenge, which was first performed by The University Players at the Audimax (University of Hamburg) on 9 June 1989, can be seen as a full - length sequel to Shakespeare 's drama.
The title of the film Seven Pounds is a reference to the "pound of flesh '' from the play.
Edmond Haraucourt, the French playwright and poet, was commissioned in the 1880s by the actor and theatrical director Paul Porel to make a French - verse adaptation of The Merchant of Venice. His play Shylock, first performed at the Théâtre de l'Odéon in December 1889, had incidental music by the French composer Gabriel Fauré, later incorporated into an orchestral suite of the same name.
One of the four short stories comprising Alan Isler 's Op Non Cit is also told from Shylock 's point of view. In this story, Antonio was a boy of Jewish origin kidnapped at an early age by priests.
Ralph Vaughan Williams ' choral work Serenade to Music draws its text from the discussion about music and the music of the spheres in Act V, scene 1.
In both versions of the comic film To Be or Not to Be the character "Greenberg '', specified as a Jew only in the later version, gives a recitation of the "Hath Not a Jew eyes? '' speech to Nazi soldiers.
In The Pianist, Henryk Szpilman quotes a passage from Shylock 's "Hath Not a Jew eyes? '' speech to his brother Władysław Szpilman in a Jewish ghetto in Warsaw, Poland, during the Nazi occupation in World War II. Given the questioning of Antisemitism in the speech and also the Nazi use of the play for antisemitic propaganda purposes, the quote is seen as particularly poignant and symbolic.
Steven Spielberg 's Schindler 's List depicts SS Lieutenant Amon Göth quoting Shylock 's "Hath Not a Jew eyes? '' speech when deciding whether or not to rape his Jewish maid.
The rock musical Fire Angel was based on the story of the play, with the scene changed to the Little Italy district of New York. It was performed in Edinburgh in 1974 and in a revised form at Her Majesty 's Theatre, London, in 1977.
Christopher Moore combines The Merchant of Venice and Othello in his 2014 comic novel The Serpent of Venice, in which he makes Portia (from The Merchant of Venice) and Desdemona (from Othello) sisters. All of the characters come from those two plays with the exception of Pocket, the Fool, who comes from Moore 's earlier novel based on King Lear.
Jane Lindskold 's book Changer contains a scene in which the protagonists consider "using Portia 's gambit from The Merchant of Venice '' to escape from a situation and binding contract analogous to Antonio 's.
In its article "Unconventional Director Sets Shakespeare Play In Time, Place Shakespeare Intended '', the online satirical news site The Onion satirized the contemporary fashion of altering the play 's setting.
The play has been quoted and paraphrased several times in the Star Trek Universe:
In the film OSS 117: Lost in Rio, the final speech of Von Zimmel parodies Shylock 's tirade.
In the Brazilian film A Dog 's Will, the marriage bargain involving a lump - sum payment or the skin off Chicó 's back is foiled by reference to the legal contrivance familiar from the play -- that is, the skin may be owing but not a drop of blood must be taken with it.
In Hey Arnold! episode, "Eating Contest / Rhonda 's Glasses, '' Rhonda, becoming fed up with the treatment toward the geeks, yells "If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh?, '' a direct quote from Shylock 's famous speech.
In David Fincher 's 1995 film, Seven, John Doe coerces the lawyer, Eli Gould, to remove a pound of flesh and place it on a scale (symbolizing the scales of justice) prior to murdering him.
On 22 May 2018, BBC Radio 3 broadcast The Wolf in the Water, written by Naomi Alderman, as part of the BBC 's Shakespeare Festival and also marking the 500th anniversary of the establishment of the Venice ghetto. The play continues the story of Shylock 's now - older daughter Jessica, who secretly still practices her Jewish faith in a turbulent Venice that is increasingly hostile to Jews.
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who sings the song all i do is win win win | All I Do is Win - wikipedia
"All I Do Is Win '' is a song from DJ Khaled 's fourth studio album Victory (2010). It was the second single from the album. The track features American singer T - Pain, plus American rappers Ludacris, Snoop Dogg and Rick Ross. It was released on February 8, 2010, along with "Put Your Hands Up ''. The single was certified 3 × Platinum by the RIAA. It was the only Billboard Hot 100 charting single from the album.
The music video debuted on BET 's 106 and Park on March 3, 2010, along with the video for "Put Your Hands Up ''. It pictures DJ Khaled with his BET Awards and is filmed mostly against a green screen, also featuring a scene of his appearance at the 2008 BET Hip - Hop Awards show accepting an award for his song "I 'm So Hood (Remix) ''.
A video for the official remix was shot in Florida. The video was directed by Dayo & Gil Green. Photos of the shoot were also leaked online. The video features cameos from Nicki Minaj, Fabolous, Fat Joe, Jadakiss, Puff Daddy, Ace Hood, Cam'Ron and Busta Rhymes. A behind - the - scenes video was released on June 2, 2010. The remix 's music video was released on June 29, 2010.
On April 28, 2010, the official remix was released. It features Rick Ross, Busta Rhymes, Diddy, Nicki Minaj, Fabolous, Jadakiss, Fat Joe, Swizz Beatz on background vocals, and T - Pain. Jadakiss 's verse is a sample from "Allergic to Losing '', a song from his 2010 mixtape The Champ Is Here 3. The remix was released as a digital single on iTunes on June 8, 2010. A music video has been shot and was released on June 29, 2010. Flo Rida, Red Cafe, The Game, Ace Hood, Drake, Lil Wayne, Gunplay of Triple C 's, Brisco & DJ Nasty & LVM made cameos on the video. Swizz Beatz was not included in the video. DJ Khaled also raps a verse on the remix.
There is another remix titled "Hood Remix '' or "G - Mix '' which is by Nappy Boy artist Young Cash. The remix features a new rap line up, Yo Gotti, Gudda Gudda, Bun B, Ice Berg, 2 Chainz, T - Pain, & Field Mob. On this version, instead of T - Pain on the chorus, Young Cash is, while T - Pain delivers a verse of his own.
The song has become an anthem for numerous sports teams, most notably the Auburn Tigers football team during their 2010 national championship season. It was played during the team 's pregame entrance video as well as following each home victory in Jordan -- Hare Stadium. The Milwaukee Brewers and the Baltimore Orioles also play this song after every home game victory as does the Texas Longhorns football band and the Michigan State Spartans after a men 's basketball win. Boxer Devon Alexander uses the song as his entrance music, the Arizona State Sun Devils, Purdue All American Marching Band, the USC Trojans Marching Band Spirit of Troy, and the Arizona State University Sun Devil Marching Band use it during their athletic programs as well as the East Carolina Pirates and LSU Tigers football teams, the Alabama Crimson Tide and Kentucky Wildcats men 's basketball teams, Vampire Weekend on their 2010 tour, and it was also used as the celebratory music by the 2010 Stanley Cup champions The Chicago Blackhawks. The New York Knicks professional basketball team also use an instrumental version of the song for their player intros during the 2010 -- 11 NBA season. The Denver Nuggets, Memphis Grizzlies, Indiana Pacers, Portland Trail Blazers, Cleveland Cavaliers, Carolina Panthers, and Nashville Predators play this song after every home game victory. The song has gained popularity among Miami Hurricanes football fans as Snoop Dogg 's line "We like the U in the 80s '' refers to the University of Miami football team that dominated college football in the 80s and early 90s. It was subsequently arranged for the Band of the Hour, Miami 's marching band. Internet mashup artist DJ Earworm has included the song in a mash - up designed for the 2012 Summer Olympics. A remix version was made in December 2011 for Tim Tebow of the Denver Broncos, called "All He Does Is Win '' -- the video went viral on YouTube. The New Orleans Saints play the chorus of "All I Do Is Win '' during home games. This is also one of themes for the Canadian roller derby team, E-Ville Roller Derby.
The song was used as background music for one of the commercials advertising the Jamaican teen magazine television programme Teen Seen, which aired on major television network CVM Television on Saturdays at 6pm (previously at 4: 30pm) and was created by the National Family Planning Board (which produced the programme with Phase 3 Productions).
At the 2013 White House Correspondents ' Dinner, President Barack Obama was introduced to "Hail to the Chief, '' which quickly cut to a snippet of "All I Do is Win. ''
On April 28, 2014, actress Emma Stone lip synched the song in a "Lip Sync Battle '' against late - night talk show host Jimmy Fallon.
The song was featured in the 2015 musical comedy film Pitch Perfect 2, the 2015 film Magic Mike XXL, and the 2016 R - Rated comedy "The Boss ''.
The song was also used in the trailer for the 2015 film The Peanuts Movie.
This song is also featured on the soundtrack for NBA 2K16.
The YouTube channel Barack 's Dubs created and uploaded a mashup video of U.S. President Donald Trump singing the song.
This song is referenced on one of the "Coke and a Song '' bottles and cans available as of Summer 2016.
The song is featured in a Classico Pasta Sauce commercial that debuted in mid-late 2016,
The song is featured in a Walmart commercial in 2017.
On Facebook, one game in Slotomania, called Shaq 9 (a golf game), featuring Saquille O'Neal, Shaq yells ' All I do is win, win, win, no matter what! '
The song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at No. 63 chart date of March 6, 2010, and peaked at this chart at No. 24 for the chart dated July 24, 2010. It also peaked at No. 8 on Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs in 2010. The song was certified double Platinum by RIAA on July 6, 2011, and 3 × Platinum on 19 June 2015. The song re-entered the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart in May 2014 at No. 23. As of May 2014, the song has sold over 3 million copies in the US.
The song debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 chart at No. 69 for the chart date of March 6, 2010.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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the game of thrones season 7 episode guide | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also incorporating material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season, and Joe Dempsie as Gendry, who last appeared in the third season and maintains his status as starring cast member. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 % approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, and a 93 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.
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how much rain fell in brisbane floods 2011 | 2010 -- 11 Queensland floods - Wikipedia
A series of floods hit Queensland, Australia, beginning in November 2010. The floods forced the evacuation of thousands of people from towns and cities. At least 90 towns and over 200,000 people were affected. Damage initially was estimated at around A $ 1 billion before it was raised to $2.38 billion. The estimated reduction in Australia 's GDP is about A $30 billion. As at March 2012, there were 33 deaths attributed to the 2010 -- 11 Queensland floods with a further three people still missing.
Three - quarters of the council areas within the state of Queensland were declared disaster zones. Communities along the Fitzroy and Burnett Rivers were particularly hard hit, while the Condamine, Ballone and Mary Rivers recorded substantial flooding. An unexpected flash flood caused by a thunderstorm raced through Toowoomba 's central business district. Water from the same storm devastated communities in the Lockyer Valley. A few days later thousands of houses in Ipswich and Brisbane were inundated as the Brisbane River rose and Wivenhoe Dam used a considerable proportion of its flood mitigation capacity. Volunteers were quick to offer assistance, and sympathy was expressed from afar. A large mobilisation of the Australian Defence Force was activated and a relief fund created. The head of the recovery taskforce was Major General Michael Slater. The Queensland Reconstruction Authority (CEO was Graeme Newton) was formed to coordinate the rebuilding program beyond the initial task force, and a Commission of Inquiry was established to investigate all matters related to the floods.
The state 's coal industry was particularly hard hit. The Queensland floods were followed by the 2011 Victorian floods which saw more than fifty communities in western and central Victoria also grapple with significant flooding.
Brisbane experienced major flooding in 1893 and 1974 as the Brisbane River broke its bank and inundated low - lying areas. Towns including St George and Theodore had dealt with major flooding earlier in 1996. The floods were a result of heavy rainfall caused by Tropical Cyclone Tasha that combined with a trough during the peak of a La Niña Modoki event. The 2010 La Niña Modoki weather pattern, which brings wetter conditions to eastern Australia, was the strongest since 1973. This La Niña event caused a prolonged event of heavy rainfall over Queensland river catchments. Record or near to record sea surface temperatures were recorded off the Queensland coast in late 2010. December 2010 was Queensland 's wettest on record, with record - high rainfall totals set in 107 locations for the month. The state 's average rainfall level of 209.45 millimetres (8.25 in) exceeded the previous record of 200.1 millimetres (7.88 in) set in 1975. 2010 was also recorded as the state 's wettest spring since 1900 and the Australian continent 's third - wettest year. Climate scientist Kevin Trenberth thought climate change was a contributing factor in the unusually high precipitation rates. He attributed a half - degree Celsius rise in ocean temperatures around Australia to global warming which produces extra water vapour and intensifies the monsoon. Other scientists say that it is too early to draw such a conclusion. Assertions were also made by Professor Hubert Chanson, an expert in dam and reservoir engineering with extensive firsthand knowledge of the Wivenhoe system, that mismanagement of the Wivenhoe Dam might be a contributor to the some flooding in the lower Brisbane valley. While an expert engineer, Michael O'Brien -- a senior manager of an ASX - listed resources company and an outside consultant evaluating cause -- agrees that "massive releases of water from Wivenhoe Dam on Tuesday, January 11, did indeed produce most of the flooding in the Brisbane River the following afternoon, with a peak in the early hours of Thursday morning, January 13. The dam 's releases into the Brisbane River also caused the Bremer River, which winds through the city of Ipswich, and the Lockyer Creek to back up and cause much of the flooding outside Brisbane. '' This was corroborated by a panel of engineers hired by Insurance Council of Australia. O'Brien also found that the Wivenhoe Dam and Somerset Dam did not hold the maximum capacity they were capable of holding during the crisis period, which would have significantly alleviated flooding. Only one source, Neal Ashkanasy, who specialises in social and organisational psychology (and 35 years ago was involved in the design of Wivenhoe Dam), found fault with these results and instead finds that the dam was operated correctly throughout the time of the storm and the flood that followed, saying the "dam was run with outstanding precision. ''
Isolated flooding started across parts of the state in early December. On 23 December a monsoonal trough crossed the coast from the Coral Sea, bringing torrential rain that fell in a broad swath from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Gold Coast. The widest range of intense rainfall occurred on 27 December with very high daily totals recorded on 25 December near where Cyclone Tasha crossed the coast. By 30 December vast areas of Southern and Central Queensland were affected by the flood. The conditions led to a large influx of snakes in the Rockhampton area, as well as some crocodiles.
Flooding was widespread across Queensland and New South Wales from the end of December 2010 to January 2011 with several separate rain events causing rivers to rise over a lengthy period. Many places, including Condamine and Chinchilla were inundated by flood waters on multiple occasions. About 300 roads were closed, including nine major highways.
During the flooding it was reported that more than three - quarters of Queensland was affected by flooding.
The flooding initially forced the evacuation of 1,000 people from Theodore and other towns, described as unprecedented by the acting chief officer of the Emergency Management Queensland. The military transported residents by helicopter to an evacuation centre at Moura. The total evacuation of a Queensland town was a first for the state. Major flooding at Theodore persisted for more than two weeks.
Emerald was cut off by road on 29 December as the Nogoa River rose. By the next day, the river surpassed the 2008 flood peak level of 15.36 metres (50.4 ft). At the peak of the flooding, 80 % of the town was flooded, the worst the town ever experienced. Twelve hundred Emerald residents registered as evacuees.
Rockhampton had nearly a week to prepare for an expected flood peak from the Fitzroy River, which courses through the centre of the city. The airport was closed on 1 January. A metal flood barrier was erected around the terminal to prevent flood - borne debris from causing damage to the structure. An evacuation centre was set up at the Central Queensland University. The Bruce Highway leading south out of Rockhampton was closed to traffic. The river peaked at 9.2 metres (30 ft), just short of the predicted 9.4 - metre (31 ft) maximum.
The Port of Gladstone reduced its export capacity because the coal stockpiles at the port were saturated and further coal deliveries could not be made by rail. The Goonyella railway line which serves a number of coal mines in the Bowen Basin was closed for one week and shipments of grain were also delayed.
The central Burnett towns of Gayndah and Mundubbera saw major flooding on 28 -- 29 December. The Burnett River peaked at 18.25 metres (59.9 ft) at Mundubbera -- the highest river height since 1942 -- inundating more than 20 houses. Downstream at Gayndah, the river peaked at 16.1 metres (53 ft) with floodwaters reaching two houses. Both towns were isolated for several days and there was major disruption to the potable water supply and local agricultural production.
Bundaberg experienced severe flooding, the worst in 40 years, after the Burnett River flooded the city, although the Paradise Dam reservoir contributed to some flood mitigation. This resulted in the evacuation of 300 homes. The Bundaberg Port, a major sugar exporting facility, was closed late in December 2010 as flooding deposited silt in the port, forcing its closure. The port re-opened in early March 2011 after successful dredging operations allowed ships to berth.
Chinchilla and Jericho were also inundated. At least 40 residents were evacuated from Chinchilla.
Flooding in Dalby was the worst since 1981. The town 's water purification system was flooded, resulting in water restrictions that hampered clean - up efforts. 112,500 litres (24,700 imp gal; 29,700 US gal) of water were transported to the town of 14,000 residents. Warwick was isolated when all roads into the town were cut off.
The Condamine River reached 14.25 metres (46.8 ft) on 30 December, its highest level ever recorded. Condamine was mandatorily evacuated on 30 December.
A second rain event on 9 -- 10 January saw floodwaters again threaten Chinchilla and Condamine with Chinchilla residents again asked to evacuate.
The Macintyre River, which forms part of the border between the Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland, began to threaten the town of Goondiwindi on 13 January. While the town is protected by an 11 - metre (36 ft) levee, the local hospital and aged care home were evacuated as a precaution and an evacuation centre was established.
Heavy rain in the Mary River catchment on 8 -- 9 January 2011 led to flooding at Maryborough and Gympie. The Mary River at Maryborough was expected to initially peak at 8.5 metres (28 ft) at midday 9 January with some houses and businesses inundated by flood waters.
The city of Toowoomba, in the Darling Downs, was hit by flash flooding after more than 160 millimetres (6.3 in) of rain fell in 36 hours to 10 January 2011; this event caused four deaths in a matter of hours. Cars were washed away (see video). Toowoomba sits on the watershed of the Great Dividing Range, some 700 metres (2,300 ft) above sea level. A three - week period where it had rained on all but three days had left the soil around Toowoomba super saturated and when a line of storms hit the city on 10 January, the resulting torrential rain rapidly ran off down gullies and streets. The central business district of the city sits in a small valley where two small water courses -- East Creek and West Creek -- meet to form Gowrie Creek. Unable to cope with the volume of water heading toward them, the creeks burst their banks, pushing a devastating wall of water through the city centre. This water then headed west -- not towards the Lockyer Valley which was also experiencing extreme rainfall that fell on eastern facing slopes.
The surge associated with rainfall which fell on the eastern side of the range passed through the Lockyer Valley town of Withcott, where the force of the water pushed cars into shops and forced the evacuation of hundreds of people. The scene was described by an onlooker as "like Cyclone Tracy has gone through it... If you dropped an atom bomb on it, you could n't tell the difference. '' Nearby Helidon had several homes and farms flooded but did not break the main creek bank and enter the town. It was cut off from all sides by destroyed roads. Grantham was also devastated by the surge of water. Houses were left crumpled by what Premier of Queensland Anna Bligh described as an "inland tsunami ''. According to local media, the flood waters had reached a height of 7 or 8 metres (23 or 26 ft) by the time it struck Grantham. The peak discharge rate around Withcott and Grantham where Lockyer Creek is joined by Gatton Creek, was estimated to be 3,500 m3 second. At least 100 people were evacuated to the Helidon Community Hall. Nine people were confirmed dead, and many more feared dead among 66 reported missing. The body of one victim washed away at Grantham was recovered 80 kilometres (50 mi) downstream and Queensland Police Commissioner Bob Atkinson warned that some bodies may never be found. Nearby Gatton saw voluntary evacuations as the Lockyer Creek rose to a record height of 18.92 metres (62.1 ft), exceeding the previous record set in the 1893 Queensland floods.
Three people from Grantham listed as missing were officially declared dead by the Coroner on 5 June 2012.
Flooding began to affect low - lying areas of Brisbane on the morning of 11 January 2011. By around 2: 30 p.m. AEST, the Brisbane River broke its banks leading to evacuations in the Brisbane CBD and the suburbs of Fortitude Valley and West End. An evacuation centre was established for flood - affected residents at the RNA Showgrounds in Bowen Hills. Residents of 2,100 Brisbane streets were advised to evacuate prior to the arrival of floods, which struck the city on 12 January. Lord Mayor Campbell Newman stated than an estimated 20,000 homes would be affected when the river peaked on 14 January. He subsequently advised that the Brisbane River transport infrastructure had been "substantially destroyed ''.
The Brisbane River peaked on 13 January at a lower level than predicted, but still 20,000 houses in Brisbane were inundated. Some of the Brisbane suburbs worst affected by the floods were St Lucia, West End, Rocklea and Graceville. The floods damaged some of Brisbane 's icons. The Brisbane Riverwalk, a floating walkway over the Brisbane River linking the inner city neighbourhoods of Fortitude Valley and New Farm, broke up, with a section forming a 300 - metre (980 ft) "floating missile '' that threatened the Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges. The largest part of the floating boardwalk was safely guided under the bridge by a tugboat and past other infrastructure before being safely secured. Brisbane 's major Rugby league and Soccer (Association Football) venue, Suncorp Stadium, filled with water up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) deep, reaching the third or fourth row of seats.
With the flood peaking at 4.46 metres (14.6 ft) in Brisbane City, the flood level was about the tenth - highest in the city 's history, several metres below the 1890 flood and the two major floods in 1893. Some unique field measurements about the peak of the floods showed very substantial sediment fluxes in the Brisbane River flood plains consistent with the murky appearance of floodwaters. The field deployment showed also some unusual features of flood flow in an urban environment linked with some local topographic effects. Parts of the western suburbs of Brisbane were cut off for three days. Resident of suburbs including Bellbowrie, Karana Downs, Moggill and Pullenvale were running low on food and other items when Moggill Road was cut, until the Australian Army was able to reach the area on 15 January with supplies.
The Bremer River at Ipswich, 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of Brisbane, reached a height of 19.4 metres (64 ft) on 12 January, inundating the central business district and at least 3,000 houses. One third of the city was reported to be underwater and over 1,100 people took shelter at evacuation centres. At Minden, on the border of Ipswich City, a four - year - old boy was swept away by floodwaters when he fell from a rescue boat. A man in his fifties died when he accidentally drove into floodwaters in the Ipswich suburb of Wulkuraka. The worst affected areas of Ipswich were the suburbs of Goodna and Gailes. The flooding allowed bull sharks to reach the center of Goodna; one was spotted swimming in Williams Street, and a second in Queen Street.
Further upstream, Hubners Bridge and Richards Bridge near Kilcoy were washed away. Both bridges have been rebuilt and reopened in 2012.
In South East Queensland, the Wivenhoe Dam filled to a level equivalent to 191 % of its supply capacity on 11 January 2011. Although the dam can hold the equivalent of 225 % of its supply capacity, storage exceeding 100 % is required to be progressively released through the floodgates to restore capacity to mitigate future flood events. Brisbane experienced its wettest December since 1859. Wyaralong Dam, near Beaudesert, had recently been completed and was praised for mitigating flooding in downstream Logan, having exceeded 80 % of its capacity.
In North Queensland, the town of Ingham became isolated as the Herbert River peaked. Homes at Babinda and Gordonvale were flooded.
As of March 2012, 33 deaths have been attributed to the floods with a further 3 people still missing.
The first death occurred on 30 November 2010, when a woman drowned in her vehicle near Dysart. In the following weeks, five others died from similar circumstances. Nine people drowned after being caught directly by the flowing waters. and thirteen people died in other circumstances.
Thirteen - year - old Jordan Lucas Rice died 10 January 2011 after insisting that his 10 - year - old brother Blake be saved from the flood waters before him. He drowned along with his mother, 43 - year - old Donna Maree Rice, both being residents of Toowoomba. He has been called an Australian hero by the media and in 2015 was post-humously awarded the Australian Bravery Medal for his sacrifice.
More than 55,000 volunteers registered to help clean up the streets of Brisbane, with thousands more unregistered volunteers wandering the muddy streets with gumboots and mops. Prime Minister Julia Gillard said the volunteering effort showed tremendous ' Aussie spirit ' and that, "... right across Queensland today people have got up, they 've marched out of their homes and they 've gone to find people to help. It 's a tremendous spirit of volunteering right across Queensland... ''.
New Zealand Prime Minister John Key on the floods.
Prime Minister of Australia Julia Gillard toured flood - affected areas on 31 December, the day before The Queen (Elizabeth II), sent her expressions of concern and sympathy for the victims of the floods to her representative in Queensland, Governor Penelope Wensley. The Queen later made a donation to her Queensland premier 's flood relief appeal, as did her son, The Prince of Wales. In March 2011, The Prince 's eldest son, Prince William, toured the affected areas in Queensland, as well as those damaged by the floods in Victoria.
US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stated, "On behalf of President Obama and the people of the United States, I offer my condolences for the loss of life and damage in Queensland caused by the recent flooding. '' US President Barack Obama said he was ready to help.
John Key, the Prime Minister of New Zealand, held a telephone call with Gillard, during which she thanked New Zealand for its help. Len Brown, the Mayor of Auckland, a sister city of Brisbane, offered assistance to Brisbane Lord Mayor Campbell Newman.
David Cameron, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom offered his sympathies. Downing Street stated: "The Prime Minister offered his deep sympathy on behalf of the British people for those who have died, those who have lost their homes and all those who have been affected by the floods in Queensland. ''
Premier of Queensland Anna Bligh.
Major General Michael Slater was appointed head of a civilian recovery task force. Slater was at the time also the Commander of the 1st Division based at the Gallipoli Barracks in Enoggera, Brisbane. The taskforce was later replaced by the Queensland Reconstruction Authority, a new body created to co-ordinate the rebuilding program.
The Australian Defence Force 's contribution to flood relief efforts was designated Operation Queensland Flood Assist. The ADF established Joint Task Force 637, based at Enoggera Barracks in Brisbane, for operational command on 1 January 2011. According to the Australian Prime Minister the deployment was the largest for a natural disaster since Cyclone Tracy.
About 35 State Emergency Service personnel from New South Wales and 20 personnel from Victoria were deployed to provide relief to exhausted staff and volunteers. A national appeal was established on 29 December, with the state and federal governments giving A $1 million each.
Small businesses and primary producers in 13 local government areas became eligible for grants of up to A $25,000 to pay for costs from damage incurred as a result of the floods. National Disaster Relief and Recovery Arrangements were made available to a total of 31 local government areas across Queensland.
New Zealand announced that the country would send two fifteen - member civil defence teams to assist in flood rescue efforts. In addition to this, New Zealand sent a number of New Zealand Defence Force soldiers, mainly engineers, as well as New Zealand Police and New Zealand Fire Service firefighters. A New Zealand Red Cross team was also dispatched.
On 9 January, the Flood Relief Appeal: Australia Unites telethon broadcast by the Nine Network from the Suncorp Piazza at South Bank Parklands, Brisbane raised more than A $10 million in pledged aid. The South Bank area which includes the Wheel of Brisbane pictured above was itself inundated by flood waters only two days later.
At the first Twenty20 cricket match between Australia and England in Adelaide on 12 January, both teams donated part of their match fees to help the victims and A $28,450 was collected from people in attendance.
On 16 January, the day before the 2011 Australian Tennis Open commenced, a number of players took part in the Rally for Relief which was held at Rod Laver Arena and attended by 15,000 people, which raised A $750,000. The Seven Network televised the event. Players who took part included Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, Lleyton Hewitt, Novak Djokovic and Andy Roddick.
On 27 January, the 2011 Legends of Origin charity match was contested between former New South Wales and Queensland Rugby League State of Origin players. Organised by Mark Geyer, the match raised $380,587 to go towards the recovery effort.
On 13 January, Queensland Writers Centre, in partnership with Brisbane author Rebecca Sparrow, launched Writers on Rafts to raise funds for flood - affected writing communities. Authors, bloggers, publishers, organisations, festivals, and industry professionals across Australia donated their books, professional skills, and expertise, to drive and promote a fundraiser, and local celebrities donated their time to attend the Ultimate Girly High Tea. Over the course of four months, they raised over $31,000. All funds raised went to the Queensland Premier 's Disaster Relief Appeal.
On 11 January 2011, former deputy director of the New South Wales State Emergency Service Chas Keys stated that he was "appalled by the situation in Queensland at the moment. The large number of new houses that have been flooded proves that land management by the Queensland government is extremely poor and building is still going on in inappropriate areas. '' He contrasted the approach in Queensland with the practices developed in NSW after the 1955 Hunter Valley floods, that aimed to move homes out of dangerous areas and establish warning systems. Keys also stated the NSW practices were being undone by reduced funding and unsafe housing developments, giving the example of Maitland where "the council now wants to build hundreds of dwellings on the flood plain in and round the CBD ''. Keys also expressed concern over deforestation, stating that, "What we need is re-forestation. ''
On 17 January 2011, Queensland premier Anna Bligh announced a Commission of Inquiry into the 2010 -- 11 Queensland floods. The Commission 's Terms of reference cover a wide array of related aspects and stipulate a final report would be due in one year. On 1 August 2011 the Commission handed an interim report to Ms Bligh, and the final report containing 177 recommendations on 16 February 2012.
In return for Senator Nick Xenophon 's support of the Queensland Flood Levy, the Government will modify the Natural Disaster Relief and Recovery Arrangements and force the states to take up disaster insurance.
On 8 July 2014 legal firm Maurice Blackburn lodged a class action with the NSW Supreme Court on behalf of 4,000 flood victims. The legal action alleges negligence and nuisance against the operators of the dams: Seqwater, SunWater and the State of Queensland.
The severe rainfall across Queensland resulted in a drop in world sea level by as much as 7 mm. The drop lasted for around 18 months and has been attributed to Australia 's arheic and endorheic basins which soaked up the water previously evaporated from the oceans.
Queensland Treasurer Andrew Fraser said it was not possible to put a figure on the damage; "other than to say the damage bill is going to start with a b and not an m ''. The floods will cost the Australian economy at least A $10 billion. In figures released at the end of January 2011, the Insurance Council of Australia calculated that 38,460 individual claims were lodged with insurers which were worth A $1.51 billion. Nearly half of those claims were for damage to homes and more than half were made by those living in Brisbane.
The price of food across Australia will go up. The floods will cost supermarket chains tens of millions of dollars. Some communities isolated by floodwaters experienced food shortages, and a rise in the cost of fruits and vegetables was reported shortly after. Food supplies to northern Queensland were disrupted requiring groceries to be transported to Townsville by ship.
Coal railway lines were closed and numerous mine sites flooded. According to an analysist at Macquarie Group almost all the available stockpiles of coking coal in Queensland were exhausted in late January 2011 due to reduced rail capacity. About 15 % of the state 's annual output of coal production was lost and by late March 2011 recovery was progressing slowly. Four months after the floods the Dalrymple Bay coal terminal was operating at half its capacity as the open - cut mines in the region continued to deal with de-watering issues.
Swimming pool salt was in short supply as salt mines near Rockhampton were flooded. Thousands of litres of milk had to be dumped because it could n't be transported for processing. The persistent wet conditions also caused health problems for livestock. There was severe damage to roadways in forestry plantations across wide areas of the south of the state.
Prime Minister Julia Gillard announced that the government would impose a flood levy on people across Australia, to fund reconstruction works.
Coordinates: 27 ° 35 ′ S 152 ° 12 ′ E / 27.583 ° S 152.200 ° E / - 27.583; 152.200 (Grantham, Queensland)
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who plays aaron hotchner's son on criminal minds | Meredith Monroe - wikipedia
Meredith Monroe (born December 30, 1969) is an American actress best known for portaying Andie McPhee on Dawson 's Creek from 1998 to 2000, and her recurring role as Haley Hotchner on Criminal Minds.
Monroe was born on December 30, in Houston, Texas. Her parents divorced when she was two, and she was subsequently raised in Hinsdale, Illinois. She studied at Hinsdale Central High School and after graduating moved to New York to pursue a modeling career. In 1995, she appeared in a number of TV commercials and magazine advertisements for L'Oreal hair - care, Disney Resort, Huffy bicycles, Ford cars, and Mattel toys.
In 1996, Monroe made the transition into acting when she was cast as Tracy Dalken in ABC series Dangerous Minds, which led to a small recurring role on Sunset Beach as Rachel a pregnant teenager, eventually leading to her break being cast as part of a series regular on Dawson 's Creek in seasons 2 and 3, appeared in several episodes at the beginning and end of season 4, and was a special guest star in the series finale in season 6, though her scenes were cut from the televised episode, appearing only on the DVD extended - cut release.
She is also known for her role in Criminal Minds as Haley Hotchner, Aaron Hotchner 's wife. Monroe left the series after her character was murdered by a recurring villain, The Boston Reaper (C. Thomas Howell), in its 100th episode.
Not My Life Anita / Ana TV Movie
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where did the term blood brothers come from | Blood brother - wikipedia
Blood brother can refer to one of two things: a male related by birth, or two or more men not related by birth who have sworn loyalty to each other. This is in modern times usually done in a ceremony, known as a blood oath, where each person makes a small cut, usually on a finger, hand or the forearm, and then the two cuts are pressed together and bound, the idea being that each person 's blood now flows in the other participant 's veins. The act may carry a risk due to blood - borne diseases. In modern times, some gangs have also been rumored to make blood pacts. The process usually provides a participant with a heightened symbolic sense of attachment with another participant.
The Norsemen entering into the pact of foster brotherhood (Icelandic: Fóstbræðralag) involved a rite whereby they let their blood flow while they ducked underneath an arch formed by a strip of turf propped up by a spear or spears. An example is described in Gísla saga. In Fóstbræðra saga, the bond of Thorgeir Havarsson (Þorgeir Hávarsson) and Thormod Bersason (Þormóð Bersason) is sealed by such ritual as well, the ritual being called a leikr.
Örvar - Oddr 's saga contains another notable account of blood brotherhood. Örvar - Oddr, after fighting the renowned Swedish warrior Hjalmar to a draw, entered into foster - brotherhood with him by this turf - raising ritual. Afterwards, the strand of turf was put back during oaths and incantations.
In the mythology of northern Europe, Gunther and Högni became the blood brothers of Sigurd when he married their sister Gudrun; in Wagner 's Ring Cycle, the same occurs between Gunther and Wagner 's version of Sigurd, Siegfried, which is marked by the "Blood Brotherhood Leitmotiv ''. Additionally, it is briefly stated in Lokasenna that Odin and Loki were once blood brothers.
Among the Scythians, the covenantors would allow their blood to drip into a cup; the blood was subsequently mixed with wine and drunk by both participants. Every man was limited to having at most three blood brotherhoods at any time, lest his loyalties be distrusted; as a consequence, blood brotherhood was highly sought after and often preceded by a lengthy period of affiliation and friendship (Lucian, Toxaris). 4th - century BC depictions of two Scythian warriors drinking from a single drinking horn (most notably in a gold appliqué from Kul - Oba) have been associated with the Scythian oath of blood brotherhood.
The Hungarian hajduks had a similar ceremony, though the wine was often replaced with milk so that the blood would be more visible.
In Asian cultures, the act and ceremony of becoming blood brothers is generally seen as a tribal relationship, that is, to bring about alliance between tribes. It was practiced for this reason most notably among the Mongols and early Chinese.
The blood oath was used in much the same fashion as has already been described in much of Sub-Saharan Africa. The British colonial administrator Lord Lugard is famous for having become blood brothers with numerous African chiefs as part of his political policy while in Africa. A powerful blood brother of his was the Kikuyu chieftain Waiyaki Wa Hinga.
There may be some evidence that Native Americans performed blood oathes to bring about alliances between tribes.
Blood brothers among larger groups were common in ancient Southeastern Europe where, for example, whole companies of soldiers would become one family through the ceremony. It was perhaps most prevalent in the Balkans during the Ottoman era, as it helped the oppressed people to fight the enemy more effectively; blood brotherhoods were common in what is today Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, Republic of Macedonia. Christianity also recognized sworn brotherhood in a ceremony (known as Greek: adelphopoiesis, Slavic: pobratimstvo in the Eastern Orthodox churches; known as Latin: ordo ad fratres faciendum in the Roman Catholic church). The tradition of intertwining arms and drinking wine is also believed to be a representation of becoming blood brothers.
Blood brotherhood, highly ritualized and subjected to a strong code, was a common practice in the Caucasus, especially among the mountaineers. Some relics of this tradition survive to this day.
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ipsilateral sensation of the right side of the body | Hemispatial neglect - wikipedia
Hemispatial neglect, also called hemiagnosia, hemineglect, unilateral neglect, spatial neglect, contralateral neglect, unilateral visual inattention, hemi - inattention, neglect syndrome or contralateral hemispatialagnosia, is a neuropsychological condition in which, after damage to one hemisphere of the brain is sustained, a deficit in attention to and awareness of one side of the field of vision is observed. It is defined by the inability of a person to process and perceive stimuli on one side of the body or environment, where that inability is not due to a lack of sensation. Hemispatial neglect is very commonly contralateral to the damaged hemisphere, but instances of ipsilesional neglect (on the same side as the lesion) have been reported.
Hemispatial neglect results most commonly from strokes and brain unilateral injury to the right cerebral hemisphere, with rates in the critical stage of up to 80 % causing visual neglect of the left - hand side of space. Neglect is often produced by massive strokes in the middle cerebral artery region and is variegated, so that most sufferers do not exhibit all of the syndrome 's traits. Right - sided spatial neglect is rare because there is redundant processing of the right space by both the left and right cerebral hemispheres, whereas in most left - dominant brains the left space is only processed by the right cerebral hemisphere. Although it most strikingly affects visual perception (' visual neglect '), neglect in other forms of perception can also be found, either alone or in combination with visual neglect.
For example, a stroke affecting the right parietal lobe of the brain can lead to neglect for the left side of the visual field, causing a patient with neglect to behave as if the left side of sensory space is nonexistent (although they can still turn left). In an extreme case, a patient with neglect might fail to eat the food on the left half of their plate, even though they complain of being hungry. If someone with neglect is asked to draw a clock, their drawing might show only the numbers 12 to 6, or all 12 numbers might be on one half of the clock face with the other half distorted or blank. Neglect patients may also ignore the contralesional side of their body; for instance, they might only shave, or apply make - up to, the non-neglected side. These patients may frequently collide with objects or structures such as door frames on the side being neglected.
Neglect may also present as a delusional form, where the patient denies ownership of a limb or an entire side of the body. Since this delusion often occurs alone, without the accompaniment of other delusions, it is often labeled as a monothematic delusion.
Neglect not only affects present sensation but memory and recall perception as well. A patient suffering from neglect may also, when asked to recall a memory of a certain object and then draw said object, draw only half of the object. It is unclear, however, if this is due to a perceptive deficit of the memory (to the patient having lost pieces of spatial information of the memory) or whether the information within the memory is whole and intact but simply being ignored, the same way portions of a physical object in the patient 's presence would be ignored.
Some forms of neglect may also be very mild -- for example, in a condition called extinction where competition from the ipsilesional stimulus impedes perception of the contralesional stimulus. These patients, when asked to fixate on the examiner 's nose, can detect fingers being wiggled on the affected side. If the examiner were to wiggle his or her fingers on both the affected and unaffected sides of the patient, the patient will report seeing movement only on the ipsilesional side.
Though frequently underappreciated, unilateral neglect can have dramatic consequences. It has more negative effect on functional ability, as measured by the Barthel ADL index, than age, sex, power, side of stroke, balance, proprioception, cognition, or premorbid ADL status. Its presence within the first 10 days of a stroke is a stronger predictor of poor functional recovery after one year than several other variables, including hemiparesis, hemianopsia, age, visual memory, verbal memory, or visuoconstructional ability. Neglect is likely among the reasons that patients with right hemisphere damage are twice as likely to fall as those with left brain damage. Patients with neglect rehabilitate longer and make less daily progress than other patients with similar functional status. And patients with neglect are less likely to live independently than even patients who have both severe aphasia and right hemiparesis.
Brain areas in the parietal and frontal lobes are associated with the deployment of attention (internally, or through eye movements, head turns or limb reaches) into contralateral space. Neglect is most closely related to damage to the temporo - parietal junction and posterior parietal cortex. The lack of attention to the left side of space can manifest in the visual, auditory, proprioceptive, and olfactory domains. Although hemispatial neglect often manifests as a sensory deficit (and is frequently co-morbid with sensory deficit), it is essentially a failure to pay sufficient attention to sensory input.
Although hemispatial neglect has been identified following left hemisphere damage (resulting in the neglect of the right side of space), it is most common after damage to the right hemisphere. This disparity is thought to reflect the fact that the right hemisphere of the brain is specialized for spatial perception and memory, whereas the left hemisphere is specialized for language - there is redundant processing of the right visual fields by both hemispheres. Hence the right hemisphere is able to compensate for the loss of left hemisphere function, but not vice versa. Neglect is not to be confused with hemianopsia. Hemianopsia arises from damage to the primary visual pathways cutting off the input to the cerebral hemispheres from the retinas. Neglect is damage to the processing areas. The cerebral hemispheres receive the input, but there is an error in the processing that is not well understood.
Researchers have argued whether neglect is a disorder of spatial attention or spatial representation.
Spatial attention is the process where objects in one location are chosen for processing over objects in another location. This would imply that neglect is more intentional. The patient has an affinity to direct attention to the unaffected side. Neglect is caused by a decrease in stimuli in the contralesional side because of a lack of ipsilesional stimulation of the visual cortex and an increased inhibition of the contralesional side. In this theory neglect is seen as disorder of attention and orientation caused by disruption of the visual cortex. Patients with this disorder will direct attention and movements to the ipsilesional side and neglect stimuli in the contralesional side despite having preserved visual fields. The result of all of this is an increased sensitivity of visual performance in the unaffected side. The patient shows an affinity to the ipsilesional side being unable to disengage attention from that side.
Spatial representation is the way space is represented in the brain. In this theory it is believed that the underlying cause of neglect is the inability to form contralateral representations of space. In this theory neglect patients demonstrate a failure to describe the contralesional side of a familiar scene, from a given point, from memory.
To support this theory, evidence from Bisiach and Luzzatti 's study of Piazza del Duomo can be considered. For the study, patients with hemispatial neglect, that were also familiar with the layout of the Piazza del Duomo square, were observed. The patients were asked to imagine themselves at various vantage points in the square, without physically being in the square. They were then asked to describe different landmarks around the square, such as stores. At each separate vantage point, patients consistently only described landmarks on the right side, ignoring the left side of the representation. However, the results of their multiple descriptions at the different vantage points showed that they knew information around the entire square, but could only identify the right side of the represented field at any given vantage point. When asked to switch vantage points so that the scene that was on the contralesional side is now on the ipsilesional side the patient was able to describe with details the scene they had earlier neglected.
The same patterns can be found with comparing actual visual stimuli to imaging in the brain (Rossetti et al., 2010). A neglect patient who was very familiar with the map of France was asked to name French towns on a map of the country, both by a mental image of the map and by a physical image of the map. The image was then rotated 180 degrees, both mentally and physically. With the mental image, the neglect stayed consistent with the image; that is, when the map was in its original orientation, the patient named towns mostly on the East side of France, and when they mentally rotated the map they named towns mostly on the West side of France because the West coast was now on the right side of the represented field. However, with the physical copy of the map, the patient 's focus was on the East side of France with either orientation. This leads researchers to believe that neglect for images in memory may be disassociated from the neglect of stimuli in extrapersonal space. In this case patients have no loss of memory making their neglect a disorder of spatial representation which is the ability to reconstruct spatial frames in which the spatial relationship of objects, that may be perceived, imagined or remembered, with respect to the subject and each other are organized to be correctly acted on.
This theory can also be supported by neglect in dreams (Figliozzi et al., 2007). The study was run on a neglect patient by tracking his eye movements while he slept, during the REM cycle. Results showed that the majority of the eye movements were aimed to his right side, indicating that the images represented in his dreams were also affected by hemispatial neglect.
Another example would be a left neglect patient failing to describe left turns while describing a familiar route. This shows that the failure to describe things in the contralesional side can also affect verbal items. These findings show that space representation is more topological than symbolic. Patients show a contralesional loss of space representation with a deviation of spatial reference to the ipsilesional side. In these cases we see a left - right dissimilarity of representation rather than a decline of representational competence.
In order to assess not only the type but also the severity of neglect, doctors employ a variety of tests, most of which are carried out at the patient 's bedside. Perhaps one of the most - used and quickest is the line bisection. In this test, a line a few inches long is drawn on a piece of paper and the patient is then asked to dissect the line at the midpoint. Patients exhibiting, for example, left - sided neglect will exhibit a rightward deviation of the line 's true midpoint. Another widely used test is the line cancellation test. Here a patient is presented with a piece of paper that has various lines scattered across it and is asked to mark each of the lines. Patients who exhibit left - sided neglect will completely ignore all lines on the left side of the paper. Visual neglect can also be assessed by having the patient draw a copy of a picture with which they are presented. If the patient is asked to draw a complex picture they may neglect the entire contralesional side of the picture. If asked to draw an individual object, the patient will not draw the contralesional side of that object. A patient may also be asked to read a page out of a book. The patient will be unable to orient their eyes to the left margin and will begin reading the page from the center. Presenting a single word to a patient will result in the patient either reading only the ipsilesional part of the word or replacing the part they can not see with a logical substitute. For example, if they are presented with the word "peanut '', they may read "nut '' or say "walnut ''.
Neglect is a heterogenous disorder that manifests itself radically differently in different patients. No single mechanism can account for these different manifestations. A vast array of impaired mechanisms are found in neglect. These mechanisms alone would not cause neglect. The complexity of attention alone -- just one of several mechanisms that may interact -- has generated multiple competing hypothetical explanations of neglect. So it is not surprising that it has proven difficult to assign particular presentations of neglect to specific neuroanatomical loci. Despite such limitations, we may loosely describe unilateral neglect with four overlapping variables: type, range, axis, and orientation.
Types of hemispatial neglect are broadly divided into disorders of input and disorders of output. The neglect of input, or "inattention '', includes ignoring contralesional sights, sounds, smells, or tactile stimuli. Surprisingly, this inattention can even apply to imagined stimuli. In what 's termed "representational neglect '', patients may ignore the left side of memories, dreams, and hallucinations.
Output neglect includes motor and pre-motor deficits. A patient with motor neglect does not use a contralesional limb despite the neuromuscular ability to do so. One with pre-motor neglect, or directional hypokinesia, can move unaffected limbs ably in ipsilateral space but have difficulty directing them into contralesional space. Thus a patient with pre-motor neglect may struggle to grasp an object on the left side even when using the unaffected right arm.
Hemispatial neglect can have a wide range in terms of what the patient neglects. The first range of neglect, commonly referred to as "egocentric '' neglect, is found in patients who neglect their own body or personal space. These patients tend to neglect the opposite side of their lesion, based on the midline of the body, head, or retina. For example, in a gap detection test, subjects with egocentric hemispatial neglect on the right side often make errors on the far right side of the page, as they are neglecting the space in their right visual field.
The next range of neglect is "allocentric '' neglect, where individuals neglect either their peri-personal or extrapersonal space. Peri-personal space refers to the space within the patient 's normal reach, whereas extrapersonal space refers to the objects / environment beyond the body 's current contact or reaching ability. Patients with allocentric neglect tend to neglect the contralesional side of individual items, regardless of where they appear with respect to the viewer. For example, In the same gap detection test mentioned above, subjects with allocentric hemispatial neglect on the right side will make errors on all areas of the page, specifically neglecting the right side of each individual item.
This differentiation is significant because the majority of assessment measures test only for neglect within the reaching, or peri-personal, range. But a patient who passes a standard paper - and - pencil test of neglect may nonetheless ignore a left arm or not notice distant objects on the left side of the room.
