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definition this is the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species | Phylogenetic tree - Wikipedia
A phylogenetic tree or evolutionary tree is a branching diagram or "tree '' showing the inferred evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities -- their phylogeny -- based upon similarities and differences in their physical or genetic characteristics. The taxa joined together in the tree are implied to have descended from a common ancestor. Phylogenetic trees are central to the field of phylogenetics.
In a rooted phylogenetic tree, each node with descendants represents the inferred most recent common ancestor of the descendants, and the edge lengths in some trees may be interpreted as time estimates. Each node is called a taxonomic unit. Internal nodes are generally called hypothetical taxonomic units, as they can not be directly observed. Trees are useful in fields of biology such as bioinformatics, systematics, and phylogenetic comparative methods.
Unrooted trees illustrate only the relatedness of the leaf nodes and do not require the ancestral root to be known or inferred.
The idea of a "tree of life '' arose from ancient notions of a ladder - like progression from lower into higher forms of life (such as in the Great Chain of Being). Early representations of "branching '' phylogenetic trees include a "paleontological chart '' showing the geological relationships among plants and animals in the book Elementary Geology, by Edward Hitchcock (first edition: 1840).
Charles Darwin (1859) also produced one of the first illustrations and crucially popularized the notion of an evolutionary "tree '' in his seminal book The Origin of Species. Over a century later, evolutionary biologists still use tree diagrams to depict evolution because such diagrams effectively convey the concept that speciation occurs through the adaptive and semi random splitting of lineages. Over time, species classification has become less static and more dynamic.
The term phylogenetic, or phylogeny, derives from the two ancient greek words φῦλον (phûlon), meaning "genus, species '', and γένεσις (génesis), meaning "origin, source ''.
A rooted phylogenetic tree (see two graphics at top) is a directed tree with a unique node -- the root -- corresponding to the (usually imputed) most recent common ancestor of all the entities at the leaves of the tree. The root node does not have a parent node, but serves as the parent of all other nodes in the tree. The root is therefore a node of degree 2 while other internal nodes have a minimum degree of 3 (where "degree '' here refers to the total number of incoming and outgoing edges).
The most common method for rooting trees is the use of an uncontroversial outgroup -- close enough to allow inference from trait data or molecular sequencing, but far enough to be a clear outgroup.
Unrooted trees illustrate the relatedness of the leaf nodes without making assumptions about ancestry. They do not require the ancestral root to be known or inferred. Unrooted trees can always be generated from rooted ones by simply omitting the root. By contrast, inferring the root of an unrooted tree requires some means of identifying ancestry. This is normally done by including an outgroup in the input data so that the root is necessarily between the outgroup and the rest of the taxa in the tree, or by introducing additional assumptions about the relative rates of evolution on each branch, such as an application of the molecular clock hypothesis.
Both rooted and unrooted phylogenetic trees can be either bifurcating or multifurcating, and either labeled or unlabeled. A rooted bifurcating tree has exactly two descendants arising from each interior node (that is, it forms a binary tree), and an unrooted bifurcating tree takes the form of an unrooted binary tree, a free tree with exactly three neighbors at each internal node. In contrast, a rooted multifurcating tree may have more than two children at some nodes and an unrooted multifurcating tree may have more than three neighbors at some nodes. A labeled tree has specific values assigned to its leaves, while an unlabeled tree, sometimes called a tree shape, defines a topology only. The number of possible trees for a given number of leaf nodes depends on the specific type of tree, but there are always more multifurcating than bifurcating trees, more labeled than unlabeled trees, and more rooted than unrooted trees. The last distinction is the most biologically relevant; it arises because there are many places on an unrooted tree to put the root. For labeled bifurcating trees, there are:
total rooted trees and
total unrooted trees, where n (\ displaystyle n) represents the number of leaf nodes. Among labeled bifurcating trees, the number of unrooted trees with n (\ displaystyle n) leaves is equal to the number of rooted trees with n − 1 (\ displaystyle n - 1) leaves.
Phylogenetic trees composed with a nontrivial number of input sequences are constructed using computational phylogenetics methods. Distance - matrix methods such as neighbor - joining or UPGMA, which calculate genetic distance from multiple sequence alignments, are simplest to implement, but do not invoke an evolutionary model. Many sequence alignment methods such as ClustalW also create trees by using the simpler algorithms (i.e. those based on distance) of tree construction. Maximum parsimony is another simple method of estimating phylogenetic trees, but implies an implicit model of evolution (i.e. parsimony). More advanced methods use the optimality criterion of maximum likelihood, often within a Bayesian Framework, and apply an explicit model of evolution to phylogenetic tree estimation. Identifying the optimal tree using many of these techniques is NP - hard, so heuristic search and optimization methods are used in combination with tree - scoring functions to identify a reasonably good tree that fits the data.
Tree - building methods can be assessed on the basis of several criteria:
Tree - building techniques have also gained the attention of mathematicians. Trees can also be built using T - theory.
Although phylogenetic trees produced on the basis of sequenced genes or genomic data in different species can provide evolutionary insight, they have important limitations. Most importantly, they do not necessarily accurately represent the evolutionary history of the included taxa. In fact, they are literally scientific hypotheses, subject to falsification by further study (e.g., gathering of additional data, analyzing the existing data with improved methods). The data on which they are based is noisy; the analysis can be confounded by genetic recombination, horizontal gene transfer, hybridisation between species that were not nearest neighbors on the tree before hybridisation takes place, convergent evolution, and conserved sequences.
Also, there are problems in basing the analysis on a single type of character, such as a single gene or protein or only on morphological analysis, because such trees constructed from another unrelated data source often differ from the first, and therefore great care is needed in inferring phylogenetic relationships among species. This is most true of genetic material that is subject to lateral gene transfer and recombination, where different haplotype blocks can have different histories. In general, the output tree of a phylogenetic analysis is an estimate of the character 's phylogeny (i.e. a gene tree) and not the phylogeny of the taxa (i.e. species tree) from which these characters were sampled, though ideally, both should be very close. For this reason, serious phylogenetic studies generally use a combination of genes that come from different genomic sources (e.g., from mitochondrial or plastid vs. nuclear genomes), or genes that would be expected to evolve under different selective regimes, so that homoplasy (false homology) would be unlikely to result from natural selection.
When extinct species are included in a tree, they are terminal nodes, as it is unlikely that they are direct ancestors of any extant species. Skepticism might be applied when extinct species are included in trees that are wholly or partly based on DNA sequence data, because little useful "ancient DNA '' is preserved for longer than 100,000 years, and except in the most unusual circumstances no DNA sequences long enough for use in phylogenetic analyses have yet been recovered from material over 1 million years old.
The range of useful DNA materials has expanded with advances in extraction and sequencing technologies. Development of technologies able to infer sequences from smaller fragments, or from spatial patterns of DNA degradation products, would further expand the range of DNA considered useful.
In some organisms, endosymbionts have an independent genetic history from the host.
Phylogenetic networks are used when bifurcating trees are not suitable, due to these complications which suggest a more reticulate evolutionary history of the organisms sampled.
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can an incorporated business be a member of an llc | Limited liability company - wikipedia
A limited liability company (LLC) is the United States of America - specific form of a private limited company. It is a business structure that can combine the pass - through taxation of a partnership or sole proprietorship with the limited liability of a corporation. An LLC is not a corporation in and of itself; it is a legal form of a company that provides limited liability to its owners in many jurisdictions. LLCs are well - known for the flexibility that they provide to business owners; depending on the situation, an LLC may elect to use corporate tax rules instead of being treated as a partnership, and, under certain circumstances, LLCs may be organized as not - for - profit. In certain U.S. states (for example, Texas), businesses that provide professional services requiring a state professional license, such as legal or medical services, may not be allowed to form an LLC but may be required to form a similar entity called a professional limited liability company (PLLC).
A limited liability company (LLC) is a hybrid legal entity having certain characteristics of both a corporation and a partnership or sole proprietorship (depending on how many owners there are). An LLC is a type of unincorporated association distinct from a corporation. The primary characteristic an LLC shares with a corporation is limited liability, and the primary characteristic it shares with a partnership is the availability of pass - through income taxation. It is often more flexible than a corporation, and it is well - suited for companies with a single owner.
Although LLCs and corporations both possess some analogous features, the basic terminology commonly associated with each type of legal entity, at least within the United States, is sometimes different. When an LLC is formed, it is said to be "organized, '' not "incorporated '' or "chartered, '' and its founding document is likewise known as its "articles of organization, '' instead of its "articles of incorporation '' or its "corporate charter. '' Internal operations of an LLC are further governed by its "operating agreement, '' rather than its "bylaws. '' The owner of beneficial rights in an LLC is known as a "member, '' rather than a "shareholder. '' Additionally, ownership in an LLC is represented by a "membership interest '' or an "LLC interest '' (sometimes measured in "membership units '' or just "units '' and at other times simply stated only as percentages), rather than represented by "shares of stock '' or just "shares '' (with ownership measured by the number of shares held by each shareholder). Similarly, when issued in physical rather than electronic form, a document evidencing ownership rights in an LLC is called a "membership certificate '' rather than a "stock certificate ''.
In the absence of express statutory guidance, most American courts have held that LLC members are subject to the same common law alter ego piercing theories as corporate shareholders. However, it is more difficult to pierce the LLC veil because LLCs do not have many formalities to maintain. As long as the LLC and the members do not commingle funds, it is difficult to pierce the LLC veil. Membership interests in LLCs and partnership interests are also afforded a significant level of protection through the charging order mechanism. The charging order limits the creditor of a debtor - partner or a debtor - member to the debtor 's share of distributions, without conferring on the creditor any voting or management rights.
Limited liability company members may, in certain circumstances, also incur a personal liability in cases where distributions to members render the LLC insolvent.
The first state to enact a law authorizing limited liability companies was Wyoming in 1977. The form did not become immediately popular, in part because of uncertainties in tax treatment by the Internal Revenue Service. After an IRS ruling in 1988 that Wyoming LLCs could be taxed as partnerships, other states began enacting LLC statutes. By 1996, all 50 states had LLC statutes.
LLCs are subject to fewer regulations than traditional corporations, and thus may allow members to create a more flexible management structure than is possible with other corporate forms. As long as it remains within the confines of state law, the operating agreement is responsible for the flexibility the members of the LLC have in deciding how their LLC will be governed. State statutes typically provide automatic or "default '' rules for how an LLC will be governed unless the operating agreement provides otherwise.
The limited liability company ("LLC '') has grown to become one of the most prevalent business forms in the United States. Even the use of a single member LLC affords greater protection for the assets of the member, as compared to operating as an unincorporated entity.
Effective August 1, 2013, the Delaware Limited Liability Company Act provides that the managers and controlling members of a limited liability company owe fiduciary duties of care and loyalty to the limited liability company and its members. Under the amendment (prompted by the Delaware Supreme Court 's decision in Gatz Properties, LLC v. Auriga Capital Corp), parties to an LLC remain free to expand, restrict, or eliminate fiduciary duties in their LLC agreements (subject to the implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing).
Under 6 Del. C. Section 18 - 101 (7), a Delaware LLC operating agreement can be written, oral or implied. It sets forth member capital contributions, ownership percentages, and management structure. Like a prenuptial agreement, an operating agreement can avoid future disputes between members by addressing buy - out rights, valuation formulas, and transfer restrictions. The written LLC operating agreement should be signed by all of its members.
For U.S. federal income tax purposes, an LLC is treated by default as a pass - through entity. If there is only one member in the company, the LLC is treated as a "disregarded entity '' for tax purposes (unless another tax status is elected), and an individual owner would report the LLC 's income or loss on Schedule C of his or her individual tax return. Thus, income from the LLC is taxed at the individual tax rates. The default tax status for LLCs with multiple members is as a partnership, which is required to report income and loss on IRS Form 1065. Under partnership tax treatment, each member of the LLC, as is the case for all partners of a partnership, annually receives a Form K - 1 reporting the member 's distributive share of the LLC 's income or loss that is then reported on the member 's individual income tax return. On the other hand, income from corporations is taxed twice: once at the corporate entity level and again when distributed to shareholders. Thus, more tax savings often result if a business formed as an LLC rather than a corporation.
An LLC with either single or multiple members may elect to be taxed as a corporation through the filing of IRS Form 8832. After electing corporate tax status, an LLC may further elect to be treated as a regular C corporation (taxation of the entity 's income prior to any dividends or distributions to the members and then taxation of the dividends or distributions once received as income by the members) or as an S corporation (entity level income and loss passes through to the members). Some commentators have recommended an LLC taxed as a S - corporation as the best possible small business structure. It combines the simplicity and flexibility of an LLC with the tax benefits of an S - corporation (self - employment tax savings).
Although there is no statutory requirement for an operating agreement in most jurisdictions, members of a multiple member LLC who operate without one may encounter problems. Unlike state laws regarding stock corporations, which are very well developed and provide for a variety of governance and protective provisions for the corporation and its shareholders, most states do not dictate detailed governance and protective provisions for the members of a limited liability company. Thus, in the absence of such statutory provisions, the members of an LLC must establish governance and protective provisions pursuant to an operating agreement or similar governing document.
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where does 6's and 7's come from | At sixes and sevens - wikipedia
"At sixes and sevens '' is an English idiom used to describe a condition of confusion or disarray.
An ancient dispute between the Merchant Taylors and Skinners livery companies is the probable origin of the phrase. The two trade associations, both founded in the same year (1327), argued over sixth place in the order of precedence. In 1484, after more than a century and a half of bickering, the Lord Mayor of London Sir Robert Billesden ruled that at the feast of Corpus Christi, the companies would swap between sixth and seventh place and feast in each other 's halls. Nowadays, they alternate in precedence on an annual basis.
A similar phrase, "to set the world on six and seven '', is used by Geoffrey Chaucer in his Troilus and Criseyde. It dates from the mid-1380s and seems from its context to mean "to hazard the world '' or "to risk one 's life ''. William Shakespeare uses a similar phrase in Richard II, "But time will not permit: all is uneven, And every thing is left at six and seven ''.
The phrase is also used in Gilbert & Sullivan 's comic opera H.M.S. Pinafore (1878), where Captain Corcoran, the ship 's Commander, is confused as to what choices to make in his life, and exclaims in the opening song of Act II, "Fair moon, to thee I sing, bright regent of the heavens, say, why is everything either at sixes or at sevens? ''
The phrase took on additional meaning during the early 1960s, when debate over Britain 's position in Europe under Harold Macmillan centred on membership of the EEC ' Six ' or the EFTA ' Seven ' smaller independent states.
The phrase appears in a few songs, including "Do n't Cry for Me Argentina '' from the musical Evita, "Raoul and the Kings of Spain '' from Tears for Fears, and "Playing With Fire '' by Stereo MCs. The eleventh studio album from Strange Music front man Tech N9ne was entitled "All 6 's and 7 's ''. The song "Sixes and Sevens '' was co written and sung by Robert Plant. It also appears in the Rolling Stones ' song "Tumbling Dice ''. There is an album by Norwegian gothic metal band Sirenia called At Sixes and Sevens (including a song with the same name) where this phrase is used in several songs.
The phrase is also used in the 1978 movie The Wiz, when Miss One gives Dorothy the silver slippers and comments, "Oh, do n't be all sixes and sevens, honey '' to Dorothy as Dorothy is in a state of confusion after killing the Wicked Witch of the East. It is also found in the 1993 film The Remains of the Day. It is also mentioned in the 2002 film Goldmember by Mike Myers ' character Austin Powers to his dad, who at the time were speaking "English English '': "oh, the one who was all sixes and sevens? '' During the second episode of season five of the HBO series Six Feet Under, George uses the phrase to describe his wife 's attitude towards him.
We also come across the phrase in Sabina 's opening monologue from Thornton Wilder 's 1942 Pulitzer Prize winning play The Skin of Our Teeth: "The whole world 's at sixes and sevens, and why the house has n't fallen down about our ears long ago is a miracle to me. ''
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what does a high red cell distribution mean | Red blood cell distribution width - wikipedia
Red blood cell distribution width (RDW or RDW - CV or RCDW and RDW - SD) is a measure of the range of variation of red blood cell (RBC) volume that is reported as part of a standard complete blood count. Usually red blood cells are a standard size of about 6 - 8 μm in diameter. Certain disorders, however, cause a significant variation in cell size. Higher RDW values indicate greater variation in size. Normal reference range of RDW - CV in human red blood cells is 11.5 - 14.5 %. If anemia is observed, RDW test results are often used together with mean corpuscular volume (MCV) results to determine the possible causes of the anemia. It is mainly used to differentiate an anemia of mixed causes from an anemia of a single cause.
Deficiencies of Vitamin B or folate produce a macrocytic anemia (large cell anemia) in which the RDW is elevated in roughly two - thirds of all cases. However, a varied size distribution of red blood cells is a hallmark of iron deficiency anemia, and as such shows an increased RDW in virtually all cases. In the case of both iron and B deficiencies, there will normally be a mix of both large cells and small cells, causing the RDW to be elevated. An elevated RDW (red blood cells of unequal sizes) is known as anisocytosis.
An elevation in the RDW is not characteristic of all anemias. Anemia of chronic disease, hereditary spherocytosis, acute blood loss, aplastic anemia (anemia resulting from an inability of the bone marrow to produce red blood cells), and certain hereditary hemoglobinopathies (including some cases of thalassemia minor) may all present with a normal RDW.
The "width '' in RDW - CV is sometimes thought to be "misleading, '' since it in fact is a measure of deviation of the volume of RBCs, and not directly the diameter. However, "width '' refers to the width of the volume curve (distribution width, here presented as the Coefficient of Variation, or CV), not the width of the cells. Thus, it is a reasonably accurate term.
Mathematically, the RDW - CV is calculated with the following formula:
Anemia in the presence of a normal RDW may suggest thalassemia. A low Mentzer Index, calculated from CBC data, may suggest this disorder but a hemoglobin electrophoresis would be diagnostic.
Iron Deficiency Anemia: usually presents with high RDW with low MCV
Folate and vitamin B12 deficiency anemia: usually presents with high RDW and high MCV
Mixed Deficiency (Iron + B12 or folate) anemia: usually presents with high RDW and variable MCV
Recent Hemorrhage: typical presentation is high RDW with normal MCV
A false high RDW reading can occur if EDTA anticoagulated blood is used instead of citrated blood. See Pseudothrombocytopenia.
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how many mls in a pint in australia | Beer in Australia - Wikipedia
Beer arrived in Australia at the beginning of British colonisation. In 2004 Australia was ranked fourth internationally in per capita beer consumption, at around 110 litres per year; although, the nation ranked considerably lower in a World Health Organization report of alcohol consumption per capita of 12.2 litres. The most popular beer style in modern Australia is lager.
The oldest brewery still in operation is the Cascade Brewery, established in Tasmania in 1824. The largest Australian - owned brewery is the family - owned Coopers Brewery, as the other two major breweries Foster 's Group and Lion Nathan are owned by the South African SABMiller and the Japanese Kirin Brewing Company, respectively.
Within an alcoholic beverage market worth some $16.3 billion, beer comprises about 48 % compared to wine at 29 % and spirits at 21 %. Within the beer sector, premium beers have a 7.8 % share of the market; full strength beer has 70.6 %; mid-strength holds 12 %; and light beer has 9.6 %. 85 % of beer is produced by national brewers, the remainder by regional or microbreweries. Microbreweries manufacturing less than 30,000 litres receive a 60 % excise rebate.
The history of Australian beer starts very early in Australia 's colonial history. Captain James Cook brought beer with him on his ship Endeavour as a means of preserving drinking water. On 1 August 1768, as Cook was fitting out the Endeavour for its voyage, Nathaniel Hulme wrote to Joseph Banks with a recommendation:
"a quantity of Molasses and Turpentine, in order to brew Beer with, for your daily drink, when your Water becomes bad.... (B) rewing Beer at sea will be peculiarly useful in case you should have stinking water on board; for I find by Experience that the smell of stinking water will be entirely destroyed by the process of fermentation. ''
Beer was still being consumed on - board two years later in 1770, when Cook was the first European to discover the east coast of Australia.
The drink of choice for the first settlers and convicts was rum, as represented in a supposed traditional convict song:
The first official brewer in Australia was John Boston who brewed a beverage from Indian corn bittered with cape gooseberry leaves. It is likely though that beer was brewed unofficially much earlier. The first pub, the Mason Arms was opened in 1796 in Parramatta by James Larra, a freed convict.
Rum was so popular -- and official currency was in such short supply -- that it became a semi-official currency for a period of time (see Rum corps), and even played a role in a short - lived military coup, the Rum rebellion in 1808. Drunkenness was a significant problem in the early colony:
"Drunkenness was a prevailing vice. Even children were to be seen in the streets intoxicated. On Sundays, men and women might be observed standing round the public - house doors, waiting for the expiration of the hours of public worship in order to continue their carousing. As for the condition of the prison population, that, indeed, is indescribable. Notwithstanding the severe punishment for sly grog selling, it was carried on to a large extent. Men and women were found intoxicated together, and a bottle of brandy was considered to be cheaply bought for 20 lashes... All that the vilest and most bestial of human creatures could invent and practise, was in this unhappy country invented and practised without restraint and without shame ''
As a means of reducing drunkenness, beer was promoted as a safer and healthier alternative to rum:
"The introduction of beer into general use among the inhabitants would certainly lessen the consumption of spirituous liquors. I have therefore in conformity with your suggestion taken measures for furnishing the colony with a supply of ten tons of Porter, six bags of hops, and two complete sets of brewing materials. ''
Although modern Australian beer is predominantly lager, early Australian beer were exclusively top - fermented and quick - maturing ales. Lager was not brewed in Australia until 1885. Early beers were also brewed without the benefit of hops, as no - one had successfully cultivated hops in Australia and importation was difficult. James Squire was the first to successfully cultivate hops in 1804, and he also opened a pub and brewed beer. The Government Gazette from 1806 mentions that he was awarded a cow herd from the government for his efforts.
In September 1804, a government - owned brewery opened in Parramatta, followed by a rival privately owned brewery three months later. The government brewery was sold two years later to Thomas Rushton, who was its head (and only) brewer. Brewing rapidly expanded in all of the Australian colonies and by 1871 there were 126 breweries in Victoria alone, which at the time had a population of only 800,000.
Notable events from this period include:
By 1900 the number of breweries had begun to dwindle as a result of the recession of the 1890s. In 1901, just after Federation, the new federal government passed the Beer and Excise Act. This act regulated the making and selling of beer and made homebrewing illegal. The provisions in this act, regarded by many as draconian, led to the closure of many breweries. In Sydney 16 out of 21 breweries closed either immediately after the act 's introduction or soon afterwards. The remaining breweries began a process of consolidation, with larger breweries buying out the smaller ones. Within a short period of time, only two breweries remained in Sydney: Tooths and Tooheys. In Melbourne, five breweries merged in 1907 to form the giant Carlton and United Breweries.
Since 2011, Kirin - owned Lion Nathan and SABMiller - owned Foster 's Group own every major brewery in Australia, with the exception of Coopers.
Boag 's Brewery, previously owned by San Miguel, was sold to Lion Nathan for A $ 325 million in November 2007. In 2006 Boag 's Brewery reported total revenues of A $92 million.
Although Foster 's Lager is not a popular domestic beer in the 21st century, its popularity internationally has grown and the product is made mostly for export. In January 2005, the brand was one of the ten best - selling beers globally.
The introduction of the Tap King product by Lion Nathan in mid-2013 caused controversy due to the perceived impact upon alcohol venues. The product is a home draught beer dispenser and raised concerns regarding lower patronage rates for venues due to a greater incentive for consumers to drink beer in home environments. The product is sold with a CO2 gas chamber that is cooled for eight hours prior to use.
Before federation in 1901, Australia was a patchwork of separate colonies, each with different laws regulating the production and sale of alcohol. In addition, until the late 1880s when the rail network began to link the capital cities together, the only means of transporting foods in bulk between the colonies was by sea. This prevented even the largest breweries from distributing significant amounts outside their home city. This allowed strong regional brands to emerge; and, although all but one of the major regional brands (Coopers) are now owned by multinational companies, loyalty to the local brewery remains strong today.
Notably, while Foster 's Group owns many of these brands, Foster 's Lager itself is not considered a local drink anywhere in Australia.
In recent years, mixing of beer tastes due to a more mobile population, major campaigns by the larger breweries to spread their brands outside their home state and the growth of the "premium '' beer market have started to erode the traditional loyalties. Despite this, the brand loyalties are still strong, with only Tooheys and Victoria Bitter gaining any significant market share outside their home state.
The brewery on the external Australian territory of Norfolk Island is one of few places left to brew and sell cask - conditioned ale. Its varieties include Bee Sting (a bright ale), Mutineer (similar to a British bitter) and Bligh 's Revenge (a dark ale).
While the overwhelming proportion of beer produced is lager (approximately 95 %), dark beers and stout are still made.
Guinness has a strong following in many states, based on the growth of Irish - themed pubs and the Irish roots of many Australians and is increasingly available on tap. Guinness made and sold in Australia comes in two varieties: a keg version and a bottled version. The keg version is 4.3 % alcohol by volume, similar to the Irish domestic brew. There is also a 6 % alcohol by volume bottled version that is unique to Australia, being a "foreign extra stout '' variant.
Most of these varieties claim to be made by "traditional '' methods, using quality ingredients.
Speciality brews in Australia are produced by both major brewers and microbreweries, and include a wide variety of ales. Microbreweries exist throughout the country, including small towns, but the availability of such beers on - tap in venues is often limited. The Mountain Goat Brewery, located in Richmond, Melbourne, Victoria is a notable Australian microbrewery. As of 2012, Mountain Goat exports to the United States (US) and co-founder Dave Bonighton explained to a Los Angeles publication in September 2012:
We 're a small brewery run by two former homebrewers who, for 15 years, have been making the kinds of beers that we like to drink. Most breweries brew to a formula, something born in a focus group or in a marketing team meeting. We come up with our ideas at the bar.
Microbrewery Nail Brewing, from Perth, Western Australia, produced a beer in 2010 using water from an Antarctic iceberg, and sold it at auction for US $1,850. The batch of 30 bottles was created to raise money for the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, which assisted with the procuring of the ice.
Imported premium beers have started to gain market share in Australia. The two Australian corporate brewers responded to this by signing licence agreements with foreign brands to brew their beers here. Foster 's Group brews Kronenbourg. Coopers Brewery brews Carlsberg in Australia. Lion Nathan locally produces Guinness, Heineken, Beck 's, Stella Artois and Kirin. Brewers claim that their locally produced product tastes better because it is fresher, and local operations are overseen by the parent brewers using strict guidelines. However, groups such as the Australian Consumers Association say that such beers should have clearer, more prominent labels to inform drinkers.
Prior to metrication in Australia, one could buy beer in glasses of size 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 15 and 20 (imperial) fluid ounces. Each sized glass had a different name in each Australian state. These were replaced by glasses of size 115, 140, 170, 200, 285, 425 and 570 ml. As Australians travel more, the differences are decreasing. In the 21st century, most pubs no longer have a glass smaller than 200 ml (7 imp fl oz); typically available are 200 ml, 285 ml and 425 ml, and increasingly many pubs now have pints (570 ml, 20 imp fl oz). It is also common for pubs & hotels to serve a large jug which will be filled to approximately 1100ml.
Many imported beers are served in their own branded glasses of various sizes, including 250 millilitres (8.8 imp fl oz), 330 millilitres (11.6 imp fl oz) and 500 millilitres (17.6 imp fl oz) for many European beers.
With the introduction of the National Trade Measurement Regulations in 2009 there are no prescribed sizes for beverage measures for the sale of beer, ale and stout. Terms such as seven, middy, pot or schooner do not legally specify a particular size. A typical "schooner '' glass can be calibrated to hold 420ml to the rim but poured with 15mm of head resulting in 375ml of liquid.
South Australia in particular has some unusually named measures:
Note that the SA "schooner '' and "pint '' are considerably smaller than the measures of the same name used elsewhere:
Usage and understanding of these names is now generally restricted to people born before about 1960. (i.e. "Baby Boomers '' and before.) In contemporary SA pubs and restaurants, the most frequent measures are the "schooner '' of 285 ml, (an "imperial half pint ''), and the "pint '' of 425 ml. "Imperial pints '' are also increasingly popular. Also increasingly popular inside pubs and restaurants is the sale of "premium '' and non-locally brewed beer in bottles in the size range 300 ml to 375 ml.
Headmasters is one of the most common glass manufacturers, at least for the schooner size. Many pubs in Sydney and Melbourne particularly, offer Guinness style and / or conical pint glasses along with tankard glass and British dimpled glass pint mugs. Larger serving measurements have become increasingly popular. Jugs, 1 fluid litre Maß in German - themed bars and beer towers (although technically illegal due to strict self - service of alcohol laws are used in some Asian bars / karaoke parlours) have grown in popularity around Australia in tourist spots.
Prior to metrication, beer bottles were frequently ⁄ of an imperial gallon -- 26.667 imperial fluid ounces (758 ml); a carton of beer contained a dozen bottles, and hence 2 gallons of beer. With time, bottles "shrank '' to 26 imperial fluid ounces (739 ml), but with metrication they became 750 millilitres (26.4 imp fl oz), with a carton containing 9 litres. (2 imperial gallons = 9,092 ml.) With the use of aluminium, cans of 375ml became increasingly popular, and then 375ml bottles, named "stubbies '' because, compared to "traditional '' bottles, they were "stubby ''. A carton of 9 litres of beer in stubbies (24 bottles) became known as a "slab '' because, compared to the more cube - like shape of the "traditional '' cartons, they were flatter and hence like slabs. Traditional bottles subsequently became known as "long necks '', to distinguish them from stubbies. In Western Australia, the 750ml "long neck '' bottle is also known as a "king brown '' because of the size and typical brown coloured glass.
In the 21st century, most bottled beer in Australia is sold in either 375 ml (Stubby) or 750 ml (Long Neck) sizes. Carlton United briefly "upsized '' to 800 ml; however, this has since been reduced to the original 750 ml. Bottle sizes of 330 ml (and to a lesser extent 345 ml and 355 ml) are becoming increasingly common, particularly among microbreweries, so - called "premium '' beers, and imported beers. (The common 12 US fl oz bottle contains 355 ml.) In the Northern Territory, the once - common "Darwin Stubby '', a large (2.0 - litre) bottle, is now sold largely as a tourist gimmick, but very successfully.
Most bottles are lightweight "single use only '', though some are still reusable, and in some cases (e.g. Coopers 750 ml), breweries are reintroducing refillable bottles, such as the Growler (a large bottle of approximately 2 litre intended for re-use) sold by Four Pines Brewery - a great joy to home brewers. In South Australia, container deposits on beer bottles and cans, and some other types of beverage containers, support a well established network of recycling centres, providing significant environmental benefits as well as generating employment opportunities for unskilled workers.
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election irregularities and problems with philippine electoral system | Electoral process in the Philippines - wikipedia
The Philippines is a functioning democracy, though popular protests have forced out two presidents in almost more than 20 years: first, Ferdinand Marcos in 1986 for alleged electoral manipulation and second, Joseph Estrada in 2001 for allegedly plundering the economy. The country 's politics have continued to be characterized by volatility. The Philippines is still grappling with Muslim separatists, predominantly those of the island of Mindanao. In addition, the former president, Gloria Macapagal - Arroyo, won a contentious election in 2004 faced an electoral scandal, after a phone call between her and an election official, taped before the election had concluded, turned up. President Arroyo has denied she made any attempt to influence the vote.
IFES (International Foundation for Electoral Systems) currently assists the efforts of both electoral officials and civil society stakeholders to advance comprehensive electoral reform programs for greater legitimacy to the electoral process. Specifically, IFES focuses on building the capacity of the COMELEC to modernize, conduct credible elections, and promote mechanisms that build internal capacities and support transparent administrative practices. Additionally, IFES engages civil society in developing effective advocacy and cooperation to retain gains in reform and equip citizens and COMELEC with skills and knowledge to support implementation of successful elections in the long run.
In most democratic political systems, there are a range of different types of election, corresponding to different layers of public governance or geographical jurisdiction. Some common types of election are:
A referendum is a democratic tool related to elections in which the electorate votes for or against a specific proposal, law or policy, rather than for a general policy or a particular candidate or party. Referendums may be added to an election ballot or held separately and may be either binding or consultative, usually depending on the constitution. Referendums are usually called by governments via the legislature, however many democracies allow citizens to petition for referendums directly, called initiatives. Referendums are particularly prevalent and important in direct democracies, such as Switzerland. The basic Swiss system, however, still works with representatives. In the most direct form of democracy, anyone can vote about anything. This is closely related to referendums and may take the form of consensus decision - making. Reminiscent of the ancient Greek system, anyone may discuss a particular subject until a consensus is reached. The consensus requirement means that discussions can go on for a very long time. The result will be that only those who are genuinely interested will participate in the discussion and therefore the vote. In this system there need not be an age limit because children will usually become bored. This system is however only feasible when implemented on a very small scale.
Electoral systems refer to the detailed constitutional arrangements and voting systems which convert the vote into a determination of which individuals and political parties are elected to positions of power. The first step is to tally the votes, for which various vote counting systems and ballot types are used. Voting systems then determine the result on the basis of the tally. Most systems can be categorized as either proportional or majoritarian. Among the former are Party - list proportional representation and Mixed - member proportional representation. Among the latter are First Past the Post (FPP) (relative majority) and absolute majority. Many countries have growing electoral reform movements, which advocate systems such as approval voting, single transferable vote, instant runoff voting or a Condorcet method; these methods are also gaining popularity for lesser elections in some countries where more important elections still use more traditional counting methods.
While openness and accountability are usually considered cornerstones of a democratic system, the act of casting a vote and the content of a voter 's ballot are usually an important exception. The secret ballot is a relatively modern development, but it is now considered crucial in most free and fair elections, as it limits the effectiveness of intimidation.
When elections are called, politicians and their supporters attempt to influence policy by competing directly for the votes of constituents in what are called campaigns. Supporters for a campaign can be either formally organized or loosely affiliated, and frequently utilize campaign advertising. It is common for political scientists to attempt to predict elections via Political Forecasting methods.
In many countries with weak rule of law, the most common reason why elections do not meet international standards of being "free and fair '' is interference from the incumbent government. Dictators may use the powers of the executive (police, martial law, censorship, physical implementation of the election mechanism, etc.) to remain in power despite popular opinion in favor of removal. Members of a particular faction in a legislature may use the power of the majority or supermajority (passing criminal laws, defining the electoral mechanisms including eligibility and district boundaries) to prevent the balance of power in the body from shifting to a rival faction due to an election. Non-governmental entities can also interfere with elections, through physical force, verbal intimidation, or fraud which results in improper casting or counting of votes. Monitoring for and minimizing electoral fraud is also an ongoing task in countries with strong traditions of free and fair elections. Problems which prevent an election from being "free and fair '' can occur at several different stages:
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who did def leppard tour with in 2006 | Yeah! Tour - wikipedia
The Yeah! Tour was a concert tour by Def Leppard, supporting their album Yeah!. The North American tour was co-headlined by Journey and supported by Stoll Vaughan. Of Journey, singer Joe Elliott remarked, "Is n't that a great combination? It 's a marked contrast with the 1990s, in what some people might call our wilderness years... We held our own and pulled good crowds, but nobody would come out with us. ''
(From 23 June, Camden, New Jersey show)
(From 11 July, Tampa, Florida show)
(From 9 September, Milwaukee show)
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where do you put goodwill on a balance sheet | Goodwill (accounting) - wikipedia
In order to calculate goodwill, the fair market value of identifiable assets and liabilities of the company acquired is deducted from the purchase price. For instance, if company A acquired 100 % of company B, but paid more than the net market value of company B, a goodwill occurs. In order to calculate goodwill, it is necessary to have a list of all of company B 's assets and liabilities at fair market value.
In order to acquire company B, company A paid $20. Hence, goodwill would be $11 ($20 - $9). The journal entry in the books of company A to record the acquisition of company B would be:
Goodwill is a special type of intangible asset that represents that portion of the entire business value that can not be attributed to other income producing business assets, tangible or intangible.
For example, a privately held software company may have net assets (consisting primarily of miscellaneous equipment and / or property, and assuming no debt) valued at $1 million, but the company 's overall value (including customers and intellectual capital) is valued at $10 million. Anybody buying that company would book $10 million in total assets acquired, comprising $1 million physical assets and $9 million in other intangible assets. And any consideration paid in excess of $10 million shall be considered as goodwill. In a private company, goodwill has no predetermined value prior to the acquisition; its magnitude depends on the two other variables by definition. A publicly traded company, by contrast, is subject to a constant process of market valuation, so goodwill will always be apparent.
While a business can invest to increase its reputation, by advertising or assuring that its products are of high quality, such expenses can not be capitalized and added to goodwill, which is technically an intangible asset. Goodwill and intangible assets are usually listed as separate items on a company 's balance sheet.
Previously, companies could structure many acquisition transactions to determine the choice between two accounting methods to record a business combination: purchase accounting or pooling - of - interests accounting. Pooling - of - interests method combined the book value of assets and liabilities of the two companies to create the new balance sheet of the combined companies. It therefore did not distinguish between who is buying whom. It also did not record the price the acquiring company had to pay for the acquisition. Since 2001, U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (FAS 141) no longer allows the pooling - of - interests method.
Goodwill is no longer amortized under U.S. GAAP (FAS 142). FAS 142 was issued in June 2001. Companies objected to the removal of the option to use pooling - of - interests, so amortization was removed by Financial Accounting Standards Board as a concession. As of 2005 - 01 - 01, it is also forbidden under International Financial Reporting Standards. Goodwill can now only be impaired under these GAAP standards.
Instead of deducting the value of goodwill annually over a period of maximal 40 years, companies are now required to determine the fair value of the reporting units, using present value of future cash flow, and compare it to their carrying value (book value of assets plus goodwill minus liabilities.) If the fair value is less than carrying value (impaired), the goodwill value needs to be reduced so the carrying value is equal to the fair value. The impairment loss is reported as a separate line item on the income statement, and new adjusted value of goodwill is reported in the balance sheet.
When the business is threatened with insolvency, investors will deduct the goodwill from any calculation of residual equity because it has no resale value.
The accounting treatment for goodwill remains controversial, within both the accounting and financial industries, because it is, fundamentally, a workaround employed by accountants to compensate for the fact that businesses, when purchased, are valued based on estimates of future cash flows and prices negotiated by the buyer and seller, and not on the fair value of assets and liabilities to be transferred by the seller. This creates a mismatch between the reported assets and net incomes of companies that have grown without purchasing other companies, and those that have.
While companies will follow the rules proscribed by the Accounting Standards Boards, there is not a fundamentally correct way to deal with this mismatch under the current financial reporting framework. Therefore, the accounting for goodwill will be rules based, and those rules have changed, and can be expected to continue to change, periodically along with the changes in the members of the Accounting Standards Boards. Ironically, the current rules governing the accounting treatment of goodwill are highly subjective and can result in very high costs, but have limited value to investors.
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what does cosmo kramer do for a living | Cosmo Kramer - wikipedia
Cosmo Kramer, usually referred to as simply "Kramer '', is a fictional character on the American television sitcom Seinfeld (1989 -- 1998), played by Michael Richards.
The character is loosely based on comedian Kenny Kramer, Larry David 's ex-neighbor across the hall. Kramer is the friend and neighbor of main character Jerry, residing in Apartment 5B, and is friends with George and Elaine. Of the series ' four central characters, only Kramer has no visible means of support; what few jobs he holds seem to be nothing more than larks.
His trademarks include his upright hairstyle and vintage wardrobe, whose combination led Elaine to characterize him as a "hipster doofus ''; his taste in fresh fruit; love of occasional smoking, Cuban cigars in particular; bursts through Jerry 's apartment door; frequent pratfalls and penchant for nonsensical, percussive outbursts of noise to indicate skepticism, agreement, irritation and a variety of other feelings. He 's been described as "an extraordinary cross between Eraserhead and Herman Munster ''. Kramer appeared in all but two episodes: "The Chinese Restaurant '' and "The Pen '', in the second and third seasons, respectively.
In "The Trip '', Kramer admits that a man in a park exposed himself to him when he was a young boy. In "The Big Salad '' Kramer reveals to Jerry that he grew up in a strict household where he had to be in bed every night by 9: 00PM. In "The Letter '', Kramer tells two art patrons that he ran away from home at age seventeen and stowed away aboard a steamer bound for Sweden.
Kramer never completed high school; however, it is made clear in "The Barber '' that Kramer has a GED.
Kramer was estranged for a long period from his mom, Babs Kramer, who works as a restroom matron at an upscale restaurant. Unlike George and Jerry, Kramer 's character does not have a well - developed network of family members shown in the sitcom. He is the only main character on the show whose dad never makes an appearance; however, in "The Chinese Woman '', Kramer mentions that he is the last male member of his family, implying that his father had died. He also mentions in "The Lip Reader '' that he has or had a deaf cousin, from whom he learned fluent American Sign Language, but when Kramer tries to communicate in ASL, he speaks complete gibberish and can not correctly translate the ASL he sees others using. He also apparently has no biological children, although he adopted mile 114 of the Arthur Burkhardt Expressway in "The Pothole ''.
During an opening discussion, Kramer reveals to Jerry that in 1979 he was struck on the head by a falling air conditioner while walking on the sidewalk. Jerry asks if that was when Kramer lived in Greenwich Village, to which Kramer replies that he can not remember. This is discussed in the beginning of "The Little Kicks ''.
In "The Strong Box '', it is revealed that Kramer spent a brief time in the Army, although info about this time is "classified ''. In episode three of season one he says he lived in Los Angeles for three months.
-- Peter Goddard, The Toronto Star
Kramer has conflicting personality traits. An art patron described a painting of him in "The Letter '' as "a loathsome, offensive brute ''; he 's sometimes shallow, callous and indifferent. Though eccentric, Kramer is generally caring, friendly and kind - hearted; he often goes out of his way to help total strangers, and tries to get his friends to also help others and to do the right thing even when they do not want to. He is confident in his own unique way of doing things, yet he can be neurotic and high - strung. His quirkiness, strange body movements and frequent gibberish mutterings (possibly a result from a blow to the head in "The Pitch '') have become his trademark.
Kramer also gets his friends directly into trouble by talking them into unwise or even illegal actions such as parking illegally in a handicapped space ("The Handicap Spot ''), urinating in a parking garage ("The Parking Garage ''), committing mail fraud ("The Package '' though it was George that took the picture of Jerry trying to jab his CD player) or even hiring an assassin (who turns out to be Newman) to get rid of a dog ("The Engagement ''). Kramer is also known to mooch off his friends, especially Jerry. Kramer regularly enters and uses Jerry 's apartment without his consent or knowledge, and often helps himself to Jerry 's food. Kramer is also known to use tools / appliances of Jerry 's, only occasionally with permission, and often returning them in a state of disrepair. The reason for all this is because Kramer is told "What 's mine is yours '' on his first meeting with Jerry ("The Betrayal '').
Kramer is known for his extreme honesty and, correspondingly, lack of tact; in "The Nose Job '', he tells George 's insecure girlfriend that she 's as pretty as any girl in New York City; she just needs a nose job. Similarly, in "The Kiss Hello '' when Elaine tries to take advantage of this personality quirk by inviting Kramer to meet her friend, Wendy, whose hairstyle she feels is outdated, Kramer immediately comments on her hair as expected, but rather than hating it, he tells her he loves it. Instead of being horrified, many characters end up thanking Kramer for his candor. Kramer rarely gets into trouble for it, but his friends often do; this happens memorably in "The Cartoon '' where Kramer makes comments to Sally Weaver (Kathy Griffin), who then blames Jerry for "ruining her life '' as a result.
One explanation as to Kramer 's personality and traits, with respect to his mysterious childhood and background, is hinted in "The Chicken Roaster ''. After a series of conflicts, Jerry is forced to live in Kramer 's apartment and vice versa, which quickly has an effect on both characters. Jerry, bothered endlessly by the many oddities and idiosyncrasies associated with Kramer 's home (as an example, the apartment creaks "like the hull of a ship '' at night), quickly begins behaving like his wacky friend. Conversely, when Kramer begins living in Jerry 's regular, normal apartment, he quickly and briefly becomes more like his calm, quick - witted friend. The clear implication is that Kramer is radically and negatively influenced by his living environment but has grown so used to it that he does not even realize the impact it has on him.
His relationship with George and Elaine is as moderately strong as with Jerry. He helps Elaine in "The Watch '', "The Engagement '', "The Soup Nazi '' and "The Slicer '', and George in "The Busboy '', "The Stall '' and "The Slicer ''. He clashes with Elaine in "The 7 '' and George in "The Susie ''.
His relationship with Jerry is very questionable. In general, Kramer excels at persuading a usually reluctant Jerry into doing things against his better judgment. Kramer also at times gets into arguments with Jerry, in episodes like "The Chaperone '', "The Kiss Hello '' and "The Caddy ''. On the other hand, Kramer has displayed an almost unbending loyalty toward Jerry in many episodes (although he once comments that he 'd turn Jerry in were he wanted for murder) especially when choosing to help him against Newman in many episodes, including "The Suicide '' and "The Millennium '' (in this episode, Kramer calls Jerry "my buddy '' and even keeps a photograph of them arm in arm at a previous New Year 's Eve on his nightstand). In the same respect, Jerry has helped Kramer out of good will in some episodes and always seems to forgive and ultimately accept Kramer 's mooching tendencies. At times, Jerry is clearly quite entertained by Kramer 's antics, which may also be a factor in the friendship 's endurance. In "The Serenity Now '', overemotional Jerry declares a near - brotherly love for Kramer, to which Kramer easily responds, "I love you, too, buddy. '' The duo is so close that in one instance when Kramer was locked out of his apartment, Jerry even let him sleep in the same bed with him ("The Wig Master '').
His relationship with Newman is defined from the start in "The Suicide '', where they get along very well. Like the main characters they also get into conflict with each other, most notably "The Junk Mail ''. Their get - rich - quick schemes are noted in "The Old Man '' and "The Bottle Deposit ''. Kramer 's most notable conflict other than with Newman is with Keith Hernandez in "The Boyfriend '' until the baseball star straightens out the facts, along with the famous JFK parody and a battle - of - wits game of Risk, where they 're pitted against one another in a battle for world domination ("The Label Maker '').
His relationship with Susan is mixed. Although they get along in "The Pool Guy '', there are many episodes in which he makes her life a mess. He throws up on her in "The Pitch '', unwittingly burns her dad 's cabin in "The Bubble Boy '', dates Mona while Susan is a lesbian in "The Smelly Car '' and after calling her "Lily '' in "The Invitations, '' she insists that he not be an usher at her and George 's upcoming wedding (she was also concerned that "he 'd fall or something... and ruin the whole ceremony '').
Kramer 's apartment is the subject of numerous radical experiments in interior design. Oftentimes, the "experiments '' never happen due to Kramer 's inherent short - attention span, including for example, his plan to eliminate all furniture and build "levels... like ancient Egypt '' in "The Pony Remark ''. Other times, the experiments do come to fruition, like his reconstruction of the set of The Merv Griffin Show in "The Merv Griffin Show ''. Inside views of Kramer 's apartment are seldom seen, but it 's known that he installed hardwood flooring and woodgrain - like wallpaper to, as he explains to Jerry, "give it the feel of a ski lodge. '' The apartment is centered around a large hot tub and couch styled after a 1957 Chevy. The apartment is decorated with many small statues of people, all made entirely out of pasta: Kramer also gives these to his friends as gifts, for example to Jerry in "The Fusilli Jerry '' and Bette Midler in "The Understudy ''. Kramer has also experimented with his apartment entrance, including reversing his peephole "to prevent an ambush '' in "The Reverse Peephole '' and installing a screen door (after salvaging it from George 's parents ' house) in "The Serenity Now ''.
Kramer has a liking for smoking Cuban cigars. It starts in "The Wallet '' and in "The Abstinence '' he sets up a smoking club in his apartment, which included a regularly - scheduled "pipe night '' for those who preferred pipe tobacco to cigars and / or cigarettes. His face gets ruined after so much smoking and he hires Jackie Chiles to sue the cigarette company, but instead ends up getting his image as the Marlboro Man on the Marlboro billboard in Times Square. At one point, he goes so far as to try to hire Cuban cigar rollers in an attempt to make his own Cuban cigars (presumably for himself as well as profit) in "The English Patient '', but sadly (and typically), the scheme goes awry when the "Cubans '' turn out to be Dominicans.