In cases of somatoparaphrenia, which may be caused by personal neglect, patients deny ownership of contralesional limbs. Sacks (1985) described a patient who fell out of bed after pushing out what he perceived to be the severed leg of a cadaver that the staff had hidden under his blanket. Patients may say things like, "I do n't know whose hand that is, but they 'd better get my ring off! '' or, "This is a fake arm someone put on me. I sent my daughter to find my real one. ''
Most tests for neglect look for rightward or leftward errors. But patients may also neglect stimuli on one side of a horizontal or radial axis. For example, when asked to circle all the stars on a printed page, they may locate targets on both the left and right sides of the page while ignoring those across the top or bottom.
In a recent study, researchers asked patients with left neglect to project their midline with a neon bulb and found that they tended to point it straight ahead but position it rightward of their true midline. This shift may account for the success of therapeutic prism glasses, which shift left visual space toward the right. By shifting visual input, they seem to correct the mind 's sense of midline. The result is not only the amelioration of visual neglect, but also of tactile, motor, and even representational neglect.
An important question in studies of neglect has been: "left of what? '' That is to say, what frame of reference does a subject adopt when neglecting the left half of his or her visual, auditory, or tactile field? The answer has proven complex. It turns out that subjects may neglect objects to the left of their own midline (egocentric neglect) or may instead see all the objects in a room but neglect the left half of each individual object (allocentric neglect).
These two broad categories may be further subdivided. Patients with egocentric neglect may ignore the stimuli leftward of their trunks, their heads, or their retinae. Those with allocentric neglect may neglect the true left of a presented object, or may first correct in their mind 's eye a slanted or inverted object and then neglect the side then interpreted as being on the left. So, for example, if patients are presented with an upside - down photograph of a face, they may mentally flip the object right side up and then neglect the left side of the adjusted image. In another example, if patients are presented with a barbell, patients will more significantly neglect the left side of the barbell, as expected with right temporal lobe lesion. If the barbell is rotated such that the left side is now on the right side, patients will more significantly neglect the left side of the object, even though it is now on the right side of space. This also occurs with slanted or mirror - image presentations. A patient looking at a mirror image of a map of the World may neglect to see the Western Hemisphere despite their inverted placement onto the right side of the map.
Various neuropsychological research studies have considered the role of frame of reference in hemispatial neglect, offering new evidence to support both allocentric and egocentric neglect. To begin, one study conducted by Dongyun Li, Hans - Otto Karnath, and Christopher Rorden examined whether allocentric neglect varies with egocentric position. This experimental design consisted of testing eleven right hemispheric stroke patients. Five of these patients showed spatial neglect on their contralesional side, while the remaining six patients showed no spatial neglect. During the study, the patients were presented with two arrays of seven triangles. The first array ran from southwest to northeast (SW - NE) and the second array ran from southeast to northwest (SE - NW). In a portion of the experimental trials, the middle triangle in the array contained a gap along one side. Participants were tested on their ability to perceive the presence of this gap, and were instructed to press one response button if the gap was present and a second response button if the gap was absent.
To test the neglect frame of reference, the two different arrays were carefully situated so that gap in the triangle fell on opposite sides of the allocentric field. In the SW - NE array, the gap in the triangle fell on the allocentric right of the object - centered axis along which the triangle pointed. In the SE - NW configuration, the gap in the triangle fell on the allocentric left of the object - centered axis. Furthermore, varying the position of the arrays with respect to the participant 's trunk midline was used to test egocentric neglect. The arrays were therefore presented at 0 ° (i.e. in line with the participant 's trunk midline), at − 40 ° left, and at + 40 ° right. Ultimately, varying the position of the array within the testing visual field allowed for the simultaneous measurement of egocentric neglect and allocentric neglect. The results of this experimental design showed that the spatial neglect patients performed more poorly for the allocentric left side of the triangle, as well as for objects presented on the egocentric left side of the body. Furthermore, the poor accuracy for detecting features of the object on the left side of the object 's axis was more severe when the objects were presented on the contralesional side of the body. Thus, these findings illustrate that both allocentric and egocentric biases are present simultaneously, and that egocentric information can influence the severity of allocentric neglect.
A second study, conducted by Moscovitch and Behrmann, investigated the reference frame of neglect with respect to the somatosensory system. Eleven patients with parietal lobe lesions and subsequent hemispatial neglect were analyzed during this experiment. A double simultaneous stimulation procedure was utilized, during which the patients were touched lightly and simultaneously on the left and right side of the wrist of one hand. The patients were tested both with their palms facing down and with their palms facing up. This experimental condition allowed the scientists to determine whether neglect in the somatosensory system occurs with respect to the sensory receptor surface (egocentric) or with respect to a higher - order spatial frame of reference (allocentric). The results of this experiment showed the hemispatial neglect patients neglected somatosensory stimuli on the contralesional side of space, regardless of hand orientation. These findings suggest that, within the somatosensory system, stimuli are neglected with respect to the allocentric, spatial frame of reference, in addition to an egocentric, sensory frame of reference. Ultimately, the discoveries made by these experiments indicate that hemispatial neglect occurs with respect to multiple, simultaneously derived frames of reference, which dictate the nature and extent of neglect within the visual, auditory, and tactile fields.
Treatment consists of finding ways to bring the patient 's attention toward the left, usually done incrementally, by going just a few degrees past midline, and progressing from there. Rehabilitation of neglect is often carried out by neuropsychologists, occupational therapist, speech - language pathologists, neurologic music therapists, physical therapists, optometrists, and orthoptists.
Forms of treatment that have been tested with variable reports of success include prismatic adaptation, where a prism lens is worn to pull the vision of the patient towards the left, constrained movement therapy where the "good '' limb is constrained in a sling to encourage use of the contralesional limb. Eye - patching has similarly been used, placing a patch over the "good '' eye. Pharmaceutical treatments have mostly focused on dopaminergic therapies such as bromocriptine, levodopa, and amphetamines, though these tests have had mixed results, helping in some cases and accentuating hemispatial neglect in others. Caloric vestibular stimulation (CVS) has been shown to bring about a brief remission in some cases. however this technique has been known to elicit unpleasant side - effects such as nystagmus, vertigo and vomiting. A study done by Schindler and colleagues examined the use of neck muscle vibration on the contralesional posterior neck muscles to induce diversion of gaze from the subjective straight ahead. Subjects received 15 consecutive treatment sessions and were evaluated on different aspects of the neglect disorder including perception of midline, and scanning deficits. The study found that there is evidence that neck muscle stimulation may work, especially if combined with visual scanning techniques. The improvement was evident 2 months after the completion of treatment.
Other areas of emerging treatment options include the use of prisms, visual scanning training, mental imagery training, video feedback training, trunk rotation, galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct - current stimulation (tDCS). Of these emerging treatment options, the most studied intervention is prism adaptation and there is evidence of relatively long - term functional gains from comparatively short - term usage. However, all of these treatment interventions (particularly the stimulation techniques) are relatively new and randomised, controlled trial evidence is still limited. Further research is mandatory in this field of research in order to provide more support in evidence - based practice.
In a review article by Pierce & Buxbaum (2002), they concluded that the evidence for Hemispheric Activation Approaches, which focuses on moving the limb on the side of the neglect, has conflicting evidence in the literature. The authors note that a possible limitation in this approach is the requirement for the patients to actively move the neglected limb, which may not be possible for many patients. Constraint - Induced Therapy (CIT), appears to be an effective, long - term treatment for improving neglect in various studies. However, the use of CIT is limited to patients who have active control of wrist and hand extension. Prism Glasses, Hemispatial Glasses, and Eye - Patching have all appear to be effective in improving performance on neglect tests. Caloric Stimulation treatment appears to be effective in improving neglect; however, the effects are generally short - term. The review also suggests that Optokinetic Stimulation is effective in improving position sense, motor skills, body orientation, and perceptual neglect on a short - term basis. As with Caloric Stimulation treatment, long - term studies will be necessary to show its effectiveness. A few Trunk Rotation Therapy studies suggest its effectiveness in improving performance on neglect tests as well as the Functional Independence Measure (FIM). Some less studied treatment possibilities include treatments that target Dorsal Stream of visual processing, Mental Imagery Training, and Neck Vibration Therapy. Trunk rotation therapies aimed at improving postural disorders and balance deficits in patients with unilateral neglect, have demonstrated optimistic results in regaining voluntary trunk control when using specific postural rehabilitative devices. One such device is the Bon Saint Côme apparatus, which uses spatial exploratory tasks in combination with auditory and visual feedback mechanisms to develop trunk control. The Bon Saint Côme device has been shown to be effective with hemiplegic subjects due to the combination of trunk stability exercises, along with the cognitive requirements needed to perform the postural tasks.
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what is the name of the princess in frozen | Frozen (2013 film) - Wikipedia
Frozen is a 2013 American 3D computer - animated musical fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The 53rd Disney animated feature film, the film is inspired by Hans Christian Andersen 's fairy tale "The Snow Queen ''. It tells the story of a fearless princess who sets off on a journey alongside a rugged iceman, his loyal reindeer, and a naïve snowman to find her estranged sister, whose icy powers have inadvertently trapped their kingdom in eternal winter.
Frozen underwent several story treatments for years before being commissioned in 2011, with a screenplay written by Jennifer Lee, who also co-directed with Chris Buck. The film features the voices of Kristen Bell, Idina Menzel, Jonathan Groff, Josh Gad, and Santino Fontana. Christophe Beck, who had worked on Disney 's award - winning short Paperman (2012), was hired to compose the film 's orchestral score, while husband - and - wife songwriting team Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson - Lopez wrote the songs.
Frozen premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, on November 19, 2013, had a limited release on November 22 and went into general theatrical release on November 27. It was met with positive reviews from critics and audiences; some film critics consider Frozen to be the best Disney animated feature film since the studio 's renaissance era. The film also achieved significant commercial success, earning $1.2 billion in worldwide box office revenue, including $400 million in the United States and Canada and $247 million in Japan. It ranks as the highest - grossing animated film of all time, the third highest - grossing original film of all time, the 11th highest - grossing film of all time, the highest - grossing film of 2013, and the third highest - grossing film in Japan. It was also the highest - earning film with a female director in terms of domestic earnings, until surpassed by Warner Bros. ' Wonder Woman. With over 18 million home media sales in 2014, it became the best - selling film of the year in the United States. By January 2015, Frozen had become the all - time best - selling Blu - ray Disc in the United States.
Frozen won two Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ("Let It Go ''), the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film, the BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film, five Annie Awards (including Best Animated Feature), two Grammy Awards for Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media and Best Song Written for Visual Media ("Let It Go ''), and two Critics ' Choice Movie Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ("Let It Go '').
An animated short sequel, Frozen Fever, premiered on March 13, 2015, with Disney 's Cinderella. A holiday featurette titled Olaf 's Frozen Adventure premiered as a limited time offering on November 22, 2017, with Pixar 's Coco, and made its television debut on December 14, 2017, on ABC. On March 12, 2015, a feature - length sequel titled Frozen 2, was announced, with Buck and Lee returning as directors and Peter Del Vecho returning as producer. It is set for release on November 27, 2019.
Princess Elsa of Arendelle possesses cryokinetic magic, often using it to play with her younger sister, Anna. After Elsa accidentally injures Anna with her magic, their parents, the King and Queen, take both siblings to a colony of trolls led by Grand Pabbie. He heals Anna, but alters her memories to remove traces of Elsa 's magic, warning Elsa that she must learn to control her powers. The King and Queen isolate both sisters within the castle. Elsa shuts out Anna, causing a rift between them. Elsa suppresses her magic rather than mastering it, causing her to become more insecure. When the sisters are teenagers, their parents die at sea during a storm.
When Elsa turns twenty - one, she is to be crowned queen of Arendelle. She is terrified that the kingdom 's citizens might find out about her powers and fear for her. The castle gates open to the public and visiting dignitaries for the first time in years. Among them is the scheming Duke of Weselton, and the dashing Prince Hans of the Southern Isles, with whom Anna falls in love at first sight. Elsa 's coronation happens without a hitch, but she still remains distant from Anna. When Hans proposes to Anna, Elsa objects, accidentally unleashing her powers before the court. The Duke brands her a monster. Elsa flees to the North Mountain, where she throws out her crown, and builds a palace of ice, in which to live a hermit life. In the process, however, her suppressed magic engulfs Arendelle in an eternal winter.
Anna ventures out to find Elsa and end the winter, leaving Hans in command. She gets lost, collecting supplies at Wandering Oaken 's shop. She meets an ice harvester named Kristoff, and his reindeer, Sven, convincing them to take her to the mountains. An attack by wolves leads to Kristoff 's sleigh being destroyed. On foot, they meet Olaf, a cheerful snowman brought to life unknowingly by Elsa, who offers to lead them to her. When Anna 's horse returns to Arendelle, Hans sets out to find Anna and Elsa, accompanied by the Duke 's minions, who have secret orders to capture Elsa.
Reaching the ice palace, Anna meets Elsa, but when she reveals what has become of Arendelle, Elsa becomes upset, saying that she can not undo it, and accidentally freezes Anna 's heart. She then makes a giant snow monster named Marshmallow, who chases Anna, Kristoff, and Olaf away. Anna 's hair begins turning white, so Kristoff takes her to meet the trolls, his adoptive family. Grand Pabbie reveals that Anna will freeze solid unless "an act of true love '' reverses the spell. Kristoff races Anna back home so Hans can give her true love 's kiss. Hans and his men reach Elsa 's palace, defeating Marshmallow, and capturing Elsa. Anna is delivered to Hans, but rather than kissing her, Hans instead reveals that he has actually been plotting to seize the throne of Arendelle by eliminating both sisters. Hans locks Anna in a room to die, and manipulates the dignitaries into believing that Elsa killed her. He orders the queen 's execution, only to discover she has escaped her detention cell.
Olaf frees Anna, and they venture into the blizzard outside to meet Kristoff, whom Olaf reveals is in love with her. Hans confronts Elsa outside, claiming that she killed Anna, causing Elsa to break down. Anna spots Hans about to kill Elsa; she leaps in the way and freezes solid, stopping Hans. Devastated, Elsa hugs and mourns over her sister, who thaws out, her heroism constituting "an act of true love ''. Realizing that her magic is controlled by love, Elsa ends the winter before giving Olaf his own snow flurry to survive the warmer climate. Both Hans and the Duke are arrested, and removed from the kingdom. Anna and Kristoff become a couple, while both sisters are reunited, with Elsa promising never to lock the castle gates again.
Non-speaking characters include Kristoff 's reindeer companion Sven, horses and wolves.
Walt Disney Productions first began exploring a possible live action / animation biography film of author and poet Hans Christian Andersen sometime in late 1937 before the December premiere of its film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the first feature - length hand - drawn animated film ever made. In March 1940, Walt Disney suggested a co-production to film producer Samuel Goldwyn, where Goldwyn 's studio would shoot the live - action sequences of Andersen 's life and Disney 's studio would animate Andersen 's fairy tales. The animated sequences would be based on some of Andersen 's best known works, such as The Little Mermaid, The Little Match Girl, The Steadfast Tin Soldier, The Snow Queen, Thumbelina, The Ugly Duckling, The Red Shoes, and The Emperor 's New Clothes. However, the studio encountered difficulty with The Snow Queen, as it could not find a way to adapt and relate the Snow Queen character to modern audiences. Even as far back as the 1930s and 1940s, it was clear that the source material contained great cinematic possibilities, but the Snow Queen character proved to be too problematic. After the United States entered World War II, the studio began to focus on making wartime propaganda, which caused development on the Disney -- Goldwyn project to grind to a halt in 1942. Goldwyn went on to produce his own live - action film version in 1952, entitled Hans Christian Andersen, with Danny Kaye as Andersen, Charles Vidor directing, Moss Hart writing, and Frank Loesser penning the songs. All of Andersen 's fairy tales were, instead, told in song and ballet in live - action, like the rest of the film. It went on to receive six Academy Award nominations the following year. Back at Disney, The Snow Queen, along with other Andersen fairy tales (including The Little Mermaid), were shelved.
-- Producer Peter Del Vecho, on the difficulties adapting The Snow Queen
In the late 1990s, Walt Disney Feature Animation started developing a new adaptation of The Snow Queen after the tremendous success of their recent films during the Disney Renaissance era (1989 - 1999), but the project was scrapped completely in late 2002, when Glen Keane reportedly quit the project and went on to work on another project which became Tangled (2010). Even before then, Harvey Fierstein pitched his version of the story to Disney 's executives, but was turned down. Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi, Dick Zondag and Dave Goetz reportedly all tried their hand at it, but failed. After a number of unsuccessful attempts from 2000 to 2002, Disney shelved the project again. During one of those attempts, Michael Eisner, then - chairman and chief executive officer of The Walt Disney Company, offered his support to the project and suggested doing it with Oscar - winning director John Lasseter at Pixar after the then - expected renewal of Pixar 's contract with Disney. But negotiations between Pixar and Disney collapsed in January 2004 and that contract was never renewed. Instead, Eisner 's successor Bob Iger negotiated Disney 's purchase of Pixar in January 2006 for $7.4 billion, and Lasseter was promoted to chief creative officer of both Pixar and Disney Animation.
The next attempt started in 2008, when Lasseter was able to convince Chris Buck (who co-directed the 1999 film Tarzan for the studio) to return to Walt Disney Feature Animation from Sony Pictures Animation (where he had recently co-directed the Oscar - nominated 2007 film Surf 's Up); that September, Buck pitched several ideas to Lasseter, one of which was The Snow Queen. Buck later revealed that his initial inspiration for The Snow Queen was not the Andersen fairy tale itself, but that he wanted "to do something different on the definition of true love. '' "Disney had already done the ' kissed by a prince ' thing, so (I) thought it was time for something new, '' he recalled. It turned out Lasseter had been interested in The Snow Queen for a long time; back when Pixar was working with Disney on Toy Story in the 1990s, he saw and was "blown away '' by some of the pre-production art from Disney 's prior attempts. Development began under the title Anna and the Snow Queen, which was planned to be traditionally animated. According to Josh Gad, he first became involved with the film at that early stage, when the plot was still relatively close to the original Andersen fairy tale and Megan Mullally was going to play Elsa. By early 2010, the project entered development hell once again, when the studio again failed to find a way to make the story and the Snow Queen character work.
On December 22, 2011, following the success of Tangled, Disney announced a new title for the film, Frozen, and a release date of November 27, 2013. A month later, it was confirmed that the film would be a computer - animated feature in stereoscopic 3D, instead of the originally intended hand - drawn animation. Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez joined the project and started writing songs for Frozen in January 2012. On March 5, 2012, it was announced that Buck would be directing, with Lasseter and Peter Del Vecho producing.
After Disney decided to advance The Snow Queen into development again, one of the main challenges Buck and Del Vecho faced was the character of the Snow Queen, who was then a villain in their drafts. The studio has a tradition of screening animated films in development every twelve weeks, then holding lengthy "notes sessions '' in which its directors and screenwriters from different projects provide extensive "notes '' on each other 's work.
Buck and Del Vecho presented their storyboards to Lasseter, and the entire production team adjourned to a conference to hear his thoughts on the project. Art director Michael Giaimo later acknowledged Lasseter as the "game changer '' of the film: "I remember John saying that the latest version of The Snow Queen story that Chris Buck and his team had come up with was fun, very light - hearted. But the characters did n't resonate. They are n't multi-faceted. Which is why John felt that audiences would n't really be able to connect with them. ''
The production team then addressed the film 's problems, drafting several variations on The Snow Queen story until the characters and story felt relevant. At that stage, the first major breakthrough was the decision to rewrite the film 's protagonist, Anna (who was based on the Gerda character from The Snow Queen), as the younger sibling of Elsa, thereby effectively establishing a family dynamic between the characters. This was unusual in that relationships between sisters are rarely used as a major plot element in American animated films, with the notable exception of Disney 's Lilo & Stitch (2002). To fully explore the unique dynamics of such relationships, Disney Animation convened a "Sister Summit, '' at which women from all over the studio who grew up with sisters were asked to discuss their relationships with their sisters.
In March 2012, Jennifer Lee, one of the screenwriters of Wreck - It Ralph, was brought in as the film 's screenwriter by Del Vecho. Lee later explained that as Wreck - It Ralph was wrapping up, she was giving notes on other projects, and "we kind of really connected with what we were thinking. ''
According to Lee, several core concepts were already in place from Buck and Del Vecho 's early work, such as the film 's "frozen heart '' hook: "That was a concept and the phrase... an act of true love will thaw a frozen heart. '' They already knew the ending involved true love in the sense of the emotional bond between siblings, not romance, in that "Anna was going to save Elsa. We did n't know how or why. '' Lee said Edwin Catmull, president of Disney Animation, told her early on about the film 's ending: "First and foremost, no matter what you have to do to the story, do it. But you have to earn that ending. If you do (,) it will be great. If you do n't, it will suck. ''
Before Lee was brought on board, another screenwriter had made a first pass at a script, and Anderson - Lopez and Lopez tried to write songs for that script but none worked and all were cut. Then "the whole script imploded, '' which gave the songwriters the opportunity "to put a lot of (their) DNA '' into the new script that Lee was writing. The production team "essentially started over and... had 17 months, '' which resulted in a very "intense schedule '' and implied "a lot of choices had to be made fast. ''
The earlier versions differed sharply from the final version. In the original script the songwriters first saw, Elsa was evil from the start; she kidnapped Anna from her own wedding to intentionally freeze her heart, then later descended upon the town with an army of snowmen with the objective of recapturing Anna to freeze her heart properly. By the time Lee came in, the first act included Elsa deliberately striking Anna in the heart with her freezing powers; then "the whole second act was about Anna trying to get to Hans and to kiss him and then Elsa trying to stop her. '' Buck revealed that the original plot attempted to make Anna sympathetic by focusing on her frustration as being perceived as the "spare '' in relation to the "heir, '' Elsa. The original plot also had different pacing, in that it was "much more of an action adventure '' than a musical or a comedy.
One major breakthrough was the composition of the song "Let It Go '' by songwriters Lopez and Anderson - Lopez, which forced the production team to reconceptualize and rewrite Elsa as a far more complex, vulnerable, and sympathetic character. In The Daily Telegraph 's words, instead of the villain envisioned by the producers, the songwriters saw Elsa as "a scared girl struggling to control and come to terms with her gift. '' Lee recalled: "Bobby and Kristen said they were walking in Prospect Park and they just started talking about what would it feel like (to be Elsa). Forget villain. Just what it would feel like. And this concept of letting out who she is (,) that she 's kept to herself for so long (,) and she 's alone and free, but then the sadness of the fact (sic) that the last moment is she 's alone. It 's not a perfect thing, but it 's powerful. '' Del Vecho explained that "Let It Go '' changed Elsa into a person "ruled by fear and Anna was ruled by her own love of other people and her own drive, '' which in turn caused Lee to "rewrite the first act and then that rippled through the entire movie. So that was when we really found the movie and who these characters were. ''
Another major breakthrough was developing the plot twist that Prince Hans would be revealed as the film 's true villain only near the end. Hans was not even in the earliest drafts, then at first was not a villain, and after becoming one, was revealed to be evil much earlier in the plot. Del Vecho said, "We realized (what) was most important (was) if we were going to make the ending so surprising (,) you had to believe at one point that Hans was the answer... (when) he 's not the answer, it 's Kristoff... (I) f you can get the audience to leap ahead and think they have figured it out (,) you can surprise them by turning it the other way. '' Lee acknowledged that Hans was written as "sociopathic '' and "twisted '' throughout the final version. For example, Hans mirrors the behavior of the other characters: "He mirrors (Anna) and he 's goofy with her... (T) he Duke (of Weselton) is a jerk, so he 's a jerk back. And with Elsa he 's a hero. '' It was difficult to lay the foundation for Anna 's belated turn to Kristoff without also making Hans ' betrayal of Anna too predictable, in that the audience had to "feel... her feeling something but not quite understanding it... Because the minute it is (understood,) it deflated. '' At one point, Anna openly flirted with Kristoff upon first meeting him, but that was changed after Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn pointed out that it would confuse and annoy viewers since Anna was already engaged to Hans.
Lee had to work through the issue of how to write Anna 's personality, in that some of her colleagues felt Anna should be more dysfunctional and co-dependent, like Vanellope von Schweetz in Wreck - It Ralph. Lee disagreed with that position, but it took her almost a year to figure out how to convincingly articulate "this is what Anna 's journey is. No more than that. No less than that. '' In the end, Lee successfully argued Anna 's journey should be presented as a simple coming - of - age story, "where she goes from having a naive view of life and love -- because she 's lonely -- to the most sophisticated and mature view of love, where she 's capable of the ultimate love, which is sacrifice. '' Lee also had to let go of some ideas that she liked, such as a scene portraying Anna and Elsa 's relationship as teenagers, which did not work because they needed to maintain the separation between Anna and Elsa.
To construct Anna and Elsa 's relationship as sisters, Lee found inspiration in her own relationship with her older sister. Lee said her older sister was "a big inspiration for Elsa, '' called her "my Elsa '' in an op - ed in the Los Angeles Times, and walked the red carpet with her at the 86th Academy Awards. Lee explained, "(h) aving to... lose each other and then rediscover each other as adults, that was a big part of my life. ''
The production team also turned Olaf from Elsa 's obnoxious sidekick into Anna 's comically innocent sidekick. Lee 's initial response to the original "mean '' version of Olaf had been, "Kill the f - ing snowman, '' and she found Olaf by far "the hardest character to deal with. ''
The problem of how exactly Anna would save Elsa at the film 's climax was solved by story artist John Ripa. At the story meeting where Ripa pitched his take on the story, the response was silence until Lasseter said, "I 've never seen anything like that before, '' which was followed by a standing ovation.
Along the way, the production team went through drafts where the first act included far more detail than what ended up in the final version, such as a troll with a Brooklyn accent who would have explained the backstory behind Elsa 's magical powers, and a regent for whom Lee was hoping to cast comedian Louis C.K. After all those details were thoroughly "over-analyzed '', they were excised because they amounted to a "much more complex story than really we felt like we could fit in this 90 - minute film. '' As Del Vecho put it, "the more we tried to explain things at the beginning, the more complicated it got. ''
Following Lee 's extensive involvement in Frozen 's development process and her close work with director Buck and songwriters Lopez and Anderson - Lopez, studio heads Lasseter and Catmull promoted her to director of the film alongside Buck in August 2012. Her promotion was officially announced on November 29, 2012, making Lee the first woman to direct a full - length animated motion picture produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios. She primarily worked on story while Buck focused on animation. Lee later stated that she was "really moved by a lot of what Chris had done '' and that they "shared a vision '' of the story, having "very similar sensibilities ''.
By November 2012, the production team thought they had finally "cracked '' the puzzle of how to make the film 's story work, but according to Del Vecho, in late February 2013, it was realized that the film still "was n't working '', which necessitated even more rewriting of scenes and songs from February through June 2013. He explained, "we rewrote songs, we took out characters and changed everything, and suddenly the movie gelled. But that was close. In hindsight, piece of cake, but during, it was a big struggle. '' Looking back, Anderson - Lopez joked she and Lopez thought at the time they could end up working as "birthday party clown (s) '' if the final product "pull (ed)... down '' their careers and recalled that "we were really writing up until the last minute. '' In June (five months before the already - announced release date), the songwriters finally got the film working when they composed the song "For the First Time in Forever '', which, in Lopez 's words, "became the linchpin of the whole movie. ''
That month, Disney conducted test screenings of the half - completed film with two audiences (one made up of families and the other made up of adults) in Phoenix, Arizona, at which Lasseter and Catmull were personally present. Lee recalled that it was the moment when they realized they "had something, because the reaction was huge. '' Catmull, who had instructed Lee at the outset to "earn that ending, '' told her afterwards, "you did it ''.
Actress Kristen Bell was cast as the voice of Anna on March 5, 2012. Lee admitted that Bell 's casting selection was influenced after the filmmakers listened to a series of vocal tracks Bell had recorded when she was young, where the actress performed several songs from The Little Mermaid, including "Part of Your World ''. Bell completed her recording sessions while she was pregnant, and subsequently re-recorded some of her character 's lines after her pregnancy, as her voice had deepened. Bell was called in to re-record dialogue for the film "probably 20 times, '' which is normal for lead roles in Disney animated films whose scripts are still evolving. As for her approach to the role of Anna, Bell enthused that she had "dreamed of being in a Disney animated film '' since she was four years old, saying, "I always loved Disney animation, but there was something about the females that was unattainable to me. Their posture was too good and they were too well - spoken, and I feel like I really made this girl much more relatable and weirder and scrappier and more excitable and awkward. I 'm really proud of that. ''
-- Idina Menzel, on her impression of Frozen
Idina Menzel, a Broadway veteran, was cast as Elsa. Menzel had formerly auditioned for Tangled, but did not get the part. However, Tangled 's casting director, Jamie Sparer Roberts, preserved a recording of Menzel 's performance on her iPhone, and on the basis of that, asked her to audition along with Bell for Frozen. Before they were officially cast, Menzel and Bell deeply impressed the directors and producers at an early table read; after reading the entire script out loud, they sang "Wind Beneath My Wings '' together as a duet, since no music had been composed yet. Bell had suggested that idea when she visited Menzel at her California home to prepare together for the table read. The songwriters were also present for the table read; Anderson - Lopez said "Lasseter was in heaven '' upon hearing Menzel and Bell sing in harmony, and from that moment forward, he insisted, "Kristen Bell and Idina Menzel have to be in the movie! '' Lee said, "They sung (sic) it like sisters and what you mean to me (,) (a) nd there was n't a dry eye in the house after they sang. '' Between December 2012 and June 2013, the casting of additional roles was announced, including Jonathan Groff as Kristoff, Alan Tudyk as the Duke of Weselton, Santino Fontana as Prince Hans, and Josh Gad as Olaf.
Similar to Tangled, Frozen employed a unique artistic style by blending together features of both computer - generated imagery (CGI) and traditional hand - drawn animation. From the beginning, Buck knew Giaimo was the best candidate to develop the style he had in mind -- which would draw from the best Disney hand - drawn classics of the 1950s, the Disney Little Golden Books, and mid-century modern design -- and persuaded him to come back to Disney to serve as the art director for Frozen. Buck, Lasseter, and Giaimo were all old friends who had first met at the California Institute of the Arts, and Giaimo had previously served as the art director for Disney 's Pocahontas (1995), which Buck had worked on as a supervising animator.
To create the look of Frozen, Giaimo began pre-production research by reading extensively about the entire region of Scandinavia and visiting the Danish - themed city of Solvang near Los Angeles, but eventually zeroed in on Norway in particular because "80 percent '' of the visuals that appealed to him were from Norway. Disney eventually sponsored three research field trips. Animators and special effects specialists were dispatched to Jackson Hole, Wyoming, to experience walking, running, and falling in deep snow in a variety of types of attire, including long skirts (which both female and male personnel tried on); while lighting and arts teams visited an Ice Hotel in Quebec City, Quebec to study how light reflects and refracts on snow and ice. Finally, Giaimo and several artists traveled to Norway to draw inspiration from its mountains, fjords, architecture, and culture. "We had a very short time schedule for this film, so our main focus was really to get the story right but we knew that John Lasseter is keen on truth in the material and creating a believable world, and again that does n't mean it 's a realistic world -- but a believable one. It was important to see the scope and scale of Norway, and important for our animators to know what it 's like, '' Del Vecho said. "There is a real feeling of Lawrence of Arabia scope and scale to this, '' he finished.
During 2012, while Giaimo and the animators and artists conducted preparatory research and developed the film 's overall look, the production team was still struggling to develop a compelling script, as explained above. That problem was not adequately solved until November 2012, and the script would later require even more significant revisions after that point. As a result, the single "most daunting '' challenge facing the animation team was a short schedule of less than 12 months to turn Lee 's still - evolving shooting script into an actual film. Other films like Pixar 's Toy Story 2 had been successfully completed on even shorter schedules, but a short schedule necessarily meant "late nights, overtime, and stress. '' Lee estimated the total size of the entire team on Frozen to be around 600 to 650 people, "including around 70 lighting people (,) 70 - plus animators, '' and 15 to 20 storyboard artists.
Del Vecho explained how the film 's animation team was organized: "On this movie we do have character leads, supervising animators on specific characters. The animators themselves may work on multiple characters but it 's always under one lead. I think it was different on Tangled, for example, but we chose to do it this way as we wanted one person to fully understand and develop their own character and then be able to impart that to the crew. Hyrum Osmond, the supervising animator on Olaf, is quiet but he has a funny, wacky personality so we knew he 'd bring a lot of comedy to it; Anna 's animator, Becky Bresee, it 's her first time leading a character and we wanted her to lead Anna. '' Acting coach Warner Loughlin was brought in to help the film 's animators understand the characters they were creating. In order to get the general feeling of each scene, some animators did their own acting. "I actually film myself acting the scene out, which I find very helpful, '' said animation supervisor Rebecca Wilson Bresee. This helped her discover elements that made the scene feel real and believable. Elsa 's supervising animator was Wayne Unten, who asked for that role because he was fascinated by the complexity of the character. Unten carefully developed Elsa 's facial expressions in order to bring out her fear as contrasted against Anna 's fearlessness. He also studied videos from Menzel 's recording sessions and animated Elsa 's breathing to match Menzel 's breathing. Head of Animation, Lino DiSalvo, said, "The goal for the film was to animate the most believable CG characters you 've ever seen. ''
Regarding the look and nature of the film 's cinematography, Giaimo was greatly influenced by Jack Cardiff 's work in Black Narcissus. According to him, it lent a hyper - reality to the film: "Because this is a movie with such scale and we have the Norwegian fjords to draw from, I really wanted to explore the depth. From a design perspective, since I was stressing the horizontal and vertical aspects, and what the fjords provide, it was perfect. We encased the sibling story in scale. '' Ted D. McCord 's work in The Sound of Music was another major influence for Giaimo. It was also Giaimo 's idea that Frozen should be filmed in the CinemaScope widescreen process, which was approved by Lasseter. This marked Frozen the first film to be completely shot in CinemaScope since 2000 's Titan A.E.. Giaimo also wanted to ensure that Norway 's fjords, architecture and rosemaling folk art, were critical factors in designing the environment of Arendelle. Giaimo, whose background is in traditional animation, said that the art design environment represents a unity of character and environment and that he originally wanted to incorporate saturated colors, which is typically ill - advised in computer animation. For further authenticity, a live reindeer named Sage was brought into the studio for animators to study its movements and mannerisms for the character Sven.
Another important issue Giaimo insisted on addressing was costumes, in that he "knew from the start '' it would be a "costume film. '' To realize that vision, he brought in character designer Jean Gillmore to act as a dedicated "costume designer ''. While traditional animation simply integrates costume design with character design and treats clothing as merely part of the characters, computer - generated animation regards costume as almost a separate entity with its own properties and behaviors -- and Frozen required a level of as - yet untried detail, down to minutiae like fabrics, buttons, trim, and stitching. Gillmore explained that her "general approach was to meld the historic silhouettes of 1840 Western Europe (give or take), with the shapes and garment relationships and details of folk costume in early Norway, circa 19th century. '' This meant using primarily wool fabric with accents of velvet, linen, and silk. During production, Giaimo and Gillmore "ran around '' supplying various departments with real - world samples to use as references; they were able to draw upon both the studio 's own in - house library of fabric samples and the resources of Walt Disney Parks and Resorts ' costume division in Fullerton, California. The film 's "look development artists '' (the Disney job title for texture artists) created the digitally painted simulation of the appearance of surfaces, while other departments dealt with movement, rigging and weight, thickness and lighting of textile animation.
During production, the film 's English title was changed from The Snow Queen to Frozen, a decision that drew comparisons to another Disney film, Tangled. Peter Del Vecho explained that "the title Frozen came up independently of the title Tangled. It 's because, to us, it represents the movie. Frozen plays on the level of ice and snow but also the frozen relationship, the frozen heart that has to be thawed. We do n't think of comparisons between Tangled and Frozen, though. '' He also mentioned that the film will still retain its original title, The Snow Queen, in some countries: "because that just resonated stronger in some countries than Frozen. Maybe there 's a richness to The Snow Queen in the country 's heritage and they just wanted to emphasize that. ''
The studio also developed several new tools to generate realistic and believable shots, particularly the heavy and deep snow and its interactions with the characters. Disney wanted an "all - encompassing '' and organic tool to provide snow effects but not require switching between different methods. As noted above, several Disney artists and special effects personnel traveled to Wyoming to experience walking through deep snow. Dr. Kenneth Libbrecht, a professor from the California Institute of Technology, was invited to give lectures to the effects group on how snow and ice form, and why snowflakes are unique. Using this knowledge, the effects group created a snowflake generator that allowed them to randomly create 2,000 unique snowflake shapes for the film.
Another challenge that the studio had to face was to deliver shots of heavy and deep snow that both interacted believably with characters and had a realistic sticky quality. According to principal software engineer Andrew Selle, "(Snow) 's not really a fluid. It 's not really a solid. It breaks apart. It can be compressed into snowballs. All of these different effects are very difficult to capture simultaneously. '' In order to achieve this, software engineers used advanced mathematics (the material point method) and physics, with assistance from mathematics researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles to create a snow simulator software application called Matterhorn. The tool was capable of depicting realistic snow in a virtual environment and was used in at least 43 scenes in the film, including several key sequences. Software engineer Alexey Stomakhin referred to snow as "an important character in the film, '' therefore it attracted special attention from the filmmakers. "When you stretch it, snow will break into chunks. Since snow does n't have any connections, it does n't have a mesh, it can break very easily. So that was an important property we took advantage of, '' explained Selle. "There you see (Kristoff) walking through and see his footprints breaking the snow into little pieces and chunk up and you see (Anna) being pulled out and the snow having packed together and broken into pieces. It 's very organic how that happens. You do n't see that they 're pieces already -- you see the snow as one thing and then breaking up. '' The tool also proved to be particularly useful in scenes involving characters walking through deep snow, as it ensured that the snow reacted naturally to each step.
Other tools designed to help artists complete complicated effects included Spaces, which allowed Olaf 's deconstructible parts to be moved around and rebuilt, Flourish, which allowed extra movement such as leaves and twigs to be art - directed; Snow Batcher, which helped preview the final look of the snow, especially when characters were interacting with an area of snow by walking through a volume, and Tonic, which enabled artists to sculpt their characters ' hair as procedural volumes. Tonic also aided in animating fur and hair elements such as Elsa 's hair, which contains 420,000 computer - generated strands, while the average number for a real human being is only 100,000. The number of character rigs in Frozen is 312 and the number of simulated costumes also reached 245 cloth rigs, which were far beyond all other Disney films to date. Fifty effects artists and lighting artists worked together on the technology to create "one single shot '' in which Elsa builds her ice palace. Its complexity required 30 hours to render each frame, with 4,000 computers rendering one frame at a time.
Besides 3D effects, the filmmakers also used 2D artwork and drawings for specific elements and sequences in the film, including Elsa 's magic and snow sculptures, as well as freezing fountains and floors. The effects group created a "capture stage '' where the entire world of Frozen gets displayed on monitors, which can be "filmed '' on special cameras to operate a three - dimensional scene. "We can take this virtual set that 's mimicking all of my actions and put it into any one of our scenes in the film, '' said technology manager Evan Goldberg.
The setting was principally based on Norway, and the cultural influences in the film come from Scandinavian culture. Several landmarks in Norway appear in the film, including the Akershus Fortress in Oslo, the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim, and Bryggen in Bergen. Numerous other typical cultural Scandinavian elements are also included in the film, such as stave churches, trolls, Viking ships, a hot spring, Fjord horses, clothes, and food such as lutefisk. A maypole is also present in the film, as well as the brief appearance of runes in a book that Anna and Elsa 's father opens to figure out where the trolls live. A scene where two men argue over whether to stack firewood bark up or bark down is a reference to the perennial Norwegian debate over how to stack firewood properly. The film also contains several elements specifically drawn from Sámi culture, such as the usage of reindeer for transportation and the equipment used to control these, clothing styles (the outfits of the ice cutters), and parts of the musical score. Decorations, such as those on the castle pillars and Kristoff 's sled, are also in styles inspired by Sámi duodji decorations. During their field work in Norway, Disney 's team, for inspiration, visited Rørosrein, a Sámi family - owned company in the village Plassje that produces reindeer meat and arranges tourist events. Arendelle was inspired by Nærøyfjord, a branch of Norway 's longest fjord Sognefjorden, which has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site; while a castle in Oslo with beautiful hand - painted patterns on all four walls served as the inspiration for the kingdom 's royal castle interior.
The filmmakers ' trip to Norway provided essential knowledge for the animators to come up with the design aesthetic for the film in terms of color, light, and atmosphere. According to Giaimo, there were three important factors that they had acquired from the Norway research trip: the fjords and the massive vertical rock formations characteristic of fjords, which serve as the setting for the secluded kingdom of Arendelle; the medieval stave churches, whose rustic triangular rooflines and shingles inspired the castle compound; and the rosemaling folk art, whose distinctive paneling and grid patterns informed the architecture, decor, and costumes.
The songs for Frozen were written and composed by the husband - and - wife songwriting team of Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson - Lopez, both of whom had previously worked with Disney Animation on Winnie the Pooh (2011) (also produced by Del Vecho, who then hired them for Frozen) and before that, with Disney Parks on Finding Nemo -- The Musical (2007). Lopez first heard Disney Animation 's pitch while in Los Angeles working on The Book of Mormon, but Disney was so eager to get both of them on board that the production team traveled to New York City to also pitch the film in person to Anderson - Lopez (who was busy raising the couple 's two young daughters). Lopez believes Disney was particularly interested in his wife 's strong story talent. The decision, of course, was easy: "Whenever Disney asks if you want to do a fairy tale musical, you say yes. ''
About 23 minutes of the film are dedicated to their musical numbers. Because they live in New York City, collaborating closely with the production team in Burbank required two - hour - long transcontinental videoconferences nearly every weekday for about 14 months. For each song they composed, they recorded a demo in their home studio (with both of them singing the lyrics and Lopez accompanying on piano), then emailed it to Burbank for discussion at the next videoconference. Lopez and Anderson - Lopez were aware of the fact that their work would be compared to that of Alan Menken and Howard Ashman from the Disney Renaissance era, and whenever they felt lost, they asked "What would Ashman do? '' In the end, they wrote 25 songs for the film, of which eight made it into the final version. One song ("For the First Time in Forever '') had a reprise and the other ("Let It Go '') was covered by Demi Lovato over the final credits, for a total of ten songs. Seven of the 17 that did not make it were later released on the deluxe edition soundtrack.
In February 2013, Christophe Beck was hired to score the film, following his work on Paperman, a Disney animated short film released the year prior to Frozen. It was revealed on September 14, 2013, that Sámi musician Frode Fjellheim 's Eatnemen Vuelie would be the film 's opening song, as it contains elements of the traditional Sámi singing style joik. The music producers recruited a Norwegian linguist to assist with the lyrics for an Old Norse song written for Elsa 's coronation and traveled to Trondheim, Norway, to record the all - female choir Cantus, for a piece inspired by traditional Sámi music.
Under the supervision of sound engineer David Boucher, the lead cast members began recording the film 's vocal tracks in October 2012 at the Sunset Sound recording studio in Hollywood before the songs had been orchestrated, meaning they heard only Lopez 's demo piano track in their headphones as they sang. Most of the dialogue was recorded at the Roy E. Disney Animation Building in Burbank under the supervision of original dialogue mixer Gabriel Guy, who also mixed the film 's sound effects. Some dialogue was recorded after recording songs at both Sunset Sound and Capitol Studios; for scenes involving Anna and Elsa, both studios offered vocal isolation booths where Menzel and Bell could read dialogue with line - of - sight with one another, while avoiding "bleedthrough '' between their respective tracks. Additional dialogue was recorded at an ADR facility on the Walt Disney Studios lot in Burbank (across the street from the Disney Animation building) and at the Soundtrack Group 's New York studio, since the production team had to work around the busy schedules of the film 's New York - based cast members like Fontana.
Lopez and Anderson - Lopez 's piano - vocal scores for the songs along with the vocal tracks were sent to Salem, Oregon - based Dave Metzger for arrangement and orchestration; Metzger also orchestrated a significant portion of Beck 's score.
For the orchestral film score, Beck paid homage to the Norway - and Sápmi - inspired setting by employing regional instruments, such as the bukkehorn, and traditional vocal techniques, such as kulning. Beck worked with Lopez and Anderson - Lopez on incorporating their songs into arrangements in the score. The trio 's goal "was to create a cohesive musical journey from beginning to end. '' Similarly, Beck 's scoring mixer, Casey Stone (who also supervised the recording of the score), worked with Boucher to align their microphone setups to ensure the transitions between the songs and score were seamless, even though they were separately recorded on different dates. The final orchestrations of both the songs and score were all recorded at the Eastwood Scoring Stage on the Warner Bros. studio lot in Burbank by an 80 - piece orchestra, featuring 32 vocalists, including native Norwegian Christine Hals. Boucher supervised the recording of Anderson - Lopez and Lopez 's songs from July 22 to 24, 2013, then Stone supervised the recording of Beck 's score from September 3 to 6 and 9 to 10. Boucher mixed the songs at the Eastwood stage, while Stone mixed the score at Beck 's personal studio in Santa Monica, California.
Regarding the sound of Frozen, director Jennifer Lee stated that sound played a huge part in making the film "visceral '' and "transported ''; she explained, "(i) n letting it tell the story emotionally, the sound of the ice when it 's at its most dangerous just makes you shudder. '' The complete silence at the climax of the film right after Anna freezes was Lasseter 's idea, one he "really wanted ''. In that scene, even the ambient sound that would normally be there was taken out in order to make it feel unusual. Lee explained "that was a moment where we wanted everything to feel suspended. ''
To obtain certain snow and ice sound effects, sound designer Odin Benitez traveled to Mammoth Mountain, California, to record them at a frozen lake. However, the foley work for the film was recorded on the foley stage on the Warner Bros. lot by a Warner Bros. crew. The foley artists received daily deliveries of 50 pounds (22.6 kg) of snow ice while working, to help them record all the necessary snow and ice sounds for the film. Because the film 's visuals were finalized so late, five separate versions of nearly every footstep on snow were recorded (corresponding to five different types of snow), then one was later selected during mixing to match the snow as rendered in the final version of each scene. One issue that the production team was "particular '' about was the sound of Elsa 's footsteps in the ice palace, which required eight attempts, including wine glasses on ice and metal knives on ice; they ended up using a mix of three sounds.
Although the vocals, music, sound effects, and almost all the dialogue were all recorded elsewhere, the final re-recording mix to Dolby Atmos format was performed at the Disney lot by Casey E. Fluhr of Disney Digital Studio Services.
Like other Disney media products which are often localized through Disney Character Voices International, Frozen was translated and dubbed into 41 languages (compared with only 15 for The Lion King). A major challenge was to find sopranos capable of matching Menzel 's warm vocal tone and three - octave vocal range in their native languages. Rick Dempsey, the unit 's senior executive, regarded the process of translating the film as "exceptionally challenging ''; he explained, "It 's a difficult juggling act to get the right intent of the lyrics and also have it match rhythmically to the music. And then you have to go back and adjust for lip sync! (It)... requires a lot of patience and precision. '' Lopez explained that they were told by Disney to remove complex wordplay and puns from their songs, to ensure the film was easily translatable and had globally appealing lyrics. For the casting of dubbed versions, Disney required native speakers in order to "ensure that the film feels ' local '. '' They used Bell and Menzel 's voices as their "blueprint '' in casting, and tried to match the voices "as much as possible, '' meaning that they auditioned approximately 200 singers to fill the 41 slots for Elsa alone. For nearly 15 dubbed versions, they cast Elsa 's singing and speaking parts separately, since not all vocalists could act the part they were singing. After casting all the other roles for all 41 languages, the international cast ended up including more than 900 people, who voiced their roles through approximately 1,300 recording sessions.
Since 2013, some local TV stations and independent studios have been dubbing the movie in their local languages, creating some unofficial dubs. Namely: Albanian, Arabic (TV dub), Karachay - Balkar, Persian and Tagalog.
Frozen was released theatrically in the United States on November 27, 2013, and it was accompanied by the new Mickey Mouse animated short film, Get a Horse! The film 's premiere was at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, on November 19, 2013, and had a five - day limited release there, starting from November 22, before going into wide release.
Prior to the film 's release, Lopez and Anderson - Lopez 's "Let It Go '' and "In Summer '' were previewed at the 2013 D23 Expo; Idina Menzel performed the former live on stage. A teaser trailer was released on June 18, 2013, followed by the release of the official trailer on September 26, 2013. Frozen was also promoted heavily at several Disney theme parks including Disneyland 's Fantasyland, Disney California Adventure 's World of Color, Epcot 's Norway pavilion, and Disneyland Paris ' Disney Dreams! show; Disneyland and Epcot both offered meet - and - greet sessions involving the film 's two main characters, Anna and Elsa. On November 6, 2013, Disney Consumer Products began releasing a line of toys and other merchandise relating to the film in Disney Store and other retailers.
On January 31, 2014, a sing - along version of Frozen was released in 2,057 theaters in the United States. It featured on - screen lyrics, and viewers were invited to follow the bouncing snowflake and sing along with the songs from the film. After its wide release in Japan on March 14, 2014, a similar sing - along version of Frozen was released in the country in select theaters on April 26. In Japanese - dubbed versions, Japanese lyrics of the songs appeared on screen for audiences to sing along with the characters. A sing - along version of the film was released in United Kingdom on November 28, 2014.
Frozen was released for digital download on February 25, 2014, on Google Play, the iTunes Store, and Amazon Video. It was subsequently released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu - ray Disc and DVD on March 18, 2014. Bonus features for the Blu - ray release include "The Making of Frozen '', a three - minute musical production about how the film was made, "D'frosted '', an inside look at how Disney tried to adapt the original fairy tale into an animated feature, four deleted scenes with introduction by the directors, the original theatrical short Get a Horse!, the film 's teaser trailer, and "Let It Go '' (End Credit Version) music videos by Demi Lovato, Martina Stoessel, and Marsha Milan Londoh; while the DVD release includes the Get a Horse! theatrical short, "Let It Go '' musical videos and the film 's teaser trailer.
On its first day of release on Blu - ray and DVD, Frozen sold 3.2 million units, becoming one of the biggest home video sellers in the last decade, as well as Amazon 's best - selling children 's disc of all time. The digital download release of the film also set a record as the fastest - selling digital release of all time. Frozen finished its first week at No. 1 in unit sales in the United States, selling more than three times as many units as other 19 titles in the charts combined, according to the Nielsen 's sales chart. The film sold 3,969,270 Blu - ray units (the equivalent of $79,266,322) during its first week, which accounted for 50 percent of its opening home media sales. It topped the U.S. home video sales charts for six non-consecutive weeks out of seven weeks of release, as of May 4, 2014. In the United Kingdom, Frozen debuted at No. 1 in Blu - ray and DVD sales on the Official Video Chart. According to Official Charts Company, more than 500,000 copies of the film were sold in its two - day opening (March 31 -- April 1, 2014). During its three first weeks of release in the United Kingdom, Frozen sold more than 1.45 million units, becoming the biggest - selling video title of 2014 so far in the country. Frozen has sold 2,025,000 Blu - ray Disc / DVD combo sets in Japan in 4 weeks, becoming the fastest - selling home video to sell 2 million copies, beating the previous record of 11 weeks by Spirited Away. Frozen also holds the records for highest number of home video units sold on the first official day of sales and in the first official week of sales in Japan. As of the end of 2014, the film earned $308,026,545 in total US home media sales. It is one of the best - selling home media releases, having moved over 18 million units as of March 2015.
Following an announcement on August 12, 2014, a sing - along reissue of Frozen was released via DVD and digital download on November 18, 2014.
In late December 2013, The Walt Disney Company filed a trademark infringement lawsuit in California federal court against Phase 4 Films, seeking an injunction against the continued distribution of the Canadian film The Legend of Sarila, which had been retitled Frozen Land in the United States back then and had a logo similar to the Disney film. By late January 2014, the two companies had settled the case; the settlement stated that the distribution and promotion of The Legend of Sarila and related merchandise must use its original title and Phase 4 must not use trademarks, logos or other designs confusingly similar to Disney 's animated release. Phase 4 was also required to pay Disney $100,000 before January 27, 2014, and make "all practicable efforts '' to remove copies of Frozen Land from stores and online distributors before March 3, 2014.
According to copyright infringement - tracking site Excipio, Frozen was the second-most - infringed film of 2014 (behind The Wolf of Wall Street), with over 29.9 million illegal downloads via torrent sites.
Frozen was broadcast on BBC One as a Freeview premiere on December 25, 2016.
The film had its US broadcast debut on December 11, 2016, airing on the American Broadcasting Company under the Wonderful World of Disney anthology. The airing achieved over 6.6 million viewers, lifting ABC 's usual ratings on Sundays.
It had its debut on Dutch TV on December 17, 2016 on SBS 6, with the original English version simulcast on sister channel SBS 9.
The Japanese broadcast debut aired on Fuji TV on March 4, 2017.
Frozen earned $400.7 million in North America, and an estimated $875.8 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $1.276 billion. Calculating in all expenses, Deadline.com estimated that the film made a profit of over $400 million. It is the eleventh - highest - grossing film (and was the fifth - highest at its peak), the highest - grossing animated film, the highest - grossing 2013 film, the highest - grossing Walt Disney Pictures release, and the fourth - highest - grossing film distributed by Disney. The film earned $110.6 million worldwide in its opening weekend. On March 2, 2014, its 101st day of release, it surpassed the $1 billion mark, becoming the eighteenth film in cinematic history, the seventh Disney - distributed film, the fifth non-sequel film, the second Disney - distributed film in 2013 (after Iron Man 3), and the first animated film since Toy Story 3 to do so.
Bloomberg Business reported in March 2014 that outside analysts had projected the film 's total cost at somewhere around $323 million to $350 million for production, marketing, and distribution, and had also projected that the film would generate $1.3 billion in revenue from box office ticket sales, digital downloads, discs, and television rights.
Frozen became Fandango 's top advance ticket seller among original animated films, ahead of previous record - holder Brave, and became the top - selling animated film in the company 's history in late January 2014. The sing - along version of the film later topped the best - selling list of the movie ticketing service again for three days. Frozen opened on Friday, November 22, 2013, exclusively at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood for a five - day limited release and earned $342,839 before its wide opening on Wednesday, November 27, 2013. During the three - day weekend it earned $243,390, scoring the seventh - largest per - theater average. On the opening day of its wide release, the film earned $15.2 million, including $1.2 million from Tuesday late - night shows, and set a record for the highest pre-Thanksgiving Wednesday opening, ahead of Tangled ($11.9 million). It was also the second - largest pre-Thanksgiving Wednesday among all films, behind Catching Fire ($20.8 million). The film finished in second place over the traditional three - day weekend (Friday - to - Sunday) with $67.4 million, setting an opening weekend record among Walt Disney Animation Studios films. It also scored the second - largest opening weekend among films that did not debut at # 1. Female audiences accounted for 57 % of Frozen 's total audiences on the first weekend, while family audiences held a proportion of 81 %. Among films that opened during Thanksgiving, it set new records; three - day ($67.4 million from Friday to Sunday) and five - day ($93.6 million from Wednesday to Sunday). It also achieved the second - largest three - day and five - day Thanksgiving gross among all films, behind Catching Fire.
During its second weekend of wide release, Frozen declined 53 % to $31.6 million, but jumped to first place, setting a record for the largest post-Thanksgiving weekend, ahead of Toy Story 2 ($27.8 million). Frozen became the first film since Avatar to reach first place in its sixth weekend of wide release. It remained in the top 10 at the box office for sixteen consecutive weekends (the longest run by any film since 2002) and achieved large weekend grosses from its fifth to its twelfth weekend (of wide release), compared to other films in their respective weekends. On April 25, 2014, Frozen became the nineteenth film to gross $400 million in North America and the fifteenth to do so without a major re-release.
In North America, Frozen is the twenty - sixth - highest - grossing film, the third - highest - grossing 2013 film, the fifth - highest - grossing animated film, the highest - grossing 2013 animated film, the twelfth - highest - grossing 3 - D film, and the second - highest - grossing Walt Disney Animation Studios film. Excluding re-releases, it has the highest - grossing initial run among non-sequel animated films (a record previously held by Finding Nemo) and among Walt Disney Animation Studios films (a record previously held by The Lion King). Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 49 million tickets in North America.
Frozen is the ninth - highest - grossing film, the highest - grossing animated film, and the highest - grossing 2013 film. It is the highest - grossing animated film in South Korea, Denmark, and Venezuela. It is also the highest - grossing Walt Disney Animation Studios film in more than 45 territories, including the Latin America region (specifically in Mexico and Brazil), the UK, Ireland, and Malta, Russia and the CIS, Ukraine, Norway, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia and China.
The film made its debut outside North America on the same weekend as its wide North American release and earned $16.7 million from sixteen markets. It topped the box office outside North America for two weekends in 2014; January 10 -- 12 ($27.8 million) and February 7 -- 9 ($24 million). Overall, its largest opening weekends occurred in China (five - day opening of $14.3 million), Russia and the CIS ($11.9 million, including previews from previous weekend), where the film set an opening weekend record among Disney animated films (ahead of Tangled), and Japan (three - day opening of $9.73 million). It set an opening weekend record among animated films in Sweden. In total earnings, the film 's top market after North America is Japan ($247.6 million), followed by South Korea ($76.6 million) and the United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta ($65.7 million). In South Korea, Frozen is the second - largest foreign film both in terms of attendance and gross, the largest Disney release and the first animated film to earn more than ten million admissions. In Japan, it is the third - highest - grossing film of all time, the second - highest - grossing imported film (behind Titanic) and the highest - grossing Disney film. It topped the country 's box office for sixteen consecutive weekends until being surpassed by another Disney release, Maleficent.
Ray Subers, writing for Box Office Mojo, compared the film to Disney 's 2010 animated feature Tangled by saying that the film 's story was not as "immediately interesting '' and that "marketing has yet to sell this to boys the way Tangled did ''. Noting that the 2013 holiday season (Thanksgiving and Christmas) lacked compelling content for families, Subers predicted that the film would "play well all the way through Christmas '' and end up grossing $185 million in North America (similar to Wreck - It Ralph). Boxoffice noted the success of previous Disney 's animated films released during the holiday season (Tangled and Wreck - It Ralph), but argued that the cast might not attract audiences due to the lack of major stars. They issued a $170,000,000 North America box office forecast for the film. Chris Agar from ScreenRant expressed a similar opinion; he cited a string of recent box office successes of the studio, and thought that Frozen would fill a void of kid - friendly films in the marketplace, but did not expect it to surpass Catching Fire in terms of box office gross.
Clayton Dillard of Slant Magazine commented that while the trailers made the film seem "pallid, '' positive critical reviews could attract interest from both "core demographics '' and adult audiences, and therefore he believed Frozen stood a good chance of surpassing Tangled 's Thanksgiving three - day opening record. Brad Brevet of Ropeofsilicon.com described the film 's marketing as a "severely hit and miss '' campaign, which could affect its box office performance. After Frozen finished its first weekend with a record $93.6 million during Thanksgiving, most box - office watchers predicted that it would end up grossing between $250 and $300 million in North America. At the time, Box Office Mojo reissued a $250 million box office gross prediction for North America. Box Office Mojo noted that it would be "the exclusive choice for family audiences '' and attributed its successful opening to strong word - of - mouth and the studio 's marketing, which highlighted the connection between Frozen and Disney 's previous successful releases like Tangled and Wreck - It Ralph, as well as the elements of humor.
When Frozen became a box office success, Bilge Ebiri of Vulture analyzed the film 's elements and suggested eight factors that might have led to its success. He thought Frozen managed to capture the classic Disney spirit of the Disney Renaissance films and early classics such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Cinderella. He also wrote that the film has Olaf, a "wisecracking, irreverent '' sidekick with mild humor which is "a requirement of modern animated kids ' movies, '' and its "witty, catchy '' songs were "pretty good. '' Furthermore, Ebiri noted that Frozen was a "revisionist '' film that did n't "have a typical villain ''; Elsa, the person who should be the villain did n't turn out to be a villain, but "a girl who 's having trouble. '' She was the one who "(created) most of the challenges (for) the film 's more typical heroes -- Princess Anna. '' The story of two sisters who were separated as they grew up held real - life overtones for many audience members who had siblings, and the struggle of Elsa to overcome the shame and fear of her powers was also relatable. Finally, he identified several factors which he believed attracted female audiences: two strong female characters; a twist on the usual romantic subplot, when the traditional "Prince Charming '' -- Hans -- turned out to be a gold - digging villain; and the "act of true love '' which saved Anna was her own sacrifice in saving Elsa.
Scott Davis of Forbes credited the film 's commercial success to its marketing aimed at both sexes, and to the success of its soundtrack.
The commercial success of Frozen in Japan was considered to be a "phenomenon '' which received widespread media coverage. Released in that market as Anna and the Snow Queen, the film increased its gross each week in its three first weeks of release, and only started to drop in the fourth; while other films usually peak in the opening week and decline in the latter ones. Frozen has received over 7 million admissions in Japan as of April 16, and nearly 18.7 million admissions as of June 23. Many cinemagoers were reported to have watched both the original and the Japanese - dubbed version. Japan Today also reported that the local dubbed version was "particularly popular '' in the country. Gavin J. Blair of The Hollywood Reporter commented on the film 's earnings in Japan: "Even after its $9.6 million (¥ 986.4 million) three - day opening, a record bow for a Disney animation in Japan, few would have predicted the kind of numbers Frozen has now racked up. '' Disney 's head of distribution Dave Hollis said in an interview that "It 's become very clear that the themes and emotions of Frozen transcend geography, but what 's going on in Japan is extraordinary. ''
"Frozen 's success does n't benefit from a general appetite for American films in Japan '' (as reported by the International Business Times), but according to Akira Lippit of the USC School of Cinematic Arts, there were several factors that constituted this phenomenon: besides the fact that animated films "are held in great regard in Japan, and the Disney brand name with all of its heritage is extremely valuable '', "the biggest reason is the primary audience... 13 - to 17 - year - old teenage girls. '' He further explained that audiences of this age range have a vital role in shaping Japanese pop culture and "Frozen has so many elements that appeal to them, with its story of a young girl with power and mystique, who finds her own sort of good in herself. '' He compared the film 's current situation with a similar phenomenon which occurred with Titanic in 1997, "when millions of Japanese teen girls turned out to watch Leonard (o) DiCaprio go under -- several times, '' and thought the same would happen with Frozen. Another reason that contributed to the film 's success in the market was that Disney took great care in choosing "high quality '' voice actors for the Japanese - dubbed version, since Japan 's pop music scene had an important role particularly with teenage audiences. Orika Hiromura, Disney Japan 's marketing project leader for Frozen, said in an interview with The Wall Street Journal: "We really put effort into finding actors who could not only play the role but also belt out the tunes as well. We found the perfect match in Takako Matsu and Sayaka Kanda, and they really added a whole new dimension to the storytelling. ''
When asked about the success of Frozen, director Chris Buck stated: "We never expected anything like this. We just hoped to make a movie that did as well as Tangled! I hoped the audience would embrace it and respond to it, but there 's no way we could have predicted this. '' He cited a number of reasons for the film 's popularity: "There are characters that people relate to; the songs are so strong and memorable. We also have some flawed characters, which is what Jen (nifer Lee) and I like to do -- we essentially create two imperfect princesses. '' As Frozen approached the first anniversary of its release, Menzel mentioned the film 's continuing popularity in an October 2014 interview: "It 's just a remarkable thing. Usually you do a project and it has its moment. This just feels like it keeps going. ''
Frozen opened to highly positive reviews, with several critics comparing it favorably to the films of the Disney Renaissance, particularly The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, and The Lion King. Some journalists felt that the film 's success marked a second Disney Renaissance. The film was praised for its visuals, themes, musical numbers, screenplay, and vocal performances, especially those of Bell, Menzel, and Gad. The "Let It Go '' musical sequence was also particularly praised by critics. The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 90 % of critics gave the film a positive review based on 228 reviews, with the site 's consensus being: "Beautifully animated, smartly written, and stocked with singalong songs, Frozen adds another worthy entry to the Disney canon. '' Metacritic, which determines a normalized rating out of 100 from the reviews of mainstream critics, calculated a score of 74 based on 43 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews. '' CinemaScore gave Frozen an "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, based on polls conducted during the opening weekend. Surveys conducted by Fandango among 1,000 ticket buyers revealed that 75 % of purchasers had seen the film at least once, and 52 % had seen it twice. It was also pointed out that 55 % of audiences identified "Let It Go '' as their favorite song, while "Do You Want to Build a Snowman? '' and "For the First Time in Forever '' held proportions of 21 % and 9 %, respectively. Frozen was named the seventh - best film of 2013 by Richard Corliss of Time and Kyle Smith of the New York Post.
Alonso Duralde of TheWrap wrote that the film is "the best animated musical to come out of Disney since the tragic death of lyricist Howard Ashman, whose work on The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast helped build the studio 's modern animated division into what it is today. '' He also said that "while it lags the tiniest bit on its way to the conclusion, the script... really delivers; it offers characters to care about, along with some nifty twists and surprises along the way. '' Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter observed Frozen as a true musical and wrote, "You can practically see the Broadway musical Frozen is destined to become while watching Disney 's 3D animated princess tale. '' McCarthy described the film as "energetic, humorous and not too cloying, as well as the first Hollywood film in many years to warn of global cooling rather than warming, this tuneful toon upgrades what has been a lackluster year for big studio animated fare and, beginning with its Thanksgiving opening, should live up to box office expectations as one of the studio 's hoped - for holiday - spanning blockbusters. '' Kyle Smith of the New York Post awarded the film 3.5 out of 4 stars and praised the film as "a great big snowy pleasure with an emotionally gripping core, brilliant Broadway - style songs and a crafty plot. Its first and third acts are better than the jokey middle, but this is the rare example of a Walt Disney Animation Studios effort that reaches as deep as a Pixar film. '' Scott Mendelson of Forbes wrote, "Frozen is both a declaration of Disney 's renewed cultural relevance and a reaffirmation of Disney coming to terms with its own legacy and its own identity. It 's also a just plain terrific bit of family entertainment. ''
The Los Angeles Times extolled the film 's ensemble voice talent and elaborate musical sequences, and declared Frozen was "a welcome return to greatness for Walt Disney Animation Studios. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman gave the film a "B + '' grade and labeled it as a "squarely enchanting fairy tale that shows you how the definition of what 's fresh in animation can shift. '' Richard Corliss of Time stated that: "It 's great to see Disney returning to its roots and blooming anew: creating superior musical entertainment that draws on the Walt (Disney) tradition of animation splendor and the verve of Broadway present. '' Richard Roeper wrote that the film was an "absolute delight from start to finish. '' Both Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune and Stephen Holden of The New York Times praised the film 's characters and musical sequences, which also drew comparisons to the theatrics found in Wicked. Emma Dibdin of Digital Spy awarded the film five out of five stars and called the film "a new Disney classic '' and "an exhilarating, joyous, human story that 's as frequently laugh - out - loud funny as it is startling and daring and poignant. Hot on the heels of the 90th anniversary, it 's impossible to imagine a more perfect celebration of everything Disney is at its best. '' Frozen was also praised in Norwegian Sámi media as showcasing Sámi culture to a broad audience in a good way. Composer Frode Fjellheim was lauded by Norwegian Sámi President Aili Keskitalo for his contributions to the film, during the President 's 2014 New Year 's speech.
Scott Foundas of Variety was less impressed with the film, describing it as "formulaic '', though he praised its voice acting and technical artistry: "The tactile, snow - capped Arendelle landscape, including Elsa 's ice - castle retreat is Frozen 's other true marvel, enhanced by 3D and the decision to shoot in widescreen -- a nod to the CinemaScope richness of Sleeping Beauty and Lady and the Tramp... That 's almost but not quite enough to make up for the somewhat slack plotting and the generic nature of the main characters. Neither princess here is a patch on Tangled 's babe - in - the - woods Rapunzel, while both Hans and Kristoff are cut from pretty standard - issue hero cloth until a reasonably surprising third - act twist somewhat ups the ante. Only Olaf is unimpeachable: Get this snowman a spinoff feature to call his own. '' The Seattle Times gave the film two out of four stars, stating that "While it is an often gorgeous film with computer - generated fjords and ice sculptures and castle interiors, the important thing that glues all this stuff together -- story -- is sadly lacking. '' Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch also criticized the story as the film 's weakest point. Writing on Roger Ebert 's website, Christy Lemire gave a mixed review in which she awarded two - and - a-half stars out of four. Lemire praised the visuals and the performance of "Let It Go, '' as well as the positive messages Frozen sends. However, she referred to the film as "cynical '' and criticized it as an "attempt to shake things up without shaking them up too much. '' She also noted the similarity between Elsa and another well - known fictional female who unleashes paranormal powers when agitated, Carrie White.
Allegations of sexism occurred following a statement by Lino DiSalvo, the film 's head of animation, who said to Fan Voice 's Jenna Busch: "Historically speaking, animating female characters are really, really difficult, because they have to go through these range of emotions, but you have to keep them pretty. '' However, a Disney spokesperson later told Time that DiSalvo 's quote was widely misinterpreted, stating that he was "describing some technical aspects of CG animation and not making a general comment on animating females versus males or other characters. '' Director Lee also said that DiSalvo 's words were recklessly taken out of context, and that he was talking in very technical terms about CG animation. "It is hard no matter what the gender is. I felt horrible for him, '' she said. In an August 2014 interview, DiSalvo re-emphasized what he had been trying to explain all along when his statements were taken out of context -- the difficulty with turning any kind of animated character from a series of sketches on a 2D emotion model sheet into a properly rigged 3D character model: "Translating that emotional range onto a CG character is one of the most difficult parts of the process. Male. Female. Snowman. Animal. '' He added, "The really sad thing is people took that... catchy headline and they just repopulated it everywhere. People did n't get back to me for comments and the sad thing is that 's the way the internet works. They do n't want the truth. ''
Several viewers outside the film industry, such as evangelical pastors and commentators, argued that Frozen promotes normalization of homosexuality, while others believed that the main character, Elsa, represents a positive image of LGBT youth, viewing the film and the song "Let It Go '' as a metaphor for coming out. These claims were met with mixed reactions from both audiences and the LGBT community. Writing for Film International, Robert Geal has argued that while the film offers a superficially progressive vision of homosexuality, it perpetuates conservative notions about sexuality and gender; whereas Elsa 's female homosexuality is rendered visually pleasurable to a male gaze, male transgressions of heterosexuality are coded in various negative ways. When asked about perceptions of a homosexual undertone in the film, Lee said, "We know what we made. But at the same time I feel like once we hand the film over, it belongs to the world, so I do n't like to say anything, and let the fans talk. I think it 's up to them. '' She also mentioned that Disney films were made in different eras and were all celebrated for different reasons, but a 2013 film would have a "2013 point of view ''.
Demi Lovato, Idina Menzel, Walt Disney Animation Studios and others involved with the song "Let it Go '' are currently being sued by musical artist Jaime Ciero over whether or not the song is a rip - off of his 2008 single "Volar. ''
Frozen was nominated for various awards and won a number of them, including several for Best Animated Feature. The song "Let It Go '' was particularly praised. The film was nominated for two Golden Globes at the 71st Golden Globe Awards and won for Best Animated Feature, becoming the first Walt Disney Animation Studios film to win in this category. It also won two Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ("Let It Go ''), the BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film at the British Academy Film Awards (BAFTA), five Annie Awards (including Best Animated Feature), and two Critics ' Choice Awards for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Song ("Let It Go ''). It received other similar nominations at the Satellite Awards, and various critics ' groups and circles. At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards, the Frozen soundtrack won the Grammy Award for Best Compilation Soundtrack For Visual Media and was nominated for Best Score Soundtrack For Visual Media (with credits going to Christophe Beck as composer); the song "Let It Go '' won the award for Best Song Written For Visual Media, with credits going to Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez as songwriters and Idina Menzel as performer.
During the spring and summer of 2014, several journalists observed that Frozen was unusually catchy in comparison to the vast majority of films, in that many children in both the U.S. and the UK were watching Frozen so many times that they now knew all the songs by heart and kept singing them again and again at every opportunity, to the distress of their hapless parents, teachers, and classmates. Among the celebrities who disclosed they were the parent of a Frozen - obsessed child are former UK prime minister David Cameron, as well as actors Amy Adams, Ben Affleck, Kevin Costner and Vince Vaughn. When Terry Gross brought up this phenomenon with songwriters Lopez and Anderson - Lopez in an April 2014 interview on NPR, they explained there was simply no way they could have known how popular their work on Frozen would become. They were "just trying to tell a story that resonated '' and "that did n't suck. ''
In May, columnist Joel Stein of Time magazine wrote about his young son Laszlo 's frustration with the inescapable "cultural assault '' of Frozen at preschool and all social and extracurricular activities, and how he had arranged for a Skype call with lead actress Bell after Laszlo began asking why the film was made. When Laszlo asked whether Bell knew when she made Frozen that it would take over kids ' lives, she replied: "I did not know that people would not let it go. No pun intended. '' In a December 2014 interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Lee acknowledged that she had transitioned from thanking people when they expressed their appreciation for Frozen to having to apologize when they said "we 're still listening to those songs '' (with their children). Lee also said that she used the film and its strong female characters to inspire her own daughter, who had experienced bullying at school, and admitted that she herself as a child was bullied as well; thus, they had managed to be true to themselves like Anna and Elsa.
In a 2014 mid-year report of the 100 most - used baby names conducted by BabyCenter, Elsa was ranked 88; it was the first time the name had appeared on the site 's chart. Sarah Barrett, managing director of the site, explained that while the film 's popular heroine is called Anna, "Elsa offers a more unique name and is also a strong female role model. '' Many parents revealed that their choices of name were "heavily influenced '' by the siblings. Vice president of Disney UK Anna Hill later commented that "We 're delighted that Elsa is a popular name for babies and it 's lovely to hear that for many families, it is actually their siblings who have chosen it, '' and that "Elsa 's fight to overcome her fears and the powerful strength of the family bond '' were relatable to many families. On 2014 year - end lists issued by Google, Frozen was the most searched movie of 2014. On the Google Play Store, Frozen and its soundtrack album were also named Movie of the Year and Album of the Year respectively, i.e. the best - selling title in their respective areas. Frozen was also the second-most illegally downloaded film title of 2014 via BitTorrent file sharing protocol, with around 30 million downloads.
After Disney announced in March 2015 that a feature - length sequel was in development, Agence France - Presse and the Toronto Star both published stories gently mocking the horror of parents everywhere at the news that another Frozen "sensory and financial assault '' was in the pipeline.
In January 2014, Iger announced that Frozen would be adapted into a Broadway stage musical. In the space of a single business quarter, Iger went from speaking of Frozen 's "franchise potential '' (in February 2014) to saying that it was "probably '' one of Disney 's "top five franchises '' (in May 2014). The film 's massive popularity resulted in an unusually severe merchandise shortage in the United States and several other industrialized countries in April 2014, which caused resale prices for higher - quality limited - edition Frozen dolls and costumes to skyrocket past $1,000 on eBay. By the time the merchandise shortage was finally resolved in early November 2014 (nearly a year after the film 's release), Disney had sold over three million Frozen costumes in North America alone. Wait times for the meet - and - greets at Disney Parks soon regularly exceeded four hours and forced management in February 2014 to indefinitely extend what was originally intended as a temporary film promotion. Disney Parks later put on a temporary event (Frozen Summer Fun) at Disney 's Hollywood Studios, then announced on September 12, 2014, that the Maelstrom ride at Epcot 's Norway pavilion would be closed and replaced with a Frozen - based attraction, which opened in early 2016. On May 27, 2016, a live Frozen musical stage show officially opened at the Hyperion Theater in Disney California Adventure, replacing the venue 's previous show, Aladdin. By August 2014, the publisher Random House had sold over 8 million Frozen - related books. Tour operators, including Adventures by Disney, added more Norway tours in response to rising demand during 2014.
Meanwhile, the producers of Once Upon a Time (made by Disney - owned ABC Studios) independently conceived of and obtained authorization from both ABC and Disney for a Frozen - inspired crossover story arc in the show 's fourth season, which was first revealed at the end of the show 's third season in May 2014, which was broadcast in fall 2014. On September 2, 2014, ABC broadcast The Story of Frozen: Making a Disney Animated Classic, a one - hour "making of '' television special. At the end of the special, Lasseter announced that the production team would be reuniting to make Frozen Fever, a short film which debuted in theaters with Disney 's Cinderella on March 13, 2015. On September 4, 2014, Feld Entertainment 's Disney on Ice presented the world premiere of a touring ice skating show based on the film at Amway Center in Orlando, Florida.
During the airing of The Making of Frozen: Return to Arendelle on ABC, it was announced that a holiday special titled Olaf 's Frozen Adventure was in - production, slated for release in winter 2017. It was later revealed by John Lasseter in June 2017 that the 21 - minute special would instead receive a limited time theatrical release. It premiered in theaters with Pixar 's Coco on November 22, 2017, and made its television debut on ABC on December 14, 2017.
On March 12, 2015, Disney officially announced that a feature - length sequel to Frozen was in development with Buck and Lee returning as directors, and Del Vecho returning as producer. In a May 2015 interview, Buck said, "We have lots of things to figure out but at least we know where we are going. '' In March 2016, Bell stated that voice recording for the film was due to start later in the month, but in September of that same year, she retracted her earlier comments as mistaken and explained that she had been working instead on other Frozen projects such as the upcoming holiday special. In April 2017, Disney announced that Frozen 2 would be released on November 27, 2019.
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wake me up elvis costello and the roots | Wise Up Ghost - wikipedia
Wise Up Ghost is a collaborative studio album by British singer / songwriter Elvis Costello and American hip hop group The Roots. The album was released on September 17, 2013, by Blue Note Records. The album 's first single "Walk Us Uptown '' was released on July 23, 2013.
Growing out of Costello 's appearances on Late Night With Jimmy Fallon, where the Roots are the house band, Wise Up Ghost was well - received by professional critics.
In January 2013, it was announced that The Roots and Elvis Costello were working on an album. On May 29, 2013, it was announced that the album would be titled Wise Up Ghost and would be released on September 17, 2013. In July 2013, in an interview with entertainment.ie, Roots drummer Questlove spoke about how the album started, saying: "Elvis first came on the Jimmy Fallon show in 2009. I knew he was a fan of the Voodoo album I did with D'Angelo, so we asked if he would be open to the idea of "remixing '' his stuff. He was into it, so we did these radical versions of "High Fidelity '' and "(I Do n't Want to Go to) Chelsea '', and he loved it. Then we did that a second time the next year, and then last year he was on when the show did a Bruce Springsteen tribute week. At that point, I kinda subliminally put out the idea of a larger collaboration. I was passive - aggressively suggesting it -- I was too afraid to actually say, "Let 's make a record together. ''
Elvis Costello also spoke about how the album started, saying: "We were walking off the set of the show together after we did "Brilliant Disguise '' and Quest dropped this little code phrase to me. I do n't think I ever want to tell people which band, which singer, and what record he named, but I knew what he meant right away. While I knew we could n't make that record, I hoped that we might be able to make this record. It seemed like a good playground, a fabulous ride, to go in and play with a great band that has a broad - minded view of music. It felt like anything was possible. '' Costello also explained the writing process for the album, saying: "Somebody would lead the way, the same way as any song construction. It was done in dialogue rather than in performance -- like the game Exquisite Corpse, where one person 's story follows the other, or when you fold a paper doll and then draw the legs on. We had already played together, we knew what that felt like, but we wanted different perspectives. We were really about a work - in - progress, mixing from day one, and developing as the ideas came through. But we did n't need to discuss it very much. We never had one conversation about what we were trying to do, we just did it. We played and the picture emerged, and then you try to sharpen the picture. ''
Questlove also spoke about the writing process, saying: "Most powerful songs first have to sound powerful as a skeleton. So usually we started with just drums and piano, and if it was strong as a two - man project, then we 'd go to next level and bring in the band. We would riff ideas, nonsensical words, then flesh that out once we had format down, and then Elvis would come back with lyrics and vocal parts intact. We started last August and, through December, once or twice a week he 'd stop by. Initially we were emailing tracks, but we wanted real - time exchange. We recorded a lot of it in our tiny little dressing room at 30 Rock, not a traditional studio, but Elvis had no hang - ups about that. '' Questlove spoke about the recording process, saying: "We have like 4000 tracks in a database, so we gave a drum track to Elvis, and days later he came back with a full - fledged demo. We tried two more, then three more, and the next thing you know, we had something on our hands. With no label and no deadlines, the process could stay really relaxed. '' Elvis Costello also explained the recording process, saying: "We did n't know what form it might take, whether it was a song or an EP or what. But ideas kept tumbling out, and they seemed connected by an approach to rhythm and lyric writing. I do n't know the name for this music. It 's a cauldron full of powders and potions, frogs and fingers, and that 's what I call rock and roll -- because that 's what it was, originally. I 'm not much bothered about the labels, though. What I care is whether we like it and can stand by it. ''
Wise Up Ghost was met with generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 77, based on 32 reviews. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album four out of five stars, saying "This is an exquisitely detailed, imaginative record that pays back dividends according to how much knowledge, either of Costello or the Roots or their idols, a listener brings to the album. It 's not exactly alienating but Wise Up Ghost does require work from its audience, and the more you know -- and the more you listen -- the better it seems. '' Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club gave the album a C+, saying "At this point in his career, an album - length experiment like Wise Up Ghost seems to satisfy Costello artistically, thanks to his chameleon tendencies, but there is n't much to add to the best of either catalog. Costello is the pop equivalent of a shark: He must keep moving through fresh artistic ground -- or doubling back across territory he has n't touched recently -- in order to survive. Though that movement helps Costello maintain a consistent level of output, that process does n't always leave essential records in his wake. '' Kitty Empire of The Observer gave the album three out of five stars, saying "Devotees of Elvis Costello will find this collaboration with hip - hop band the Roots a more labour - intensive listen, perhaps, than the casual arriviste. These tracks are densely self - referential, borrowing lyrics and themes from Costello 's past. Most politically, there is a sequel, of sorts, to his Falklands - era screed, Shipbuilding, called Cinco Minutos Con Vos, which imagines the view from the south Atlantic. What 's new, though, is the Roots 's mutating groove and how well it chimes with Costello 's delivery, alternately gruff, sour or soulful. ''
Robert Ham of Paste gave the album an 8.7 out of 10, saying "That this collaboration would end up working so well should really be of little surprise to longtime fans of Costello. His ' 70s and ' 80s work often bore the influence of the same R&B, soul and funk records that the Roots clearly adore. But via the Attractions or any of his other backing bands, those forces were often swallowed up beneath a maelstrom of pub - rock antics and Phil Spector - style productions. '' Will Hermes of Rolling Stone gave the album three and a half stars out of five, saying "Another dubious Elvis Costello genre exercise? Actually, this collab is something sturdier and more interesting: a pained set about decaying culture long on verbose vitriol and (obviously) wicked grooves -- think a dyspeptic What 's Going On or a soul - powered Armed Forces. '' Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune gave the album three out of four stars, saying "In a world in which government surveillance, chemical weapons and citizen revolts are ascendant, "Wise Up Ghost '' provides an appropriately nerve - racking soundtrack with a desperate message: Indifference is death. ''
Jim Farber of the New York Daily News gave the album four out of four stars, saying "Wise Up Ghost '' contains some of the most fleshy and smart work of either act 's career. It 's a perfect nexus of talents, reining in Costello 's excesses while giving the Roots a new, literary context. '' Colin McGuire of PopMatters gave the album an eight out of ten, saying "Some people turn their obsessions into careers, the singer argues at one point during "Stick Out Your Tongue ''. Elvis Costello and the Roots? Well, they already have the careers. With Wise Up Ghost, though, they now also have a great album. '' Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times gave the album a positive review, saying "Gather some stones and make them atone, '' sings Costello on "Come the Meantimes, '' a line that captures the essence of "Wise Up Ghost. '' A heavy work both thematically and musically, it shows one of the great songwriters of the last three - plus decades at yet another artistic peak. If you 've ever fallen in love with a Costello record, be prepared for a new obsession. '' Nick Coleman of The Independent gave the album four out of five stars, saying "There 's something artificial and experimental in the project 's very DNA, but that need not be a bad thing, and it is n't. ''
The album debuted at number 16 on the Billboard 200 chart, with first - week sales of 18,000 copies in the United States. In its second week the album sold 6,000 more copies bringing its total album sales to 25,000.
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who won the great american baking show 2017 | The Great American Baking Show - wikipedia
The Great American Baking Show is an American cooking competition television series and an adaptation of The Great British Bake Off (which is aired in the United States under the title The Great British Baking Show). Its first season aired under the title The Great Holiday Baking Show. The first two seasons were hosted by Nia Vardalos and Ian Gomez, with Mary Berry from the original GBBO series and American pastry chef Johnny Iuzzini as judges. The third season was hosted by cookbook author Ayesha Curry and former football player Anthony Adams. Iuzzini returned as judge and was joined by original GBBO judge Paul Hollywood. The season was pulled off schedule following sexual harassment allegations against judge Iuzzini. The show is the second licensed adaptation of the GBBO format in the United States. In 2013, CBS produced one season of The American Baking Competition, which was hosted by Jeff Foxworthy, with Hollywood and Mexican - American chef Marcela Valladolid as judges.
Season 1 aired under the title The Great Holiday Baking Show and marked a return of the GBBO format to American television after the cancellation of CBS ' 2013 series The American Baking Competition. Six bakers participated in the first ABC season. The season was won by Lauren Katz, beating out Nicole Silva and Tim Samson in the final three.
Season 2 returned the following year as The Great American Baking Show with ten bakers and an eight - week competition. The season was won by Amanda Faber, with Stephanie Chen as the runner - up.
The third season began airing December 7, 2017 with a two - hour premiere. It is the first season hosted by Curry and Adams and for judge Hollywood who last appeared in the CBS version of the show in 2013. In addition, the season marks the return of baker Antoinette Love, who had to voluntarily leave the previous season due to a family death. The season was withdrawn from ABC 's schedule on December 13, 2017 following allegations from former employees of sexual misconduct by Iuzzini. ABC announced that it would not air the remaining episodes. On December 21, 2017, the day the season finale was supposed to air, it was revealed that Vallery Lomas won the competition and Cindy Maliniak and Molly Brodak finished as runners - up.
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who did marshon lattimore play for in college | Marshon Lattimore - wikipedia
Marshon Demond Lattimore (born May 20, 1996) is an American football cornerback for the New Orleans Saints of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Ohio State, and was drafted by the Saints 11th overall in the 2017 NFL Draft.
Lattimore attended Glenville High School in Cleveland, Ohio. He played cornerback and wide receiver for the football team. As a senior, he was one of six finalists for the U.S. Army Player of the Year Award. Lattimore was rated as a four - star recruit and committed to Ohio State University to play college football.
Lattimore redshirted his first year at Ohio State in 2014 and played in only seven games his redshirt freshman year in 2015, due to hamstring injuries. He fully recovered from the injuries to become a starter in 2016. On November 29, 2016, Lattimore was named First Team All - Big Ten by the coaches.
Coming out of Ohio State, Lattimore was projected to be a first round pick by the majority of NFL experts and analysts. He was invited to the NFL Combine, but chose not to perform the bench press, shuttle, and three - cone drill. He attended Ohio State 's Pro Day and decided to only run positional drills for scouts and representatives. Although he had a history of hamstring injuries and was limited to a single year of starting experience in college, he was ranked the top cornerback prospect in the draft by NFLDraftScout.com, Sports Illustrated, ESPN, NFL analyst Bucky Brooks, and NFL analyst Mike Mayock. Lattimore was also ranked the fifth best cornerback by Pro Football Focus.
The New Orleans Saints selected Lattimore in the first round (11th overall) of the 2017 NFL Draft. He was the first of five cornerbacks selected in the first round of the draft being joined by Ohio State teammate Gareon Conley, who was drafted by the Oakland Raiders in the first round (24th overall).
On June 3, 2017, the New Orleans Saints signed Lattimore to a fully guaranteed four - year, $ 15.35 million contract with a signing bonus of $9.31 million.
The Saints were expected to bring Lattimore along slowly and allow him to sit behind starters Delvin Breaux and P.J. Williams and compete for the role as the third cornerback on the depth chart against Ken Crawley and De'Vante Harris. Head coach Sean Payton named him the third cornerback behind P.J. Williams and Ken Crawley after Breaux suffered a fractured fibula on August 16, 2017. He started the first two regular season games after Crawley was listed as inactive for both.
He made his professional regular season debut on Monday Night Football during the Saints ' season - opener against the Minnesota Vikings and recorded four solo tackles during the 29 -- 19 loss. The following week, Lattimore made a season - high seven combined tackles, forced a fumble, and deflected two passes during a 36 -- 20 loss against the New England Patriots. He left the game in the fourth quarter and was placed in concussion protocol after colliding with teammate Vonn Bell as they both tackled Brandin Cooks. Lattimore became the starting cornerback prior to Week 4 after Williams was demoted in relation with a disciplinary issue. On October 15, 2017, Lattimore recorded five combined tackles, deflected two passes, intercepted a pass attempt from Detroit Lions ' quarterback Matthew Stafford, and returned it for a 27 - yard touchdown during the 52 -- 38 victory over the Lions. He caught his first career interception and scored the first touchdown of his career during the game.
On November 2, 2017, he was named the NFC Defensive Rookie of the Month. Lattimore missed Weeks 12 -- 13 after suffering an ankle sprain during the Saints ' Week 11 victory over the Washington Redskins. On December 24, 2017, Lattimore made five combined tackles, four pass deflections, and intercepted his fifth pass of the year off of Matt Ryan in the Saints ' 23 -- 13 victory over the Atlanta Falcons. He finished his rookie season with 52 combined tackles (43 solo), 18 pass deflections, five interceptions, and a touchdown in 13 games and 13 starts. His five interceptions ranked fifth in 2017. In his first NFL season, Lattimore was selected to the Pro Bowl. After a stellar rookie season, Lattimore was named the NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year.
The Saints finished first in the NFC South with an 11 -- 5 record. On January 7, 2018, Lattimore started his first career playoff game and recorded two solo tackles and a pass deflection during a 31 -- 26 NFC Wild Card round victory over the Carolina Panthers. The following week, he made four solo tackles and deflected a pass in the Saints ' 29 -- 24 loss to the Minnesota Vikings in the NFC Divisional round, which became to be known as Minneapolis Miracle.
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how many episodes of frankie and grace are there in season 4 | Grace and Frankie - Wikipedia
Grace and Frankie is an American comedy - drama web television series created by Marta Kauffman and Howard J. Morris for Netflix. The series stars Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin in the title roles of Grace and Frankie, two unlikely friends who are brought together after their husbands announce that they are in love and plan to get married. Sam Waterston, Martin Sheen, Brooklyn Decker, Ethan Embry, June Diane Raphael, and Baron Vaughn co-star in supporting roles. It premiered on Netflix on May 8, 2015, with all 13 episodes of the first season released simultaneously. The second, third, and fourth seasons, also consisting of 13 episodes each, have been released on May 6, 2016, and March 24, 2017, and January 19, 2018, respectively.
Despite mixed reviews upon its debut, the series was met with a more positive critical reception towards its later seasons and has received several nominations, including four Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series and a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress -- Television Series Musical or Comedy.
On February 15, 2018, Grace and Frankie was renewed for a fifth season.
The series follows Grace, a retired cosmetics mogul, and Frankie, a hippie art teacher, whose husbands, Robert and Sol, are successful divorce lawyers in San Diego. Grace and Frankie 's lives are turned upside down when Robert and Sol announce that they are in love with each other and are leaving their wives. Now, the women, who have never particularly liked each other, are forced to live together and learn to unite and cope with difficulties.
In March 2014, Netflix finalized a deal for a 13 - episode straight - to - series order for Grace and Frankie, with Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin attached to star in the lead roles. The series was written and created by Marta Kauffman and Howard J. Morris, who also serve as executive producers alongside Fonda, Tomlin, Paula Weinstein and Tate Taylor, and Skydance Productions ' Dana Goldberg, David Ellison and Marcy Ross.
On May 26, 2015, Netflix renewed the series for a second season which premiered on May 6, 2016.
On December 10, 2016, the series was renewed for a third season which premiered on March 24, 2017.
On April 12, 2017, the series was renewed for a fourth season, which premiered on January 19, 2018.
On February 15, 2018, the series was renewed for a fifth season, with RuPaul announced to guest star as a rival of Grace & Frankie.
Casting announcements began in June 2014, with Martin Sheen cast in the role of Robert, Grace 's husband. The following month, Sam Waterston was cast in the role of Sol, Frankie 's husband. June Diane Raphael and Baron Vaughn were then added to the cast, with Raphael cast in the role of Brianna, Grace and Robert 's elder daughter, who rebels against Grace 's decorum. Vaughn signed onto the role of Nwabudike, Frankie and Sol 's son. Shortly afterwards, Ethan Embry and Brooklyn Decker were cast in the remaining roles on the series. Embry joined in the role of Coyote, Frankie and Sol 's recovering drug addicted son, while Decker signed onto the role of Mallory, Grace and Robert 's younger daughter. In October 2015, it was announced Sam Elliott would appear in the second season as Grace 's love interest. In April 2017, it was reported that Lisa Kudrow will appear in the fourth season as Sheree, Grace 's manicurist. In February 2018, the same day as the fifth season was commissioned, RuPaul was confirmed to appear in the fifth season as a rival of Grace and Frankie.
Production on season one of Grace and Frankie began in Los Angeles, California, in early August 2014, and ended in late November. Production on season two of the series began in July 2015, and ended in November the same year.
The first season of Grace and Frankie received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes it has a rating of 50 %, based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Grace and Frankie 's stellar cast adds an undeniable appeal, although its sloppy dialogue and clichéd sitcom setup will still leave most viewers wanting. '' On Metacritic the season has a score of 58 out of 100, based on 27 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
The second season received a more positive reception from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 89 %, based on 9 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. On Metacritic, the season has a score of 62 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "generally favourable reviews ''. Jasef Wisener of TVOvermind gave the second season a 4.5 / 5, calling it "heartfelt and hilarious '' and "a huge improvement over the sometimes sluggish first season. ''
The third season received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 100 %, based on 5 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5 / 10.
After the show 's release, Tomlin and Fonda expressed displeasure once it became public that their salaries were just equal to those of Sheen and Waterston, even though "the show is not ' Sol and Robert ', it 's ' Grace and Frankie, ' '' in the words of Lily Tomlin, and contended this constituted a significant pay inequity. Shortly thereafter, Sheen and Waterston went on the record to support their co-stars ' demands for a salary increase, with Waterston being quoted as saying: "I think they 're being cheated ''. After fans of the show gathered nearly 200,000 signatures on a petition protesting the disparity, the two actresses issued a public statement backing away from criticism, saying: "This just reminds us to be mindful of how things come across in interviews. We appreciate everyone 's support and the attention to this issue, but the structure of Grace and Frankie is fair, and we could n't be happier to work with Skydance, Netflix and the great cast of this show. '' Fonda and Tomlin made a statement to The Wrap that they were never unhappy with the salaries to start with and that they had "made a joke in an interview about our salaries, which was taken out of context. ''
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where was whatever happened to the likely lads filmed | Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads? - Wikipedia
Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads? is a British sitcom which was broadcast between 9 January 1973 and 9 April 1974 on BBC1. It was the colour sequel to the mid-1960s hit The Likely Lads. It was created and written, as was its predecessor, by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais. There were 26 television episodes over two series; and a subsequent 45 - minute Christmas special was aired on 24 December 1974.