Interestingly, Richards ' portrayal of the Kramer character closely resembles that of Stanley Spadowski, a janitor - turned - children 's - TV - host he played in the 1989 comedy UHF, starring "Weird Al '' Yankovic.
He suffers from coulrophobia, a fear of clowns, in "The Opera '', "The Gymnast '' and "The Slicer ''.
He almost always drinks a milkshake whenever he is at a coffee shop or eatery.
Kramer is a fan of Canadian football, as explained in "The Label Maker '', where Jerry has Super Bowl tickets; he explains he can not give them to Kramer because Kramer only watches Canadian football.
In "The Raincoats '', he panics when the word "mouse '' is mentioned and therefore suffers from musophobia. He shares this phobia with Frank Costanza.
He has seizures whenever he hears the voice of Mary Hart, co-anchor of Entertainment Tonight, as seen in "The Good Samaritan. '' This is a real condition, which has been dubbed the "Mary Hart Syndrome '' -- an actual case was reported and published over a year before the episode aired.
Kramer is extremely sensitive to being told to drop dead. In "The Handicap Spot '', Lola, who Kramer replaced her wheelchair for, dumped him, telling him that he was not good - looking enough for her, that he was a hipster doofus, and (of course) to drop dead. In "The Betrayal '', Kramer 's friend FDR (Franklin Delano Romanowski) repeatedly wishes that Kramer drop dead, and Kramer goes to great lengths to avoid that fate. In "The Parking Garage '', however, he tells George that he does not fear death.
Kramer is inexplicably popular with both George 's and Jerry 's parents, although not at first. In "The Handicap Spot '', Estelle Costanza calls Kramer "trouble '' and expresses her dissatisfaction at George hanging around him, although he 's good friends with Frank Costanza. It 's revealed in "The Blood '' that he calls the Seinfelds weekly. George 's parents let Kramer stay at their house in an episode when they 're away on a trip. They even let Kramer bring women to their house (upsetting George because he was never allowed to bring women over). He even briefly moves into Jerry 's parents ' retirement community in Florida, where Morty Seinfeld recruits him to run for Condo Board President in an effort to establish a puppet régime. Kramer even manages to befriend "The Soup Nazi '', which seemed impossible because of the Soup Nazi 's short temper and outbursts at anyone who holds up the line.
Kramer joins a polar diving club in "The Pez Dispenser '' and during the series maintains a fondness for winter swimming, occasionally suggesting the group go to the beach in very cold weather.
Kramer 's conversation sometimes contains onomatopoeia or nonsensical sounds, difficult to transcribe, in order to stress an emotional point or describe earlier actions. He sometimes expresses his agreement with a sentiment or suggestion via the word "Giddyup! ''. He is also known to indicate pleasure with, "Oh, Mama! ''
In "The Visa '', George comments, "Kramer goes to a fantasy camp. His whole life is a fantasy camp. People should plunk down $2,000 to live like him for a week. Do nothing, fall ass - backwards into money, mooch off your friends, and have sex without dating. That 's a fantasy camp. '' This likely refers to Kramer 's various strokes of financial luck over the course of the series, like optioning his coffee table book about coffee tables to a major Hollywood studio in "The Wizard '', winning $18,000 in "The Subway '' successfully betting on horse races and signing a contract with Calvin Klein in "The Pick ''. It may also indicate that Kramer came into money at an earlier, unseen time and is therefore independently wealthy to some degree, explaining his not having to work.
The character of Kramer was originally based on the real - life Kenny Kramer, a neighbor of co-creator Larry David from New York. However, Michael Richards did not in any way base his performance on the real Kramer, to the point of refusing to meet him. This was later parodied in "The Pilot '' when the actor that is cast to play him in Jerry and George 's sitcom refuses to base the character on the real Cosmo Kramer. At the time of the shooting of the original Seinfeld pilot, "The Seinfeld Chronicles, '' Kenny Kramer had not yet given consent to use his name, and so Kramer 's character was originally known as "Kessler. ''
Larry David was hesitant to use Kenny Kramer 's real name because he suspected that Kramer would take advantage of this. David 's suspicion turned out to be correct; Kenny Kramer created the "Kramer Reality Tour '', a New York City bus tour that points out actual locations of events or places featured in Seinfeld. The "Kramer Reality Tour '' is itself spoofed on Seinfeld in "The Muffin Tops. '' In the episode, when Kramer 's real - life stories are used by Elaine to pad the biography of J. Peterman she was ghostwriting, he develops a reality bus tour called "The Peterman Reality Tour '' and touts himself as "The Real J. Peterman, '' even though, as Jerry notes, reality is the last thing Kramer is qualified to give a tour on.
Richards ' physicality can be seen in his early 1980s appearances on The Tonight Show, the early 1980s ABC sketch comedy show "Fridays '', and his appearance in the film "Young Doctors in Love '' where he plays a hit man; a nod to this appears in the "Air Conditioner '' episode.
Kramer was known only as "Kramer '' during the show 's first five seasons (from 1989 to 1994), though in "The Seinfeld Chronicles '', Jerry referred to him as "Kessler '', which was his original name for the show, until it was changed to "Kramer ''. However, in the first draft of the script, he was named "Hoffman ''. In "The Betrayal '', when it is shown how Jerry met Kramer, Kramer says that his name is incorrectly listed as "Kessler '' in the apartment building. This retcons the pilot 's use of "Kessler '' as the character 's name.
George finds out his unusual first name of "Cosmo '' through an encounter with Kramer 's long estranged mom, Babs (Sheree North), in "The Switch ''. Despite this, most characters continued to call him Kramer for the remainder of the show 's run (although many minor characters referred to him as "Cosmo ''). The name came from a friend of a producer, whose nephew was born of the given name Cosmo before Larry David had confidently decided on Kramer 's name.
Additionally, the episode titled "The Bet '' would have revealed Kramer 's first name as "Conrad '', not "Cosmo '', but it was never filmed.
Of the four main characters, Kramer has the fewest on - screen romantic relationships. He does not seem to have trouble attracting women, but his relationships often come to an embarrassing end, and, like Jerry 's, are usually short lived. Some of Kramer 's most notable relationships include:
Kramer has on a few occasions taken people under his wing and aggressively protected their interests.
Kramer is known to embrace strange philosophies unique to himself, and reject acceptable social behaviors or established facts. For example:
Despite the failure of the majority of his schemes and his unwillingness to even apply for a normal job, Kramer always seems to have money when he needs it. In the episode, "The Shoes '', Jerry remarks that Kramer received a "ton of money '' at some earlier point in his life (presumably via inheritance). In "The Visa '', George makes a comment about Kramer going to a fantasy camp, and how Kramer 's "whole life is a fantasy camp. People should plunk down two thousand dollars to live like him for a week. Do nothing, fall ass - backwards into money, mooch food off your neighbors, and have sex without dating. That 's a fantasy camp. '' The biggest example of this demonstrated on the show was in the episode "The Subway '', in which Kramer places a $600 bet on a horse at 30 - to - 1 odds, which amounts to winning $18,000.
As a younger man, Kramer appears to have had several jobs. In the episode "The Strong Box '', Kramer says one of the things in his strongbox is his military discharge. Upon being asked, "You were in the Army? '', Kramer replies, "Briefly, '' and claims the reason for his discharge is classified. Also, in the episode "The Muffin Tops '', Kramer mentions shaving his chest when he was a lifeguard. His long term unemployed status is partially, if nonsensically, explained in "The Strike '', when he went back to work at H&H Bagels after being on strike since 1985. His union finally settled the strike when the minimum wage of New York was raised to the hourly rate the strikers had demanded twelve years earlier (Kramer still felt the strike was a success although his fellow strikers apparently all moved on years earlier). He only worked at H&H Bagels a short time before he was fired, and, during the brief period he was re-employed there, he went on strike at least once more because he was unfairly forced to work on Festivus, a holiday only celebrated by Frank Costanza (he "caved '' and called off the strike when he needed to use the bathroom).
Along with his stint at H&H Bagels, Kramer is engaged in a variety of other short - lived jobs. He works part - time as a department store Santa before being fired for spreading Communist propaganda to young children in "The Race ''. In "The Bizarro Jerry '', he works at an office where he is not actually employed, describing his daily activities to Jerry as "T.C.B. You know, takin ' care of business. '' His boss, "old man Leland '', eventually fires him, commenting that his reports resemble work by someone with "no business training at all '', which, of course, was the truth. In "The Beard '', Kramer works as a "lineup decoy '' for the NYPD, earning $50 per lineup. This job ends when the witness to a jewelry store heist, a homeless man who 'd had a recent unrelated altercation with Kramer, fingers Kramer as the perpetrator. A story arc of the fifth season includes Kramer 's idea for a coffee table book about coffee tables, which is eventually published in "The Fire ''. His success in that particular endeavor is short - lived, however, because he spews coffee all over Kathie Lee Gifford at the first stop of his book tour on Live with Regis and Kathie Lee in "The Opposite ''. In "The Pick '', he becomes an underwear model for Calvin Klein, which must account for at least some of his income. The biggest boost to Kramer 's income would have to be in the episode "The Wizard '' when his coffee table book is optioned for a movie by a "big Hollywood so - and - so '', earning Kramer enough royalty money to retire to Florida (although he moves back to New York almost immediately after a "political scandal '' involving going barefoot in the clubhouse, which costs him the election for condo board president at Del Boca Vista, Phase 3).
He is a compulsive gambler who successfully avoids gambling for several years until "The Diplomat 's Club '', in which he bets with a wealthy Texan on the arrival and departure times of flights going into New York 's LaGuardia Airport. In "The Susie '', when Kramer 's friend, Mike Moffit, becomes a bookie, he immediately places an outlandish bet on the Knicks "for Jerry '', and, when the Knicks shockingly cover the 30 + point spread winning Jerry one thousand dollars, Kramer immediately and compulsively presses Jerry to make more bets. "The Pony Remark '' and "The Subway '' also show Kramer 's compulsiveness as it relates to gambling on just about anything.
A struggling (and terrible) actor, Kramer 's first gig was a one - line part in a Woody Allen movie in "The Alternate Side '' (his line, "These pretzels are making me thirsty '', becomes the show 's first catchphrase). Although he is fired before completing his scene, he says he "caught the bug '' because of it, and briefly moves to Los Angeles to pursue a career in Hollywood. While there, he accosts Fred Savage, appears in a minor role on Murphy Brown, and is a suspect in a string of serial killings ("The Keys '', "The Trip ''). After returning to New York, Kramer auditions for the role of "Kramer '' in the pilot of a new sitcom called Jerry, using his stage name of Martin van Nostrand ("The Pilot ''). Unfortunately, he was unable to complete the audition due to an intestinal problem and did not get the part. Kramer later works as a stand - in on a soap opera with his friend Mickey Abbott in "The Stand In '' and various other low - paying or non-paying theater projects, such as acting out illnesses at a medical school in "The Burning ''.
Kramer 's financial status seems to be contradicted across episodes. For example, in one episode George asks Kramer if he can break a twenty - dollar bill, to which he replies, "I only have hundreds '' ("The Mango ''). However, in another episode, in which he explains to Jerry that wallets are a nuisance and that he should use a money clip, Kramer advises Jerry to "keep the big bills on the outside '' and shows Jerry his own money clip as an example. Jerry quickly notes that the "big bill '' on the outside is "a five '' ("The Reverse Peephole ''). When Kramer decides to pay off Jerry (for all the food that he took from Jerry in a week, which was $50), he says, "I do n't have that kind of cash. '' He ends up selling his bicycle to Newman to settle Jerry. In "The Calzone '', Kramer claims that he only carries change. It could be that Kramer 's money is in a trust or other long term investment, which pays him a regular stipend sufficient to cover his monthly expenses but which makes it difficult to obtain additional cash when unexpected, short - term needs arise.
Kramer is also paid by J. Peterman a small, one - time royalty of $750, in the form of a check, for "the whole lot '' (all of Kramer 's life stories). After being told by Peterman to "name your price, man '', Kramer ponders the question for a moment before asking for $1500. Peterman replies, "I 'll give you half that. '' Kramer quickly agrees (at which point Peterman writes out and signs the $750 check).
Kramer shows an entrepreneurial bent with "Kramerica Industries, '' for which he devises plans for a pizza place where customers make their own pie ("Male Unbonding ''), a bladder system for tankers that will "put an end to maritime oil spills '' ("The Voice ''), and a product that will put ketchup and mustard in the same bottle.
In "The Friar 's Club '', he creates a concept restaurant that only serves peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, which he calls P.B. & Js. While it is unclear if Kramer ever pursued the concept further, similar restaurants have since successfully opened in various locations including New York City and Louisville, Kentucky.
He also comes up with the idea of a beach - scented cologne in "The Pez Dispenser '', but a marketing executive for Calvin Klein tells him the idea is ridiculous. However, in "The Pick '', it is revealed that Klein has produced a cologne called Ocean based on the same idea, leading Kramer to declare, "I could have been a millionaire! I could have been a fragrance millionaire! '' When Kramer confronts him about this, his interaction with Calvin Klein lands him a photo shoot in connection with the cologne as an underwear model.
In "The Doorman '', Kramer and Frank Costanza co-develop a prototype for a bra for men called the "bro '' or the "manssiere ''. It 's mentioned again in "The Fusilli Jerry '' when Frank believes that Kramer used "the move '' - stopping short by quickly applying the brakes of a car in order to get a quick feel of a woman in the passenger seat. In "The Understudy '' Frank tries to do "the move '' on an old flame from his days as a traveling salesman in Korea that fails to rekindle their relationship.
In "The Muffin Tops '', Kramer cries foul after failing to receive due credit for J. Peterman 's book success which is based on Kramer 's misadventures. He then confronts Peterman during a book signing and is kicked out of the event. Kramer then declares himself "The Real Peterman '' and initiates The Real Peterman Reality Bus Tour (even though according to Jerry, "the last thing (he 's) qualified to give a tour on is reality ''), charging customers $37.50 for a tour of his life. On the matter of this tour, Jerry commented that it is "basically $37.50 for a 3 Musketeers. ''
Kramer also hatches a scheme to smuggle actual Cubans to the United States to make his beloved but outlawed Cuban cigars, only to learn the "Cubans '' are actually Dominicans ("The English Patient '').
He participates in lawsuits against various people and companies and considers himself "very litigious ''. He is always represented in these lawsuits by Jackie Chiles, a parody of Johnnie Cochran. In "The Maestro, '' he settles one such suit (though receiving no monetary compensation) against a coffee company whose beverages are too hot (a reference to the McDonald 's coffee case). In "The Abstinence, '' Kramer sues a tobacco company for the damage its products cause to his appearance, and in "The Caddy, '' he sues Sue Ellen Mischke for causing a traffic accident that ruins his chances of becoming a professional golfer.
A storyline running throughout the fifth season is the development of one of Kramer 's few successful ideas. Kramer first thinks of the book in "The Cigar Store Indian '', although he later claims that he first had the idea when skiing. Throughout the season, his quest to get the book published becomes a running gag. Although Elaine is shown as disliking the idea, Mr. Lippman, her boss, likes it, which surprises her. Pendant Publishing (where Elaine and Kramer 's then - girlfriend work) decides to publish it in "The Fire ''.
In "The Opposite '', Kramer starts his "book tour '' with an appearance on Regis and Kathie Lee. By accidentally spitting his coffee over Kathie Lee Gifford ("All over my Kathie Lee Casuals! ''), his book tour immediately goes down in flames. Also in the episode, as a result of a bizarre chain of events, Elaine inadvertently causes the end of Pendant Publishing and therefore the end of Kramer 's book. Nevertheless, the book is mentioned later in the episode "The Wizard '' where it is revealed that the book is being made into a movie and the money Kramer makes allows him to briefly retire to Florida and run for president of the condo board at Del Boca Vista, Phase 3.
The book itself is full of pictures of celebrities ' coffee tables, and even had a pair of foldable wooden legs so that it could itself be turned into a coffee table. He also says that he has plans for a coaster to be built into the cover.
Kramer 's physical eccentricities are a frequent source of humor. His entrance is a recurring gag. He frequently ' slides ' into Jerry 's apartment, often resulting in applause, as in "The Virgin ''. In "The Revenge '' Kramer clumsily carries a dry sack of cement powder to the washing machine. In "The Foundation '', he takes on a group of kids at a karate school, and in "The Van Buren Boys '', after giving his stories to Elaine to write, he slips up on the golf balls and lands on the floor. Many of his mannerisms resemble those of Danny Kaye 's characters in The Secret Life of Walter Mitty and White Christmas, though this has never been mentioned as an inspiration for Richards 's characterization of Kramer.
Like the other three characters, Kramer has pseudonyms he uses in various schemes; H.E. Pennypacker, Dr. Martin van Nostrand, and Professor Peter van Nostrand are the most popular.
Under the name H.E. Pennypacker in "The Puerto Rican Day '', Kramer poses as a prospective buyer interested in an elegant apartment in order to use its bathroom. Kramer also appears as Pennypacker to help Elaine get revenge on a Mayan clothing store, "Putumayo '', by repricing all the merchandise in the store with a pricing gun in "The Millennium '', though due to a mishap with the pricing gun, Pennypacker was forced to instead remove the desiccants from clothes in the store in order to render them "noticeably musty in five years ''. In this latter capacity, he claims Pennypacker is "a wealthy American industrialist. ''
As Dr. Martin van Nostrand, Kramer tries to get hold of Elaine 's medical chart to erase the negative comments her doctor has made in "The Package ''. He also uses the Van Nostrand alias in the episode "The Slicer '', posing as a "Juilliard - trained dermatologist '' for a cancer screening at George 's company, Kruger Industrial Smoothing. Mr. Kruger later recognizes him as Dr. Van Nostrand in "The Strike '', but does not notice when Kramer says he has to work a double shift at H&H Bagels, something a successful dermatologist certainly would n't have to do. Kramer uses the name Martin van Nostrand (without the "doctor '' prefix) while auditioning for the role of himself on the show Jerry in "The Pilot, Part 1 ''. Kramer poses as Professor Peter van Nostrand in "The Nose Job '' in order to retrieve a favorite jacket from another man 's apartment; Kramer 's jacket, to which he attributes at least some of his amorous success, is a minor plot point in other episodes until, in "The Cheever Letters '', he trades it to a Cuban embassy official for several boxes of authentic Cuban cigars.
Kramer is also referred to as "Assman '' in reference to the license plate the state of New York accidentally gave him in "The Fusilli Jerry ''. He is also occasionally called "the K - Man '' ("The Barber '', "The Bizarro Jerry '', "The Busboy '', "The Note '', "The Hamptons '', "The Scofflaw '' and "The Soup Nazi '').
A derogatory designation for Kramer has been "hipster doofus '', a moniker assigned to him by a woman in a wheelchair he once dated in the episode "The Handicap Spot '', and occasionally directed at him by Elaine, as in "The Glasses ''. The nickname was first used in The Atlantic Monthly review of Seinfeld.
In 1999, TV Guide ranked him number 36 on its ' 50 Greatest TV Characters of All Time ' list.
The band Kramer 's Place made reference to the character Kramer.
It is shown that Kramer is subletting his apartment from Paul Buchman, one of the main characters in NBC 's Mad About You. Paul and Kramer have a conversation about Paul giving Kramer the apartment in Mad About You episode "The Apartment '' (Season 1, Episode 8).
Pop - Punk band Ledger make reference to Kramer in the title of the song "Some Days You 're Kramer, Some Days You 're Costanza. ''
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who does runner up of group g play | 2018 FIFA World Cup Group G - wikipedia
Group G of the 2018 FIFA World Cup took place from 18 to 28 June 2018. The group consisted of Belgium, Panama, Tunisia, and England. The top two teams, Belgium and England, advanced to the round of 16.
In the round of 16:
All times listed are local time.
The two teams had never met before this World Cup match. Yannick Carrasco and Dries Mertens forced early saves from goalkeeper Jaime Penedo. Eden Hazard hit the side - netting after pouncing on a loose backpass from Román Torres. Hazard fired wide in the 26th minute and was left hobbling by heavy challenges from Michael Amir Murillo and Torres. Hazard then shook off the blows and forced Penedo into a save with his legs. After a goalless first half, Mertens steered in a right - foot volley from the right of the penalty area to give Belgium the lead. Kevin De Bruyne almost doubled the lead but narrowly missed the target with a 25 - yard free - kick that curled away from Penedo 's right - hand post. Belgium doubled their lead in the 69th minute after Romelu Lukaku scored with a diving header after a cross from the left by Kevin De Bruyne. Lukaku then added a third with a chipped finish from the left of the penalty area after a through ball from Hazard.
Belgium 's last victory by two goals or more at the FIFA World Cup was a 3 -- 1 defeat of Uruguay in 1990. It also matched their best win in World Cup history, along with a 3 -- 0 victory over El Salvador in 1970.
Man of the Match: Romelu Lukaku (Belgium)
Assistant referees: Jerson Dos Santos (Angola) Zakhele Siwela (South Africa) Fourth official: Ryuji Sato (Japan) Reserve assistant referee: Toru Sagara (Japan) Video assistant referee: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Assistant video assistant referees: Felix Zwayer (Germany) Sander van Roekel (Netherlands) Danny Makkelie (Netherlands)
The two teams had met in two matches, including one game at the 1998 FIFA World Cup group stage, an England 2 -- 0 victory.
England scored in the 11th minute when Mouez Hassen stopped a John Stones ' header from a corner from the left, but could not save a Harry Kane follow - up from close range. Hassen was substituted four minutes later for Farouk Ben Mustapha due to an injury earlier in the game, after he had a collision with Jesse Lingard. Lingard then mishit a volley from Ashley Young 's cross to the far post. After 10 minutes, Ferjani Sassi equalised from the penalty spot after Kyle Walker was penalised for an elbow on Fakhreddine Ben Youssef. Kane had an appeal for a penalty waved away within five minutes of the restart as he was seemingly impeded by a pair of Tunisia players at a corner. In the additional time, Harry Maguire flicked a Kieran Trippier corner from the right into the path of Kane, who headed it inside the goal after being left free at the back post.
England scored more than once for the first time in 10 World Cup matches, since a 2 -- 2 draw against Sweden in 2006. Kane became the first England player to score a brace in a World Cup match since Gary Lineker against Cameroon in 1990.
Man of the Match: Harry Kane (England)
Assistant referees: Alexander Guzmán (Colombia) Cristian de la Cruz (Colombia) Fourth official: Ricardo Montero (Costa Rica) Reserve assistant referee: Hiroshi Yamauchi (Japan) Video assistant referee: Sandro Ricci (Brazil) Assistant video assistant referees: Gery Vargas (Bolivia) Emerson de Carvalho (Brazil) Tiago Martins (Portugal)
The two teams had faced each other in three matches, including one game at the 2002 FIFA World Cup group stage, which ended in a 1 -- 1 draw.
Just 6 minutes into the game, Syam Ben Youssef 's late challenge on Eden Hazard was deemed, with the use of VAR, to have been just inside the area and he stepped up to score the penalty into the bottom - left corner. Ten minutes later, Dries Mertens won possession just inside the Tunisia half before driving forward and passing the ball to Romelu Lukaku. Lukaku then shot a low strike across Farouk Ben Mustapha into the bottom - right corner. Wahbi Khazri 's free - kick from the left was met by Dylan Bronn, who flashed a header past Thibaut Courtois. Thomas Meunier found Lukaku inside the area, which he clipped over the onrushing Mustapha. Toby Alderweireld 's long pass from defence was taken on the chest by Hazard, who then rounded Mustapha to stroke into an empty net. Michy Batshuayi met Youri Tielemans ' cross at the back post with a controlled half - volley to score Belgium 's 5th. Khazri scored deep into stoppage time after a swivel in the box.
Lukaku became the first player since Diego Maradona to score back - to - back braces in consecutive world cup games. Hazard 's penalty was Belgium 's second quickest goal in a World Cup match (5: 59), behind only Léopold Anoul 's goal against England in 1954, in the fifth minute. For Tunisia, it has registered as their worst defeat ever in their World Cup history.
Man of the Match: Eden Hazard (Belgium)
Assistant referees: Corey Rockwell (United States) Juan Zumba (El Salvador) Fourth official: Andrés Cunha (Uruguay) Reserve assistant referee: Nicolás Tarán (Uruguay) Video assistant referee: Mark Geiger (United States) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Joe Fletcher (Canada) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The two teams had never met before.
John Stones headed in from Kieran Trippier 's corner to open the scoring. Harry Kane converted a penalty to make it 2 -- 0 following a foul on Jesse Lingard, who was next to find the net with a curling finish with his right foot from the edge of the area. Stones nodded home the rebound after goalkeeper Jaime Penedo had kept out Raheem Sterling 's close - range header. Kane scored his second penalty of the match in the stoppage time of first half, hammering the ball into Penedo 's top right corner after referee had spotted a foul on the forward by Fidel Escobar. Kane completed his hat - trick when a deflected shot by Ruben Loftus - Cheek flicked off from his ankle. Felipe Baloy scored Panama 's first - ever World Cup goal, with a half - volley from a Ricardo Ávila free - kick. The result ensured that both England and Belgium would advance to the knockout stage, while Tunisia and Panama would be eliminated at the group stage.
Gary Lineker was the last England player before Kane to notch more than one goal in consecutive World Cup matches, 32 years ago. At Mexico 1986, Lineker followed up a hat - trick against Poland with a brace against Paraguay. This was England 's biggest win at a major tournament. Stones became the first England defender to score two goals in a World Cup match. Kane is the first player to score at least twice in both of his first two World Cup appearances since Grzegorz Lato of Poland in 1974. Kane is the third England player to score a hat - trick in a World Cup match, after Geoff Hurst against Germany in the 1966 final and Gary Lineker against Poland in 1986.
Man of the Match: Harry Kane (England)
Assistant referees: Redouane Achik (Morocco) Waleed Ahmed (Sudan) Fourth official: Norbert Hauata (Tahiti) Reserve assistant referee: Bertrand Brial (New Caledonia) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Sander van Roekel (Netherlands) Mark Geiger (United States)
The two teams had met in 21 matches, including two matches at the World Cup, one round of 16 game at the 1990 FIFA World Cup which ended in a 1 -- 0 victory for England, and one group stage game at the 1954 FIFA World Cup which ended in a 4 -- 4 draw. Both teams had already guaranteed to advance to the last 16 before kick off, with the winner securing top spot in the group.
Both teams fielded significantly altered line - ups before the game, with media outlets stating that a loss could potentially become beneficial, as the winner would be in the half of the draw with the 4 of the top 7 sides in the world.
Jordan Pickford kept out a long - range drive from Youri Tielemans before the goalkeeper was rescued by Gary Cahill 's goal - line clearance after the ball squirmed out of his grasp. In the 51st minute, Adnan Januzaj cut in from the right and hit a left foot shot into the top left corner of the net. Jamie Vardy sent Marcus Rashford through on goal in the 66th minute, but the striker 's effort was turned wide of the post by a touch from Thibaut Courtois.
This 1 -- 0 victory ended Belgium 's 82 - year winless run against England which dates back to a friendly played in Brussels on 9 May 1936. The scoreline was 3 -- 2 on that occasion. This is the first World Cup match (other than 0 -- 0 draws) in which England failed to score since a 1 -- 0 loss to Portugal in 1986.
Man of the Match: Adnan Januzaj (Belgium)
Assistant referees: Jure Praprotnik (Slovenia) Robert Vukan (Slovenia) Fourth official: Mohammed Abdulla Hassan Mohamed (United Arab Emirates) Reserve assistant referee: Mohamed Al Hammadi (United Arab Emirates) Video assistant referee: Artur Soares Dias (Portugal) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Mauro Vigliano (Argentina)
The two teams had never met before. Both teams had already been eliminated from the tournament before the match.
Panama took the lead in the 33rd minute, after a José Rodríguez shot from outside the penalty area took a deflection off Yassine Meriah and nestle in the back of the net. In the 51st minute, Naïm Sliti found Wahbi Khazri down the right and the latter 's low cross was converted by the Fakhreddine Ben Youssef just six yards out. At the 66 minute mark, Khazri finished off a cross from the left by Oussama Haddadi from close range at the back post.
Tunisia won a World Cup match after 40 years, since their 3 -- 1 victory over Mexico in 1978. Panama became the first nation since Serbia & Montenegro and Togo in 2006 to lose each of their first three World Cup games. Panama 's goal means this is the first World Cup tournament in which every side has scored at least two goals in the competition. Meriah 's own goal was the 50th in World Cup history.
Man of the Match: Fakhreddine Ben Youssef (Tunisia)
Assistant referees: Yaser Tulefat (Bahrain) Taleb Al Maari (Qatar) Fourth official: Mehdi Abid Charef (Algeria) Reserve assistant referee: Hiroshi Yamauchi (Japan) Video assistant referee: Tiago Martins (Portugal) Assistant video assistant referees: Abdulrahman Al - Jassim (Qatar) Marvin Torrentera (Mexico) Sandro Ricci (Brazil)
Fair play points would have been used as tiebreakers if the overall and head - to - head records of teams had been tied. These were calculated based on yellow and red cards received in all group matches as follows:
Only one of the above deductions would be applied to a player in a single match.
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who does cody live with on when calls the heart | When Calls the Heart - wikipedia
When Calls the Heart is a Canadian - American television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke 's book of the same name from her Canadian West Series, and developed by Michael Landon Jr. The series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014, and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.
The series originally debuted as a two - hour television movie pilot in October 2013, starring Maggie Grace as young teacher Elizabeth Thatcher and Stephen Amell as North West Mounted Police officer Wynn Delaney. In the television series Erin Krakow is cast as her niece, whose name is also Elizabeth Thatcher (played by Poppy Drayton in the movie), and Daniel Lissing plays a Mountie named Jack Thornton, with Lori Loughlin reprising her role as coal mine widow Abigail Stanton.
On April 24, 2017, Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season in February 2018. The season will premiere with a 2 - hour Christmas special, to be broadcast as part of Hallmark 's Countdown to Christmas season, and continue for a 10 - episode season, beginning in February 2018.
When Calls the Heart tells the story of Elizabeth Thatcher (Erin Krakow), a young teacher accustomed to her high - society life. She receives her first classroom assignment in Coal Valley, a small coal - mining town in Western Canada which is located just south of Robb, Alberta. There, life is simple -- but often fraught with challenges. Elizabeth charms most everyone in Coal Valley, except Royal North West Mounted Police Constable Jack Thornton (Daniel Lissing). He believes Thatcher 's wealthy father has doomed the lawman 's career by insisting he be assigned in town to protect the shipping magnate 's daughter. The town of Coal Valley was renamed Hope Valley in Episode 2, Season 2 after the coal mine was closed.
Living in this 1910 coal town, Elizabeth must learn the ways of the Canadian frontier movement if she wishes to thrive in the rural west on her own. Lori Loughlin portrays Abigail Stanton, whose husband, the foreman of the mine, and her only son -- along with 44 other miners -- have recently been killed in an explosion, which turns out to have been a tragic accident waiting to happen -- a result of the mining - company site manager 's irresponsible management and lack of due care in his management of the mine. The newly widowed women find their faith tested when they must go to work in the mine to keep a roof over their heads, food on the table, and compile a wage for the town 's teacher.
As of April 23, 2017, 39 episodes of When Calls the Heart have aired, concluding the fourth season.
The series, originally planned to be filmed in Colorado, is filmed south of Vancouver, British Columbia, on a farm surrounded by vineyards. The fictional frontier town of Coal Valley was erected in late 2013. Some of the set trimmings and a stage coach came from the Hell on Wheels set. The Thatcher home is the University Women 's Club of Vancouver.
The series was renewed for a second season, which aired from April 25 to June 13, 2015. Hallmark Channel announced in July 2015 that the series had been renewed for a third season, which aired from February 21 to April 10, 2016, with a sneak peek airing during the 2015 Christmas season.
In mid-2016, it was announced that Season 4 would premier on the Hallmark Channel Christmas Day with a two - hour special. On April 11, 2016, Lissing and Krakow announced via the series ' Facebook page that Hallmark Channel had renewed the series for a fourth season, which aired from February 19 to April 23, 2017.
Filming for season five began in Vancouver on August 22, 2017, and is due to continue until December 12, 2017.
The first season of the series was subsequently picked up by CBC Television for rebroadcast as a summer series in 2015. The network has since aired the second and third seasons. The series became available internationally on Netflix in August 2017.
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which of the following are related to the war of 1812 | War of 1812 - Wikipedia
Treaty of Ghent
United States
British Empire
Tecumseh 's Confederacy
Bourbon Spain
2,200 killed in action
1,160 killed in action
East Coast
Great Lakes / Saint Lawrence River
West Indies / Gulf Coast
Pacific Ocean
The War of 1812 (1812 -- 1815) was a conflict fought between the United States, the United Kingdom, and their respective allies. Historians in Britain often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars; in the United States and Canada, it is seen as a war in its own right.
Since the outbreak of war with Napoleonic France, Britain had enforced a naval blockade to choke off neutral trade to France, which the United States contested as illegal under international law. To man the blockade, Britain impressed American merchant sailors into the Royal Navy. Incidents such as the Chesapeake -- Leopard Affair inflamed anti-British sentiment. In 1811, the British were in turn outraged by the Little Belt Affair, in which 11 British sailors died. British political support for a Native American buffer state, which conducted raids on American settlers on the frontier, hindered American expansion. On June 18, 1812, President James Madison, after receiving heavy pressure from the War Hawks in Congress, signed the American declaration of war into law. Senior figures such as Lord Liverpool and Lord Castlereagh believed it to have been an opportunistic ploy to annex Canada while Britain was fighting a war with France. The view was shared in much of New England.
With the majority of its army in Europe fighting Napoleon, the British adopted a defensive strategy, though the war 's first engagement was an ill - fated assault on Sacket 's Harbor, New York. American prosecution of the war effort suffered from its unpopularity, especially in New England, where it was derogatorily referred to as "Mr. Madison 's War ''. American defeats at the Siege of Detroit and the Battle of Queenston Heights thwarted attempts to seize Upper Canada, improving British morale. American attempts to invade Montreal also failed. In 1813, at the Battle of Lake Erie the Americans won control of Lake Erie and at the Battle of the Thames, shattered Tecumseh 's Confederacy, securing a primary war goal. At sea, the powerful Royal Navy blockaded the American coast, allowing them to strike American trade at will. In 1814, the Burning of Washington took place. The Americans repulsed the British at the Battle of Plattsburgh, ending an attempt to invade the north, and, at the Battle of Baltimore, the British threat to the mid-Atlantic states was defeated.
At home, the British faced mounting opposition to wartime taxation, and demands to reopen trade with America. With the abdication of Napoleon, the maintenance of the blockade of France, as well as the issue of the impressment of American sailors, were nullified. The British were then able to increase the strength of the blockade on the United States coast, annihilating American maritime trade and bringing the United States government near to bankruptcy. Peace negotiations began in August 1814 and the Treaty of Ghent was signed on December 24 as neither side wanted to continue fighting. News of the peace would not reach America for some time. Unaware that the treaty had been signed, British forces invaded Louisiana and were defeated at the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815. The victory and the subsequent ending of the war was seen to have brought in the Era of Good Feelings by restoring American honour, the bottling up of most of the United States Navy, leading to the collapse of anti-war sentiment. Propaganda within the country caused the capture of USS President, the American flagship, the next week to be overlooked. News of the treaty arrived shortly thereafter, halting military operations. The treaty was unanimously ratified by the United States on February 17, 1815, ending the war with Status quo ante bellum (no boundary changes).
Historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States.
As Risjord (1961) notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake -- Leopard Affair. H.W. Brands says, "The other war hawks spoke of the struggle with Britain as a second war of independence; (Andrew) Jackson, who still bore scars from the first war of independence held that view with special conviction. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also about vindication of American identity. '' Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States ' "Second War of Independence ''.
The British too were offended by what they considered insults such as the Little Belt Affair. This led to the British having a particular interest in capturing the United States flagship President which they would eventually succeed at doing in 1815.
In 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via the Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, which Britain was then fighting in the Napoleonic Wars. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law. Historian Reginald Horsman states, "a large section of influential British opinion, both in the government and in the country, thought that America presented a threat to British maritime supremacy. ''
The American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80 % of U.S. cotton and 50 % of other U.S. exports. The British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States ' view was that Britain 's restrictions violated its right to trade with others.
During the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. While the Royal Navy could man its ships with volunteers in peacetime, it competed in wartime with merchant shipping and privateers for a small pool of experienced sailors and turned to impressment from ashore and foreign or domestic shipping when it could not operate its ships with volunteers alone.
The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U.S. citizens. Britain did not recognize a right whereby a British subject could relinquish his status as a British subject, emigrate and transfer his national allegiance as a naturalized citizen to any other country. This meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and the widespread use of unofficial or forged identity or protection papers by sailors. This made it difficult for the Royal Navy to distinguish Americans from non-Americans and led it to impress some Americans who had never been British. Some gained freedom on appeal. Thus while the United States recognized British - born sailors on American ships as Americans, Britain did not. It was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805. U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin stated that 9,000 U.S. sailors were born in Britain. Moreover, a great number of these British born sailors were Irish. An investigation by Captain Isaac Chauncey in 1808 found that 58 % of sailors based in New York City were either naturalized citizens or recent immigrants, the majority of these foreign born sailors (134 of 150) being from Britain. Moreover, 80 of the 134 British sailors were Irish.
American anger at impressment grew when British frigates were stationed just outside U.S. harbours in view of U.S. shores and searched ships for contraband and impressed men while within U.S. territorial waters. Well publicized impressment actions such as the Leander Affair and the Chesapeake -- Leopard Affair outraged the American public.
The British public in turn were outraged by the Little Belt Affair, in which a larger American ship clashed with a small British sloop, resulting in the deaths of 11 British sailors. Both sides claimed the other fired first, but the British public in particular blamed the U.S. for attacking a smaller vessel, with calls for revenge by some newspapers, while the U.S. was encouraged by the fact they had won a victory over the Royal Navy. The U.S. Navy also forcibly recruited British sailors but the British government saw impressment as commonly accepted practice and preferred to rescue British sailors from American impressment on a case - by - case basis.
The Northwest Territory, which consisted of the modern states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, was the battleground for conflict between the Native American Nations and the United States. The British Empire had ceded the area to the United States in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, both sides ignoring the fact that the land was already inhabited by various Native American nations. These included the Miami, Winnebago, Shawnee, Fox, Sauk, Kickapoo, Delaware and Wyandot. Some warriors, who had left their nations of origin, followed Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee Prophet and the brother of Tecumseh. Tenskwatawa had a vision of purifying his society by expelling the "children of the Evil Spirit '': the American settlers. The Indians wanted to create their own state in the Northwest, which would end the American threat forever as it became clear that the Americans wanted all of the land in the Old Northwest for themselves. Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh formed a confederation of numerous tribes to block American expansion. The British saw the Native American nations as valuable allies and a buffer to its Canadian colonies and provided arms. Attacks on American settlers in the Northwest further aggravated tensions between Britain and the United States. Raiding grew more common in 1810 and 1811; Westerners in Congress found the raids intolerable and wanted them permanently ended. British policy towards the Indians of the Northwest was torn between the desire to keep the Americans fighting in the Northwest, and to preserve a region that provided rich profits for Canadian fur traders, versus the fear that too much support for the Indians would cause a war with the United States. Through Tecumseh 's plans for an Indian state in the Northwest would benefit British North America by making it more defensible, at the same time, the defeats suffered by Tecumseh 's confederation had the British leery of going too far to support what was probably a losing cause. In the months running up to the war, British diplomats attempted to defuse tensions on the frontier.
The confederation 's raids, and its very existence, hindered American expansion into rich farmlands in the Northwest Territory. Pratt writes:
There is ample proof that the British authorities did all in their power to hold or win the allegiance of the Indians of the Northwest with the expectation of using them as allies in the event of war. Indian allegiance could be held only by gifts, and to an Indian no gift was as acceptable as a lethal weapon. Guns and ammunition, tomahawks and scalping knives were dealt out with some liberality by British agents.
However, according to the U.S Army Center of Military History, the "land - hungry frontiersmen '', with "no doubt that their troubles with the Native Americans were the result of British intrigue '', exacerbated the problem by "(circulating stories) after every Native American raid of British Army muskets and equipment being found on the field ''. Thus, "the westerners were convinced that their problems could best be solved by forcing the British out of Canada ''.
The British had the long - standing goal of creating a large, "neutral '' Native American state that would cover much of Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan. They made the demand as late as the fall of 1814 at the peace conference, but lost control of western Ontario in 1813 at key battles on and around Lake Erie. These battles destroyed the Indian confederacy which had been the main ally of the British in that region, weakening its negotiating position. Although the area remained under British or British - allied Native Americans ' control until the end of the war, the British, at American insistence and with higher priorities, dropped the demands.
American expansion into the Northwest Territory was being obstructed by various Indian tribes since the end of the Revolution, who were supplied and encouraged by the British. Americans on the western frontier demanded that interference be stopped. There is dispute, however, over whether or not the American desire to annex Canada brought on the war. Several historians believe that the capture of Canada was intended only as a means to secure a bargaining chip, which would then be used to force Britain to back down on the maritime issues. It would also cut off food supplies for Britain 's West Indian colonies, and temporarily prevent the British from continuing to arm the Indians. However, many historians believe that a desire to annex Canada was a cause of the war. This view was more prevalent before 1940, but remains widely held today. Congressman Richard Mentor Johnson told Congress that the constant Indian atrocities along the Wabash River in Indiana were enabled by supplies from Canada and were proof that "the war has already commenced... I shall never die contented until I see England 's expulsion from North America and her territories incorporated into the United States. ''
Madison believed that British economic policies designed to foster imperial preference were harming the American economy and that as British North America existed, here was a conduit for American strugglers who were undercutting his trade policies, which thus required that the United States annex British North America. Furthermore, Madison believed that the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence trade route might become the main trade route for the export of North American goods to Europe at the expense of the U.S. economy, and if the United States controlled the resources of British North America like timber which the British needed for their navy, then Britain would be forced to change its maritime policies which had so offended American public opinion. Many Americans believed it was only natural that their country should swallow up North America with one Congressman, John Harper saying in a speech that "the Author of Nature Himself had marked our limits in the south, by the Gulf of Mexico and on the north, by the regions of eternal frost ''. Upper Canada (modern southern Ontario) had been settled mostly by Revolution - era exiles from the United States (United Empire Loyalists) or postwar American immigrants. The Loyalists were hostile to union with the United States, while the immigrant settlers were generally uninterested in politics and remained neutral or supported the British during the war. The Canadian colonies were thinly populated and only lightly defended by the British Army. Americans then believed that many men in Upper Canada would rise up and greet an American invading army as liberators. That did not happen. One reason American forces retreated after one successful battle inside Canada was that they could not obtain supplies from the locals. But the Americans thought that the possibility of local support suggested an easy conquest, as former President Thomas Jefferson believed: "The acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching, and will give us the experience for the attack on Halifax, the next and final expulsion of England from the American continent. ''
Annexation was supported by American border businessmen who wanted to gain control of Great Lakes trade.
Carl Benn noted that the War Hawks ' desire to annex the Canadas was similar to the enthusiasm for the annexation of Spanish Florida by inhabitants of the American South; both expected war to facilitate expansion into long - desired lands and end support for hostile Indian tribes (Tecumseh 's Confederacy in the North and the Creek in the South).
Tennessee Congressman Felix Grundy considered it essential to acquire Canada to preserve domestic political balance, arguing that annexing Canada would maintain the free state - slave state balance, which might otherwise be thrown off by the acquisition of Florida and the settlement of the southern areas of the new Louisiana Purchase. However historian Richard Maass argued in 2015 that the expansionist theme is a myth that goes against the "relative consensus among experts that the primary U.S. objective was the repeal of British maritime restrictions ''. He argues that consensus among scholars is that the United States went to war "because six years of economic sanctions had failed to bring Britain to the negotiating table, and threatening the Royal Navy 's Canadian supply base was their last hope. '' Maass agrees that theoretically expansionism might have tempted Americans, but finds that "leaders feared the domestic political consequences of doing so. Notably, what limited expansionism there was focused on sparsely populated western lands rather than the more populous eastern settlements (of Canada). ''
Horsman argued expansionism played a role as a secondary cause after maritime issues, noting that many historians have mistakenly rejected expansionism as a cause for the war. He notes that it was considered key to maintaining sectional balance between free and slave states thrown off by American settlement of the Louisiana Territory, and widely supported by dozens of War Hawk congressmen such as John A. Harper, Felix Grundy, Henry Clay, and Richard M. Johnson, who voted for war with expansion as a key aim.
In disagreeing with those interpretations that have simply stressed expansionism and minimized maritime causation, historians have ignored deep - seated American fears for national security, dreams of a continent completely controlled by the republican United States, and the evidence that many Americans believed that the War of 1812 would be the occasion for the United States to achieve the long - desired annexation of Canada... Thomas Jefferson well - summarized American majority opinion about the war... to say "that the cession of Canada... must be a sine qua non at a treaty of peace ''.
However, Horsman states that in his view "the desire for Canada did not cause the War of 1812 '' and that "The United States did not declare war because it wanted to obtain Canada, but the acquisition of Canada was viewed as a major collateral benefit of the conflict. ''
Historian Alan Taylor says that many Republican congressmen, such as Richard M. Johnson, John A. Harper and Peter B. Porter, "longed to oust the British from the continent and to annex Canada. '' A few Southerners opposed this, fearing an imbalance of free and slave states if Canada was annexed, while anti-Catholicism also caused many to oppose annexing mainly Catholic Lower Canada, believing its French - speaking inhabitants "unfit... for republican citizenship ''. Even major figures such as Henry Clay and James Monroe expected to keep at least Upper Canada in the event of an easy conquest. Notable American generals, like William Hull were led by this sentiment to issue proclamations to Canadians during the war promising republican liberation through incorporation into the United States; a proclamation the government never officially disavowed. General Alexander Smyth similarly declared to his troops that when they invaded Canada "You will enter a country that is to become one of the United States. You will arrive among a people who are to become your fellow - citizens. '' A lack of clarity about American intentions undercut these appeals, however.
David and Jeanne Heidler argue that "Most historians agree that the War of 1812 was not caused by expansionism but instead reflected a real concern of American patriots to defend United States ' neutral rights from the overbearing tyranny of the British Navy. That is not to say that expansionist aims would not potentially result from the war. ''
However, they also argue otherwise, saying that "acquiring Canada would satisfy America 's expansionist desires '', also describing it as a key goal of western expansionists, who, they argue, believed that "eliminating the British presence in Canada would best accomplish '' their goal of halting British support for Indian raids. They argue that the "enduring debate '' is over the relative importance of expansionism as a factor, and whether "expansionism played a greater role in causing the War of 1812 than American concern about protecting neutral maritime rights. ''
While the British government was largely oblivious to the deteriorating North American situation because of its involvement in a continent - wide European War, the U.S. was in a period of significant political conflict between the Federalist Party (based mainly in the Northeast), which favoured a strong central government and closer ties to Britain, and the Democratic - Republican Party (with its greatest power base in the South and West), which favoured a weak central government, preservation of states ' rights (including slavery), expansion into Indian land, and a stronger break with Britain. By 1812, the Federalist Party had weakened considerably, and the Republicans, with James Madison completing his first term of office and control of Congress, were in a strong position to pursue their more aggressive agenda against Britain. Throughout the war, support for the U.S. cause was weak (or sometimes non-existent) in Federalist areas of the Northeast. Few men volunteered to serve; the banks avoided financing the war. The negativism of the Federalists, especially as exemplified by the Hartford Convention of 1814 -- 15, ruined its reputation and the Party survived only in scattered areas. By 1815 there was broad support for the war from all parts of the country. This allowed the triumphant Democratic - Republicans to adopt some Federalist policies, such as a national bank, which Madison reestablished in 1816.
The United States Navy (USN) had 7,250 sailors and Marines in 1812. The American Navy was well trained and a professional force that fought well against the Barbary pirates and France in the Quasi-War. The USN had 13 ocean - going warships, three of them "super-frigates '' and its principal problem was a lack of funding as many in Congress did not see the need for a strong navy. The American warships were all well - built ships that were equal, if not superior to British ships of a similar class (British shipbuilding emphasized quantity over quality). However, the biggest ships in the USN were frigates and the Americans had no ships - of - the - line capable of engaging in a fleet action with the Royal Navy at sea.
On the high seas, the Americans could only pursue a strategy of guerre de course of taking British merchantmen via their frigates and privateers. Before the war, the USN was largely concentrated on the Atlantic coast and at the war 's outbreak had only two gunboats on Lake Champlain, one brig on Lake Ontario and another brig in Lake Erie.
The United States Army was much larger than the British Army in North America, but leadership in the American officer corps was inconsistent with some officers proving themselves to be outstanding but many others inept, owing their positions to political favors. American soldiers were well trained and brave, but in the early battles were often led by officers of questionable ability. Congress was hostile to a standing army, and during the war, the U.S. government called out 450,000 men from the state militas, a number that was slightly smaller than the entire population of British North America. However, the state militias were poorly trained, armed and led. After the Battle of Bladensburg in 1814 in which the Maryland and Virginia militias were soundly defeated by the British Army, President Madison commented: "I could never have believed so great a difference existed between regular troops and a militia force, if I not witnessed the scenes of this day. ''
The British Royal Navy was a well - led, professional force, considered the world 's most powerful navy. However, as long as the war with France continued, North America was a secondary concern. In 1813, France had 80 ships - of - the - line while building another 35. Therefore, containing the French fleet had to be the main British naval concern. In Upper Canada, the British had the Provincial Marine was essential for keeping the army supplied since the roads in Upper Canada were abysmal. On Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence, the Royal Navy had two schooners while the Provincial Marine maintained four small warships on Lake Erie. The British Army in North America was a very professional and well trained force, but suffered from being outnumbered.
The militias of Upper Canada and Lower Canada had a much more lower level of military effectiveness. Nevertheless, Canadian militia (and locally recruited regular units known as "Fencibles '') were often more reliable than American militia, particularly when defending their own territory. As such they played pivotal roles in various engagements, including at the Battle of Chateauguay where Canadian and Indian forces alone stopped a much larger American force despite not having assistance from regular British units.
Because of their lower population compared to whites, and lacking artillery, Indian allies of the British avoided pitched battles and instead relied on irregular warfare, including raids and ambushes. Given their low population, it was crucial to avoid heavy losses and, in general, Indian chiefs would seek to only fight under favorable conditions; any battle that promised heavy losses was avoided if possible. The main Indian weapons were a mixture of tomahawks, knives, swords, rifles, clubs, arrows and muskets. Indian warriors were brave, but the need to avoid heavy losses meant that they would only fight under the most favorable conditions and their tactics favored a defensive as opposed to offensive style.
In the words of Benn, those Indians fighting with the Americans provided the U.S with their "most effective light troops '' while the British desperately needed the Indian tribes to compensate for their numerical inferiority. The Indians, regardless of which side they fought for, saw themselves as allies, not subordinates and Indian chiefs did what they viewed as best for their tribes, much to the annoyance of both American and British generals, who often complained about their unreliability.
On June 1, 1812, President James Madison sent a message to Congress recounting American grievances against Great Britain, though not specifically calling for a declaration of war. After Madison 's message, the House of Representatives deliberated for four days behind closed doors before voting 79 to 49 (61 %) in favor of the first declaration of war. The Senate concurred in the declaration by a 19 to 13 (59 %) vote in favour. The conflict began formally on June 18, 1812, when Madison signed the measure into law and proclaimed it the next day. This was the first time that the United States had declared war on another nation, and the Congressional vote would prove to be the closest vote to formally declare war in American history. The Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991, while not a formal declaration of war, was a closer vote. None of the 39 Federalists in Congress voted in favour of the war; critics of war subsequently referred to it as "Mr. Madison 's War. ''
Earlier in London on May 11, an assassin had killed Prime Minister Spencer Perceval, which resulted in Lord Liverpool coming to power. Liverpool wanted a more practical relationship with the United States. On June 23, he issued a repeal of the Orders in Council, but the United States was unaware of this, as it took three weeks for the news to cross the Atlantic. On June 28, 1812, HMS Colibri was despatched from Halifax under a flag of truce to New York. On July 9, she anchored off Sandy Hook, and three days later sailed on her return with a copy of the declaration of war, in addition to transporting the British ambassador to the United States, Mr. Foster and consul, Colonel Barclay. She arrived in Halifax, Nova Scotia eight days later. The news of the declaration took even longer to reach London.
However, the British commander in Upper Canada received news of the American declaration of war much faster. In response to the U.S. declaration of war, Isaac Brock issued a proclamation alerting the citizenry in Upper Canada of the state of war and urging all military personnel "to be vigilant in the discharge of their duty '' to prevent communication with the enemy and to arrest anyone suspected of helping the Americans. He also issued orders to the commander of the British post at Fort St. Joseph to initiate offensive operations against U.S. forces in northern Michigan, who it turned out, were not yet aware of their own government 's declaration of war. The resulting Siege of Fort Mackinac on July 17 was the first major land engagement of the war, and ended in an easy British victory.
The war was conducted in three theatres:
Although the outbreak of the war had been preceded by years of angry diplomatic dispute, neither side was ready for war when it came. Britain was heavily engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, most of the British Army was deployed in the Peninsular War (in Portugal and Spain), and the Royal Navy was compelled to blockade most of the coast of Europe. The number of British regular troops present in Canada in July 1812 was officially stated to be 6,034, supported by Canadian militia. Throughout the war, the British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies was Earl Bathurst. For the first two years of the war, he could spare few troops to reinforce North America and urged the commander - in - chief in North America (Lieutenant General Sir George Prévost) to maintain a defensive strategy. The naturally cautious Prévost followed these instructions, concentrating on defending Lower Canada at the expense of Upper Canada (which was more vulnerable to American attacks) and allowing few offensive actions.
The United States was not prepared to prosecute a war, for Madison had assumed that the state militias would easily seize Canada and that negotiations would follow. In 1812, the regular army consisted of fewer than 12,000 men. Congress authorized the expansion of the army to 35,000 men, but the service was voluntary and unpopular; it offered poor pay, and there were few trained and experienced officers, at least initially. The militia objected to serving outside their home states, were not open to discipline, and performed poorly against British forces when outside their home states. American prosecution of the war suffered from its unpopularity, especially in New England, where anti-war speakers were vocal. "Two of the Massachusetts members (of Congress), Seaver and Widgery, were publicly insulted and hissed on Change in Boston; while another, Charles Turner, member for the Plymouth district, and Chief - Justice of the Court of Sessions for that county, was seized by a crowd on the evening of August 3, (1812) and kicked through the town ''. The United States had great difficulty financing its war. It had disbanded its national bank, and private bankers in the Northeast were opposed to the war. The United States was able to obtain financing from London - based Barings Bank to cover overseas bond obligations. The failure of New England to provide militia units or financial support was a serious blow. Threats of secession by New England states were loud, as evidenced by the Hartford Convention. Britain exploited these divisions, blockading only southern ports for much of the war and encouraging smuggling.
American leaders assumed that Canada could be easily overrun. Former President Jefferson optimistically referred to the conquest of Canada as "a matter of marching ''. Many Loyalist Americans had migrated to Upper Canada after the Revolutionary War. There was also significant non-Loyalist American immigration to the area due to the offer of land grants to immigrants, and the U.S. assumed the latter would favour the American cause, but they did not. In prewar Upper Canada, General Prévost was in the unusual position of having to purchase many provisions for his troops from the American side. This peculiar trade persisted throughout the war in spite of an abortive attempt by the U.S. government to curtail it. In Lower Canada, which was much more populous, support for Britain came from the English elite with strong loyalty to the Empire, and from the Canadian elite, who feared American conquest would destroy the old order by introducing Protestantism, Anglicization, republican democracy, and commercial capitalism; and weakening the Catholic Church. The Canadian inhabitants feared the loss of a shrinking area of good lands to potential American immigrants.
In 1812 -- 13, British military experience prevailed over inexperienced American commanders. Geography dictated that operations would take place in the west: principally around Lake Erie, near the Niagara River between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and near the Saint Lawrence River area and Lake Champlain. This was the focus of the three - pronged attacks by the Americans in 1812. Although cutting the St. Lawrence River through the capture of Montreal and Quebec would have made Britain 's hold in North America unsustainable, the United States began operations first in the western frontier because of the general popularity there of a war with the British, who had sold arms to the Native Americans opposing the settlers.
The British scored an important early success when their detachment at St. Joseph Island, on Lake Huron, learned of the declaration of war before the nearby American garrison at the important trading post at Mackinac Island in Michigan. A scratch force landed on the island on July 17, 1812, and mounted a gun overlooking Fort Mackinac. After the British fired one shot from their gun, the Americans, taken by surprise, surrendered. This early victory encouraged the natives, and large numbers moved to help the British at Amherstburg. The island totally controlled access to the Old Northwest, giving the British nominal control of this area, and, more vitally, a monopoly on the fur trade.
An American army under the command of William Hull invaded Canada on July 12, with his forces chiefly composed of untrained and ill - disciplined militiamen. Once on Canadian soil, Hull issued a proclamation ordering all British subjects to surrender, or "the horrors, and calamities of war will stalk before you ''. This led many of the British forces to defect. John Bennett, printer and publisher of the York Gazette & Oracle, was a prominent defector. Andrew Mercer, who had the publication 's production moved to his house, lost the press and type destroyed during American occupation, an example of what happened to resisters. He also threatened to kill any British prisoner caught fighting alongside a native. The proclamation helped stiffen resistance to the American attacks. Hull 's army was too weak in artillery and badly supplied to achieve its objectives, and had to fight just to maintain its own lines of communication.
The senior British officer in Upper Canada, Major General Isaac Brock, felt that he should take bold measures to calm the settler population in Canada, and to convince the aboriginals who were needed to defend the region that Britain was strong. He moved rapidly to Amherstburg near the western end of Lake Erie with reinforcements and immediately decided to attack Detroit. Hull, fearing that the British possessed superior numbers and that the Indians attached to Brock 's force would commit massacres if fighting began, surrendered Detroit without a fight on August 16. Knowing of British - instigated indigenous attacks on other locations, Hull ordered the evacuation of the inhabitants of Fort Dearborn (Chicago) to Fort Wayne. After initially being granted safe passage, the inhabitants (soldiers and civilians) were attacked by Potowatomis on August 15 after travelling only 2 miles (3.2 km) in what is known as the Battle of Fort Dearborn. The fort was subsequently burned.
Brock promptly transferred himself to the eastern end of Lake Erie, where American General Stephen Van Rensselaer was attempting a second invasion. An armistice (arranged by Prévost in the hope the British renunciation of the Orders in Council to which the United States objected might lead to peace) prevented Brock from invading American territory. When the armistice ended, the Americans attempted an attack across the Niagara River on October 13, but suffered a crushing defeat at Queenston Heights. Brock was killed during the battle. While the professionalism of the American forces would improve by the war 's end, British leadership suffered after Brock 's death. A final attempt in 1812 by American General Henry Dearborn to advance north from Lake Champlain failed when his militia refused to advance beyond American territory.
In contrast to the American militia, the Canadian militia performed well. French Canadians, who found the anti-Catholic stance of most of the United States troublesome, and United Empire Loyalists, who had fought for the Crown during the American Revolutionary War, strongly opposed the American invasion. Many in Upper Canada were recent settlers from the United States who had no obvious loyalties to the Crown; nevertheless, while there were some who sympathized with the invaders, the American forces found strong opposition from men loyal to the Empire.
After Hull 's surrender of Detroit, General William Henry Harrison was given command of the U.S. Army of the Northwest. He set out to retake the city, which was now defended by Colonel Henry Procter in conjunction with Tecumseh. A detachment of Harrison 's army was defeated at Frenchtown along the River Raisin on January 22, 1813. Procter left the prisoners with an inadequate guard, who could not prevent some of his North American aboriginal allies from attacking and killing perhaps as many as sixty Americans, many of whom were Kentucky militiamen. The incident became known as the River Raisin Massacre. The defeat ended Harrison 's campaign against Detroit, and the phrase "Remember the River Raisin! '' became a rallying cry for the Americans.
In May 1813, Procter and Tecumseh set siege to Fort Meigs in northwestern Ohio. American reinforcements arriving during the siege were defeated by the natives, but the fort held out. The Indians eventually began to disperse, forcing Procter and Tecumseh to return north to Canada. A second offensive against Fort Meigs also failed in July. In an attempt to improve Indian morale, Procter and Tecumseh attempted to storm Fort Stephenson, a small American post on the Sandusky River, only to be repulsed with serious losses, marking the end of the Ohio campaign.
On Lake Erie, American commander Captain Oliver Hazard Perry fought the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10, 1813. His decisive victory at "Put - In - Bay '' ensured American military control of the lake, improved American morale after a series of defeats, and compelled the British to fall back from Detroit. This paved the way for General Harrison to launch another invasion of Upper Canada, which culminated in the U.S. victory at the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813, in which Tecumseh was killed.
Because of the difficulties of land communications, control of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River corridor was crucial. When the war began, the British already had a small squadron of warships on Lake Ontario and had the initial advantage. To redress the situation, the Americans established a Navy yard at Sackett 's Harbor in northwestern New York. Commodore Isaac Chauncey took charge of the large number of sailors and shipwrights sent there from New York; they completed the second warship built there in a mere 45 days. Ultimately, almost 3,000 men worked at the naval shipyard, building eleven warships and many smaller boats and transports. Having regained the advantage by their rapid building program, Chauncey and Dearborn attacked York, on the northern shore of the lake, the capital of Upper Canada, on April 27, 1813. The Battle of York was a "pyrrhic '' American victory, marred by looting and the burning of the small Provincial Parliament buildings and a library (resulting in a spirit of revenge by the British / Canadians led by Gov. George Prévost, who later demanded satisfaction encouraging the British Admiralty to issue orders to their officers later operating in the Chesapeake Bay region to exact similar devastation on the American Federal capital village of Washington the following year). However, Kingston was strategically much more valuable to British supply and communications routes along the St. Lawrence corridor. Without control of Kingston, the U.S. Navy could not effectively control Lake Ontario or sever the British supply line from Lower Canada.
On May 25, 1813 the guns of the American Lake Ontario squadron joined by Fort Niagara began bombarding Fort George. On May 27, 1813, an American amphibious force from Lake Ontario assaulted Fort George on the northern end of the Niagara River and captured it without serious losses. The British also abandoned Fort Erie and headed towards the Burlington Heights. With the British position in Upper Canada on the verge of collapse, the Iroquois Indians living along the banks of the Grand River considered changing side and ignored a British appeal to come to their aid. The retreating British forces were not pursued, however, until they had largely escaped and organized a counteroffensive against the advancing Americans at the Battle of Stoney Creek on June 5. With Upper Canada on the line, the British a surprise attack at Stoney Creek at 2: 00 am, leading to much confused fighting. Through tactically a draw, the battle was a strategic British victory as the Americans pulled back to Forty Mile Creek rather than continuing their advance into Upper Canada. At this point, the Six Nations living on the Grand River began to come out to fight for the British as an American victory no longer seemed inevitable. The Iroquis ambushed an American patrol at Forty Mile Creek while the Royal Navy squadron based in Kingston came to bombard the American camp, leading to General Dearborn to retreat back to Fort George as he now mistakenly believed he was outnumbered and outgunned. The British commander, General John Vincent was heartened by the fact that more and more First Nations warriors were now arriving to assist him, providing about 800 additional men. On June 24, with the help of advance warning by Laura Secord, another American force was forced to surrender by a much smaller British and native force at the Battle of Beaver Dams, marking the end of the American offensive into Upper Canada. The British commander General Francis de Rottenberg did not have the strength to retake Fort George, so he build a blockade, hoping to starve the Americans into surrender. Meanwhile, Commodore James Lucas Yeo had taken charge of the British ships on the lake and mounted a counterattack, which was nevertheless repulsed at the Battle of Sackett 's Harbor. Thereafter, Chauncey and Yeo 's squadrons fought two indecisive actions, neither commander seeking a fight to the finish.
Late in 1813, the Americans abandoned the Canadian territory they occupied around Fort George. They set fire to the village of Newark (now Niagara - on - the - Lake) on December 10, 1813, incensing the Canadians and politicians in control. Many of the inhabitants were left without shelter, freezing to death in the snow. This led to British retaliation following the Capture of Fort Niagara on December 18, 1813. Early the next morning on December 19, the British and their native allies stormed the neighbouring town of Lewiston, New York, torching homes and buildings and killing about a dozen civilians. As the British were chasing the surviving residents out of town, a small force of Tuscarora natives intervened and stopped the pursuit, buying enough time for the locals to escape to safer ground. It is notable in that the Tuscaroras defended the Americans against their own Iroquois brothers, the Mohawks, who sided with the British. Later, the British attacked and burned Buffalo on December 30, 1813.
In 1814, the contest for Lake Ontario turned into a building race. Naval superiority shifted between the opposing fleets as each built new, bigger ships. However, neither was able to bring the other to battle when in a position of superiority, leaving the Engagements on Lake Ontario a draw. At war 's end, the British held the advantage with the 112 - gun HMS St Lawrence, but the Americans had laid down two even larger ships. The majority of these ships never saw action and were decommissioned after the war.
The British were potentially most vulnerable over the stretch of the St. Lawrence where it formed the frontier between Upper Canada and the United States. During the early days of the war, there was illicit commerce across the river. Over the winter of 1812 and 1813, the Americans launched a series of raids from Ogdensburg on the American side of the river, which hampered British supply traffic up the river. On February 21, Sir George Prévost passed through Prescott on the opposite bank of the river with reinforcements for Upper Canada. When he left the next day, the reinforcements and local militia attacked. At the Battle of Ogdensburg, the Americans were forced to retire.
For the rest of the year, Ogdensburg had no American garrison, and many residents of Ogdensburg resumed visits and trade with Prescott. This British victory removed the last American regular troops from the Upper St. Lawrence frontier and helped secure British communications with Montreal. Late in 1813, after much argument, the Americans made two thrusts against Montreal. Taking Montreal would have cut off the British forces in Upper Canada and thus potentially changed the war. The plan eventually agreed upon was for Major General Wade Hampton to march north from Lake Champlain and join a force under General James Wilkinson that would embark in boats and sail from Sackett 's Harbor on Lake Ontario and descend the St. Lawrence. Hampton was delayed by bad roads and supply problems and also had an intense dislike of Wilkinson, which limited his desire to support his plan. On October 25, his 4,000 - strong force was defeated at the Chateauguay River by Charles de Salaberry 's smaller force of Canadian Voltigeurs and Mohawks. Salaberry 's force of Lower Canada militia and Indians numbered only 339, but had a strong defensive position. Wilkinson 's force of 8,000 set out on October 17, but was also delayed by bad weather. After learning that Hampton had been checked, Wilkinson heard that a British force under Captain William Mulcaster and Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Wanton Morrison was pursuing him, and by November 10, he was forced to land near Morrisburg, about 150 kilometres (90 mi) from Montreal. On November 11, Wilkinson 's rear guard, numbering 2,500, attacked Morrison 's force of 800 at Crysler 's Farm and was repulsed with heavy losses. After learning that Hampton could not renew his advance, Wilkinson retreated to the U.S. and settled into winter quarters. He resigned his command after a failed attack on a British outpost at Lacolle Mills. Had the Americans taken Montreal as planned, Upper Canada would have certainly been lost and the failure of the campaign ended in the greatest British defeat in the Canadas during the war.
Rather trying to take Montreal or Kingston, the Americans chose again to invade the Niagara frontier to take Upper Canada, largely because the Americans had occupied southwestern Upper Canada after their victory in Moraviantown, and it was believed in Washington that if the Americans could take the rest of Upper Canada, then they would force the British to cede that province to them when it came time to negotiate the peace. The end of the war in Europe in April 1814 meant that the British could now redeploy their Army to North America, so the Americans were anxious to have Upper Canada to negotiate from a position of strength. The plan for 1814 to invade Upper Canada via the Niagara frontier while sending another force to recapture Mackinac. The British were sending supplies to the Indians in the Old Northwest from Montreal via Mackinac, so is why the island was considered important. By the middle of 1814, American generals, including Major Generals Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott, had drastically improved the fighting abilities and discipline of the army. The Americans ' renewed attack on the Niagara peninsula quickly captured Fort Erie on July 3, 1814 with the 170 garrison quickly surrendering to the 5, 000 Americans. General Phineas Riall rushed towards the frontier and unaware of Fort Erie 's fall or the size of the American force chose to engage in battle. Winfield Scott then gained a victory over an inferior British force at the Battle of Chippawa on July 5. The Americans brought out overwhelming firepower against the attacking British who lost about 600 dead to the 350 dead on the American side. An attempt to advance further ended with a hard - fought but inconclusive Battle of Lundy 's Lane on July 25. Both sides stood their ground, but after the battle, the American commander, General Jacob Brown, pulled back to Fort George while the British did not pursue them.
The outnumbered Americans withdrew but withstood a prolonged Siege of Fort Erie. The British tried to storm Fort Erie on August 14, 1814, but suffered heavy losses losing 950 killed, wounded and captured compared to only 84 dead and wounded on the American side. The British suffered heavy casualties in a failed assault and were weakened by exposure and shortage of supplies in their siege lines. Eventually the British raised the siege, but American Major General George Izard took over command on the Niagara front and followed up only halfheartedly. An American raid along the Grand River destroyed many farms that weakened British logistics. In October 1814 the American advanced into Upper Canada, engaged in skirmishes at Cook 's Mill, but pulled back when they heard that the new British warship, HMS St. Lawrence armed with 104 guns, which had been launched in Kingston that September was on its way. The Americans lacked provisions, and eventually destroyed the Fort Erie and retreated across the Niagara.
Meanwhile, following the abdication of Napoleon, 15,000 British troops were sent to North America under four of Wellington 's ablest brigade commanders. Fewer than half were veterans of the Peninsula and the rest came from garrisons. Prévost was ordered to neutralize American power on the lakes by burning Sackets Harbor, gain naval control of Lake Erie, Lake Ontario and the Upper Lakes, and defend Lower Canada from attack. He did defend Lower Canada but otherwise failed to achieve his objectives. Given the late season he decided to invade New York State. His army outnumbered the American defenders of Plattsburgh, but he was worried about his flanks so he decided he needed naval control of Lake Champlain. On the lake, the British squadron under Captain George Downie and the Americans under Master Commandant Thomas Macdonough were more evenly matched.
On reaching Plattsburgh, Prévost delayed the assault until the arrival of Downie in the hastily completed 36 - gun frigate HMS Confiance. Prévost forced Downie into a premature attack, but then unaccountably failed to provide the promised military backing. Downie was killed and his naval force defeated at the naval Battle of Plattsburgh in Plattsburgh Bay on September 11, 1814. The Americans now had control of Lake Champlain; Theodore Roosevelt later termed it "the greatest naval battle of the war ''. The successful land defence was led by Alexander Macomb. To the astonishment of his senior officers, Prévost then turned back, saying it would be too hazardous to remain on enemy territory after the loss of naval supremacy. Prévost was recalled and in London, a naval court - martial decided that defeat had been caused principally by Prévost 's urging the squadron into premature action and then failing to afford the promised support from the land forces. Prévost died suddenly, just before his own court - martial was to convene. Prévost 's reputation sank to a new low, as Canadians claimed that their militia under Brock did the job and he failed. Recently, however, historians have been more kindly, measuring him not against Wellington but against his American foes. They judge Prévost 's preparations for defending the Canadas with limited means to be energetic, well - conceived, and comprehensive; and against the odds, he had achieved the primary objective of preventing an American conquest.
To the east, the northern part of Massachusetts, soon to be Maine, was invaded. Fort Sullivan at Eastport was taken by Sir Thomas Hardy on July 11. Castine, Hampden, Bangor, and Machias were taken, and Castine became the main British base till April 15, 1815, when the British left, taking £ 10,750 in tariff duties, the "Castine Fund '' which was used to found Dalhousie University. Eastport was not returned to the United States till 1818.
The Mississippi River valley was the western frontier of the United States in 1812. The territory acquired in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 contained almost no U.S. settlements west of the Mississippi except around Saint Louis and a few forts and trading posts. Fort Bellefontaine, an old trading post converted to a U.S. Army post in 1804, served as regional headquarters. Fort Osage, built in 1808 along the Missouri was the western-most U.S. outpost, it was abandoned at the start of the war. Fort Madison, built along the Mississippi in what is now Iowa, was also built in 1808, and had been repeatedly attacked by British - allied Sauk since its construction. In September 1813 Fort Madison was abandoned after it was attacked and besieged by natives, who had support from the British. This was one of the few battles fought west of the Mississippi. Black Hawk played a leadership role.
Little of note took place on Lake Huron in 1813, but the American victory on Lake Erie and the recapture of Detroit isolated the British there. During the ensuing winter, a Canadian party under Lieutenant Colonel Robert McDouall established a new supply line from York to Nottawasaga Bay on Georgian Bay. When he arrived at Fort Mackinac with supplies and reinforcements, he sent an expedition to recapture the trading post of Prairie du Chien in the far west. The Siege of Prairie du Chien ended in a British victory on July 20, 1814.
Earlier in July, the Americans sent a force of five vessels from Detroit to recapture Mackinac. A mixed force of regulars and volunteers from the militia landed on the island on August 4. They did not attempt to achieve surprise, and at the brief Battle of Mackinac Island, they were ambushed by natives and forced to re-embark. The Americans discovered the new base at Nottawasaga Bay, and on August 13, they destroyed its fortifications and the schooner Nancy that they found there. They then returned to Detroit, leaving two gunboats to blockade Mackinac. On September 4, these gunboats were taken unawares and captured by British boarding parties from canoes and small boats. These Engagements on Lake Huron left Mackinac under British control.
The British garrison at Prairie du Chien also fought off another attack by Major Zachary Taylor. In this distant theatre, the British retained the upper hand until the end of the war, through the allegiance of several indigenous tribes that received British gifts and arms, enabling them to take control of parts of what is now Michigan and Illinois, as well as the whole of modern Wisconsin. In 1814 U.S. troops retreating from the Battle of Credit Island on the upper Mississippi attempted to make a stand at Fort Johnson, but the fort was soon abandoned, along with most of the upper Mississippi valley.
After the U.S. was pushed out of the Upper Mississippi region, they held on to eastern Missouri and the St. Louis area. Two notable battles fought against the Sauk were the Battle of Cote Sans Dessein, in April 1815, at the mouth of the Osage River in the Missouri Territory, and the Battle of the Sink Hole, in May 1815, near Fort Cap au Gris.
At the conclusion of peace, Mackinac and other captured territory was returned to the United States. At the end of the war, some British officers and Canadians objected to handing back Prairie du Chien and especially Mackinac under the terms of the Treaty of Ghent. However, the Americans retained the captured post at Fort Malden, near Amherstburg, until the British complied with the treaty.
Fighting between Americans, the Sauk, and other indigenous tribes continued through 1817, well after the war ended in the east.
In 1812, Britain 's Royal Navy was the world 's largest, with over 600 cruisers in commission and some smaller vessels. Although most of these were involved in blockading the French navy and protecting British trade against (usually French) privateers, the Royal Navy still had 85 vessels in American waters, counting all British Navy vessels in North American and the Caribbean waters. However, the Royal Navy 's North American squadron based in Halifax, Nova Scotia (which bore the brunt of the war), numbered one small ship of the line, seven frigates, nine smaller sloops and brigs along with five schooners. By contrast, the United States Navy comprised 8 frigates, 14 smaller sloops and brigs, and no ships of the line. The U.S. had embarked on a major shipbuilding program before the war at Sackets Harbor, New York and continued to produce new ships. Three of the existing American frigates were exceptionally large and powerful for their class, larger than any British frigate in North America. Whereas the standard British frigate of the time was rated as a 38 gun ship, usually carrying up to 50 guns, with its main battery consisting of 18 - pounder guns; USS Constitution, President, and United States, in comparison, were rated as 44 - gun ships, carrying 56 -- 60 guns with a main battery of 24 - pounders.
The British strategy was to protect their own merchant shipping to and from Halifax, Nova Scotia, and the West Indies, and to enforce a blockade of major American ports to restrict American trade. Because of their numerical inferiority, the American strategy was to cause disruption through hit - and - run tactics, such as the capture of prizes and engaging Royal Navy vessels only under favourable circumstances. Days after the formal declaration of war, however, it put out two small squadrons, including the frigate President and the sloop Hornet under Commodore John Rodgers, and the frigates United States and Congress, with the brig Argus under Captain Stephen Decatur. These were initially concentrated as one unit under Rodgers, who intended to force the Royal Navy to concentrate its own ships to prevent isolated units being captured by his powerful force.
Large numbers of American merchant ships were returning to the United States with the outbreak of war, and if the Royal Navy was concentrated, it could not watch all the ports on the American seaboard. Rodgers ' strategy worked, in that the Royal Navy concentrated most of its frigates off New York Harbor under Captain Philip Broke, allowing many American ships to reach home. But, Rodgers ' own cruise captured only five small merchant ships, and the Americans never subsequently concentrated more than two or three ships together as a unit.
Meanwhile, Constitution, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, sailed from Chesapeake Bay on July 12. On July 17, Broke 's British squadron gave chase off New York, but Constitution evaded her pursuers after two days. After briefly calling at Boston to replenish water, on August 19, Constitution engaged the British frigate HMS Guerriere. After a 35 - minute battle, Guerriere had been dis - masted and captured and was later burned. Constitution earned the nickname "Old Ironsides '' following this battle as many of the British cannonballs were seen to bounce off her hull. Hull returned to Boston with news of this significant victory. On October 25, United States, commanded by Captain Decatur, captured the British frigate HMS Macedonian, which he then carried back to port. At the close of the month, Constitution sailed south, now under the command of Captain William Bainbridge. On December 29, off Bahia, Brazil, she met the British frigate HMS Java. After a battle lasting three hours, Java struck her colors and was burned after being judged unsalvageable. Constitution, however, was relatively undamaged in the battle.
The successes gained by the three big American frigates forced Britain to construct five 40 - gun, 24 - pounder heavy frigates and two "spar - decked '' frigates (the 60 - gun HMS Leander and HMS Newcastle) and to razee three old 74 - gun ships of the line to convert them to heavy frigates. The Royal Navy acknowledged that there were factors other than greater size and heavier guns. The United States Navy 's sloops and brigs had also won several victories over Royal Navy vessels of approximately equal strength. While the American ships had experienced and well - drilled volunteer crews, the enormous size of the overstretched Royal Navy meant that many ships were shorthanded and the average quality of crews suffered. The constant sea duties of those serving in North America interfered with their training and exercises.
The capture of the three British frigates stimulated the British to greater exertions. More vessels were deployed on the American seaboard and the blockade tightened. On June 1, 1813, off Boston Harbor, the frigate Chesapeake, commanded by Captain James Lawrence, was captured by the British frigate HMS Shannon under Captain Philip Broke. Lawrence was mortally wounded and famously cried out, "Do n't give up the ship! Hold on, men! '' The two frigates were of near - identical size. Chesapeake 's crew was larger but most had not served or trained together. British citizens reacted with celebration and relief that the run of American victories had ended. Notably, this action was by ratio one of the bloodiest contests recorded during this age of sail, with more dead and wounded than HMS Victory suffered in four hours of combat at Trafalgar. Captain Lawrence was killed and Captain Broke was so badly wounded that he never again held a sea command.
In January 1813, the American frigate Essex, under the command of Captain David Porter, sailed into the Pacific to harass British shipping. Many British whaling ships carried letters of marque allowing them to prey on American whalers, and they nearly destroyed the industry. Essex challenged this practice. She inflicted considerable damage on British interests before she and her tender, USS Essex Junior (armed with twenty guns) were captured off Valparaíso, Chile, by the British frigate HMS Phoebe and the sloop HMS Cherub on March 28, 1814. In the summer of 1813, the brig USS Argus raided the waters off the British isles, taking 19 British merchant ships until she was captured after a battle with HMS Pelican on August 14, 1813.
The British Cruizer - class brig - sloops did not fare well against the American ship - rigged sloops of war. Hornet and Wasp constructed before the war were notably powerful vessels, and the Frolic class built during the war even more so (although Frolic was trapped and captured by a British frigate and a schooner). The British brig - rigged sloops tended to suffer fire to their rigging more frequently than the American ship - rigged sloops. In addition, the ship - rigged sloops could back their sails in action, giving them another advantage in manoeuvring.
Following their earlier losses, the British Admiralty instituted a new policy that the three American heavy frigates should not be engaged except by a ship of the line or smaller vessels in squadron strength. The capture of President by a squadron of four British frigates in January 1815 is an example of this, although the vast majority of damage done to President was done by a single ship and President surrendered to that specific ship first, only to try and escape and rest of the squadron catch up. But, a month later, Constitution engaged and captured two smaller British warships, HMS Cyane and HMS Levant, sailing in company, although the combined tonnage and number of men onboard Cyane and Levant was only two thirds of that of Constitution.
Success in single ship battles raised American morale after the repeated failed invasion attempts in Upper and Lower Canada. However these single ship victories had no military effect on the war at sea as they did not alter the balance of naval power, impede British supplies and reinforcements, or even raise insurance rates for British trade. During the war, the United States Navy captured 165 British merchantmen while the Royal Navy captured 1,400 American merchantmen.
After the Little Belt Affair, the USS President became one of the most prized targets of the Royal Navy. President was eventually captured on 15th January 1815. Commodore Stephen Decatur had surrendered President to HMS Endymion while a squadron of British ships was close behind Endymion, and then tried to escape only to be caught up by the rest of the squadron. Decatur would then give conflicting accounts to the British and to the Americans. The American would claim President was overwhelmed by a squadron of superior force, while the British would claim President was taken by a smaller British warship in a frigate duel. In reality it was something in - between. President 's only option was to escape the larger squadron and had succeeded in doing so except for Endymiom. Hence the engagement was not fought as a duel, but rather as chase in which would result in President being unable to escape Endymion and in turn surrendering to the smaller Endymion. The extent of the constroversy created by the engagement suggests it was a significant battle at the time. Indeed, the United States had lost its flagship and its finest warship. To the British, the 1576 ton, 24 - pounder President was evidence that the American 44 - gun frigate was clearly far more powerful than the 1067 ton, 18 - pounder British frigate. This restored honor to the British after the Americans had claimed the frigate actions of the first year of the war were of equal force, as this now was clearly not the case. While the Americans would celebrate their victory in New Orleans, the British would celebrate the taking of the USS President.
The operations of American privateers proved a more significant threat to British trade than the U.S. Navy. They operated throughout the Atlantic and continued until the close of the war, most notably from ports such as Baltimore. American privateers reported taking 1300 British merchant vessels, compared to 254 taken by the U.S. Navy. although the insurer Lloyd 's of London reported that only 1,175 British ships were taken, 373 of which were recaptured, for a total loss of 802. The Canadian historian Carl Benn wrote that American privateers took 1, 344 British ships, of which 750 were retaken by the British. However the British were able to limit privateering losses by the strict enforcement of convoy by the Royal Navy and by capturing 278 American privateers. Due to the massive size of the British merchant fleet, American captures only affected 7.5 % of the fleet, resulting in no supply shortages or lack of reinforcements for British forces in North America. Of 526 American privateers, 148 were captured by the Royal Navy and only 207 ever took a prize.
Due to the large size of their navy, the British did not rely as much on privateering. The majority of the 1,407 captured American merchant ships were taken by the Royal Navy. The war was the last time the British allowed privateering, since the practice was coming to be seen as politically inexpedient and of diminishing value in maintaining its naval supremacy. However privateering remained popular in British colonies. It was the last hurrah for privateers in Bermuda who vigorously returned to the practice after experience in previous wars. The nimble Bermuda sloops captured 298 American ships. Privateer schooners based in British North America, especially from Nova Scotia took 250 American ships and proved especially effective in crippling American coastal trade and capturing American ships closer to shore than the Royal Navy cruisers.
The naval blockade of the United States began informally in 1812 and expanded to cut off more ports as the war progressed. Twenty ships were on station in 1812 and 135 were in place by the end of the conflict. In March 1813, the Royal Navy punished the Southern states, who most vocal about annexing British North America by blockading Charleston, Port Royal, Savannah and New York city was well. However, as additional ships were sent to North America in 1813, the Royal Navy was able to tighten the blockade and extend it, first to the coast south of Narragansett by November 1813 and to the entire American coast on May 31, 1814. In May 1814, following the abdication of Napoleon, and the end of the supply problems with Wellington 's army, New England was blockaded.
The British government, having need of American foodstuffs for its army in Spain, benefited from the willingness of the New Englanders to trade with them, so no blockade of New England was at first attempted. The Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay were declared in a state of blockade on December 26, 1812. Illicit trade was carried on by collusive captures arranged between American traders and British officers. American ships were fraudulently transferred to neutral flags. Eventually, the U.S. government was driven to issue orders to stop illicit trading; this put only a further strain on the commerce of the country. The overpowering strength of the British fleet enabled it to occupy the Chesapeake and to attack and destroy numerous docks and harbours.
The blockade of American ports later tightened to the extent that most American merchant ships and naval vessels were confined to port. The American frigates USS United States and Macedonian ended the war blockaded and hulked in New London, Connecticut. The USS United States and USS Macedonian attempted to set sail to raid British shipping in the Caribbean, but were forced to turn back when confronted with a British squadron, and by the end of the war, the United States had six frigates and four ships - of - the - line sitting in port. Some merchant ships were based in Europe or Asia and continued operations. Others, mainly from New England, were issued licences to trade by Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren, commander in chief on the American station in 1813. This allowed Wellington 's army in Spain to receive American goods and to maintain the New Englanders ' opposition to the war. The blockade nevertheless resulted in American exports decreasing from $130 million in 1807 to $7 million in 1814. Most of these were food exports that ironically went to supply their enemies in Britain or British colonies. The blockade had a devastating effect on the American economy with the value of American exports and imports falling from $114 million in 1811 down to $20 million by 1814 while the US Customs took in $13 million in 1811 and $6 million in 1814, despite the fact that Congress had voted to double the rates. The British blockade further damaged the American economy by forcing merchants to abandon the cheap and fast coastal trade to the slow and more expensive inland roads. In 1814, only 1 out of 14 American merchantmen risked leaving port as a high probability that any ship leaving port would be seized.
As the Royal Navy base that supervised the blockade, Halifax profited greatly during the war. From that base British privateers seized many French and American ships and sold their prizes in Halifax.
The British Royal Navy 's blockades and raids allowed about 4,000 African Americans to escape slavery by fleeing American plantations to find freedom aboard British ships, migrants known, as regards those who settled in Canada, as the Black Refugees. The blockading British fleet in Chesapeake Bay received increasing numbers of enslaved black Americans during 1813. By British government order they were treated as free persons when reaching British hands. Alexander Cochrane 's proclamation of April 2, 1814, invited Americans who wished to emigrate to join the British, and though not explicitly mentioning slaves was taken by all as addressed to them. About 2,400 of the escaped slaves and their families who were carried on ships of the Royal Navy following their escape settled in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick during and after the war. From May 1814, younger men among the volunteers were recruited into a new Corps of Colonial Marines. They fought for Britain throughout the Atlantic campaign, including the Battle of Bladensburg and the attacks on Washington, D.C. and Battle of Baltimore, later settling in Trinidad after rejecting British government orders for transfer to the West India Regiments, forming the community of the Merikins. The slaves who escaped to the British represented the largest emancipation of African Americans before the American Civil War.
Maine, then part of Massachusetts, was a base for smuggling and illegal trade between the U.S. and the British. Until 1813 the region was generally quiet except for privateer actions near the coast. In September 1813, there was a notable naval action when the U.S. Navy 's brig Enterprise fought and captured the Royal Navy brig Boxer off Pemaquid Point. The first British assault came in July 1814, when Sir Thomas Masterman Hardy took Moose Island (Eastport, Maine) without a shot, with the entire American garrison of Fort Sullivan -- which became the British Fort Sherbrooke -- surrendering. Next, from his base in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in September 1814, Sir John Coape Sherbrooke led 3,000 British troops in the "Penobscot Expedition ''. In 26 days, he raided and looted Hampden, Bangor, and Machias, destroying or capturing 17 American ships. He won the Battle of Hampden (losing two killed while the Americans lost one killed). Retreating American forces were forced to destroy the frigate Adams. The British occupied the town of Castine and most of eastern Maine for the rest of the war, re-establishing the colony of New Ireland. The Treaty of Ghent returned this territory to the United States, though Machias Seal Island has remained in dispute. The British left in April 1815, at which time they took ₤ 10,750 obtained from tariff duties at Castine. This money, called the "Castine Fund '', was used to establish Dalhousie University, in Halifax, Nova Scotia.
The strategic location of the Chesapeake Bay near America 's new national capital, Washington, D.C. on the major tributary of the Potomac River, made it a prime target for the British and their Royal Navy and the King 's Army. Starting in March 1813, a squadron under Rear Admiral George Cockburn started a blockade of the mouth of the Bay at Hampton Roads harbour and raided towns along the Bay from Norfolk, Virginia, to Havre de Grace, Maryland.
On July 4, 1813, Commodore Joshua Barney, a Revolutionary War naval hero, convinced the U.S. Navy Department to build the Chesapeake Bay Flotilla, a squadron of twenty barges powered by small sails or oars (sweeps) to defend the Chesapeake Bay. Launched in April 1814, the squadron was quickly cornered in the Patuxent River, and while successful in harassing the Royal Navy, they were powerless to stop the British campaign that ultimately led to the "Burning of Washington ''. This expedition, led by Cockburn and General Robert Ross, was carried out between August 19 and 29, 1814, as the result of the hardened British policy of 1814 (although British and American commissioners had convened peace negotiations at Ghent in June of that year). As part of this, Admiral Warren had been replaced as commander in chief by Admiral Alexander Cochrane, with reinforcements and orders to coerce the Americans into a favourable peace.
A force of 2,500 soldiers under General Ross had just arrived in Bermuda aboard HMS Royal Oak, three frigates, three sloops and ten other vessels. Released from the Peninsular War in Spain and Portugal by British victory, the British intended to use them for diversionary raids along the coasts of Maryland and Virginia. In response to Prévost 's request, they decided to employ this force, together with the naval and military units already on the station, to strike at the "Federal City '' of Washington, D.C.
On August 24, U.S. Secretary of War John Armstrong Jr. insisted that the British would attack Baltimore rather than Washington, even when units of the British Army, accompanied by major ships of the Royal Navy, were obviously on their way to the capital. The inexperienced American militia, which had congregated nearby at Bladensburg, Maryland, to protect the capital, were defeated in the Battle of Bladensburg, opening the route to Washington. While First Lady Dolley Madison saved valuables from the then named "President 's House '' (or "President 's Palace '' (executive mansion) -- now the "White House ''), Fourth President James Madison and the government with members of the Presidential Cabinet, fled to Virginia. Seeing that the Battle of Bladensburg, northeast of the town in rural Prince George 's County was not going well, Secretary of the Navy William Jones ordered Captain Thomas Tingey, commandant of the Washington Naval Yard on the Eastern Branch of the Potomac River (now the Anacostia River), to set the facility ablaze to prevent the capture of American naval ships, buildings, shops and supplies. Tingey had overseen the Naval Yard 's planning and development since the national capital had been moved from Philadelphia to Washington in 1800, and waited until the very last possible minute, nearly four hours after the order was given to execute it. The destruction included most of the facility as well as the nearly - completed frigate "Columbia '' and the sloop "Argus ''.
The British commanders ate the supper that had been prepared for the President and his departmental secretaries after returning from hopeful glorious U.S. victory, before they burned the Executive Mansion; American morale was reduced to an all - time low. The British viewed their actions as retaliation for the destructive American invasions and raids into Canada, most notably the Americans ' burning of York earlier in 1813. Later that same evening, a furious storm (some later weather experts called it a thunderstorm, almost a hurricane) swept into Washington, D.C., sending one or more tornadoes into the rough, unfinished town that caused more damage but finally extinguished the fires with torrential rains, leaving fire - blackened walls and partial ruins of the President 's House, The Capitol and Treasury Department that were set alight the first night. In addition, the combustibles used to finish off the Navy Yard destruction that the Americans had started, exploded, killing or maiming a large number of "Red - Coats. '' The British left Washington, D.C. the day after the storm subsided.
Having destroyed Washington 's public buildings, including the President 's Mansion and the Treasury, the British army and navy next moved several weeks later to capture Baltimore, forty miles northeast, a busy port and a key base for American privateers. However, by not immediately going overland to the port city they sneeringly called a "nest of pirates '', but returning to their ships anchored in the Patuxent River and proceeding later up to the Upper Bay, they gave the Baltimoreans plenty of time to reinforce their fortifications and gather regular U.S. Army and state militia troops from surrounding counties and states. The subsequent "Battle for Baltimore '' began with the British landing on Sunday, September 12, 1814, at North Point, where the Baltimore harbour 's Patapsco River met the Chesapeake Bay, where they were met by American militia further up the "Patapsco Neck '' peninsula. An exchange of fire began, with casualties on both sides. Major Gen. Robert Ross was killed by American snipers as he attempted to rally his troops in the first skirmish. The snipers were killed moments later, and the British paused, then continued to march northwestward to the stationed Maryland and Baltimore City militia units deployed further up Long Log Lane on the peninsula at "Godly Wood '' where the later Battle of North Point was fought for several afternoon hours in a musketry and artillery duel under command of British Col. Arthur Brooke and American commander for the Maryland state militia and its Third Brigade (or "Baltimore City Brigade ''), Brig. Gen. John Stricker. The British also planned to simultaneously attack Baltimore by water on the following day, September 13, to support their military now arrayed facing the massed, heavily dug - in and fortified American units of approximately 15,000 with about a hundred cannon gathered along the eastern heights of the city named "Loudenschlager 's Hill '' (later "Hampstead Hill '' - now part of Patterson Park). These overall Baltimore defences had been planned in advance and foreseen by the state militia commander, Maj. Gen. Samuel Smith, who had been set in charge of the Baltimore defences instead of the discredited U.S. Army commander for the Mid-Atlantic's 10th Military District (following the debacle the previous month at Bladensburg), William H. Winder. Smith had been earlier a Revolutionary War officer and commander, then wealthy city merchant and U.S. Representative, Senator and later Mayor of Baltimore. The "Red Coats '' were unable to immediately reduce Fort McHenry, at the entrance to Baltimore Harbor to allow their ships to provide heavier naval gunfire to support their troops to the northeast.
At the bombardment of Fort McHenry, the British naval guns, mortars and revolutionary new "Congreve rockets '' had a longer range than the American cannon onshore, and the ships mostly stood off out of the Americans ' range, bombarding the fort, which returned very little fire and was not too heavily damaged during the onslaught except for a burst over a rear brickwall knocking out some fieldpieces and resulting in a few casualties. Despite however the heavy bombardment, casualties in the fort were slight and the British ships eventually realized that they could not force the passage to attack Baltimore in coordination with the land force. After a last ditch night feint and barge attack during the heavy rain storm at the time led by Capt. Charles Napier around the fort up the Middle Branch of the river to the west which was split and misdirected partly in the storm, then turned back with heavy casualties by alert gunners at supporting western batteries Fort Covington and Battery Babcock, so the British called off the attack and sailed downriver to pick up their army which had retreated from the east side of Baltimore. All the lights were extinguished in Baltimore the night of the attack, and the fort was bombarded for 25 hours. The only light was given off by the exploding shells over Fort McHenry, illuminating the flag that was still flying over the fort. The defence of the fort inspired the American lawyer Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', a poem that was set to music as "The Star - Spangled Banner ''.
Before 1813, the war between the Creeks (or Muscogee) had been largely an internal affair sparked by the ideas of Tecumseh farther north in the Mississippi Valley. A faction known as the Red Sticks, so named for the color of their war paint, had broken away from the rest of the Creek Confederacy, which wanted peace with the United States. The Red Sticks were allied with Tecumseh, who about a year before 1813 had visited the Creeks and encouraged greater resistance to the Americans. The Creek Nation was a trading partner of the United States actively involved with Spanish and British trade as well. The Red Sticks, as well as many southern Muscogeean people like the Seminole, had a long history of alliance with the Spanish and British Empires. This alliance helped the North American and European powers protect each other 's claims to territory in the south.