The cast were reunited in 1975 for a BBC radio adaptation of series 1, transmitted on Radio 4 from July to October that year. A feature film spin - off was made in 1976. Around the time of its release, however, Rodney Bewes and James Bolam fell out over a misunderstanding involving the press, and did not speak again before Bewes ' death in November 2017. This long - suspected situation was finally confirmed by Bewes while promoting his autobiography in 2005. Even while Bewes was alive, Bolam was consistently reluctant to talk about the show, and vetoed any attempt to revive his character.
Set in Newcastle upon Tyne in north - east England, the show follows the friendship, resumed after five years apart, of two working - class young men, Bob Ferris (Rodney Bewes) and Terry Collier (James Bolam).
The word "likely '' in the title referred, in the 1960s series, to those showing promise, but also to those likely to get up to well - meaning mischief.
The humour was based on the tension between Terry 's firmly working - class outlook and Bob 's aspirations to join the middle class, through his new white - collar job, suburban home, and impending marriage to prissy librarian Thelma Chambers (Brigit Forsyth).
Since the ending of the original series in 1966, Bob has left factory life behind and now works for his father - in - law 's building firm (something which makes Bob even more desperate to curry favour with Thelma and her family). At Thelma 's urging, Bob is also joining sports clubs and attending dinner parties, which Terry views as Bob aspiring to join the middle classes. This results in Terry viewing Bob as a class traitor, and believing his own Army experience and solid working - class ethos gives him moral superiority.
To a considerable degree the comedy is built upon a basis of class warfare -- a theme which was familiar to British television audiences in the 1970s, a period of virtually continuous industrial strife in Britain. Whereas Bob, Thelma and Terry 's sister Audrey have adapted to the various changes, Terry 's five - year absence in the Army results in him being left behind, a relic of the attitudes of the mid-1960s.
Terry finds it particularly hard to adjust to the changes that have occurred during his time in the Army. As implied in the lyrics to the programme 's theme song, the 1970s series plays on both lads ' feelings of nostalgia for the lost days of their reckless youth. Both of them are depressed by the demolition of so many of the landmarks of their youth, though Bob, who works for a building firm, sometimes sees it as progress. Bob has also bought his own house on a newly - built estate, further distancing him from his and Terry 's pasts.
Reflecting the distinctions now separating the two young men, the opening credits show Terry amongst the older and more industrial buildings of the city, with Bob seen outside his new home with his own car in the more attractive surroundings of a modern housing estate.
The conflict between what Bob had become, and what he saw himself as, led him to be impulsively inclined to follow the lead set by the more headstrong Terry, who led them recklessly into one scrape after another. Bob usually blamed his drinking, poor diet and reckless behaviour on Terry, a view Audrey and Thelma only too willingly agreed with. This may have been true in part, but actually Bob needed little persuasion to stay out drinking with Terry or to behave accordingly.
Bob does not actually move into his new house until after his wedding to Thelma due to fears of being judged by his new neighbours (although, in the final episode of series 1, both Bob and Thelma make it clear they have an active sex life), and for the first series lives with his mother. Terry lives with his parents in a 19th - century terrace, which he claims has far more character than Bob 's new house, where "the only thing that tells you apart from your neighbours is the colour of your curtains ''.
The thirteen episodes of the first series, aired in 1973, have a loose narrative thread. The early episodes focus on Terry 's return to civilian life following his discharge from the army, whereas later episodes focus on the planning for Bob and Thelma 's wedding.
The thirteen episodes of the second series, aired the following year, are mostly self - contained. However, the series opens with a focus on the growing romance between Terry and Thelma 's sister Susan, partially continued from the first series. A four - episode storyline concerning Bob and Thelma 's brief separation also begins during the middle of the series.
The show 's catchy theme song, "Whatever Happened to You '', was written by Mike Hugg (of Manfred Mann) and La Frenais and performed by Hugg 's session band, featuring session singer Tony Rivers supplying the lead vocals. A group named Highly Likely subsequently appeared on Top of the Pops to promote the song, and participated in a short UK tour as a result, but Rivers was not involved in these appearances. The song made the lower reaches of the UK Top 40 in 1973. Mike Hugg also wrote the theme tune to the spin - off 1976 feature film, entitled "Remember When ''.
The complete first and second series of the 1970s show (including the Christmas special) are available in the UK on Region 2 DVD.
Although Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads? was a continuation of the earlier series and featured many of the same characters, the style and format had changed.
Unlike the original show, Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads? was made in colour. Also, The Likely Lads had been quite "stagy '' (in the theatrical sense) in its format, being studio bound with little in the way of location filming. The 1970s series made extensive use of location filming in and around the north - east.
In terms of humour, the two shows are very different. The Likely Lads had been a broad comedy, full of jokes and obvious gags, whereas Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads? used much subtler humour, derived from the dialogue and characterisation, often interspersed with sentimentality (as the Lads mourned their lost past), and even touches of pathos.
The latter aspect was usually a consequence of one of the lads reflecting on the past. Nostalgia was a strong thread running through the show. The lads frequently did ask each other the question in the show 's title, Whatever happened to us?, particularly during their more mellow moments in the pub.
This episode was remade by Ant & Dec for ITV in 2002, featuring a cameo appearance by Rodney Bewes as the old newspaper seller.
The 13 episodes of Series 1 were adapted for radio, with the original television cast, and broadcast on Radio 4 in 1975, from 30 July to 22 October. This series is periodically re-broadcast in the "classic comedy '' hour on digital radio channel BBC Radio 4 Extra.
Before the Seventies series was made, the cast had already been re-united twice, in 1967 and 1968, to record sixteen of the original television scripts for two series (of eight episodes each) on BBC radio, the scripts for which were adapted for radio by James Bolam.
To emphasise continuity, the opening section of the title credits at the start of each episode includes a short montage of black - and - white stills photos of Bob and Terry in scenes from the 1960s series, presented as if in a photograph album. The leather - bound photo album, which Bob gives Terry before the wedding, in the episode "End of an Era '', is also the one seen in the opening credits.
To avoid bad feeling over billing, Rodney Bewes and James Bolam were alternated in the opening credits, so that one week Bewes was billed first and the following week Bolam was. In the closing credits the billing was reversed, with whoever had been billed second in the opening credits being billed first.
Bewes maintained his connections with The Likely Lads, appearing in a cameo role as the old newspaper seller in a 2002 ITV re-make of the series ' most popular episode, "No Hiding Place '', starring Tyneside presenters / actors / entertainers Ant and Dec, which aired under the title "A Tribute to the Likely Lads ''.
In 1995 and 1996 the series was repeated in its entirety on BBC2. It went on to become a short - term staple of cable channels, and was again shown on satellite and cable TV in 2008 -- 9. In April 2013, the first series began a repeat run on BBC Four, its first showing on terrestrial television since 1996. It has also been released on DVD. The movie spin - off usually appears at least once a year on TV, around Christmas.
One of the most notable continuity points about the show is that Terry has been away in the Army for "five years ''. However, there was a real - life gap of seven years between the end of the original series in 1966 and the sequel in 1973. Also, there are numerous references in the Seventies show to the Lads ' shared adventures in 1967, plus citations of that year as the time when Terry was last in town. And, from the audience 's point of view, Terry was last heard in the radio series, broadcast during 1967 and 1968. Taken all together, it suggests Terry 's army service lasted for the five years from 1968 (i.e. the end of the radio series) to 1973.
Terry 's full name is Terence Daniel Collier, born 29 February 1944. Bob 's full name is Robert Andrew Scarborough Ferris, born a week earlier. These dates can be worked out from dialogue in the episode "Birthday Boy ''. The "Scarborough '' in Bob 's name is because he was conceived there (although this is contradicted in the opening flashback sequence in the 1976 feature film). However, Terry 's "silver tankard '' joke in his best man 's speech at the end of Season 1 (in the episode "End of an Era '') seems to imply that he, not Bob, turned 21 first.
Terry is younger than his sisters Audrey (Sheila Fearn) and Linda (who is never seen). Their parents are Edith and Cyril Collier. Terry 's father is not seen in either series of the 1970s show; neither is Bob 's father, Leslie, who had died 12 years previously (as established in the Sixties episode "Friends and Neighbours ''), so was n't around when Bob, an only child, was growing up. Terry 's dad is neither dead nor absent: he is continually referred to in the Seventies series, and also in the feature film, but is never actually seen (although, in the opening flash - back in the film, a back view of him is briefly visible, which is clearly James Bolam; and Bolam also provides the voice - over dialogue in that scene). Bob 's mother, Alice, occasionally appears; Terry 's mother (Olive Milbourne) is frequently seen in the 1973 series.
Thelma 's full maiden name is Thelma Ingrid Chambers. Thelma 's father, played by Bill Owen, is George Chambers. Her younger sister is Susan, who lives in Toronto, Canada with her accountant fiancé Peter.
The lads attended Park Infants School, Park Junior School, and Park Secondary Modern. Thelma was with them for infants and juniors, but then went to the grammar school. One of Bob 's most notable school romances is the often mentioned but unseen Deirdre Birchwood, who was the basis of a running joke in Series 1, where any mention of her (or of any other former girlfriend of Bob 's) was guaranteed to upset Thelma. (A Deidre Birchwood actually appears in an episode of the Bewes vehicle, Dear Mother... Love Albert, and is referred to in many episodes of that programme. Her name comes from a little girl Bewes knew in real life, he was re-united with her on This is Your Life.) The lads also were in the Scouts together.
Bob lost his virginity to Wendy Thwaite, according to the Series 1 episode "I 'll Never Forget Whatshername '', who scored 8 stars (out of 7) on his scoring system.
Terry 's West German wife was Jutta Baumgarten. The couple married in November 1969 but separated in June 1970 after West Germany defeated England in the World Cup. Confusingly, Terry later says they were married for two years "on and off '', which further clouds the continuity issue of Terry 's time away. She was due to appear in the episode "End of an Era '', played by April Walker, but the scenes featuring her were omitted from the broadcast version.
Terry 's address is given in the dialogue as 127 Inkerman Terrace ("No Hiding Place ''); but external shots (in "The Ant and the Grasshopper '') clearly show a different house number. Bob and Thelma live at Number 8 of an unspecified avenue on the Elm Lodge Housing Estate (The house in the opening titles is on Agincourt at the Highfields estate in Killingworth).
Bob 's immediate neighbours at his new house are the Lawsons and the Jeffcotes, again never actually seen in the show. A couple called the Nortons are also later referred to as living next door.
It is revealed (in the episode "Storm in a Tea Chest '') that the boys used to be in a skiffle group called Rob Ferris and the Wildcats. Other group members included Maurice "Memphis '' Hardaker, named after a real - life friend of the show 's co-creator and co-writer Ian La Frenais.
The Lads ' workmate from the 1960s series, Cloughie (played by Bartlett Mullins), does not appear, but it is mentioned in the first episode that he now runs a newsagent 's.
Two aspects of the show are never fully explained: Terry 's supposedly injured leg, which he claims to have injured in the Army ("I never talk about it ''), and his dislike of being referred to as "thin '' or "slim '', preferring to describe himself as "wiry ''. The latter is, in fact, a continuation of a running gag in the original 1960s series, in which Terry was paranoid about being thought weedy.
The pubs frequented by the lads include The Black Horse (which is their most regular "local '', featuring landlord Jack and barmaid Gloria), The Fat Ox, The Drift Inn, and The Wheatsheaf. Others mentioned in passing include The Swan, The Ship, The Institute and The Railway.
Friends of the Lads who are regularly spoken of but never seen include Frank Clark (Bob 's original choice for best man, who had the same name as a Newcastle United F.C. player of the time), and Nigel "Little Hutch '' Hutchinson (a sex - mad pal, who frequently has a racing tip for Terry). A new friend of Bob 's, affable Londoner Alan Boyle (Julian Holloway), appears in "Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner '' and "The Ant and the Grasshopper '' with his wife Brenda.
The episodes "I 'll Never Forget Whatshername '' and "Storm in a Tea Chest '' were based in part on elements in the 1960s episode "Where Have All The Flowers Gone? ''
The titles for the 1974 Christmas Special call the show simply The Likely Lads. The opening scenes are set in late September, on the day of Terry 's successful driving test.
Exterior shots were filmed on Tyneside and around the North East, while interiors were shot at the BBC Television Centre in London.
The genuine affection held by Clement and LaFrenais for the golden age of movies is reflected in the show. For instance, nearly all of the episode titles (from "Strangers on a Train '' to "The Shape of Things to Come '') are based on the titles of well known films; and the script frequently features jokes about popular movies (such as Terry 's dig at Bob, on learning that he 's becoming middle - class, that his new friends include "Bob and Carole, and Ted and Alice '' -- a reference to the 1969 film of that name).
The BBC decided not to commission a third series of the show, partly because Dick Clement and Ian LaFrenais had written a pilot script for another 1973 series, entitled Seven of One, in which Ronnie Barker appeared in seven different situations from different writers, each of which was a try - out for a possible series. The BBC decided they liked best the one by Clement and LaFrenais, who found themselves suddenly offered a new series, starring Ronnie Barker, which became the television comedy Porridge.
Writing and production for the new show, which debuted in the autumn of 1974 and ran for three series, made it difficult to schedule a further series of The Likely Lads. Instead, Clement and LaFrenais began to develop a one - off script, which became the Likely Lads feature film, which was eventually made in 1976.
In 1976 a feature - length film was released, written by Clement and La Frenais, which was directed by Michael Tuchner. By this time both lads had moved house (Bob and Thelma to their detached house, and Terry to a high - rise flat). Terry now has a Finnish girlfriend called Christina ("Chris ''), played by Mary Tamm.
The film opened with the Lads lamenting the demolition of their favourite pub, The Fat Ox, before they go on a caravanning holiday with Thelma and Chris. The complications resulting from the trip lead to Terry and Chris splitting up, as a result of which Terry decides to emigrate, signing on as a crewman on a cargo ship.
Bob and Terry sneak one last late - night drink together aboard Terry 's ship, anchored in the docks; but Terry has second thoughts and disembarks the next morning. Bob, however, awakes -- hung over -- aboard the ship, as it sails for Bahrain. This was an ironic reversal of the ending of the original Sixties show (where Terry, missing Bob -- who had joined the Army -- joined up too, only to discover that Bob had been discharged with flat feet).
In 2008, The Gala Theatre in Durham staged the world premiere of The Likely Lads, adapted for the stage by Dick Clement and Ian LaFrenais and directed by Simon Stallworthy. The title roles of Bob and Terry were played by David Nellist and Scott Frazer respectively.
In May 2011, The Tynemouth Priory Theatre, in Tynemouth, Tyne and Wear, were granted the rights to become the first non-professional company to stage the production. It became one of the theatre 's most attended productions, selling out well in advance for all performances. Terry was played by Brendan Egan and Bob by Stu Bowman.
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i write the song that makes the whole world sing | I Write the Songs - wikipedia
"I Write the Songs '' is a popular song written by Bruce Johnston in 1975 and made famous by Barry Manilow. Manilow 's version reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in January 1976 after spending two weeks atop the Billboard adult contemporary chart in December 1975. It won a Grammy Award for Song of the Year and was nominated for Record of the Year in 1977. Billboard ranked it as the No. 13 song of 1976.
The original version was recorded by The Captain & Tennille, who worked with Johnston in the early 1970s with The Beach Boys. It appears on their 1975 album, Love Will Keep Us Together. The first release of I Write the Songs as a single was by then teen - idol David Cassidy from his 1975 solo album The Higher They Climb, which was also produced by Bruce Johnston. Cassidy 's version reached # 11 on the UK Singles Chart in August of that year.
Johnston has stated that, for him, the "I '' in the song is God, and that songs come from the spirit of creativity in all of us. He has said that the song is not about his Beach Boys bandmate Brian Wilson.
Manilow was initially reluctant to record the song, stating in his autobiography Sweet Life: "The problem with the song was that if you did n't listen carefully to the lyric, you would think that the singer was singing about himself. It could be misinterpreted as a monumental ego trip. '' After persuasion by Clive Davis, then president of Arista Records, Manilow recorded the song, and his version of "I Write the Songs '' was the first single taken from the album Tryin ' to Get the Feeling. It first charted on the Billboard Hot 100 on November 15, 1975, reaching the top of the chart nine weeks later, on January 17, 1976.
This song has also been recorded by Johnny Mathis, Frank Chacksfield, Mantovani, Ray Conniff, Richard Clayderman, Tom Jones, Dinah Shore, as well as Bruce Johnston himself on his 1977 album, Going Public. Frank Sinatra sang it as "I Sing the Songs '' from 1976 (leaving out the line "and I wrote some rock and roll so you could move ''). In 1979, Sammy Davis, Jr. performed it as part of his live show. At the Forum de Montréal in 1976 for the Bob Hope Olympic Benefit Event, Quebec popular singer René Simard performed it live in a French - English two - verse version. In 1975, French singer Claude François performed a French adaptation named "Je Chante des Chansons '' (I Sing Songs). In 1976, Filipino singer Rico J. Puno also covered this song with the Tagalog verse in second line as the Manila Sound version. In 2008, Me First and the Gimme Gimmes recorded it on their album Have Another Ball. On August 16, 2016 the song "I Write the Songs '' was covered by the members of Calle Siete and Eat Bulaga! 's Thats My Bae Grand Winner Kenneth Medrano for the album Made for You was released on June 22, 2016 after the song "I 'll Never Go ''.
Manilow performed a parody duet entitled "I Write the Songs / I Wreck the Songs '' with Rosie O'Donnell on her talk show on April 18, 1997.
Manilow performed another shortened version of this song with Stephen Colbert when he was a guest on The Colbert Report on October 30, 2006.
After his version reached number one, Manilow himself composed a novelty song based on this song which he recorded under the title "I really do write the songs '' in which he sings about how he composes each part of a song and the line "sometimes I really do write the songs '' at the end of each verse. In the finale he sings, "sometimes... ah, what the hell... I write the songs. '' Unreleased at the time, it was included as a bonus track on the reissue of his album This One 's for You in 2006.
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where was the movie baker's hawk filmed | Hawk (e): the Movie - Wikipedia
Hawk (e): The Movie is an independent comedy film co-directed by Phil Baker and Tom Turner and written by Phil Baker. The film was produced by Genepool Records with Paramore Productions and is set for a summer 2013 release. The film is to be distributed by Genepool in the UK and Continuum Motion Pictures in North America.
Movie - maker - come - idiot Mike Hawk sets about making his latest movie, a Rom - Com called "Get Becky Laid '', and is followed in his pursuits by documentary maker and film fanatic Philip K Longfellow. Mike Hawk also plays the lead character and has named him Mike Hawke - after himself only adding another ' e ' to his name to distinguish the two. Mike 's bitten off more than he can chew, and is followed as he gets through the making of the film, achieving it only through sheer determination and ignorance.
Hawk (e): The Movie is due for release Summer 2013. It was shot in and around Plymouth with Principal photography taking place in October and early November 2010.
The film 's soundtrack includes tracks from Cosmo Jarvis, Leeroy Thornhill of The Prodigy, Kat Marsh - a performer also known for her time as bass player in The King Blues, as well as director Phil Baker 's band Lemanis, and other Plymouth based bands such as The Wildcards. Two tracks were also written and recorded specifically for the movie, one of which was performed by Darren Lake, one of the lead cast.
http://www.devon-cornwall-film.co.uk/2011/02/08/plymouth-comedy-hawke-trailer-released-dcfilm-speaks-to-director-phil-baker/
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what style of hat is worn by guards at buckingham palace | Bearskin - wikipedia
A bearskin is a tall fur cap, usually worn as part of a ceremonial military uniform. Traditionally, the bearskin was the headgear of grenadiers and remains in use by grenadier and guards regiments in various armies.
The cloth caps worn by the original grenadiers in European armies during the 17th century were frequently trimmed with fur. The practice fell into disuse until the second half of the eighteenth century when grenadiers in the British, Spanish and French armies began wearing high fur hats with cloth tops and, sometimes, ornamental front plates. Imitating their Prussian counterparts, French grenadiers are described as wearing bearskins as early as 1761. The purpose appears to have been to add to the apparent height and impressive appearance of these troops both on the parade ground and the battlefield.
During the nineteenth century, the expense of bearskin caps and difficulty of maintaining them in good condition on active service led to this form of headdress becoming generally limited to guardsmen, bands or other units having a ceremonial role. The British Foot Guards and Royal Scots Greys did however wear bearskins in battle during the Crimean War and on peacetime manoeuvres until the introduction of khaki service dress in 1902.
Immediately prior to the outbreak of World War I in 1914, bearskins were still worn by guard, ceremonial palace or other units in the British, Belgian, Danish, Dutch, Imperial German, Russian and Swedish armies. This did not include use of the busby and other types of smaller fur headdress sometimes confused with the high bearskin. The Italian Sardinian Grenadiers had discarded bearskins in the nineteenth century but were to readopt them for limited ceremonial wear in modern times.
Until 1914, bearskins were worn in parade uniform by the Régiment des Grenadiers ("Regiment of Grenadiers '') of the Belgian Army. While still seen on peacetime maneuvers until about 1900, the bearskins were left in barracks upon mobilization in August 1914 and German troops occupying Brussels reportedly took many as souvenirs.
Its modern successor unit, the Regiment Carabiniers Prins Boudewijn -- Grenadiers has readopted this headdress for limited ceremonial purposes.
The bearskin is also worn by the mounted Royal Escort. While this ceremonial unit is now provided by the civilian police, it was formerly part of the now defunct Belgian Gendarmerie and wears the pre-1914 full dress uniform of what was then part of the army.
Following the Battle of Waterloo and the action in which they gained their name, the Grenadier Guards were permitted to wear the bearskin. In 1831, this practice was extended to the other two regiments of Foot Guards then in existence. The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, Honourable Artillery Company and officers of Fusilier regiments also wear the bearskin as part of their ceremonial uniform. The bearskin should not be mistaken for the busby which is a much smaller fur cap worn by the Royal Horse Artillery and hussar regiments in full dress. Nor should it be confused with the similar but smaller ' sealskin ' cap worn by other ranks of the Royal Fusiliers, actually made of raccoon skin.
The standard bearskin of the British Foot Guards is 18 inches tall, weighs 1.5 pounds and is made from the fur of the Canadian black bear. However, an officer 's bearskin is made from the fur of the Canadian brown bear as the female brown bear has thicker, fuller fur and is dyed black. An entire skin is used for each hat. The British Army purchase the hats, which are known as caps, from a British hatmaker which sources its pelts from an international auction. The hatmakers purchase between 50 and 100 black bear skins each year at a cost of about £ 650 each. If properly maintained, the caps last for decades.
On 3 August 1888, The New York Times reported that bearskin caps might be phased out because of a shortage of bear skins. The article stated that, at that time, bearskin hats cost £ 7 -- 5s each (about 35 contemporary US dollars; £ 600 in 2007 pounds) and noted "it can readily be seen what a price has to be paid for keeping up a custom which is rather old, it is true, but is practically a useless one save for the purpose of military display ''.
In 1997, Minister for Defence Procurement Lord Gilbert said that he wanted to see bearskins phased out as soon as possible due to ethical concerns, but no replacement was available at that time.
In 2005, the Ministry of Defence began a two - year test of artificial fur for the hats. The army has already replaced beaver hats and leopard skins, worn by some of its soldiers, with artificial materials. In March 2005, Labour MP Chris Mullin called for an immediate ban on bearskin hats stating that they "have no military significance and involve unnecessary cruelty. ''
Animal rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) has protested against the continued use of real fur for the guards ' hats, alleging that the animals are killed cruelly. For several years, PETA members have held demonstrations, including one at St Peter 's Hill, near St Paul 's Cathedral, in 2006. PETA wants the fur hats to be replaced with synthetic materials and claims that the Ministry of Defence has not done enough to find alternatives. In February 2011, Joss Stone appeared in a PETA advert targeting the Ministry of Defence, showing the 23 - year - old soul singer holding a teddy bear that covers her naked body and features the slogan "Bear Hugs, Not Bear Caps ''.
Army officials say approximately 100 skins are taken every year from the annual cull of thousands of bears by native Inuit hunters in a Government of Canada programme to keep numbers under control.
Most units of the Royal Guards of Thailand wear pith helmets with heavy plumes resembling bearskins with their ceremonial uniforms, especially during the Thai Royal Guards parade held every year in December. The colours of the plumes vary from black to pink and blue, depending on the units of the wearers.
The Papal Corpo della Gendarmeria wore bearskins as part of their ceremonial uniform until this force was disbanded in 1970.
In addition to the specific units named above, bearskins are worn by limited categories of other military personnel with ceremonial functions. These include the band and corps of drums of the British Army 's Honourable Artillery Company, the Pipes and Drums of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, the band and pioneers of The Royal Regiment of Canada, the band of the Sri Lanka Artillery, and drum majors of the Royal Highland Fusiliers - 2nd Battalion, Royal Regiment of Scotland; United States Marine Band, the United States Army Band, the United States Navy Band, the United States Coast Guard Band, the United States Air Force Band, and the United States Army Field Band. Drum majors of the various service academies, as well as unit, division and fleet bands across the U.S. and worldwide, also frequently use the bearskin in ceremonial missions. Drummers and drum majors of the Pipes and Drums of the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment use the bearskin as well.
In the United States, a small number of university bands founded through military means also adorn their drum majors with these headpieces as opposed to their synthetic counterparts. One example being the drum majors of the Purdue University "All - American '' Marching Band.
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which countries went to war in 1793 that caught the attention of the united states | 1793 in the United States - wikipedia
Events from the year 1793 in the United States.
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map of indian wildlife sanctuaries and national parks | List of National parks of India - Wikipedia
Reserved and protected forests
Conservation and community reserves
Ministry of Environment and Forests
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
South Asian Zoo Association (SAZARC)
World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA)
World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA)
National parks in India are IUCN category II protected areas. India 's first national park was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand. By 1970, India only had five national parks. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard the habitats of conservation reliant species.
Further federal legislation strengthening protections for wildlife was introduced in the 1980s. As of July 2018, there were 104 national parks encompassing an area of 40,501 km (15,638 sq mi), comprising 1.23 % of India 's total surface area.
According to the Indian Ministry of Environment & Forests, a national park is "(a) n area, whether within a sanctuary or not, (that) can be notified by the state government to be constituted as a National Park, by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or zoological association or importance, needed to for the purpose of protecting & propagating or developing wildlife therein or its environment. No human activity is permitted inside the national park except for the ones permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state under the conditions given in CHAPTER IV, WPA 1972 ''.
List of national parks in India:
Tiger, sloth bear, peacock, elephant, sambar deer, mouse deer
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who wrote i am proud to be an american | God Bless the U.S.A. - Wikipedia
"God Bless the U.S.A. '' is an American patriotic song written and recorded by country music artist Lee Greenwood, and is considered to be his signature song. The first album it appears on is 1984 's You 've Got a Good Love Comin '. It reached No. 7 on the Billboard magazine Hot Country Singles chart when originally released in the spring of 1984, and was played at the 1984 Republican National Convention with President Ronald Reagan and first lady Nancy Reagan in attendance, but the song gained greater prominence during the Gulf War in 1990 and 1991, as a way of boosting morale.
The popularity of the song rose sharply after the September 11 attacks and during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and the song was re-released as a single, re-entering the country music charts at No. 16 and peaking at No. 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 pop chart in 2001. The song was also re-recorded in 2003 and released as "God Bless the U.S.A. 2003 ''. Greenwood also wrote a Canadian version of this song called "God Bless You Canada ''. The song has sold over a million copies in the United States by July 2015.
Greenwood wrote God Bless the U.S.A. in response to his feelings about the shooting down of Korean Air Lines Flight 007. He said that he "wanted to write it my whole life. When I got to that point, we were doing 300 days a year on the road, and we were on our fourth or fifth album on MCA. I called my producer, and I said I have a need to do this. I 've always wanted to write a song about America, and I said we just need to be more united. '' As for writing the song itself, Greenwood wrote that it more or less "wrote itself '', and that the lyrics flowed naturally from the music as a reflection of his pride to be American.
The reason behind the cities chosen in the song Greenwood says, "I 'm from California, and I do n't know anybody from Virginia or New York, so when I wrote it -- and my producer and I had talked about it -- (we) talked about the four cities I wanted to mention, the four corners of the United States. It could have been Seattle or Miami but we chose New York City and Los Angeles, and he suggested Detroit and Houston because they both were economically part of the basis of our economy -- Motortown and the oil industry, so I just poetically wrote that in the bridge. ''
In the song, an unnamed man sings about how, if he were to lose everything he had and had to start again from scratch, he would do it in the U.S.A. because he is guaranteed his freedom in America. He remembers how other Americans in history had died to secure this freedom, and declares that if he is ever called upon to defend the U.S.A. today, he will gladly stand up and fight because he loves the country.
A music video was released for this song in 1984, depicting Greenwood as a farmer who loses the family farm. The video was produced and edited by L.A. Johnson and directed by Gary Burden. A second video was released in 1991, also on VHS, and was directed by Edd Griles. A third music video was also released after the September 11, 2001 attacks.
"God Bless the U.S.A. '' debuted on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart for the week of May 26, 1984.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Pop group Jump5 covered the song for the September 11 attacks in October 2001.
In 2003, the song was performed by the American Idol season two finalists and released as a single, with part of the proceeds going to the American Red Cross. It raised $155,000 for the charity. A word was changed in the released single at the request of one of the finalists who performed the song, Josh Gracin who was also a Marine. The "men '' in the line "and I wo n't forget the men who died '' was replaced with "ones '' because Gracin felt that both men and women have died, and the word was therefore changed to reflect that fact. It reached No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100, and it was certified gold by the RIAA the same year.
Again, following the death of bin Laden, R&B singer Beyoncé re-released her 2008 cover of the song, the proceeds of which will go to charity. Knowles performed the song on Piers Morgan Tonight on May 5, 2011. After the performance, her version was released as a single to the iTunes Store. In a statement Knowles said, "I can not think about anything more appropriate to do to help these families... Almost 10 years (after 9 / 11), it is still so painful for all Americans, especially those who lost loved ones. We were all affected by the tragedies of 9 / 11 and continue to keep the families who lost loved ones close to our hearts... '' Dan Martin of The Guardian felt that the cover was "in contrast '' to Knowles ' last intervention in national affairs, the Let 's Move! Flash Workout fitness initiative. Ronald Mitchell of Newsday commented that "It does our hearts good to see Beyonce work her magic for the greater good. '' Knowles later also performed the song for the concert she had on July 4, 2011 along with "Best Thing I Never Had '' (2011). Nick Neyland of Prefix Magazine commented that "Beyonce is a natural fit for occasions like this, and she does n't even break a sweat as she hits the high notes despite the soaring temperatures and humidity in the city. That 's the mark of a true pro. '' In Beyoncé 's version, the end of the second verse is sung "And it 's time to make a change '', as well as changing, "If I had to start again with just my children and my wife '' to "family by my side. ''
Dolly Parton recorded the song for her 2003 patriotic album, For God and Country.
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who plays donna tubbs on the cleveland show | List of the Cleveland show characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters in the Fox television series The Cleveland Show.
Cleveland Brown (voiced by Mike Henry) is the protagonist of the series. He is a heavyset African - American male who is very polite to everyone and has a unique laugh. He was formerly one of Peter Griffin 's best friends in Family Guy and also owned and ran a deli. In "Pilot '' he moves to the town of Stoolbend, Virginia to show his son where he grew up (even though Cleveland was in love with Donna but they were only friends and she did not know it). Eventually re-sparking his relationship with her, they get married and he and his son move in with her and her two children. Cleveland is usually depicted as exceedingly gentle and patient, and it is only on rare occasions that he has been known to lose his temper and resort to violence. However, Cleveland gets visibly annoyed with racist behavior, which sometimes is justified. He often acts as the voice of caution when other characters hatch harebrained schemes. Cleveland 's speech is slow and almost elongated in Family Guy, but in The Cleveland Show his voice has a wide variety. Various flashbacks give conflicting histories of his speech patterns. He is shown as a more sexual, stupid, and violent character in his new form than he was originally.
Donna Tubbs Brown who is voiced by Sanaa Lathan is the second wife of Cleveland Brown and works as the principal 's secretary at Stoolbend High School. She has two biological children from her previous relationship with Robert (last name unknown, which is a joke later in the series), Roberta and Rallo, and she has kept her maiden name (seen in "Pilot '', Cleveland says, "Back in high school, I would have given anything to spend the night at Donna Tubbs ' house. ''). As a result of her marriage to Cleveland, she has adopted a third child, his son Cleveland Brown Jr.
Donna and Cleveland were initially best friends in high school, although Cleveland clearly had romantic feelings towards her. Donna unfortunately was for the most part oblivious to his feelings, and instead dated Cleveland 's unofficial rival Robert. Despite Cleveland 's attempts to get Donna to see Robert for what he truly was (a self - centered, irresponsible jerk), Donna ended up marrying Robert shortly after graduation. Seeing no reason to remain, Cleveland left Stoolbend and Donna behind.
Despite many attempts at making their marriage work, Donna and Robert ended up separating due to Robert 's heavy drinking and drug abuse, leaving Donna to raise their children alone. Robert would visit occasionally, but more out of selfish desire than any familial reasons. After years apart, Donna was of course overjoyed to see her best friend, Cleveland again. Cleveland and his son, who were passing through Stoolbend while driving to California, had stopped by the high school to retrace Cleveland 's old haunting grounds. Donna invites the Browns to stay at her house, which results in a rekindling of their friendship that soon blossoms into a full - blown romance. The two soon marry, and honeymoon in New York City a few months later.
Having been friends for years prior to getting married, Cleveland and Donna have a close relationship both sexually and platonically. Donna comes off much more patient and understanding than Cleveland 's first wife, Loretta, and is more attentive to him as well. Her relationship with her children meanwhile is somewhat more shaky, as both her children are the result of a broken home and neglectful father. Donna does her best to keep her children under control, but is aware that they need a father figure at times. Yet despite any issues that she and her kids have, it is clear that they care for one another. Donna 's relationship with Cleveland Jr. meanwhile is underdeveloped yet, save for the fact that Cleveland Jr. is quick to do what he can to follow Donna 's wishes for fear of another divorce occurring. It is also implied that he sees Donna as the mother figure that Loretta should 've been. However, she has shown to be willing to protect him from danger, such as when she saved him from an ax - wielding Donny in "A Nightmare on Grace Street '' by throwing a wine glass at his head.
She takes care of odd jobs, assisting Principal Wally when he is indisposed and serving as a secretary of sorts (she can type 85 words per minute).
She is shown with an extremely large posterior, that is joked about often in the series.
She tends to drink a lot of wine to the point she might be an alcoholic.
She is a talented and proud Recorder player and wears a wig that hides her gray hair.
She is quick - tempered.
In "Mama Drama '', it is revealed that her mother is Dee Dee Tubbs who was part of a band in the 1960s until she left Donna with Uncle Kevin. The two of them reunited by the end of the episode.
Cleveland Brown Jr., also referred to as just Junior and also Cleveland Raj Rerun Dwayne Brown (voiced by Mike Henry in "Family Guy, '' Kevin Michael Richardson in "The Cleveland Show ''), is the obese biological son of Cleveland Brown and his late ex-wife Loretta. He debuted in the season 2 episode "Love Thy Trophy '' on the animated TV show Family Guy. During his time in Family Guy he was shown to be skinny, hyperactive, and athletic. He was presumably taken into Loretta 's custody after she divorced Cleveland in "The Cleveland - Loretta Quagmire '' and has since become severely obese. He suffers from mild seizure - like episodes which he refers to as "brainstorms '' and takes medication to control them. It was revealed in the episode "The Hurricane! '' that he "does n't believe in God '', although he claims he is not an atheist either, which he calls "another religion ''. His voice is the mixture of Miss Piggy 's voice and Bernie Mac 's voice stuck together in this show.
Biological family: Rallo, Donna and Robert
Roberta Tubbs (sometimes Roberta Benigni Tubbs) is the biological daughter of Donna and her ex-husband, Robert. She looks up to Tyra Banks, hoping to one day become her co-hostess. A relatively popular girl in school, Roberta is often seen socializing with her friends, both in person, and using phones, or social networking websites. She has been dating a less than respectable boy by the name of Federline Jones, who Donna does not much approve of, but who Cleveland has managed to bully into submission. As with many popular students, Roberta often acts as a bully and a self - centered character, even towards her own family members.
Neither Roberta nor her brother Rallo are initially pleased with the arrival of Cleveland and Cleveland Brown Jr., though both appear to accept their mother marrying Cleveland without much issue. In fact, Roberta and Cleveland seem to fall into a rather stereotypical father / daughter relationship, with Roberta being embarrassed by her stepfather 's behavior when he attends social functions at her school. Eventually she accepts Cleveland as her father.
Roberta seems to have a love / hate relationship with her brother Rallo. In the first episode, Roberta reneges on her responsibility to babysit him in order to go out with her friends. However, she seems able to share plenty of witty dialogue with her brother, apparently seeing him as something of an intellectual equal, despite his age. Roberta 's relationship with Cleveland Jr. has shown promise of being a decently caring one, despite a shaky beginning. Initially both Roberta and Rallo are disturbed by how clean and attentive Cleveland Jr. is in regards to Donna 's parental requests. Initially annoyed at him making them look bad and did all they could to make him miserable, they become sympathetic when they realize that he never accepted his parents ' divorce and showing resentment towards his own mother for her adulterous affair and has been doing all he can to avoid giving into his sorrow. Together, Rallo and Roberta do all they can to help Cleveland Jr. let his feelings out and at the same time, they accept him as their brother. Despite her occasional kindness towards him however, Roberta regularly tends to neglect and distance from Junior and even bully him with the other popular students out of selfishness and / or on behalf of her own social structure and goals, even accusing him of stealing a chocolate bar over Rallo. She can also talk like Robert, although she seems a bit resentful of his failures as a parent compared to the sense of hero worship Rallo feels toward him. Roberta seems to have an archrival in Lacey Stapleton. Her usual clothing is a green tube top with blue jeans, gold hoop earrings and necklace and bracelets, and white and black - striped sneakers. She also wears white pearl earrings and her hair has a white streak in it. She wears pink lipstick.
Montclair "Rallo '' Tubbs is the biological son of Donna and her ex-husband, Robert. He has one biological sister, Roberta. As a result of his mother marrying Cleveland, Rallo has gained Cleveland Brown Jr. as a stepbrother, Rallo has a light blue shirt with dark blue shorts and red sneakers and he sports a black Afro. His best friends are Julius and Walt.
Despite his age, and the fact his father has been mostly absent most of his life, Rallo acts much like Robert, behaving at times very articulate, yet hormonally charged. He seems to get along fairly well with his mother Donna and has a normal love / hate relationship with Roberta, who at times seems to neglect him, yet at other times speaks to him as if an intellectual equal.
Rallo frequently runs errands for his mother but never remembers to get the change. As a result, he is able to save enough money to buy a 1967 Mustang on eBay. His childlike defiance and hyperactive mischief when being tended to by Roberta was so extreme (including excitedly wiping himself by dragging his bare posterior on the floor) as to scare her away from sex, lest she risk creating anything like him. The fact that Rallo is some sort of child prodigy, makes him an analogue of Cleveland 's former neighbor, Stewie Griffin.
With the new arrivals of Cleveland and Cleveland Jr., Rallo has shown some initial reluctance to accept both into his life, actively insulting them, such as joking about their weight. However, he warms up to Cleveland, who manages to teach him how to handle checking out the girls in his kindergarten class. When Cleveland inadvertently kills the family dog, Rallo is devastated by the loss, but comes to respect Cleveland for all the work he did in trying to "find him '' when Rallo thought the dog was merely missing, as well as the effort Cleveland put into trying to be a good parent to Roberta.
Despite being younger than his new stepbrother Cleveland Jr. Rallo seems to take a more aggressive hand in their interaction, openly insulting Junior. However, this seems to just be Rallo 's way of addressing people in general, and not done with any deep malice intended. In fact, their relationship is showing promise of being a decently caring one at this point. In "Birth of a Salesman, '' both Roberta and Rallo are disturbed by how clean and attentive Cleveland Jr. is in regards to Donna 's parental requests. Initially annoyed at him making them look bad, they become sympathetic when they realize that he never accepted his parents ' divorce, and has been doing all he can to avoid giving into his sorrow. Together Rallo and Roberta do all they can to help Cleveland Jr. let his feelings out and at the same time, they accept him as their brother.
Rallo seems to somewhat value cleanliness and etiquette from houseguests, as demonstrated by his indignant reaction to Cleveland and Cleveland Jr., not making their beds after staying the night with the Tubbs family in the pilot.
He was an antisemite, as discovered in "Ladies ' Night ''. After befriending a Jewish senior citizen in "Murray Christmas '', even going so far to celebrating Hanukah with him, it appears that he no longer is. His antisemitism is contradicted by his affection toward his stereotypically Jewish teacher, Mrs. Hadassah Lowenstein, to whom he declared, "You mean the world to me. The world to me! ''
In one episode, he becomes racist towards white people after learning of the history of slavery in the United States. Rallo then go on rants to kill and harm white people, but changes his stance once he sees that the Krinklesac family are not racists, are not responsible for owning slaves and actually enjoy many of the same activities and foods as himself.
His favorite meal consists of fish sticks and Tater Tots, and, before his stepfather moved in, he sat at the head of the dinner table.
Donna mentions in "Brotherly Love '' that Rallo takes diarrhea medicine.
In the episode "American Pranksters '', Cleveland asks Donna why his name is Rallo. Donna replies to that question by stating it was from "That guy from Sanford and Son '' (referring to Rollo Larson).
A number of characters in the show live on the same street as the Brown family. All were seen attending the wedding of Cleveland and Donna Brown.
As of this edit, this article uses content from "Donna Tubbs - Brown '', which is licensed in a way that permits reuse under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, but not under the GFDL. All relevant terms must be followed.
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who named the country 'islas de san lazaro' | Names of the Philippines - wikipedia
The name of the Philippines (Filipino: Pilipinas (pɪlɪˈpinɐs); Spanish: Filipinas) is a truncated form of Philippine Islands, derived from the King Philip II of Spain in the 16th century. During the expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos to the islands, Spanish sailor Bernardo de la Torre used the name Las Islas Filipinas in honor of the then - Prince of Asturias, originally referring to the islands of Leyte and Samar. Despite the presence of other names, the name Filipinas ("Philippines '') was eventually adopted as the name of the entire archipelago.
The official name of the Philippines, however, has changed throughout the course of its history. During the Philippine Revolution, the state officially called itself República Filipina, now referred to as the First Philippine Republic. From the period of the Spanish -- American War and the Philippine -- American War until the Commonwealth period, United States colonial authorities referred to the Philippines as the Philippine Islands, a direct translation of the original Spanish. It was during the American Period that the name Philippines began to appear, a name that was officially adopted. The International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), an international organization in aid to UNESCO, has cited that the translation of the country name, Philippi from then Prince Felipe of Asturias and Nes, derived from the Greek nésos (νῆσος), meaning "Islands '', directly means Islands of Prince Philip II of Asturias, denoting that the ruler of the archipelago is the Spanish prince, who later became the Spanish king.
Due to the colonial origin and direct meaning of the country 's current name, proposals for name change have surfaced since the late 19th century up to present time. Among the proposed names that have surfaced include Sovereign Tagalog Nation (Haring Bayang Katagalugan), Katipunan (Assembly / Gathering), Kapatiran (Brotherhood), Luzviminda (Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao), Luzvimindas (Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao, and eastern Sabah), Mahárlika (Nobility), Rizalia, Rizaline Republic (República Rizalina), and Dayaw Republic (Repúblikang Dayaw).
In addition to the Philippines, the islands have historically had numerous other names.
Adios, Patria adorada, region del sol querida, Perla del Mar de Oriente, nuestro perdido Eden! A darte voy alegre la triste mustia vida, Y fuera más brillante más fresca, más florida, Tambien por tí la diera, la diera por tu bien.
Farewell, my adored Land, region of the sun caressed, Pearl of the Orient Sea, our Eden lost, With gladness I give you my Life, sad and repressed; And were it more brilliant, more fresh and at its best, I would still give it to you for your welfare at most.
Bayang magiliw, Perlas ng Silanganan Alab ng puso, Sa Dibdib mo'y buhay.
Tierra adorada, hija del sol de Oriente, su fuego ardiente en ti latiendo está.
The 1987 constitution provides that Filipino and English be official languages of the Philippines. The constitution does not contain a provision specifically designating an official name for the country; however, "Republic of the Philippines '' is used consistently throughout its provisions (in English). Article XIV, section 8 of the constitution also mandates that the constitution be also promulgated in Filipino but no such official Filipino version exists. "Republika ng Pilipinas '' is the de facto name of the country used in Filipino. When standing alone in English, the country 's name is always preceded by the article the. However, the definite article ang does not precede the name in Filipino contexts.
The country has throughout its history been known as Filipinas. In the 1930s, the scholar Lope K. Santos introduced the abakada alphabet for writing Tagalog which no longer used the letter F as this sound was absent and was usually pronounced by speakers of several Philippine languages as "P ''. The abakada alphabet also subsequently spread to other Philippine languages (which had been using spelling systems based on the Spanish abecedario). Thus, the form Pilipinas propagated and came into general use.
The Commission on the Filipino Language and National Artist, Virgilio S. Almario urges the usage of Filipinas as the country 's official name to reflect its origin and history, and to be inclusive to all the languages in the country that already have the new 8 letters of the modern Filipino alphabet (officially used since 1987) which includes the letter F.
Unlike Ireland which uses the name "Éire / Ireland '' to identify itself at international meetings, the English name usually appears to identify the Philippines (e.g., when there are meetings in the United Nations or the Association of Southeast Asian Nations) in this setting. This is also the tradition even if the meeting is held within the Philippines.
In many Philippine languages such as Tagalog, Pilipinas is used; while some other languages, including Ilocano and Chavacano, use Filipinas. Though the name Philippines is the official name that is used by the country 's government for international and domestic businesses, numerous major languages of the world still use their own translation or transliteration of the name Philippines to refer to it.
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how long does it take a cell to rise from the stratum basale through to the outer layers of skin | Stratum basale - wikipedia
The stratum basale (basal layer, sometimes referred to as stratum germinativum) is the deepest layer of the five layers of the epidermis, the outer covering of skin in mammals.
The stratum basale is a continuous layer of cells. It is often described as one cell thick, though it may in fact be two to three cells thick in glabrous skin (hairless), and hyperproliferative epidermis (from a skin disease).
The stratum basale is primarily made up of basal keratinocyte stem cells, which can be considered the stem cells of the epidermis. They divide to form the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum, which migrate superficially. Other types of cells found within the stratum basale are melanocytes (pigment - producing cells), Langerhans cells (immune cells), and Merkel cells (touch receptors).
Epidermis and dermis of human skin
Section of epidermis
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the majority of business enterprises in the u.s. are organized as corporations | United states corporate law - wikipedia
United States corporate law regulates the governance, finance and power of corporations in US law. Every state and territory has its own basic corporate code, while federal law creates minimum standards for trade in company shares and governance rights, found mostly in the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934, as amended by laws like the Sarbanes - Oxley Act of 2002 and the Dodd - Frank Act of 2010. The US Constitution was interpreted by the US Supreme Court to allow corporations to incorporate in the state of their choice, regardless of where their headquarters are. Over the 20th century, most major corporations incorporated under the Delaware General Corporation Law, which offered lower corporate taxes, fewer shareholder rights against directors, and developed a specialized court and legal profession. Nevada has done the same. Twenty - four states follow the Model Business Corporation Act, while New York and California are important due to their size.
At the Declaration of Independence, corporations had been unlawful without explicit authorization in a Royal Charter or an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom. Since the world 's first stock market crash (the South Sea Bubble of 1720) corporations were perceived as dangerous. This was because, as the economist Adam Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations (1776), directors managed "other people 's money '' and this conflict of interest meant directors were prone to "negligence and profusion ''. Corporations were only thought to be legitimate in specific industries (such as insurance or banking) that could not be managed efficiently through partnerships. After the US Constitution was ratified in 1788, corporations were still distrusted, and were tied into debate about interstate exercise of sovereign power. The First Bank of the United States was chartered in 1791 by the US Congress to raise money for the government and create a common currency (alongside a federal excise tax and the US Mint). It had private investors (not government owned), but faced opposition from southern politicians who feared federal power overtaking state power. So, the First Bank 's charter was written to expire in 20 years. State governments could and did also incorporate corporations through special legislation. In 1811, New York became the first state to have a simple public registration procedure to start corporations (not specific permission from the legislature) for manufacturing business. It also allowed investors to have limited liability, so that if the enterprise went bankrupt investors would lose their investment, but not any extra debts that had been run up to creditors. An early US Supreme Court case, Trustees of Dartmouth College v Woodward, went so far as to say that once a corporation was established a state legislature (in this case, New Hampshire) could not amend it. States quickly reacted by reserving the right to regulate future dealings by corporations. Generally speaking, corporations were treated as "legal persons '' with separate legal personality from its shareholders, directors or employees. Corporations were the subject of legal rights and duties: they could make contracts, hold property or commission torts, but there was no necessary requirement to treat a corporation as favorably as a real person.
Over the late 19th century, more and more states allowed free incorporation of businesses with a simple registration procedure. Many corporations would be small and democratically organized, with one - person, one - vote, no matter what amount the investor had, and directors would be frequently up for election. However, the dominant trend led towards immense corporate groups where the standard rule was one - share, one - vote. At the end of the 19th century, "trust '' systems (where formal ownership had to be used for another person 's benefit) were used to concentrate control into the hands of a few people, or a single person. In response, the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 was created to break up big business conglomerates, and the Clayton Act of 1914 gave the government power to halt mergers and acquisitions that could damage the public interest. By the end of the First World War, it was increasingly perceived that ordinary people had little voice compared to the "financial oligarchy '' of bankers and industrial magnates. In particular, employees lacked voice compared to shareholders, but plans for a post-war "industrial democracy '' (giving employees votes for investing their labor) did not become widespread. Through the 1920s, power concentrated in fewer hands as corporations issued shares with multiple voting rights, while other shares were sold with no votes at all. This practice was halted in 1926 by public pressure and the New York Stock Exchange refusing to list non-voting shares. It was possible to sell voteless shares in the economic boom of the 1920s, because more and more ordinary people were looking to the stock market to save the new money they were earning, but the law did not guarantee good information or fair terms. New shareholders had no power to bargain against large corporate issuers, but still needed a place to save. Before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, people were being sold shares in corporations with fake businesses, as accounts and business reports were not made available to the investing public.
AA Berle and GC Means, The Modern Corporation and Private Property (1932) Book I, ch IV, 64
The Wall Street Crash saw the total collapse of stock market values, as shareholders realized that corporations had become overpriced. They sold shares en masse, meaning meant companies found it hard to get finance. The result was that thousands of businesses were forced to close, and they laid off workers. Because workers had less money to spend, businesses received less income, leading to more closures and lay - offs. This downward spiral began the Great Depression. Berle and Means argued that under - regulation was the primary cause in their foundational book in 1932, The Modern Corporation and Private Property. They said directors had become too unaccountable, and the markets lacked basic transparency rules. This led directly to the New Deal reforms of the Securities Act of 1933 and Securities and Exchange Act of 1934. A new Securities and Exchange Commission was empowered to require corporations disclose all material information about their business to the investing public. Because many shareholders were physically distant from corporate headquarters where meetings would take place, new rights were made to allow people to cast votes via proxies, on the view that this and other measures would make directors more accountable. Given these reforms, a major controversy still remained about the duties that corporations also owed to employees, other stakeholders, and the rest of society. After World War Two, a general consensus emerged that directors were not bound purely to pursue "shareholder value '' but could exercise their discretion for the good of all stakeholders, for instance by increasing wages instead of dividends, or providing services for the good of the community instead of only pursuing profits, if it was in the interests of the enterprise as a whole. However, different states had different corporate laws. To increase revenue from corporate tax, individual states had an incentive to lower their standards in a "race to the bottom '' to attract corporations to set up their headquarters in the state, particularly where directors controlled the decision to incorporate. "Charter competition '', by the 1960s, had led Delaware to become home to the majority of the largest US corporations. This meant that the case law of the Delaware Chancery and Supreme Court became increasingly influential. During the 1980s, a huge takeover and merger boom decreased directors ' accountability. To fend off a takeover, courts allowed boards to institute "poison pills '' or "shareholder rights plans '', which allowed directors to veto any bid -- and probably get a payout for letting a takeover happen. More and more people 's retirement savings were being invested into the stock market, through pension funds, life insurance and mutual funds. This resulted in a vast growth in the asset management industry, which tended to take control of voting rights. Both the financial sector 's share of income, and executive pay for chief executive officers began to rise far beyond real wages for the rest of the workforce. The Enron scandal of 2001 led to some reforms in the Sarbanes - Oxley Act (on separating auditors from consultancy work). The global financial crisis of 2007 led to minor changes in the Dodd - Frank Act (on soft regulation of pay, alongside derivative markets). However, the basic shape of corporate law in the United States has remained the same since the 1980s.
Corporations are invariably classified as "legal persons '' by all modern systems of law, meaning that like natural persons, they may acquire rights and duties. A corporation may be chartered in any of the 50 states (or the District of Columbia) and may become authorized to do business in each jurisdiction it does business within, except that when a corporation sues or is sued over a contract, the court, regardless of where the corporation 's headquarters office is located, or where the transaction occurred, will use the law of the jurisdiction where the corporation was chartered (unless the contract says otherwise). So, for example, consider a corporation which sets up a concert in Hawaii, where its headquarters are in Minnesota, and it is chartered in Colorado, if it is sued over its actions involving the concert, whether it was sued in Hawaii (where the concert is located), or Minnesota (where its headquarters are located), the court in that state will still use Colorado law to determine how its corporate dealings are to be performed.
All major public corporations are also characterized by holding limited liability and having a centralized management. When a group of people go through the procedures to incorporate, they will acquire rights to make contracts, to possess property, to sue, and they will also be responsible for torts, or other wrongs, and be sued. The federal government does not charter corporations (except National Banks, Federal Savings Banks, and Federal Credit Unions) although it does regulate them. Each of the 50 states plus DC has its own corporation law. Most large corporations have historically chosen to incorporate in Delaware, even though they operate nationally, and may have little or no business in Delaware itself. The extent to which corporations should have the same rights as real people is controversial, particularly when it comes to the fundamental rights found in the United States Bill of Rights. As a matter of law, a corporation acts through real people that form its board of directors, and then through the officers and employees who are appointed on its behalf. Shareholders can in some cases make decisions on the corporation 's behalf, though in larger companies they tend to be passive. Otherwise, most corporations adopt limited liability so that generally shareholders can not be sued for a corporation 's commercial debts. If a corporation goes bankrupt, and is unable to pay debts to commercial creditors as they fall due, then in some circumstances state courts allow the so - called "veil of incorporation '' to be pierced, and so to hold the people behind the corporation liable. This is usually rare and in almost all cases involves non-payment of trust fund taxes or willful misconduct, essentially amounting to fraud.
Although every state will have slight differences in their requirements, the process of forming a new corporation is usually quick. A corporation is not the only kind of business organization that can be chosen. People may wish to register a partnership or a Limited Liability Company, depending on the precise tax status and organizational form that is sought. Most frequently, however, people will choose corporations which have limited liability for those who become the shareholders: if the corporation goes bankrupt the default rule is that shareholders will only lose the money they paid for their shares, even if debts to commercial creditors are still unpaid. A state office, perhaps called the "Division of Corporations '' or simply the "Secretary of State '', will require the people who wish to incorporate to file "articles of incorporation '' (sometimes called a "charter '') and pay a fee. The articles of incorporation typically record the corporation 's name, if there are any limits to its powers, purposes or duration, identify whether all shares will have the same rights. With this information filed with the state, a new corporation will come into existence, and be so be subject to legal rights and duties that the people involved create on its behalf. The incorporators will also have to adopt "bylaws '' which identify many more details such as the number of directors, the arrangement of the board, requirements for corporate meetings, duties of officer holders and so on. The certificate of incorporation will have identified whether the directors or the shareholders, or both have the competence to adopt and change these rules. All of this is typically achieved through the corporation 's first meeting.
One of the most important things that the articles of incorporation determine is the state of incorporation. Different states can have different levels of corporate tax or franchise tax, different qualities of shareholder and stakeholder rights, more or less stringent directors ' duties, and so on. However, it was held by the Supreme Court in Paul v Virginia that in principle states ought to allow corporations incorporated in a different state to do business freely. This appeared to remain true even if another state (e.g. Delaware) required significantly worse internal protections for shareholders, employees, creditors than the state in which the corporation operated (e.g. New York). So far, federal regulation has affected more issues relating to the securities markets than the balance of power and duties among directors, shareholders, employees and other stakeholders. The Supreme Court has also acknowledged that one state 's laws will govern the "internal affairs '' of a corporation, to prevent conflicts among state laws. So on the present law, regardless of where a corporation operates in the 50 states, the rules of the state of incorporation (subject to federal law) will govern its operation. Early in the 20th century, it was recognized by some states, initially New Jersey, that the state could cut its tax rate in order to attract more incorporations, and thus bolster tax receipts. Quickly, Delaware emerged as a preferred state of incorporation. In the 1933 case of Louis K. Liggett Co v Lee, Brandeis J. represented the view that the resulting "race was one not of diligence, but of laxity '', particularly in terms of corporate tax rates, and rules that might protect less powerful corporate stakeholders. Over the 20th century, the problem of a "race to the bottom '' was increasingly thought to justify Federal regulation of corporations. The contrasting view was that regulatory competition among states could be beneficial, on the assumption that shareholders would choose to invest their money with corporations that were well governed. Thus the state 's corporation regulations would be "priced '' by efficient markets. In this way it was argued to be a "race to the top ''. An intermediate viewpoint in the academic literature, suggested that regulatory competition could in fact be either positive or negative, and could be used to the advantage of different groups, depending on which stakeholders would exercise most influence in the decision about which state to incorporate in. Under most state laws, directors hold the exclusive power to allow a vote on amending the articles of incorporation, and shareholders must approve directors ' proposals by a majority, unless a higher threshold is in the articles.
In principle a duly incorporated business acquires "legal personality '' that is separate from the people who invest their capital, and their labor, into the corporation. Just as the common law had for municipal and church corporations for centuries, it was held by the Supreme Court in Bank of the United States v Deveaux that in principle corporations had legal capacity. At its center, corporations being "legal persons '' mean they can make contracts and other obligations, hold property, sue to enforce their rights and be sued for breach of duty. Beyond the core of private law rights and duties the question has, however, continually arisen about the extent to which corporations and real people should be treated alike. The meaning of "person '', when used in a statute or the US Bill of Rights is typically thought to turn on the construction of the statute, so that in different contexts the legislature or founding fathers could have intended different things by "person ''. For example, in an 1869 case named Paul v Virginia, the US Supreme Court held that the word "citizen '' in the privileges and immunities clause of the US Constitution (article IV, section 2) did not include corporations. This meant that the Commonwealth of Virginia was entitled to require that a New York fire insurance corporation, run by Mr Samuel Paul, acquired a license to sell policies within Virginia, even though there were different rules for corporations incorporated within the state. By contrast, in Santa Clara County v Southern Pacific Railroad Co, a majority of the Supreme Court hinted that a corporation might be regarded as a "person '' under the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Southern Pacific Railroad Company had claimed it should not be subject to differential tax treatment, compared to natural persons, set by the State Board of Equalization acting under the Constitution of California. However, in the event Harlan J held that the company could not be assessed for tax on a technical point: the state county had included too much property in its calculations. Differential treatment between natural persons and corporations was therefore not squarely addressed.
In the late 20th century, however, the issue of whether a corporation counted as a "person '' for all or some purposes acquired political significance. Initially, in Buckley v Valeo a slight majority of the US Supreme Court had held that natural persons were entitled to spend unlimited amounts of their own money on their political campaigns. Over a strong dissent, the majority therefore held that parts of the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974 were unconstitutional since spending money was, in the majority 's view, a manifestation of the right to freedom of speech under the First Amendment. This did not affect corporations, though the issue arose in Austin v Michigan Chamber of Commerce. A differently constituted US Supreme Court held, with three dissents, that the Michigan Campaign Finance Act could, compatibly with the First Amendment, prohibit political spending by corporations. However, by 2010, the Supreme Court had a different majority. In a five to four decision, Citizens United v Federal Election Commission held that corporations were persons that should be protected in the same was as natural people under the First Amendment, and so they were entitled to spend unlimited amounts of money in donations to political campaigns. This struck down the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002, so that an anti-Hillary Clinton advertisement ("Hillary: The Movie '') could be run by a pro-business lobby group. Subsequently, the same Supreme Court majority decided in 2014, in Burwell v Hobby Lobby Stores Inc that corporations were also persons for the protection of religion under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act. Specifically, this meant that a corporation had to have a right to opt out of provisions of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010, which could require giving health care to employees that the board of directors of the corporation might have religious objections to. It did not specifically address an alternative claim under the First Amendment. The dissenting four judges emphasized their view that previous cases provided "no support for the notion that free exercise (of religious) rights pertain to for - profit corporations. '' Accordingly, the issue of corporate personality has taken on an increasingly political character. Because corporations are typically capable of commanding greater economic power than individual people, and the actions of a corporation may be unduly influenced by directors and the largest shareholders, it raises the issue of the corruption of democratic politics.
Although a corporation may be considered a separate legal person, it physically can not act by itself. There are, therefore, necessarily rules from the corporation statutes and the law of agency that attribute the acts of real people to the corporation, to make contracts, deal with property, commission torts, and so on. First, the board of directors will be typically appointed at the first corporate meeting by whoever the articles of incorporation identify as entitled to elect them. The board is usually given the collective power to direct, manage and represent the corporation. This power (and its limits) is usually delegated to directors by the state 's law, or the articles of incorporation. Second, corporation laws frequently set out roles for particular "officers '' of the corporation, usually in senior management, on or outside of the board. US labor law views directors and officers as holding contracts of employment, although not for all purposes. If the state law, or the corporation 's bylaws are silent, the terms of these contracts will define in further detail the role of the directors and officers. Third, directors and officers of the corporation will usually have the authority to delegate tasks, and hire employees for the jobs that need performing. Again, the terms of the employment contracts will shape the express terms on which employees act on behalf of the corporation.
Toward the outside world, the acts of directors, officers and other employees will be binding on the corporation depending on the law of agency and principles of vicarious liability (or respondeat superior). It used to be that the common law recognized constraints on the total capacity of the corporation. If a director or employee acted beyond the purposes or powers of the corporation (ultra vires), any contract would be ex ante void and unenforceable. This rule was abandoned in the earlier 20th century, and today corporations generally have unlimited capacity and purposes. However, not all actions by corporate agents are binding. For instance, in South Sacramento Drayage Co v Campbell Soup Co it was held that a traffic manager who worked for the Campbell Soup Company did not (unsurprisingly) have authority to enter a 15 - year exclusive dealing contract for intrastate hauling of tomatoes. Standard principles of commercial agency apply ("apparent authority ''). If a reasonable person would not think that an employee (given his or her position and role) has authority to enter a contract, then the corporation can not be bound. However, corporations can always expressly confer greater authority on officers and employees, and so will be bound if the contracts give express or implied actual authority. The treatment of liability for contracts and other consent based obligations, however, differs to torts and other wrongs. Here the objective of the law to ensure the internalization of "externalities '' or "enterprise risks '' is generally seen to cast a wider scope of liability.
One of the basic principles of modern corporate law is that people who invest in a corporation have limited liability. For example, as a general rule shareholders can only lose the money they invested in their shares. Practically, limited liability operates only as a default rule for creditors that can adjust their risk. Banks which lend money to corporations frequently contract with a corporation 's directors or shareholders to get personal guarantees, or to take security interests their personal assets, or over a corporation 's assets, to ensure their debts are paid in full. This means much of the time, shareholders are in fact liable beyond their initial investments. Similarly trade creditors, such as suppliers of raw materials, can use title retention clause or other device with the equivalent effect to security interests, to be paid before other creditors in bankruptcy. However, if creditors are unsecured, or for some reason guarantees and security are not enough, creditors can not (unless there are exceptions) sue shareholders for outstanding debts. Metaphorically speaking, their liability is limited behind the "corporate veil ''. The same analysis, however has been rejected by the US Supreme Court in Davis v Alexander, where a railroad subsidiary company caused injury to cattle that were being transported. As Brandeis J put it, when one "company actually controls another and operates both as a single system, the dominant company will be liable for injuries due to the negligence of the subsidiary company. ''
There are a number of exceptions, which differ according to the law of each state, to the principle of limited liability. First, at the very least, as is recognized in public international law, courts will "pierce the corporate veil '' if a corporation is being used evade obligations in a dishonest manner. Defective organization, such as a failure to duly file the articles of incorporation with a state official, is another universally acknowledged ground. However, there is considerable diversity in state law, and controversy, over how much further the law ought to go. In Kinney Shoe Corp v Polan the Fourth Circuit Federal Court of Appeals held that it would also pierce the veil if (1) the corporation had been inadequately capitalized to meet its future obligations (2) if no corporate formalities (e.g. meetings and minutes) had been observed, or (3) the corporation was deliberately used to benefit an associated corporation. However, a subsequent opinion of the same court emphasized that piercing could not take place merely to prevent an abstract notion of "unfairness '' or "injustice ''. A further, though technically different, equitable remedy is that according to the US Supreme Court in Taylor v Standard Gas Co corporate insiders (e.g. directors or major shareholders) who are also creditors of a company are subordinated to other creditors when the company goes bankrupt if the company is inadequately capitalized for the operations it was undertaking.
Tort victims differ from commercial creditors because they have no ability to contract around limited liability, and are therefore regarded differently under most state laws. The theory developed in the mid-20th century that beyond the corporation itself, it was more appropriate for the law to recognize the economic "enterprise '', which usually composes groups of corporations, where the parent takes the benefit of a subsidiary 's activities and is capable of exercising decisive influence. A concept of "enterprise liability '' was developed in fields such tax law, accounting practices, and antitrust law that were gradually received into the courts ' jurisprudence. Older cases had suggested that there was no special right to pierce the veil in favor of tort victims, even where pedestrians had been hit by a tram owned by a bankrupt - subsidiary corporation, or by taxi - cabs that were owned by undercapitalized subsidiary corporations. More modern authority suggested a different approach. In a case concerning one of the worst oil spills in history, caused by the Amoco Cadiz which was owned through subsidiaries of the Amoco Corporation, the Illinois court that heard the case stated that the parent corporation was liable by the fact of its group structure. The courts therefore "usually apply more stringent standards to piercing the corporate veil in a contract case than they do in tort cases '' because tort claimants do not voluntarily accept limited liability. Under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980, the US Supreme Court in United States v Bestfoods held if a parent corporation "actively participated in, and exercised control over, the operations of '' a subsidiary 's facilities it "may be held directly liable ''. This leaves the question of the nature of the common law, in absence of a specific statute, or where a state law forbids piercing the veil except on very limited grounds. One possibility is that tort victims go uncompensated, even while a parent corporation is solvent and has insurance. A second possibility is that a compromise liability regime, such as pro rata rather than joint and several liability is imposed across all shareholders regardless of size. A third possibility, and one that does not interfere with the basics of corporate law, is that a direct duty of care could be owed in tort to the injured person by parent corporations and major shareholders to the extent they could exercise control. This route means corporate enterprise would not gain a subsidy at the expense of other people 's health and environment, and that there is no need to pierce the veil.
Corporate governance, though used in many senses, is primarily concerned with the balance of power among the main actors in a corporation: directors, shareholders, employees, and other stakeholders. A combination of a state 's corporation law, case law developed by the courts, and a corporation 's own articles of incorporation and bylaws determine how power is shared. In general, the rules of a corporation 's constitution can be written in whatever way its incorporators choose, or however it is subsequently amended, so long as they comply with the minimum compulsory standards of the law. Different laws seek to protect the corporate stakeholders to different degrees. Among the most important are the voting rights they exercise against the board of directors, either to elect or remove them from office. There is also the right to sue for breaches of duty, and rights of information, typically used to buy, sell and associate, or disassociate on the market. The federal Securities and Exchange Act of 1934, requires minimum standards on the process of voting, particularly in a "proxy contest '' where competing groups attempt to persuade shareholders to delegate them their "proxy '' vote. Shareholders also often have rights to amend the corporate constitution, call meetings, make business proposals, and have a voice on major decisions, although these can be significantly constrained by the board. Employees of US corporations have often had a voice in corporate management, either indirectly, or sometimes directly, though unlike in many major economies, express "codetermination '' laws that allow participation in management have so far been rare.
In principle, a corporation 's constitution can be designed in any way so long as it complies with the compulsory rules set down by the state or federal legislature. Most state laws, and the federal government, give a broad freedom to corporations to design the relative rights of directors, shareholders, employees and other stakeholders in the articles of incorporation and the by - laws. These are written down during incorporation, and can usually be amended afterwards according to the state law 's procedures, which sometimes place obstacles to amendment by a simple majority of shareholders. In the early 1819 case of Trustees of Dartmouth College v Woodward the US Supreme Court held by a majority that there was a presumption that once a corporate charter was made, the corporation 's constitution was subject to "no other control on the part of the Crown than what is expressly or implicitly reserved by the charter itself. '' On the facts, this meant that because Dartmouth College 's charter could not be amended by the New Hampshire legislature, though subsequent state corporation laws subsequently included provisions saying that this could be done. Today there is a general presumption that whatever balance of powers, rights and duties are set down in the constitution remain binding like a contract would. Most corporation statutes start with a presumption (in contrast to old ultra vires rules) that corporations may pursue any purpose that is lawful, whether that is running a profitable business, delivering services to the community, or any other objects that people involved in a corporation may choose. By default, the common law had historically suggested that all decisions are to be taken by a majority of the incorporators, and that by default the board could be removed by a majority of shareholders for a reason they themselves determined. However these default rules will take subject to the constitution that incorporators themselves define, which in turn take subject to state law and federal regulation.
Although it is possible to structure corporations differently, the two basic organs in a corporate constitution will invariably be the general meeting of its members (usually shareholders) and the board of directors. Boards of directors themselves have been subject in modern regulation to a growing number of requirements regarding their composition, particularly in federal law for public corporations. Particularly after the Enron scandal, companies listed on the major stock exchanges (the New York Stock Exchange, the NASDAQ, and AMEX) were required to adopt minimum standards on the number of independent directors, and their functions. These rules are enforced through the threat of delisting by the exchange, while the Securities and Exchange Commission works to ensure ultimate oversight. For example, the NYSE Listed Company Manual Rule 303A. 01 requires that listed companies have a majority of "independent '' directors. "Independence '' is in turn defined by Rule 303A. 02 as an absence of material business relationship with the corporation, not having worked for the last three years for the corporation as an employee, not receiving over $120,000 in pay, or generally having family members who are. The idea here is that "independent '' directors will exercise superior oversight of the executive board members, and thus decrease the likelihood of abuse of power. Specifically, the nominations committee (which makes future board appointments), compensation committee (which sets director pay), and audit committee (which appoints the auditors), are required to be composed of independent directors, as defined by the Rules. Similar requirements for boards have proliferated across many countries, and so exchange rules allow foreign corporations that are listed on an American exchange to follow their home jurisdiction 's rules, but to disclose and explain how their practices differ (if at all) to the market. The difficulty, however, is that oversight of executive directors by independent directors still leaves the possibility of personal relationships that develop into a conflict of interest. This raises the importance of the rights that can be exercised against the board as a whole.
While the board of directors is generally conferred the power to manage the day - to - day affairs of a corporation, either by the statute, or by the articles of incorporation, this is always subject to limits, including the rights that shareholders have. For example, the Delaware General Corporation Law § 141 (a) says the "business and affairs of every corporation... shall be managed by or under the direction of a board of directors, except as may be otherwise provided in this chapter or in its certificate of incorporation. '' However, directors themselves are ultimately accountable to the general meeting through the vote. Invariably, shareholders hold the voting rights, though the extent to which these are useful can be conditioned by the constitution. The DGCL § 141 (k) gives an option to corporations to have a unitary board that can be removed by a majority of members "without cause '' (i.e. a reason determined by the general meeting and not by a court), which reflects the old default common law position. However, Delaware corporations may also opt for a classified board of directors (e.g. where only a third of directors come up for election each year) where directors can only be removed "with cause '' scrutinized by the courts. More corporations have classified boards after initial public offerings than a few years after going public, because institutional investors typically seek to change the corporation 's rules to make directors more accountable. In principle, shareholders in Delaware corporations can make appointments to the board through a majority vote, and can also act to expand the size of the board and elect new directors with a majority. However, directors themselves will often control which candidates can be nominated to be appointed to the board. Under the Dodd - Frank Act of 2010, § 971 empowered the Securities and Exchange Commission to write a new SEC Rule 14a - 11 that would allow shareholders to propose nominations for board candidates. The Act required the SEC to evaluate the economic effects of any rules it wrote, however when it did, the Business Roundtable challenged this in court. In Business Roundtable v SEC, Ginsburg J in the DC Circuit Court of Appeals went as far to say that the SEC had "acted arbitrarily and capriciously '' in its rule making. After this, the Securities and Exchange Commission failed to challenge the decision, and abandoned drafting new rules. This means that in many corporations, directors continue to have a monopoly on nominating future directors.
Apart from elections of directors, shareholders ' entitlements to vote have been significantly protected by federal regulation, either through stock exchanges or the Securities and Exchange Commission. Beginning in 1927, the New York Stock Exchange maintained a "one share, one vote '' policy, which was backed by the Securities and Exchange Commission from 1940. This was thought to be necessary to halt corporations issuing non-voting shares, except to banks and other influential corporate insiders. However, in 1986, under competitive pressure from NASDAQ and AMEX, the NYSE sought to abandon the rule, and the SEC quickly drafted a new Rule 19c - 4, requiring the one share, one vote principle. In Business Roundtable v SEC the DC Circuit Court of Appeals struck the rule down, though the exchanges and the SEC subsequently made an agreement to regulate shareholder voting rights "proportionately ''. Today, many corporations have unequal shareholder voting rights, up to a limit of ten votes per share. Stronger rights exist regarding shareholders ability to delegate their votes to nominees, or doing "proxy voting '' under the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934. Its provisions were introduced to combat the accumulation of power by directors or management friendly voting trusts after the Wall Street Crash. Under SEC Rule 14a - 1, proxy votes can not be solicited except under the its rules. Generally, one person soliciting others ' proxy votes requires disclosure, although SEC Rule 14a - 2 was amended in 1992 to allow shareholders to be exempt from filing requirements when simply communicating with one another, and therefore to take collective action against a board of directors more easily. SEC Rule 14a - 9 prohibits any false or misleading statements being made in soliciting proxies. This all matters in a proxy contest, or whenever shareholders wish to change the board or another element of corporate policy. Generally speaking, and especially under Delaware law, this remains difficult. Shareholders often have no rights to call meetings unless the constitution allows, and in any case the conduct of meetings is often controlled by directors under a corporation 's by - laws. However, under SEC Rule 14a - 8, shareholders have a right to put forward proposals, but on a limited number of topics (and not director elections).
On a number of issues that are seen as very significant, or where directors have incurable conflicts of interest, many states and federal legislation give shareholders specific rights to veto or approve business decisions. Generally state laws give the right for shareholders to vote on decision by the corporation to sell off "all or substantially all assets '' of the corporation. However fewer states give rights to shareholder to veto political contributions made by the board, unless this is in the articles of incorporation. One of the most contentious issues is the right for shareholders to have a "say on pay '' of directors. As executive pay has grown beyond inflation, while average worker wages remained stagnant, this was seen important enough to regulate in the Dodd - Frank Act of 2010 § 951. This provision, however, simply introduced a non-binding vote for shareholders, though better rights can always be introduced in the articles of incorporation. While some institutional shareholders, particularly pension funds, have been active in using shareholder rights, asset managers regulated by the Investment Advisers Act of 1940 have tended to be mute in opposing corporate boards, as they are often themselves disconnected from the people whose money they are voting upon.
Most state corporate laws require shareholders have governance rights against boards of directors, but fewer states guarantee governance rights to the real investors of capital. Currently investment managers control most voting rights in the economy using "other people 's money ''. Investment management firms, such as Vanguard, Fidelity, Morgan Stanley or BlackRock, are often delegated the task of trading fund assets from three main types of institutional investors: pension funds, life insurance companies, and mutual funds. These are usually substitutes to save for retirement. Pensions are most important kind, but can be organized through different legal forms. Investment managers, who are subject to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, are then often delegated the task of investment management. Over time, investment managers have also vote on corporate shares, assisted by a "proxy advice '' firm such as ISS or Glass Lewis. Under ERISA 1974 § 1102 (a), a plan must merely have named fiduciaries who have "authority to control and manage the operation and administration of the plan '', selected by "an employer or employee organization '' or both jointly. Usually these fiduciaries or trustees, will delegate management to a professional firm, particularly because under § 1105 (d), if they do so, they will not be liable for an investment manager 's breaches of duty. These investment managers buy a range of assets (e.g. government bonds, corporate bonds, commodities, real estate or derivatives) but particularly corporate stocks which have voting rights.
The largest form of retirement fund has become the 401 (k) defined contribution scheme. This is often an individual account that an employer sets up, named after the Internal Revenue Code § 401 (k), which allows employers and employees to defer tax on money that is saved in the fund until an employee retires. The individual invariably loses any voice over how shareholder voting rights that their money buys will be exercised. Investment management firms, that are regulated by the Investment Company Act of 1940, the Investment Advisers Act of 1940 and ERISA 1974, will almost always take shareholder voting rights. By contrast, larger and collective pension funds, many still defined benefit schemes such as CalPERS or TIAA, organize to take voting in house, or to instruct their investment managers. Two main types of pension fund to do this are labor union organized Taft - Hartley plans, and state public pension plans. A major example of a mixture is TIAA, established on the initiative of Andrew Carnegie in 1918, which requires participants to have voting rights for the plan trustees. Under the amended National Labor Relations Act of 1935 § 302 (c) (5) (B) a union organized plan has to be jointly managed by representatives of employers and employees. Many local pension funds are not consolidated and have had critical funding notices from the Department of Labor. But more funds with beneficiary representation ensure that corporate voting rights are cast according to the preferences of their members. State public pensions are often larger, and have greater bargaining power to use on their members ' behalf. State pension schemes usually disclose the way trustees are selected. In 2005, on average more than a third of trustees were elected by employees or beneficiaries. For example, the California Government Code § 20090 requires that its public employee pension fund, CalPERS has 13 members on its board, 6 elected by employees and beneficiaries. However, only pension funds of sufficient size have acted to replace investment manager voting. No federal law requires voting rights for employees in pension funds, despite several proposals. For example, the Joint Trusteeship Bill of 1989, sponsored by Peter Visclosky in the US House of Representatives, would have required all single employer pension plans to have trustees appointed equally by employers and employee representatives. There is also currently no legislation to stop investment managers voting with other people 's money, in the way that the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 § 78f (b) (10) bans broker - dealers voting on significant issues without instructions.
Louis Brandeis, Testimony to Commission on Industrial Relations (1916) vol 8, 7659 -- 7660
While investment managers tend to exercise most voting rights in corporations, bought with pension, life insurance and mutual fund money, employees also exercise voice through collective bargaining rules in labor law. Increasingly, corporate law has converged with labor law. The United States is in a minority of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countries that, as yet, has no law requiring employee voting rights in corporations, either in the general meeting or for representatives on the board of directors. On the other hand, the United States has the oldest voluntary codetermination statute for private corporations, in Massachusetts since 1919 passed under the Republican governor Calvin Coolidge, enabling manufacturing companies to have employee representatives on the board of directors, if corporate stockholders agreed. Also in 1919 both Procter & Gamble and the General Ice Delivery Company of Detroit had employee representation on boards. In the early 20th century, labor law theory split between those who advocated collective bargaining backed by strike action, those who advocated a greater role for binding arbitration, and proponents codetermination as "industrial democracy ''. Today, these methods are seen as complements, not alternatives. A majority of countries in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development have laws requiring direct participation rights. In 1994, the Dunlop Commission on the Future of Worker - Management Relations: Final Report examined law reform to improve collective labor relations, and suggested minor amendments to encourage worker involvement. Congressional division prevented federal reform, but labor unions and state legislatures have experimented.
Corporations are chartered under state law, the larger mostly in Delaware, but leave investors free to organize voting rights and board representation as they choose. Because of unequal bargaining power, but also historic caution of labor unions, shareholders monopolize voting rights in American corporations. From the 1970s employees and unions sought representation on company boards. This could happen through collective agreements, as it historically occurred in Germany or other countries, or through employees demanding further representation through employee stock ownership plans, but they aimed for voice independent from capital risks that could not be diversified. Corporations included where workers attempted to secure board represented included United Airlines, the General Tire and Rubber Company, and the Providence and Worcester Railroad. However, in 1974 the Securities and Exchange Commission, run by appointees of Richard Nixon, rejected that employees who held shares in AT&T were entitled to make proposals to include employee representatives on the board of directors. This position was eventually reversed expressly by the Dodd - Frank Act of 2010 § 971, which subject to rules by the Securities and Exchange Commission entitles shareholders to put forward nominations for the board. Instead of pursuing board seats through shareholder resolutions, for example, the United Auto Workers successfully sought board representation by collective agreement at Chrysler in 1980, and the United Steel Workers secured board representation in five corporations in 1993. However, it was clear that employee stock ownership plans were open to abuse, particularly after Enron collapsed in 2003. Workers had been enticed to invest an average of 62.5 per cent of their retirement savings from 401 (k) plans in Enron stock, against basic principles of prudent, diversified investment, and had no board representation. This meant, employees lost a majority of pension savings. For this reason, employees and unions have sought representation simply for investment of labor, without taking on undiversifiable capital risk. Empirical research suggests by 1999 there were at least 35 major employee representation plans with worker directors, though often linked to corporate stock.
While corporate constitutions typically set out the balance of power between directors, shareholders, employees and other stakeholders, additional duties are owed by members of the board to the corporation as a whole. First, rules can restrain or empower the directors in whose favor they exercise their discretion. While older corporate law judgments suggested directors had to promote "shareholder value '', most modern state laws empower directors to exercise their own "business judgment '' in the way they balance the claims of shareholders, employees, and other stakeholders. Second, all state laws follow the historical pattern of fiduciary duties to require that directors avoid conflicts of interest between their own pursuit of profit, and the interests of the corporation. The exact standard, however, may be more or less strict. Third, many states require some kind of basic duty of care in performance of a director 's tasks, just as minimum standards of care apply in any contract for services. However, Delaware has increasingly abandoned substantive objective duties, as it reinterpreted the content of the duty of care, allows liability waivers.
Most corporate laws empower directors, as part of their management functions, to determine which strategies will promote a corporation 's success in the interests of all stakeholders. Directors will periodically decide whether and how much of a corporation 's revenue should be shared among directors ' own pay, the pay for employees (e.g. whether to increase or not next financial year), the dividends or other returns to shareholders, whether to lower or raise prices for consumers, whether to retain and reinvest earnings in the business, or whether to make charitable and other donations. Most states have enacted "constituency statutes '', which state expressly that directors are empowered to balance the interests of all stakeholders in the way that their conscience, or good faith decisions would dictate. This discretion typically applies when making a decision about the distribution of corporate resources among different groups, or in whether to defend against a takeover bid. For example, in Shlensky v Wrigley the president of the Chicago Cubs baseball team was sued by stockholders for allegedly failing to pursue the objective of shareholder profit maximization. The president had decided the corporation would not install flood lights over the baseball ground that would have allowed games could take place at night, because he wished to ensure baseball games were accessible for families, before children 's bed time. The Illinois court held that this decision was sound because even though it could have made more money, the director was entitled to regard the interests of the community as more important. Following a similar logic in AP Smith Manufacturing Co v Barlow a New Jersey court held that the directors were entitled to make a charitable donation to Princeton University on the basis because there was "no suggestion that it was made indiscriminately or to a pet charity of the corporate directors in furtherance of personal rather than corporate ends. '' So long as the directors could not be said to have conflicting interests, their actions would be sustained.
Delaware 's law has also followed the same general logic, even though it has no specific constituency or stakeholder statute. The standard is, however, contested largely among business circles which favor a view that directors should act in the sole interests of shareholder value. Judicial support for this aim is typically found in a case from Michigan in 1919, called Dodge v Ford Motor Company. Here, the Ford Motor Company president Henry Ford had publicly announced that he wished not merely to maximize shareholder returns but to raise employee wages, decrease the price of cars for consumers, because he wished, as he put it, "to spread the benefits of this industrial system to the greatest possible number ''. A group of shareholders sued, and the Michigan Supreme Court said in an obiter dictum that a "business corporation is organized and carried on primarily for the profit of the stockholders. The powers of the directors are to be employed for that end. '' However, in the case itself a damages claim against Ford did not succeed, and since then Michigan law has been changed. The US Supreme Court has also made it clear in Burwell v Hobby Lobby Stores Inc that shareholder value is not a default or overriding aim of corporate law, unless a corporation 's rules expressly opt to define such an objective. In practice, many corporations do operate for the benefit of shareholders, but this is less because of duties, and more because shareholders typically exercise a monopoly on the control rights over electing the board. This assumes, however, that directors do not merely use their office to further their own personal goals over the interests of shareholders, employees, and other stakeholders.
Since the earliest corporations were formed, courts have imposed minimum standards to prevent directors using their office to pursue their own interests over the interests of the corporation. Directors can have no conflict of interest. In trusts law, this core fiduciary duty was formulated after the collapse of the South Sea Company in 1719 in the United Kingdom. Keech v Sandford held that people in fiduciary positions had to avoid any possibility of a conflict of interest, and this rule "should be strictly pursued ''. It was later held that no inquiry should be made into transactions where the fiduciary was interested in both sides of the deal. These principles of equity were received into the law of the United States, and in a modern formulation Cardozo J said in Meinhard v Salmon that the law required "the punctilio of an honor the most sensitive... at a level higher than that trodden by the crowd. ''
The standards applicable to directors, however, began to depart significantly from traditional principles of equity that required "no possibility '' of conflict regarding corporate opportunities, and "no inquiry '' into the actual terms of transactions if tainted by self - dealing. In a Delaware decision from 1939, Guth v Loft Inc, it was held that Charles Guth, the president of a drink manufacturer named Loft Inc., had breached his duty to avoid conflicts of interest by purchasing the Pepsi company and its syrup recipe in his own name, rather than offering it to Loft Inc. However, although the duty was breached, the Delaware Supreme Court held that the court will look at the particular circumstances, and will not regard a conflict as existing if the company it lacked finances to take the opportunity, if it is not in the same line of business, or did not have an "interest or reasonable expectancy ''. More recently, in Broz v Cellular Information Systems Inc, it was held that a non-executive director of CIS Inc, a man named Mr Broz, had not breached his duty when he bought telecommunications licenses for the Michigan area for his own company, RFB Cellular Inc... CIS Inc had been shedding licenses at the time, and so Broz alleged that he thought there was no need to inquire whether CIS Inc would be interested. CIS Inc was then taken over, and the new owners pushed for the claim to be brought. The Delaware Supreme Court held that because CIS Inc had not been financially capable at the time to buy licenses, and so there was no actual conflict of interest. In order to be sure, or at least avoid litigation, the Delaware General Corporation Law § 144 provides that directors can not be liable, and a transaction can not be voidable if it was (1) approved by disinterested directors after full disclosure (2) approved by shareholders after disclosure, or (3) approved by a court as fair.
Corporate officers and directors may pursue business transactions that benefit themselves as long as they can prove the transaction, although self - interested, was nevertheless intrinsically "fair '' to the corporation.
The duty of care that is owed by all people performing services for others is, in principle, also applicable to directors of corporations. Generally speaking, the duty of care requires an objective standard of diligence and skill when people perform services, which could be expected from a reasonable person in a similar position (e.g. auditors must act "with the care and caution proper to their calling '', and builders must perform their work in line with "industry standards ''). In a 1742 decision of the English Court of Chancery, The Charitable Corporation v Sutton, the directors of the Charitable Corporation, which gave out small loans to the needy, were held liable for failing to keep procedures in place that would have prevented three officers defrauding the corporation of a vast sum of money. Lord Hardwicke, noting that a director 's office was of a "mixed nature '', partly "of the nature of a public office '' and partly like "agents '' employed in "trust '', held that the directors were liable. Though they were not to be judged with hindsight, Lord Hardwicke said he could "never determine that frauds of this kind are out of the reach of courts of law or equity, for an intolerable grievance would follow from such a determination. '' Many states have similarly maintained an objective baseline duty of care for corporate directors, while acknowledging different levels of care can be expected from directors of small or large corporations, and from directors with executive or non-executive roles on the board. However, in Delaware, as in a number of other states, the existence of a duty of care has become increasingly uncertain.
In 1985, the Delaware Supreme Court passed one of its most debated judgments, Smith v Van Gorkom. The directors of TransUnion, including Jerome W. Van Gorkom, were sued by the shareholders for failing to adequately research the corporation 's value, before approving a sale price of $55 per share to the Marmon Group. The Court held that to be a protected business judgment, "the directors of a corporation (must have) acted on an informed basis, in good faith and in the honest belief that the action taken was in the best interests of the company. '' Failing to act on an informed basis, if it caused loss, would amount to gross negligence, and here the directors were liable. The decision triggered a panic among corporate boards which believed they would be exposed to massive liability, and insurance firms who feared rising costs of providing directors and officers liability insurance to corporate boards. In response to lobbying, the Delaware General Corporation Law was amended to insert a new § 102 (b) (7). This allowed corporations to give directors immunity from liability for breach of the duty of care in their charter. However, for those corporations which did not introduce liability waivers, the courts subsequently proceeded to reduce the duty of care outright. In 1996, In re Caremark International Inc. Derivative Litigation required "an utter failure to attempt to assure a reasonable information and reporting system exists '', and in 2003 In re Walt Disney Derivative Litigation went further. Chancellor Chandler held directors could only be liable for showing "reckless indifference to or a deliberate disregard of the whole body of stockholders '' through actions that are "without the bounds of reason ''. In one of the cases that came out of the Global Financial Crisis, the same line of reasoning was deployed in In re Citigroup Inc Shareholder Derivative Litigation. Chancellor Chandler, confirming his previous opinions in Re Walt Disney and the dicta of Re Caremark, held that the directors of Citigroup could not be liable for failing to have a warning system in place to guard against potential losses from sub-prime mortgage debt. Although there had been several indications of the significant risks, and Citigroup 's practices along with its competitors were argued to have contributed to crashing the international economy, Chancellor Chandler held that "plaintiffs would ultimately have to prove bad faith conduct by the director defendants ''. This suggested that Delaware law had effectively negated any substantive duty of care. This suggested that corporate directors were exempt from duties that any other professional performing services would owe. It remained unclear, with a change in the Chief Justice of the Delaware Supreme Court in 2014, whether this position would remain.
Because directors owe their duties to the corporation and not, as a general rule, to specific shareholders or stakeholders, the right to sue for breaches of directors duty rests by default with the corporation itself. The corporation is necessarily party to the suit. This creates a difficulty because almost always, the right to litigate falls under the general powers of directors to manage the corporation day to day (e.g. Delaware General Corporation Law § 141 (a)). Often, cases arise (such as in Broz v Cellular Information Systems Inc) where an action is brought against a director because the corporation has been taken over and a new, non-friendly board is in place, or because the board has been replaced after bankruptcy. Otherwise, there is a possibility of a conflict of interest because directors will be reluctant to sue their colleagues, particularly when they develop personal ties. The law has sought to define further cases where groups other than directors can sue for breaches of duty. First, many jurisdictions outside the US allow a specific percentage of shareholders to bring a claim as of right (e.g. 1 per cent). This solution may still entail significant collective action problems where shareholders are dispersed, like the US. Second, some jurisdictions give standing to sue to non-shareholder groups, particularly creditors, whose collective action problems are less. Otherwise, third, the main alternative is that any individual shareholder may "derive '' a claim on the corporation 's behalf to sue for breach of duty, but such a derivative suit will be subject to permission from the court.
The risk of allowing individual shareholders to bring derivative suits is usually thought to be that it could encourage costly, distracting litigation, or "strike suits '' -- or simply that litigation (even if the director is guilty of a breach of duty) could be seen as counterproductive by a majority of shareholders or stakeholders who have no conflicts of interest. Accordingly, it is generally thought that oversight by the court is justified to ensure derivative suits match the corporation 's interests as a whole because courts may be more independent. However, especially from the 1970s some states, and especially Delaware, began also to require that the board have a role. Most common law jurisdictions have abandoned role for the board in derivative claims, and in most US states before the 1980s, the board 's role was no more than a formality. But then, a formal role for the board was reintroduced. In the procedure to bring a derivative suit, the first step is often that the shareholder had to make a "demand '' on the board to bring a claim. Although it might appear strange to ask a group of directors who will be sued, or whose colleagues are being sued, for permission, Delaware courts took the view that the decision to litigate ought by default to lie within the legitimate scope of directors ' business judgment. For example, in Aronson v Lewis a shareholder of the Meyers Parking System Inc claimed that the board had improperly wasted corporate assets by giving its 75 - year - old director, Mr Fink, a large salary and bonus for consultancy work even though the contract did not require performance of any work. Mr Fink had also personally selected all of the directors. Nevertheless, Moore J. held for the Delaware Supreme Court that there was still a requirement to make a demand on the board before a derivative suit could be brought. There was "a presumption that in making a business decision, the directors of a corporation acted on an informed basis in good faith and in the honest belief that the action was taken in the best interests of the company '', even if they owed their jobs to the person being sued. A requirement to make a demand on the board will, however, be excused if it is shown that it would be entirely "futile '', primarily because a majority of the board is alleged to have breached its duty. Otherwise it must be shown that all board members are in some very strong sense conflicted, but merely working with the accused directors, and the personal ties this potentially creates, is insufficient for some courts. This indicated a significant and controversial change in Delaware 's judicial policy, that prevented claims against boards.
In some cases corporate boards attempted to establish "independent litigation committees '' to evaluate whether a shareholder 's demand to bring a suit was justified. This strategy was used to pre-empt criticism that the board was conflicted. The directors would appoint the members of the "independent committee '', which would then typically deliberate and come to the conclusion that there was no good cause for bringing litigation. In Zapata Corp v Maldonado the Delaware Supreme Court held that if the committee acted in good faith and showed reasonable grounds for its conclusion, and the court could be "satisfied (about) other reasons relating to the process '', the committee 's decision to not allow a claim could not be overturned. Applying Connecticut law, the Second Circuit Federal Court of Appeals held in Joy v North that the court could substitute its judgment for the decisions of a supposedly independent committee, and the board, on the ground that there was scope for conflicting interests. Then, the substantive merits for bringing the derivative claim would be assessed. Winter J held overall that shareholders would have the burden "to demonstrate that the action is more likely than not to be against the interests of the corporation ''. This would entail a cost benefit analysis. On the benefit side would be "the likely recoverable damages discounted by the probability of a finding of liability '', and the costs side would include "attorney 's fees and other out - of - pocket expenses '', "time spent by corporate personnel '', "the impact of distraction of key personnel '', and potential lost profits which may result from the publicity of a trial. '' If it is thought that the costs exceed the benefits, then the shareholders acquire the right to sue on the corporation 's behalf. A substantive hearing on the merits about the alleged breach of director 's duty may be heard. The tendency in Delaware, however, has remained to allow the board to play a role in restricting litigation, and therefore minimize the chances that it could be held accountable for basic breaches of duty.