The Battle of Burnt Corn between Red Sticks and U.S. troops, occurred in the southern parts of Alabama on July 27, 1813. It prompted the state of Georgia as well as the Mississippi territory militia to immediately take major action against Creek offensives. The Red Sticks chiefs gained power in the east along the Alabama, Coosa, and Tallapoosa Rivers -- Upper Creek territory. The Lower Creek lived along the Chattahoochee River. Many Creeks tried to remain friendly to the United States, and some were organized by federal Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins to aid the 6th Military District under General Thomas Pinckney and the state militias. The United States combined forces were large. At its peak the Red Stick faction had 4,000 warriors, only a quarter of whom had muskets.
On August 30, 1813, Red Sticks, led by chiefs Red Eagle and Peter McQueen, attacked Fort Mimms, north of Mobile, the only American - held port in the territory of West Florida. The attack on Fort Mimms resulted in the death of 400 settlers and became an ideological rallying point for the Americans.
The Indian frontier of western Georgia was the most vulnerable but was partially fortified already. From November 1813 to January 1814, Georgia 's militia and auxiliary Federal troops - from the Creek and Cherokee Indian nations and the states of North Carolina and South Carolina -- organized the fortification of defences along the Chattahoochee River and expeditions into Upper Creek territory in present - day Alabama. The army, led by General John Floyd, went to the heart of the "Creek Holy Grounds '' and won a major offensive against one of the largest Creek towns at Battle of Autosee, killing an estimated two hundred people. In November, the militia of Mississippi with a combined 1200 troops attacked the "Econachca '' encampment ("Battle of Holy Ground '') on the Alabama River. Tennessee raised a militia of 5,000 under Major Generals Andrew Jackson and Brigadier General John Coffee and won the battles of Tallushatchee and Talladega in November 1813.
Jackson suffered enlistment problems in the winter. He decided to combine his force with that of the Georgia militia. However, from January 22 -- 24, 1814, while on their way, the Tennessee militia and allied Muscogee were attacked by the Red Sticks at the Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek. Jackson 's troops repelled the attackers, but outnumbered, were forced to withdraw to his base at Fort Strother.
In January Floyd 's force of 1,300 state militia and 400 Creek Indians moved to join the U.S forces in Tennessee, but were attacked in camp on the Calibee Creek by Tuckaubatchee Indians on the 27th.
Jackson 's force increased in numbers with the arrival of U.S. Army soldiers and a second draft of Tennessee state militia and Cherokee and Creek allies swelled his army to around 5,000. In March 1814 they moved south to attack the Creek. On March 27, Jackson decisively defeated the Creek Indian force at Horseshoe Bend, killing 800 of 1,000 Creeks at a cost of 49 killed and 154 wounded out of approximately 2,000 American and Cherokee forces. The American army moved to Fort Jackson on the Alabama River. On August 9, 1814, the Upper Creek chiefs and Jackson 's army signed the "Treaty of Fort Jackson ''. The most of western Georgia and part of Alabama was taken from the Creeks to pay for expenses borne by the United States. The Treaty also "demanded '' that the "Red Stick '' insurgents cease communicating with the Spanish or British, and only trade with U.S. - approved agents.
British aid to the Red Sticks arrived after the end of the Napoleonic Wars in April 1814 and after Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane assumed command from Admiral Warren in March. The Creek promised to join any body of ' troops that should aid them in regaining their lands, and suggesting an attack on the tower off Mobile. ' In April 1814 the British established an outpost on the Apalachicola River at Prospect Bluff (Fort Gadsden). Cochrane sent a company of Royal Marines, the vessels HMS Hermes and HMS Carron, commanded by Edward Nicolls, with further supplies to meet the Indians. In addition to training the Indians, Nicolls was tasked to raise a force from escaped slaves, as part of the Corps of Colonial Marines.
In July 1814, General Jackson complained to the Governor of Pensacola, Mateo Gonzalez Manrique, that combatants from the Creek War were being harboured in Spanish territory, and made reference to the British presence on Spanish soil. Although he gave an angry reply to Jackson, Manrique was alarmed at the weak position he found himself in. He appealed to the British for help, with Woodbine arriving on July 28, and Nicolls arriving at Pensacola on August 24.
The first engagement of the British and their Creek allies against the Americans on the Gulf Coast was the attack on Fort Bowyer September 14, 1814. Captain William Percy tried to take the U.S. fort, hoping that would enable the British to move on Mobile and block U.S. trade and encroachment on the Mississippi. After the Americans repulsed Percy 's forces, the British established a military presence of up to 200 Marines at Pensacola. In November, Jackson 's force of 4,000 men took the town in November. This underlined the superiority of numbers of Jackson 's force in the region. The U.S force moved to New Orleans in late 1814. Jackson 's army of 1,000 regulars and 3,000 to 4,000 militia, pirates and other fighters, as well as civilians and slaves built fortifications south of the city.
American forces under General James Wilkinson, who was himself earning $4,000 per year as a Spanish secret agent, took the Mobile area -- formerly part of West Florida -- from the Spanish in March 1813; this would be the only territory permanently gained by the U.S. during the war. The Americans built Fort Bowyer, a log and earthenwork fort with 14 guns, on Mobile Point.
At the end of 1814, the British launched a double offensive in the South weeks before the Treaty of Ghent was signed. On the Atlantic coast, Admiral George Cockburn was to close the Intracoastal Waterway trade and land Royal Marine battalions to advance through Georgia to the western territories. On the Gulf coast, Admiral Alexander Cochrane would move on the new state of Louisiana and the Mississippi Territory. Admiral Cochrane 's ships reached the Louisiana coast December 9, and Cockburn arrived in Georgia December 14.
On January 8, 1815, a British force of 8,000 under General Edward Pakenham attacked Jackson 's defences in New Orleans. The Battle of New Orleans was an American victory, as the British failed to take the fortifications on the East Bank. The British suffered high casualties: 291 dead, 1262 wounded, and 484 captured or missing whereas American casualties were 13 dead, 39 wounded, and 19 missing. It was hailed as a great victory across the U.S., making Jackson a national hero and eventually propelling him to the presidency. The American garrison at Fort St. Philip endured ten days of bombardment from Royal Navy guns, which was a final attempt to invade Louisiana; British ships sailed away from the Mississippi River on January 18. However, it was not until January 27, 1815, that the army had completely rejoined the fleet, allowing for their departure.
After New Orleans, the British tried to take Mobile a second time; General John Lambert laid siege for five days and took the fort, winning the Second Battle of Fort Bowyer on February 12, 1815. HMS Brazen brought news of the Treaty of Ghent the next day, and the British abandoned the Gulf coast.
In January 1815, Admiral Cockburn succeeded in blockading the southeastern coast by occupying Camden County, Georgia. The British quickly took Cumberland Island, Fort Point Peter, and Fort St. Tammany in a decisive victory. Under the orders of his commanding officers, Cockburn 's forces relocated many refugee slaves, capturing St. Simons Island as well, to do so. During the invasion of the Georgia coast, an estimated 1,485 people chose to relocate in British territories or join the military. In mid-March, several days after being informed of the Treaty of Ghent, British ships finally left the area.
In May 1815, a band of British - allied Sauk, unaware that the war had ended months before, attacked a small band of U.S. soldiers northwest of St. Louis. Intermittent fighting, primarily with the Sauk, continued in the Missouri Territory well into 1817, although it is unknown if the Sauk were acting on their own or on behalf of British agents. Several uncontacted isolated warships continued fighting well into 1815 and were the last American forces to take offensive action against the British.
By 1814, both sides had either achieved their main war goals or were weary of a costly war that offered little but stalemate. They both sent delegations to a neutral site in Ghent, Flanders (now part of Belgium). The negotiations began in early August and concluded on December 24, when a final agreement was signed; both sides had to ratify it before it could take effect. Meanwhile, both sides planned new invasions.
In 1814 the British began blockading the United States, and brought the American economy to near bankruptcy, forcing it to rely on loans for the rest of the war. American foreign trade was reduced to a trickle. The parlous American economy was thrown into chaos with prices soaring and unexpected shortages causing hardship in New England which was considering secession. The Hartford Convention led to widespread fears that the New England states might attempt to leave the Union, which was exaggerated as most New Englanders did not wish to leave the Union and merely wanted an end to a war which was bringing much economic hardship, suggested that the continuation of the war might threaten the union. But also to a lesser extent British interests were hurt in the West Indies and Canada that had depended on that trade. Although American privateers found chances of success much reduced, with most British merchantmen now sailing in convoy, privateering continued to prove troublesome to the British, as shown by high insurance rates. British landowners grew weary of high taxes, and colonial interests and merchants called on the government to reopen trade with the U.S. by ending the war.
At last in August 1814, peace discussions began in the neutral city of Ghent. Both sides began negotiations warily The British diplomats stated their case first, demanding the creation of an Indian barrier state in the American Northwest Territory (the area from Ohio to Wisconsin). It was understood the British would sponsor this Indian state. The British strategy for decades had been to create a buffer state to block American expansion. Britain demanded naval control of the Great Lakes and access to the Mississippi River. The Americans refused to consider a buffer state and the proposal was dropped. Although article IX of the treaty included provisions to restore to Natives "all possessions, rights and privileges which they may have enjoyed, or been entitled to in 1811 '', the provisions were unenforceable. The Americans (at a later stage) demanded damages for the burning of Washington and for the seizure of ships before the war began.
American public opinion was outraged when Madison published the demands; even the Federalists were now willing to fight on. The British had planned three invasions. One force burned Washington but failed to capture Baltimore, and sailed away when its commander was killed. In northern New York State, 10,000 British veterans were marching south until a decisive defeat at the Battle of Plattsburgh forced them back to Canada. Nothing was known of the fate of the third large invasion force aimed at capturing New Orleans and southwest. The Prime Minister wanted the Duke of Wellington to command in Canada and take control of the Great Lakes. Wellington said that he would go to America but he believed he was needed in Europe. Wellington emphasized that the war was a draw and the peace negotiations should not make territorial demands:
I think you have no right, from the state of war, to demand any concession of territory from America... You have not been able to carry it into the enemy 's territory, notwithstanding your military success and now undoubted military superiority, and have not even cleared your own territory on the point of attack. You can not on any principle of equality in negotiation claim a cessation of territory except in exchange for other advantages which you have in your power... Then if this reasoning be true, why stipulate for the uti possidetis? You can get no territory: indeed, the state of your military operations, however creditable, does not entitle you to demand any.
The Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, aware of growing opposition to wartime taxation and the demands of Liverpool and Bristol merchants to reopen trade with America, realized Britain also had little to gain and much to lose from prolonged warfare especially after the growing concern about the situation in Europe. After months of negotiations, against the background of changing military victories, defeats and losses, the parties finally realized that their nations wanted peace and there was no real reason to continue the war. The main focus on British foreign policy was the Congress of Vienna, during which British diplomats had clashed with Russian and Prussian diplomats over the terms of the peace with France, and there were fears at the Britain might have go to war with Russia and Prussia. Now each side was tired of the war. Export trade was all but paralyzed and after Napoleon fell in 1814 France was no longer an enemy of Britain, so the Royal Navy no longer needed to stop American shipments to France, and it no longer needed to impress more seamen. It had ended the practices that so angered the Americans in 1812. The British were preoccupied in rebuilding Europe after the apparent final defeat of Napoleon.
British negotiators were urged by Lord Liverpool to offer a status quo and dropped their demands for the creation of an Indian barrier state, which was in any case hopeless after the collapse of Tecumseh 's alliance. This allowed negotiations to resume at the end of October. British diplomats soon offered the status quo to the U.S. negotiators, who accepted them. Prisoners would be exchanged, and captured slaves returned to the United States or be paid for by Britain.
On December 24, 1814 the diplomats had finished and signed the Treaty of Ghent. The treaty was ratified by the British three days later on December 27 and arrived in Washington on February 17 where it was quickly ratified and went into effect, thus finally ending the war. The terms called for all occupied territory to be returned, the prewar boundary between Canada and the United States to be restored, and the Americans were to gain fishing rights in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.
The Treaty of Ghent failed to secure official British acknowledgement of American maritime rights or ending impressment. However, in the century of peace until World War I these rights were not seriously violated. The defeat of Napoleon made irrelevant all of the naval issues over which the United States had fought. The Americans had achieved their goal of ending the Indian threat; furthermore the American armies had scored enough victories (especially at New Orleans) to satisfy honour and the sense of becoming fully independent from Britain.
British losses in the war were about 1,160 killed in action and 3,679 wounded; 3,321 British died from disease. American losses were 2,260 killed in action and 4,505 wounded. While the number of Americans who died from disease is not known, it is estimated that about 15,000 died from all causes directly related to the war. These figures do not include deaths among Canadian militia forces or losses among native tribes.
There have been no estimates of the cost of the American war to Britain, but it did add some £ 25 million to the national debt. In the U.S., the cost was $105 million, about the same as the cost to Britain. The national debt rose from $45 million in 1812 to $127 million by the end of 1815, although by selling bonds and treasury notes at deep discounts -- and often for irredeemable paper money due to the suspension of specie payment in 1814 -- the government received only $34 million worth of specie. Stephen Girard, the richest man in America at the time, was one of those who personally funded the United States government involvement in the war.
In addition, at least 3,000 American slaves escaped to the British lines. Many other slaves simply escaped in the chaos of war and achieved their freedom on their own. The British settled some of the newly freed slaves in Nova Scotia. Four hundred freedmen were settled in New Brunswick. The Americans protested that Britain 's failure to return the slaves violated the Treaty of Ghent. After arbitration by the Tsar of Russia the British paid $1,204,960 in damages to Washington, which reimbursed the slaveowners.
During the 19th century the popular image of the war in the United States was of an American victory, and in Canada, of a Canadian victory. Each young country saw its self - perceived victory as an important foundation of its growing nationhood. The British, on the other hand, who had been preoccupied by Napoleon 's challenge in Europe, paid little attention to what was to them a peripheral and secondary dispute, a distraction from the principal task at hand.
In British North America, the War of 1812 was seen by Loyalists as a victory, as they had claimed they had successfully defended their country from an American takeover.
A long - term consequence of the Canadian militia 's success was the view widely held in Canada at least until the First World War that Canada did not need a regular professional army. While Canadian militia units had played instrumental roles in several engagements, such as at the Battle of the Chateauguay, it was the regular units of the British Army, including its "Fencible '' regiments which were recruited within North America, which ensured that Canada was successfully defended.
The U.S. Army had done poorly, on the whole, in several attempts to invade Canada, and the Canadians had shown that they would fight bravely to defend their territory. But the British did not doubt that the thinly populated territory would be vulnerable in a third war. "We can not keep Canada if the Americans declare war against us again '', Admiral Sir David Milne wrote to a correspondent in 1817, although the Rideau Canal was built for just such a scenario.
By the 21st century it was a forgotten war in Britain, although still remembered in Canada, especially Ontario. In a 2009 poll, 37 % of Canadians said the war was a Canadian victory, 9 % said the U.S. won, 15 % called it a draw, and 39 % said they knew too little to comment. A 2012 poll found that in a list of items that could be used to define Canadians ' identity, the belief that Canada successfully repelled an American invasion in the War of 1812 places second (25 %).
Today, American popular memory includes the British capture and the burning of Washington in August 1814, which necessitated its extensive renovation. The fact that before the war, many Americans wanted to annex British North America was swiftly forgotten, and instead American popular memory focused on the victories at Baltimore, Plattsburg and New Orleans to present the war as a successful effort to assert American national honour, the "second war of independence '' that saw the mighty British empire humbled and humiliated. In a speech before Congress on February 18, 1815, President Madison proclaimed the war a complete American victory. This interpretation of the war was and remains the dominant American view of the war The American newspaper the Niles Register in an editorial on September 14, 1816 announced that the Americans had crushed the British, declaring "... we did virtually dictate the treaty of Ghent to the British ''. A minority of Americans, mostly associated with the Federalists saw the war as a defeat and an act of folly on Madison 's part, caustically asking if the Americans were "dictating '' the terms of the treaty of Ghent, why the British Crown did not cede British North America to the United States? However, the Federalist view of the war is not the mainstream American memory of the war. The view of Congressman George Troup who stated in a speech in 1815 that the Treaty of Ghent was "the glorious termination of the most glorious war ever waged by any people '' is the way that most Americans remembered the war. Another memory is the successful American defence of Fort McHenry in September 1814, which inspired the lyrics of the U.S. national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. The successful Captains of the U.S. Navy became popular heroes with plates with the likeness of Decatur, Steward, Hull, and others, becoming popular items. Ironically, many were made in England. The Navy became a cherished institution, lauded for the victories that it won against all odds. After engagements during the final actions of the war, U.S. Marines had acquired a well - deserved reputation as excellent marksmen, especially in ship - to - ship actions.
Historians have differing and complex interpretations of the war. In recent decades the view of the majority of historians has been that the war ended in stalemate, with the Treaty of Ghent closing a war that had become militarily inconclusive. Neither side wanted to continue fighting since the main causes had disappeared and since there were no large lost territories for one side or the other to reclaim by force. Insofar as they see the war 's resolution as allowing two centuries of peaceful and mutually beneficial intercourse between the U.S., Britain and Canada, these historians often conclude that all three nations were the "real winners '' of the War of 1812. These writers often add that the war could have been avoided in the first place by better diplomacy. It is seen as a mistake for everyone concerned because it was badly planned and marked by multiple fiascoes and failures on both sides, as shown especially by the repeated American failures to seize parts of Canada, and the failed British attack on New Orleans and upstate New York.
However, other scholars hold that the war constituted a British victory and an American defeat. They argue that the British achieved their military objectives in 1812 (by stopping the repeated American invasions of Canada) and retaining their Canadian colonies. By contrast, they say, the Americans suffered a defeat when their armies failed to achieve their war goal of seizing part or all of Canada. Additionally, they argue the U.S. lost as it failed to stop impressment, which the British refused to repeal until the end of the Napoleonic Wars, arguing that the U.S. actions had no effect on the Orders in Council, which were rescinded before the war started.
Historian Troy Bickham, author of The Weight of Vengeance: The United States, the British Empire, and the War of 1812, sees the British as having fought to a much stronger position than the United States.
"Even tied down by ongoing wars with Napoleonic France, the British had enough capable officers, well - trained men, and equipment to easily defeat a series of American invasions of Canada. In fact, in the opening salvos of the war, the American forces invading Upper Canada were pushed so far back that they ended up surrendering Michigan Territory. The difference between the two navies was even greater. While the Americans famously (shockingly for contemporaries on both sides of the Atlantic) bested British ships in some one - on - one actions at the war 's start, the Royal Navy held supremacy throughout the war, blockading the U.S. coastline and ravaging coastal towns, including Washington, D.C. Yet in late 1814, the British offered surprisingly generous peace terms despite having amassed a large invasion force of veteran troops in Canada, naval supremacy in the Atlantic, an opponent that was effectively bankrupt, and an open secessionist movement in New England. ''
He considers that the British offered the United States generous terms, in place of their initially harsh terms (which included massive forfeiture of land to Canada and the American Indians), because the "reigning Liverpool ministry in Britain held a loose grip on power and feared the war - weary, tax - exhausted public. '' The war was also technically a British victory "because the United States failed to achieve the aims listed in its declaration of war. ''
A second minority view is that both the U.S. and Britain won the war -- that is, both achieved their main objectives, while the Indians were the losing party. The British won by losing no territories and achieving their great war goal, the total defeat of Napoleon. U.S. won by (1) securing her honor and successfully resisting a powerful empire once again, thus winning a "second war of independence ''; and (2) ending the threat of Indian raids and the British plan for a semi-independent Indian sanctuary -- thereby opening an unimpeded path for the United States ' westward expansion.
Historians generally agree that the real losers of the War of 1812 were the Indians (called First Nations in Canada). Hickey says:
The big losers in the war were the Indians. As a proportion of their population, they had suffered the heaviest casualties. Worse, they were left without any reliable European allies in North America... The crushing defeats at the Thames and Horseshoe Bend left them at the mercy of the Americans, hastening their confinement to reservations and the decline of their traditional way of life.
The First Nations of the Old Northwest (the modern Midwest) had hoped to create an Indian state that would be a British protectorate. American settlers into the Middle West had been repeatedly blocked and threatened by Indian raids before 1812, and that now came to an end. Throughout the war the British had played on terror of the tomahawks and scalping knives of their Indian allies; it worked especially at Hull 's surrender at Detroit. By 1813 Americans had killed Tecumseh and broken his coalition of tribes. Jackson then defeated the Creek in the Southwest. Historian John Sugden notes that in both theatres, the Indians ' strength had been broken prior to the arrival of the major British forces in 1814. The one campaign that the Americans had decisively won was the campaign in the Old Northwest, which put the British in a weak hand to insist upon an Indian state in the Old Northwest.
Notwithstanding the sympathy and support from commanders (such as Brock, Cochrane and Nicolls), the policymakers in London reneged in assisting the Indians, as making peace was a higher priority for the politicians. At the peace conference the British demanded an independent Indian state in the Midwest, but, although the British and their Indian allies maintained control over the territories in question (i.e. most of the Upper Midwest), British diplomats did not press the demand after an American refusal, effectively abandoning their Indian allies. The withdrawal of British protection gave the Americans a free hand, which resulted in the removal of most of the tribes to Indian Territory (present - day Oklahoma). In that sense according to historian Alan Taylor, the final victory at New Orleans had "enduring and massive consequences ''. It gave the Americans "continental predominance '' while it left the Indians dispossessed, powerless, and vulnerable.
The Treaty of Ghent technically required the United States to cease hostilities and "forthwith to restore to such Tribes or Nations respectively all possessions, rights and privileges which they may have enjoyed, or been entitled to in 1811 ''; the United States ignored this article of the treaty and proceeded to expand into this territory regardless; Britain was unwilling to provoke further war to enforce it. A shocked Henry Goulburn, one of the British negotiators at Ghent, remarked:
Till I came here, I had no idea of the fixed determination which there is in the heart of every American to extirpate the Indians and appropriate their territory.
The Creek War came to an end, with the Treaty of Fort Jackson being imposed upon the Indians. About half of the Creek territory was ceded to the United States, with no payment made to the Creeks. This was, in theory, invalidated by Article 9 of the Treaty of Ghent. The British failed to press the issue, and did not take up the Indian cause as an infringement of an international treaty. Without this support, the Indians ' lack of power was apparent and the stage was set for further incursions of territory by the United States in subsequent decades.
Neither side lost territory in the war, nor did the treaty that ended it address the original points of contention -- and yet it changed much between the United States of America and Britain.
The Treaty of Ghent established the status quo ante bellum; that is, there were no territorial losses by either side. The issue of impressment was made moot when the Royal Navy, no longer needing sailors, stopped impressment after the defeat of Napoleon. Except for occasional border disputes and the circumstances of the American Civil War, relations between the U.S. and Britain remained generally peaceful for the rest of the 19th century, and the two countries became close allies in the 20th century.
The Rush -- Bagot Treaty between the United States and Britain was enacted in 1817. It provided for the demilitarization of the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain, where many British naval arrangements and forts still remained. The treaty laid the basis for a demilitarized boundary and was indicative of improving relations between the United States and Great Britain in the period following the War of 1812. It remains in effect to this day.
Border adjustments between the U.S. and British North America were made in the Treaty of 1818. Eastport, Massachusetts, was returned to the U.S. in 1818; it would become part of the new State of Maine in 1820. A border dispute along the Maine -- New Brunswick border was settled by the 1842 Webster -- Ashburton Treaty after the bloodless Aroostook War, and the border in the Oregon Country was settled by splitting the disputed area in half by the 1846 Oregon Treaty. A further dispute about the line of the border through the island in the Strait of Juan de Fuca resulted in another almost bloodless standoff in the Pig War of 1859. The line of the border was finally settled by an international arbitration commission in 1872.
The U.S. suppressed the Native American resistance on its western and southern borders. The nation also gained a psychological sense of complete independence as people celebrated their "second war of independence ''. Nationalism soared after the victory at the Battle of New Orleans. The opposition Federalist Party collapsed, and the Era of Good Feelings ensued.
No longer questioning the need for a strong Navy, the U.S. built three new 74 - gun ships of the line and two new 44 - gun frigates shortly after the end of the war. (Another frigate had been destroyed to prevent it being captured on the stocks.) In 1816, the U.S. Congress passed into law an "Act for the gradual increase of the Navy '' at a cost of $1,000,000 a year for eight years, authorizing 9 ships of the line and 12 heavy frigates. The Captains and Commodores of the U.S. Navy became the heroes of their generation in the U.S. Decorated plates and pitchers of Decatur, Hull, Bainbridge, Lawrence, Perry, and Macdonough were made in Staffordshire, England, and found a ready market in the United States. Several war heroes used their fame to win election to national office. Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison both took advantage of their military successes to win the presidency, while Richard Mentor Johnson used his wartime exploits to help attain the vice presidency.
During the war, New England states became increasingly frustrated over how the war was being conducted and how the conflict was affecting them. They complained that the U.S. government was not investing enough in the states ' defences militarily and financially, and that the states should have more control over their militias. The increased taxes, the British blockade, and the occupation of some of New England by enemy forces also agitated public opinion in the states. As a result, at the Hartford Convention (December 1814 -- January 1815) Federalist delegates deprecated the war effort and sought more autonomy for the New England states. They did not call for secession but word of the angry anti-war resolutions appeared at the same time that peace was announced and the victory at New Orleans was known. The upshot was that the Federalists were permanently discredited and quickly disappeared as a major political force.
This war enabled thousands of slaves to escape to British lines or ships for freedom, despite the difficulties. The planters ' complacency about slave contentment was shocked by their seeing slaves who would risk so much to be free.
After the decisive defeat of the Creek Indians at the battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, some Indian warriors escaped to join the Seminoles in Florida. The remaining Creek chiefs signed away about half their lands, comprising 23,000,000 acres, covering much of southern Georgia and two thirds of modern Alabama. The Creeks were now separated from any future help from the Spanish in Florida, or from the Choctaw and Chickasaw to the west. During the war the United States seized Mobile, Alabama, which was a strategic location providing oceanic outlet to the cotton lands to the north. Jackson invaded Florida in 1818, demonstrating to Spain that it could no longer control that territory with a small force. Spain sold Florida to the United States in 1819 in the Adams - Onís Treaty following the First Seminole War. Pratt concludes:
Thus indirectly the War of 1812 brought about the acquisition of Florida... To both the Northwest and the South, therefore, the War of 1812 brought substantial benefits. It broke the power of the Creek Confederacy and opened to settlement a great province of the future Cotton Kingdom.
Pro-British leaders demonstrated a strong hostility to American influences in western Canada (Ontario) after the war and shaped its policies, including a hostility to American - style republicanism. Immigration from the U.S. was discouraged, and favour was shown to the Anglican church as opposed to the more Americanized Methodist church.
The Battle of York showed the vulnerability of Upper and Lower Canada. In the 1820s, work began on La Citadelle at Quebec City as a defence against the United States. Additionally, work began on the Halifax citadel to defend the port against foreign navies. From 1826 to 1832, the Rideau Canal was built to provide a secure waterway not at risk from American cannon fire. To defend the western end of the canal, the British Army also built Fort Henry at Kingston.
The Native Americans allied to the British lost their cause. The British proposal to create a "neutral '' Indian zone in the American West was rejected at the Ghent peace conference and never resurfaced. After 1814 the natives, who lost most of their fur - gathering territory, became an undesirable burden to British policymakers who now looked to the United States for markets and raw materials. British agents in the field continued to meet regularly with their former American Indian partners, but they did not supply arms or encouragement and there were no American Indian campaigns to stop U.S. expansionism in the Midwest. Abandoned by their powerful sponsor, American Great Lakes - area Indians ultimately migrated or reached accommodations with the American authorities and settlers.
Bermuda had been largely left to the defences of its own militia and privateers before U.S. independence, but the Royal Navy had begun buying up land and operating from there in 1795, as its location was a useful substitute for the lost U.S. ports. It originally was intended to be the winter headquarters of the North American Squadron, but the war saw it rise to a new prominence. As construction work progressed through the first half of the 19th century, Bermuda became the permanent naval headquarters in Western waters, housing the Admiralty and serving as a base and dockyard. The military garrison was built up to protect the naval establishment, heavily fortifying the archipelago that came to be described as the "Gibraltar of the West ''. Defence infrastructure would remain the central leg of Bermuda 's economy until after World War II.
The war is seldom remembered in Great Britain. The massive ongoing conflict in Europe against the French Empire under Napoleon ensured that the War of 1812 against America was never seen as more than a sideshow to the main event by the British. Britain 's blockade of French trade had been entirely successful and the Royal Navy was the world 's dominant nautical power (and would remain so for another century). While the land campaigns had contributed to saving Canada, the Royal Navy had shut down American commerce, bottled up the U.S. Navy in port and heavily suppressed privateering. British businesses, some affected by rising insurance costs, were demanding peace so that trade could resume with the U.S. The peace was generally welcomed by the British, though there was disquiet at the rapid growth of the U.S. However, the two nations quickly resumed trade after the end of the war and, over time, a growing friendship.
Hickey argues that for Britain:
the most important lesson of all (was) that the best way to defend Canada was to accommodate the United States. This was the principal rationale for Britain 's long - term policy of rapprochement with the United States in the nineteenth century and explains why they were so often willing to sacrifice other imperial interests to keep the republic happy.
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when does shane die in the walking dead comics | Shane Walsh (the Walking Dead) - wikipedia
Shane Walsh is a fictional character from the comic book series The Walking Dead and is portrayed by Jon Bernthal in the American television series of the same name.
In the comic series, Shane is portrayed as a Cynthiana Sheriff 's Deputy, as well as the longtime friend and fellow police officer of series protagonist Rick Grimes. After Rick is shot and put into a coma, and the zombie outbreak occurs, he rescues Rick 's family and leads a group of survivors, becoming romantically involved with Rick 's wife, Lori. When Rick returns to his family alive, Shane grows increasingly jealous of their relationship, as well as Rick 's role in the group.
In the television series ' first season, Shane leads the survivors until Rick 's arrival, then becomes Rick 's right - hand man. The reunion is not completely amicable; in the second season, Shane develops into an antagonistic character, becoming more aggressive and unpredictable, due to his growing obsession with Lori and subsequent jealousy of Rick. He also becomes willing to abandon or kill those he deems liabilities to the group and has no moral conscience for outsiders. This puts Shane at odds with Rick 's moral leadership, as he believes that Rick is ill - equipped to lead and that he, Shane, would be a better leader. His only true concern becomes for Lori and Carl, and not the group itself.
Shane was a police officer in Cynthiana, Kentucky, and best friend of the town 's deputy sheriff, Rick Grimes. After Rick is shot and put into a coma, and after the dead begin to rise, Shane accompanies Rick 's wife, Lori Grimes, and Rick 's son, Carl, to a purported safe zone in Atlanta, Georgia. They later form a group of survivors living on the outskirts of the city, with Shane repeatedly telling them that the government will one day return to save them. During this time, Shane and an emotionally destitute Lori share a night of sex, something Shane had wanted for a long time.
Shane is first overjoyed when Rick joins the group, but gradually becomes jealous of Rick and Lori getting back together. Eventually, Lori brushes off Shane 's advances and says their brief romance must stop. Sent into an emotional meltdown by Lori siding with Rick, Shane leaves in a rage. Rick follows and Shane attempts to murder him, stating that he has nothing left to live for other than Lori. Carl happens upon the scene and shoots Shane through the neck, mortally wounding him. Rick later returns to the grave site and finds that Shane has reanimated; he shoots him in the head to finally put him to rest, but does not rebury him.
Shane is portrayed in the television series as a King County, Georgia sheriff 's deputy, and is the best friend and partner of Rick Grimes. Shane is wracked with grief when Rick is severely wounded in a firefight with escaped convicts. When the dead began to rise, Shane tries and fails to rescue a comatose Rick at the hospital. He is tormented by having left Rick in the hospital, but also knows that he never would have been able to save Rick 's wife and son, Lori and Carl, had he not done so. Shane harbors feelings for Lori, and the two begin a sexual relationship after assuming that Rick is dead. Upon gathering the group of survivors on the outskirts of Atlanta, Shane becomes its de facto leader.
Shane appears in the series premiere "Days Gone Bye '', first seen in conversation with Rick in their patrol cars, until they are called to a high - speed pursuit; during a shootout with the suspects, Rick is shot in the back, leaving him seriously wounded and in a coma. Three months later, Shane appears as one of several people in a camp just outside Atlanta, along with Lori and Carl. In the episode "Guts '', Shane is seen again in the camp with Carl and Lori, making brief radio contact with T - Dog as part of the group scavenging in Atlanta. In the episode "Tell It to the Frogs '', Shane is shocked when he finds Rick alive and well among the group returning from Atlanta. Lori, believing Shane manipulated her into having the affair, ends their relationship. When Carol is abused by her husband Ed, Shane comes to the scene and takes his frustration out on Ed, beating him severely and telling him that if he lays a hand on his wife or his daughter Sophia again, Shane will beat him to death. In the episode "Vatos '', Jim begins digging holes, refusing to explain why or take a break despite the extreme heat; when the survivors confront him about his behavior, he lashes out with his shovel, which forces Shane to restrain him. That night, the camp is attacked by walkers resulting in many casualties. In the episode "Wildfire '', Shane finds his leadership within the group challenged by Rick, leading to Shane losing both his temper and self - control. Rick argues that the group should press on to the CDC 's Atlanta compound; Shane urges Lori to talk Rick out of going to the CDC, but she backs her husband. Dale sees Shane contemplating whether or not to shoot Rick in the back. In the episode "TS - 19 '', the group arrives at the CDC, where only Dr. Edwin Jenner remains. Shane gets drunk and nearly rapes Lori, believing she secretly loves him, but he backs off when she scratches him. Jenner reveals that the facility will explode when the power runs out, and the group flees before the building explodes.
In the season premiere "What Lies Ahead '', Shane reveals to Lori that he plans to leave the group. However, he and Rick witness as Carl is accidentally shot. In "Bloodletting '', Otis, the man who shot Carl, leads them to the farm of his employer, veterinarian Hershel Greene. To save Carl 's life, Shane goes with Otis to retrieve medical supplies from a FEMA trailer at a nearby high school. In the episode "Save the Last One '', in order to escape with the supplies, he shoots Otis and leaves him to the advancing walkers; he lies to the others, telling them that Otis willingly sacrificed himself. In the episode "Cherokee Rose '', at the funeral for Otis, his girlfriend Patricia asks Shane to speak about his last moments, and Shane again lies. At the end of the episode, Lori learns that she is pregnant with what may be Shane 's baby. In the episode "Chupacabra '', while the group continues to search for the missing Sophia, Shane angrily tells Rick that they are wasting time searching for her, and that the group should head towards Fort Benning. In the episode "Secrets '', Shane takes Andrea for gun training, and the two later go to a town searching for Sophia. When they come up empty, they wind up having sex in the car. In the mid-season finale "Pretty Much Dead Already '', Glenn tells the group that Hershel 's barn is full of walkers, and Shane demands that they kill all the walkers for their own protection. When Shane learns about Lori 's pregnancy from Rick, Shane confronts Lori, who makes it clear that although she is uncertain who the biological father is, she and Rick alone will be raising the baby. Dale, concerned about Shane 's erratic behavior, tries to hide the group 's guns but Shane finds him and takes the guns back to the camp. Shane arms everyone in the group just before Rick and Hershel come back to the farm with two walkers. Hershel still believes that walkers are people, but Shane demonstrates this is untrue by shooting one of the walkers in its vital organs. Shane breaks off the lock to the barn, and as the walkers file out of the barn, he and the others shoot them; Sophia is the last walker to exit the barn, and when Shane ca n't shoot her, Rick does.
In the episode "Nebraska '', Shane confronts Hershel about Sophia being in the barn, but Hershel denied any knowledge of this and said that Otis put the roaming walkers he found in the barn. Later in this episode, Lori goes searching for Rick, who went searching in town for Hershel, but she ends up having a car accident. In the episode "Triggerfinger '', Shane rescues Lori, and they later talk privately, with Shane insisting that his feelings for her were real and they should be together. Rick comes back to camp with Randall, another survivor taken prisoner by the group after he attacked them and was injured, and Shane confronts Rick about this risky decision. In the episode "18 Miles Out '', Rick and Shane tie up and blindfold Randall and plan to leave him at a school 18 miles from the farm. As they drive, Rick confronts Shane about what happened with Otis at the high school and his attraction to wife Lori. They find a seemingly secure building to leave Randall there, armed with a knife; as Randall pleads for his life, he revealed that he knew Maggie Greene from school, leading them to suspect that he knows the farm 's location. Shane attempts to kill Randall but is stopped when Rick tackles him. They argue about what to do with Randall, escalating into a physical battle, which inadvertently releases a large group of walkers trapped inside a building. The three men fend off the walkers, and they return to the farm with Randall. Rick returns Shane 's gun and tells Shane he needs to follow Rick 's command from then on if he wants to remain part of the group. In the episode "Judge, Jury, Executioner '', the group resolves to execute Randall. However, when Rick refuses to kill an unarmed man, Shane verbally taunts him, boasting that he would make a better leader than Rick and that Lori loves him instead. In the episode "Better Angels '', Shane secretly releases Randall and kills him in the woods, telling the group that Randall attacked Shane and escaped. Shane then lures Rick into the woods under the pretense of searching for Randall, intending to kill Rick instead. Rick initially refuses to attack his friend and states that he believes Shane will not attack him if he is unarmed. To make this point, Rick begins to hand over his gun to Shane, which ends up being a ruse, as Rick pulls out a knife and stabs Shane to death. Rick sobs as he tells Shane that Shane made him do it. Carl, confused about what has taken place, happens upon the scene; Rick turns around to face Carl as Shane reanimates as a walker, and Carl then shoots Shane through the head. In the season finale "Beside the Dying Fire '', it is revealed that Rick - knowing Shane 's intentions in bringing him out to the woods - had played along; Rick says he had just wanted it to be over.
In the episode "Made to Suffer '', when attacking Woodbury to retrieve Glenn and Maggie from The Governor, Rick hallucinates that one of Woodbury 's defenders is Shane and sees him shoot Oscar. Enraged Rick immediately pulls out a gun and shoots "Shane '' but when he approaches him he realizes it was just another Woodbury soldier.
Shane Walsh was created by Robert Kirkman and Tony Moore, the writer and original artist of The Walking Dead comic book series. The character first appeared in the first issue of the comic book series in October 2003, but was expanded upon greatly in the television show adapted from the comics in 2010. As a result, Shane lives much longer in the chronology of the story in the show than he does in the comics. Kirkman described the comic book version of Shane 's character as a short and quick "wham, bam, thank you ma'am '' arc compared to that of his counterpart in the television series. Kirkman said he preferred the show 's version of Shane and that the differences between the two versions of the character illustrate the ability to explore and evolve elements from the comic book in different ways on the show.
Jon Bernthal portrayed Shane in the television series, marking the actor 's most high - profile role to that date. Bernthal and Andrew Lincoln, who was eventually cast as protagonist Rick Grimes, auditioned for the show together and were the first to be chosen for the regular cast. Series creator Frank Darabont originally had all actors audition for the role of Rick, including Bernthal, and then brought back the actors under close consideration to audition for Shane and other roles. Bernthal, however, wanted to portray the part of Shane from early on and fought for the part, despite knowing that the character would die early in the series.
Robert Kirkman said Shane 's death was planned for the TV Series adaptation "before the first episode of season one was shot. '' "Frank Darabont had actually planned to do it at the end of the first season before he knew that the first season was going to be six episodes. Once the show was given a six - episode order it was decided that we would hold Shane 's death for the second season. But from the very first day of planning the second season it was mapped out that Shane would be kicking the bucket at the end of this season. '' Bernthal said he liked playing a role he knew would end early because it allowed him to craft a full story arc from beginning to end and "really show the colors '' of the character.
Bernthal grew very close to Darabont and publicly voiced his disappointment when Darabont was forced out of the series. This led to speculation that Bernthal asked to be written out of the series due to Darabont 's departure, but Bernthal stated that this was not the case. Kirkman said he loved Bernthal 's performance as Shane and hated to see him leave the series, but felt it was necessary for the story. Likewise, Bernthal agreed with that direction for the character, and said he saw his role as "being a soldier for the story ''. Shane 's death at the hands of Rick was the last scene Bernthal filmed for the show. The filming lasted all night until sunrise, and the entire cast attended out of respect for Bernthal, including Jeffrey DeMunn, who at that point had already left the series and flew in specifically to be there.
Bernthal did not realize until very late into filming that he would portray himself as a zombie, and said he had difficulty seeing due to the contact lenses he was fitted with. He tried to convince executive director Greg Nicotero, to allow him to say the word "Rick '' as a zombie, which would mark the only time a zombie spoke in the show, but the request was denied. Upon departing from The Walking Dead, Bernthal was cast as Joe Teague in Mob City, a television drama series Darabont began developing for TNT about crime in Los Angeles in the 1940s and 50s. Bernthal later returned to film a brief cameo in the third season episode "Made to Suffer '', in which Rick hallucinates that he sees Shane alive. Bernthal had just concluded filming his role in the Martin Scorsese film The Wolf of Wall Street when he returned for the scene. The Walking Dead successfully worked to keep Shane 's reappearance secret until the episode aired. Shane 's death was accidentally leaked by the AMC TV store on March 1, 2012 in promotional materials for the Season 2 Blu - ray set.
In reviewing Shane 's death, The Atlantic wrote: "With Shane out of the picture in the comics, Otis does n't die until a zombie attack that happens many issues later. And 94 issues into the series, Sophia is still going strong. (Viewed in this light, the TV series is a kind of Bizarro - World version of It 's a Wonderful Life for Shane: How many lives were worse because he lived?). ''
Glen Mazzara explained why Shane became a walker in "Better Angels '' much faster than Amy, and why he still turned despite not getting bit: "We worked hard to make sure that revelation landed. We knew what we were doing there. We knew it would land a punch. We 've never had a main character become a zombie to this extent. Those (rapid flashes of zombie mayhem) represent the storm in Shane 's brain to some extent... Amy was a weaker character. Shane is in a murderous rage... he 's going to reanimate quicker. There 's just more life in that zombie, believe it or not. We do have internal rules for that. ''
At the 2012 Emerald City Comic - Con featuring a panel with Jon Bernthal and Laurie Holden, Bernthal revealed what his version of Shane 's death would have been. The ending would have been the same up until the point when Shane and Rick walk into the clearing while searching for Randall. Rick would have asked why they are stopping in the field as they need to find their prisoner, to which Shane would have confessed that he had killed Randall which is a job Rick should have done himself. Shane then would have pulled his gun on Rick leading to similar dialogue between the two men as in the final episode, with the second change being that Shane would have admitted he was there to kill Rick. Rick would then have had similar dialogue as in the episode asking why he was doing this, as he thought they settled their issues in "18 Miles Out. '' Rick would have then thrown his gun away, instead of holding it in a non-confrontational position, insisting that Shane would have to kill an unarmed man. Shane would have then charged Rick and putting his gun into Ricks ' face using the same insults as in the final episode about Carl and Lori, but adding a new insult such as "I tasted your wife. '' Rick would have then stabbed Shane to death as in the final episode, having the same dialogue as in the episode telling Shane it was his fault that he was being killed, not his own. Had Shane came back as a zombie, Rick (having thrown his gun away), would have picked up Shane 's gun to shoot him. When attempting to pull the trigger Rick would come to the realization that Shane never put any ammo into his gun, and must 've brought Rick out there to have him kill him, forcing Rick to finally be more like Shane. Carl would have then had shown up and killed zombified Shane, similarly again to the final episode.
In the comics, Kirkman resolved the love triangle between Lori, Shane, and Rick very quickly, but in the TV show he decided to spend more time exploring this relationship. Bernthal said of the character in the first season, "I love the way that he feels about Rick (...) I love the friendship there. I love the way he uses this unbelievable dialogue that Frank (Darabont) wrote to be a good friend to Rick and to be by his side. Any time you can have a character that starts in one place and go somewhere completely different, that 's the journey that we 're mostly hungry for. ''
By the second season, Shane becomes the show 's antagonist as his character grows darker and he finds himself at greater odds with Rick Grimes. He deteriorates throughout his run in the series, going from a confident leader who keeps the group of survivors under control to an increasingly desperate man whose actions become increasingly reactionary and morally ambiguous. However, Frank Darabont and the series producers did not seek to establish Shane as a villain because they wanted the characters to be authentic and complex rather than black - and - white.
Robert Kirkman and Jon Bernthal have rejected the classification of Shane as a "bad guy '' as too simplistic, noting most of his actions stem from good intentions even when they seem dangerous or irrational. They argue that Shane is primarily driven by his desire to protect the other survivors, particularly Lori, Carl and Lori 's unborn child. Shane believes he has the most pragmatic view of the post-zombie world, and thus is best qualified to both lead and protect the survivors. Bernthal feels that the character becomes more and more antagonistic as he starts to lose control of the group and, in his mind, losing his ability to protect them. Shane becomes combative with Rick out of frustration upon ceasing to be the group 's de facto leader. But Bernthal also feels it stems from Shane 's genuine belief that Rick is too virtuous and not pragmatic enough to lead the group, and thus is a hindrance to their safety. This difference in philosophy between the two characters is illustrated in the episode "18 Miles Out '', when Shane tells Rick, "You ca n't just be the good guy and expect to live. Not anymore. ''
Bernthal argued that Shane better recognized the reality of the world after the zombie outbreak and was able to adapt to it in a more severe and arguably better way than other characters like Rick. Shane shed such concepts of guilt, shame and moral correctness in favor of the concept of survival for himself and those he cares about at any cost. From that perspective, Bernthal argued Shane 's killing of Otis could be interpreted as the correct course of action in this world because, by slowing Shane down, Otis was negatively affecting Shane 's ability to protect the other survivors. However, Bernthal also believes Shane recognizes on some level that shutting down all emotions is an impossible task, even in a zombie - infected world, which makes the character that much more complex and multi-layered. Bernthal called Shane "probably the most emotional character on the show ''.
While Kirkman likewise called Shane "one of the most nuanced characters on the show '', he differed from Bernthal 's interpretation of the character in that he believes Rick has adapted better to the new world than Shane. Kirkman believes much of Shane 's actions stem from fear and that he is not as prepared for the post-zombie world as he claims. In contrast, Kirkman feels Rick is more centered and better prepared, as illustrated by his ability to act cold and detached at one moment, while kind and sympathetic in another. Kirkman called The Walking Dead "really a tragic story '' for Shane, and said of the perception of the character, "I feel like you should be feeling sorry for Shane more than anything. ''
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what episode of chicago fire does severide get hurt | Kelly Severide - wikipedia
Chicago Fire Department
Kelly Severide is a fictional character on the NBC drama Chicago Fire. As his shift ` s lieutenant at Firehouse 51, Severide is the leader of Rescue Squad 3. Severide is portrayed by Taylor Kinney.
Severide graduated at the top of class at the academy and held the record for the youngest firefighter to make squad when he was 23 years old. He and his long - time colleague and close friend Lieutenant Matthew Casey of Truck 81 have known each other since their days at the fire academy but have a falling - out over the death of their friend and colleague Andy Darden, whom Severide has known since childhood, over a botched - up call, which is where the pilot picks up. They work things out by the end of the season.
The son of CFD Captain Benny Severide, Kelly was raised singlehandedly by his mother after Benny left the family when Kelly was in elementary school. Although Kelly has since reconnected with his father, they still share a love - hate relationship. He is often known to the "white shirts '' (high - ranking officers) as Benny 's son but never used his father 's name to advance his career, instead carving out his own reputation as a highly competent firefighter.