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lucifer how many episodes are in season 3 | List of Lucifer episodes - wikipedia
Lucifer is an American fantasy police procedural comedy - drama television series developed by Tom Kapinos that premiered on Fox on January 25, 2016. It features a character created by Neil Gaiman, Sam Kieth, and Mike Dringenberg taken from the comic book series The Sandman, which later became the protagonist of the spin - off comic book series Lucifer written by Mike Carey, both published by DC Comics ' Vertigo imprint.
On May 11, 2018, Fox canceled the series after three seasons. During the course of the series, 57 episodes of Lucifer aired over three seasons.
Two further episodes were originally produced for the third season, but were later broadcast separate from it.
Before the series was cancelled, co-showrunner Ildy Modrovich stated that two episodes produced for the third season were set to be moved to a potential fourth season. Both episodes were broadcast on Fox on May 28, 2018 as a singular two - hour bonus episode; the two episodes aired separately on the Australian cable network Foxtel, with the first episode airing first on May 23.
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capacity of aframax ultra large crude carrier in tons | Oil tanker - wikipedia
Handysize, Panamax, Aframax, Suezmax, Very large crude carrier (VLCC),
An oil tanker, also known as a petroleum tanker, is a ship designed for the bulk transport of oil or its products. There are two basic types of oil tankers: crude tankers and product tankers. Crude tankers move large quantities of unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to refineries. For example, moving crude oil from oil wells in Nigeria to the refineries on the coast of the United States. Product tankers, generally much smaller, are designed to move refined products from refineries to points near consuming markets. For example, moving gasoline from refineries in Europe to consumer markets in Nigeria and other West African nations.
Oil tankers are often classified by their size as well as their occupation. The size classes range from inland or coastal tankers of a few thousand metric tons of deadweight (DWT) to the mammoth ultra large crude carriers (ULCCs) of 550,000 DWT. Tankers move approximately 2,000,000,000 metric tons (2 × 10 short tons) of oil every year. Second only to pipelines in terms of efficiency, the average cost of oil transport by tanker amounts to only two or three United States cents per 1 US gallon (3.8 L).
Some specialized types of oil tankers have evolved. One of these is the naval replenishment oiler, a tanker which can fuel a moving vessel. Combination ore - bulk - oil carriers and permanently moored floating storage units are two other variations on the standard oil tanker design. Oil tankers have been involved in a number of damaging and high - profile oil spills. As a result, they are subject to stringent design and operational regulations.
The technology of oil transportation has evolved alongside the oil industry. Although human use of oil reaches to prehistory, the first modern commercial exploitation dates back to James Young 's manufacture of paraffin in 1850. In the early 1850s, oil began to be exported from Upper Burma, then a British colony. The oil was moved in earthenware vessels to the river bank where it was then poured into boat holds for transportation to Britain.
In the 1860s, Pennsylvania oil fields became a major supplier of oil, and a center of innovation after Edwin Drake had struck oil near Titusville, Pennsylvania. Break - bulk boats and barges were originally used to transport Pennsylvania oil in 40 - US - gallon (150 l) wooden barrels. But transport by barrel had several problems. The first problem was weight: they weighed 64 pounds (29 kg), representing 20 % of the total weight of a full barrel. Other problems with barrels were their expense, their tendency to leak, and the fact that they were generally used only once. The expense was significant: for example, in the early years of the Russian oil industry, barrels accounted for half the cost of petroleum production.
In 1863, two sail - driven tankers were built on England 's River Tyne. These were followed in 1873 by the first oil - tank steamer, Vaderland, which was built by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company for Belgian owners. The vessel 's use was curtailed by U.S. and Belgian authorities citing safety concerns. By 1871, the Pennsylvania oil fields were making limited use of oil tank barges and cylindrical railroad tank - cars similar to those in use today.
The modern oil tanker was developed in the period from 1877 to 1885. In 1876, Ludvig and Robert Nobel, brothers of Alfred Nobel, founded Branobel (short for Brothers Nobel) in Baku, Azerbaijan. It was, during the late 19th century, one of the largest oil companies in the world.
Ludvig was a pioneer in the development of early oil tankers. He first experimented with carrying oil in bulk on single - hulled barges. Turning his attention to self - propelled tankships, he faced a number of challenges. A primary concern was to keep the cargo and fumes well away from the engine room to avoid fires. Other challenges included allowing for the cargo to expand and contract due to temperature changes, and providing a method to ventilate the tanks.
The first successful oil tanker was Zoroaster, which carried its 242 long tons of kerosene cargo in two iron tanks joined by pipes. One tank was forward of the midships engine room and the other was aft. The ship also featured a set of 21 vertical watertight compartments for extra buoyancy. The ship had a length overall of 184 feet (56 m), a beam of 27 feet (8.2 m), and a draft of 9 feet (2.7 m). Unlike later Nobel tankers, the Zoroaster design was built small enough to sail from Sweden to the Caspian by way of the Baltic Sea, Lake Ladoga, Lake Onega, the Rybinsk and Mariinsk Canals and the Volga River.
In 1883, oil tanker design took a large step forward. Working for the Nobel company, British engineer Colonel Henry F. Swan designed a set of three Nobel tankers. Instead of one or two large holds, Swan 's design used several holds which spanned the width, or beam, of the ship. These holds were further subdivided into port and starboard sections by a longitudinal bulkhead. Earlier designs suffered from stability problems caused by the free surface effect, where oil sloshing from side to side could cause a ship to capsize. But this approach of dividing the ship 's storage space into smaller tanks virtually eliminated free - surface problems. This approach, almost universal today, was first used by Swan in the Nobel tankers Blesk, Lumen, and Lux.
Others point to Glückauf, another design of Colonel Swan, as being the first modern oil tanker. It adopted the best practices from previous oil tanker designs to create the prototype for all subsequent vessels of the type. It was the first dedicated steam - driven ocean - going tanker in the world and was the first ship in which oil could be pumped directly into the vessel hull instead of being loaded in barrels or drums. It was also the first tanker with a horizontal bulkhead; its features included cargo valves operable from the deck, cargo main piping, a vapor line, cofferdams for added safety, and the ability to fill a ballast tank with seawater when empty of cargo. The ship was built in Britain. and was purchased by Wilhelm Anton Riedemann, an agent for the Standard Oil Company along with several of her sister ships. After Glückauf was lost in 1893 after being grounded in fog, Standard Oil purchased the sister ships.
The 1880s also saw the beginnings of the Asian oil trade. The idea that led to moving Russian oil to the Far East via the Suez Canal was the brainchild of two men: importer Marcus Samuel and shipowner / broker Fred Lane. Prior bids to move oil through the canal had been rejected by the Suez Canal Company as being too risky. Samuel approached the problem a different way: asking the company for the specifications of a tanker it would allow through the canal.
Armed with the canal company 's specifications, Samuel ordered three tankers from William Gray & Company in northern England. Named Murex, Conch and Clam, each had a capacity of 5,010 long tons of deadweight. These three ships were the first tankers of the Tank Syndicate, forerunner of today 's Royal Dutch Shell company.
With facilities prepared in Jakarta, Singapore, Bangkok, Saigon, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Kobe, the fledgling Shell company was ready to become Standard Oil 's first challenger in the Asian market. On August 24, 1892, Murex became the first tanker to pass through the Suez Canal. By the time Shell merged with Royal Dutch Petroleum in 1907, the company had 34 steam - driven oil tankers, compared to Standard Oil 's four case - oil steamers and 16 sailing tankers.
Until 1956, tankers were designed to be able to navigate the Suez Canal. This size restriction became much less of a priority after the closing of the canal during the Suez Crisis of 1956. Forced to move oil around the Cape of Good Hope, shipowners realized that bigger tankers were the key to more efficient transport. While a typical T2 tanker of the World War II era was 532 feet (162 m) long and had a capacity of 16,500 DWT, the ultra-large crude carriers (ULCC) built in the 1970s were over 1,300 feet (400 m) long and had a capacity of 500,000 DWT. Several factors encouraged this growth. Hostilities in the Middle East which interrupted traffic through the Suez Canal contributed, as did nationalization of Middle East oil refineries. Fierce competition among shipowners also played a part. But apart from these considerations is a simple economic advantage: the larger an oil tanker is, the more cheaply it can move crude oil, and the better it can help meet growing demands for oil.
In 1955 the world 's largest supertanker was 30,708 GRT and 47,500 LT DWT: SS Spyros Niarchos launched that year by Vickers Armstrongs Shipbuilders Ltd in England for Stavros Niarchos.
In 1958 United States shipping magnate Daniel K. Ludwig broke the record of 100,000 long tons of heavy displacement. His Universe Apollo displaced 104,500 long tons, a 23 % increase from the previous record - holder, Universe Leader which also belonged to Ludwig.
The world 's largest supertanker was built in 1979 at the Oppama shipyard by Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd., named Seawise Giant. This ship was built with a capacity of 564,763 DWT, a length overall of 458.45 metres (1,504.1 ft) and a draft of 24.611 metres (80.74 ft). She had 46 tanks, 31,541 square metres (339,500 sq ft) of deck, and at her full load draft, could not navigate the English Channel.
Seawise Giant was renamed Happy Giant in 1989, Jahre Viking in 1991, and Knock Nevis in 2004 (when she was converted into a permanently moored storage tanker). In 2009 she was sold for the last time, renamed Mont, and scrapped.
As of 2011, the world 's two largest working supertankers are the TI - class supertankers TI Europe and TI Oceania. These ships were built in 2002 and 2003 as Hellespont Alhambra and Hellespont Tara for the Greek Hellespont Steamship Corporation. Hellespont sold these ships to Overseas Shipholding Group and Euronav in 2004. Each of the sister ships has a capacity of over 441,500 DWT, a length overall of 380.0 metres (1,246.7 ft) and a cargo capacity of 3,166,353 barrels (503,409,900 l). They were the first ULCCs to be double - hulled. To differentiate them from smaller ULCCs, these ships are sometimes given the V - Plus size designation.
With the exception of the pipeline, the tanker is the most cost - effective way to move oil today. Worldwide, tankers carry some 2 billion barrels (3.2 × 10 l) annually, and the cost of transportation by tanker amounts to only US $0.02 per gallon at the pump.
In 1954 Shell Oil developed the average freight rate assessment (AFRA) system which classifies tankers of different sizes. To make it an independent instrument, Shell consulted the London Tanker Brokers ' Panel (LTBP). At first, they divided the groups as General Purpose for tankers under 25,000 tons deadweight (DWT); Medium Range for ships between 25,000 and 45,000 DWT and Large Range for the then - enormous ships that were larger than 45,000 DWT. The ships became larger during the 1970s, which prompted rescaling.
The system was developed for tax reasons as the tax authorities wanted evidence that the internal billing records were correct. Before the New York Mercantile Exchange started trading crude oil futures in 1983, it was difficult to determine the exact price of oil, which could change with every contract. Shell and BP, the first companies to use the system, abandoned the AFRA system in 1983, later followed by the US oil companies. However, the system is still used today. Besides that, there is the flexible market scale, which takes typical routes and lots of 500,000 barrels (79,000 m).
Merchant oil tankers carry a wide range of hydrocarbon liquids ranging from crude oil to refined petroleum products. Their size is measured in deadweight metric tons (DWT). Crude carriers are among the largest, ranging from 55,000 DWT Panamax - sized vessels to ultra-large crude carriers (ULCCs) of over 440,000 DWT.
Smaller tankers, ranging from well under 10,000 DWT to 80,000 DWT Panamax vessels, generally carry refined petroleum products, and are known as product tankers. The smallest tankers, with capacities under 10,000 DWT generally work near - coastal and inland waterways. Although they were in the past, ships of the smaller Aframax and Suezmax classes are no longer regarded as supertankers.
"Supertankers '' are the largest tankers, and the largest man - made mobile structures. They include very large crude carriers (VLCC) and ULCCs with capacities over 250,000 DWT. These ships can transport 2,000,000 barrels (320,000 m) of oil / 318,000 metric tons. By way of comparison, the United Kingdom consumed about 1.6 million barrels (250,000 m) of oil per day in 2009. ULCCs, commissioned in the 1970s, were the largest vessels ever built, but the longest ones have already been scrapped. By 2013 only a few ULCCs remain in service, none of which are more than 400 meters long.
Because of their great size, supertankers often can not enter port fully loaded. These ships can take on their cargo at off - shore platforms and single - point moorings. On the other end of the journey, they often pump their cargo off to smaller tankers at designated lightering points off - coast. Supertanker routes are typically long, requiring them to stay at sea for extended periods, often around seventy days at a time.
The act of hiring a ship to carry cargo is called chartering. Tankers are hired by four types of charter agreements: the voyage charter, the time charter, the bareboat charter, and contract of affreightment. In a voyage charter the charterer rents the vessel from the loading port to the discharge port. In a time charter the vessel is hired for a set period of time, to perform voyages as the charterer directs. In a bareboat charter the charterer acts as the ship 's operator and manager, taking on responsibilities such as providing the crew and maintaining the vessel. Finally, in a contract of affreightment or COA, the charterer specifies a total volume of cargo to be carried in a specific time period and in specific sizes, for example a COA could be specified as 1 million barrels (160,000 m) of JP - 5 in a year 's time in 25,000 - barrel (4,000 m) shipments. A completed chartering contract is known as a charter party.
One of the key aspects of any charter party is the freight rate, or the price specified for carriage of cargo. The freight rate of a tanker charter party is specified in one of four ways: by a lump sum rate, by rate per ton, by a time charter equivalent rate, or by Worldscale rate. In a lump sum rate arrangement, a fixed price is negotiated for the delivery of a specified cargo, and the ship 's owner / operator is responsible to pay for all port costs and other voyage expenses. Rate per ton arrangements are used mostly in chemical tanker chartering, and differ from lump sum rates in that port costs and voyage expenses are generally paid by the charterer. Time charter arrangements specify a daily rate, and port costs and voyage expenses are also generally paid by the charterer.
The Worldwide Tanker Normal Freight Scale, often referred to as Worldscale, is established and governed jointly by the Worldscale Associations of London and New York. Worldscale establishes a baseline price for carrying a metric ton of product between any two ports in the world. In Worldscale negotiations, operators and charterers will determine a price based on a percentage of the Worldscale rate. The baseline rate is expressed as WS 100. If a given charter party settled on 85 % of the Worldscale rate, it would be expressed as WS 85. Similarly, a charter party set at 125 % of the Worldscale rate would be expressed as WS 125.
As of 2007, the chartering market is persistently volatile across all tanker sectors. The market is affected by a wide variety of variables such as the supply and demand of oil as well as the supply and demand of oil tankers. Some particular variables include winter temperatures, excess tanker tonnage, supply fluctuations in the Persian Gulf, and interruptions in refinery services.
In 2006, the sustained rise in oil prices had only a limited impact on demand. It was a good year across all segments of the tanker market segments, but not as good as 2004 and 2005. Amidst high oil prices, geopolitical tension, and fears of disruptions to the oil supply, growing demand was the main driving force in the tanker shipping market for the year. As demand grew moderately in the United States and Western Europe, expanding economies such as China fueled exponential growth in demand. Despite these strengths, each of the five tanker freight indices dropped during 2006. Product tanker demand increased in 2006 due to economic expansion in Asia, especially China and India, however, average time charter equivalent earnings for these ships decreased compared with the two prior years.
In 2006, time - charters tended towards long term. Of the time charters executed in that year, 58 % were for a period of 24 or more months, 14 % were for periods of 12 to 24 months, 4 % were from 6 to 12 months, and 24 % were for periods of less than 6 months. The average one - year time charter rate for a 5 - year - old tanker of 280,000 metric tons of deadweight varied from $56,500 per day in December 2005 to $53,000 per day in September 2007 with a high of $64,500 per day in September 2006.
The first half of 2007 was relatively strong, but in the second half rates dropped significantly. A sudden rise in oil production, longer transport routes, and slow steaming because of high bunker prices led to a shortage in tonnage towards the end of the year. Overnight, VLCC rates climbed from $20,000 per day to $200 -- $300,000 per day, and even higher numbers were recorded.
From 2003, the demand for new ships started to grow, resulting in 2007 in a record breaking order backlog for shipyards, exceeding their capacity with rising newbuilding prices as a result. This resulted in a glut of ships when demand dropped due to a weakened global economy and dramatically reduced demand in the United States. The charter rate for very large crude carriers, which carry two million barrels of oil, had peaked at $309,601 per day in 2007, and has dropped, as of 2012, to $7,085 per day, far below the operating costs of these ships. As a result, several tanker operators laid up their ships. Prices rose significantly in 2015 and early 2016, but delivery of new tankers was projected to keep prices in check.
Owners of large oil tanker fleets include Teekay Corporation, AP Moller Maersk, DS Torm, Frontline, MOL Tankship Management, Overseas Shipholding Group, and Euronav.
In 2005, oil tankers made up 36.9 % of the world 's fleet in terms of deadweight tonnage. The world 's total oil tankers deadweight tonnage has increased from 326.1 million DWT in 1970 to 960.0 million DWT in 2005. The combined deadweight tonnage of oil tankers and bulk carriers, represents 72.9 % of the world 's fleet.
In 2005, 2.42 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker. 76.7 % of this was crude oil, and the rest consisted of refined petroleum products. This amounted to 34.1 % of all seaborne trade for the year. Combining the amount carried with the distance it was carried, oil tankers moved 11,705 billion metric - ton - miles of oil in 2005.
By comparison, in 1970 1.44 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker. This amounted to 34.1 % of all seaborne trade for that year. In terms of amount carried and distance carried, oil tankers moved 6,487 billion metric - ton - miles of oil in 1970.
The United Nations also keeps statistics about oil tanker productivity, stated in terms of metric tons carried per metric ton of deadweight as well as metric - ton - miles of carriage per metric ton of deadweight. In 2005, for each 1 DWT of oil tankers, 6.7 metric tons of cargo was carried. Similarly, each 1 DWT of oil tankers was responsible for 32,400 metric - ton miles of carriage.
The main loading ports in 2005 were located in Western Asia, Western Africa, North Africa, and the Caribbean, with 196.3, 196.3, 130.2 and 246.6 million metric tons of cargo loaded in these regions. The main discharge ports were located in North America, Europe, and Japan with 537.7, 438.4, and 215.0 million metric tons of cargo discharged in these regions.
International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a country, called its flag state. A ship 's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly, certify the ship 's equipment and crew, and issue safety and pollution prevention documents. As of 2007, the United States Central Intelligence Agency statistics count 4,295 oil tankers of 1,000 long tons deadweight (DWT) or greater worldwide. Panama was the world 's largest flag state for oil tankers, with 528 of the vessels in its registry. Six other flag states had more than 200 registered oil tankers: Liberia (464), Singapore (355), China (252), Russia (250), the Marshall Islands (234) and the Bahamas (209). The Panamanian, Liberian, Marshallese and Bahamian flags are open registries and considered by the International Transport Workers ' Federation to be flags of convenience. By comparison, the United States and the United Kingdom only had 59 and 27 registered oil tankers, respectively.
In 2005, the average age of oil tankers worldwide was 10 years. Of these, 31.6 % were under 4 years old and 14.3 % were over 20 years old. In 2005, 475 new oil tankers were built, accounting for 30.7 million DWT. The average size for these new tankers was 64,632 DWT. Nineteen of these were VLCC size, 19 were suezmax, 51 were aframax, and the rest were smaller designs. By comparison, 8.0 million DWT, 8.7 million DWT, and 20.8 million DWT worth of oil tanker capacity was built in 1980, 1990, and 2000 respectively.
Ships are generally removed from the fleet through a process known as scrapping. Ship - owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship 's empty weight (called light ton displacement or LDT) and prices in the scrap metal market. In 1998 almost 700 ships went through the scrapping process at shipbreakers in places like Alang, India and Chittagong, Bangladesh. In 2004 and 2005, 7.8 million DWT and 5.7 million DWT respectively of oil tankers were scrapped. Between 2000 and 2005, the capacity of oil tankers scrapped each year has ranged between 5.6 million DWT and 18.4 million DWT. In this same timeframe, tankers have accounted for between 56.5 % and 90.5 % of the world 's total scrapped ship tonnage. In this period the average age of scrapped oil tankers has ranged from 26.9 to 31.5 years.
In 2005, the price for new oil tankers in the 32,000 -- 45,000 DWT, 80,000 -- 105,000 DWT, and 250,000 -- 280,000 DWT ranges were US $ 43 million, $58 million, and $120 million respectively. In 1985 these vessels would have cost $18 million, $22 million, and $47 million respectively.
Oil tankers are often sold second - hand. In 2005, 27.3 million DWT worth of oil tankers were sold used. Some representative prices for that year include $42.5 M for a 40,000 DWT tanker, $60.7 million for a 80,000 -- 95,000 DWT, $73 million for a 130,000 -- 150,000 DWT, and $116 million for 250,000 -- 280,000 DWT tanker. For a concrete example, in 2006, Bonheur subsidiary First Olsen paid US $76.5 million for Knock Sheen, a 159,899 DWT tanker.
The cost of operating the largest tankers, the Very Large Crude Carriers, is currently between $10,000 and $12,000 per day.
Oil tankers generally have from 8 to 12 tanks. Each tank is split into two or three independent compartments by fore - and - aft bulkheads. The tanks are numbered with tank one being the forwardmost. Individual compartments are referred to by the tank number and the athwartships position, such as "one port '', "three starboard '', or "six center. ''
A cofferdam is a small little space left open between two bulkheads, to give protection from heat, fire, or collision. Tankers generally have cofferdams forward and aft of the cargo tanks, and sometimes between individual tanks. A pumpable room houses all the pumps connected to a tanker 's cargo lines. Some larger tankers have two pumprooms. A pumproom generally spans the total breadth of the ship.
A major component of tanker architecture is the design of the hull or outer structure. A tanker with a single outer shell between the product and the ocean is said to be "single - hulled ''. Most newer tankers are "double hulled '', with an extra space between the hull and the storage tanks. Hybrid designs such as "double - bottom '' and "double - sided '' combine aspects of single and double - hull designs. All single - hulled tankers around the world will be phased out by 2026, in accordance with the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL). The United Nations has decided to phase out single hull oil tankers by 2010.
In 1998, the Marine Racecar Board of the National Academy of Science conducted a survey of industry experts regarding the pros and cons of double - hull design. Some of the advantages of the double - hull design that were mentioned include ease of ballasting in emergency situations, reduced practice of saltwater ballasting in cargo tanks decreases corrosion, increased environmental protection, cargo discharge is quicker, more complete and easier, tank washing is more efficient, and better protection in low - impact collisions and grounding.
The same report lists the following as some drawbacks to the double - hull design, including higher build costs, greater operating expenses (e.g. higher canal and port tariffs), difficulties in ballast tank ventilation, the fact that ballast tanks need continuous monitoring and maintenance, increased transverse free surface, the greater number of surfaces to maintain, the risk of explosions in double - hull spaces if a vapor detection system not fitted, and that cleaning ballast tanks is more difficult for double hull ships.
In all, double - hull tankers are said to be safer than a single - hull in a grounding incident, especially when the shore is not very rocky. The safety benefits are less clear on larger vessels and in cases of high speed impact.
Although double - hull design is superior in low energy casualties and prevents spillage in small casualties, in high energy casualties where both hulls are breached, oil can spill through the double - hull and into the sea and spills from a double - hull tanker can be significantly higher than designs like the mid-deck tanker, the Coulombi egg tanker and even a pre-MARPOL tanker, as the last one has a lower oil column and reaches hydrostatic balance sooner.
An oil tanker 's inert gas system is one of the most important parts of its design. Fuel oil itself is very difficult to ignite, but its hydrocarbon vapors are explosive when mixed with air in certain concentrations. The purpose of the system is to create an atmosphere inside tanks in which the hydrocarbon oil vapors can not burn.
As inert gas is introduced into a mixture of hydrocarbon vapors and air, it increases the lower flammable limit or lowest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited. At the same time it decreases the upper flammable limit or highest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited. When the total concentration of oxygen in the tank reaches about 11 %, the upper and lower flammable limits converge and the flammable range disappears.
Inert gas systems deliver air with an oxygen concentration of less than 5 % by volume. As a tank is pumped out, it is filled with inert gas and kept in this safe state until the next cargo is loaded. The exception is in cases when the tank must be entered. Safely gas - freeing a tank is accomplished by purging hydrocarbon vapors with inert gas until the hydrocarbon concentration inside the tank is under about 1 %. Thus, as air replaces the inert gas, the concentration can not rise to the lower flammable limit and is safe.
Operations aboard oil tankers are governed by an established body of best practices and a large body of international law. Cargo can be moved on or off of an oil tanker in several ways. One method is for the ship to moor alongside a pier, connect with cargo hoses or marine loading arms. Another method involves mooring to offshore buoys, such as a single point mooring, and making a cargo connection via underwater cargo hoses. A third method is by ship - to - ship transfer, also known as lightering. In this method, two ships come alongside in open sea and oil is transferred manifold to manifold via flexible hoses. Lightering is sometimes used where a loaded tanker is too large to enter a specific port.
Prior to any transfer of cargo, the chief officer must develop a transfer plan detailing specifics of the operation such as how much cargo will be moved, which tanks will be cleaned, and how the ship 's ballasting will change. The next step before a transfer is the pretransfer conference. The pretransfer conference covers issues such as what products will be moved, the order of movement, names and titles of key people, particulars of shipboard and shore equipment, critical states of the transfer, regulations in effect, emergency and spill - containment procedures, watch and shift arrangements, and shutdown procedures.
After the conference is complete, the person in charge on the ship and the person in charge of the shore installation go over a final inspection checklist. In the United States, the checklist is called a Declaration of Inspection or DOI. Outside the U.S., the document is called the "Ship / Shore Safety Checklist. '' Items on the checklist include proper signals and signs are displayed, secure mooring of the vessel, choice of language for communication, securing of all connections, that emergency equipment is in place, and that no repair work is taking place.
Loading an oil tanker consists primarily of pumping cargo into the ship 's tanks. As oil enters the tank, the vapors inside the tank must be somehow expelled. Depending on local regulations, the vapors can be expelled into the atmosphere or discharged back to the pumping station by way of a vapor recovery line. It is also common for the ship to move water ballast during the loading of cargo to maintain proper trim.
Loading starts slowly at a low pressure to ensure that equipment is working correctly and that connections are secure. Then a steady pressure is achieved and held until the "topping - off '' phase when the tanks are nearly full. Topping off is a very dangerous time in handling oil, and the procedure is handled particularly carefully. Tank - gauging equipment is used to tell the person in charge how much space is left in the tank, and all tankers have at least two independent methods for tank - gauging. As the tanker becomes full, crew members open and close valves to direct the flow of product and maintain close communication with the pumping facility to decrease and finally stop the flow of liquid.
The process of moving oil off of a tanker is similar to loading, but has some key differences. The first step in the operation is following the same pretransfer procedures as used in loading. When the transfer begins, it is the ship 's cargo pumps that are used to move the product ashore. As in loading, the transfer starts at low pressure to ensure that equipment is working correctly and that connections are secure. Then a steady pressure is achieved and held during the operation. While pumping, tank levels are carefully watched and key locations, such as the connection at the cargo manifold and the ship 's pumproom are constantly monitored. Under the direction of the person in charge, crew members open and close valves to direct the flow of product and maintain close communication with the receiving facility to decrease and finally stop the flow of liquid.
Tanks must be cleaned from time to time for various reasons. One reason is to change the type of product carried inside a tank. Also, when tanks are to be inspected or maintenance must be performed within a tank, it must be not only cleaned, but made gas - free.
On most crude - oil tankers, a special crude oil washing (COW) system is part of the cleaning process. The COW system circulates part of the cargo through the fixed tank - cleaning system to remove wax and asphaltic deposits. Tanks that carry less viscous cargoes are washed with water. Fixed and portable automated tank cleaning machines, which clean tanks with high - pressure water jets, are widely used. Some systems use rotating high - pressure water jets to spray hot water on all the internal surfaces of the tank. As the spraying takes place, the liquid is pumped out of the tank.
After a tank is cleaned, provided that it is going to be prepared for entry, it will be purged. Purging is accomplished by pumping inert gas into the tank until hydrocarbons have been sufficiently expelled. Next the tank is gas freed which is usually accomplished by blowing fresh air into the space with portable air powered or water powered air blowers. "Gas freeing '' brings the oxygen content of the tank up to 20.8 % O2. The inert gas buffer between fuel and oxygen atmospheres ensures they are never capable of ignition. Specially trained personnel monitor the tank 's atmosphere, often using hand - held gas indicators which measure the percentage of hydrocarbons present. After a tank is gas - free, it may be further hand - cleaned in a manual process known as mucking. Mucking requires protocols for entry into confined spaces, protective clothing, designated safety observers, and possibly the use of airline respirators.
Some sub-types of oil tankers have evolved to meet specific military and economic needs. These sub-types include naval replenishment ships, oil - bulk - ore combination carriers, floating storage and offloading units (FSOs) and floating production storage and offloading units (FPSOs).
Replenishment ships, known as oilers in the United States and fleet tankers in Commonwealth countries, are ships that can provide oil products to naval vessels while on the move. This process, called underway replenishment, extends the length of time a naval vessel can stay at sea, as well as her effective range. Prior to underway replenishment, naval vessels had to enter a port or anchor to take on fuel. In addition to fuel, replenishment ships may also deliver water, ammunition, rations, stores and personnel.
An ore - bulk - oil carrier, also known as combination carrier or OBO, is a ship designed to be capable of carrying wet or dry bulk cargoes. This design was intended to provide flexibility in two ways. Firstly, an OBO would be able to switch between the dry and wet bulk trades based on market conditions. Secondly, an OBO could carry oil on one leg of a voyage and return carrying dry bulk, reducing the number of unprofitable ballast voyages it would have to make.
In practice, the flexibility which the OBO design allows has gone largely unused, as these ships tend to specialize in either the liquid or dry bulk trade. Also, these ships have endemic maintenance problems. On one hand, due to a less specialized design, an OBO suffers more from wear and tear during dry cargo onload than a bulker. On the other hand, components of the liquid cargo system, from pumps to valves to piping, tend to develop problems when subjected to periods of disuse. These factors have contributed to a steady reduction in the number of OBO ships worldwide since the 1970s.
One of the more famous OBOs was MV Derbyshire of 180,000 DWT which in September 1980 became the largest British ship ever lost at sea. It sank in a Pacific typhoon while carrying a cargo of iron ore from Canada to Japan.
Floating storage and offloading units (FSO) are used worldwide by the offshore oil industry to receive oil from nearby platforms and store it until it can be offloaded onto oil tankers. A similar system, the floating production storage and offloading unit (FPSO), has the ability to process the product while it is on board. These floating units reduce oil production costs and offer mobility, large storage capacity, and production versatility.
FPSO and FSOs are often created out of old, stripped - down oil tankers, but can be made from new - built hulls Shell España first used a tanker as an FPSO in August 1977. An example of a FSO that used to be an oil tanker is the Knock Nevis. These units are usually moored to the seabed through a spread mooring system. A turret - style mooring system can be used in areas prone to severe weather. This turret system lets the unit rotate to minimize the effects of sea - swell and wind.
Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment. Crude oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment. Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles.
By the sheer amount of oil carried, modern oil tankers can be a threat to the environment. As discussed above, a VLCC tanker can carry 2 million barrels (320,000 m) of crude oil. This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez incident. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped 10,800,000 US gallons (41,000 m) of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed. Considering the volume of oil carried by sea, however, tanker owners ' organisations often argue that the industry 's safety record is excellent, with only a tiny fraction of a percentage of oil cargoes carried ever being spilled. The International Association of Independent Tanker Owners has observed that "accidental oil spills this decade have been at record low levels -- one third of the previous decade and one tenth of the 1970s -- at a time when oil transported has more than doubled since the mid 1980s. ''
Oil tankers are only one source of oil spills. According to the United States Coast Guard, 35.7 % of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels (ships / barges), 27.6 % from facilities and other non-vessels, 19.9 % from non-tank vessels, and 9.3 % from pipelines; 7.4 % from mystery spills. Only 5 % of the actual spills came from oil tankers, while 51.8 % came from other kinds of vessels. The detailed statistics for 2004 shown in the table below show tank vessels responsible for somewhat less than 5 % of the number of total spills but more than 60 % of the volume. Tanker spills are much more rare and much more serious than spills from non-tank vessels.
The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has tracked 9,351 accidental spills that have occurred since 1974. According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil. 91 % of the operational oil spills are small, resulting in less than 7 metric tons per spill. On the other hand, spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84 % of these involving losses of over 700 metric tons.
Following the Exxon Valdez spill, the United States passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA - 90), which excluded single - hull tank vessels of 5,000 gross tons or more from US waters from 2010 onward, apart from those with a double bottom or double sides, which may be permitted to trade to the United States through 2015, depending on their age. Following the sinkings of Erika (1999) and Prestige (2002), the European Union passed its own stringent anti-pollution packages (known as Erika I, II, and III), which also require all tankers entering its waters to be double - hulled by 2010. The Erika packages are controversial because they introduced the new legal concept of "serious negligence ''.
Air pollution from engine operation and from cargo fires is another serious concern. Large ships are often run on low quality fuel oils, such as bunker oil, which is highly polluting and has been shown to be a health risk. Ship fires may result in the loss of the ship due to lack of specialized firefighting gear and techniques and fires can burn for days.
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who sang zing went the strings of my heart | Zing! Went The Strings of My Heart - Wikipedia
"Zing! Went the Strings of My Heart '' is a 1934 popular song with words and music by James F. Hanley. It was introduced by Hal Le Roy and Eunice Healey in the Broadway revue Thumbs Up!
The most notable recordings were made by Judy Garland (who recorded it numerous times, including in the 1938 film Listen, Darling and for Decca Records in 1939) and by The Trammps (reaching No. 17 on the US Billboard R&B chart in 1972).
In 2011, a Bing Crosby radio version of the song was released on iTunes by the Crosby Estate.
This was one of the first songs that Barbra Streisand ever recorded, in 1955 at Nola Recording Studios in New York when she was 13 years old. The recording is yet to be released.
Others artists and groups that have recorded this song include Ernestine Anderson, June Christy, Petula Clark, Frank Sinatra, Royce Campbell, The Kirby Stone Four, Billy Eckstine, Richard Himber Orchestra, Brenda Lee, Jesse Belvin, The Coasters, The Satintones, The Dimensions, Brent Spiner, Enoch Light, The Move, The Darts, The Rockin ' Vickers, Chet Baker, Smoking Popes, Dinah Shore, Les Paul and Mary Ford, Rufus Wainwright (who recorded the song on a tribute album to Judy Garland), and Barry Manilow (who recorded it as a duet with Judy Garland, sampling her 1961 version that appears on her album Judy at Carnegie Hall). Also covered by Kristin Chenoweth on her album The Art of Elegance.
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ncaa men's basketball national champions last 10 years | List of NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Champions - wikipedia
This is a list of NCAA Division I men 's basketball champions. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Men 's Division I Basketball Championship, or NCAA Tournament, is a single - elimination tournament for men 's college basketball teams in the United States. It determines the champion of Division I, the top level of play in the NCAA, and the media often describes the winner as the national champion of college basketball. The NCAA Tournament has been held annually since 1939, and its field grew from eight teams in the beginning to sixty - five teams by 2001; as of 2011, sixty - eight teams take part in the tournament. Teams can gain invitations by winning a conference championship or receiving an at - large bid from a 10 - person committee. The semifinals of the tournament are known as the Final Four and are held in a different city each year, along with the championship game; Indianapolis, the city where the NCAA is based, will host the Final Four every five years until 2040. Each winning university receives a rectangular, gold - plated trophy made of wood.
The first NCAA Tournament was organized by the National Association of Basketball Coaches. Oregon won the inaugural tournament, defeating Ohio State 46 -- 33 in the first championship game. Before the 1941 tournament, control of the event was given to the NCAA. In the early years of the tournament, it was considered less important than the National Invitation Tournament (NIT), a New York City - based event. Teams were able to compete in both events in the same year, and three of those that did so -- Utah in 1944, Kentucky in 1949, and City College of New York (CCNY) in 1950 -- won the NCAA Tournament. The 1949 -- 50 CCNY team won both tournaments (defeating Bradley in both finals), and is the only college basketball team to accomplish this feat. By the mid-1950s, the NCAA Tournament became the more prestigious of the two events, and in 1971 the NCAA barred universities from playing in other tournaments, such as the NIT, if they were invited to the NCAA Tournament.
The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) has been the most successful college in the NCAA Tournament, winning 11 national titles. Ten of those championships came during a 12 - year stretch from 1964 to 1975. UCLA also holds the record for the most consecutive championships, winning seven in a row from 1967 to 1973. Kentucky has the second-most titles, with eight. North Carolina is third with six championships, while Duke and Indiana follow with five each. Villanova is the most recent champion, having defeated Michigan in the final of the 2018 tournament. Among head coaches, John Wooden is the all - time leader with 10 championships; he coached UCLA during their period of success in the 1960s and 1970s. Duke 's Mike Krzyzewski is second all - time with five titles.
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in which year did telenor launch its operations in pakistan | Telenor Pakistan - wikipedia
Telenor Pakistan (Pvt.) Limited (Urdu: ٹیلی نار پاکستان ) is owned by the Norwegian Telenor Group, which is an international provider of voice, data, content and mobile communication services in 13 markets across Europe and Asia and an additional 17 markets through its ownership in VimpelCom Ltd. Telenor Group is among the largest mobile operators in the world, with over 166 million mobile subscriptions (Q4 2011) and a workforce of 33,000. Telenor started out as a public company in 1855.
Currently, Telenor Pakistan has a total subscriber base of 43 million with 29 % SIM market share.
Telenor acquired a license for providing GSM services in Pakistan in April 2004, and launched its services commercially in Karachi, Islamabad, and Rawalpindi on 15 March 2005; it expanded its services to Lahore, Faisalabad and Hyderabad on 23 March 2005. Telenor Pakistan 's corporate headquarters are in Islamabad, with regional offices in Peshawar, Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan, Hyderabad, Quetta and Karachi. On 28 January 2005, Telenor established its first call centre in Karachi.
The official opening of Telenor Pakistan was held in Islamabad with former President of Pakistan General Pervez Musharraf as guest of honor and a Telenor delegation headed by President and CEO of Telenor Group Jon Fredrik Baksaas along with then CEO of Telenor Pakistan Tore Johnsen. The inauguration call was made by former President Pervez Musharraf to the Prime Minister of Norway, who was visiting Australia at the time. The present CEO of Telenor Pakistan is Irfan Wahab Khan.
Telenor covers more than 3,500 cities and towns throughout Pakistan. The company has over 8,000 3G - ready cell sites throughout the country. It offers GPRS and EDGE nationwide and HSPA+ services in over 300 cities.
Telenor Pakistan 's distribution network has over 200,000 touch points across Pakistan that include franchises, sahulat ghars and retailers that offer GSM products and Easypaisa services. Company - owned customer sales and service centers ceased operations in 2017.
Telenor Pakistan is providing 3G services as the company has acquired a 3G licence in an auction that took place on 23 April 2014 in Islamabad, Pakistan, and is expanding services rapidly. Telenor Pakistan has Pakistan 's largest 3G coverage currently, in 300 + cities.
Telenor uses Band 5 (850 MHz) and Band 1 (2100 MHz) for its 3G (HSPA+) network in Pakistan.
In August 2016, Telenor Pakistan became the third 4G network of Pakistan. Telenor Pakistan is providing LTE in Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Lahore, Multan, Karachi, Faisalabad, Sialkot and Swat. Telenor has added over 3,000 LTE cell sites to its network and Karachi alone has received 600 + LTE sites with special arrangements such as spectrum refarming and LTE availability on Bands 3 and 5.
Telenor is currently using FDD - LTE Band 5 (850MHz) for LTE services, and using both Band 5 and Band 3 (1800 MHz) in Karachi and Islamabad.
On January 5th 2017, Telenor Pakistan announced that it will be shutting down all 17 of its customer service centers in the country.
Telenor said it will serve its customers through 289 franchises that are open in various parts of the country.
As of October 2017, Telenor is not using its entire 8.8 MHz spectrum in the 1800 MHz band for 2G services. It seems that due to heavy demand of 4G Telenor is looking to refarm its 1800 MHz spectrum for LTE. They are using a 3 MHz block of spectrum in Band 3 for LTE in Islamabad, and a 5 MHz block of spectrum in Band 3 for LTE in Karachi, they are also using Band 5 in both cities as well.
Telenor was awarded a 10 MHz block in Band 5, and rather than using the entire block for LTE, it has divided it into two 5 MHz blocks, one for HSPA+ (3G) and the remaining 5 MHz has been deployed for LTE.
In 2008, Telenor acquired majority shares of Tameer Microfinance Bank Limited for its mobile financial services project. They named the branchless banking service "Easypaisa '' and launched it in October 2009. In a country of over 190 million people, with only 10,000 bank branches and approximately 15 million bank accounts, Easypaisa was Pakistan 's first branchless banking deployment aimed to increase access to financial services for the people of Pakistan, with over 25,000 Easypaisa shops across the country who perform the money transfers and bill payments. Later ' Mobile Wallet ' was introduced where normal Telenor Pakistan subscribers could now open a mobile account and make transactions themselves from their cellphone. Easypaisa was cited by CNN as the "model to follow '' in launching mobile banking services.
Easypaisa is Pakistan 's first and largest mobile money service, and third largest in the world, catering to 6 million customers every month. It currently has over 40,000 agents in 750 cities and towns across Pakistan. In October 2014 Telenor Easypaisa introduced several types of accounts at different levels. They have named them as Level 2 Basic Account, Level 2 A Type Account, Level 2 B Type Account and Level 2 C Type Account, each with its own deposit limit and distinct rules.
EasyPaisa Mobile banking announced it was parting ways with Telenor Pakistan in March 2017. It is now being managed by Tameer Bank, which is fully owned by the Telenor Group. EasyPaisa 's operations, PR and marketing will now be handled by the Telenor Group.
Telenor Pakistan has won a number of awards. In 2011, it won the Prime Minister of Pakistan Trophy for Largest Foreign Direct Investment (Telecom Sector) which was awarded by the Lahore Chamber of Commerce and Industries.
Telenor Pakistan & Tameer Microfinance Bank 's Easypaisa was awarded the Shaukat Khanum Social Responsibility Award 2011 by Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital & Research Centre, Lahore. Easypaisa also won the Best Mobile Money Transfer Entrant of the Year Award at the world 's first Mobile Money Awards in 2011. In 2012, Easypaisa was declared as the third largest mobile money service in the world by Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP), a global partnership of 34 organizations housed in the World Bank whose goal is to advance financial inclusion.
In previous years, Telenor Pakistan has been presented with the "Best Place to Work Award '' by Pakistan 's HR associations; and the Best Practices Award, presented by the Data Warehousing Institute.
Telenor Pakistan also won the "Superbrand of the Telecom Industry Award '', a recognition supported by the international brand arbiter Superbrands that operates in 55 countries.
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where did the 182 in blink 182 come from | Blink - 182 - wikipedia
Blink - 182 (often stylized as blink - 182; pronounced "blink one eighty two '') is an American rock band formed in Poway, California in 1992, best known for their 2000 hit, "All The Small Things ''. Since 2015, the lineup of the band has consisted of bassist and vocalist Mark Hoppus, drummer Travis Barker, and guitarist and vocalist Matt Skiba. Founded by guitarist and vocalist Tom DeLonge, Hoppus and drummer Scott Raynor, the band emerged from the Southern California punk scene of the early 1990s and first gained notoriety for high - energy live shows and irreverent lyrical toilet humor. Blink - 182 was initially known as Blink until an Irish band of the same name threatened legal action; in response, the band appended the meaningless number "- 182 ''.
In its early years, Blink - 182 toured heavily behind the band 's debut, Cheshire Cat (1995). The group signed with major label MCA Records to co-distribute its second album, Dude Ranch (1997). Raynor was fired midway through a 1998 tour and replaced by Barker. The group 's next two releases, Enema of the State (1999) and Take Off Your Pants and Jacket (2001), were enormous successes on the strength of radio and MTV airplay. The eponymously titled Blink - 182 followed in 2003 and marked a stylistic shift for the group. DeLonge quit in 2005, sending the band into what was termed an "indefinite hiatus ''. They reunited in 2009, producing the trio 's sixth album, Neighborhoods (2011). In 2015, DeLonge again exited and was replaced by Alkaline Trio guitarist and vocalist Matt Skiba. The band 's seventh studio album, California, was released on July 1, 2016.
Blink - 182 is considered a key group in the development of pop punk; the band 's combination of pop melodies with fast - paced punk rock featured a more radio - friendly accessibility than prior bands. The trio has sold over thirteen million albums in the United States, and over 50 million albums worldwide. In 2011, The New York Times asserted, "no punk band of the 1990s has been more influential than Blink - 182, '' and even as the band receded after its 2005 split, "its sound and style could be heard in the muscular pop punk of Fall Out Boy or in the current wave of high - gloss Warped Tour punk bands, like All Time Low and The Maine. ''
Blink - 182 was formed in Poway, California, a suburb outside of San Diego, in August 1992. Guitarist Tom DeLonge was expelled from Poway High for attending a basketball game drunk and was forced to attend another local school for one semester. At Rancho Bernardo High School, DeLonge performed at a Battle of the Bands competition, where he was introduced to drummer Scott Raynor. He also befriended Kerry Key, who too was interested in punk music. Key 's girlfriend, Anne Hoppus, introduced her brother, bassist Mark Hoppus -- who had recently moved from Ridgecrest to work at a record store and attend college -- to DeLonge on August 1, 1992. The two clicked instantly and played for hours in DeLonge 's garage, exchanging lyrics and co-writing songs -- one of which became "Carousel ''. Hoppus, in trying to impress Delonge, managed to fall from a lamppost in front of DeLonge 's garage and crack his ankles, an injury that put him in crutches for three weeks.
The trio began to practice together in Raynor 's bedroom, spending hours together writing music, attending punk shows and movies, and playing practical jokes. Hoppus and DeLonge would alternate singing vocal parts. The trio first operated under a variety of names, including Duck Tape and Figure 8, until DeLonge rechristened the band "Blink ''. Hoppus ' girlfriend was angered by her boyfriend 's constant attention to the band, and demanded he make a choice between the band and her, which resulted in Hoppus leaving the band shortly after formation. Shortly thereafter, DeLonge and Raynor borrowed a four - track recorder from friend and collaborator Cam Jones and were preparing to record a demo tape, with Jones on bass. Hoppus promptly broke up with his girlfriend and returned to the band. Flyswatter -- a combination of original songs and punk covers -- was recorded in Raynor 's bedroom in May 1993. Southern California had a large punk population in the early 1990s, aided by an avid surfing, skating, and snowboarding scene. In contrast to East Coast punk music, the West Coast wave of groups, Blink included, typically introduced more melodic aspects to the group 's music. "New York is gloomy, dark and cold. It makes different music. The Californian middle - class suburbs have nothing to be that bummed about, '' said DeLonge. San Diego at this time was "hardly a hotbed of (musical) activity '', but the band 's popularity grew as did California punk rock concurrently in the mainstream. DeLonge called clubs constantly in San Diego asking for a spot to play, as well as calling up local high schools, convincing them that Blink was a "motivational band with a strong antidrug message '' in hopes to play at an assembly or lunch.
The band was on stage nearly every weekend, even at Elks Lodges and YMCA centers. The band soon became part of a circuit that also included the likes of Ten Foot Pole and Unwritten Law, and the band found its way onto the bill as the opening band for local acts at Soma, a local all - ages venue located on Market Street which the band longed to headline. Big - name acts such as NOFX and Green Day played on the main floor, while smaller acts were relegated to the basement, an area referred to as "the Dungeon ''. The original location closed its doors and relocated before the band would be promoted to the main stage (which required a 100 + crowd to attend). "Soma was like home away from home. All the punk kids who did n't give a fuck about football games and proms or whatever came to hang out at Soma, '' claimed Hoppus. The band 's first big show on the main floor took place on a Thursday, where the band opened for Face to Face. Hoppus ' manager at the record store, Patrick Secor, fronted him the money to properly record another demo at local studio Doubletime. The result was Buddha (1994), which the members of the band viewed as the band 's first legitimate release. By this time, the group had branched out to venues such as the Soul Kitchen in El Cajon, but Raynor 's family relocated to Reno, Nevada, and he was briefly replaced by musician Mike Krull. The band saved money and began flying Raynor out to shows, but eventually Raynor moved in with Hoppus for a summer in which the band would record its first album and music video and gain even more exposure.