His charismatic personality makes him a popular figure with both his colleagues and the ladies. He tends to be casual with his men and can be seen at the squad table or in the lounge chatting or playing cards with the rest of the firehouse. Despite this, he tends to keep his private problems to himself and lets it simmer, which often worries his chief. In contrast to Casey, he is highly adept at reading people, especially his own colleagues, and his observation skills have come to the fore in several arson investigations; in season 2, he correctly predicted that Hadley had been targeting the men of 51 and that Candidate Rebecca Jones, who committed suicide just months after graduating from the academy, lacked the discretion and inhibitions to truly excel as a firefighter (although she was later revealed to suffer from clinical depression).
At the beginning of season 1, Severide is plagued with a shoulder injury that puts his career in jeopardy. He hides this from everyone except Shay, from whom he gets painkillers to deal with his injury. When he finally sees a doctor, he is told that his condition is severe and would no longer be able to keep his job. His girlfriend at the time, Renee Royce, tells him of an experimental procedure, which he undergoes to save his shoulder. After the injury a Paramedic Candidate also threatens his career with a false allegation of sexual harassment, although the charges were dropped after Antonio Dawson runs a background check on her and discovers that she was a fraudster. In Season 2 Kelly discovers he has a half - sister, Katie Nolan, who is a culinary student. He tries to reach out to her but she was initially hesitant as she and her mother had been abandoned by his father Benny. The two become close and Kelly is shown to be very protective of her. In the episode "Tonight 's The Night '' of season 2, Katie is kidnapped and Severide tries to find her in the following episodes. After she is found, she leaves for Colorado. When Katie 's kidnapper disappears, Severide becomes a suspect. However, Benny Severide is revealed to be responsible but is let off by Detective Voight after Benny explained himself.
In Season 3, Severide is plunged into grief with Shay 's death during a call (later discovered to be murder and arson). He and Gabby Dawson aid Detective Voight 's team in the preliminary investigations, which led them to a series of unsolved arson cases, including the fire that killed Mills ' father and seriously injured Chief Boden. The case crosses - over into the Chicago P.D. episode "A Little Devil Complex '' and the perpetrator is killed by Antonio Dawson. Severide moves in with Casey and Dawson and avoids the apartment he and Shay shared as he is unable to face the loss of his best friend.
Severide is demoted in season 4 as part of Chief Riddle 's plan to make Fire Commissioner by replacing Severide with Captain Dallas Patterson and then ousting Boden as Battalion Chief. The men of Squad 3 remained loyal to him despite Patterson 's efforts to win them over. He and Boden are later reinstated as Patterson was revealed to have used his connections to Riddle to implicate the latter for corruption.
In a Chicago PD crossover episode "Do n't Bury this Case '', Severide is accused of a hit - and - run accident, which later turns into a vehicular homicide when one of the victims, a child, dies from her injuries. Lindsay and Voight suspect that Severide was set up while friendships and relationships are put to the test as the detectives and cops are forced to toe a very thin line with their friends at Firehouse 51 as the evidence against Severide mounts. When his drug and alcohol abuse from his past came to light, detectives within Intelligence were skeptic in believing his innocence.
A recurring theme for the character is his merry - go - round of relationships and flings with various women. Severide was engaged to Renee Whaley, the sister of fellow firefighter Lieutenant Eric Whaley, but he called it off after she cheated on him with an ex-boyfriend. Lieutenant Whaley initially hated Severide, thinking the latter was the one who broke Renee 's heart. Severide had refused to tell him the real story to protect Renee 's reputation. After the two get into an intense argument, he finally tells Whaley everything and admitted that he never really moved on from her.
Midway through Season 1, Severide was in a relationship with Renée Royce (Sarah Shahi), a lawyer whom 51 had rescued. She asks him to relocate with her to Spain and he was about to do so, much to the surprise of his friends and co-workers, but ultimately decided to stay in Chicago. In the season finale, she returns to Chicago pregnant. However, Shay hints to him that Renée could not possibly be pregnant with his child given the timeline. Renée confesses to Severide that the baby was not his and they part ways once again.
Severide dated Detective Erin Lindsay, whom he first met as she was assigned to investigate the abduction of his half - sister Katie, and their relationship was becoming serious. With Shay 's death in the line of duty (later ruled to be a homicide caused by arson), Severide spirals out of control, isolating himself from his co-workers at 51 and Lindsay. She breaks up with him after he misses their date again, telling him that while she could empathize with him, she could not "be the girl sitting alone in a restaurant waiting for (him). ''
In Season 3, while still mourning over Shay 's death, he takes a trip to Las Vegas and meets Brittany Baker, a graphic designer, at the craps table. They marry and she moves in with him, shocking his colleagues, as well as Chief Boden. She moves in with him into Casey and Dawson 's guestroom. Their relationship and open affection would lead to the deterioration of Casey and Dawson 's own relationship. Brittany leaves Chicago as she felt homesick and could not get used to the uncertainty and irregular hours Severide 's job as a firefighter entailed.
Severide appears to have a romantic interest in April Sexton (Yaya DaCosta), a main character on Chicago Med and an ER nurse at Chicago Medical Center. They have known each other since they were teens as her parents took Severide in when he was going through a rebellious phase in high school. He formally asks her out on date in the Chicago Med episode "Malignant ''. However, they later break up as April enters relationship with another man.
In season 5, Severide appears to have a romantic interest towards Anna, a pediatrician of Springfield Hospital. After saving her life by donating bone marrow, he visits Springfield after getting an offer from Springfield Fire Department to become a battalion chief. In "Purgatory '', he turns it down. She moves to Chicago, in order to be close to Severide. When she was getting cold feet about moving there, he takes her around the city in particularly, taking her skating. But when Severide 's father showed up unannounced and, along with his girlfriend, crashed in on Severide 's date with Anna. When she saw his father, she started crying and abruptly left the table to go outside and hail a cab. While she was getting a cab, she revealed that her parents did n't want her move away nor to stay in this relationship. In which, she agrees. Fearing that Severide will turn out to a drunk like his father, she breaks it off with Severide. Later Severide discovers that she has a complication with her cancer, that had made her breaking with him. Her father, who visited him on his office, asks Severide to not give up on her disease. On "Carry Their Legacy '', he carries Anna to the hospital for chemotherapy. In "Carry Me '', Anna later dies when the chemotherapy and other methods do n't work and it was revealed that she put herself under DNR, leaving Severide to cope with her death.
Of the ensemble cast of characters, Severide is closest to Lieutenant Matthew Casey of Truck 81 and the late Leslie Shay. He considers Shay his best friend and they shared a very close relationship, having shared an apartment for most of the show.
Severide and Casey have known each other since their academy days and presumably graduated from the same class. In the pilot, their mutual long - time friend and co-worker Andy Darden is killed during a call and causes a rift between the two lieutenants. The episode flashes forward a month later and they are still at loggerheads with one another, with the entire crew at 51 as well as new Candidate Peter Mills caught in the middle. They eventually work it out by the end of the first season. Whenever one of them suffers a loss, they would go out to the driveway to talk over a quick smoke, as both are men of few words, especially regarding their private lives or emotional state. (In Season 3 Episode 10, Severide and Casey go to a bar to get over their break - ups with Brittany and Dawson respectively and attempt to pick up a pair of girls named Chloe and Yuma, a reference to the film 3: 10 to Yuma, whose screenplay was written by Fire writers and co-creators Derek Haas and Michael Brandt.)
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what does the flag of guam look like | Flag of Guam - Wikipedia
The flag of the United States territory of Guam was adopted on February 9, 1948. The territorial flag is dark blue with a narrow red border on all sides (border was a later addition). Narrow red border represents the blood that it ravaged in World War 2 and Spanish sovereignty. In the center of the flag is the coat of arms; an almond shaped emblem, which depicts a proa sailing in Agana Bay near Hagåtña, and GUAM colored in red letters. The shape of the emblem recalls the slingshot stones used by the islanders ' ancestors. The landform at the back depicts the Punta Dos Amantes cliff on Guam. Charles Alan Pownall approved the flag 's shape in 1948.
As a complement to the Guam flag design, and in response to Guam law providing for municipal flags, efforts were made to depict the culture of each Guam municipality on their own flag. These efforts to design 19 unique municipal flags were collaborated through the Mayors ' Council with the assistance of illustrative artist Gerard Aflague, a Guam born native. These municipal flag designs reflect unique aspects of each of Guam 's municipal villages.
The length of the flag is forty inches and the width is seventy - eight inches. Around each side of the flag, there is a two - inch red border. The coat of arms in the center is twenty - four inches tall and sixteen inches wide.
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where did the last name george come from | George (surname) - wikipedia
George is a surname of Irish, English, Welsh, South Indian Christian, Middle Eastern Christian (usually Lebanese), or French origin. The German form is Georg. Notable people with the surname include:
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how much wood could a woodchuck chuck tongue twister lyrics | How much wood would a woodchuck chuck - wikipedia
How much wood would a woodchuck chuck is an American English - language tongue - twister. The woodchuck from the Algonquian word "wejack '' is a kind of marmot regionally called a groundhog. The complete beginning of the tongue - twister usually goes: "How much wood would a woodchuck chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood? '' The tongue - twister relies primarily on alliteration to achieve its effects, with five "w '' sounds interspersed among five "ch '' sounds.
A traditional, if nonsensical, "response '' to the question is: "A woodchuck would chuck as much wood as a woodchuck could chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood ''. Other -- similarly unhelpful -- responses include "So much wood would a woodchuck chuck, if a woodchuck could chuck wood! '' and "He would chuck, he would, as much as he could, and chuck as much wood as a woodchuck would if a woodchuck could chuck wood. ''
A 1957 Associated Press piece refers to the question as "a riddle which beats the Sphinx, since it 's still unanswered ''. A more concrete answer was published by the Associated Press in 1988, which reported that a New York fish and wildlife technician named Richard Thomas had calculated the volume of dirt in a typical 25 -- 30 - foot (7.6 -- 9.1 m) long woodchuck burrow and had determined that if the woodchuck had moved an equivalent volume of wood, it could move "about 700 pounds (320 kg) on a good day, with the wind at his back ''. Another study, which considered "chuck '' to be the opposite of upchucking, determined that a woodchuck could ingest 361.9237001 cm (22.08593926 cu in) of wood per day.
Another proposed response comes from the parody - filled video game Monkey Island 2: LeChuck 's Revenge, where the protagonist asks a carpenter the question and gets the response: "A woodchuck would chuck no amount of wood since a woodchuck ca n't chuck wood. ''
The origin of the phrase is from a 1902 song "The Woodchuck Song '', written by Robert Hobart Davis for Fay Templeton in the musical The Runaways. The lyrics became better known in a 1904 version of the song written by Theodore Morse, with a chorus of "How much wood would a woodchuck chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood? '', which was recorded by Ragtime Roberts, in 1904.
The tongue - twister is documented as "folklore '' in 1972 at Farmington, Michigan. It is used in the title of Werner Herzog 's 1976 film How Much Wood Would a Woodchuck Chuck, a documentation of the World Livestock Auctioneer Championship in New Holland, Pennsylvania.
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where is the country of sri lanka located | Sri Lanka - wikipedia
Coordinates: 7 ° N 81 ° E / 7 ° N 81 ° E / 7; 81
Sri Lanka (/ sriː ˈlɑːŋkə, - ˈlæŋkə /, / ʃriː - / (listen); Sinhala: ශ්රී ලංකා Śrī Laṃkā; Tamil: இலங்கை Ilaṅkai), officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia, located in the Indian Ocean to the southwest of the Bay of Bengal and to the southeast of the Arabian Sea. It is separated from the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the commercial capital and largest city, Colombo.
Sri Lanka 's documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of pre-historic human settlements dating back to at least 125,000 years. It has a rich cultural heritage and the first known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, the Pāli Canon, date back to the Fourth Buddhist council in 29 BC. Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of great strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to the modern Maritime Silk Road.
Sri Lanka was known from the beginning of British colonial rule as Ceylon (/ sɪˈlɒn, seɪ -, siː - /). A nationalist political movement arose in the country in the early 20th century to obtain political independence, which was granted in 1948; the country became a republic and adopted its current name in 1972. Sri Lanka 's recent history has been marred by a 30 - year civil war, which decisively ended when the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in 2009.
The current constitution stipulates the political system as a republic and a unitary state governed by a semi-presidential system. It has had a long history of international engagement, as a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), and a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the G77, and the Non-Aligned Movement. Along with the Maldives, Sri Lanka is one of only two South Asian countries rated "high '' on the Human Development Index (HDI), with its HDI rating and per capita income the highest among South Asian nations. Sri Lankan constitution accords Buddhism the "foremost place '', although it does not identify it as a state religion. Buddhism is given special privileges in the Sri Lankan constitution.
The island is home to many cultures, languages and ethnicities. The majority of the population is from the Sinhalese ethnicity, while a large minority of Tamils have also played an influential role in the island 's history. Moors, Burghers, Malays, Chinese, and the aboriginal Vedda are also established groups on the island.
In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names. According to the Mahavamsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the land Tambapanni ("copper - red hands '' or "copper - red earth ''), because his followers ' hands were reddened by the red soil of the area. In Hindu mythology, such as the Ramayana, the island was referred to as Lankā ("Island ''). The Tamil term Eelam (Tamil: ஈழம், translit. īḻam), was used to designate the whole island in Sangam literature.
Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā (Ancient Greek: Ταπροβανᾶ) or Taprobanē (Ταπροβανῆ) from the word Tambapanni. The Persians and Arabs referred to it as Sarandīb (the origin of the word "serendipity '') from the word Cerentivu. Ceilão, the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese Empire when it arrived in 1505, was transliterated into English as Ceylon. As a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon; it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948.
The country is now known in Sinhalese as Śrī Laṃkā (Sinhalese: ශ්රී ලංකා) and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai (Tamil: இலங்கை, IPA: (iˈlaŋɡai)). In 1972, its formal name was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka ''. Later in 1978 it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ''. As the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority.
The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back as 500,000 years. The era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala (named after the Chinese traveller monk Faxian), which dates back to 37,000 BP, Batadombalena (28,500 BP) and Belilena (12,000 BP) are the most important. In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains of anatomically modern humans which they have named Balangoda Man, and other evidence suggesting that they may have engaged in agriculture and kept domestic dogs for driving game.
One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which provides details of a kingdom named Lanka that was created by the divine sculptor Vishwakarma for Kubera, the Lord of Wealth. It is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravana 's airport.
Early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern - day Sri Lanka. The 19th - century Irish historian James Emerson Tennent theorized that Galle, a city in southern Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of Tarshish from which King Solomon is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks, and other valuables.
According to the Mahāvamsa, a chronicle written in Pāḷi, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600 BC and other signs of advanced civilization has also been discovered in Sri Lanka. Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BC with the arrival of Prince Vijaya, a semi-legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to Sri Lanka, after being expelled from Vanga Kingdom (present - day Bengal). He established the Kingdom of Tambapanni, near modern - day Mannar. Vijaya (Singha) is the first of the approximately 189 native monarchs of Sri Lanka described in chronicles such as the Dipavamsa, Mahāvaṃsa, Cūḷavaṃsa, and Rājāvaliya (see list of Sinhalese monarchs). Sri Lankan dynastic history ended in 1815, when the island became part of the British Empire.
The Anuradhapura Kingdom was established in 380 BC during the reign of Pandukabhaya of Anuradhapura. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital city of the country for nearly 1,400 years. Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types of structures (constructions) such as tanks, dagobas and palaces. Society underwent a major transformation during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BC, Mahinda, the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka and a bhikkhu (Buddhist monk) arrived in Mihintale carrying the message of Buddhism. His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population.
Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of Buddhist schools and monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India 's famous ancient Buddhist University of Nalanda, which was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji. It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka 's many monasteries and that the written form of the Tipitaka, including Sinhalese Buddhist literature, were part of the University of Nalanda. In 245 BC, bhikkhuni Sangamitta arrived with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical Bodhi tree under which Gautama Buddha became enlightened. It is considered the oldest human - planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the world. (Bodhivamsa)
Sri Lanka first experienced a foreign invasion during the reign of Suratissa, who was defeated by two horse traders named Sena and Guttika from South India. The next invasion came immediately in 205 BC by a Chola king named Ellalan, who overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44 years. Dutugemunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan Tissa, defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura. He built Ruwanwelisaya, the second stupa in ancient Sri Lanka, and the Lovamahapaya.
During its two and a half millennia of existence, the Kingdom of Sri Lanka was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Asian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, Chera, and Pallava. These invaders were all subsequently driven back. There also were incursions by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Odisha) and from the Malay Peninsula as well. Kala Wewa and the Avukana Buddha statue were built during the reign of Dhatusena.
The Fourth Buddhist council of Theravada Buddhism was held at the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka under the patronage of Valagamba of Anuradhapura in 25 BC. The council was held in response to a year in which the harvests in Sri Lanka were particularly poor and many Buddhist monks subsequently died of starvation. Because the Pāli Canon was at that time oral literature maintained in several recensions by dhammabhāṇakas (dharma reciters), the surviving monks recognized the danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the monks whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the Canon for later generations died, the teachings would not be lost.
After the Council, palm - leaf manuscripts containing the completed Canon were taken to other countries such as Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.
Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler: Anula of Anuradhapura (r. 47 -- 42 BC). Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable construction projects such as Sigiriya, the so - called "Fortress in the Sky '', built during the reign of Kashyapa I of Anuradhapura, who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other structures.
The 1,600 - year - old Sigiriya frescoes are an example of ancient Sri Lankan art at its finest. They are one of the best preserved examples of ancient urban planning in the world. They have been declared by UNESCO as one of the seven World Heritage Sites in Sri Lanka. Among other structures, large reservoirs, important for conserving water in a climate with rainy and dry seasons, and elaborate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated as one inch to the mile, are most notable. Biso Kotuwa, a peculiar construction inside a dam, is a technological marvel based on precise mathematics that allows water to flow outside the dam, keeping pressure on the dam to a minimum.
Ancient Sri Lanka was the first country in the world to establish a dedicated hospital, in Mihintale in the 4th century. It was also the leading exporter of cinnamon in the ancient world. It maintained close ties with European civilisations including the Roman Empire. For example, Bhatikabhaya (22 BC -- AD 7) sent an envoy to Rome who brought back red coral, which was used to make an elaborate netlike adornment for the Ruwanwelisaya. In addition, Sri Lankan male dancers witnessed the assassination of Caligula. When Queen Cleopatra sent her son Caesarion into hiding, he was headed to Sri Lanka.
The upasampada for bhikkhunis (Buddhist nuns) first arrived in China when Devasāra and ten other bhikkhunis came from Sri Lanka at the request of Chinese women and established the order there in 429.
The medieval period of Sri Lanka begins with the fall of Anuradhapura Kingdom. In AD 993, the invasion of Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the then Sri Lankan ruler Mahinda V to flee to the southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this situation, Rajendra I, son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of Anuradhapura. Subsequently, they moved the capital to Polonnaruwa.
This marked the end of the two great dynasties of ancient Sri Lanka, the Moriya and the Lambakanna. Following a seventeen - year - long campaign, Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century. Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign. During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely Ruhunu, Pihiti and Maya.
Sri Lanka 's irrigation system was extensively expanded during the reign of Parākramabāhu the Great (1153 -- 1186). This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power. He built 1470 reservoirs -- the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka 's history -- repaired 165 dams, 3910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2376 mini-reservoirs. His most famous construction is the Parakrama Samudra, the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu 's reign is memorable for two major campaigns -- in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Myanmar) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.
After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In 1215, Kalinga Magha, a South Indian with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded and captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa. He sailed from Kalinga 690 nautical miles on 100 large ships with a 24,000 strong army. Unlike previous invaders, he looted, ransacked, and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery. His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.
Sri Lanka never really recovered from the impact of Kalinga Magha 's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to Dambadeniya. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom. The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by king Parâkramabâhu VI 's adopted son, Prince Sapumal. He ruled the North from AD 1450 to 1467.
The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of kingdoms in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte, Sitawaka, and finally, Kandy. Chinese admiral Zheng He and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in 1409 and got into battle with the local king Vira Alakesvara of Gampola. Zheng He captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him. Zheng He erected the Galle Trilingual Inscription, a stone tablet at Galle written in three languages (Chinese, Tamil, and Persian), to commemorate his visit. The stele was discovered by S.H. Thomlin at Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in the Colombo National Museum.
The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer Lourenço de Almeida, the son of Francisco de Almeida, in 1505. In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city of Colombo and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese, Vimaladharmasuriya I moved his kingdom to the inland city of Kandy, a location he thought more secure from attack. In 1619, succumbing to attacks by the Portuguese, the independent existence of Jaffna kingdom came to an end.
During the reign of the Rajasinghe II, Dutch explorers arrived on the island. In 1638, the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East India Company to get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas. The following Dutch -- Portuguese War resulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638. An ethnic group named Burgher people emerged in Sri Lankan society as a result of Dutch rule.
The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka. In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred Tooth Relic -- the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the Sinhalese -- to Kandy, and built the Temple of the Tooth. In spite of on - going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived. Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon king Vira Narendrasinha 's death in 1739. He was married to a Telugu - speaking Nayakkar princess from South India (Madurai) and was childless by her.
Eventually, with the support of bhikku Weliwita Sarankara, the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha 's princesses, overlooking the right of "Unambuwe Bandara '', Narendrasinha 's own son by a Sinhalese concubine. The new king was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.
During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, Great Britain occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796. Two years later, in 1798, Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha, third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen - year - old Kannasamy, was crowned. The young king, now named Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, faced a British invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated.
By then the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company as a result of the Treaty of Amiens. On 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British in the second Kandyan War, ending Sri Lanka 's independence. Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka, was exiled to India. The Kandyan Convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were thwarted by Governor Robert Brownrigg.
The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the Colebrooke - Cameron reforms of 1833. They introduced a utilitarian and liberal political culture to the country based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government. An Executive Council and a Legislative Council were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. By this time, experiments with coffee plantations were largely successful.
Soon coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee prices as a result of the depression of 1847 stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form of rajakariya, requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent. These harsh measures antagonised the locals, and another rebellion broke out in 1848. A devastating leaf disease, Hemileia vastatrix, struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years. The British quickly found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead. Tea production in Sri Lanka thrived in the following decades. Large - scale rubber plantations began in the early 20th century.
By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class transcending race and caste arose through British attempts to staff the Ceylon Civil Service and the legal, educational, and medical professions. New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalism reacted against Christian missionary activities. The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which has since been lost.
In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam, pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor 's encouragement for "communal representation '' by creating a "Colombo seat '' that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.
The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4 % before the reforms). This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon, which succeeded the legislative council. In 1937, Tamil leader G.G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50 -- 50 representation (50 % for the Sinhalese and 50 % for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury reforms of 1944 -- 45.
The Soulbury constitution ushered in Dominion status, with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948. D.S. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Ceylon. Prominent Tamil leaders including Ponnambalam and Arunachalam Mahadeva joined his cabinet. The British Royal Navy remained stationed at Trincomalee until 1956. A countrywide popular demonstration against withdrawal of the rice ration, known as Hartal 1953, resulted in the resignation of prime minister Dudley Senanayake.
S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike was elected prime minister in 1956. His three - year rule had a profound impact through his self - proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture ''. He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act, recognising Sinhala as the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.
The Federal Party (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance (satyagraha) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike -- Chelvanayakam Pact) with S.J.V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict. The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government colonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders. Bandaranaike was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.
Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, and withstood an attempted coup d'état in 1962. During her second term as prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the country became a republic named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s. The policy of standardisation by the Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence an affirmative action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education, resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy. The assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) marked a crisis point.
The government of J.R. Jayawardene swept to power in 1977, defeating the largely unpopular United Front government. Jayawardene introduced a new constitution, together with a free - market economy and a powerful executive presidency modelled after that of France. It made Sri Lanka the first South Asian country to liberalise its economy. Beginning in 1983, ethnic tensions were manifested in an on - and - off insurgency against the government by the LTTE. An LTTE attack on 13 soldiers resulted in the anti-Tamil race riots in July 1983, allegedly backed by Sinhalese hard - line ministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing the island, seeking asylum in other countries.
Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training. In 1987, the Indo - Sri Lanka Accord was signed and the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by neutralising the LTTE. The same year, the JVP launched its second insurrection in Southern Sri Lanka, necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in 1990. In October 1990, the LTTE expelled Sri Lankan Moors (Muslims by religion) from northern Sri Lanka. In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian - mediated ceasefire agreement.
The 2004 Asian tsunami killed over 35,000 in Sri Lanka. From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008. In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda Rajapaksa, the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government. Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during the 26 years of conflict.
Forty thousand Tamil civilians may have been killed in the final phases of the Sri Lankan civil war, according to an Expert Panel convened by UN Secretary General Ban Ki - moon. The exact number of Tamils killed is still a speculation that needs further study. Following the LTTE 's defeat, the Tamil National Alliance, the largest Tamil political party in Sri Lanka, dropped its demand for a separate state in favour of a federal solution. The final stages of the war left some 294,000 people displaced.
According to the Ministry of Resettlement, most of the displaced persons had been released or returned to their places of origin, leaving only 6,651 in the camps as of December 2011. In May 2010, President Rajapaksa appointed the Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission (LLRC) to assess the conflict between the time of the ceasefire agreement in 2002 and the defeat of the LTTE in 2009. Sri Lanka has emerged from its 26 - year war to become one of the fastest growing economies of the world.
During Sri Lanka 's 68th national independence day celebrations on 4 February 2016, the Tamil version of the national anthem "Sri Lanka Matha '' was sung for the first time since 1949 at an official government event, the independence day celebrations. Lifting of the unofficial ban on the Tamil version had been approved by President Maithripala Sirisena (who had said he would unite the nation after the nearly 26 - year civil war that ended in 2009) and by others in the government. This step was viewed as part of the plan for reconciliation. Other steps are also being taken to mend ethnic divisions between the Sinhalese majority and the Tamil minority, according to a November 2016 article in National Geographic. "Sri Lanka Matha '' was also sung in the majority Sinhalese. Some groups, and Sri Lanka 's former President Mahinda Rajapaksa, were opposed to the government officially allowing the Tamil version to be sung.
Sri Lanka lies on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formerly part of the Indo - Australian Plate. It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of the Bay of Bengal, between latitudes 5 ° and 10 ° N, and longitudes 79 ° and 82 ° E. Sri Lanka is separated from the mainland portion of the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait. According to Hindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level. Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to 1480 AD, until cyclones deepened the channel. Portions are still as shallow as 1 metre (3 ft), hindering navigation. The island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south - central part. The highest point is Pidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft) above sea level.
Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the Mahaweli River, extending 335 kilometres (208 mi). These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of 10 meters or more. The highest is Bambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 metres (863 ft). Sri Lanka 's coastline is 1,585 km long. Sri Lanka claims an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending 200 nautical miles, which is approximately 6.7 times Sri Lanka 's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs and shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrasses.
Sri Lanka has 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons. Sri Lanka 's mangrove ecosystem spans over 7,000 hectares and played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The island is rich in minerals such as ilmenite, feldspar, graphite, silica, kaolin, mica and thorium. Existence of petroleum and gas in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed and the extraction of recoverable quantities is underway.
The climate is tropical and warm, due to the moderating effects of ocean winds. Mean temperatures range from 17 ° C (62.6 ° F) in the central highlands, where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of 33 ° C (91.4 ° F) in other low - altitude areas. Average yearly temperatures range from 28 ° C (82.4 ° F) to nearly 31 ° C (87.8 ° F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 14 ° C (25.2 ° F) to 18 ° C (32.4 ° F).
Rainfall pattern is influenced by monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The "wet zone '' and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) of rain each year, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of Sri Lanka comprise the "dry zone '', which receives between 1,200 and 1,900 mm (47 and 75 in) of rain annually.
The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain at 800 to 1,200 mm (31 to 47 in) per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall.
An increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events has resulted in recurrent flooding and related damages to infrastructure, utility supply and the urban economy.
Lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, Sri Lanka is one of 25 biodiversity hotspots in the world. Although the country is relatively small in size, it has the highest biodiversity density in Asia. A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27 % of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22 % of the mammals (see List), are endemic. Sri Lanka has declared 24 wildlife reserves, which are home to a wide range of native species such as Asian elephants, leopards, sloth bears, the unique small loris, a variety of deer, the purple - faced langur, the endangered wild boar, porcupines and Indian pangolins.
Flowering acacias flourish on the arid Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry - land forests are valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. The wet zone is a tropical evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.
Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks. The Wilpattu National Park in the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four biosphere reserves: Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya - Dediyagala - Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja. Of these, Sinharaja forest reserve is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive red - faced malkoha, the green - billed coucal and the Sri Lanka blue magpie.
The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve, 139 (66 %) are endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs and seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000 individuals per hectare. The Minneriya National Park borders the Minneriya tank, which is an important source of water for numerous elephants (Elephus maximus) inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed "The Gathering '', the congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank - bed in the late dry season (August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park also encompasses a range of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures (patanas). and grasslands (talawas).
Sri Lanka is home to over 250 types of resident birds (see List). It has declared several bird sanctuaries including Kumana. During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km (730 sq mi) as national parks. Sri Lanka 's forest cover, which was around 49 % in 1920, had fallen to approximately 24 % by 2009.
Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia. The Donoughmore Constitution, drafted by the Donoughmore Commission in 1931, enabled general elections with adult universal suffrage (universal adult voting) in the country. The first election under the universal adult franchise, held in June 1931, was for the Ceylon State Council. Sir Don Baron Jayatilaka was elected as Leader of the House.
In 1944, the Soulbury Commission was appointed to draft a new constitution. During this time, struggle for independence was fought on "constitutionalist '' lines under the leadership of D.S. Senanayake. The draft constitution was enacted in the same year, and Senanayake was appointed Prime Minister following the parliamentary election in 1947. The Soulbury constitution ushered in Dominion status and granted independence to Sri Lanka in 1948.
The current political culture in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the centre - leftist and progressivist United People 's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an offspring of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right - wing and pro-capitalist United National Party (UNP). Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67. Of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest.
The UNP, established by D.S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest single political party. It is the only political group which had representation in all parliaments since independence. SLFP was founded by S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike, who was the Cabinet minister of Local Administration before he left the UNP in July 1951. SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in 1956 Parliamentary election. Following the parliamentary election in July 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the world 's first elected female head of government.
G.G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike, founded the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to Ponnambalam 's cooperation with D.S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V. Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next two decades. The Federal Party advocated a more aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese.
With the constitutional reforms of 1972, the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) and Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK) created a common front called the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation Front). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late 1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by the Tamil National Alliance. Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, a Marxist -- Leninist political party founded by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political context. It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist politics of the LSSP and the Communist Party. Founded in 1981, the Sri Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.
Sri Lanka is a democratic republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-presidential system, with a mixture of a presidential system and a parliamentary system. Most provisions of the constitution can be amended by a two - thirds majority in parliament. The amendment of certain basic features such as the clauses on language, religion, and reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state require both a two - thirds majority and approval in a nationwide referendum.
In common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches:
For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into nine provinces and twenty - five districts.
Provinces There have been provinces in Sri Lanka since the 19th century, but they had no legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 constitution established provincial councils after several decades of increasing demand for a decentralisation of the Government of Sri Lanka. Each provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority of any Ministry. Some of its functions had been undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and statutory authorities, but authority over land and police is not as a rule given to provincial councils. Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North - East Province. Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were handled by a district - based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:
Districts and local authorities Sri Lanka is also divided into 25 districts. Each district is administered under a District Secretariat. The districts are further subdivided into 256 divisional secretariats, and these, in turn, to approximately 14,008 Grama Niladhari divisions. The Districts are known in Sinhala as Disa and in Tamil as Māwaddam. Originally, a Disa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a duchy, notably Matale and Uva. A government agent, who is known as District Secretary, administers a district.
There are three other types of local authorities: Municipal Councils (18), Urban councils (13) and Pradeshiya Sabha, also called Pradesha Sabhai (256). Local authorities were originally based on feudal counties named korale and rata, and were formerly known as ' D.R.O. divisions ' after the ' Divisional Revenue Officer '. Later the D.R.O.s became ' Assistant Government Agents ' and the divisions were known as ' A.G.A. divisions '. These Divisional Secretariats are currently administered by a ' Divisional Secretary '.
Sri Lanka is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). While ensuring that it maintains its independence, Sri Lanka has cultivated relations with India. Sri Lanka became a member of the United Nations in 1955. Today, it is also a member of the Commonwealth, the SAARC, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Asian Development Bank, and the Colombo Plan.
One of the two parties that have governed Sri Lanka since its independence, the United National Party, has traditionally favoured links with the West, while its left - leaning counterpart, the Sri Lanka Freedom Party, has favoured links with the East. Sri Lankan Finance Minister J.R. Jayewardene, together with then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at the Commonwealth Foreign Minister 's Conference held in Colombo in 1950. At the San Francisco Peace Conference in 1951, while many countries were reluctant, Sri Lanka argued for a free Japan and refused to accept payment of reparations for World War II damage because it believed it would harm Japan 's economy. Sri Lanka - China relations started as soon as the PRC was formed in 1949. The two countries signed an important Rice - Rubber Pact in 1952. Sri Lanka played a vital role at the Asian -- African Conference in 1955, which was an important step in the crystallisation of the NAM.
The Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly changed the pro-western policies set by the previous UNP government. It recognised Cuba under Fidel Castro in 1959. Shortly afterward, Cuba 's revolutionary Ernesto Che Guevara paid a visit to Sri Lanka. The Sirima - Shastri Pact of 1964 and Sirima - Gandhi Pact of 1974 were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve the long - standing dispute over the status of plantation workers of Indian origin. In 1974, Kachchatheevu, a small island in Palk Strait, was formally ceded to Sri Lanka. By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM and Colombo held the fifth NAM summit in 1976. The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tense under the government of J.R. Jayawardene. As a result, India intervened in the Sri Lankan Civil War and subsequently deployed an Indian Peace Keeping Force in 1987. In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China, Russia, and Pakistan.
The Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the Sri Lanka Army, the Sri Lanka Navy, and the Sri Lanka Air Force, come under the purview of the Ministry of Defence (MoD). The total strength of the three services is around 259,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves. Sri Lanka has not enforced military conscription. Paramilitary units include the Special Task Force, the Civil Security Force, and the Sri Lanka Coast Guard.
Since independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been internal security, crushing three major insurgencies, two by Marxist militants of the JVP and a 30 - year - long conflict with the LTTE which has been proscribed as a terrorist organisation by 32 countries. The armed forces have been in a continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years. Marking a rare occurrence in modern military history, the Sri Lankan military was able to bring a decisive end to the Sri Lankan Civil War in May 2009. Sri Lanka has claimed to be the first country in the modern world to eradicate terrorism on its own soil. The Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in United Nations peacekeeping operations since the early 1960s, contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions in Chad, Lebanon, and Haiti.
According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka 's GDP in terms of purchasing power parity is second only to the Maldives in the South Asian region in terms of per capita income.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a plantation economy, famous for its production and export of cinnamon, rubber and Ceylon tea, which remains a trademark national export. The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade. From 1948 to 1977 socialism strongly influenced the government 's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised and a welfare state established. In 1977 the Free market economy was introduced to the country, incorporating privatisation, deregulation and the promotion of private enterprise.
While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar and other commodities remain important, industrialisation has increased the importance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications and finance. The country 's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign exchange.
As of 2010, the service sector makes up 60 % of GDP, the industrial sector 28 %, and the agriculture sector 12 %. The private sector accounts for 85 % of the economy. India is Sri Lanka 's largest trading partner. Economic disparities exist between the provinces, with the Western province contributing 45.1 % of the GDP and the Southern province and the Central province contributing 10.7 % and 10 %, respectively. With the end of the war, the Northern province reported a record 22.9 % GDP growth in 2010.
The per capita income of Sri Lanka has doubled since 2005. During the same period, poverty has dropped from 15.2 % to 7.6 %, unemployment rate has dropped from 7.2 % to 4.9 %, market capitalisation of Colombo Stock Exchange has quadrupled and budget deficit has doubled. Over 90 % of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified. 87.3 % of the population have access to safe drinking water and 39 % have access to pipe - borne water. Income inequality has also dropped in recent years, indicated by a gini coefficient of 0.36 in 2010. Sri Lanka 's cellular subscriber base has shown a staggering 550 % growth, from 2005 to 2010. Sri Lanka was the first country in the South Asian region to introduce 3G, 3.5 G HSDPA, 3.75 G HSUPA and 4G LTE mobile broadband Internet technologies.
The Global Competitiveness Report, published by the World Economic Forum, has described Sri Lanka 's economy as transitioning from the factor - driven stage to the efficiency - driven stage, and that it ranks 52nd in global competitiveness. Also, out of the 142 countries surveyed, Sri Lanka ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in innovation, and 41st in goods market efficiency. Sri Lanka ranks 8th in the World Giving Index, registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society. In 2010, The New York Times placed Sri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit. The Dow Jones classified Sri Lanka as an emerging market in 2010, and Citigroup classified it as a 3G country in February 2011. Sri Lanka ranks well above other South Asian countries in the Human Development Index (HDI) with 0.750 points.
Sri Lanka 's road network consists of 35 A grade highways and two Controlled - access highways (E01) and (E03). The railway network, operated by the state - run national railway operator, Sri Lanka Railways, spans 1,447 kilometres (900 mi). Sri Lanka also has three deep - water ports, at Colombo, Galle, and Trincomalee, in addition to the newest port being built at Hambantota. The port at Trincomalee is the fifth largest natural harbour in the world: during World War II the British stated that they could place their entire navy in the harbour with room to spare. Sri Lanka 's flag carrier airline is SriLankan Airlines. Fitch Ratings has affirmed Sri Lanka 's Foreign - and Local - Currency Issuer Default Ratings (IDRs) at ' BB - ' with a "stable '' outlook. With a grant of 20 million dollars from the US and help from China, a space academy has been set up for the purpose of developing an indigenous space sector to launch satellites of other nations as well as of Sri Lanka. This dual use of launching technology will also serve to develop missile technology. On 26 September 2012 China launched Sri Lanka 's first satellite, with plans for more launches in the coming years.
During the past few years, the country 's debt has soared as it was developing its infrastructure to the point of near bankruptcy which required a bailout from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). "Without an IMF loan, Sri Lanka would have been in a precarious position, '' in May 2016 according to Krystal Tan, an Asia economist at Capital Economics who added that "foreign exchange reserves only covered around 80 percent of short - term external debt ''. The IMF had agreed to provide a US $1.5 billion bailout loan in April 2016 after Sri Lanka provided a set of criteria intended to improve its economy. By the fourth quarter of 2016 the debt was estimated to be $64.9 billion. Additional debt had been incurred in the past by state - owned organizations and this was said to be at least $9.5 billion. Since early 2015, domestic debt increased by 12 percent and external debt by 25 percent.
In late 2016 the World Bank provided US $100 million in financing and the Japan International Cooperation Agency provided a US $100 M loan, both intended to "provide budget financing and to support reforms in competitiveness, transparency, public sector and fiscal management '', according to the World Bank. The bank also reported that the country 's government had agreed that there was a need for reforms "in the areas of fiscal operations, competitiveness and governance '' and if fully implemented, "these could help the country reach Upper Middle Income status in the medium term '' according to the bank.
In November 2016, the International Monetary Fund reported that it would disburse a higher amount than the US $150 million originally planned, a full US $162.6 million (SDR 119.894 million), to Sri Lanka. The agency 's evaluation was cautiously optimistic about the future: "While inflation has abated, credit growth remains strong. The central bank indicates its readiness to tighten the monetary policy stance further if inflationary pressures resurge or credit growth persists. The authorities intend to continue building up reserves through outright purchases while allowing for greater exchange rate flexibility. The banking sector is currently well capitalized. Steps are being taken to find a resolution mechanism for the distressed financial institutions. Going forward, there is a need to strengthen the supervisory and regulatory framework, and identify and mitigate vulnerabilities in the financial sector, particularly with regard to non-banks and state - owned banks. ''
Sri Lanka is the 58th most populated nation in the world, with roughly 21,444,000 people, and an annual population growth rate of 1.14 %. Sri Lanka has a birth rate of 17.6 births per 1,000 people and a death rate of 6.2 deaths per 1,000 people. Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital. Sinhalese constitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74.8 % of the total population.
Sri Lankan Tamils are the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 11.2 %. Sri Lankan Moors comprise 9.2 %. Tamils of Indian origin were brought into the country as indentured labourers by British colonists to work on estate plantations. Nearly 50 % of them were repatriated following independence in 1948. They are distinguished from the native Tamil population that has resided in Sri Lanka since ancient times. There are also small ethnic groups such as the Burghers (of mixed European descent) and Malays from Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population of Vedda people who are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.
Sinhalese and Tamil are the two official languages of Sri Lanka. The Constitution defines English as the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the Burgher community speak variant forms of Portuguese Creole and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of Creole Malay that is unique to the island.
Sri Lanka is a multi-religious country. Buddhists comprise 70 percent of the population, with the Theravada school being predominant. Most Buddhists are of the Sinhalese ethnic group. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by Venerable Mahinda. A sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. The Pali Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE.
Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominately Buddhist nation, with the Sangha having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 2nd century BCE. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma. Buddhism is given special recognition in the Constitution which requires Sri Lankans to "protect and foster the Buddha Sasana ''.
Hinduism is the second most prevalent religion in Sri Lanka and predates Buddhism. Today, Hinduism is dominant in Northern, Eastern and Central Sri Lanka. Hindus are mainly Tamils.
Islam is the third most dominant religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries, starting around the 7th century CE. Most Muslims are Sunni who follow the Shafi'i school. Most followers of Islam in Sri Lanka today are believed to be descendants of those Arab traders and the local women they married.
Christianity reached the country through Western colonists in the early 16th century. Around 7.4 % of the Sri Lankan population are Christians, of which 82 % are Roman Catholics who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. The remaining Christians are evenly split between the Anglican Church of Ceylon and other Protestant denominations.
There is also a small population of Zoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule, but this community has steadily dwindled in recent years. Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days each month according to the Lunar calendar, and Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. In a 2008 Gallup poll, Sri Lanka was ranked the third most religious country in the world, with 99 % of Sri Lankans saying religion was an important part of their daily life.
Colombo Kandy
Galle Jaffna
Sri Lankans have a life expectancy of 77.9 years at birth, which is 10 % higher than the world average. The infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1,000 births and the maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1,000 births, which is on par with figures from the developed countries. The universal "pro-poor '' health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures.
Sri Lanka ranks first among southeast Asian countries with respect to commitment of suicide, with 33 deaths per 100,000 persons. According to Department of Census and Statistics, poverty, destructive pastimes and inability to cope up with stressful situations, are the main causes behind the high suicide rates.
With a literacy rate of 92.5 %, Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations. Its youth literacy rate stands at 98 %, computer literacy rate at 35 %, and primary school enrollment rate at over 99 %. An education system which dictates 9 years of compulsory schooling for every child is in place. The free education system established in 1945, is a result of the initiative of C.W.W. Kannangara and A. Ratnayake. It is one of the few countries in the world that provide universal free education from primary to tertiary stage.
Kannangara led the establishment of the Madhya Maha Vidyalayas (Central Schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka 's rural children. In 1942 a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However, in the 1980s changes to this system saw the separation of the administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elite National Schools are controlled directly by the Ministry of Education and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka has approximately 9675 government schools, 817 private schools and Pirivenas.
Sri Lanka has 15 public universities. A lack of responsiveness of the education system to labour market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector. A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps, yet the participation at tertiary level education remains at 5.1 %. The proposed private university bill has been withdrawn by the Higher Education Ministry after university students ' heavy demonstrations and resistance.
The British science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke served as Chancellor of Moratuwa University in Sri Lanka from 1979 to 2002.
Sri Lanka has an extensive road network for inland transportation. With more than 100,000 km of paved roads, it has one of the highest road densities in the world (1.5 km of paved roads per every 1sq.km. of land). E-grade highways are the latest addition to Sri Lanka 's road network. These are access - controlled, high - mobility roads with permitted speeds up to 100 km / h. These highways connect local communities together, by - passing busy and congested town centers.
A and B grade roads are national (arterial) highways administered by Road Development Authority. C and D grade roads are provincial roads coming under the purview of the Provincial Road Development Authority of the respective province. The other roads are local roads falling under local government authorities.
The rail network of Sri Lanka consists of main lines, coastal lines, and up - country lines. In addition, air - and water - based transportation modalities augment the inland transport of the country.
The Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (formerly Radio Ceylon) is the oldest - running radio station in Asia, established in 1923 by Edward Harper just three years after broadcasting began in Europe. The station broadcasts services in Sinhalese, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s, a large number of private radio stations have also been introduced. Broadcast television was introduced to the country in 1979 when the Independent Television Network was launched. Initially, all Television stations were state - controlled, but private television networks began broadcasts in 1992.
As of 2010, 51 newspapers (30 Sinhala, 10 Tamil, 11 English) are published and 34 TV stations and 52 radio stations are in operation. In recent years, freedom of the press in Sri Lanka has been alleged by media freedom groups to be amongst the poorest in democratic countries. Alleged abuse of a newspaper editor by a senior government minister achieved international notoriety because of the unsolved murder of the editor 's predecessor, Lasantha Wickrematunge, who had also been a critic of the government and had presaged his own death in a posthumously published article.
Officially, the constitution of Sri Lanka guarantees human rights as ratified by the United Nations. However, human rights in Sri Lanka have come under criticism by Amnesty International, Freedom from Torture, Human Rights Watch, and the United States Department of State. British colonial rulers, the separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), and the government of Sri Lanka are accused of violating human rights. A report by an advisory panel to the UN secretary - general has accused both the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government of alleged war crimes during final stages of the civil war. Corruption remains a problem in Sri Lanka, and there is currently very little protection for those who stand up against corruption.
The UN Human Rights Council has documented over 12,000 named individuals who have undergone disappearance after detention by security forces in Sri Lanka, the second highest figure in the world since the Working Group came into being in 1980. The Sri Lankan government has confirmed that 6,445 of these are dead. Allegations of human rights abuses have not ended with the close of the ethnic conflict.
UN Human Rights Commissioner Navanethem Pillay visited Sri Lanka in May 2013. After her visit, she said: "The war may have ended (in Sri Lanka), but in the meantime democracy has been undermined and the rule of law eroded. '' Pillay spoke about the military 's increasing involvement in civilian life and reports of military land grabbing. She also said that, while in Sri Lanka, she had been allowed to go wherever she wanted, but that Sri Lankans who came to meet her were harassed and intimidated by security forces.
In 2012, the UK charity Freedom from Torture reported that it had received 233 referrals of torture survivors from Sri Lanka for clinical treatment or other services provided by the charity. In the same year, Freedom from Torture published Out of the Silence, which documents evidence of torture in Sri Lanka and demonstrates that the practice has continued long after the end of the civil war in May 2009.
The culture of Sri Lanka dates back over 2500 years. It is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism. Sri Lanka is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in the ancient cities of Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in the city of Jaffna). In more recent times, the British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. Sri Lanka claims a democratic tradition matched by few other developing countries.
The first Tamil immigration was probably around the 3rd century BC. Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinct. Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius in hydraulic engineering and architecture. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country 's long life expectancy, advanced health standards and high literacy rate.
Dishes include rice and curry, pittu, kiribath, wholemeal roti, string hoppers, wattalapam (a rich pudding of Malay origin made of coconut milk, jaggery, cashew nuts, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and nutmeg), kottu, and hoppers. Jackfruit may sometimes replace rice. Traditionally food is served on a plantain leaf or lotus leaf.
Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island 's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such as Lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), Breudher (Dutch Holiday Biscuit), and Bolo Fiado (Portuguese - style layer cake).
In April, Sri Lankans celebrate the Buddhist and Hindu new year festival. Esala Perahera is a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and decorated elephants held in Kandy in July and August. Fire - dances, whip - dances, Kandian dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Christians celebrate Christmas on 25 December to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and Easter to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrate Thai Pongal and Maha Shivaratri, and Muslims celebrate Hajj and Ramadan.
The movie Kadawunu Poronduwa (The broken promise), produced by S.M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947. Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of treasures, 1962) marked the transition cinema from black - and - white to colour. It in the recent years has featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE. The Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to Bollywood movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all - time high, but has been in steady decline since then.