The heart of the local independent music scene was Cargo Records, which offered to sign the band on a "trial basis, '' with help from O, guitarist for local punk band Fluf, and Brahm Goodis, friend of the band whose father was president of the label. Hoppus was the only member to sign the contract, as DeLonge was at work at the time and Raynor was still a minor. The band recorded its debut album in three days at Westbeach Recorders in Los Angeles, fueled by both new songs and re-recordings of songs from previous demos. Although Cheshire Cat, released in February 1995, made very little impact commercially, it is cited by fans and musicians as an iconic release. "M + M 's '', the band 's first single, garnered local radio airplay from 91X and Cargo offered the band a small budget to film a music video for it. Meanwhile, the record also drew the attention of Irish band Blink. Unwilling to engage in a legal battle, the band agreed to change its name. Cargo gave the band a week, but the trio put off the decision for more than two afterward. Eventually, Cargo called Blink - 182, demanding that the band "change the name or (we 'll) change it for you, '' after which the band decided on a random number, 182.
The band soon had a manager, Rick DeVoe, who associated with larger bands such as NOFX, Pennywise and The Offspring. In addition, the band crucially drew the attention of Rick and Jean Bonde of the Tahoe booking agency, who were responsible for "spreading the name of the band far and wide and getting the group as many gigs as humanly possible. '' Surf film director Taylor Steele, friend of DeVoe, was preparing a national tour to promote his new surf video GoodTimes, and the band signed on for its first national tour, which extended as far as the East Coast. The band members purchased their own tour van and embarked on the GoodTimes tour with Unwritten Law, Sprung Monkey and 7 Seconds. The GoodTimes tour continued and the band was whisked away to Australia, with Pennywise paying for the band 's plane tickets. Fletcher Dragge, guitarist of Pennywise, believed in the band strongly. He demanded Kevin Lyman, founder of the Warped Tour, sign the band for the 1996 festival, telling him that "they 're gon na be gigantic. '' Australia was very receptive to the band and its humorous stage shows and pranks gained them a reputation, but also made them ostracized and considered a joke.
By March 1996, the trio began to accumulate a genuine buzz among major labels, resulting in a bidding war between Interscope, MCA and Epitaph. MCA promised the group complete artistic freedom and eventually signed the band, but Raynor held a great affinity for Epitaph and began to feel half - invested in the band when it passed over the label. The group, who were wary of purists attempting to define "punk '' and discouraged by Cargo 's lack of distribution and faith in the group, had no qualms about signing to a major label but were fiercely criticized in the punk community. After nonstop touring, the trio began recording their sophomore follow - up, Dude Ranch, over the period of a month in late 1996. The record hit stores the following summer and the band headed out on the 1997 Warped Tour. "Dammit '', the album 's lead single, received heavy airplay on modern rock stations. Dude Ranch shipped gold by 1998, but an exhaustive touring schedule brought tensions among the trio. Raynor had been drinking heavily to offset personal issues, and he was fired by DeLonge and Hoppus in mid-1998 despite agreeing to attend rehab and quit drinking. Travis Barker, drummer for tour - mate The Aquabats, filled in for Raynor, learning the 20 - song setlist in 45 minutes before the first show. By July, he joined the band full - time and the band entered the studio with producer Jerry Finn later that year to begin work on its third album.
With the release of the group 's third album Enema of the State in June 1999, Blink - 182 was catapulted to stardom and became the biggest pop punk act of the era. Three singles were released from the record -- "What 's My Age Again? '', "All the Small Things '', and "Adam 's Song '' -- that became major radio hits and MTV staples. "All the Small Things '' became a number - one hit on the Modern Rock Tracks chart, but also became a crossover hit and peaked at number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Its video parodied boy bands and pop music videos and won Best Group Video at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards. Although the band was criticized as synthesized, manufactured pop only remotely resembling punk and pigeonholed as a joke act due to the puerile slant of its singles and associating music videos, Enema of the State was an enormous commercial success. The album has sold over 15 million copies worldwide and had a considerable effect on pop punk music, inspiring a "second wave '' of the genre and numerous acolytes.
After multi-platinum success, arena tours, and cameo appearances (American Pie), the band recorded Take Off Your Pants and Jacket (2001), which debuted at number one in the United States, Canada, and Germany. Hit singles "The Rock Show '', "Stay Together for the Kids '' and "First Date '' continued the band 's mainstream success worldwide, with MTV cementing its image as video stars. Finn returned to produce the record and was a key architect of the "polished '' pop punk sound, and he served as an invaluable member of the band: part adviser, part impartial observer, he helped smooth out tensions and hone their sound. Recording sessions were sometimes contentious, as DeLonge strove for heavier and dirtier guitar - driven rock. With time off from touring, he felt an "itch to do something where he did n't feel locked in to what Blink was, '' and channeled his chronic back pain and resulting frustration into Box Car Racer (2002), a post-hardcore disc that further explores his Fugazi and Refused inspiration. Refraining from paying for a studio drummer, he invited Barker to record drums on the project and Hoppus felt betrayed. The event caused great division within the trio for some time and was an unresolved tension at the forefront of the band 's later hiatus. Barker also explored hip - hop influences and teamed up with Rancid 's Tim Armstrong to form the rap rock band Transplants.
The band regrouped in 2003 to record its fifth studio album, infusing experimentalist elements into its usual pop punk sound, inspired by lifestyle changes (the band members all became fathers before the album was released) and side projects. Blink 's eponymous fifth studio album was released in the fall of 2003 through Geffen Records, which absorbed sister label MCA earlier that year. The worldwide touring schedule, which saw the band travel to Japan and Australia, also found the three performing for troops stationed in the Persian Gulf. Critics generally complimented the new, more "mature '' direction taken for the album and its lead singles "Feeling This '' and "I Miss You '' charted high, with the latter becoming the group 's second number one hit on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. Fans, however, were split by the new direction, and tensions within the band -- stemming from the grueling schedule and DeLonge 's desire to spend more time with his family -- started to become evident.
In February 2005, Geffen issued a press statement announcing the band 's "indefinite hiatus. '' The band had broken up after members ' arguments regarding their future and recording process. DeLonge felt increasingly conflicted both about his creative freedom within the group and the toll touring was taking on his family life. He eventually expressed his desire to take a half - year respite from touring in order to spend more time with family. Hoppus and Barker were dismayed by his decision, which they felt was an overly long break. The band abruptly canceled a performance at a Music for Relief benefit show after rehearsals grew more contentious. Further arguments had ensued during rehearsals, rooted in the band members ' increasing paranoia and bitterness toward one another. DeLonge considered his bandmates ' priorities "mad, mad different, '' coming to the conclusion that the trio had simply grown apart as they aged, had families, and reached fame. The breakdown in communication led to heated exchanges, resulting in his exit from the group.
In the interim, Hoppus and Barker continued playing music together in + 44. The group first began to lay down electronic demos in Barker 's basement and Hoppus ' dining room shortly after the breakup. + 44 's debut, When Your Heart Stops Beating, was released the following year but stalled commercially and received mixed reviews. Barker starred in the MTV reality series Meet the Barkers with his then - wife, former Miss USA Shanna Moakler. The couple 's later split, reconciliation and subsequent breakup made them tabloid favorites. Meanwhile, DeLonge disappeared from public eye, making no appearances, granting no interviews and remaining silent until September 2005, when he announced his new project, Angels & Airwaves, promising "the greatest rock and roll revolution for this generation. '' He later revealed he was addicted to painkillers at the time, recalling "I was losing my mind, I was on thousands of painkillers, and I almost killed myself, '' and did not realize that his promise of revolution sounded highly ambitious. The group released two albums in 2006 and 2007: We Do n't Need to Whisper and I - Empire. During the hiatus, Hoppus shifted his attention to producing albums (most notably Commit This to Memory by former tour - mate Motion City Soundtrack) and hosting his podcast, HiMyNameisMark, while Barker launched a shoe line and worked on three other musical projects -- the Transplants, + 44, and TRV $ DJAM, a collaboration with friend Adam Goldstein (DJ AM).
The band members did not speak from their breakup until 2008. That August, Jerry Finn suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and was taken off life support. On September 19, Barker and Goldstein were involved in a plane crash that killed four people, leaving the two the only survivors. Barker sustained second and third degree burns and developed posttraumatic stress disorder, and the accident resulted in sixteen surgeries and 4 - 8 hour blood transfusions. Hoppus was alerted about Barker 's accident by a phone call in the middle of the night and jumped on the next flight to the burn center. DeLonge found out via the TV news at an airport while waiting to board a flight; within minutes, he was crying in his seat. "I thought he was going to die, '' says DeLonge, who quickly reached out to his former bandmate, mailing him a letter and photograph. "Instantly after the plane crash, I was like, ' Hey, I want to play music with him again. ' '' The trio eventually met up in the hospital, laying the grounds for what was going to be the band 's reunion. Eventually, an arrangement was made for the trio to meet up at Hoppus and Barker 's Los Angeles studio in October 2008. The three opened up, discussing the events of the hiatus and their break - up, and DeLonge was the first to approach the subject of reuniting. Hoppus remembered: "I remember (Tom) said, ' So, what do you guys think? Where are your heads at? ' And I said, ' I think we should continue with what we 've been doing for the past 17 years. I think we should get back on the road and back in the studio and do what we love doing. ' ''
Eventually, the band appeared for the first time on stage together in nearly five years as presenters at the February 2009 Grammy Awards, announcing their reunion. The trio embarked on a reunion tour of North America from July to October 2009, with a European trek following from August to September 2010. The recording process for Neighborhoods, the band 's sixth studio album, was stalled by its studio autonomy, tours, managers, and personal projects. DeLonge recorded at his studio in San Diego while Hoppus and Barker recorded in Los Angeles -- an extension of their strained communication. The self - produced album -- their first without producer Jerry Finn -- was released in September 2011 and peaked at number two on the Billboard 200. Its singles -- "Up All Night '' and "After Midnight '' -- only attracted modest chart success, and label Interscope was reportedly disappointed with album sales.
"Despite growing evidence of remaining friction between the members, '' the band continued to tour in the early 2010s. They headlined the 10th Annual Honda Civic Tour in North America from in 2011, and toured Europe in 2012. The band left Interscope Records that October, and subsequently released Dogs Eating Dogs, an EP, in December 2012. The trio toured Australia in 2013; Brooks Wackerman replaced Barker on drums as Barker was unwilling to fly after his plane crash. These dates were followed with a small North American tour, and a series of shows celebrating the tenth anniversary of the band 's self - titled album that November. The band played a European tour in August 2014, culminating in them headlining the Reading and Leeds Festivals; it was the band 's fourth appearance at the festival and second headlining slot.
The reunion of the band has been characterized as dysfunctional by both Barker and DeLonge. Hoppus commented on this era of the band in a later interview: "Everything was always very contentious. There was always just a strange vibe. (...) I knew there was something wrong. '' In his memoir, Can I Say, Barker claims DeLonge 's behavior on tour was "introverted '' until "money started coming in, '' after which "he 'd get excited about Blink. '' He states DeLonge abruptly quit sometime in mid-2014, and rejoined the following day. The group planned to begin writing their seventh album in January 2015, which had continually seen delays. "I 'd do interviews and I just felt awful for fans because they were promised albums for years and we could n't do it, '' Barker later said. A record deal was finalized and sessions were booked before DeLonge 's manager informed the band he intended to spend more time on "non-musical activities '' and indefinitely depart the group. In his own statement, DeLonge remarked that he "Never planned on quitting, just find it hard as hell to commit. '' After these events, Barker summarized the band 's reunion: "Why Blink even got back together in the first place is questionable. ''
Hoppus and Barker decided to continue on without DeLonge, and enlisted Alkaline Trio vocalist / guitarist Matt Skiba to "fill in '' for three shows in March 2015. Hoppus and Skiba had been wanting to work together musically for several years, so he was the first and only person considered for the role. After legal battles with DeLonge were worked out, Skiba joined Blink - 182 as an official member and began preparations for new music. The resulting album, California, was produced by John Feldmann. He was the group 's first new producer since longtime collaborator Jerry Finn. California was recorded between January and March 2016. The band, as well as Feldmann, would regularly spend "18 hours '' in the studio a day, aiming to start and complete multiple songs in that timeframe. "We all wanted to write the best record that we could (...) It does feel like a new beginning. It feels like when we used to tour and sleep in the van because that 's all we wanted to do is play rock music, '' said Hoppus.
Upon its July 2016 release, California became the band 's second number - one album on the Billboard 200, and first in 15 years; it also reached the top for the first time in the United Kingdom. Its lead single, "Bored to Death '', became the group 's first number one single in 12 years. The band supported the album with a large headlining tour across North America between July and October 2016, and a European leg in June and July 2017. A deluxe edition of California -- essentially a double album including songs left off the original album -- was issued in 2017. California earned the band their first nomination for Best Rock Album at the Grammy Awards. Critical reviews of the album, however, were mixed; many considered Feldmann 's input and the throwback nature of the songs as formulaic.
When the band completes touring for California, they plan to take time off and begin recording their eighth studio album. "Somehow, Blink has had this resurgence like we never expected, '' Hoppus told Kerrang! in July 2017. "I count myself lucky to have been (playing in the band) as long as I have. ''
Blink - 182 's music is often described as pop punk, a fusion music genre that combines some light characteristics of punk rock with pop music, "combining frustration and fast, sunny hooks ''. The New York Times writes that the band "(took) punk 's already playful core and (gave) it a shiny, accessible polish. '' The band is also considered alternative rock. Blink - 182 's early albums such as Cheshire Cat and Dude Ranch are considered skate punk and punk rock. Blink - 182 emerged from a "nurturing, often slapstick '' Southern California punk scene, playing with groups like Guttermouth, NOFX and The Vandals, but the band 's sound was criticized when it achieved mainstream popularity by several punk acts who wished to not be associated with the band 's music. The band 's sound evolved with its 2003 untitled effort, which incorporated post-hardcore influences into deeper, darker pop territory. Neighborhoods, released in 2011, combines arena rock, hip hop and indie rock inspiration. The Sydney Morning Herald characterised the band 's sound as a "mildly tough approach to pop melodies with a decided adolescent spin ''.
Common lyrical themes include love, family, friends, and relationships. In greater detail, this includes "adolescent aimlessness, broken hearts and general confusion over the care and feeding of girls. '' Lyrics in singles such as "What 's My Age Again? '' reflect age and maturity, while more serious compositions such as "Stay Together for the Kids '' touch on the subject of divorce. DeLonge said in a 1999 interview that the goal is to remain sincere and relatable, noting that the band takes its lyrics very seriously. Despite this, the band gained a reputation for occasional lyrical toilet humor (Take Off Your Pants and Jacket). As the band members grew older, lyrical themes began to reflect the realities of adulthood, including relationship woes, daily pressures and unexpected hardships, most prominently explored on Blink - 182 (2003). On Neighborhoods, darker lyricism continues: themes concerning depression, addiction, loss and death were inspired by Barker 's plane crash and the death of producer Jerry Finn.
The band has cited The Cure, Descendents, Bad Religion, Screeching Weasel, All, Face to Face, Down by Law, Pennywise, Green Day, The Vandals, Operation Ivy, Generation X, the Ramones, Fugazi and Refused as influences. The members of the band were also inspired by several mid-1990s "emo '' acts, most prominently Jimmy Eat World and The Get Up Kids.
Blink - 182 was one of the most popular bands at the turn of the millennium, and spearheaded the second wave of pop punk and its journey into the mainstream. The glossy production instantly set Blink - 182 apart from the other crossover punk acts of the era, such as Green Day. Cheshire Cat is often cited by bands and fans as an iconic release and Dude Ranch has been called a "genuine modern punk classic. '' Enema of the State catapulted the band to stardom, creating what New York described as a "blanket immersion among America 's twenty - some million teenagers. '' At the band 's commercial peak, albums such as Take Off Your Pants and Jacket and Enema of the State sold over 14 and 15 million copies worldwide, respectively. The band was featured alongside Green Day, Rancid, Bad Religion, NOFX, and The Offspring in One Nine Nine Four (2009), a documentary examining punk rock in California.
The band never received particularly glowing reviews, with many reviewers dismissing them as a joke act based on the humorous slant of its music videos. British publication NME was particularly critical of the trio, begging them to "fuck right off, '' and comparing them to "that sanitised, castrated, shrink - wrapped ' new wave ' crap that the major US record companies pumped out circa 1981 in their belated attempt to jump on the ' punk ' bandwagon. '' Nevertheless, subsequent reviews of the band 's discography have been more positive. Andy Greenwald of Blender wrote, "the quick transformation from nudists to near geniuses is down - right astonishing. '' James Montgomery of MTV called Blink - 182 one of the "most influential bands of the past 20 years, '' writing, "despite their maturation, Blink never took themselves particularly seriously, which was another reason they were so accessible. ''
"When it comes to having inestimable influence, Blink - 182 might well be contemporary punk 's version of the Beatles '', wrote Scott Heisel in a 2009 Alternative Press cover story on the band. The same magazine later ranked Blink the fourth of the "30 Most Influential Bands of the Past 30 Years, '' just behind Radiohead, Fugazi, and Nirvana. The new generation of pop punk and alternative rock fans found the Blink sound "hugely influential, '' with Montgomery writing, "... without them, there 'd be no Fall Out Boy, no Paramore, or no Fueled by Ramen Records. '' In 2011, The New York Times asserted that "no punk band of the 1990s has been more influential than Blink - 182, '' stating that even as the band receded after its 2005 split, "its sound and style could be heard in the muscular pop punk of Fall Out Boy or in the current wave of high - gloss Warped Tour punk bands, like All Time Low and The Maine. '' Maria Sherman of The Village Voice took that sentiment a step further, writing "It 's pretty simple: Blink - 182 is the most important band of the ' 90s, dick jokes and all. Apart from the sound, Blink 's ideology has been popularized (...) their presence is everywhere. '' According to Kelefa Sanneh of The New Yorker, the group "emerged as a touchstone, spawning more imitators than any American rock band since Nirvana. '' Bands such as Panic! at the Disco and All Time Low originated covering Blink - 182 songs. "Anyone in our genre would be lying if they said they were n't influenced by Blink - 182, '' said Joel Madden of Good Charlotte. Bands such as You Me at Six and 5 Seconds of Summer have also named the band as influences.
The band 's influence extends beyond pop punk groups as well: the band has been cited as an influence by Avril Lavigne, Best Coast, DIIV, FIDLAR, Grimes, Male Bonding, Mumford & Sons, Owl City, Posture & the Grizzly, Tucker Beathard, Wavves, and the Chainsmokers; the latter even mentioned the band in the lyrics of their number - one hit song "Closer ''. Critics have noted traits of the band 's sound in the music of Japandroids.
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who won between team africa and team world | African nations at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
Association football is the most popular sport in nearly every African country, and 13 members of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) have competed at the sport 's biggest event - the men 's FIFA World Cup.
Each successive World Cup has had at least one African team appearing for the first time, in alphabetical order per year.
For each tournament, the number of teams in each finals tournament (in brackets) are shown.
This table shows for each world cup the number of countries at the World Cup, the number of entries (# E) from around the world including any rejections and withdrawals, the number of African entries (# A), how many of those African entries withdrew (# A -) before / during qualification or were rejected by FIFA, the African representatives at the World Cup finals, the number of World Cup Qualifiers each African representative had to play to get to the World Cup (# WCQ), the furthest stage they reached, their results, and their coaches.
The inaugural 1930 FIFA World Cup was the only one without any qualification process. No African teams entered.
The Pharaohs of Egypt were the only African team to apply to feature at the 1934 FIFA World Cup. As there were 32 countries competing for 16 places, FIFA organized the first qualification round. Egypt was placed in a group with Turkey and Palestine, then a British mandate. Turkey withdrew, and Egypt beat Palestine 7 - 1 in Cairo and 4 - 1 in Jerusalem to qualify for the World Cup finals. The 1934 FIFA World Cup finals was organized as a straight knock - out. Egypt lost 2 - 4 to Hungary in Naples with Abdulrahman Fawzi scoring twice to become the first African to score at the World Cup finals. However, a third goal by Fawzi was ruled offside by the Italian referee despite the player having dribbled from the middle of the pitch, and the fourth Hungarian goal involved a scuffle where the Hungarian striker broke the Egyptian goalkeeper 's nose with his elbow. The Italian newspapers heavily criticized their referee, but Egypt sailed home and only returned to the World Cup finals 56 years later.
Egypt was the only African country to apply to compete at the 1938 FIFA World Cup, but withdrew before playing any matches.
No African countries applied to compete at the 1950 FIFA World Cup.
Egypt was the only African country to apply to compete at the 1954 World Cup. They were placed in a two - team group with Italy, but lost 1 - 2 in Cairo and 1 - 5 in Milan, and thus did not qualify for the World Cup.
Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan all applied to enter the qualification process for the 1958 FIFA World Cup, but Ethiopia 's entry was rejected by FIFA.
Egypt and Sudan competed in an Africa / Asia zone with ten Asian countries for one spot at the World Cup. Egypt progressed to the next round after Cyprus withdrew, but then itself withdrew. Sudan defeated Syria 2 - 1 on aggregate but eventually withdrew in protest at having to play Israel. (Eventually, the spot originally reserved for Africa and Asia was taken by Wales.)
Seven African countries entered the qualification process for the 1962 FIFA World Cup: Ghana, United Arab Republic (a joint football association by Egypt and Syria, who were politically united between 1958 and 1961), Ethiopia, Morocco, Nigeria, Sudan and Tunisia. Ethiopia entered through the UEFA qualification process, where it was eliminated by Israel, while the rest entered through the CAF qualification process. Both Sudan and U.A.R. withdrew as FIFA would not allow them to rearrange matches to avoid the monsoon season, so the four teams formed two two - team groups. In the first group, Morocco and Tunisia both beat each other 2 - 1 at home, and then played a third match at a neutral location (Palermo, Italy) which ended in a 1 - 1 draw after extra time. Since penalty shootouts were not used by FIFA till the 1970s, Morocco advanced by drawing lots to eliminate Tunisia. Morocco then eliminated Ghana with a draw and a win to proceed to a UEFA / CAF playoff with Spain. They lost both legs of this playoff, meaning that no African nation made it to the World Cup finals for the fifth time in a row.
Seventeen African countries entered the qualification process for the 1966 FIFA World Cup: Algeria, Cameroon, French Congo, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Libya, Mali, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, and Tunisia. FIFA rejected the application of French Congo, and had already suspended South Africa for apartheid, resulting in their disqualification.
FIFA 's allocation of only one place to three continents (Africa, Asia, Oceania) was subject to significant criticism, especially given the large increase in applications from newly independent African countries. After FIFA confirmed the allocation, the remaining fifteen African nations withdrew in protest.
Fourteen African countries entered the qualification process for the 1970 World Cup: Algeria, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Libya, Morocco, Nigeria, Rhodesia, Senegal, Sudan, Tunisia, Zaire, and Zambia. FIFA rejected the applications of Guinea and Zaire. The Atlas Lions of Morocco played ten matches to qualify for the single CAF spot at the World Cup, advancing along the way past Tunisia by virtue of a coin toss.
Rhodesia, having been expelled from CAF for having a white minority government, entered through the Asia / Oceania qualifying group, where they had to play against Australia in Portuguese - held Mozambique (there was a boycott against playing matches in Rhodesia). The first two matches were drawn, thanks in large part to the excellent Rhodesian goalkeeper Robin Jordan, and the desperate Australians hired a Mozambican sangoma to ' curse ' him. In the third match, Jordan was taken off injured after a collision with another player, Australia won 3 -- 1, then refused to pay the sangoma, got ' cursed ' by the irate man, and were eliminated two weeks later by Israel. Meanwhile, Rhodesia 's CAF expulsion was soon followed by a FIFA expulsion, with Zimbabwe readmitted in 1980.
At the 1970 World Cup, Morocco was placed in Group 4 along with West Germany, Peru, and Bulgaria. They lost 1 -- 2 to eventual semi-finalists West Germany, lost 0 -- 3 to Peru, and drew 1 -- 1 with Bulgaria. The two goalscorers were Houmane Jarir (against West Germany) and Maouhoub Ghazouani (against Bulgaria), who were thus the second and third ever African goalscorers at the World Cup. Morocco finished bottom of the group, on goal difference, with one point - the first African point in the World Cup.
24 African countries entered the qualification process for the 1974 FIFA World Cup, with the Leopards of Zaire eventually qualifying quite comfortably, scoring 18 goals and conceding 5 in the ten matches they played to qualify.
At the 1974 FIFA World Cup, Zaire were placed in Group 2 along with Scotland, Yugoslavia (home of Zaire coach and 1970 Morocco coach Blagoja Vidinić), and Brazil. In their first match against Scotland, they impressed with their fast attacking style, and lost just 0 - 2. Scottish centre - half Jim Holton said after the match "Let 's face it, we underestimated them. For fifteen minutes I wondered what the hell was going on, where the devil had this lot come from, playing stuff like that! ''
The next opponents Yugoslavia had noted holes in the Zairean defence, and fully exploited them to hammer Zaire 9 - 0 in a then record win for World Cup finals, with all but three of their outfield players getting on the scoresheet. Zaire striker Mulamba Ndaye, who was sent off for protesting that a goal by the Yugoslavians was offside, said after the match, "The management had made off with our match bonuses, and we 'd threatened not to play the game. Frankly we 'd lost our morale. We could easily have let in 20 goals. ''
After the defeat, the Zairean team were told by the country 's dictator Mobutu Sese Seko - who had rewarded the players for qualifying with a house and a car each - not to come home if defending champions Brazil beat them 4 - 0 or worse. Zaire managed to keep Brazil to merely a 0 - 3 defeat, with Zairean defender Mwepu Ilunga receiving a yellow card for interfering with a free kick. Zaire left the tournament without scoring a goal.
26 African countries entered the qualification process for 1 spot at the 1978 FIFA World Cup. In comparison, 22 Asia / Oceania countries also competed for 1 spot, while 31 European countries competed for 8.5 spots. Les Aigles de Carthage (The Carthage Eagles) of Tunisia eventually qualified, along the way eliminating Morocco in the first ever penalty shootout in World Cup qualification history. This was a major change for Tunisia, who had been eliminated by Morocco quite literally by chance on three previous occasions in the 1960s.
Tunisia were placed in Group 2 with West Germany, Poland, and Mexico. After Zaire 's fate in 1974, they were not expected to do well. They were 0 - 1 down to Mexico at half - time when their Tunisian coach Abdelmajid Chetali told them that they treated their opponents with too much respect, and that they could still win the game if they tackled hard and imposed their belief and self - confidence. Buoyed by the pep talk, the North Africans scored thrice in the second half to win 3 - 1 and become the first African team to win a match at the World Cup. They lost their next match to Poland 1 - 0, missing several chances, and held West Germany to a goalless draw. While this was not enough to progress to the next round, African football pride had been restored.
This was the first World Cup with 24 teams, and Africa 's representation was doubled. So 29 African countries competed for 2 spots in World Cup qualification. In comparison, 21 Asian nations also competed for 2 spots, but 33 European nations competed for 13 spots. 1978 finalists Tunisia were eliminated in the first round by Nigeria on penalties. Four series of knockout rounds were played, with the final two spots going down to Nigeria vs Algeria, and Morocco vs Cameroon. Both Les Fennecs (The Desert Foxes) of Algeria and Les Lions Indomptables (The Indomitable Lions) of Cameroon won 2 - 0 away and 2 - 1 at home and qualified for the World Cup.
Cameroon were placed in Group 1, where they surprised everyone by remaining undefeated. They drew 0 - 0 with Peru, 0 - 0 with Poland, and 1 - 1 with Italy. Grégoire Mbida scored Cameroon 's first World Cup finals goal. Italy had also drawn its three matches, so also had a goal difference of 0, but had scored two goals to Cameroon 's one, so Cameroon were eliminated. This was especially painful because in their opening match against Peru, Cameroon striker Roger Milla had a goal wrongly disallowed for offside.
Algeria were placed in Group 2 with West Germany, Austria, and Chile. The Africans produced a major upset in the first match, beating West Germany 2 - 1 with goals by Rabah Madjer and Lakhdar Belloumi. They lost their second match 0 - 2 to Austria, then produced another surprise by beating Chile 3 - 2. The day after the Algeria vs Chile match, West Germany and Austria played the final group match in Gijón knowing that a 1 - 0 or 2 - 0 win for West Germany would result in both European teams qualifying at the expense of Algeria on goal difference. West Germany scored after ten minutes, and then both teams appeared to pass the ball aimlessly around for the remaining 80 minutes.
This performance was widely deplored by all observers. The Spanish crowd shouted, "Fuera, fuera! '' ("Out, out! '') while angry Algerian supporters waved banknotes at the players to suggest that the game was fixed. Even the two sides ' fans were disgusted, with an Austrian television commentator advising viewers to turn off their TV sets, a German television commentator refusing to commentate further, and a German fan burning his national flag in protest. Furious Algerian football officials lodged an official protest, but the two teams denied any collusion. As nothing could be proved and the two teams had technically broken no rules, FIFA allowed the result to stand. FIFA did change the rules - in future World Cups, the final two games in each group are played simultaneously. Thus Algeria were eliminated from the 1982 FIFA World Cup at the first hurdle despite two wins.
As with 1982, 29 African countries entered the qualification process for two spots at the World Cup. There were four series of knockout rounds, with four Mediterranean countries making the final round. Algeria beat neighbours Tunisia 7 - 1 on aggregate and becomes the first African team to qualify consecutively for the second time to World Cup. Morocco beat Libya 3 - 1 on aggregate and qualify for their second World Cups.
Algeria were placed in Group D with Brazil, Spain, and Northern Ireland. They did not reach the heights of its previous finals appearance, drawing 1 - 1 with Northern Ireland, losing 0 - 1 to Brazil, and losing 0 - 3 to Spain.
Morocco shocked both Poland and England with goalless draws, and then defeated Portugal 3 - 1 to become the first African team to progress beyond the first round. In the second round, they faced a West German side that had seven survivors from the Shame of Gijón match. Goalkeeper Badou Zaki kept Morocco in the game with a series of excellent saves, but was finally beaten in the 87th minute by Shame of Gijón substitute Lothar Matthäus. West Germany won 1 - 0 and went on to reach their second successive final.
26 African countries entered the qualification process for 2 spots at the 1990 FIFA World Cup. This was the first time African qualification moved from a mostly straight home - away knockout format to include group stages early on. Finally it came down to four teams playing in two playoffs for the final: Algeria vs Egypt and Tunisia vs Cameroon. Cameroon beat Tunisia 2 - 0 at home and 1 - 0 away, and qualified for their second World Cup. However, the playoff between the two North African sides was significantly more ill - tempered.
After a goalless draw in Constantine, Egypt beat Algeria 1 - 0 in Cairo to qualify for the World Cup. After the Cairo match, an Algerian player gouged out an Egyptian team doctor 's eye with a broken bottle. The player blamed, Lakhdar Belloumi (who scored the winning goal in Algeria 's 2 - 1 defeat of West Germany in 1982), was not allowed to travel outside Algeria owing to an Interpol international arrest warrant for twenty years till the (financially compensated) Egyptian doctor dropped the charges in 2009. Belloumi always claimed innocence in the incident, with him and other players pointing the finger at Algerian goalkeeper Kamel Kadri instead.
There was tragedy during the second round Group C match between Nigeria and Angola on 12 August 1989 at the Lagos National Stadium when 24 - year - old Nigerian midfielder (and qualified lawyer) Samuel Okwaraji collapsed and died of congestive heart failure in the 77th minute.
Egypt were placed in Group F with England, Netherlands, and Ireland. It turned out to be one of the tightest groups in World Cup history, with five draws in six games. Egypt drew 1 - 1 with the Netherlands, drew 0 - 0 with Ireland, but lost their final match 0 - 1 to England. Egypt 's only goal of the tournament was a penalty by Magdi Abdelghani against the Netherlands. Egypt were thus eliminated from World Cup, still without a win after losing their only match in 1930.
Cameroon were undoubtedly the surprise package of the tournament. In their first match, they shocked Diego Maradona 's defending champions Argentina 1 - 0 through a goal by François Omam - Biyik, despite finishing their match with nine men. In their next match, they defeated Romania 2 - 1 thanks to two goals from 38 - year - old substitute Roger Milla. These were Milla 's first official goals in the World Cup; he had had a goal against Peru wrongly disallowed for offside during the 1982 FIFA World Cup. Having already qualified for the next round, Cameroon then suffered their first loss (after three draws and two wins) in World Cup history, losing 0 - 4 to the Soviet Union. In the second round, Cameroon defeated Colombia 2 - 1, with Milla again coming on as a second - half substitute to score twice, famously dispossessing Colombian goalkeeper René Higuita for one of them. By this time, Roger Milla, his post-goal celebrations, and Cameroon had firmly implanted themselves in the global footballing consciousness. In the quarter finals, they were seven minutes from qualifying for the semi-finals when England were awarded a penalty. England won the match 3 - 2 after extra time, with three of the five goals coming from penalties (1 for Cameroon, 2 for England).
40 African countries entered the qualification process for 3 spots at the 1994 FIFA World Cup. The extra spot was awarded after the strong performances of Cameroon and Egypt at Italia 90. However, only 28 played all their matches after FIFA rejected Libya (due to UN sanctions) and 11 other nations withdrew at various stages. There was a new qualification format, with two group stages. The big casualty of the first stage was 1990 finalists Egypt, as crowd trouble in Cairo turned a 2 - 1 home victory over Zimbabwe into a crucial 0 - 0 draw when FIFA ordered the match replayed at a neutral location.
In the new second stage of qualification were three groups of three, with winners qualifying for the World Cup. The Super Eagles of Nigeria won Group A on goal difference, beating both Côte d'Ivoire and Algeria 4 - 1 in Lagos. In Group C, Cameroon won the group with 3 wins and a loss away to second placed Zimbabwe, with Guinea coming third.
In Group B were Morocco, Senegal, and Zambia. In the first match, Morocco beat Senegal 1 - 0. In the second match, Zambia were to face Senegal in Dakar. However, the plane carrying the Zambian team crashed en route on 28 April 1993. The crash, attributed to mechanical problems and pilot error, killed all thirty people on board, including nearly the entire football team - 18 players - and coaches, support staff, and plane crew. (The Zambian government had yet to release a report on the investigation of the crash of the military plane even ten years later.) Only two European - based players from the original squad missed the flight - Charles Musonda of Anderlecht, who was injured, and captain Kalusha Bwalya, who was flying in from Europe where he played with PSV Eindhoven. All matches in the group were postponed for a month. Zambia hastily put together a new team, captained by Bwalya, and defeated Morocco 2 - 1 in Lusaka in the first match with the new team with goals from Kalusha Bwalya and Johnson Bwalya (not related). However, they lost their final group match 0 - 1 to Morocco in Casablanca and Morocco won Group B by one point. Amazingly, the rebuilt Chipolopolo (Copper Bullets) also went on to reach the finals of the 1994 African Cup of Nations.
At the 1994 FIFA World Cup finals in the U.S., Cameroon drew their first game in Group B with eventual semi-finalists Sweden 2 - 2 and lost their second to eventual winners Brazil 0 - 3. They were 0 - 3 down to Russia in their third match when half - time substitute Roger Milla scored in the 46th minute (becoming at 42 the oldest man ever to score at the World Cup finals) and sparked brief hopes of a miracle comeback. However, the final score was a 1 - 6 loss to Russia, with Oleg Salenko netting a record - breaking five goals in vain. In Group F, Morocco lost its three matches by a goal each, 0 - 1 to Belgium, 1 - 2 to Saudi Arabia, and 1 - 2 to the Netherlands.
In Group D, Nigeria thumped eventual semi-finalists Bulgaria 3 - 0, then fell to a 1 - 2 loss to Argentina before beating Greece 2 - 0. Nigeria, Bulgaria, and Argentina all finished on six points and qualified for the second round. In the second round, Nigeria faced Italy. Emmanuel Amuneke scored in the 25th minute, leaving Nigeria with a 1 - 0 lead two minutes from the next round when Roberto Baggio scored in the 88th minute. Baggio scored again in extra time to send Nigeria home.
This was the third successive World Cup where an African team progressed beyond the first stage, after Morocco in 1986 and Cameroon in 1990. This was a major factor in FIFA increasing Africa 's allocation from 3 to 5 spots as the World Cup expanded from 24 to 32 four years later.
38 African countries entered the qualification process for 5 spots at the 1998 FIFA World Cup. This was the first time that three points, instead of two, were awarded for a win. Burundi won both their first round qualification matches but then had to withdraw due to civil war. Sierra Leone, who they had just eliminated, took their place in the second round, and then became the first nation in World Cup qualifying history to be eliminated twice in the same qualifying campaign. Eventually, Cameroon, Morocco, Nigeria, and Tunisia qualified for the World Cup finals along with newcomers Bafana Bafana of South Africa, who had only been readmitted to FIFA in 1992.
The five African teams all took European coaches (three Frenchman, one Serb, one Pole) to the finals, making it the first time since 1974 that there was no African coach at the World Cup.
In Group A, Morocco drew their first match 2 - 2 with Norway and then lost 0 - 3 to Brazil. The last two matches in the group were played simultaneously (as they had after the Shame of Gijón in 1982) - with ten minutes left, Morocco were leading Scotland 2 - 0 while Brazil led Norway 1 - 0. But Norway scored twice in the 83rd and 88th minutes to beat Brazil 2 - 1. Morocco also scored once more to beat Scotland 3 - 0, but went home.
In Group B, Cameroon drew their first match 1 - 1 with Austria (the Austrians equalizing in the 90th minute) but then lost 0 - 3 to Italy. Cameroon could have progressed if they won their final group match against Chile, but they drew 1 - 1 and went home. During the final match, Cameroon 's Rigobert Song became the first man to pick up red cards at two World Cups - he was sent off as a 17 - year - old against Brazil in 1994. (The second man to be red carded at two World Cups would be Zinedine Zidane eight years later.)
In Group C, South Africa began their debut World Cup finals campaign with a 0 - 3 loss to hosts and eventual champions France. They then drew 1 - 1 with Denmark, Benni McCarthy scoring their first World Cup finals goal. They needed to win big in their final match against Saudi Arabia but could only manage a 2 - 2 draw, giving away two penalties and only managing to equalize late into injury time with their own penalty, taken by brace - scorer Shaun Bartlett.
In Group D, Nigeria opened with a 3 - 2 win over fancied Spain and another 1 - 0 win over Bulgaria. Having qualified for the next stage, they then lost 1 - 3 to Paraguay. Both Nigeria and Paraguay qualified for the next stage, with Spain losing out despite thumping Bulgaria 6 - 1. However, in the Round of 16, Nigeria were beaten 1 - 4 by Denmark. All Nigeria 's six goals in the tournament came from six different players.
In Group G, Tunisia lost their first two matches 0 - 2 to England and 0 - 1 to Colombia. They then managed to draw 1 - 1 with Romania, who had won their first two matches and topped the group. Thus Tunisia 's second appearance at the World Cup (after 1978) ended in them scoring only one goal, a penalty.
Thus only 2 of Africa 's 5 representatives came away with at least one win. However, there was an African representative in the second round for the fourth time in succession.
51 African countries entered the qualification process for five spots at the 2002 FIFA World Cup. Four of the five 1998 finalists again made it through, with Les Lions de la Teranga (Teranga Lions) of Senegal replacing Morocco. Senegal and Morocco topped the same qualification group each with four wins, three draws, and a loss, but Senegal had a seven - goal superior goal difference thanks to their 9 -- 0 aggregate thrashings of group minnows Namibia. In contrast, the Namibians had managed to hold Morocco to a goalless draw in Windhoek.
Like Cameroon 12 years earlier, Senegal started with a shock 1 - 0 win over the defending champions and went on to reach the quarter finals. In Group A, after beating France 1 - 0 with a goal from Papa Bouba Diop, they drew 1 - 1 with eventual group winners Denmark. In their final match against Uruguay, they were leading 3 - 0 at half - time. In the second half, the South Americans - for whom a win would have them progress at Senegal 's expense - scored twice, and then a third time with an 88th - minute penalty kick. Senegal survived the frenetic final minutes of the game to hang on to a 3 - 3 result. Thus and Senegal progressed to the next round while former champions Uruguay and France went home. In the Round of 16, a golden goal in extra time (to add to his 37th - minute strike) from Henri Camara took Senegal 2 - 1 past Sweden after extra time. But in the quarter - finals against Turkey, they were eliminated by a golden goal four minutes into extra time.
In Group B, South Africa drew 2 - 2 with Paraguay with an injury time penalty, then scored their first ever World Cup win by beating Slovenia 1 - 0. However a 2 - 3 loss to Spain then sent South Africa home. In Group E, Cameroon drew 1 - 1 with Republic of Ireland, beat Saudi Arabia 1 - 0, and then lost 0 - 2 to Germany. In Group F, Nigeria lost 0 - 1 to Argentina, lost 1 - 2 to Sweden, and having been eliminated, held England to a 0 - 0 draw. In Group H, Tunisia lost 0 - 2 to Russia, drew 1 - 1 with Belgium, and lost 0 - 2 to co-hosts Japan.
Of Africa 's five representatives, three won at least once, but only one progressed beyond the first round. Still, Senegal 's surprise run made it the fifth successive time an African nation had made it to the Round of 16, and the second time an African country had reached the quarter finals. Three of the five African nations (South Africa, Nigeria, Tunisia) took a local coach to the World Cup; only one of those three scored a win.
51 African countries entered the race for 5 spots at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in a qualification process that doubled as one for the 2006 Africa Cup of Nations. In the final qualification round, teams were organized into five groups of six teams, with winners qualifying for the World Cup and the top three for the continental tournament. More matches were needed to qualify - while at both the 1998 and 2002 32 - team World Cups, 3 of the 5 African teams played only 6 matches to get to the finals, here 3 of the 5 teams that qualified played 12 matches. Four of Africa 's five representatives to the 2006 FIFA World Cup finals were debutants, in contrast to 2002 when four of five had appeared at the previous World Cup.
In Group 1, Togo beat 2002 World Cup quarterfinalists Senegal by two points. The Black Stars of Ghana won Group 2 by five points while in Group 3, Les Éléphants of Côte d'Ivoire lost both its matches to Cameroon but won the group since Cameroon drew too often. In Group 5, Tunisia won the group one point ahead of 1998 finalists and perennial rivals Morocco. Although Morocco was the only African team (of those who played a match) to remain undefeated, it drew half its matches. In Group 4, Angola and Nigeria both finished with 21 points after 10 matches, with Nigeria having a far superior goal difference thanks largely to scoring five goals against both Algeria and 3rd placed Zimbabwe in their last two matches. However, it had already been decided that head to head results were to be used to break such ties in 2006 World Cup Qualification before goal difference. The Palancas Negras (Black Antelopes) of Angola, having beaten Nigeria 2 - 1 on aggregate, qualified for the World Cup.
At the World Cup Finals, Côte d'Ivoire lost its first two Group C matches 1 - 2 to Argentina and 1 - 2 to the Netherlands before coming back from 0 - 2 down to beat Serbia and Montenegro 3 - 2. In Group D, Angola - the only African team at the finals with a local coach (Luís Oliveira Gonçalves) - lost their first match 0 - 1 to Portugal, then drew 0 - 0 with Mexico and 1 - 1 with Iran. In Group G, Togo made more news off the pitch with disputes over team bonuses causing coach Otto Pfister to walk out on the team until just before the first match and FIFA officials having to step in to stop players threatening to boycott the second match. Togo lost 1 - 2 to South Korea, lost 0 - 2 to Switzerland, and 0 - 2 to eventual finalists France. In Group H, Tunisia drew 2 - 2 with Saudi Arabia, lost 1 - 3 to Spain (including an injury time penalty from Fernando Torres), and 0 - 1 to Ukraine.
In Group E, Ghana began with up a 0 - 2 loss to eventual winners Italy with a 2 - 0 win over the Czech Republic and a 2 - 1 win over the U.S.. Thus the debutants ensured an African representative in the Round of 16 for the sixth successive World Cup. They lost 0 - 3 to Brazil in the Round of 16. The match was later alleged to have been fixed, charges immediately denied by the Ghana Football Association.
While for the sixth successive time there was an African team in the Round of 16, Africa remained the only continent (other than Oceania) to never have two teams reach the Round of 16 at the same World Cup.
The 2010 FIFA World Cup was the first time the World Cup was staged in Africa, with South Africa being the hosts. Their national team became the first World Cup hosts to get knocked out in the first round. Nigeria, Algeria, Ivory Coast and Cameroon also exited the tournament after the Group stages
However, Ghana progressed beyond the group stages of the FIFA World Cup for the second time in a row, and defeated the U.S. 2 - 1 after extra time in the Round of 16, which saw them reach the quarter - finals, becoming the third African nation to do so. In the quarter - finals, they were eliminated by Uruguay. Ghana were defeated by Uruguay on penalties after Luis Suárez controversially handballed on the goal line deep into extra time, denying Ghana an almost certain winning goal. The penalty that followed, was missed by Asamoah Gyan. Had Ghana won their quarter final they would have become the first African nation to progress to the semi finals of the world cup. Of the 32 countries that participated in the 2010 FIFA World Cup, FIFA ranked Ghana 7th.
The 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil marked the first time more than one African team went beyond the group stages. While Ghana and Cameroon both collected disappointing results (apart from Ghana 's 2 - 2 draw with later champions Germany, which saw them becoming the only team not to lose against the Germans in the entire tournament) and eventually ended fourth in their group, Ivory Coast were also knocked out in the first round after a last - minute penalty kick against Greece and ended third in Group C, above Japan, whom they had defeated 2 - 1 in their first match.
Africa 's pride, however, was saved by both Nigeria and Algeria. The Nigerians kicked off their Group F campaign with a disappointing 0 - 0 draw against Iran, before eventually defeating debutants Bosnia and Herzegovina 1 - 0. Stephen Keshi 's team went down 3 - 2 to later finalists Argentina in their final match, leaving them on the brink of elimination, but Iran lost to the Bosnians 3 - 1 and Nigeria went through to the Round of 16 for the third time in history, after 1998 and 1994.
Algeria lost 2 - 1 to a strong Belgium in their opening match in Group H, a loss which was followed by an unexpected 4 - 2 victory over the Korean Republic in Porto Alegre in their second match. In their final Group H encounter, a hard - won 1 - 1 draw with Russia was enough to send the North Africans through to the next round.
In the Round of 16, both African teams fell just short to beat the likes of France (Nigeria) and Germany (Algeria), but the fact that two African nations had reached that far, was a reason to be optimistic about the future of African football.
During the 2014 edition, Ghana striker Asamoah Gyan became Africa 's all - time leading topscorer at the FIFA World Cup, having scored 6 goals in 3 World Cups, thus exceeding Cameroon veteran Roger Milla 's 5 goals.
Like in many former World Cup editions, Africa 's participation was marked by political and financial conflicts, as well as instability between teams and staff, which caused outrage about mainly the Cameroon and Ghana camps, which had taken drastic measures to keep the players happy.
As per statistical convention in football, matches decided in extra time are counted as wins and losses, while matches decided by penalty shoot - outs are counted as draws. 3 points per win, 1 point per draw and 0 points per loss.
As of Jul 01, 2014.
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who drove the 48 car before jimmie johnson | Jimmie Johnson - Wikipedia
Jimmie Kenneth Johnson (born September 17, 1975) is an American professional stock car racing driver and a seven - time champion in the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series. He currently drives the No. 48 Chevrolet SS for Hendrick Motorsports.