An influential filmmaker is Lester James Peiris, who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, including Rekava (Line of destiny, 1956), Gamperaliya (The changing village, 1964), Nidhanaya (The treasure, 1970) and Golu Hadawatha (Cold heart, 1968). Sri Lankan - Canadian poet Rienzi Crusz, is the subject of a documentary on his life in Sri Lanka. His work is published in Sinhalese and English. Similarly, naturalized - Canadian Michael Ondaatje, is well known for his English - language novels and three films.
The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such as Kolam, Sokari and Nadagam. Traditional music instruments such as Béra, Thammátama, Daŭla and Răbān were performed at these dramas. The first music album, Nurthi, recorded in 1903, was released through Radio Ceylon (founded in 1925). Songwriters like Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon and musicians such as W.D. Amaradeva, Victor Ratnayake, Nanda Malini and Clarence Wijewardene have contributed much towards the upliftment of Sri Lankan music. Baila is another popular music genre in the country, originated among Kaffirs or the Afro - Sinhalese community.
There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, the Kandyan dances, low country dances and Sabaragamuwa dances. Of these, the Kandyan style, which flourished under kings of the Kingdom of Kandy, is more prominent. It is a sophisticated form of dance, that consists of five sub-categories: Ves dance, Naiyandi dance, Udekki dance, Pantheru dance and 18 Vannam. An elaborate headdress is worn by the male dancers and a drum called Geta Béraya is used to assist the dancer to keep on rhythm. In addition, four folk drama variants named Sokri, Kolam Nadagam, Pasu, and several devil dance variants such as Sanni Yakuma and Kohomba Kankariya can be also observed.
The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BC. The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahavamsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth using cinnabar in the 2nd century BC. The chronicles have description of various paintings in relic - chambers of Buddhist stupas, and in monastic residence.
Theatre moved into the country when a Parsi theatre company from Mumbai introduced Nurti, a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in the 19th century. The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging of Maname, a play written by Ediriweera Sarachchandra in 1956. It was followed by a series of popular dramas like Sinhabāhu, Pabāvatī, Mahāsāra, Muudu Puththu and Subha saha Yasa.
Sri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia, and is heir to the Aryan literary tradition as embodied in the hymns of the Rigveda. The Pāli Canon, the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri Lanka during the Fourth Buddhist council, at the Alulena cave temple, Kegalle, as early as 29 BC. Ancient chronicles such as the Mahāvamsa, written in the 6th century, provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties. According to the German philosopher Wilhelm Geiger, the chronicles are based on Sinhala Atthakatha (commentary), that dates few more centuries back. The oldest surviving prose work is the Dhampiya - Atuva - Getapadaya, compiled in the 9th century.
The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka include Sandesha Kāvya (poetic messages) such as Girā Sandeshaya (Parrot message), Hansa Sandeshaya (Swan message) and Salalihini Sandeshaya (Myna message). Poetry including Kavsilumina, Kavya - Sekharaya (diadem of poetry) and proses such as Saddharma - Ratnāvaliya, Amāvatura (Flood of nectar) and Pujāvaliya are also notable works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature. The first modern - day novel, Meena, a work of Simon de Silva appeared in 1905, and was followed by a number of revolutionary literary works. Martin Wickramasinghe, the author of Madol Doova is considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature.
While the national sport in Sri Lanka is volleyball, by far the most popular sport in the country is cricket. Rugby union also enjoys extensive popularity, as do athletics, football (soccer) and tennis. Sri Lanka 's schools and colleges regularly organise sports and athletics teams, competing on provincial and national levels.
The Sri Lanka national cricket team achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from underdog status to winning the 1996 Cricket World Cup. They also won the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 played in Bangladesh, beating India in the final. In addition, Sri Lanka became the runners - up of the Cricket World Cup in 2007 and 2011, and of the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009 and 2012.
Former Sri Lankan off - spinner Muttiah Muralitharan has been rated as the greatest Test match bowler ever by Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack, and four Sri Lankan cricketers ranked 2nd (Sangakkara), 4th (Jayasuriya), 5th (Jayawardene) and 11th (Dilshan) highest ODI run scorers of all time, which is the best by a team. Sri Lanka has won the Asia Cup in 1986, 1997, 2004, 2008 and 2014. Sri Lanka once held highest team score in all three formats of cricket, where currently holds Test team total. The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in 1996 and 2011, and hosted the 2012 ICC World Twenty20.
Sri Lankans have won two medals at Olympic Games, one silver, by Duncan White at 1948 London Olympics for men 's 400 metres hurdles and one silver by Susanthika Jayasinghe at 2000 Sydney Olympics for women 's 200 metres. In 1973, Muhammad Lafir won the World Billiards Championship, the highest feat by a Sri Lankan in a Cue sport. Sri Lanka has also won the Carrom World Championship titles twice in 2012 and 2016 Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing and scuba diving on the coast, the beaches and backwaters attract a large number of Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka, Cheena di and Angampora.
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who is the speaker of the lok sabha | Speaker of the Lok Sabha - wikipedia
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The Speaker of the Lok Sabha is the presiding officer of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India. The speaker is elected in the very first meeting of the Lok Sabha following general elections. Serving for a term of five years, the Speaker chosen from amongst the members of the Lok Sabha, and is by convention a member of the ruling party or alliance.
The current speaker is Sumitra Mahajan of the Bharatiya Janata Party, who is presiding over the 16th Lok Sabha. She is the second woman to hold the office, after her immediate predecessor Meira Kumar.
The Speaker of the Lok Sabha conducts the business in house; and decides whether a bill is a money bill or not. They maintain discipline and decorum in the house and can punish a member for their unruly behavior by suspending them. They also permit the moving of various kinds of motions and resolutions such as a motion of no confidence, motion of adjournment, motion of censure and calling attention notice as per the rules. The Speaker decides on the agenda to be taken up for discussion during the meeting. The date of election of the speaker is fixed by the President. Further, all comments and speeches made by members of the House are addressed to the speaker. The speaker also presides over the joint sitting of both Houses of Parliament. The counterpart of the Speaker in the Rajya Sabha is the Chairman, who is the Vice President of India. In the warrant of precedence, the speaker of Lok Sabha comes next only to The Deputy Prime Minister of India. Speaker has the sixth rank in the political executive of India. The speaker is answerable to the house. Both the speaker and deputy speaker may be removed by a resolution passed by the majority of the members.
Speaker can be removed by the Lok Sabha by a resolution passed by an effective majority of the House as per Articles 94 and 96.
Speaker is also removed on getting disqualified for being Lok Sabha member under sections 7 & 8 of Representation of the People Act, 1951. This would arise out of speaker 's wrong certification of a bill as money bill inconsistent with the definition given in Articles 110 of the constitution. When courts uphold the unconstitutional act of the speaker for wrong certification of a bill as money bill, it amounts to disrespecting the constitution deserving conviction under Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971 which is applicable for disqualification of speaker 's Lok Sabha membership under section 8k of Representation of the People Act, 1951. However the omissions in the procedure committed by the speaker in the Lok Sabha can not be challenged in court of law per Article 122
After a general election and the formation of a new government, a list of senior Lok Sabha members prepared by the Legislative Section is submitted to the Minister of Parliamentary Affairs, who selects a pro tem speaker. The appointment has to be approved by the president.
The first meeting after the election when the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker are selected by members of the Parliament is held under the pro tem Speaker. In absence of the Speaker, the Deputy Speaker acts as Speaker and in the absence of both a committee of six member selected by the Speaker will act as Speaker according to their seniority.
Eligibility Criteria Of a Speaker of Loksabha
1) He or She must be a citizen of India.
2) He or She must not be less than 25 years of age.
3) He or She should not hold any office of profit under the Government of India, or the Government of any other state.
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when did michael jordan get drafted to the nba | Michael Jordan - wikipedia
Michael Jeffrey Jordan (born February 17, 1963), also known by his initials, MJ, is an American former professional basketball player. He played 15 seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for the Chicago Bulls and Washington Wizards. His biography on the official NBA website states: "By acclamation, Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. '' Jordan was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s. He is currently the principal owner and chairman of the NBA 's Charlotte Hornets.
Jordan played three seasons for coach Dean Smith at the University of North Carolina. As a freshman, he was a member of the Tar Heels ' national championship team in 1982. Jordan joined the Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick. He quickly emerged as a league star and entertained crowds with his prolific scoring. His leaping ability, demonstrated by performing slam dunks from the free throw line in Slam Dunk Contests, earned him the nicknames Air Jordan and His Airness. He also gained a reputation for being one of the best defensive players in basketball. In 1991, he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls, and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993, securing a "three - peat ''. Although Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the beginning of the 1993 -- 94 NBA season and started a new career playing minor league baseball, he returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three additional championships in 1996, 1997, and 1998, as well as a then - record 72 regular - season wins in the 1995 -- 96 NBA season. Jordan retired for a second time in January 1999, but returned for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Wizards.
Jordan 's individual accolades and accomplishments include six NBA Finals Most Valuable Player (MVP) Awards, ten scoring titles (both all - time records), five MVP Awards, ten All - NBA First Team designations, nine All - Defensive First Team honors, fourteen NBA All - Star Game selections, three All - Star Game MVP Awards, three steals titles, and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award. He holds the NBA records for highest career regular season scoring average (30.12 points per game) and highest career playoff scoring average (33.45 points per game). In 1999, he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN, and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press ' list of athletes of the century. Jordan is a two - time inductee into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, having been enshrined in 2009 for his individual career, and again in 2010 as part of the group induction of the 1992 United States men 's Olympic basketball team ("The Dream Team ''). He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015.
Jordan is also known for his product endorsements. He fueled the success of Nike 's Air Jordan sneakers, which were introduced in 1984 and remain popular today. Jordan also starred as himself in the 1996 film Space Jam. In 2006, he became part - owner and head of basketball operations for the Charlotte Bobcats; he bought a controlling interest in 2010. In 2014, Jordan became the first billionaire player in NBA history. He is the third - richest African - American, behind Robert F. Smith and Oprah Winfrey.
Jordan was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Deloris (née Peoples), who worked in banking, and James R. Jordan Sr., an equipment supervisor. His family moved to Wilmington, North Carolina, when he was a toddler.
Jordan is the fourth of five children. He has two older brothers, Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan, Jr., one older sister, Deloris, and one younger sister, Roslyn. Jordan 's brother James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army.
Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington, where he highlighted his athletic career by playing basketball, baseball, and football. He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year, but at 5'11 '' (1.80 m), he was deemed too short to play at that level. His taller friend, Harvest Leroy Smith, was the only sophomore to make the team.
Motivated to prove his worth, Jordan became the star of Laney 's junior varsity team, and tallied several 40 - point games. The following summer, he grew four inches (10 cm) and trained rigorously. Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster, Jordan averaged about 20 points per game over his final two seasons of high school play. As a senior, he was selected to the McDonald 's All - American Team after averaging a triple - double: 29.2 points, 11.6 rebounds, and 10.1 assists.
Jordan was recruited by numerous college basketball programs, including Duke, North Carolina, South Carolina, Syracuse, and Virginia. In 1981, Jordan accepted a basketball scholarship to North Carolina, where he majored in cultural geography.
As a freshman in coach Dean Smith 's team - oriented system, he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13.4 points per game (ppg) on 53.4 % shooting (field goal percentage). He made the game - winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown, which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing. Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career. During his three seasons at North Carolina, he averaged 17.7 ppg on 54.0 % shooting, and added 5.0 rebounds per game (rpg). He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All - American First Team in both his sophomore (1983) and junior (1984) seasons. After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984, Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft. The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick, after Hakeem Olajuwon (Houston Rockets) and Sam Bowie (Portland Trail Blazers). One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center. However, Trail Blazers general manager Stu Inman contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center, but more a matter of taking Sam Bowie over Jordan, in part because Portland already had Clyde Drexler, who was a guard with similar skills to Jordan. ESPN, citing Bowie 's injury - laden college career, named the Blazers ' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history. Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986. He graduated the same year with a Bachelor of Arts degree in geography.
During his rookie season with the Bulls, Jordan averaged 28.2 ppg on 51.5 % shooting. He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas, and appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading "A Star Is Born '' just over a month into his professional career. The fans also voted in Jordan as an All - Star starter during his rookie season. Controversy arose before the All - Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players -- led by Isiah Thomas -- were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving. This led to a so - called "freeze - out '' on Jordan, where players refused to pass the ball to him throughout the game. The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play, and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year. The Bulls finished the season 38 -- 44 and lost to the Milwaukee Bucks in four games in the first round of the playoffs.
Jordan 's second season was cut short when he broke his foot in the third game of the year, causing him to miss 64 games. Despite Jordan 's injury and a 30 -- 52 record (at the time it was fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history), the Bulls made the playoffs. Jordan recovered in time to participate in the playoffs and performed well upon his return. Against a 1985 -- 86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history, Jordan set the still - unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2. The Celtics, however, managed to sweep the series.
Jordan had completely recovered in time for the 1986 -- 87 season, and he had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history. He became the only player other than Wilt Chamberlain to score 3,000 points in a season, averaging a league high 37.1 points on 48.2 % shooting. In addition, Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess, as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocked shots in a season. Despite Jordan 's success, Magic Johnson won the league 's Most Valuable Player Award. The Bulls reached 40 wins, and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year. However, they were again swept by the Celtics.
Jordan again led the league in scoring during the 1987 -- 88 season, averaging 35.0 ppg on 53.5 % shooting and won his first league MVP Award. He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year, as he had averaged 1.6 blocks and a league high 3.16 steals per game. The Bulls finished 50 -- 32, and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan 's career, as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. However, the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons, who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the "Bad Boys ''.
In the 1988 -- 89 season, Jordan again led the league in scoring, averaging 32.5 ppg on 53.8 % shooting from the field, along with 8 rpg and 8 assists per game (apg). The Bulls finished with a 47 -- 35 record, and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals, defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way. The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit The Shot over Craig Ehlo at the buzzer in the fifth and final game of the series. However, the Pistons again defeated the Bulls, this time in six games, by utilizing their "Jordan Rules '' method of guarding Jordan, which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball.
The Bulls entered the 1989 -- 90 season as a team on the rise, with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant, and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson. Jordan averaged a league leading 33.6 ppg on 52.6 % shooting, to go with 6.9 rpg and 6.3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55 -- 27 record. They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals after beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers. However, despite pushing the series to seven games, the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season.
In the 1990 -- 91 season, Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31.5 ppg on 53.9 % shooting, 6.0 rpg, and 5.5 apg for the regular season. The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season. With Scottie Pippen developing into an All - Star, the Bulls had elevated their play. The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs. They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival, the Detroit Pistons, awaited them. However, this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four - game sweep.
The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face the Los Angeles Lakers, who had Magic Johnson and James Worthy, two formidable opponents. The Bulls won the series four games to one, and compiled a 15 -- 2 playoff record along the way. Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when, attempting a dunk, Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid-air to lay the shot into the basket. In his first Finals appearance, Jordan posted per game averages of 31.2 points on 56 % shooting from the field, 11.4 assists, 6.6 rebounds, 2.8 steals, and 1.4 blocks. Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award, and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy.
Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991 -- 92 season, establishing a 67 -- 15 record, topping their franchise record from 1990 -- 91. Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30.1 points, 6.4 rebounds and 6.1 assists per game on 52 % shooting. After winning a physical 7 - game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games, the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals. The media, hoping to recreate a Magic -- Bird rivalry, highlighted the similarities between "Air '' Jordan and Clyde "The Glide '' during the pre-Finals hype. In the first game, Jordan scored a Finals - record 35 points in the first half, including a record - setting six three - point field goals. After the sixth three - pointer, he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside. Marv Albert, who broadcast the game, later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying, "I ca n't believe I 'm doing this. '' The Bulls went on to win Game 1, and defeat the Blazers in six games. Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35.8 ppg, 4.8 rpg, and 6.5 apg, while shooting 53 % from the floor.
In the 1992 -- 93 season, despite a 32.6 ppg, 6.7 rpg, and 5.5 apg campaign and finishing second in Defensive Player of the Year voting, Jordan 's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley. Coincidentally, Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals. The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game - winning shot by John Paxson and a last - second block by Horace Grant, but Jordan was once again Chicago 's leader. He averaged a Finals - record 41.0 ppg during the six - game series, and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards. He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series, including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games. With his third Finals triumph, Jordan capped off a seven - year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships, but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non-basketball hassles in his life.
During the Bulls ' playoff run in 1993, controversy arose when Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City, New Jersey, the night before a game against the New York Knicks. In that same year, he admitted that he had to cover $57,000 in gambling losses, and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book claiming he had won $1.25 million from Jordan on the golf course. In 2005, Jordan talked to Ed Bradley of the CBS evening show 60 Minutes about his gambling and admitted that he made some reckless decisions. Jordan stated, "Yeah, I 've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I 've pushed the envelope. Is that compulsive? Yeah, it depends on how you look at it. If you 're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family, then yeah. '' When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family, Jordan replied, "No. ''
On October 6, 1993, Jordan announced his retirement, citing a loss of desire to play the game. Jordan later stated that the death of his father three months earlier also shaped his decision. Jordan 's father was murdered on July 23, 1993, at a highway rest area in Lumberton, North Carolina, by two teenagers, Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery, who carjacked his luxury Lexus bearing the license plate "UNC 0023 ''. His body was dumped in a South Carolina swamp and was not discovered until August 3. The assailants were traced from calls that they made on James Jordan 's cell phone. The two criminals were caught, convicted at trial, and sentenced to life in prison. Jordan was close to his father; as a child he had imitated his father 's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work. He later adopted it as his own signature, displaying it each time he drove to the basket. In 1996, he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father.
In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game, Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992. The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan 's feelings about the game and his ever - growing celebrity status. Jordan 's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world.
Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a minor league baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7, 1994. He reported to spring training in Sarasota, Florida, and was assigned to the team 's minor league system on March 31, 1994. Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father, who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player. The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf, who continued to honor Jordan 's basketball contract during the years he played baseball.
In 1994, Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons, a Double - A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox, batting. 202 with three home runs, 51 runs batted in, 30 stolen bases, 114 strikeouts, 51 base on balls, and 11 errors. He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League, batting. 252 against the top prospects in baseball. On November 1, 1994, his number 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as The Spirit outside the new United Center.
In the 1993 -- 94 season, the Bulls achieved a 55 -- 27 record without Jordan in the lineup, and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs. The 1994 -- 95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier. Struggling at mid-season to ensure a spot in the playoffs, Chicago was 31 -- 31 at one point in mid-March. The team received help, however, when Jordan decided to return to the Bulls.
In March 1995, Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike, as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player. On March 18, 1995, Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two - word press release: "I 'm back. '' The next day, Jordan took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis, scoring 19 points. The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975. Although he could have opted to wear his normal number in spite of the Bulls having retired it, Jordan instead wore number 45, as he had while playing baseball.
Although he had not played an NBA game in a year and a half, Jordan played well upon his return, making a game - winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back. He then scored 55 points in the next game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28, 1995. Boosted by Jordan 's comeback, the Bulls went 13 -- 4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Orlando Magic. At the end of Game 1, Orlando 's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind, leading to the game - winning basket for the Magic; he would later comment that Jordan "did n't look like the old Michael Jordan '' and that "No. 45 does n't explode like No. 23 used to. ''
Jordan responded by scoring 38 points in the next game, which Chicago won. Before the game, Jordan decided that he would immediately resume wearing his former number, 23. The Bulls were fined $25,000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA. Jordan was fined an additional $5,000 for opting to wear white sneakers when the rest of the Bulls wore black. He averaged 31 points per game in the series, but Orlando won the series in 6 games.
Jordan was freshly motivated by the playoff defeat, and he trained aggressively for the 1995 -- 96 season. The Bulls were strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman, and the team dominated the league, starting the season at 41 -- 3. The Bulls eventually finished with the then - best regular season record in NBA history, 72 -- 10; this record was later surpassed by the 2015 -- 16 Golden State Warriors. Jordan led the league in scoring with 30.4 ppg and won the league 's regular season and All - Star Game MVP awards.
In the playoffs, the Bulls lost only three games in four series (Miami Heat 3 -- 0, New York Knicks 4 -- 1, Orlando Magic 4 -- 0). They defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4 -- 2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship. Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time, surpassing Magic Johnson 's three Finals MVP awards. He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All - Star Game, regular season and NBA Finals, Willis Reed having achieved the first, during the 1969 -- 70 season. Because this was Jordan 's first championship since his father 's murder, and it was won on Father 's Day, Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title, including a memorable scene of him crying on the locker room floor with the game ball.
In the 1996 -- 97 season, the Bulls started out 69 -- 11, but missed out on a second consecutive 70 - win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 -- 13. However, this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone. The Bulls again advanced to the Finals, where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz. The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan 's career. He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer - beating jump shot. In Game 5, with the series tied at 2, Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus. In what is known as the "Flu Game '', Jordan scored 38 points, including the game - deciding 3 - pointer with 25 seconds remaining. The Bulls won 90 -- 88 and went on to win the series in six games. For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances, Jordan received the Finals MVP award. During the 1997 NBA All - Star Game, Jordan posted the first triple double in All - Star Game history in a victorious effort; however, he did not receive the MVP award.
Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62 -- 20 record in the 1997 -- 98 season. Jordan led the league with 28.7 points per game, securing his fifth regular - season MVP award, plus honors for All - NBA First Team, First Defensive Team and the All - Star Game MVP. The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season, including surviving a seven - game series with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals with the Knicks. After winning, they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals.
The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14, 1998, leading the series 3 -- 2. Jordan executed a series of plays, considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history. With the Bulls trailing 86 -- 83 with 41.9 seconds remaining in the fourth quarter, Phil Jackson called a timeout. When play resumed, Jordan received the inbound pass, drove to the basket, and hit a shot over several Jazz defenders, cutting the Utah lead to 86 -- 85. The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone, who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman. Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass, but Jordan cut behind him and took the ball out of his hands for a steal. Jordan then dribbled down the court and paused, eyeing his defender, Jazz guard Bryon Russell. With 10 seconds remaining, Jordan started to dribble right, then crossed over to his left, possibly pushing off Russell, although the officials did not call a foul. With 5.2 seconds left, Jordan gave Chicago an 87 -- 86 lead with a game - winning jumper, the climactic shot of his Bulls career. Afterwards, John Stockton missed a game - winning three - pointer. Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship and second three - peat. Once again, Jordan was voted the Finals MVP, having led all scorers averaging 33.5 points per game, including 45 in the deciding Game 6. Jordan 's six Finals MVPs is a record; Shaquille O'Neal, Magic Johnson, LeBron James and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece. The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history. Game 6 also holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history.
With Phil Jackson 's contract expiring, the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming, and being in the latter stages of an owner - induced lockout of NBA players, Jordan retired for the second time on January 13, 1999. On January 19, 2000, Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player, but as part owner and president of basketball operations for the Washington Wizards. Jordan 's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive. He controlled all aspects of the Wizards ' basketball operations, and had the final say in all personnel matters. Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed. He managed to purge the team of several highly paid, unpopular players (such as forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland), but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high schooler Kwame Brown, who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons.
Despite his January 1999 claim that he was "99.9 % certain '' that he would never play another NBA game, in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback, this time with his new team. Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter, Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training, holding several invitation - only camps for NBA players in Chicago. In addition, Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach, Doug Collins, as Washington 's coach for the upcoming season, a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return.
On September 25, 2001, Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards, indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks. In an injury - plagued 2001 -- 02 season, he led the team in scoring (22.9 ppg), assists (5.2 apg), and steals (1.42 spg). However, torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan 's season after only 60 games, the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994 -- 95 season. Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season, averaging 24.3 points, 5.4 assists, and 6.0 rebounds, and shooting 41.9 % from the field in his 53 starts. His last seven appearances were in a reserve role, in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game.
Playing in his 14th and final NBA All - Star Game in 2003, Jordan passed Kareem Abdul - Jabbar as the all - time leading scorer in All - Star Game history (a record since broken by Kobe Bryant). That year, Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games, starting in 67 of them. He averaged 20.0 points, 6.1 rebounds, 3.8 assists, and 1.5 steals per game. He also shot 45 % from the field, and 82 % from the free throw line. Even though he turned 40 during the season, he scored 20 or more points 42 times, 30 or more points nine times, and 40 or more points three times. On February 21, 2003, Jordan became the first 40 - year - old to tally 43 points in an NBA game. During his stint with the Wizards, all of Jordan 's home games at the MCI Center were sold out, and the Wizards were the second most - watched team in the NBA, averaging 20,172 fans a game at home and 19,311 on the road. However, neither of Jordan 's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards, and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him. At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media, citing their lack of focus and intensity, notably that of the number one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft, Kwame Brown.
With the recognition that 2002 -- 03 would be Jordan 's final season, tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA. In his final game at the United Center in Chicago, which was his old home court, Jordan received a four - minute standing ovation. The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11, 2003, even though Jordan never played for the team. At the 2003 All - Star Game, Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson, but refused both. In the end, he accepted the spot of Vince Carter, who decided to give it up under great public pressure.
Jordan played in his final NBA game on April 16, 2003, in Philadelphia. After scoring only 13 points in the game, Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers, 75 -- 56. Just after the start of the fourth quarter, the First Union Center crowd began chanting "We want Mike! '' After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins, Jordan finally rose from the bench and re-entered the game, replacing Larry Hughes with 2: 35 remaining. At 1: 45, Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers ' Eric Snow, and stepped to the line to make both free throws. After the second foul shot, the 76ers in - bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons, who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later, stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench. Jordan received a three - minute standing ovation from his teammates, his opponents, the officials, and the crowd of 21,257 fans.
Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal - winning American basketball teams. He won a gold medal as a college player in the 1984 Summer Olympics. The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing, Sam Perkins, Chris Mullin, Steve Alford, and Wayman Tisdale. Jordan led the team in scoring, averaging 17.1 ppg for the tournament.
In the 1992 Summer Olympics, he was a member of the star - studded squad that included Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and David Robinson and was dubbed the "Dream Team ''. Jordan was the only player to start all 8 games in the Olympics. Playing limited minutes due to the frequent blowouts, Jordan averaged 14.9 ppg, finishing second on the team in scoring. Jordan and fellow Dream Team members Patrick Ewing and Chris Mullin are the only American men 's basketball players to win Olympic gold medals as amateurs and professionals.
After his third retirement, Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position as Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards. However, his previous tenure in the Wizards ' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard "Rip '' Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse (although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002). On May 7, 2003, Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as the team 's president of basketball operations. Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed, and that if he had known he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards.
Jordan kept busy over the next few years. He stayed in shape, played golf in celebrity charity tournaments, and spent time with his family in Chicago. He also promoted his Jordan Brand clothing line and rode motorcycles. Since 2004, Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports, a professional closed - course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) until the end of the 2013 season. In 2006, Jordan and his wife Juanita pledged $5 million to Chicago 's Hales Franciscan High School. The Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America.
On June 15, 2006, Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats, becoming the team 's second - largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson. As part of the deal, Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation, with the title "Managing Member of Basketball Operations. '' Despite Jordan 's previous success as an endorser, he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte 's marketing campaigns. A decade earlier, Jordan had made a bid to become part - owner of Charlotte 's original NBA team, the Charlotte Hornets, but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations.
In February 2010, it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats. As February wore on, it became apparent that Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos were the leading contenders for ownership of the team. On February 27, the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group, MJ Basketball Holdings, to buy the team pending NBA approval. On March 17, the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan 's purchase, making him the first former player to become the majority owner of an NBA team. It also made him the league 's only African - American majority owner of an NBA team.
During the 2011 NBA lockout, The New York Times wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners who wanted to cap the players ' share of basketball - related income at 50 percent and as low as 47. Journalists observed that, during the labor dispute in 1998, Jordan had told Washington Wizards then - owner Abe Pollin, "If you ca n't make a profit, you should sell your team. '' Jason Whitlock of FoxSports.com called Jordan a "sellout '' wanting "current players to pay for his incompetence. '' He cited Jordan 's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison.
During the 2011 -- 12 NBA season that was shortened to 66 games by the lockout, the Bobcats posted a 7 -- 59 record. Their. 106 winning percentage was the worst in NBA history. "I 'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year. It 's very, very frustrating '', Jordan said later that year.
Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward (the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards), and as a point guard. Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer. With the Bulls, he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds, including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests. His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash - talk and well - known work ethic. As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan, management had to trade away players who were not "tough enough '' to compete with him in practice. To help improve his defense, he spent extra hours studying film of opponents. On offense, he relied more upon instinct and improvisation at game time. Noted as a durable player, Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986 -- 87 to 2001 -- 02, when he injured his right knee. He played all 82 games nine times. Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson, Walter Davis, and Jerry West as influences. Confirmed at the start of his career, and possibly later on, Jordan had a special "Love of the Game Clause '' written into his contract (unusual at the time) which allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time, anywhere.
Jordan had a versatile offensive game. He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket, as well as drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate; his 8,772 free throw attempts are the ninth - highest total of all time. As his career progressed, Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jump shot, using his leaping ability to "fade away '' from block attempts. According to Hubie Brown, this move alone made him nearly unstoppable. Despite media criticism as a "selfish '' player early in his career, Jordan 's 5.3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to defer to his teammates. After shooting under 30 % from three - point range in his first five seasons in the NBA, including a career - low 13 % in the 1987 -- 88 season, Jordan improved to a career - high 50 % in the 1994 -- 95 season. The three - point shot became more of a focus of his game from 1994 -- 95 to 1996 -- 97, when the NBA shortened its three - point line to 22 ft (6.7 m) (from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m)). His three - point field - goal percentages ranged from 35 % to 43 % in seasons in which he attempted at least 230 three - pointers between 1989 -- 90 and 1996 -- 97. For a guard, Jordan was also a good rebounder (6.2 per game).
In 1988, Jordan was honored with the NBA 's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and MVP awards in a career (since equaled by Hakeem Olajuwon, David Robinson, and Kevin Garnett; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season). In addition, he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard, and combined this with his ball - thieving ability to become a standout defensive player. He ranks third in NBA history in total steals with 2,514, trailing John Stockton and Jason Kidd. Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan 's defensive contributions than his offensive ones. He was also known to have strong eyesight; broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a 27 - inch (69 cm) television clearly from about 50 feet (15 m) away.
Jordan 's talent was clear from his first NBA season. Larry Bird said that he had "never seen anyone like him '', that he was "one of a kind '', and that Jordan was the best player he had ever seen and comparable to Wayne Gretzky as an athlete. In Jordan 's first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks, he received a prolonged standing ovation, a rarity for an opposing player. After Jordan scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20, 1986, Bird described him as "God disguised as Michael Jordan ''.
Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons (NBA record) and tied Wilt Chamberlain 's record of seven consecutive scoring titles. He was also a fixture on the NBA All - Defensive First Team, making the roster nine times (NBA record shared with Gary Payton, Kevin Garnett and Kobe Bryant). Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30.1 and 33.4 points per game, respectively. By 1998, the season of his Finals - winning shot against the Jazz, he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer. In the regular season, Jordan was the Bulls ' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs; he would always ask for the ball at crunch time. Jordan 's total of 5,987 points in the playoffs is the second - highest in NBA history. He retired with 32,292 points in regular season play, placing him fourth on the NBA 's all - time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Karl Malone, and Kobe Bryant.
With five regular - season MVPs (tied for second place with Bill Russell -- only Kareem Abdul - Jabbar has won more, with six), six Finals MVPs (NBA record), and three All - Star Game MVPs, Jordan is the most decorated player in NBA history. Jordan finished among the top three in regular - season MVP voting 10 times, and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996. He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship, an NBA championship, and an Olympic gold medal (doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men 's basketball teams). Since 1976, the year of the NBA 's merger with the American Basketball Association, Jordan and Pippen are the only two players to win six NBA Finals playing for one team. In the All - Star Game fan ballot, Jordan received the most votes nine times, more than any other player.
-- Magic Johnson
Many of Jordan 's contemporaries have said that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. In 1999, an ESPN survey of journalists, athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century, above such luminaries as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali. Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press ' December 1999 list of 20th century athletes. In addition, the Associated Press voted him the greatest basketball player of the 20th century. Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 50 times. In the September 1996 issue of Sport, which was the publication 's 50th - anniversary issue, Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years.
Jordan 's athletic leaping ability, highlighted in his back - to - back slam dunk contest championships in 1987 and 1988, is credited by many people with having influenced a generation of young players. Several current NBA players -- including LeBron James and Dwyane Wade -- have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while they were growing up. In addition, commentators have dubbed a number of next - generation players "the next Michael Jordan '' upon their entry to the NBA, including Penny Hardaway, Grant Hill, Allen Iverson, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James, Vince Carter, and Dwyane Wade. Although Jordan was a well - rounded player, his "Air Jordan '' image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills, defense, and fundamentals of young players, a fact Jordan himself has lamented.
I think it was the exposure of Michael Jordan; the marketing of Michael Jordan. Everything was marketed towards the things that people wanted to see, which was scoring and dunking. That Michael Jordan still played defense and an all - around game, but it was never really publicized.
During his heyday, Jordan did much to increase the status of the game, but the popularity of the NBA in the U.S. appears to have declined since his last title. Television ratings in particular increased only during his time in the league, and Finals ratings have not returned to the level reached during his last championship - winning season.
In August 2009, the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts, opened a Michael Jordan exhibit that contained items from his college and NBA careers, as well as from the 1992 "Dream Team ''. The exhibit also has a batting glove to signify Jordan 's short career in minor league baseball. After Jordan received word of his acceptance into the Hall of Fame, he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him. As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009, when he was growing up in North Carolina, he was not a fan of the Tar Heels and greatly admired Thompson, who played at rival North Carolina State. In September, he was inducted into the Hall with several former Bulls teammates in attendance, including Scottie Pippen, Dennis Rodman, Charles Oakley, Ron Harper, Steve Kerr, and Toni Kukoč. Two of Jordan 's former coaches, Dean Smith and Doug Collins, were also among those present. His emotional reaction during his speech -- when he began to cry -- was captured by Associated Press photographer Stephan Savoia and would later go viral on social media as the Crying Jordan Internet meme. In 2016, President Barack Obama honored Jordan with the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Jordan married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989, and they had two sons, Jeffrey Michael and Marcus James, and a daughter, Jasmine. Jordan and Vanoy filed for divorce on January 4, 2002, citing irreconcilable differences, but reconciled shortly thereafter. They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29, 2006, commenting that the decision was made "mutually and amicably ''. It is reported that Juanita received a $168 million settlement (equivalent to $204 million in 2017), making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement on public record at the time.
In 1991, Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park, Illinois, to build a 56,000 square - foot (5,200 m) mansion, which was completed four years later. Jordan listed his Highland Park mansion for sale in 2012. His two sons attended Loyola Academy, a private Roman Catholic high school located in Wilmette, Illinois. Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11, 2007, for the University of Illinois. After two seasons, Jeffrey left the Illinois basketball team in 2009. He later rejoined the team for a third season, then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida, where Marcus was attending. Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009. He began attending UCF in the fall of 2009, and played three seasons of basketball for the school.
On July 21, 2006, a judge in Cook County, Illinois, determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover Karla Knafel $5 million in a breach of contract claim. Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $250,000 to keep their relationship a secret. Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991. A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child.
He proposed to his longtime girlfriend, Cuban - American model Yvette Prieto, on Christmas 2011, and they were married on April 27, 2013, at Bethesda - by - the - Sea Episcopal Church. It was announced on November 30, 2013, that the two were expecting their first child together. On February 11, 2014, Prieto gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel.
Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history. He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike, Coca - Cola, Chevrolet, Gatorade, McDonald 's, Ball Park Franks, Rayovac, Wheaties, Hanes, and MCI. Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade, appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991, including the "Be Like Mike '' commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan.
Nike created a signature shoe for him, called the Air Jordan. One of Jordan 's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon. In the commercials Lee, as Blackmon, attempted to find the source of Jordan 's abilities and became convinced that "it 's got ta be the shoes ''. The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of "shoe - jackings '' where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint. Subsequently, Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the "Jordan Brand ''. The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers. The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina, Cal, Georgetown, and Marquette.
Jordan also has been associated with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters. A Nike commercial shown during 1992 's Super Bowl XXVI featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball. The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action / animated film Space Jam, which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during the former 's first retirement from basketball. They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI. Jordan also made an appearance in the music video of Michael Jackson 's "Jam '' (1992).
Jordan 's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars. In addition, when Jordan 's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point, the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games. Due to this, Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US $30 million per season. An academic study found that Jordan 's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $1 billion.
Most of Jordan 's endorsement deals, including his first deal with Nike, were engineered by his agent, David Falk. Jordan has described Falk as "the best at what he does '' and that "marketing-wise, he 's great. He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan. ' ''
In June 2010, Jordan was ranked by Forbes magazine as the 20th-most powerful celebrity in the world with $55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010. According to the Forbes article, Jordan Brand generates $1 billion in sales for Nike. In June 2014, Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire, after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80 % to 89.5 %. On January 20, 2015, Jordan was honored with the Charlotte Business Journal 's Business Person of the Year for 2014. In 2017, he became a part owner of the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball.
Forbes designated Jordan as the athlete with the highest career earnings in 2017. From his Jordan Brand income and endorsements, Jordan 's 2015 income was an estimated $110 million, the most of any retired athlete. As of August 2018, his current net worth is estimated at $1.7 billion by Forbes. Jordan is the third - richest African - American as of 2018, behind Robert F. Smith and Oprah Winfrey.
Jordan co-owns an automotive group which bears his name. The company has a Nissan dealership in Durham, North Carolina, acquired in 1990, and formerly had a Lincoln -- Mercury dealership from 1995 until its closure in June 2009. The company also owned a Nissan franchise in Glen Burnie, Maryland. The restaurant industry is another business interest of Jordan 's. His restaurants include a steakhouse in New York City 's Grand Central Terminal, among others.
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which countries lost the most soldiers in ww2 | World war II casualties - wikipedia
World War II was the deadliest military conflict in history in absolute terms of total casualties. Over 60 million people were killed, which was about 3 % of the 1940 world population (est. 2.3 billion). The tables below give a detailed country - by - country count of human losses. World War II fatality statistics vary, with estimates of total deaths ranging from 50 million to more than 80 million. The higher figure of over 80 million includes deaths from war - related disease and famine. Civilians killed totalled 50 to 55 million, including 19 to 28 million from war - related disease and famine. Military deaths from all causes totalled 21 to 25 million, including deaths in captivity of about 5 million prisoners of war.
Recent historical scholarship has shed new light on the topic of Second World War casualties. Research in Russia since the collapse of the Soviet Union has caused a revision of estimates of Soviet WW2 fatalities. According to Russian government figures, USSR losses within postwar borders now stand at 26.6 million. including 8.5 million due to war related famine and disease In August 2009 the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) researchers estimated Poland 's dead at between 5.6 and 5.8 million. Historian Rüdiger Overmans of the Military History Research Office (Germany) published a study in 2000 that estimated the German military dead and missing at 5.3 million, including 900,000 men conscripted from outside of Germany 's 1937 borders, in Austria, and in east - central Europe. The People 's Republic of China puts its war dead at 20 million, while the Japanese government puts its casualties due to the war at 3.1 million.
Compiling or estimating the numbers of deaths caused during wars and other violent conflicts is a controversial subject. Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed during World War II. The authors of the Oxford Companion to World War II maintain that "casualty statistics are notoriously unreliable. '' The table below gives data on the number of dead for each country, along with population information to show the relative impact of losses. When scholarly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers that the death toll is disputed. Since casualty statistics are sometimes disputed the footnotes to this article present the different estimates by official governmental sources as well as historians. Military figures include battle deaths (KIA) and personnel missing in action (MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prisoners of war in captivity. Civilian casualties include deaths caused by strategic bombing, Holocaust victims, German war crimes, Japanese war crimes, population transfers in the Soviet Union, Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war related famine and disease.
The sources for the casualties of the individual nations do not use the same methods, and civilian deaths due to starvation and disease are not given for Japan, Germany and several other highly stressed populations. The losses listed here are actual deaths; hypothetical losses due to a decline in births are not included with the total dead. The distinction between military and civilian casualties caused directly by warfare and collateral damage is not always clear - cut. For nations that suffered huge losses such as the Soviet Union, China, Poland, Germany, and Yugoslavia, sources can give only the total estimated population loss caused by the war and a rough estimate of the breakdown of deaths caused by military activity, crimes against humanity and war - related famine. The casualties listed here include 19 to 25 million war - related famine deaths in the USSR, China, Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, India that are often omitted from other compilations of World War II casualties. The footnotes give a detailed breakdown of the casualties and their sources, including data on the number of wounded where reliable sources are available.
The estimated breakdown for each Soviet republic of total war dead ^ AY4
The source of the figures is Vadim Erlikman. Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke: spravochnik. Moscow, 2004. ISBN 5 - 93165 - 107 - 1. pp 21 -- 35. Erlikman, a Russian historian, notes that these figures are his estimates.
Included in the figures of total war dead for each nation are victims of the Holocaust.
The Holocaust is the term generally used to describe the genocide of approximately six million European Jews during World War II. Martin Gilbert estimates 5.7 million (78 %) of the 7.3 million Jews in German occupied Europe were Holocaust victims. Estimates of Holocaust deaths range between 4.9 and 5.9 million Jews.
Statistical breakdown of Jewish dead:
The figures for the pre-war Jewish population and deaths in the table below are from The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. The low, high and average percentage figures for deaths of the pre-war population have been added.
Some scholars maintain that the definition of the Holocaust should also include the other victims persecuted and killed by the Nazis.
The following figures are from The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, the authors maintain that "statistics on Gypsy losses are especially unreliable and controversial. These figures (cited below) are based on necessarily rough estimates ''.
Included with total war dead are victims of Japanese war crimes.
The total war dead in the USSR includes victims of Soviet oppression. The number of deaths in the Gulag labor camps increased as a result of wartime overcrowding and food shortages. The Stalin regime deported the entire populations of ethnic minorities considered to be potentially disloyal. Since 1990 Russian scholars have been given access to the Soviet - era archives and have published data on the numbers of people executed and those who died in Gulag labor camps and prisons. The Russian scholar Viktor Zemskov puts the death toll from 1941 -- 1945 at about 1 million based on data from the Soviet archives. The Soviet - era archive figures on the Gulag labor camps has been the subject of a vigorous academic debate outside Russia since their publication in 1991. J. Arch Getty and Stephen G. Wheatcroft maintain that Soviet - era figures more accurately detail the victims of the Gulag labor camp system in the Stalin era. Robert Conquest and Steven Rosefielde have disputed the accuracy of the data from the Soviet archives, maintaining that the demographic data and testimonials by survivors of the Gulag labor camps indicate a higher death toll. Rosefielde posits that the release of the Soviet Archive figures is disinformation generated by the modern KGB. Rosefielde maintains that the data from the Soviet archives is incomplete; for example, he pointed out that the figures do not include the 22,000 victims of the Katyn massacre. Rosefielde 's demographic analysis puts the number of excess deaths due to Soviet repression at 2,183,000 in 1939 -- 40 and 5,458,000 from 1941 -- 1945. Michael Haynes and Rumy Husun accept the figures from the Soviet archives as being an accurate tally of Stalin 's victims, they maintain that the demographic data depicts an underdeveloped Soviet economy and the losses in World War Two rather than indicating a higher death toll in the Gulag labor camps.
In August 2009 the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) researchers estimated 150,000 Polish citizens were killed due to Soviet repression. Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation. Andrzej Paczkowski puts the number of Polish deaths at 90,000 -- 100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets. In 2005 Tadeusz Piotrowski estimated the death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000.
The Estonian State Commission for the Examination of Repressive Policies Carried out During the Occupations put civilian deaths due to the Soviet occupation in 1940 -- 1941 at 33,900 including (7,800 deaths) of arrested people, (6,000) deportee deaths, (5,000) evacuee deaths, (1,100) people gone missing and (14,000) conscripted for forced labor. After the reoccupation by the U.S.S.R., 5,000 Estonians died in Soviet prisons during 1944 -- 45.
The following is a summary of the data from the Soviet archives: Reported deaths for the years 1939 -- 1945 1,187,783, including: judicial executions 46,350; deaths in Gulag labor camps 718,804; deaths in labor colonies and prisons 422,629.
Deported to special settlements: (figures are for deportations to Special Settlements only, not including those executed, sent to Gulag labor camps or conscripted into the Soviet Army. Nor do the figures include additional deportations after the war). Deported from annexed territories 1940 -- 41 380,000 to 390,000 persons, including: Poland 309 -- 312,000; Lithuania 17,500; Latvia 17,000; Estonia 6,000; Moldova 22,842. In August 1941, 243,106 Poles living in the Special Settlements were amnestied and released by the Soviets. Deported during the War 1941 -- 1945 about 2.3 million persons of Soviet ethnic minorities including: Soviet Germans 1,209,000; Finns 9,000; Karachays 69,000; Kalmyks 92,000; Chechens and Ingush 479,000; Balkars 37,000; Crimean Tatars 191,014; Meskhetian Turks 91,000; Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians from Crimea 42,000; Ukrainian OUN members 100,000; Poles 30,000. A total of 2,230,500 persons were living in the settlements in October 1945 and 309,100 deaths were reported in special settlements for the years 1941 -- 1948.
Russian sources list Axis prisoner of war deaths of 580,589 in Soviet captivity based on data in the Soviet archives (Germany 381,067; Hungary 54,755; Romania 54,612; Italy 27,683; Finland 403, and Japan 62,069). However some western scholars estimate the total at between 1.7 and 2.3 million.
Germany
USSR
British Commonwealth
U.S.
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) Annual Report 2014 -- 2015 is the source of the military dead for the British Empire. The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The statistics tabulated by the CWGC are representative of the number of names commemorated for all servicemen / women of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth and former UK Dependencies, whose death was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and civilian organizations are also accorded war grave status if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For the purposes of CWGC the dates of inclusion for Commonwealth War Dead are 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947.
Military and civilian deaths during World War II for the Allied and the Axis Powers.
Axis Military personnel killed, percentage by country.
Allies Military personnel killed, percentage by country.
World War II Military Deaths by Country (using Wikipedia 's cited numbers)
^ A Albania
^ B Australia
^ C Austria
^ D Belgium
^ E Brazil
^ F Bulgaria
^ G Burma
^ H Canada
^ I China Sources for total Chinese war dead are divergent and range from 10 to 20 million as detailed below.
^ J Cuba
^ K Czechoslovakia
^ L Denmark
^ M Dutch East Indies
^ MA Egypt
^ N Estonia
^ O Ethiopia
^ P Finland
^ Q France
^ R French Indochina
^ S Germany The following notes summarize German casualties, the details are presented in German casualties in World War II.
German population
Total German war dead
German military casualties
Civilian Casualties
Civilian casualties in air raids
1 - The summary report of September 30, 1945 put total casualties for the entire period of the war at 305,000 killed and 780,000 wounded. 2 - The section Effects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economy of October 31, 1945 put the losses at 375,000 killed and 625,000 wounded 3 - The section The Effect of Bombing on Health and Medical Care in Germany of January 1947 made a preliminary calculated estimate of air raid dead at 422,000. Regarding overall losses they concluded that "It was further estimated that an additional number, approximately 25 % of known deaths in 1944 - 45, were still unrecovered and unrecorded. With an addition of this estimate of 1944 - 45 unrecorded deaths, the final estimation gave in round numbers a half a million German civilians killed by Allied aerial attacks ''
Civilians killed in 1945 military campaign
Deaths due to Nazi political, racial and religious persecution
Expulsion and flight of ethnic GermansThe following notes summarize German expulsion casualties, the details are presented in the flight and expulsion of Germans (1944 -- 1950), the forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union ' and the Demographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans. The figures for these losses are currently disputed, estimates of the total deaths range from 500,000 to 2,000,000. The death toll attributable to the flight and expulsions was estimated at 2.2 million by the West German government in 1958. German government reports which were released to the public in 1987 and 1989 have caused some historians in Germany to put the actual total at 500,000 to 600,000. English language sources put the death toll at 2 to 3 million based on the West German government statistical analysis of the 1950s.
The German government figures of 2.0 to 2.5 million civilian deaths due to the expulsions have been disputed by scholars since the publication of the results of the German church search service survey and the report by the German Federal Archive.
Post war increase in natural deaths
^ T Greece
^ TA Guam
^ U Hungary
^ V Iceland
^ W India
Bengal famine of 1943
^ X Iran
^ Y Iraq
^ Z Ireland
^ AA Italy
Military war dead Confirmed dead were 159,957 (92,767 pre-armistice, 67,090 post armistice) Missing and presumed dead (including POWs) were 131,419 (111,579 pre-armistice, 19,840 post armistice) Losses by branch of service: Army 201,405; Navy 22,034; Air Force 9,096; Colonial Forces 354; Chaplains 91; Fascist militia 10,066; Paramilitary 3,252; not indicated 45,078. Military Losses by theatre of war: Italy 74,725 (37,573 post armistice); France 2,060 (1,039 post armistice); Germany 25,430 (24,020 post armistice); Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia 49,459 (10,090 post armistice); USSR 82,079 (3,522 post armistice); Africa 22,341 (1,565 post armistice), at sea 28,438 (5,526 post armistice); other and unknown 6,844 (3,695 post armistice).
^ AB Japan
Military dead
Key: Location, Army dead, Navy dead, (Total dead) Japan Proper: 58,100, 45,800, (103,900) Bonin Islands: 2,700, 12,500, (15,200) Okinawa: 67,900, 21,500, (89,400) Formosa (Taiwan): 28,500, 10,600, (39,100) Korea: 19,600, 6,900, (26,500) Sakhalin, the Aleutian, and Kuril Islands: 8,200, 3,200, (11,400) Manchuria: 45,900, 800, (46,700) China (inc. Hong Kong): 435,600, 20,100, (455,700) Siberia: 52,300, 400, (52,700) Central Pacific: 95,800, 151,400, (247,200) Philippines: 377,500, 121,100, (498,600) French Indochina: 7,900, 4,500, (12,400) Thailand: 6,900, 100, (7,000) Burma (inc. India): 163,000, 1,500, (164,500) Malaya & Singapore: 8,500, 2,900, (11,400) Andaman & Nicobar Islands: 900, 1,500, (2,400) Sumatra: 2,700, 500, (3,200) Java: 2,700, 3,800, (6,500) Lesser Sundas: 51,800, 1,200, (53,000) Borneo: 11,300, 6,700, (18,000) Celebes: 1,500, 4,000, (5,500) Moluccas: 2,600, 1,800, (4,400) New Guinea: 112,400, 15,200, (127,600) Bismarck Archipelago: 19,700, 10,800, (30,500) Solomon Islands: 63,200, 25,000, (88,200) Total: 1,647,200, 473,800, (2,121,000)
Overall, perhaps two thirds of all Japanese military dead came not from combat, but from starvation and disease. In some cases this figure was potentially even higher, up to 80 % in the Philippines and a staggering 97 % in New Guinea.
Army China after Pearl Harbor 202,958 killed and 88,920 wounded. vs. United States 485,717 killed and 34,679 wounded. vs. U.K. and Netherlands 208,026 killed and 139,225 wounded. vs. Australia 199,511 killed and 15,000 wounded. French Indochina 2,803 killed and 6,000 wounded. Manchuria & USSR 7,483 killed and 4,641 wounded. other overseas 23,388 killed and 0 wounded Japan proper 10,543 killed and 6,782 wounded Army total 1,140,429 killed and 295,247 wounded. Navy Sailors 300,386 killed and 12,275 wounded and missing. Civilians in Navy service 114,493 killed and 1,880 wounded and missing. Navy total 414,879 killed and 14,155 wounded and missing.
Civilian Dead
1 - Summary Report (July 1946) Total civilian casualties in Japan, as a result of 9 months of air attack, including those from the atomic bombs, were approximately 806,000. Of these, approximately 330,000 were fatalities.
2 - United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Medical Division (1947) The bombing of Japan killed 333,000 civilians and injured 473,000. Of this total 120,000 died and 160,000 were injured in the atomic bombings, leaving 213,000 dead and 313,000 injured by conventional bombing.
3 - The effects of air attack on Japanese urban economy. Summary report (1947) Estimated that 252,769 Japanese were killed and 298,650 injured in the air war.
4 - The Effects of strategic bombing on Japanese morale Based on a survey of Japanese households the death toll was put at 900,000 dead and 1.3 million injured, the SBS noted that this figure was subject to a maximum sampling error of 30 %.
5 - Strategic Bombing Survey The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki The most striking result of the atomic bombs was the great number of casualties. The exact number of dead and injured will never be known because of the confusion after the explosions. Persons unaccounted for might have been burned beyond recognition in the falling buildings, disposed of in one of the mass cremations of the first week of recovery, or driven out of the city to die or recover without any record remaining. No sure count of even the prepaid populations existed. Because of the decline in activity in the two port cities, the constant threat of incendiary raids, and the formal evacuation programs of the Government, an unknown number of the inhabitants had either drifter away from the cities or been removed according to plan. In this uncertain situation, estimates of casualties have generally ranged between 100,000 and 180,000 for Hiroshima, and between 50,000 and 100,000 for Nagasaki. The Survey believes the dead at Hiroshima to have been between 70,000 and 80,000, with an equal number injured; at Nagasaki over 35,000 dead and somewhat more than that injured seems the most plausible estimate.
^ AC Korea
^ AD Latvia
^ AE Lithuania
^ AF Luxembourg
^ AG Malaya and Singapore
^ AH Malta 1,493 civilians were killed and 3,734 wounded during the Siege of Malta (World War II) Maltese civilians killed during the siege are also included with U.K. civilian deaths by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission
^ AI Mexico
^ AJ Mongolia
^ AK Nauru
^ BG Nepal
^ AL Netherlands
Military deaths 6,750 which included 3,900 regular Army, 2,600 Navy forces, and 250 POW in Germany. Civilian deaths of 203,250 which included 1,350 Merchant seaman, 2,800 executed, 2,500 dead in Dutch concentration camps, 20,400 killed by acts of war, 104,000 Jewish Holocaust dead, 18,000 political prisoners in Germany, 27,000 workers in Germany, 3,700 Dutch nationals in the German armed forces and 7,500 missing and presumed dead in Germany and 16,000 deaths in the Dutch famine of 1944. Not Included in the figure of 210,000 war dead are 70,000 "indirect war casualties '', which are attributed to an increase in natural deaths from 1940 - 1945 and 1,650 foreign nationals killed while serving in the Dutch Merchant Marine
^ AM Newfoundland
^ AN New Zealand
^ AO Norway
Military (Norwegian & Allied Forces) 2,000 (800 Army, 900 Navy and 100 Air). Civilians 7,500 (3,600 Merchant seaman, 1,500 resistance fighters, 1,800 civilians killed and 600 Jews killed) In German Armed Forces700
^ AP Papua New Guinea
^ AQ Philippines
^ AR Poland
Total Polish war dead
Polish losses during the Soviet occupation (1939 -- 1941)
Polish military casualties
^ AS Timor
^ AT Romania
^ AU Ruanda Urundi
^ AW South Africa
^ AX South Pacific Mandate
^ AY Soviet Union The following notes summarize Soviet casualties, the details are presented in World War II casualties of the Soviet Union
Total population losses
Military Casualties
Civilian war dead
^ AZ Spain
^ BA Sweden
^ BB Switzerland
^ BC Thailand
^ BD Turkey
^ BE United Kingdom and Colonies
Total war dead of 357,116; Navy (50,758); Army (144,079); Air Force (69,606); Women 's Auxiliary Territorial Service (624); Merchant Navy (30,248); British Home Guard (1,206) and Civilians (60,595). The total still missing on 2 / 28 / 1946 were 6,244; Navy (340); Army (2,267); Air Force (3,089); Women 's Auxiliary Territorial Service (18); Merchant Navy (530); British Home Guard (0) and Civilians (0). These figures included the losses of Newfoundland and Southern Rhodesia. Colonial forces are not included in these figures. There were an additional 31,271 military deaths due to "natural causes '' which are not included in these figures. Deaths due to air and V - rocket attacks were 60,595 civilians and 1,206 British Home Guard.
^ BF United States American military dead # ^ BF1
American civilian dead # ^ BF2
^ BG Yugoslavia
The losses of Yugoslav collaborators
The reasons for the high human toll in Yugoslavia were as follows
A. Military operations between the occupying military forces and their quisling collaborators against the Yugoslav resistance. B. German forces, under express orders from Hitler, fought with a special vengeance against the Serbs, who were considered Untermensch. One of the worst one - day massacres during the German military occupation of Serbia was the Kragujevac massacre. C. Deliberate acts of reprisal against target populations were perpetrated by all combatants. All sides practiced the shooting of hostages on a large scale. At the end of the war, many Ustaše and Slovene collaborators were killed in or as a result of the Bleiburg repatriations. D. The systematic extermination of large numbers of people for political, religious or racial reasons. The most numerous victims were Serbs. According to Yad Vashem "During their four years in power, the Ustasa carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000, expelling 250,000 and forcing another 200,000 to convert to Catholicism. The Ustasa also killed most of Croatias Jews, 20,000 Gypsies and many thousands of their political enemies. '' According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum "The Croat authorities murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Ustaša rule; more than 30,000 Croatian Jews were killed either in Croatia or at Auschwitz - Birkenau ''. The USHMM reports between 77,000 and 99,000 persons were killed at the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiška concentration camps. The Jasenovac Memorial Site quotes a similar figure of between 80,000 and 100,000 victims. Stara Gradiška was a sub-camp of Jasenovac established for women and children. The names and data for 12,790 victims at Stara Gradiška have been established Serbian sources currently claim that 700,000 persons were murdered at Jasenovac Some 40,000 Roma were murdered. Jewish victims in Yugoslavia totaled 67,122. E. Reduced food supply caused famine and disease. F. Allied bombing of German supply lines caused civilian casualties. The hardest hit localities were Podgorica, Leskovac, Zadar and Belgrade. G. The demographic losses due to the reduction of 335,000 births and emigration of about 660,000 are not included with war casualties.
^ BH Other Nations
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who plays lara croft in new tomb raider | Tomb Raider (film) - wikipedia
Tomb Raider is a 2018 action - adventure film directed by Roar Uthaug, with a screenplay by Geneva Robertson - Dworet and Alastair Siddons, from a story by Evan Daugherty and Robertson - Dworet. It is based on the 2013 video game of the same name, with some elements of its sequel by Crystal Dynamics, and is a reboot of the Tomb Raider film series. The film stars Alicia Vikander as Lara Croft, who embarks on a perilous journey to her father 's last - known destination, hoping to solve the mystery of his disappearance. Dominic West, Walton Goggins, Daniel Wu, and Kristin Scott Thomas appear in supporting roles.
Principal photography took place from January to June 2017 at the Warner Bros. Studios in the United Kingdom, and in Cape Town, South Africa. The first Tomb Raider film not to be distributed by Paramount Pictures, it was released in the United Kingdom on March 14, 2018 and in the United States on March 16, 2018 by Warner Bros. Pictures, in RealD 3D, IMAX 3D and IMAX. It has grossed $268 million worldwide, making it the 10th highest - grossing film of 2018.
The film received mixed reviews from critics, with some describing the plot as "paint - by - numbers '', and others praising the grittiness and realistic take on the franchise. While Vikander 's performance was highlighted, the characterization of Croft drew a polarized response; some described her as a "capable, powerful and unobjectified heroine '' while others called her bland, and a "punching bag and onlooker. ''
Following the disappearance of her father Richard Croft, Lara Croft makes a living as a bike courier. When she is arrested after a bike accident involving a police car, Richard 's business partner Ana Miller posts her bail and warns her that if she does not claim her inheritance, her father 's estate will be sold off. Lara reluctantly accepts and gains access to her father 's office. There she finds a pre-recorded message from Richard detailing his research into Himiko, the mythical Queen of Yamatai who was said to command the power over life and death. Richard warns Lara to destroy all of his research but Lara decides not to so she can investigate further.
Lara travels to Hong Kong where she hires Lu Ren, captain of the ship Endurance, to sail into the Devil 's Sea to the island of Yamatai. The ship capsizes in a violent storm and Lara is washed ashore where she is knocked unconscious. She is revived by Mathias Vogel, the leader of an expedition to locate Himiko 's tomb. The expedition has been funded by a shadowy organisation called Trinity that seeks to harness and weaponise Himiko 's power. Vogel takes Lara prisoner, claiming that he killed her father and intends to use Richard 's research to continue his expedition. Lara escapes with the help of Lu Ren, who also survived the storm and has been put to work with the local fishermen digging for Himiko 's tomb. She evades capture but is seriously wounded in the process and passes out from her injuries.
Lara regains consciousness after nightfall and is forced to kill a Trinity guard when she is nearly discovered. She follows a mysterious figure wandering the island and discovers that the figure is her father, who himself had been held captive on Yamatai. After Lara convinces him that she is real, Richard treats her injuries. Despite his protests, Lara sets off to recover his research from Vogel 's camp. Lara makes contact with Lu Ren, and he, along with the fishermen, stage distractions that allow Lara to infiltrate the Trinity camp and recover her father 's research. In the ensuing chaos, Richard makes his way to the Himiko 's tomb and is captured by Vogel, who persuades Lara to open the tomb.
The party navigates a series of booby traps and locates Himiko 's sarcophagus. Two Trinity soldiers attempt to remove her corpse but become infected by Himiko 's "power, '' which is actually a disease so potent that mere physical contact triggers immediate bodily disintegration. Vogel shoots the infected soldier, concluding that he can not remove Himiko 's body. He instead settles for detaching a finger, which he seals in a pouch. In the confusion, Lara and Richard overpower the remaining soldiers, though Vogel escapes and Richard becomes infected. Knowing there is no cure, Richard proposes destroying Himiko 's tomb to prevent the virus from spreading across the world. Lara gives chase to Vogel as Richard sets off a bomb, killing himself and sealing the tomb. Lara confronts Vogel and the two fight. Lara overpowers him and force - feeds him Himiko 's severed finger before kicking him down a deep chasm just as the infection takes over. She is rescued by Lu Ren and the fishermen, who then commandeer a Trinity helicopter to escape Yamatai.
Lara returns to London, where she formally accepts her inheritance and inadvertently discovers that Trinity 's front company is actually a subsidiary of Croft Holdings. She proceeds to investigate Trinity further among her father 's files and begins to suspect that Ana Miller is one of its agents who manipulated her into accepting her inheritance in order to have Lara sign over control of Croft Holdings ' business operations to her when Richard Croft stopped cooperating with Trinity. Having witnessed Trinity 's ruthlessness firsthand, she prepares for her next adventure to thwart their future plans.
Additionally, Annabel Wood portrays Rose, Lara 's opponent at the Mixed Martial Arts club, and Shekhar Varma and Rekha John - Cheriyan appear as Nitin 's parents. Josef Altin portrays Bruce, Lara 's boss, Billy Postlethwaite and Roger Nsengiyumva appear as Bill and Rog, Lara 's co-workers and opponents at the race, Michael Obiora portrays Baxter, Croft Holdings 's receptionist, Keenan Arrison portrays Rocket, a Trinity guard, and Alexandre Willaume plays Trinity 's lieutenant.
GK Films first acquired the rights to make the film in 2011. Norwegian director Roar Uthaug came on board in November 2015, and Alicia Vikander was announced as the new Lara Croft in April 2016. Deadline Hollywood had previously reported that Daisy Ridley was considered for the role, though she later stated in an interview that it was just a "crazy rumor. '' Walton Goggins was announced to play the villain in December 2016, and much of the rest of the cast was revealed in early 2017.
Principal photography on the film began on January 23, 2017 in Cape Town, South Africa, and ended on June 9, 2017 at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden. Wilton House near Salisbury in Wiltshire was the location for exterior shots for Croft Manor. The waterfall sequence involving the plane was filmed at a waterpark at Lee Valley, outside of London, at a venue that had been built for the 2012 Summer Olympics, and was combined with footage filmed in South Africa.
Tomb Raider premiered on March 2, 2018 in Berlin, Germany, at an exclusive preview with invited guests and cosplaying fans. It was released in the United States on March 16, 2018, by Warner Bros. Pictures, days after the fifth anniversary of the franchise 's video game reboot. The film received an IMAX 3D and a RealD 3D release.
Outside the US, the film was released in most territories between March 8 -- 16, 2018, in Japan on March 21, 2018, and in Poland on April 6, 2018.
As of April 16, 2018, Tomb Raider has grossed $56.3 million in the United States and Canada, and $212.2 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $268.5 million. In order to break even, the film needs to gross at least $275 million worldwide.
In the United States and Canada, Tomb Raider was released alongside Love, Simon and I Can Only Imagine, and was projected to gross $23 -- 29 million from 3,854 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $9.1 million on its first day (including $2.1 million from Thursday night previews). It went on to open to $23.5 million, finishing second at the box office, behind Black Panther ($27 million in its fifth week). It fell 55 % to $10.6 million in its second weekend, finishing 5th at the box office. It grossed $4.9 million in its third weekend, falling 51 % and finishing seventh.
Internationally, the film opened in nine Asian countries a week prior to its United States debut. It made $14.2 million over the weekend, with Korea 's $2.9 million being the biggest market. The film opened in China on March 16, 2018, and made $12.3 million the first day. It was the fifth - highest grossing day for a Warner Bros. film, opening 6 % higher than Wonder Woman, and went on to debut to $41 million. As of April 8, 2018, the film 's largest markets were China ($77 million), the United Kingdom ($9.4 million), France ($9 million), and the Russian Commonwealth ($7.3 million).
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 49 %, based on 236 reviews, and an average rating of 5.4 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Tomb Raider reboots the franchise with a more grounded approach and a star who 's clearly more than up to the task -- neither of which are well served by an uninspired origin story. '' At the time of its release, it was the best - reviewed live action video game film in the history of the site. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100, based on 53 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by the 2001 film; PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it a 70 % positive score.
Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 2 out of 4 stars and said, "The Lara Croft reboot Tomb Raider is n't half bad for an hour. Then there 's another hour. That hour is quite bad. It 's no fun watching your action heroine get shoved, punched and kicked to the sidelines of her own movie, while the menfolk take over and take turns overacting before expiring. '' Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a mixed review, criticizing the story but praising Vikander, and writing, "When all the one - dimensional supporting characters and familiar action moves fall by the wayside, the one thing left standing is Vikander... The film strains credulity even for a vid - game fantasy by letting the leading lady recover awfully quickly from bad injuries, but other than that Vikander commands attention and is the element here that makes Tomb Raider sort of watchable. '' Matt Bobkin of Exclaim! gave the film a 5 out of 10 score, writing "Tomb Raider is at its best when delivering mindless action, but do n't bother trying to glean any sort of deeper, subversive meaning. ''
Owen Gleiberman of Variety praised the film, saying that "The exciting surprise of the new Tomb Raider, directed by the Norwegian genre specialist Roar Uthaug, is that it does n't tamp down Vikander 's inner flame, or the three - dimensionality of her talent; it does n't fold and insert her into an overly gymnastic and CGI - happy thrill ride. The movie is full of vine - swinging, bow - and - arrow - shooting, ancient - spirit - meeting action, but most of it is staged on a convincing human scale, one that 's been expertly tailored to its star 's understated directness. ''
Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, and said, "this is a beautifully crafted and unpretentious piece of action cinema, with a number of sequences that are as gorgeous as they are thrilling, and a female hero who 's as elegant as she is deadly: an ass - kicking Audrey Hepburn. ''
Producer Adrian Askarieh told IGN in an interview that he may oversee a film universe with Just Cause, Hitman, Tomb Raider, Deus Ex, and Thief.
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who is the chair of the senate finance committee | United States Senate Committee on Finance - wikipedia
The U.S. Senate Committee on Finance (or, less formally, Senate Finance Committee) is a standing committee of the United States Senate. The Committee concerns itself with matters relating to taxation and other revenue measures generally, and those relating to the insular possessions; bonded debt of the United States; customs, collection districts, and ports of entry and delivery; deposit of public moneys; general revenue sharing; health programs under the Social Security Act (notably Medicare and Medicaid) and health programs financed by a specific tax or trust fund; national social security; reciprocal trade agreements; tariff and import quotas, and related matters thereto; and the transportation of dutiable goods. It is considered to be one of the most powerful committees in Congress.
The Committee on Finance is one of the original committees established in the Senate. First created on December 11, 1815, as a select committee and known as the Committee on Finance and an (sic) Uniform National Currency, it was formed to alleviate economic issues arising from the War of 1812. On December 10, 1816 the Senate officially created the Committee on Finance as a standing committee. Originally, the Committee had power over tariffs, taxation, banking and currency issues and appropriations. Under this authority the committee played an influential role in the most heated topics of the era; including numerous tariffs issues and the Bank War. The committee was also influential in the creation of the Department of Interior in 1849. Under the Chairmanship of William Pitt Fessenden, the committee played a decisive role during the Civil War. Appropriating all funds for the war effort as well as raising enough funds to finance the war through tariffs and the nation 's first income tax. Additionally, the committee produced the Legal Tender Act of 1862, the nation 's first reliance on paper currency.
In 1865 the House of Representatives created an Appropriations Committee to relieve the burden from the Committee on Ways and Means. The Senate followed this example by forming the Appropriations Committee in 1867.
Despite the loss of one of its signature duties the committee continued to play a prominent role in the major issues of the nation. The committee was at the center of the debate over the silver question in the latter half of the 19th Century. Passage of the Bland - Allison Act and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act were attempts to remedy the demand for silver, though the silver cause would eventually fail by the end of the century. The committee also continued to play a role in the debate over income taxes. The repeal of the Civil War income taxes in the 1870s would eventually be raised in 1894 with the passage of a new income tax law. The Supreme Court 's decision in Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429 (1895) ruled the income tax as unconstitutional, since it was not based on apportionment. The fight for an income tax finally culminated with the Payne - Aldrich Tariff Act of 1909. In order to pass the new tariff Senate leaders, including Chairman Nelson Aldrich, allowed for a Constitutional Amendment to be passed. Four years later the 16th Amendment was officially ratified and in 1913 the nation 's first peacetime income tax was instituted.
Around that same time the committee lost jurisdiction over banking and currency issues to the newly created Committee on Banking and Currency. The committee did gain jurisdiction over veterans ' benefits when it successfully passed the War Risk Insurance Act of 1917. The act shifted pensions from gratuities to benefits and which served as one of the first life insurance programs created under the federal government.
The Finance Committee continued to play an increasingly important role in the lives of the nation 's veterans. The committee helped to consolidate the veteran bureaucracy by streamlining the various responsibilities into a Veterans ' Bureau which ultimately would become the Veterans ' Administration. In 1924 the committee passed a "Bonus Bill '' for World War I veterans which compensated veterans of that war for their service. These series of increasing and providing better benefits for veterans reached a crescendo in 1944 with the passage of the Servicemen 's Readjustment Act. Senator Bennett "Champ '' Clark, who served as the Chairman of the Subcommittee on Veterans, assured smooth sailing of the bill through the Senate. The bill not only ended the usual demands from returning veterans which had been seen in nearly every war America had participated in, but also provided the most generous benefits that veterans had ever received, including continuing education, loans and unemployment insurance.
Not all Finance Committee legislation was as well received as the G.I. Bill. At the beginning of the Great Depression the committee passed the Smoot - Hawley Tariff Act. The act greatly increased tariffs and had a negative effect on the nation 's economy. Following traditional economic practices the members of the committee, including Chairman Reed Smoot, felt that protection of American businesses was required in order to buoy them during the dire economic times. The effort backfired and the economic situation worsened. The Smoot - Hawley Tariff would eventually be replaced by the Reciprocal Tariff Act of 1934 which authorized the President to negotiate trade agreements. This act not only set up the trade policy system as it exists today but also effectively transferred trade making policy from the Congress to the President.
The committee also played an important role in two major acts created under the New Deal. The committee received jurisdiction over the National Industrial Recovery Act because of tax code changes in the bill. The new bureaucracy was President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's attempt to stimulate the economy and promote jobs for unemployed Americans while also regulating businesses. The National Recovery Administration would ultimately fail as it lost public support but the act served as a springboard to the Wagner Act and the National Labor Board.
Probably the single biggest, and by far one of the most lasting, piece of legislation enacted by the Finance Committee during the New Deal was the Social Security Act. Once again the committee received jurisdiction owing to the payroll taxes that would be enacted to pay for the new program. The act was the first effort by the federal government to provide benefits to the elderly and the unemployed. The act greatly enhanced the economic welfare of many elderly Americans.
In 1981, a Senate Resolution required the printing of the History of the Committee on Finance.
The role of the Committee on Finance is very similar to that of the House Committee on Ways and Means. The one exception in area of jurisdiction is that the Committee on Finance has jurisdiction over both Medicare and Medicaid, while the House Ways and Means Committee only has jurisdiction over Medicare. (The House Energy and Commerce Committee has jurisdiction over Medicaid.) The other difference in terms of power is that all revenue raising measures must originate in the House giving the Ways and Means Committee a slight edge in setting tax policy. In addition to having jurisdiction over legislation the Committee has extensive oversight powers. It has authority to investigate, review and evaluate existing laws, and the agencies that implement them.
Due to the Committee 's wide jurisdiction, it is often considered an influential committee. A wide array of Senators with differing policy concerns seek membership on the Committee because of its role in setting tax, trade, and health policy.
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to which major group do iron cobalt and nickle belong | Group 10 element - wikipedia
Group 10, numbered by current IUPAC style, is the group of chemical elements in the periodic table that consists of nickel (Ni), palladium (Pd), platinum (Pt), and perhaps also the chemically uncharacterized darmstadtium (Ds). All are d - block transition metals. All known isotopes of darmstadtium are radioactive with short half - lives, and are not known to occur in nature; only minute quantities have been synthesized in laboratories.
Like other groups, the members of this group show patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, although for this group they are particularly weak, with palladium being an exceptional case. The relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital is the explanation to the predicted electron configuration of darmstadtium, which, unusually for this group, conforms to that predicted by the Aufbau principle.
Darmstadtium has not been isolated in pure form, and its properties have not been conclusively observed; only nickel, palladium, and platinum have had their properties experimentally confirmed. All three elements are typical silvery - white transition metals, hard, and refractory, with high melting and boiling points.
Group 10 metals are white to light grey in color, and possess a high luster, a resistance to tarnish (oxidation) at STP, are highly ductile, and enter into oxidation states of + 2 and + 4, with + 1 being seen in special conditions. The existence of a + 3 state is debated, as the state could be an illusory state created by + 2 and + 4 states. Theory suggests that group 10 metals may produce a + 6 oxidation state under precise conditions, but this remains to be proven conclusively in the laboratory other than for platinum.
The group 10 metals share several uses. These include:
Nickel has an important role in the biochemistry of organisms, as part of the active center of enzymes. None of the other group 10 elements have a known biological role, but platinum compounds have widely been used as anticancer drugs. Aside from nickel, the elements are toxic for organisms.
Nickel Ni Atomic Number: 28 Atomic Weight: 58.6934 Melting Point: 1726.15 K Boiling Point: 3186 K Specific mass: 8.912 g / cm Electronegativity: 1.91
Palladium Pd Atomic Number: 46 Atomic Weight: 106.42 Melting Point: 1825.15 K Boiling Point: 3236 K Specific mass: 12.02 g / cm Electronegativity: 2.2
Platinum Pt Atomic Number: 78 Atomic Weight: 195.084 Melting Point: 2045.15 K Boiling Point: 4098 K Specific mass: 21.46 g / cm Electronegativity: 2.28
Darmstadtium Ds Atomic Number: 110 Atomic Weight: (281) Melting Point:? K Boiling Point:? K Specific mass:? 34.8 g / cm Electronegativity:?
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will there be another season of the five on netflix | The Five (TV series) - wikipedia
The Five is a British crime drama television series, created by crime author Harlan Coben as his first original series for television. The Five began broadcast on 15 April 2016 on Sky1 in the UK. The series stars Tom Cullen, O.T. Fagbenle, Lee Ingleby and Sarah Solemani as childhood friends Mark, Danny, Slade and Pru, who are re-united after DNA evidence left at a murder scene is revealed to be that of Mark 's brother Jesse, who disappeared one summer 's day after playing in the park with the four friends. The first series consists of ten episodes, with two episodes broadcast each week consecutively. Set in the fictional town of "Westbridge '', the series was filmed in Liverpool, Wirral, Runcorn, and surrounding areas, including Frodsham.
On 18 July 2016, Sky1 confirmed that a follow - up series to The Five had been commissioned and will be titled The Four; it is unknown when the new 8 - part series will enter production.
In 1995, four young school friends, Mark Wells (Tom Cullen), Danny Kenwood (O.T. Fagbenle), Slade (Lee Ingleby) and Pru Carew (Sarah Solemani) are left traumatized after Mark 's five - year - old brother Jesse disappears after playing in the park with them. No trace of Jesse has even been found. Serial killer Jakob Marosi, who has been charged with five other murders, claimed that he killed Jesse. Jesse 's parents, Julie and Alan (Geraldine James and Michael Maloney), had given up all hope of ever finding the boy alive.
Twenty years on, Kenwood is a Detective Sergeant working for Westbridge Police. When he attends the scene of a murder, he finds prostitute Annie Green, who has been brutally attacked with a hammer. A forensic analysis of DNA evidence from the crime scene provides a match for Jesse 's DNA. An intricate web of trials and tribulations begins to unfold as the four childhood friends re-unite in the hope of finding Jesse alive.
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what is the prize money for american idol | American Idol - Wikipedia
American Idol is an American singing competition television series created by Simon Fuller, produced by FremantleMedia North America and 19 Entertainment, and distributed by FremantleMedia North America. It initially aired on Fox from June 11, 2002, to April 7, 2016, for 15 seasons. On March 11, 2018, the 16th season made its debut on ABC.
It started as an addition to the Idols format that was based on Pop Idol from British television, and became one of the most successful shows in the history of American television. The concept of the series involves discovering recording stars from unsigned singing talents, with the winner determined by American viewers using phones, Internet, and SMS text voting. The winners of the first sixteen seasons, as chosen by viewers, are Kelly Clarkson, Ruben Studdard, Fantasia Barrino, Carrie Underwood, Taylor Hicks, Jordin Sparks, David Cook, Kris Allen, Lee DeWyze, Scotty McCreery, Phillip Phillips, Candice Glover, Caleb Johnson, Nick Fradiani, Trent Harmon, and Maddie Poppe.
American Idol employs a panel of vocal judges who critique the contestants ' performances. The original judges, for seasons one through eight, were record producer and music manager Randy Jackson, singer and choreographer Paula Abdul, and music executive and manager Simon Cowell. The judging panel for seasons 13, 14, and 15 on Fox consisted of singers Keith Urban, Jennifer Lopez, and Harry Connick, Jr. Season 16 brought three entirely new judges: singers Lionel Richie, Katy Perry, and Luke Bryan. The first season was hosted by radio personality Ryan Seacrest and comedian Brian Dunkleman, but Seacrest remained as the sole master of ceremonies for the rest of the series. The success of American Idol has been described as "unparalleled in broadcasting history ''. A rival TV executive said the series was "the most impactful show in the history of television ''. It became a recognized springboard for launching the career of many artists as bona fide stars. According to Billboard magazine, in its first ten years, "Idol has spawned 345 Billboard chart - toppers and a platoon of pop idols, including Kelly Clarkson, Carrie Underwood, Katharine McPhee, Chris Daughtry, Fantasia, Ruben Studdard, Jennifer Hudson, Clay Aiken, Adam Lambert, and Jordin Sparks while remaining a TV ratings juggernaut. ''
For an unprecedented eight consecutive years, from the 2003 -- 04 television season through the 2010 -- 11 season, either its performance show or result show was ranked number one in U.S. television ratings.
American Idol was based on the British show Pop Idol created by Simon Fuller, which was in turn inspired by the New Zealand television singing competition Popstars. Television producer Nigel Lythgoe saw a version in Australia and helped bring it over to Britain. Fuller was inspired by the idea from Popstars of employing a panel of judges to select singers in audition. He then added other elements, including telephone voting by the viewing public (which at the time was already in use in shows, such as the Eurovision Song Contest), the drama of backstories, and real - life soap opera unfolding in real time. Pop Idol debuted in Britain in 2001 with Lythgoe as showrunner -- the executive producer and production leader -- and Simon Cowell as one of the judges, and was successful with the viewing public.
In 2001, Fuller, Cowell, and TV producer Simon Jones attempted to sell the Pop Idol format to the United States, but the idea was initially met with poor responses from all the television networks including Fox. However, Rupert Murdoch, head of Fox 's parent company, was later persuaded to buy the series by his daughter, Elisabeth, who had seen the British show. Although Fox 's executives wanted to change the format, Murdoch insisted that it should remain the same as the British one. One change was nevertheless made due to the presence of multiple time zones in the United States that made it impractical for the country to vote in the same time period, an additional half - hour results show was therefore added the day following the performance show. The show was renamed American Idol: The Search for a Superstar and debuted in the summer of 2002. Cowell was initially offered the job of showrunner, but turned down the offer; Lythgoe then took over that position. Much to the surprise of Cowell and Fox, it became one of the biggest shows of the summer. With its successful launch in the summer, the show was then moved to January and expanded. The show grew into a phenomenon largely due to its personal engagement with the contestants by prompting the viewers to vote, and the presence of the acid - tongued Cowell as a judge. By 2004, it had become the most - watched show on U.S. television, a position it then held for seven consecutive seasons.
However, after a few years of sharp declining ratings starting in 2012, with rating falls of over 20 % each season, the network announced that the fifteenth season would be its last, ending its run in April 2016. In May 2017, ABC acquired the rights to the series and announced that the program would return for the 2017 -- 18 television season.
The show had originally planned on having four judges following the Pop Idol format; however, only three judges had been found by the time of the audition round in the first season, namely Randy Jackson, Paula Abdul and Simon Cowell. A fourth judge, radio DJ Stryker, was originally chosen but he dropped out citing "image concerns ''. In the second season, New York radio personality Angie Martinez had been hired as a fourth judge but withdrew only after a few days of auditions due to not being comfortable with giving out criticism. The show decided to continue with the three judges format until season eight. All three original judges stayed on the judging panel for eight seasons.
In season eight, Latin Grammy Award - nominated singer - songwriter and record producer Kara DioGuardi was added as a fourth judge. She stayed for two seasons and left the show before season ten. Paula Abdul left the show before season nine after failing to agree to terms with the show producers. Emmy Award - winning talk show host Ellen DeGeneres replaced Paula Abdul for that season, but left after just one season. On January 11, 2010, Simon Cowell announced that he was leaving the show to pursue introducing the American version of his show The X Factor to the USA for 2011.
Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler joined the judging panel in season ten, but both left after two seasons. They were replaced by three new judges, Mariah Carey, Nicki Minaj and Keith Urban, who joined Randy Jackson in season 12. However both Carey and Minaj left after one season, and Randy Jackson also announced that he would depart the show after twelve seasons as a judge but would return as a mentor. Urban was the only judge from season 12 to return in season 13. He was joined by previous judge Jennifer Lopez and former mentor Harry Connick, Jr. Lopez, Urban and Connick, Jr. all returned as judges for the show 's fourteenth and fifteenth seasons.
On May 16, 2017, it was announced that Katy Perry was the first to be chosen as a judge for the revival series. On September 24, 2017, country singer Luke Bryan was announced as the second judge to take the panel. On September 29, 2017, it was announced that Lionel Richie would be taking the third and final seat on the judges panel.
Guest judges may occasionally be introduced. In season two, guest judges such as Lionel Richie and Robin Gibb were used, and in season three Donna Summer, Quentin Tarantino and some of the mentors also joined as judges to critique the performances in the final rounds. Guest judges were used in the audition rounds for seasons four, six, nine, and fourteen such as Gene Simmons and LL Cool J in season four, Jewel and Olivia Newton - John in season six, Shania Twain in season eight, Neil Patrick Harris, Avril Lavigne and Katy Perry in season nine, and season eight runner - up, Adam Lambert, in season fourteen.
The first season was co-hosted by Ryan Seacrest and Brian Dunkleman following the format of Pop Idol of using two presenters. Dunkleman quit thereafter, making Seacrest the sole emcee of the show starting with season two. Dunkleman did, however, return in the initial series finale on Fox. Seacrest also returned for Season 16.
In a series of steps, the show selected the eventual winner out of many tens of thousands of contestants.
The eligible age - range for contestants was fifteen to twenty - eight years old. The initial age limit was sixteen to twenty - four in the first three seasons, but the upper limit was raised to twenty - eight in season four, and the lower limit was reduced to fifteen in season ten. The contestants had to be legal U.S. residents, could not have advanced to particular stages of the competition in previous seasons, and must not have held a current recording or talent representation contract by the semi-final stage (in previous years by the audition stage).
Contestants went through at least three sets of cuts. The first was a brief audition with a few other contestants in front of selectors which may include one of the show 's producers. Although auditions can exceed 10,000 in each city, only a few hundred of these made it past the preliminary round of auditions. Successful contestants then sang in front of producers, where more may be cut. Only then can they proceed to audition in front of the judges, which is the only audition stage shown on television. Those selected by the judges are sent to Hollywood. Between 10 -- 60 people in each city may make it to Hollywood.
Once in Hollywood, the contestants performed individually or in groups in a series of rounds. Until season ten, there were usually three rounds of eliminations in Hollywood. In the first round the contestants emerged in groups but performed individually. For the next round, the contestants put themselves in small groups and performed a song together. In the final round, the contestants performed solo with a song of their choice a cappella or accompanied by a band -- depending on the season. In seasons two and three, contestants were also asked to write original lyrics or melody in an additional round after the first round. In season seven, the group round was eliminated and contestants may, after a first solo performance and on judges approval, skip a second solo round and move directly to the final Hollywood round. In season twelve, the executive producers split up the females and males and chose the members to form the groups in the group round.
In seasons ten and eleven, a further round was added in Las Vegas, where the contestants performed in groups based on a theme, followed by one final solo round to determine the semi-finalists. At the end of this stage of the competition, 24 to 36 contestants were selected to move on to the semi-final stage. In season twelve the Las Vegas round became a Sudden Death round, where the judges had to choose five guys and five girls each night (four nights) to make the top twenty. In season thirteen, the Las Vegas round was eliminated and a new round called "Hollywood or Home '' was added, where if the judges were uncertain about some contestants, those contestants were required to perform soon after landing in Los Angeles, and those who failed to impress were sent back home before they reached Hollywood. In season fourteen, a Showcase round was added, where the contestants performed at a LA nightclub or auditorium for the judges and a live audience, and these performances determine who makes into the Top 24.
From the semi-finals onward, the fate of the contestants was decided by public vote. During the contestant 's performance as well as the recap at the end, a toll - free telephone number for each contestant was displayed on the screen. For a two - hour period after the episode ends (up to four hours for the finale) in each US time zone, viewers may call or send a text message to their preferred contestant 's telephone number, and each call or text message was registered as a vote for that contestant. Viewers were allowed to vote as many times as they can within the two - hour voting window. However, the show reserves the right to discard votes by power dialers. One or more of the least popular contestants may be eliminated in successive weeks until a winner emerges. Over 110 million votes were cast in the first season, and by season ten the seasonal total had increased to nearly 750 million. Voting via text messaging was made available in the second season when AT&T Wireless joined as a sponsor of the show, and 7.5 million text messages were sent to American Idol that season. The number of text messages rapidly increased, reaching 178 million texts by season eight. Online voting was offered for the first time in season ten. The votes are counted and verified by Telescope Inc.
In the first three seasons, the semi-finalists were split into different groups to perform individually in their respective night. In season one, there were three groups of ten, with the top three contestants from each group making the finals. In seasons two and three, there were four groups of eight, and the top two of each selected. These seasons also featured a wildcard round, where contestants who failed to qualify were given another chance. In season one, only one wildcard contestant was chosen by the judges, giving a total of ten finalists. In seasons two and three, each of the three judges championed one contestant with the public advancing a fourth into the finals, making 12 finalists in all.
From seasons four to seven and nine, the twenty - four semi-finalists were divided by gender in order to ensure an equal gender division in the top twelve. The men and women sang separately on consecutive nights, and the bottom two in each groups were eliminated each week until only six of each remained to form the top twelve.
The wildcard round returned in season eight, wherein there were three groups of twelve, with three contestants moving forward -- the highest male, the highest female, and the next highest - placed singer -- for each night, and four wildcards were chosen by the judges to produce a final 13. Starting season ten, the girls and boys perform on separate nights. In seasons ten and eleven, five of each gender were chosen, and three wildcards were chosen by the judges to form a final 13. In season twelve, the top twenty semifinalists were split into gender groups, with five of each gender advancing to form the final 10. In season thirteen, there were thirty semifinalists, but only twenty semifinalists (ten for each gender) were chosen by the judges to perform on the live shows, with five in each gender based on the vote and three wildcards chosen by the judges composing the final 13. In season fourteen, the top 24 performed at The Fillmore Detroit, starting with the 12 males on one night and then the 12 females on the next night. The following week, the same order went for the top 16, with four males eliminated, followed by four females based on the vote. Then, on the first night of finals, a similar sequence from the thirteenth season was used to determine the final 12, with five of each gender based on the vote and two wildcards chosen by the judges. In season fifteen, the top 24 performed at Cathedral of Saint Vibiana in Los Angeles and were split into two groups of twelve and performed twice, one being a solo performance and one being a duet with a former Idol contestant. In each group, the judges chose 7 contestants to advance to the top 14 where the judges chose 4 to advance to the top 10 and remaining 6 contestants were chosen based on the vote. In season sixteen, the show repeated the process of season 15, however instead of Idol alumnus as duet partners, superstar celebrity singers were used as the duet partners.
The finals were broadcast in prime time from CBS Television City in Los Angeles, in front of a live studio audience. The finals lasted eight weeks in season one. From seasons two to nine and fourteen, the finals lasted eleven weeks. Seasons ten and eleven lasted for twelve weeks, while season twelve lasted for ten weeks. In season thirteen, the finals lasted thirteen weeks. The finals lasted seven weeks in season fifteen. Each finalist performs songs based on a weekly theme which may be a musical genre such as Motown, disco, or big band, songs by artists such as Michael Jackson, Elvis Presley or The Beatles, or more general themes such as Billboard number - one hits or songs from the contestant 's year of birth. Contestants usually worked with a celebrity mentor related to the theme. In season ten, Jimmy Iovine was brought in as a mentor for the season. Initially the contestants sang one song each week, but this was increased to two songs from top four or five onwards, then three songs for the top two or three.
The most popular contestants were usually not revealed in the results show. Instead, typically the three contestants (two in later rounds) who received the lowest number of votes was called to the center of the stage. One of these three was usually sent to safety; however the two remaining were not necessarily the bottom two. The contestant with the fewest votes was then revealed and eliminated from the competition. A montage of the eliminated contestant 's time on the show was played and they gave their final performance (from season 14 onward, the montage and the final performance were dropped). However, in season six, during the series ' first ever Idol Gives Back episode, no contestant was eliminated, but on the following week, two were sent home. Moreover, starting in season eight, the judges may overturn viewers ' decision with a "Judges ' Save '' if they unanimously agreed to. "The save '' could only be used once, and only up through the top five. In the eighth, ninth, tenth, and fourteenth seasons, a double elimination then took place in the week following the activation of the save, but in the eleventh and thirteenth seasons, a regular single elimination took place. The save was not activated in the twelfth season and consequently, a non-elimination took place in the week after its expiration with the votes then carrying over into the following week.
The "Fan Save '' was introduced in the fourteenth season. During the finals, viewers were given a five - minute window to vote for the contestants in danger of elimination by using their Twitter account to decide which contestant will move on to the next show, starting with the Top 8.
The finale was the two - hour last episode of the season, culminating in revealing the winner. For seasons one, three through six, fourteen, and fifteen it was broadcast from the Dolby Theatre, which has an audience capacity of approximately 3,400. The finale for season two took place at the Gibson Amphitheatre, which has an audience capacity of over 6,000. In seasons seven through thirteen, the venue was at the Nokia Theater, which holds an audience of over 7,000. In season 16, the venue did not change from the Finals.
The winner received a record deal with a major label, which may be for up to six albums, and secures a management contract with American Idol - affiliated 19 Management (which has the right of first refusal to sign all contestants), as well as various lucrative contracts. All winners prior to season nine reportedly earned at least $1 million in their first year as winner. All the runners - up of the first ten seasons, as well as some of other finalists, had also received record deals with major labels. However, starting in season 11, the runner - up may only be guaranteed a single - only deal. BMG / Sony (seasons 1 -- 9), UMG (season 10 -- 15), and Hollywood Records (season 16 -) had the right of first refusal to sign contestants for three months after the season 's finale. Starting in the fourteenth season, the winner was signed with Big Machine Records. Prominent music mogul Clive Davis also produced some of the selected contestants ' albums, such as Kelly Clarkson, Clay Aiken, Fantasia Barrino and Diana DeGarmo. All top 10 (11 in seasons 10 and 12, 5 in season 14, and 7 in season 16) finalists earn the privilege of going on a tour, where the participants may each earn a six - figure sum.
Each season premieres with the audition round, taking place in different cities. The audition episodes typically feature a mix of potential finalists, interesting characters and woefully inadequate contestants. Each successful contestant receives a golden ticket to proceed on to the next round in Hollywood. Based on their performances during the Hollywood round (Las Vegas round from seasons 10 - 12), 24 to 36 contestants are selected by the judges to participate in the semifinals. From the semifinals onward the contestants perform their songs live, with the judges making their critiques after each performance. The contestants are voted for by the viewing public, and the outcome of the public votes is then revealed during a results segment. The results segment feature group performances by the contestants as well as guest performers. The Top - three results also features homecoming events for the Top 3 finalists. The season reaches its climax in a two - hour results finale show, where the winner of the season is revealed.
With the exception of seasons one and two, the contestants in the semifinals onward perform in front of a studio audience. They perform with a full band in the finals. The current musical director is Kris Pooley, who has been with the show since season 16. In previous seasons, the American Idol band was led by Rickey Minor (seasons 4 -- 9, 13 -- 15) and Ray Chew (seasons 10 -- 12). Assistance has also been given by vocal coaches and song arrangers, such as Michael Orland and Debra Byrd to contestants behind the scene. Starting with season seven, contestants may perform with a musical instrument from the Hollywood rounds onward. In later seasons, the contestants were allowed to perform with a musical instrument in the auditions. During the first nine seasons, performances were usually aired live on Tuesday nights, followed by the results shows on Wednesdays, but moved to Wednesdays and Thursdays from seasons 10 - 13. From season 14 onward, there were no separate results shows. On season 14, the show aired on Wednesday nights, and on season 15, Thursday nights. From season 16 onward, it aired on Sundays and Mondays.
The first season of American Idol debuted as a summer replacement show in June 2002 on the Fox network. It was co-hosted by Ryan Seacrest and Brian Dunkleman.
In the audition rounds, 121 contestants were selected from around 10,000 who attended the auditions. These were cut to 30 for the semifinal, with ten going on to the finals. One semifinalist, Delano Cagnolatti, was disqualified for lying to evade the show 's age limit. One of the early favorites, Tamyra Gray, was eliminated at the top four, the first of several such shock eliminations that were to be repeated in later seasons. Christina Christian was hospitalized before the top six result show due to chest pains and palpitations, and she was eliminated while she was in the hospital. Jim Verraros was the first openly gay contestant on the show; his sexual orientation was revealed on his blog, however it was removed during the competition after a request from the show producers over concerns that it might be unfairly influencing votes.
The final showdown was between Justin Guarini, one of the early favorites, and Kelly Clarkson. Clarkson was not initially thought of as a contender, but impressed the judges with some good performances in the final rounds, such as her performance of Aretha Franklin 's "Natural Woman '', and Betty Hutton 's "Stuff Like That There '', and eventually won the crown on September 4, 2002.
In what was to become a tradition, Clarkson performed the coronation song during the finale, and released the song immediately after the season ended. The single, "A Moment Like This '', went on to break a 38 - year - old record held by The Beatles for the biggest leap to number one on the Billboard Hot 100. Guarini did not release any song immediately after the show and remains the only runner - up not to do so. Both Clarkson and Guarini made a musical film, From Justin to Kelly, which was released in 2003 but was widely panned. Clarkson has since become the most successful Idol contestant internationally, with worldwide album sales of more than 23 million.