Johnson was born in El Cajon, California, and began racing motorcycles at the age of four. After graduating from Granite Hills High School he competed in off - road series. He raced in Mickey Thompson Entertainment Group (MTEG), Short - course Off - road Drivers Association (SODA) and SCORE International, winning rookie of the year in each series. In 1998, Johnson and his team, Herzog Motorsports, began stock car racing. He moved to the national American Speed Association (ASA) series for late model touring cars, and won another rookie of the year title. In 2000, he switched to the NASCAR Busch Series (now Xfinity Series).
He moved to Hendrick Motorsports in the Winston Cup Series in 2002 (now Monster Energy Cup Series). After finishing fifth in the points in his first full season, he was second in 2003 and 2004 and fifth in 2005. Johnson won his first Cup Series championship in 2006 and with further wins in 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2010, he became the first and only driver in NASCAR history to win five consecutive championships. Johnson finished sixth in the points standings in the 2011 season and third in 2012 before winning his sixth championship in 2013. In 2016, Johnson won his seventh championship, tying Richard Petty and Dale Earnhardt for the most Cup Series championships of all time. Johnson is also a two - time winner of the Daytona 500, winning in 2006 and 2013. Between 2002 and 2017, Johnson has recorded seven championships, 83 career race wins, 221 top fives, 335 top tens, and 35 pole positions.
Johnson started racing motorcycles in 1980 when he was four. Three years later, he won the 60cc class championship, despite having an injured knee. Afterward, he moved to the Mickey Thompson Entertainment Group (MTEG) Stadium Racing Series where he won several more awards. In 1993, Johnson was given the opportunity to drive for Herb Fishel. He refused the deal and continued racing buggies and trucks in off - road stadium and desert races. He also reported for ESPN in the Short Course Off - Road Drivers Association (SODA). Three years later, Johnson drove for Herzog Motorsports in the off - road truck series in 1996. By 1997, Johnson had progressed to SODA 's Class 8; Class 8 is short - course off - road racing 's class of two - wheel - drive Trophy Trucks which generate about 800 horsepower. He battled Scott Taylor and Brendan Gaughan for the championship. That year, Johnson won both races at Lake Geneva Raceway 's first race weekend in May. He also won the season 's third event at Antigo before finishing second to Gaughan at Antigo 's second race. Johnson returned to Lake Geneva in July, winning the Saturday race and finished 2nd on the following day. Taylor ended up winning the championship with Gaughan second and Johnson third. During his time in the SODA, SCORE and MTEG series, he accumulated over 25 wins, 100 top - three finishes, six championships, and received Rookie of the Year honors in all three leagues.
In 1998, he began racing on asphalt ovals when he entered the American Speed Association (ASA) as well as part - time in the NASCAR Busch Series (now Xfinity Series). In the same year, Johnson won the ASA Pat Schauer Memorial Rookie title. One year later, he had two wins and finished third in the standings. In 2000, he was announced the driver for Herzog Motorsports in the Busch Series. During the season, he had a spectacular accident on lap 46 during the Lysol 200 at Watkins Glen when his brakes failed entering the first turn. He had to swerve quickly to the right to avoid the 86 of Dennis Demers, but went into the grass on the inside of turn one, then went back across the track, caught some air on the gravel trap before finally crashing head - on into the carafoam barriers at the far end of the turn while still more than 150 + MPH. Many feared that this accident could have resulted in career ending injuries or potentially have killed him, but he climbed out of the car unscathed and raised his fists in the air like he 'd won the race, much to the delight of the crowd. Otherwise, in a rather uneventful season which featured one DNQ at Daytona and 6 top - 10 's, he finished tenth in the point standings. During the 2001 season, Johnson recorded one win, which was at Chicagoland Speedway, and finished eighth in the point standings. He also began racing in the Winston Cup Series (now Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series) for Hendrick Motorsports. In the following season, Johnson left Herzog Motorsports to move to Hendrick Motorsports in the Winston Cup Series, driving the No. 48 Lowe 's Chevrolet.
Johnson began racing full - time in the Winston Cup Series during the 2002 season. He earned his first career pole position for the Daytona 500, becoming the second rookie to do so (the first was Loy Allen Jr. in 1994). In his 13th career start, Johnson scored his first career win in the NAPA Auto Parts 500 at Auto Club Speedway. Johnson became the first rookie driver to lead the point standings and to win twice at the same track during a season, by sweeping both races at Dover. He recorded four pole positions and three wins (tying the rookie record set by Tony Stewart in 1999), as well as six top fives and twenty - one top ten finishes. He finished fifth in the final point standings.
During 2003, Johnson finished ninth on the all - time list for consecutive weeks ranked in the top ten in points with 69. He won three races (Coca - Cola 600 at Charlotte and both New Hampshire races), two poles (at Kansas Speedway and Pocono Raceway), fourteen top fives, and twenty top ten finishes. He also was able to win the All - Star race for the first time, as well as finishing second with just 90 points behind Matt Kenseth and 207 ahead of his future teammate Dale Earnhardt, Jr.
In 2004, Johnson started slowly at Rockingham Speedway and Las Vegas Motor Speedway with results of 41st and 16th, after a top ten finish in the Daytona 500. However, he quickly was able to rebound winning the Carolina Dodge Dealers 400 at Darlington Raceway. Subsequent victories in the Coca - Cola 600, the Pocono 500, and the Pennsylvania 500 came in the middle of the season, seeing Johnson sweep the Pocono races. However, finishes of 37th and 32nd at Talladega Superspeedway and Kansas moved him toward the bottom of the point standings. Afterward, he was able to win the UAW - GM Quality 500 at Lowe 's Motor Speedway. The second victory of the 2004 Chase for the Nextel Cup, at the Subway 500 at Martinsville on October 24, 2004, was marred by tragedy. Owner Rick Hendrick 's son Ricky, twin nieces, brother, and chief engine builder Randy Dorton as well as Joe Turner, Scott Lathram were killed in an airplane crash en route to the race. All eight passengers and both pilots died in the incident, and Johnson was told after completion of the race. Johnson had a total of eight wins, 20 top five and 23 top ten finishes. At the end of the season, Johnson finished second in the point standings.
In 2005, Johnson won at Las Vegas, Lowe 's Motor Speedway, Dover International Speedway, and then again at Lowe 's. In total, Johnson had four consecutive wins at his sponsor (Lowe 's) sponsored track in Charlotte, North Carolina. Johnson had a chance to win the championship coming into the November 20 season finale at Homestead - Miami Speedway, but finished 5th in points after crashing at the midway point of the event with a tire problem. He scored 13 top - fives, 22 top - 10 finishes, and one pole position.
In 2006, Johnson began the season by winning the Daytona 500. He finished second in the next race at California Speedway and won the UAW - DaimlerChrysler 400 at Las Vegas. Johnson won his third race of the season in the Aaron 's 499 at Talladega, followed by two more victories at Indianapolis and Martinsville Throughout the season, he became the only modern era driver to win at least three races in each of his first five seasons. At the end of the season, he recorded one pole, 13 top fives, 24 top tens, and his first championship title (this was also the first in his NASCAR career). In December, Johnson won the 2006 Driver of the Year Award.
During the 2007 season, Johnson continued on a streak and recorded 10 wins, four poles, 20 top fives, and again 24 top ten finishes. Those 10 wins included sweeping both races at Richmond, Atlanta, and Martinsville. He also won at Las Vegas, Auto Club, Texas, and Phoenix. Afterwards, he won his second consecutive championship title and was named the 2007 Driver of the Year. Johnson also had the best average finish in the Chase with 5.0. At the end of the season, he had a total of 33 career wins, placing him 18th on the all - time wins list.
In December 2007, Johnson commenced a program of exercise sessions and a run schedule supervised by John Sitaras, in order to balance his strength. Sitaras ' initial assessment found that half of his body was much tighter, having acclimated to offsetting the g - force load from turning left while driving. In two years, Johnson 's body fat percentage dropped from 20 % to 8 % (visible also in the change of the shape of his face), while his strength and stamina greatly improved. Johnson later became the first racing driver to be named Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year (in 2009).
After the 2008 season, Johnson became the second driver to win three consecutive NASCAR Cup Series championships, the first being Cale Yarborough. During the season, he managed to win seven races (including a sweep at Phoenix), a career high of six poles, 15 top fives, and 22 top tens. In five of those seven wins, he started from the pole. He became the only driver to record three wins in each of their first seven seasons. In the Chase for the Championship, he recorded 14 wins, eight more than any other driver. He also was named the 2008 Driver of the Year and won an ESPY as the Best Driver. After the season, he also moved to third on the active winners list.
In the 2009 season, Johnson recorded his fourth consecutive championship, becoming the only driver to win four back - to - back season titles. Throughout this season, he won seven races (including a third consecutive Checker Auto Parts 500 and both Dover races), four poles, 16 top fives, and 24 top ten finishes. Johnson now became the only driver to win at least three races in each of his first eight seasons, as well as the only driver to qualify for the Chase for the Championship every year since 2004. During the season, he moved up one spot up to second on the active winners list and went to 13th on the all - time wins list. After the season concluded, he won an ESPY for the second consecutive year, and won the Driver of the Year award for the third time, tying Jeff Gordon, Mario Andretti, and Darrell Waltrip as the only three time drivers to win the award.
During 2010, Johnson managed to win his fifth consecutive championship, becoming the third driver who made up points to win the title since 1975. During the season, he scored two poles, 17 top fives, 23 top tens and six victories. He also remained the only driver to qualify for the Chase every year since its inception in 2004. He became the 12th, and currently the last driver, to win 50 + NASCAR races when he won at Bristol in March, and went up to 10th on the all - time wins list. Johnson was also named Driver of the Year for the fourth time in his career, joining Gordon as the only drivers to win the award that many times. He also managed to win Tony Stewart 's charity race, the Prelude to the Dream, his first victory on a dirt oval.
In 2011, Johnson began the season with a fourth - place finish in the Budweiser Shootout, after starting from the 23rd position. One week later in the 2011 Daytona 500, he started 23rd, but finished 27th after being involved in a crash on lap 29. During the Subway Fresh Fit 500, he managed a third - place finish. Following a 16th - place finish after the Kobalt Tools 400 he collected two consecutive top - five finishes.
Statistically, Johnson 's 2011 season was his second worst performance to date, even though he finished sixth in the points. He only won two races during the season. The first was the Aaron 's 499 at Talladega Superspeedway, where Johnson started on the outside pole, and tandem - drafted with Dale Earnhardt, Jr. for the entire race. On the last lap, with Johnson in front, he and Earnhardt, Jr. were in fifth and sixth off of turn 4, behind two other pairs of cars - their Hendrick teammates Jeff Gordon and Mark Martin, and the Richard Childress drafting pair of Clint Bowyer and Kevin Harvick. In the tri-oval, Earnhardt, Jr. gave Johnson enough of a push to nip Bowyer at the finish line by 0.002 seconds. This was the closest recorded finish in Talladega history, and tied the 2003 Carolina Dodge Dealers 400 for closest margin of victory in NASCAR history. After finishing in the first 15 positions in the next four races, Johnson failed to finish the Coca - Cola 600 after his engine failed. The next week, in the Heluva Good! Sour Cream Dips 400, Johnson spun off turn two, flattening multiple tires, and breaking the sway bar which prompted him to a finish of 27th. During the Toyota / Save Mart 350, Johnson finished seventh after starting 12th on the grid. The finish moved Johnson to third in the Drivers ' standings.
After returning to Daytona International Speedway for the Coke Zero 400, Johnson and Earnhardt, Jr. ran together for most of the race, like at Talladega, until Johnson pitted under a caution flag. Johnson fell down the grid and was involved in a last lap accident, prompting him to finish 20th. During the next two races, Johnson finished third and fifth in the Quaker State 400 and the Lenox Industrial Tools 301. Two weeks later, Johnson found himself finishing 19th during the Brickyard 400 after coming to pit road with 30 laps remaining in the event. Johnson finished fourth in the Good Sam RV Insurance 500, after bumping Kurt Busch on the final lap. In the next race, Johnson managed to finish tenth. Johnson finished in the top - five in the following three races. During the last race of the regular season, the Wonderful Pistachios 400, Johnson finished in the 31st position. While at Chicagoland Speedway for the GEICO 400, Johnson finished 10th. Afterward, Johnson managed to finish 18th in the Sylvania 300, then second in the AAA 400. One week later, Johnson recorded his second victory of the season in the Hollywood Casino 400. During the Bank of America 500, Johnson was involved in a crash and finished 34th. In the following race, Johnson finished second. For the next two races, Johnson finished 14th in each, and finished 32nd in the Ford 400 to finish sixth in the Driver 's championship standings.
The third NASCAR Championship for Tony Stewart marked the first time since 2005 that someone other than Johnson was the champion.
Johnson began the 2012 season with a 14th - place finish in the Budweiser Shootout after crashing on lap 74. During the Daytona 500, Johnson was involved in a crash on lap 2 when he turned into the wall after contact from Elliott Sadler, then was t - boned by David Ragan, also collecting Danica Patrick, Kurt Busch and Trevor Bayne. Damage to the car was severe, prompting him to retire and finish 42nd. Afterward, he finished fourth and second in the Subway Fresh Fit 500 and Kobalt Tools 400. While at Bristol Motor Speedway for the Food City 500, Johnson finished in the ninth position, moving him up to 11th in the Drivers ' Standings. Next, Johnson finished tenth in the Auto Club 400, despite having an oil leak, but the rain saved Johnson from a low finish. He went on to finish twelfth during the spring event at Martinsville after being involved in a crash on the first green - white - checker attempt. In the following event, the Samsung Mobile 500, Johnson finished second after leading much of the race before he was passed by Greg Biffle. Afterward, he recorded a third - place finish in the STP 400 at Kansas on April 22, 2012, and a sixth - place finish in the Capital City 400 at Richmond one week later. On May 6, 2012, Johnson started 19th in the Aaron 's 499 at Talladega, but finished 35th after his engine failed on lap 110.
Johnson won his first race of the season one week later in the Bojangles ' Southern 500 at Darlington. The win was also Rick Hendrick 's 200th NASCAR Cup Series win. A week later, he matched Gordon and Dale Earnhardt with three wins in the NASCAR Sprint All - Star Race after winning the 2012 NASCAR Sprint All - Star Race. Next, in the Coca - Cola 600, Johnson finished 11th in the race after a penalty on lap 354. After the Coca - Cola 600, Johnson went on to win his second race of the season in the FedEx 400. In the Pocono 400, he recorded a fourth - place finish after starting 24th on the grid. During the next two races, Johnson placed fifth, moving him to fourth in the standings. Afterward, Johnson finished sixth after winning his first pole position of the season in the Quaker State 400. However, in the Coke Zero 400, Johnson finished 36th after retiring from a crash on lap 124. After finishing seventh during the Lenox Industrial Tools 301, Johnson recorded his third victory of the season and his fourth career win at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, tying Jeff Gordon for what was the record for the most wins in the Brickyard 400.
After making the NASCAR Chase for the Championship, Johnson secured three straight top five finishes in the GEICO 400, Sylvania 300 and AAA 400. Following a seventeenth - place finish in Good Sam Roadside Assistance 500, Johnson recorded four top - ten finishes, including two consecutive wins from the pole position at Martinsville and Texas, which was his sixtieth win in the series, to take a seven - point lead over Brad Keselowski. At Phoenix, Johnson blew a right front tire, which caused him to collide into the wall and finish in the 32nd position. He was racing for the win and the championship the following week at Homestead, but his chances of winning the championship was over after he had a pit road penalty and had a gear failure and he finished 36th in that race, and finished third in the Drivers Championship behind Keselowski and Bowyer.
In 2013, Johnson began his season with a 14th - place finish in the 2013 Sprint Unlimited when he crashed on lap 14 along with Kyle Busch, Kurt Busch, Mark Martin, Jeff Gordon, and Denny Hamlin. Afterward, he placed fourth in the first Budweiser Duel, resulting in a ninth - place starting position in the 2013 Daytona 500. In the Daytona 500, Johnson started well, assuming the lead from Jeff Gordon on lap 33 and leading a handful of laps before falling back to the middle of the pack. Over the last few laps, Johnson was racing alongside Brad Keselowski for the lead until a caution came out for debris. Johnson took the advantage of leading on the last restart. With five laps to go, Johnson led a lane with Greg Biffle and Danica Patrick. He then held off a last lap charge from Dale Earnhardt, Jr. and Mark Martin to win his second Daytona 500. This was Johnson 's first Daytona 500 win with regular crew chief Chad Knaus, as he won the 2006 race with Darian Grubb as Knaus was serving a five - race suspension. It was also the first time since his 2006 win that he finished better than 27th in the Daytona 500, after a streak of six years where he had never finished better than 27th because of crashes and mechanical failures.
The following week at Phoenix, Johnson started inside the top ten and finished second behind Carl Edwards. He followed this with a sixth - place finish at Las Vegas. At Bristol, he was running on the lead lap until a spin late race forced him back to a 22nd - place finish. At Fontana, he struggled for most of the race, racing near the back of the pack, but managed to salvage a 12th - place finish. Johnson won his first pole position of the season at Martinsville and had the dominant car, leading 346 of 500 laps on the way to his eighth Martinsville race win. Johnson also assumed the point lead as well, which he would hold on to for the remainder of the regular season. Johnson 's consistency was enough that there were points in the summer where he was more than a full two race wins ' worth of points ahead of Carl Edwards or Clint Bowyer. Afterward, Johnson finished sixth at Texas. At Kansas, he led nine laps and finished third behind Matt Kenseth and Kasey Kahne. Johnson finished 12th the following week at Richmond, allowing him to build even further on his point lead. At Talladega, he was the only driver besides Matt Kenseth to lead double digit laps (16), and finished in fifth place. A fourth - place finish the following week at Darlington allowed Johnson to further solidify his point lead over Edwards.
In the 2013 NASCAR Sprint All - Star Race, Johnson won his record fourth All - Star race after a fast pit stop allowed him to start the final 10 - lap sprint in second, and later managed to pass Kasey Kahne for the victory. One week later, Johnson finished 22nd after spinning sideways late in the race. At Dover, Johnson led 143 laps, but finished 17th when he jumped Juan Pablo Montoya on the last restart causing NASCAR to issue him a penalty. He was able to redeem himself for this mistake the following week at Pocono by earning the pole position, leading the most laps, and winning his third race of the season, which increased his point lead to 51 points over Edwards. This also snapped a nine - year winless streak for Johnson at Pocono since sweeping both of the track 's 2004 NASCAR Cup Series races. At the Quicken Loans 400 at Michigan, Johnson closed in on Greg Biffle for the lead with less than ten laps left, but suffered a flat tire with less than five laps to go. Johnson would finish the race in 28th, his worst finish of the season to that point. Johnson then finished ninth at Sonoma. At Kentucky, Johnson started third. He had the dominant car of the race, leading 182 of 267 laps. However, on a restart on lap 246, Johnson was slow to get up to speed and was subsequently touched and spun by Joey Logano, costing Johnson a shot at the win and giving the race to Matt Kenseth. Johnson was able to charge through the field after the caution and restart to salvage a ninth - place finish.
Returning to Daytona for the Coke Zero 400, Johnson led 94 laps and held off Tony Stewart and Kevin Harvick on a green - white - checker finish to win his fourth race of the year. In winning the race, Johnson became the first driver since Bobby Allison in 1982 to sweep both Daytona races in a season. This was a significant improvement in Johnson 's runs on the restrictor plate tracks, as he had been crashed out of the running at both Daytona races in 2012, had an engine failure early while leading at Talladega in the spring and was part of a crash on the last lap in the fall. Also, he was one of only three drivers to sweep the top ten, the other two drivers being Ryan Newman and Dale Earnhardt, Jr.
At New Hampshire for the Camping World RV Sales 301, Johnson qualified second, but failed post-qualifying inspection after his car was found to be too low, and started the race in 43rd, the first time in his career he started dead last. In the race, Johnson passed seven cars in the first four laps and reached the Top 20 by lap 50, while reaching the top ten by lap 165; Johnson would finish sixth. He almost won the pole position at Indianapolis but was bumped to second by Ryan Newman. Johnson led the most laps and almost won, but a slow final pit stop cost him the race to Newman. The following week at Pocono, Johnson won another pole position, setting another track qualifying record. He led 43 of the first 80 laps before he cut a right front tire that knocked a spark plug loose and affected the handling of the car. Johnson 's pit crew worked hard to repair the car, fixing the plug on the last pit stop, and managing to salvage a 13th - place finish after racing near the back of the pack for most of the race.
Returning to Michigan, Johnson qualified third but crashed in happy hour, forcing him to a backup car and a 43rd starting spot. After running up to the lead through pit stop strategy, Johnson lost an engine on lap 55, relegating him to a 40th - place finish. This was followed by a streak of three poor finishes of 36th at Bristol, 28th at Atlanta, and 40th at Richmond due to crashes and mechanical failures.
Johnson started the Chase seeded in second place. He started the Chase with a fifth - place finish at Chicago, followed by a fourth - place finish at New Hampshire. At Dover, Johnson led 243 laps and held off Dale Earnhardt, Jr. over the last 25 laps to win his eighth race at the track, also redeeming himself for the restart line violation that had cost him a shot at winning the June race.
Johnson spent the next several races chasing Matt Kenseth for the points lead, eventually gaining it at Talladega, though losing it when he and Kenseth tied for points lead at Martinsville. Returning to Texas, Johnson had the dominant car, leading 255 laps to his sixth win of the season. The following weekend at Phoenix, Johnson avoided trouble in tight racing on two separate occasions (a near scrape in turn 4 on the first lap, and later a near spin after contact with Carl Edwards in turn 1) to escape with a third - place finish. He also capitalized on Kenseth suffering from a poor - handling car. With Kenseth finishing 23rd, Johnson took a 28 - point lead to the season finale at Homestead - Miami Speedway. In the finale, Johnson raced conservatively to a ninth - place finish to secure his sixth title. He closed out the season with six wins, three poles, 16 top five and 24 top ten finishes, with an average finish of 9.8 and average start of 10.7.
Statistically, 2014 was Johnson 's worst season to date. He started the season on an up - and - down note, but went winless through the first 11 races of the 2014 season (his best finish was 2nd at Martinsville). Skepticism began to arise, as he had never gone more than 12 races into a season without a win, and had n't gone that long since the first few years of his Cup career. However, Johnson won the Coca - Cola 600, his first win in the race since 2005. Afterward, he went on to win at Dover the following week, making it the 13th time he had back - to - back wins.
A few weeks later, Johnson recorded his first win at Michigan, after several years of being deprived of a shot at victory as the result of running out of gas or blowing an engine. However, he did n't keep up with the momentum. After finishing in the top ten at Sonoma and Kentucky, Johnson was collected in an early wreck in the Coke Zero 400, finishing 42nd. Johnson 's streak of misfortune continued the next several weeks, finishing 42nd for the second week in a row at New Hampshire. This was followed up by an inconsistent run at Indy (14th), and poor showings resulting from accidents at Pocono (39th) and Watkins Glen (28th). Despite the poor finishes, Johnson qualified fourth for the Chase.
In the Chase, Johnson finished 12th at Chicagoland, fifth at New Hampshire, and third at Dover to advance to the Contender Round. However, trouble struck when he finished 40th and 17th in the next two races.
At Talladega, Johnson started second and he led a high of 84 laps. However, a 24th - place finish kept him from advancing to the Eliminator Round. At Martinsville, Johnson started seventh but finished 39th after being involved in a crash early in the race. Returning to Texas, Johnson dominated and held off Brad Keselowski and Kevin Harvick to score his third straight win in the fall Texas race, and also ended an 18 - race - winless - streak. At Phoenix, he struggled for most of the day and finished 38th after blowing a tire and crashing out. At the season finale at Homestead, Johnson finished ninth, and closed out finishing 11th in points. This marks the first time in Johnson 's NASCAR Cup career that he has finished outside of the top ten in the final points.
Johnson began his season with a win in the Budweiser Duel. He started the season by finishing fifth in the Daytona 500 for the second year in a row. The following week, he won the Folds of Honor QuikTrip 500 at Atlanta.
At Las Vegas, Johnson crashed twice into the outside wall, leaving him with a 41st - place finish. He managed to rebound with an 11th - place finish in Phoenix and a ninth - place finish at California, his first top ten there in two years. At Martinsville, he struggled to a 35th - place finish. However, his momentum returned at Texas when he managed to hold off Kevin Harvick and Dale Earnhardt, Jr. to win. At Bristol, he avoided tight trouble early in the race and managed to come home second to polesitter Matt Kenseth. At Richmond, he finished third. These finishes moved him back up to fourth in the standings. At Talladega, Johnson started fifth and led 50 laps, only to finish second to Earnhardt, Jr.
At Kansas, Johnson gambled by staying out on the last round of pit stops, and held off Harvick and Earnhardt again to win his third race at Kansas and of the season. In winning, he established a Cup record of 23 wins on 1.5 - mile tracks, taking what was both his 200th top five and his 300th top ten finish. At Charlotte, he spun out on two occasions. The first time was early in the race while running 16th coming out of turn 4 but he was lucky to avoid hitting anything. He was n't so lucky on the second spin late in the race; while running fifth, he spun out again at exactly the same place, and hit the wall in pit road, causing some nose damage. Those spin - outs would leave him with a 40th - place finish. He rebounded the following week with a win at Dover, and also became one of four drivers to have won 10 or more races at one track. This gave him a total of 74 career wins, two fewer than Dale Earnhardt 's 76.
At Pocono, Johnson cut a tire on lap 88, but did not take major damage. He was able to work his way through the field to finish in third place. He finished 19th at Michigan after the race was called for rain on lap 138. At Sonoma, Johnson led the most laps at 45 laps, but a late race caution caused by Casey Mears ' broken wheel axle cost him, and he was passed by Kyle Busch with five laps to go, and slipped back to sixth place.
Returning to Daytona, Johnson started 12th and led 35 laps before finishing second to Dale Earnhardt, Jr., in a repeat of the Talladega race. At Kentucky, Johnson started sixth and ran inside the top ten for most of the night, finishing ninth. At the second stop in Pocono, Johnson, along with two of his Hendrick teammates, Jeff Gordon, and Dale Earnhardt, Jr, took advantage of several cars running out of fuel to finish in the Top 6 (Gordon finished 3rd, Dale Jr. took 4th, Johnson grabbed 6th). At Watkins Glen, despite suffering two penalties (lap 3: Overshooting the entrance to the inner loop, and caution No. 1 (lap 26 - 28): Speeding through pit road) Johnson rallied to finish 10th. He was n't so lucky at Michigan; late in the race, he got loose and spun in turn 3, and damaged the splitter on his car, resulting in a 39th - place finish (10 laps down). He rebounded at Bristol by finishing 4th, but had bad luck once more at Darlington. He spun out on lap 134 in turn 4, bringing out the 7th caution, and was never a real threat. He ended up 19th. He was able to recover a bit for a 9th - place finish at Richmond, and started 1st in the Chase in a three - way - tie between him, Kyle Busch, and Matt Kenseth.
Johnson opened up the Chase in a rough way. At Chicagoland, he blew a left front tire early in the race, but was able to charge through the field to salvage an 11th - place finish. He also was the subject of controversy when he made contact with Kevin Harvick on a three - wide pass that led to Harvick cutting a left rear tire, leaving Harvick with a 42nd - place finish.
At Loudon, Johnson finished 6th after blowing a tire in the 3rd position. At Dover, his Chase hopes came to an end when his car broke a drive line, leading him to finish 36 laps down in 41st place. At the fall race at Texas Johnson won, passing Brad Keselowski with 4 laps to go. This marked his fourth consecutive win in the fall race, and third consecutive win on that track, having also won the spring race. That victory also marked the 75th of his NASCAR Cup Series career, putting him one race win short of tying Dale Earnhardt 's career wins. Also in the process, he snapped a 20 - race - winless - streak.
Johnson finished 5th at Phoenix, and for the third year in a row, he finished 9th at Homestead. Also in the process, he edged out Ryan Newman by 1 point to finish 10th in the final standings. With the retirement of his teammate and mentor, Jeff Gordon, Johnson assumed the active wins record with 75.
Johnson began the 2016 season with a 16th - place finish at the Daytona 500. In the next race at Atlanta Motor Speedway, he won his 1st race of the season and the 76th of his career, tying Dale Earnhardt for seventh on the all - time wins list. Johnson finished third and eleventh in the next two events of the season at Las Vegas and Phoenix. His second victory of the season came in the fifth race, the Auto Club 400, where Johnson passed Harvick in an overtime finish. It was also the first time since 2011 that he finished in the top five at the Auto Club Speedway. In the STP 500 at Martinsville Speedway, Johnson recorded a 9th - place finish after moving through the field after qualifying 24th. One week later, Johnson finished fourth in the Duck Commander 500 at Texas Motor Speedway despite suffering minor damage during a 13 - car accident that occurred within 50 laps of the finish.
In the Food City 500 at Bristol, Johnson finished 23rd after making an unscheduled pit stop due to a loose lug nut on lap 300. At Richmond, he led 44 laps early in the race and finished 3rd. At Talladega, Johnson was spun by Paul Menard and got involved in a multi-car accident with 28 laps to go, finishing 22nd. Johnson 's streak of misfortune continued through the next several months, crashing out at Dover, Pocono, Daytona, Kentucky and at Watkins Glen, where he finished last for the first time in his career. His top - 10 finishes during the period came only in the Coca - Cola 600 and Brickyard 400, where he finished 3rd in both races. Johnson finished 7th and 6th at Bristol and Michigan the following two weeks, but finished 33rd at Darlington after he spun out of turn 4. Johnson then finished 11th at Richmond. He qualified 8th for the Chase.
Johnson began the Chase for the Championship by leading a race - high 118 laps at Chicagoland, but received a speeding penalty during a green flag pit stop late in the race, ultimately finished 12th. Johnson finished 8th the following week at Loudon. At Dover, Johnson led 90 laps but once again received a pit road penalty with 105 laps to go, costing him a win. He would charge through the field and finish 7th (1st car a lap down). He was able to move to the "Round of 12 '' of the Chase.
At Charlotte, Johnson led a race - high 155 laps and won the Bank of America 500, claiming his 8th win at the track and the 3rd win of the season, also snapping his 24 - race winless streak. This marked Johnson 's first appearance in the "Round of 8 '' under the current Chase system. He then finished 4th at Kansas and 23rd at Talladega. At Martinsville, Johnson had contact with Denny Hamlin on lap 198 and had a tire rub to cause a caution but was able to stay on the lead lap. Later during a caution on lap 362, he lost fuel pressure but was able to get the car refired and stayed on the lead lap again. After the restart, he took the lead from Hamlin and led the final 92 laps to win the Goody 's Fast Relief 500. This locked him into the Championship 4 for the final race at Homestead. Johnson finished 11th in the rain - shortened race at Texas, and 38th at Phoenix after being penalized a lap for passing the pace car coming down to pit road and involved in a wreck on a restart.
Johnson claimed his seventh championship by winning at Homestead on November 20. After losing his starting spot due to a pre-race inspection fault, Johnson started at the rear of the field. He progressed though the field, but remained stagnant around 5th place for a majority of the race. On a late race restart, Carl Edwards came across the nose of Joey Logano, hit the inside wall and triggered a massive wreck, ending Edwards ' championship hopes. Johnson avoided the accident, and was put into position to win the title. On the final restart, he passed Kyle Larson, winning the race and his seventh championship, tying with Richard Petty and Dale Earnhardt for the most all - time of championships.
Johnson came into 2017 as the defending Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series champion. The start of the season did n't go as smoothly as the end of last season, however. Through the first six races of the season, Johnson only managed to score one top ten finish. He rebounded with back to back wins at the 2017 O'Reilly Auto Parts 500 in Texas and the 2017 Food City 500 at Bristol. This would be the 14th time he has won back - to - back races in his career. Johnson then finished just outside the top ten at Richmond, even after colliding with his teammate Dale Earnhardt Jr earlier in the race. Johnson scored his third win of the season at Dover in June after beating Kyle Larson in an overtime finish. This was Johnson 's 11th win at Dover and 83rd career win, which tied him with Cale Yarborough.
On June 11 during the Axalta presents the Pocono 400, Johnson 's brakes failed causing him and Jamie McMurray to crash hard, causing McMurray to burst into flames. Johnson was uninjured in the accident.
Johnson suffered a big slump during the summer part of the season, only getting 3 Top 10 finishes, no Top 5 finishes, and 3 DNF 's from Kentucky, Indianapolis, and Pocono. Regardless, Johnson was able to make the chase from the earlier wins.
Johnson first raced in the Race of Champions in Europe in 2002. He was eliminated in the first runoff by then world rally champion Marcus Grönholm of Finland but he and Jeff Gordon and Colin Edwards racing as Team USA won the teams ' championship. He returned to the event two years later but lost the quarter finals 0 -- 2 to Mattias Ekström of Sweden who was DTM German Touring Car champion that year.
Johnson entered the 2006 event but did not start due to injury received just days before the race. He still attended the event to cheer for teammate Travis Pastrana. In the 2007 event Johnson was eliminated before the quarter - finals by F1 driver Sébastien Bourdais of France.
In 2004, he began his Grand - Am career in the Rolex 24 at Daytona, where he finished eighth. He also entered the event one year later, which his team, Howard - Boss Motorsports, managed to finish second. Two years later, he entered two events, which were both held at Daytona International Speedway. During the races, his team finished 9th and 19th. In 2008, Johnson moved to Bob Stallings Racing with Alex Gurney and Jon Fogarty to race in the 2008 Rolex 24 at Daytona, where the team finished second. One year later, he returned with GAINSCO / Bob Stallings Racing for his fifth Rolex 24 appearance. During the race, his team managed to finish seventh. He returned to the team in 2010, to race in the Rolex 24 and Sahlen 's Six Hours of the Glen. During the Rolex 24 at Daytona his team finished 21st, while at Watkins Glen the team managed to finish sixth. He returned to the Rolex 24, in 2011 where his team managed to finish 15th.
Johnson was born on September 17, 1975 in El Cajon, California, the son of Catherine Ellen "Cathy '' (née Dunnill) and Gary Ernest Johnson. He has two younger brothers, Jarit and Jessie. Both have made professional off - road racing starts in the TORC: The Off - Road Championship. Johnson attended Granite Hills High School, while he raced motorcycles during the weekends. He was a varsity water polo player, diver and swimmer and graduated in 1993. The number 48 is retired from all sports teams uniforms at his school and Johnson was inducted into the school 's Athletic Hall of Fame. Johnson lives in Charlotte, North Carolina like many other NASCAR drivers. He is married to Chandra Janway, the two having known each other since 2002. They have two daughters, Genevieve and Lydia.
The Jimmie Johnson Foundation was launched by Johnson and his wife, Chandra, in 2006. The foundation helps children, families, and communities in need. In 2007, Johnson opened Jimmie Johnson 's Victory Lanes in Randleman, North Carolina, which is a four - lane bowling alley for campers at Pattie and Kyle Petty 's Victory Junction Gang Camp. The foundation supports several charities, including Habitat for Humanity, Hendrick Marrow Program, Make - A-Wish Foundation, and Victory Junction. Every year, it holds a golf tournament in San Diego, which raises money for K - 12 public education. Since the beginning, the tournament has raised a total of $8 million to help fund several projects. During 2009 and 2010, the foundation awarded $1.5 million for the Education Champions Grants program. The money is given to public schools in California, Oklahoma, and North Carolina. It helps fund basic needs, such as technology, outdoor classrooms, playground construction, and reading programs. The foundation has also assisted the American Red Cross with disaster relief efforts.
In 2014, Johnson joined the Ban Bossy campaign, as a spokesperson advocating leadership in young girls.
Johnson has won the Driver of the Year Award five times (2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2013). In 2009, he became the first racing driver to win the Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year Award in the United States.
Johnson was ranked No. 1 on Forbes.com 's list of "Most Influential Athletes '' for two consecutive years (2011, 2012).
With 83 career points - paying victories, Johnson is the winningest active driver, sixth place among the all - time NASCAR Cup Series winners; he is also ranked third among those who have competed during the sport 's modern era (1972 -- present).
Johnson is the all - time winningest Cup Series driver at the following tracks:
Johnson has won a Cup Series race at every track on the schedule except at Chicagoland Speedway, Kentucky Speedway, and Watkins Glen International.
Johnson is the only driver to have qualified for the NASCAR Cup Series playoffs every single year since its inception in 2004.
Johnson made an appearance as himself in the 2005 film Herbie: Fully Loaded, commenting on Herbie 's sunroof as unusual for a stock car to have, and his car is also briefly seen from Herbie 's POV.
Johnson starred in an episode of the television series Las Vegas in 2005.
Johnson starred in an episode of the HBO reality television series 24 / 7, titled "Jimmie Johnson: Race to Daytona ''. Cameras followed him from January 2010 to the 52nd Daytona 500 held on February 14.
Johnson appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show during its tenth season in 2013. Fresh off his second Daytona 500 victory, Johnson challenged host Ellen DeGeneres to a go - kart race.
On November 19, 2013, Johnson became the first professional athlete to co-host ESPN 's flagship news show, SportsCenter.
In 2015, Johnson appeared on the series Repeat After Me and voiced a lobster named Jimmie on the animated kids show Bubble Guppies.
Johnson has appeared on the cover of several magazines, including NASCAR Illustrated; Sports Illustrated; Men 's Fitness; and Success.
Johnson makes a cameo appearance as a pilot in the music video for The Avett Brothers ' "Ai n't No Man, '' the lead single from the album True Sadness (2016).
Johnson 's Cup ride, the No. 48 Lowe 's Chevrolet, is featured on the covers of NASCAR Racing 2003 Season and NASCAR The Game: 2011.
Johnson and Hendrick Motorsports teammate Jeff Gordon are featured on the cover of NASCAR 06: Total Team Control, highlighting Team Control, the main addition of the game. Johnson is also one of the six cover drivers of NASCAR Kart Racing.
Johnson is featured in the 2011 racing video game Jimmie Johnson 's Anything with an Engine.
Johnson is featured as a playable driver in Forza Motorsport 6, via the NASCAR expansion pack. The expansion features twenty - four paint schemes from the 2016 Sprint Cup Series season, including Johnson 's No. 48 Lowe 's SS. Johnson, along with Chase Elliott and Kyle Busch, provide commentary in the expansion as the "voices of motorsport. '' Johnson and Elliott also had roles in developing the expansion.
(key) (Bold -- Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics -- Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * -- Most laps led.)
Ineligible for series championship points.
(key) Bold -- Pole Position. (Overall Finish / Class Finish).
(key) (Bold -- Pole position. * -- Most laps led.)
1949 R. Byron 1950 B. Rexford 1951 H. Thomas 1952 T. Flock 1953 H. Thomas 1954 L. Petty 1955 T. Flock 1956 B. Baker 1957 B. Baker 1958 L. Petty
1959 L. Petty 1960 R. White 1961 N. Jarrett 1962 J. Weatherly 1963 J. Weatherly 1964 R. Petty 1965 N. Jarrett 1966 D. Pearson 1967 R. Petty 1968 D. Pearson
1969 D. Pearson 1970 B. Isaac 1971 R. Petty 1972 R. Petty 1973 B. Parsons 1974 R. Petty 1975 R. Petty 1976 C. Yarborough 1977 C. Yarborough 1978 C. Yarborough
1979 R. Petty 1980 D. Earnhardt 1981 D. Waltrip 1982 D. Waltrip 1983 B. Allison 1984 T. Labonte 1985 D. Waltrip 1986 D. Earnhardt 1987 D. Earnhardt 1988 B. Elliott
1989 R. Wallace 1990 D. Earnhardt 1991 D. Earnhardt 1992 A. Kulwicki 1993 D. Earnhardt 1994 D. Earnhardt 1995 J. Gordon 1996 T. Labonte 1997 J. Gordon 1998 J. Gordon
1999 D. Jarrett 2000 B. Labonte 2001 J. Gordon 2002 T. Stewart 2003 M. Kenseth 2004 Ku. Busch 2005 T. Stewart 2006 J. Johnson 2007 J. Johnson 2008 J. Johnson
2009 J. Johnson 2010 J. Johnson 2011 T. Stewart 2012 B. Keselowski 2013 J. Johnson 2014 K. Harvick 2015 Ky. Busch 2016 J. Johnson
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how many time zones across the united states | Time in the United States - wikipedia
Time in the United States, by law, is divided into nine standard time zones covering the states and its possessions, with most of the United States observing daylight saving time (DST) for approximately the spring, summer, and fall months. The time zone boundaries and DST observance are regulated by the Department of Transportation. Official and highly precise timekeeping services (clocks) are provided by two federal agencies: the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (an agency of the Department of Commerce); and its military counterpart, the United States Naval Observatory (USNO). The clocks run by these services are kept synchronized with each other as well as with those of other international timekeeping organizations.
It is the combination of the time zone and daylight saving rules, along with the timekeeping services, which determines the legal civil time for any U.S. location at any moment.
Prior to the adoption of four standard time zones for the continental United States, many towns and cities set clocks based on sunsets and sunrises at their locations and by observing the Sun 's zenith at noon (mean solar time). Dawn and dusk occur at different times but time differences between distant locations were barely noticeable prior to the 19th century because of long travel times and the lack of long - distance instant communications prior to the development of the telegraph.
The use of local solar time became increasingly awkward as railways and telecommunications improved. American railroads maintained many different time zones during the late 1800s. Each train station set its own clock making it difficult to coordinate train schedules and confusing passengers. Time calculation became a serious problem for people travelling by train (sometimes hundreds of miles in a day), according to the Library of Congress. Every city in the United States used a different time standard so there were more than 300 local sun times to choose from. Time zones were therefore a compromise, relaxing the complex geographic dependence while still allowing local time to be approximate with mean solar time. Railroad managers tried to address the problem by establishing 100 railroad time zones, but this was only a partial solution to the problem.
Operators of the new railroad lines needed a new time plan that would offer a uniform train schedule for departures and arrivals. Four standard time zones for the continental United States were introduced at noon on November 18, 1883, when the telegraph lines transmitted time signals to all major cities.
In October 1884, the International Meridian Conference at Washington DC adopted a proposal which stated that the prime meridian for longitude and timekeeping should be one that passes through the centre of the transit instrument at the Greenwich Observatory in the United Kingdom (UK). The conference therefore established the Greenwich Meridian as the prime meridian and Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) as the world 's time standard. The US time - zone system grew from this, in which all zones referred back to GMT on the prime meridian.
GMT was superseded as the international civil time standard by Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) in 1960, when the International Radio Consultative Committee formalized the concept of Coordinated Universal Time, abbreviated as UTC. It is, within about 1 second, mean solar time at 0 °. It does not observe daylight saving time. It is one of several closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, but GMT is no longer precisely defined by the scientific community.
Standard time zones in the United States are currently defined at the federal level by law 15 USC § 260. The federal law also establishes the transition dates and times at which daylight saving time occurs, if observed. It is ultimately the authority of the Secretary of Transportation, in coordination with the states, to determine which regions will observe which of the standard time zones and if they will observe daylight saving time. As of August 9, 2007, the standard time zones are defined in terms of hourly offsets from UTC. Prior to this they were based upon the mean solar time at several meridians 15 ° apart west of Greenwich (GMT).
Only the full - time zone names listed below are official; abbreviations are by common use conventions, and duplicated elsewhere in the world for different time zones.
The United States uses nine standard time zones. As defined by US law they are:
View the standard time zone boundaries here.
From east to west, the times zones of the contiguous United States are:
Some United States Minor Outlying Islands are outside the time zones defined by 15 U.S.C. § 260 and exist in waters defined by Nautical time. In practice, military crews may simply use Zulu time (UTC ± 00: 00) when on these islands. Baker Island and Howland Island are in UTC − 12, while Wake Island is in UTC + 12: 00. Because they exist on opposite sides of the International Date Line, it can, for example, be noon Thursday on Baker and Howland islands while simultaneously being noon Friday on Wake Island. Other outlying islands include Jarvis Island, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll, and Kingman Reef (UTC − 11: 00); Johnston Atoll (UTC − 10: 00); and Navassa Island, Bajo Nuevo Bank, and Serranilla Bank (UTC − 05: 00).
In Antarctica, the US research facility Palmer Station is in UTC − 03: 00, while McMurdo Station and Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station use UTC + 12: 00 in order to coordinate with their main supply base in New Zealand.
(Described from north to south along each boundary.)
The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time (DST) for an additional month beginning in 2007. The start of DST now occurs on the second Sunday in March and ends on the first Sunday in November.
Clocks will be set ahead one hour at 2 a.m. on the following start dates and set back one hour at 2 a.m. on these ending dates:
In response to the Uniform Time Act of 1966, each state of the US has officially chosen to apply one of two rules over its entire territory:
There exist more than one hundred clock towers in the United States; see Category: Clock towers in the United States.
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where did the term pogey bait come from | Pogue - wikipedia
Pogue is American derogatory pejorative military slang for non-combat, staff, and other rear - echelon or support units. "Pogue '' frequently applies to those who do not have to undergo the risk and stresses of combat as the infantry does.
Originally used as early as the First World War by US Marines to refer to a male homosexual in the female role. At the beginning of World War II, "pogue '' was used by Marine Drill Instructors to refer to trainees believed to not be meeting the expected standards or failing to display the appropriate esprit de corps.
While the term does not appear in Army or Air Force terminology until the Vietnam War, Linda Reinberg includes it as being in general use in Vietnam to refer to rear echelon support personnel.
During Desert Storm in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, "pogue '' referred to anyone who arrived in theater after the speaker.
Due to having lost contact with its linguistic source, and possibly to avoid embarrassing civilians who might ask, the modern military vernacular has turned "pogue '' into a retronym / backronym, e.g., Personnel Other than Grunts, or Person Of Greater Use Elsewhere, the latter referring to mid-grade and senior military personnel who may have been trained / qualified / experienced as combat specialists (e.g., infantry, armor, special operations forces, fighter and bomber pilots, etc.), but who have been assigned to rear echelon staffs, especially senior command staffs.
"Pogey bait '' is a reference to sweets or candy, which was in usage in the military as early as 1918. The term alludes to food (and other luxuries) rarely afforded to grunts in the field. To an infantry soldier, the term "pogey bait '', when used, in the possessive sense (i.e. "my pogey bait '', "his pogey bait '', etc.) refers to a personally acquired (not issued) stash of snacks and food. Common items found in a bag of "pogey bait '' include Ramen Noodles, hard candies (i.e. Werther 's Originals, Jolly Ranchers, Dum Dums, etc.), Beef Jerky, Easy Cheese, and Vienna Sausages (among other things). "Pogey bait '' was / is used "in the field '' not only as snacks and meal supplements, but also for bartering (commonly either for other food or for tobacco products). "Pogey - bait run '' was used as early as the 1960s to refer to any unauthorized violation of restrictions with the purpose of meeting a wife or girlfriend.
"POG '' is a backronym for "pogue, '' raising to prominence during the Global War on Terror (GWOT). The form "pogue '' can be found in pre-GWOT novels and books written about the Vietnam War, including in glossary entries which give no indication that the term is an acronym (c.f. The 13th Valley by Vietnam veteran John M. DelVeccio)
"Pogee '', "pogie '', "pogey '', are described as terms from Korean slang for the female genitals used first by the US Army and then all services.
Another possible inspiration could be the phrase "pogue mahone '' from the Irish "póg mo thóin '' meaning kiss my rump, kiss my bottom, or kiss my ass; the word "póg '' meaning kiss. However, no references have been found that would allow one to trace such a derivation.
In early twentieth century gay culture, the term was an insult: "pogue '' was slang for a young male who would submit to homosexual advances.
The terms REMF (Standing for "Rear Echelon Mother Fucker '') and "Fobbit '' (from Forward Operating Base, and The Hobbit) are closely related terms, in that they are frequently intended as insults (although "fobbit '' seems to be taken as less a term of direct abuse, and more a descriptive).
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