Starting September 30, 2006, this season was repackaged as "American Idol Rewind '' and syndicated directly to stations in the U.S.
Following the success of season one, the second season was moved up to air in January 2003. The number of episodes increased, as did the show 's budget and the charge for commercial spots. Dunkleman left the show, leaving Seacrest as the lone host. Kristin Adams was a correspondent for this season.
Corey Clark was disqualified during the finals for having an undisclosed police record; however, he later alleged that he and Paula Abdul had an affair while on the show and that this contributed to his expulsion. Clark also claimed that Abdul gave him preferential treatment on the show due to their affair. The allegations were dismissed by Fox after an independent investigation. Two semi-finalists were also disqualified that year -- Jaered Andrews for an arrest on an assault charge, and Frenchie Davis for having previously modelled for an adult website.
Ruben Studdard emerged as the winner, beating Clay Aiken by a small margin. Out of a total of 24 million votes, Studdard finished just 134,000 votes ahead of Aiken. This slim margin of victory was controversial due to the large number of calls that failed to get through. In an interview prior to season five, executive producer Nigel Lythgoe indicated that Aiken had led the fan voting from the wildcard week onward until the finale.
Both finalists found success after the show, but Aiken out - performed Studdard 's coronation song "Flying Without Wings '' with his single release from the show "This Is the Night '', as well as in their subsequent album releases. The fourth - place finisher Josh Gracin also enjoyed some success as a country singer.
Season three premiered on January 19, 2004. One of the most talked - about contestants during the audition process was William Hung whose off - key rendition of Ricky Martin 's "She Bangs '' received widespread attention. His exposure on Idol landed him a record deal and surprisingly he became the third best - selling singer from that season.
Much media attention on the season had been focused on the three black singers, Fantasia Barrino, LaToya London, and Jennifer Hudson, dubbed the Three Divas. All three unexpectedly landed on the bottom three on the top seven result show, with Hudson controversially eliminated. Elton John, who was one of the mentors that season, called the results of the votes "incredibly racist ''. The prolonged stays of John Stevens and Jasmine Trias in the finals, despite negative comments from the judges, had aroused resentment, so much so that John Stevens reportedly received a death threat, which he dismissed as a joke ' blown out of proportion '.
The performance of "Summertime '' by Barrino, later known simply as "Fantasia '', at Top 8 was widely praised, and Simon Cowell considered it as his favorite Idol moment in the nine seasons he was on the show. Fantasia and Diana DeGarmo were the last two finalists, and Fantasia was crowned as the winner. Fantasia released as her coronation single "I Believe '', a song co-written by season one finalist Tamyra Gray, and DeGarmo released "Dreams ''.
Season four premiered on January 18, 2005; this was the first season of the series to be aired in high definition, although the finale of season three was also aired in high definition. The number of those attending the auditions by now had increased to over 100,000 from the 10,000 of the first season. The age limit was raised to 28 in this season, and among those who benefited from this new rule were Constantine Maroulis and Bo Bice, the two rockers of the show.
The top 12 finalists originally included Mario Vazquez, but he dropped out citing ' personal reasons ' and was replaced by Nikko Smith. Later, an employee of Freemantle Media, which produces the show, sued the company for wrongful termination, claiming that he was dismissed after complaining about lewd behavior by Vazquez toward him during the show.
During the top 11 week, due to a mix - up with the contestants ' telephone number, voting was repeated on what was normally the result night, with the result reveal postponed until the following night.
In May 2005, Carrie Underwood was announced the winner, with Bice the runner - up. Both Underwood and Bice released the coronation song "Inside Your Heaven '', with Underwood 's version of the song making her the first country artist ever to debut at number - one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. As of 2015, Underwood has become the most successful Idol contestant in the U.S., selling 16 million albums in the country, while selling a total of 65 million records worldwide.
Season five began on January 17, 2006. It remains the highest - rated season in the show 's run so far. Two of the more prominent contestants during the Hollywood round were the Brittenum twins who were later disqualified for identity theft.
Chris Daughtry 's performance of Fuel 's "Hemorrhage (In My Hands) '' on the show was widely praised and led to an invitation to join the band as Fuel 's new lead singer, an invitation he declined. His performance of Live 's version of "I Walk the Line '' was well received by the judges but later criticized in some quarters for not crediting the arrangement to Live. He was eliminated at the top four in a shocking result.
On May 30, 2006, Taylor Hicks was named American Idol, with Katharine McPhee the runner - up. "Do I Make You Proud '' was released as Hicks ' first single and McPhee 's was "My Destiny ''.
Despite being eliminated earlier in the season, Chris Daughtry (as lead of the band Daughtry) became the most successful recording artist from this season. Other contestants, such as Hicks, McPhee, Bucky Covington, Mandisa, Kellie Pickler, and Elliott Yamin have had varying levels of success.
Season six began on Tuesday, January 16, 2007. The premiere drew a massive audience of 37.3 million viewers, peaking in the last half hour with more than 41 million viewers.
Teenager Sanjaya Malakar was the season 's most talked - about contestant for his unusual hairdo, and for managing to survive elimination for many weeks due in part to the weblog Vote for the Worst and satellite radio personality Howard Stern, who both encouraged fans to vote for him. However, on the Top 7 results, Sanjaya was voted off.
This season saw the first Idol Gives Back telethon - inspired event, which raised more than $76 million in corporate and viewer donations. No contestant was eliminated that week, but two (Phil Stacey and Chris Richardson) were eliminated the next.
In the May 23 season finale, Jordin Sparks was declared the winner with the runner - up being Blake Lewis. Sparks has had some success as a recording artist post-Idol.
This season also saw the launch of the American Idol Songwriter contest which allows fans to vote for the "coronation song ''. Thousands of recordings of original songs were submitted by songwriters, and 20 entries selected for the public vote. The winning song, "This Is My Now '', was performed by both finalists during the finale and released by Sparks on May 24, 2007.
Season seven premiered on January 15, 2008, for a two - day, four - hour premiere. The media focused on the professional status of the season seven contestants, the so - called ' ringers ', many of whom, including Kristy Lee Cook, Brooke White, Michael Johns, and in particular Carly Smithson, had prior recording contracts. Contestant David Hernandez also attracted some attention due to his past employment as a stripper.
For the finals, American Idol debuted a new state - of - the - art set and stage on March 11, 2008, along with a new on - air look. David Cook 's performance of "Billie Jean '' on top - ten night was lauded by the judges, but provoked controversy when they apparently mistook the Chris Cornell arrangement to be David Cook 's own even though the performance was introduced as Cornell 's version. Cornell himself said he was ' flattered ' and praised David Cook 's performance. David Cook was taken to the hospital after the top - nine performance show due to heart palpitations and high blood pressure.
David Archuleta 's performance of John Lennon 's "Imagine '' was considered by many as one of the best of the season. Jennifer Lopez, who was brought in as a judge in season ten, called it a beautiful song - moment that she will never forget. Jason Castro 's semi-final performance of "Hallelujah '' also received considerable attention, and it propelled Jeff Buckley 's version of the song to the top of the Billboard digital song chart. This was the first season in which contestants ' recordings were released onto iTunes after their performances, and although sales information was not released so as not to prejudice the contest, leaked information indicated that contestants ' songs frequently reached the top of iTunes sales charts.
Idol Gives Back returned on April 9, 2008, and raised $64 million for charity.
The finalists were Cook and Archuleta. David Cook was announced the winner on May 21, 2008, the first rocker to win the show. Both Cook and Archuleta had some success as recording artists with both selling over a million albums in the U.S.
The American Idol Songwriter contest was also held this season. From ten of the most popular submissions, each of the final two contestants chose a song to perform, although neither of their selections was used as the "coronation song ''. The winning song, "The Time of My Life '', was recorded by David Cook and released on May 22, 2008.
Season eight premiered on January 13, 2009. Mike Darnell, the president of alternative programming for Fox, stated that the season would focus more on the contestants ' personal life.
In the first major change to the judging panel, a fourth judge, Kara DioGuardi, was introduced. This was also the first season without executive producer Nigel Lythgoe who left to focus on the international versions of his show So You Think You Can Dance. The Hollywood round was moved to the Kodak Theatre for 2009 and was also extended to two weeks. Idol Gives Back was canceled for this season due to the global recession at the time.
There were 13 finalists this season, but two were eliminated in the first result show of the finals. A new feature introduced was the "Judges ' Save '', and Matt Giraud was saved from elimination at the top seven by the judges when he received the fewest votes. The next week, Lil Rounds and Anoop Desai were eliminated.
The two finalists were Kris Allen and Adam Lambert, both of whom had previously landed in the bottom three at the top five. Allen won the contest in the most controversial voting result since season two. It was claimed, and then later retracted, that 38 million of the 100 million votes cast on the night came from Allen 's home state of Arkansas alone, and that AT&T employees unfairly influenced the votes by giving lessons on power - texting at viewing parties in Arkansas.
Both Allen and Lambert released the coronation song, "No Boundaries '' which was co-written by DioGuardi. This is the first season in which the winner failed to achieve gold album status.
Season nine premiered on January 12, 2010. The upheaval at the judging panel continued. Ellen DeGeneres joined as a judge to replace Paula Abdul at the start of Hollywood Week.
One of the most prominent auditioners this season was General Larry Platt whose performance of "Pants on the Ground '' became a viral hit song.
Crystal Bowersox, who has Type - I diabetes, fell ill due to diabetic ketoacidosis on the morning of the girls performance night for the top 20 week and was hospitalized. The schedule was rearranged so the boys performed first and she could perform the following night instead; she later revealed that Ken Warwick, the show producer, wanted to disqualify her but she begged to be allowed to stay on the show.
Michael Lynche was the lowest vote getter at top nine and was given the Judges ' Save. The next week Katie Stevens and Andrew Garcia were eliminated. That week, Adam Lambert was invited back to be a mentor, the first Idol alum to do so. Idol Gives Back returned this season on April 21, 2010, and raised $45 million.
A special tribute to Simon Cowell was presented in the finale for his final season with the show. Many figures from the show 's past, including Paula Abdul, made an appearance.
The final two contestants were Lee DeWyze and Bowersox. DeWyze was declared the winner during the May 26 finale. No new song was used as coronation song this year; instead, the two finalists each released a cover song -- DeWyze chose U2 's "Beautiful Day '', and Bowersox chose Patty Griffin 's "Up to the Mountain ''. This is the first season where neither finalist achieved significant album sales.
Season ten of the series premiered on January 19, 2011. Many changes were introduced this season, from the format to the personnel of the show. Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler joined Randy Jackson as judges following the departures of Simon Cowell (who left to launch the U.S. version of The X Factor), Kara DioGuardi (whose contract was not renewed) and Ellen DeGeneres, while Nigel Lythgoe returned as executive producer. Jimmy Iovine, chairman of the Interscope Geffen A&M label group, the new partner of American Idol, acted as the in - house mentor in place of weekly guest mentors, although in later episodes special guest mentors such as Beyoncé, will.i.am and Lady Gaga were brought in.
Season ten is the first to include online auditions where contestants could submit a 40 - second video audition via Myspace. Karen Rodriguez was one such auditioner and reached the final rounds.
One of the more prominent contestants this year was Chris Medina, whose story of caring for his brain - damaged fiancée received widespread coverage. Medina was cut in the Top 40 round. Casey Abrams, who suffers from ulcerative colitis, was hospitalized twice and missed the Top 13 result show. The judges used their one save on Abrams on the Top 11, and as a result this was the first season that 11 finalists went on tour instead of 10. In the following week, Naima Adedapo and Thia Megia were both eliminated the following week.
Pia Toscano, one of the presumed favorites to advance far in the season, was unexpectedly eliminated on April 7, 2011, finishing in ninth place. Her elimination drew criticisms from some former Idol contestants, as well as actor Tom Hanks.
The two finalists in 2011 were Lauren Alaina and Scotty McCreery, both teenage country singers. McCreery won the competition on May 25, being the youngest male winner and the fourth male in a row to win American Idol. McCreery released his first single, "I Love You This Big '', as his coronation song, and Alaina released "Like My Mother Does ''. McCreery 's debut album, Clear as Day, became the first debut album by an Idol winner to reach No. 1 on the US Billboard 200 since Ruben Studdard 's Soulful in 2003, and he became the youngest male artist to reach No. 1 on the Billboard 200.
Season 11 premiered on January 18, 2012. On February 23, it was announced that one more finalist would join the Top 24 making it the Top 25, and that was Jermaine Jones. However, on March 14, Jones was disqualified in 12th place for concealing arrests and outstanding warrants. Jones denied the accusation that he concealed his arrests.
Finalist Phillip Phillips suffered from kidney pain and was taken to the hospital before the Top 13 results show, and later received medical procedure to alleviate a blockage caused by kidney stones. He was reported to have eight surgeries during his Idol run, and had considered quitting the show due to the pain. He underwent surgery to remove the stones and reconstruct his kidney soon after the season had finished.
Jessica Sanchez received the fewest number of votes during the Top 7 week, and the judges decided to use their "save '' option on her, making her the first female recipient of the save. The following week, unlike previous seasons, Colton Dixon was the only contestant sent home. Sanchez later made the final two, the first season where a recipient of the save reached the finale.
Phillips became the winner, beating Sanchez. Prior to the announcement of the winner, season five finalist Ace Young proposed marriage to season three runner - up Diana DeGarmo on stage -- which she accepted.
Phillips released "Home '' as his coronation song, while Sanchez released "Change Nothing ''. Phillips ' "Home '' has since become the best selling of all coronation songs.
Season 12 premiered on January 16, 2013. Judges Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler left the show after two seasons. This season 's judging panel consisted of Randy Jackson, along with Mariah Carey, Keith Urban and Nicki Minaj. This was the first season since season nine to have four judges on the panel. The pre-season buzz and the early episodes of the show were dominated by the feud between the judges Minaj and Carey after a video of their dispute was leaked to TMZ.
The top 10 contestants started with five males and five females, however, the males were eliminated consecutively in the first five weeks, with Lazaro Arbos the last male to be eliminated. For the first time in the show 's history, the top 5 contestants were all female. It was also the first time that the judges ' "save '' was not used, the top four contestants were therefore given an extra week to perform again with their votes carried over with no elimination in the first week.
23 - year - old Candice Glover won the season with Kree Harrison taking the runner - up spot. Glover is the first female to win American Idol since Jordin Sparks. Glover released "I Am Beautiful '' as a single while Harrison released "All Cried Out '' immediately after the show. Glover sold poorly with her debut album, and this is also the first season that the runner - up was not signed by a music label.
Towards the end of the season, Randy Jackson, the last remaining of the original judges, announced that he would no longer serve as a judge to pursue other business ventures. Both judges Mariah Carey and Nicki Minaj also decided to leave after one season to focus on their music careers.
The thirteenth season premiered on January 15, 2014. Randy Jackson and Keith Urban returned, though Jackson moved from the judging panel to the role of in - mentor. Mariah Carey and Nicki Minaj left the panel after one season. Former judge Jennifer Lopez and former mentor Harry Connick, Jr. joined Urban on the panel. Also, Nigel Lythgoe and Ken Warwick were replaced as executive producers by Per Blankens, Jesse Ignjatovic and Evan Pragger. Bill DeRonde replaced Warwick as a director of the audition episodes, while Louis J. Horvitz replaced Gregg Gelfand as a director of the show.
This was the first season where the contestants were permitted to perform in the final rounds songs they wrote themselves. In the Top 8, Sam Woolf received the fewest votes, but he was saved from elimination by the judges. The 500th episode of the series was the Top 3 performance night.
Caleb Johnson was named the winner of the season, with Jena Irene as the runner - up. Johnson released "As Long as You Love Me '' as his coronation single while Irene released "We Are One ''.
The fourteenth season premiered on January 7, 2015. Jennifer Lopez, Keith Urban and Harry Connick, Jr. returned for their respective fourth, third and second seasons as judges. Eighth season runner - up Adam Lambert filled in for Urban during the New York City auditions. Randy Jackson did not return as the in - house mentor for this season.
Changes this season include only airing one episode a week during the final ten. Coca - Cola ended their longtime sponsorship of the show and Ford Motor Company maintained a reduced role. The winner of the season also received a recording contract with Big Machine Records.
Nick Fradiani won the season, defeating Clark Beckham. By winning, Fradiani became the first winner from the Northeast region. Fradiani released "Beautiful Life '' as his coronation single while Beckham released "Champion ''. Jax, the third place finalist, also released a single called "Forcefield ''.
Fox announced on May 11, 2015 that the fifteenth season would be the final season of American Idol; as such, the season was expected to have an additional focus on the program 's alumni. Ryan Seacrest returned as host, with Harry Connick Jr., Keith Urban, and Jennifer Lopez all returning as judges. The season was shortened by four weeks compared to previous years. During the finale episode, President Barack Obama praised the millions of young people that voted for contestants and pitched that they vote in the upcoming election. The farewell season concluded on April 7, 2016. Seacrest signed off by saying: "And one more time -- this is so tough -- we say to you from Hollywood, goodnight America '', and then he added, "for now. ''
Trent Harmon won the season against runner - up La'Porsha Renae. Harmon released "Falling '' co-written by Keith Urban as his coronation song. Renae 's "Battles '', third - place finisher Dalton Rapattoni 's "Strike A Match '' and fourth - place finisher MacKenzie Bourg 's "Roses '' were also released as singles.
In early 2017, Variety reported that Fremantle Media was in talks to revive the show for NBC or for its original network, Fox. A dispute between Fremantle and Core Media Group derailed these plans. Then, in May 2017, it was announced that ABC was making a bid to revive the program. Later, ABC announced that it had acquired the rights to the series, and that American Idol would return for the 2017 -- 18 television season.
On May 16, 2017, Katy Perry was the first judge to be announced by ABC. On July 20, 2017, it was announced on Live with Kelly and Ryan, that Ryan Seacrest would be returning as the host for the revival season. On September 24, 2017, Luke Bryan was the second judge to be announced for the revival season. On September 29, 2017, Lionel Richie was the third and final judge to be announced. On November 6, 2017, it was announced that the revival season would premiere on March 11, 2018. On May 21, 2018 the season concluded, crowning Maddie Poppe winner and Caleb Lee Hutchinson runner - up.
On May 4, 2018, it was announced that ABC would renew the revival series for another season. Perry, Bryan and Richie will return as judges, while Seacrest will return as host.
Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of American Idol. It holds the distinction of having the longest winning streak in the Nielsen annual television ratings; it became the highest - rated of all television programs in the United States overall for an unprecedented seven consecutive years, or eight consecutive (and total) years when either its performance or result show was ranked number one overall.
American Idol premiered in June 2002 and became the surprise summer hit show of 2002. The first show drew 9.9 million viewers, giving Fox the best viewing figure for the 8.30 pm spot in over a year. The audience steadily grew, and by finale night, the audience had averaged 23 million, with more than 40 million watching some part of that show. That episode was placed third amongst all age groups, but more importantly it led in the in 18 -- 49 demographic, the age group most valued by advertisers.
The growth continued into the next season, starting with a season premiere of 26.5 million. The season attracted an average of 21.7 million viewers, and was placed second overall amongst the 18 -- 49 age group. The finale night when Ruben Studdard won over Clay Aiken was also the highest - rated ever American Idol episode at 38.1 million for the final hour. By season three, the show had become the top show in the 18 -- 49 demographic a position it has held for all subsequent years up to and including season ten, and its competition stages ranked first in the nationwide overall ratings. By season four, American Idol had become the most watched series amongst all viewers on American TV for the first time, with an average viewership of 26.8 million. The show reached its peak in season five with numbers averaging 30.6 million per episode, and season five remains the highest - rated season of the series.
Season six premiered with the series ' highest - rated debut episode and a few of its succeeding episodes rank among the most watched episodes of American Idol. During this time, many television executives begun to regard the show as a programming force unlike any seen before, as its consistent dominance of up to two hours two or three nights a week exceeded the 30 - or 60 - minute reach of previous hits such as NBC 's The Cosby Show. The show was dubbed "the Death Star '', and competing networks often rearranged their schedules in order to minimize losses. However, season six also showed a steady decline in viewership over the course of the season. The season finale saw a drop in ratings of 16 % from the previous year. Season six was the first season wherein the average results show rated higher than the competition stages (unlike in the previous seasons), and became the second - highest - rated of the series after the preceding season.
The loss of viewers continued into season seven. The premiere was down 11 % among total viewers, and the results show in which Kristy Lee Cook was eliminated delivered its lowest - rated Wednesday show among the 18 -- 34 demo since the first season in 2002. However, the ratings rebounded for the season seven finale with the excitement over the battle of the Davids, and improved over season six as the series ' third most watched finale. The strong finish of season seven also helped Fox become the most watched TV network in the country for the first time since its inception, a first ever in American television history for a non-Big Three major broadcast network. Overall ratings for the season were down 10 % from season six, which is in line with the fall in viewership across all networks due in part to the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike.
The declining trend however continued into season eight, as total viewers numbers fell by 5 -- 10 % for early episodes compared to season seven, and by 9 % for the finale. In season nine, Idol 's six - year extended streak of perfection in the ratings was broken, when NBC 's coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics on February 17 beat Idol in the same time slot with 30.1 million viewers over Idol 's 18.4 million. Nevertheless, American Idol overall finished its ninth season as the most watched TV series for the sixth year running, breaking the previous record of five consecutive seasons achieved by CBS ' All in the Family and NBC 's The Cosby Show.
In season ten, the total viewer numbers for the first week of shows fell 12 -- 13 %, and by up to 23 % in the 18 -- 49 demo compared to season nine. Later episodes, however, retained viewers better, and the season ended on a high with a significant increase in viewership for the finale -- up 12 % for the adults 18 -- 49 demo and a 21 % increase in total viewers from the season nine finale. While the overall viewer number has increased this season, its viewer demographics have continued to age year on year -- the median age this season was 47.2 compared to a median age of 32.1 in its first season. The demographics also became "whiter '' over time and less diverse. Nevertheless, in the 2010 -- 11 television season, Fox maintained its lead on over other networks with its seventh consecutive season of victory overall in the 18 -- 49 demographic ratings in the United States.
Season eleven, however, suffered a steep drop in ratings, a drop attributed by some to the arrival of new shows such as The Voice and The X-Factor. The ratings for the first two episodes of season eleven fell 16 -- 21 % in overall viewer numbers and 24 -- 27 % in the 18 / 49 demo, while the season finale fell 27 % in total viewer number and 30 % in the 18 -- 49 demo. The average viewership for the season fell below 20 million viewers the first time since 2003, a drop of 23 % in total viewers and 30 % in the 18 / 49 demo. For the first time in eight years, American Idol lost the leading position in both the total viewers number and the 18 / 49 demo, coming in second to NBC Sunday Night Football, although the strengths of Idol in its second year in the Wednesday - Thursday primetime slots helped Fox achieve the longest period of 18 -- 49 demographic victory in the Nielsen ratings, standing at 8 straight years from 2004 to 2012.
The loss of viewers continued into season 12, which saw the show hitting a number of series low in the 18 -- 49 demo. The finale had 7.2 million fewer viewers than the previous season, and saw a drop of 44 % in the 18 -- 49 demo. The season viewers averaged at 13.3 million, a drop of 24 % from the previous season. The thirteenth season suffered a huge decline in the 18 -- 49 demographic, a drop of 28 % from the twelfth season, and American Idol lost its Top 10 position in the Nielsen ratings by the end of the 2013 -- 14 television season for the first time since its entry to the rankings in 2003 as a result, and never regained its Top 10 position by the series ' end in 2016.
The continuing decline influenced further changes for season 14, including the loss of Coca - Cola as the show 's major sponsor, and a decision to only broadcast one, two - hour show per week during the top 12 rounds (with results from the previous week integrated into the performance show, rather than having a separate results show). On May 11, 2015, prior to the fourteenth - season finale, Fox announced that the fifteenth season of American Idol would be its last.
Despite these changes, the show 's ratings would decline more sharply. The fourteenth - season finale was the lowest - rated finale ever, with an average of only 8.03 million viewers watching the finale. The show 's ratings, however, rebounded in its final season, and ended its run in 2016 as Fox 's first ever program to conclude its run without dropping from the Nielsen Top 30 most watched television shows in each of its seasons.
Early reviews were mixed in their assessment. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly considered that "As TV, American Idol is crazily entertaining; as music, it 's dust - mote inconsequential ''. Others, however, thought that "the most striking aspect of the series was the genuine talent it revealed ''. It was also described as a "sadistic musical bake - off '', and "a romp in humiliation ''. Other aspects of the show have attracted criticisms. The product placement in the show in particular was noted, and some critics were harsh about what they perceived as its blatant commercial calculations -- Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union - Tribune charged that American Idol is "a conniving multimedia monster '' that has "absorbed the sin of our debauched culture and spit them out in a lump of reconstituted evil ''. The decision to send the season one winner to sing the national anthem at the Lincoln Memorial on the first anniversary of the September 11 attacks in 2002 was also poorly received by many. Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post noted sarcastically that "The terrorists have won '' and, with a sideswipe at the show 's commercialism and voting process, that the decision as to who "gets to turn this important site into just another cog in the ' Great American Idol Marketing Mandala ' is in the hands of the millions of girls who have made American Idol a hit. Them and a handful of phone - redialer geeks who have been clocking up to 10,000 calls each week for their contestant of choice (but who, according to Fox, are in absolutely no way skewing the outcome). ''
Some of the later writers about the show were more positive, Michael Slezak, again of Entertainment Weekly, thought that "for all its bloated, synthetic, product - shilling, money - making trappings, Idol provides a once - a-year chance for the average American to combat the evils of today 's music business. '' Singer Sheryl Crow, who was later to act as a mentor on the show, however took the view that the show "undermines art in every way and promotes commercialism ''. Pop music critic Ann Powers nevertheless suggested that Idol has "reshaped the American songbook '', "led us toward a new way of viewing ourselves in relationship to mainstream popular culture '', and connects "the classic Hollywood dream to the multicentered popular culture of the future. '' Others focused on the personalities in the show; Ramin Setoodeh of Newsweek accused judge Simon Cowell 's cruel critiques in the show of helping to establish in the wider world a culture of meanness, that "Simon Cowell has dragged the rest of us in the mud with him. '' Some such as singer John Mayer disparaged the contestants, suggesting that those who appeared on Idol are not real artists with self - respect.
Some in the entertainment industry were critical of the star - making aspect of the show. Usher, a mentor on the show, bemoaning the loss of the "true art form of music '', thought that shows like American Idol made it seem "so easy that everyone can do it, and that it can happen overnight '', and that "television is a lie ''. Musician Michael Feinstein, while acknowledging that the show had uncovered promising performers, said that American Idol "is n't really about music. It 's about all the bad aspects of the music business -- the arrogance of commerce, this sense of ' I know what will make this person a star; artists themselves do n't know. ' '' That American Idol is seen to be a fast track to success for its contestants has been a cause of resentment for some in the industry. LeAnn Rimes, commenting on Carrie Underwood winning Best Female Artist in Country Music Awards over Faith Hill in 2006, said that "Carrie has not paid her dues long enough to fully deserve that award ''. It is a common theme that has been echoed by many others. Elton John, who had appeared as a mentor in the show but turned down an offer to be a judge on American Idol, commenting on talent shows in general, said that "there have been some good acts but the only way to sustain a career is to pay your dues in small clubs ''. American Idol revolutionized American pop culture and the pop idol process and has provided an opportunity for many to bypass the small club scene and allow a much larger audience to participate in and select the next potential chart topping performer.
The success of the show 's alumni, however, has led to a more positive assessment of the show, and the show was described as having "proven it has a valid way to pick talent and a proven way to sell records ''. While the industry is divided on the show success, its impact is felt particularly strongly in the country music format. According to a CMT exec, reflecting on the success of Idol alumni in the country genre, "if you want to try and get famous fast by going to a cattle call audition on TV, Idol reasonably remains the first choice for anyone '', and that country music and Idol "go together well ''.
American Idol was nominated for the Emmy 's Outstanding Reality Competition Program for nine years but never won. Director Bruce Gower won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing For A Variety, Music Or Comedy Series in 2009, and the show won a Creative Arts Emmys each in 2007 and 2008, three in 2009, and two in 2011, as well as a Governor 's Award in 2007 for its Idol Gives Back edition. It won the People 's Choice Award, which honors the popular culture of the previous year as voted by the public, for favorite competition / reality show in 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2011 and 2012. It won the first Critics ' Choice Television Award in 2011 for Best Reality Competition.
In 2013, TV Guide ranked the series No. 48 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time.
Throughout the series, eleven of the sixteen Idol winners, including its first five, had come from the Southern United States. A large number of other finalists during the series ' run have also hailed from the American South, including Clay Aiken, Kellie Pickler, and Chris Daughtry, who are all from North Carolina. In 2012, an analysis of the 131 contestants who have appeared in the finals of all seasons of the show up to that point found that 48 % have some connection to the Southern United States.
The show itself was popular in the Southern United States, with households in the Southeastern United States 10 % more likely to watch American Idol during the eighth season in 2009, and those in the East Central region, such as Kentucky, were 16 percent more likely to tune into the series. Data from Nielsen SoundScan, a music - sales tracking service, showed that of the 47 million CDs sold by Idol contestants through January 2010, 85 percent were by contestants with ties to the American South.
Theories given for the success of Southerners on Idol have been: more versatility with musical genres, as the Southern U.S. is home to several music genre scenes; not having as many opportunities to break into the pop music business; text - voting due to the South having the highest percentage of cell - phone only households; and the strong heritage of music and singing, which is notable in the Bible Belt, where it is in church that many people get their start in public singing. Others also suggest that the Southern character of these contestants appeal to the South, as well as local pride. According to season five winner Taylor Hicks, who is from the state of Alabama, "People in the South have a lot of pride... So, they 're adamant about supporting the contestants who do well from their state or region. ''
For five consecutive seasons, starting in season seven, the title was given to a white male who plays the guitar -- a trend that Idol pundits call the "White guy with guitar '' or "WGWG '' factor. Just hours before the season eleven finale, where Phillip Phillips was named the winner, Richard Rushfield, author of the book American Idol: The Untold Story, said, "You have this alliance between young girls and grandmas and they see it, not necessarily as a contest to create a pop star competing on the contemporary radio, but as... who 's the nicest guy in a popularity contest '', he says, "And that has led to this dynasty of four, and possibly now five, consecutive, affable, very nice, good - looking white boys. ''
The show had been criticized in earlier seasons over the onerous contract contestants had to sign that gave excessive control to 19 Entertainment over their future career, and handed a large part of their future earnings to the management.
Individual contestants have generated controversy in this competition for their past actions, or for being ' ringers ' planted by the producers. A number of contestants had been disqualified for various reasons, such as for having an existing contract or undisclosed criminal records, although the show had been accused of double standard for disqualifying some but not others.
Voting results have been a consistent source of controversy. The mechanism of voting had also aroused considerable criticisms, most notably in season two when Ruben Studdard beat Clay Aiken in a close vote, and in season eight, when the massive increase in text votes fueled the texting controversy. Concerns about power voting have been expressed from the very first season. Since 2004, votes also have been affected to a limited degree by online communities such as DialIdol, and Vote for the Worst.
The enormous success of the show and the revenue it generated was transformative for the Fox Broadcasting Company. American Idol and fellow competing shows Survivor and Who Wants to Be a Millionaire were altogether credited for expanding reality television programming in the United States in the 1990s and 2000s, and Idol became the most watched non-scripted primetime television series for almost a decade, from 2003 to 2012, breaking records on U.S. television (dominated by drama shows and sitcoms in the preceding decades).
The show pushed Fox to become the number one U.S. TV network amongst adults 18 -- 49, the key demographic coveted by advertisers, for an unprecedented eight consecutive years by 2012. Its success also helped lift the ratings of other shows that were scheduled around it such as House and Bones, and Idol, for years, had become Fox 's strongest platform primetime television program for promoting eventual hit shows of the 2010s (of the same network) such as Glee and New Girl. The show, its creator Simon Fuller claimed, "saved Fox ''.
The show 's massive success in the mid-2000s to early 2010s spawned a number of imitating singing - competition shows, such as Rock Star, Nashville Star, The Voice, Rising Star, The Sing - Off, and The X Factor. The number of imitative singing shows on American television had reached 17 by its final year in 2016. Its format also served as a blueprint for non-singing TV shows such as Dancing with the Stars and So You Think You Can Dance, most of which contribute to the current highly competitive reality TV landscape on American television.
As one of the most successful shows on U.S. television history, American Idol had a strong impact not just on television, but also in the wider world of entertainment. It helped create a number of highly successful recording artists, such as Kelly Clarkson, Daughtry and Carrie Underwood, as well as others of varying notability. The alumni of the show had received between them 54 Grammy nominations and 13 Grammy awards by the end of the show in 2016, with Carrie Underwood winning seven.
Various American Idol alumni had success on various record charts around the world; in the U.S. they had achieved 345 number ones on the Billboard charts in its first 10 years, and 458 by its last year of broadcast in 2016, with 100 achieved by Kelly Clarkson alone. According to Fred Bronson, author of books on the Billboard charts, no other entity has ever created as many hit - making artists and best - selling albums and singles. In 2007, American Idol alums accounted for 2.1 % of all music sales. Its alumni have a massive impact on radio; in 2007, American Idol had become "a dominant force in radio '' according to the president of the research company Mediabase which monitors radio stations Rich Meyer. By 2010, four winners each had more than a million radio spins, with Kelly Clarkson leading the field with over four million spins.
At the end of the show 's run, Idol 's contestants have sold more than 60 million albums in the US, resulting in more than 80 Platinum records and 95 Gold records. Its participants have generated more than 450 Billboard No. 1 hits and sold more than 260 million digital downloads.
The impact of American Idol was also strongly felt in musical theatre, where many of Idol alumni have forged successful careers. The striking effect of former American Idol contestants on Broadway has been noted and commented on. The casting of a popular Idol contestant can lead to significantly increased ticket sales. Other alumni have gone on to work in television and films, the most notable being Jennifer Hudson who, on the recommendation of the Idol vocal coach Debra Byrd, won a role in Dreamgirls and subsequently received an Academy Award for her performance.
The dominance of American Idol in the ratings had made it the most profitable show in U.S. TV for many years. The show was estimated to generate $900 million for the year 2004 through sales of TV ads, albums, merchandise and concert tickets. By season seven, the show was estimated to earn around $900 million from its ad revenue alone, not including ancillary sponsorship deals and other income. One estimate puts the total TV revenue for the first eight seasons of American at $6.4 billion. Sponsors that bought fully integrated packages can expect a variety of promotions of their products on the show, such as product placement, adverts and product promotion integrated into the show, and various promotional opportunities. Other off - air promotional partners pay for the rights to feature "Idol '' branding on their packaging, products and marketing programs. American Idol also partnered with Disney in its theme park attraction The American Idol Experience.
American Idol became the most expensive series on broadcast networks for advertisers starting season four, and by the next season, it had broken the record in advertising rate for a regularly scheduled prime - time network series, selling over $700,000 for a 30 - seconds slot, and reaching up to $1.3 million for the finale. Its ad prices reached a peak in season seven at $737,000. Estimated revenue more than doubled from $404 million in season three to $870 million in season six. While that declined from season eight onwards, it still earned significantly more than its nearest competitor, with advertising revenue topping $800 million annually the next few seasons. However, the sharp drop in ratings in season eleven also resulted in a sharp drop in advertising rate for season twelve, and the show lost its leading position as the costliest show for advertisers. By 2014, ad revenue from had fallen to $427 million where a 30 - second spot went for less than $300,000. For the relaunched Idol on ABC, it has been reported that a 30 - second spot may cost between $120,000 -- $160,000.
Ford Motor Company and Coca - Cola were two of the first sponsors of American Idol in its first season. The sponsorship deal cost around $10 million in season one, rising to $35 million by season 7, and between $50 to $60 million in season 10. The third major sponsor AT&T Wireless joined in the second season but ended after season 12, and Coca - Cola officially ended its sponsorship after season 13 amidst the declining ratings of Idol in the mid-2010s. iTunes sponsored the show since season seven.
American Idol prominent display of its sponsors ' logo and products had been noted since the early seasons. By season six, Idol showed 4,349 product placements according to Nielsen Media Research. The branded entertainment integration proved beneficial to its advertisers -- promotion of AT&T text - messaging as a means to vote successfully introduced the technology into the wider culture, and Coca - Cola has seen its equity increased during the show.
Coca - Cola 's archrival PepsiCo declined to sponsor American Idol at the show 's start. What the Los Angeles Times later called "missing one of the biggest marketing opportunities in a generation '' contributed to Pepsi losing market share, by 2010 falling to third place from second in the United States. PepsiCo sponsored the American version of Cowell 's The X Factor in hopes of not repeating its Idol mistake until its cancellation.
For the revived series on ABC, Macy 's and Johnson & Johnson 's Zyrtec signed on as the major sponsors of the show.
The top ten (eleven in the tenth season, five in the fourteenth season, and seven in the sixteenth season) toured at the end of every season except for the fifteenth season. In the season twelve tour a semi-finalist who won a sing - off was also added to the tour. Kellogg 's Pop - Tarts was the sponsor for the first seven seasons, and Guitar Hero was added for the season seven tour. M&M 's Pretzel Chocolate Candies was a sponsor of the season nine tour. The season five tour was the most successful tour with gross of over $35 million. However no concert tour was organized in the fifteenth season, the only season not to have an associated tour. The season 16 tour featured seven finalists and the band In Real Life as an opener on select dates.
Idol Gives Back was a special charity event started in season six featuring performances by celebrities and various fund - raising initiatives. This event was also held in seasons seven and nine and has raised nearly $185 million in total.
American Idol has traditionally released studio recordings of contestants ' performances as well as the winner 's coronation single for sale. For the first five seasons, the recordings were released as a compilation album at the end of the season. All five of these albums reached the top ten in Billboard 200 which made then American Idol the most successful soundtrack franchise of any motion picture or television program. Starting late in season five, individual performances were released during the season as digital downloads, initially from the American Idol official website only. In season seven the live performances and studio recordings were made available during the season from iTunes when it joined as a sponsor. In Season ten the weekly studio recordings were also released as compilation digital album straight after performance night.
19 Recordings, a recording label owned by 19 Entertainment, currently hold the rights to phonographic material recorded by all the contestants. 19 originally partnered with Bertelsmann Music Group (BMG) to promote and distribute the recordings through its labels RCA Records, Arista Records, J Records, Jive Records. In 2005 -- 2007, BMG partnered with Sony Music Entertainment to form a joint venture known as Sony BMG Music Entertainment. From 2008 to 2010, Sony Music handled the distribution following their acquisition of BMG. Sony Music was partnered with American Idol and distribute its music, and In 2010, Sony was replaced by as the music label for American Idol by UMG 's Interscope - Geffen - A&M Records.
American Idol video games
On February 14, 2009, The Walt Disney Company debuted "The American Idol Experience '' at its Disney 's Hollywood Studios theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Florida. In this live production, co-produced by 19 Entertainment, park guests chose from a list of songs and auditioned privately for Disney cast members. Those selected then performed on a stage in a 1000 - seat theater replicating the Idol set. Three judges, whose mannerisms and style mimicked those of the real Idol judges, critiqued the performances. Audience members then voted for their favorite performer. There were several preliminary - round shows during the day that culminated in a "finals '' show in the evening where one of the winners of the previous rounds that day was selected as the overall winner. The winner of the finals show received a "Dream Ticket '' that granted them front - of - the - line privileges at any future American Idol audition. The attraction closed on August 30, 2014.
American Idol is broadcast to over 100 nations outside of the United States. In most nations these are not live broadcasts and may be tape delayed by several days or weeks. In Canada, the first thirteen seasons of American Idol were aired live by CTV and / or CTV Two, in simulcast with Fox. CTV dropped Idol after its thirteenth season and in August 2014, Yes TV announced that it had picked up Canadian rights to American Idol beginning in its 2015 season. In 2017, it was announced the show would return to CTV Two for its sixteenth season.
In Latin America, the show is broadcast and subtitled by Sony Entertainment Television. In southeast Asia, it is broadcast by STAR World every Thursday and Friday nine or ten hours after. In Philippines, it is aired every Thursday and Friday nine or ten hours after its United States telecast; from 2004 to 2007 on ABC 5; 2008 -- 11 on QTV, then GMA News TV; and since 2012 on ETC. On Philippine television history. In Australia, it aired a few hours after the U.S. telecast. It was aired on Network Ten from 2002 to 2008 and then again in 2013. Between 2008 and 2012 it aired on Fox8 and from season 13 to 14 (2014 -- 15) it aired on digital channel, Eleven, a sister channel to Network Ten. Its final season (2016) aired on Fox8 hours after the original U.S. broadcast. The show enjoyed a lot of popularity in Australia throughout the 2000s before declining in the ratings. In the United Kingdom, episodes were aired one day after the U.S. broadcast on digital channel ITV2. In season 12, the episodes aired on 5 *. It was also aired in Ireland on TV3 two days after the telecast. In Brazil and Israel, the show airs two days after its original broadcast. In the instances where the airing is delayed, the shows may sometimes be combined into one episode to summarize the results. In Italy, the twelfth season was broadcast by La3.
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when does the movie with john cena come out | John Cena - Wikipedia
John Felix Anthony Cena (/ ˈsiːnə /; born April 23, 1977) is an American professional wrestler, actor, rapper, and media personality. He is currently signed to WWE, where he is a free agent who appears for both the Raw and SmackDown brands.
Cena started his professional wrestling career in 1999 with Ultimate Pro Wrestling (UPW) and won the UPW Heavyweight Championship the following year. He signed a developmental contract with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, later renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment, or simply WWE) in 2001, debuting on the WWE main roster in 2002. From a generic character in 2002, he morphed into a rapper for the time period of 2002 -- 2004, which earned him fame within the audience on SmackDown! He later transitioned to his current character, which he describes as a "goody - two shoes Superman ''. However, Cena was labeled "the most polarizing professional wrestler ever '' by industry commentator Jim Ross, as his character has many supporters and detractors. Cena was WWE 's franchise player and its public face for much of the 2000s and 2010s. Industry veterans John Layfield, Paul Heyman, and Kurt Angle have called Cena the greatest WWE star of all time.
Throughout his WWE career, Cena has won 25 championships, with 16 reigns as a world champion (13 times as WWE Champion and three times as WWE 's World Heavyweight Champion), an accomplishment only previously achieved by WWE Hall of Famer Ric Flair. He is also a five - time United States Champion and a four - time world tag team champion (two World Tag Team and two WWE Tag Team). Furthermore, he is a Money in the Bank ladder match winner (2012), a two - time Royal Rumble winner (2008, 2013) and a three - time Superstar of the Year Slammy Award winner (2009, 2010, 2012). Cena has the fourth - highest number of combined days as WWE Champion, behind Bruno Sammartino, Bob Backlund, and Hulk Hogan. He has also headlined WWE 's flagship event WrestleMania on five different occasions (WrestleManias 22, 23, XXVII, XXVIII, and 29) over the course of his career, as well as many other pay - per - view events.
Outside of wrestling, Cena released the 2005 rap album You Ca n't See Me, which debuted at No. 15 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart. In 2006, Cena began an acting career in feature films with his first role being in The Marine. He went on star and appear in other films such as 12 Rounds (2009), Legendary (2010), The Reunion (2011), Trainwreck (2015), Sisters (2015), Daddy 's Home (2015), Daddy 's Home 2 (2017), Ferdinand (2017) and the upcoming Transformers prequel Bumblebee: The Movie (2018). He has also made appearances on television shows including Manhunt, Deal or No Deal, MADtv, Saturday Night Live, Punk 'd, Psych and Parks and Recreation. Cena was a contestant on Fast Cars and Superstars: The Gillette Young Guns Celebrity Race, where he made it to the final round before being eliminated, placing third in the overall competition. Cena is the host of American Grit on Fox and is involved in numerous philanthropic causes, most notably with the Make - A-Wish Foundation -- he has granted the most wishes in Make - A-Wish history.
John Felix Anthony Cena was born on April 23, 1977 in West Newbury, Massachusetts, the son of Carol (née Lupien) and John Cena Sr. He has an older brother named Dan and three younger brothers named Matt, Steve, and Sean. His maternal grandfather was baseball player Tony Lupien. Cena is of English, French - Canadian, and Italian descent. He originally attended Central Catholic High School in Lawrence, Massachusetts, before transferring to Cushing Academy, a private prep boarding school. After graduating from Cushing Academy, he attended Springfield College in Springfield, Massachusetts. In college, he was a NCAA Division III All - American center on the college football team, wearing the number 54, which is still used on some of his WWE merchandise. Cena graduated from Springfield College in 1998 with a degree in exercise physiology and body movement, after which he pursued a career in bodybuilding and worked as a driver for a limousine company.
Cena started training to become a professional wrestler in 1999 at Ultimate Pro Wrestling 's (UPW) California - based Ultimate University operated by Rick Bassman. Once he was placed into an in - ring role, Cena began using a semi-robotic character known as The Prototype. Some of this period of his career was documented in the Discovery Channel program Inside Pro Wrestling School. He held the UPW Heavyweight Championship for 27 days in April 2000. Cena wrestled for the UPW until March 2001. Cena returned to UPW for one night in 2003, losing to Frankie Kazarian by disqualification.
On October 10, 2000, while billed as The Prototype, Cena made his unofficial debut for the then World Wrestling Federation (WWF) on a SmackDown! taping in a dark match against Mikey Richardson, which he lost. He received another tryout on January 9, 2001 at a SmackDown! taping in Oakland, California, this time defeating Aaron Aguilera. Cena wrestled again in a dark match at a SmackDown! taping on March 13.
In 2001, Cena signed a developmental contract with the WWF and was assigned to its developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW). During his time there, Cena wrestled under the ring name The Prototype and held the OVW Heavyweight Championship for three months and the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship (with Rico Constantino) for two months. Throughout 2001, Cena would receive four tryouts for the WWF main roster, as he wrestled multiple enhancement talent wrestlers on both WWF house shows and in dark matches before WWF television events. Through the early months of 2002, Cena constantly found himself competing on house shows for the WWF, where he wrestled against the likes of Shelton Benjamin and Tommy Dreamer.
After his main roster call up in June 2002, Cena would continue to appear on OVW programming until the September 25 taping of OVW, where he lost to Kenny Brolin in a Loser Leaves OVW match. Cena would appear in a one - off appearance for the developmental farm in November under the ring name Mr. P in a six - man tag team match, where he teamed with future WWE Hall of Famer Big Boss Man and Charlie Haas in a winning effort against Lance Cade, Trevor Murdoch and Sean O'Haire.
On the June 24 episode of Raw, Mr McMahon ordered the entire roster to the ring and declared that he needed them to all find some ruthless aggression from within themselves and that he was looking for one of them to stand out from the rest of the pack. Cena made his WWE television debut on the June 27, 2002 episode of SmackDown! by answering an open challenge by Kurt Angle. After declaring that he possessed "ruthless aggression '', Cena lost by a pinning combination. After the match, Cena was congratulated by Billy Kidman, Faarooq, Rikishi, and The Undertaker. Following the near - win, Cena became a fan favorite and started feuding with Chris Jericho, defeating Jericho at Vengeance. Then, Cena feuded with Los Guerreros (Chavo and Eddie Guerrero) and Cena picked up a victory over Chavo Guerrero on the September 3, 2002 taping of Velocity. On the September 12 episode of SmackDown!, Cena teamed with Edge in a losing effort against Los Guerreros, thus ending the feud in the process. Cena went on to defeat the likes of Albert and D - Von Dudley as he was restricted to appearances on Velocity for the rest of September.
In October 2002, Cena and Billy Kidman took part in a tag team tournament to crown the first WWE Tag Team Champions of the SmackDown! brand, losing in the first round. The next week on SmackDown!, Cena turned on and attacked Kidman, blaming him for their loss, becoming a villain for the first and only time in his career. On the October 17 episode of SmackDown!, Cena defeated Kidman in a singles contest, but was defeated by Kidman in a rematch on the October 24 episode of SmackDown!. Shortly after the Kidman attack on a Halloween themed episode of SmackDown!, Cena dressed as Vanilla Ice performing a freestyle rap. The following week on SmackDown!, Cena received a new character: a rapper who cut promos while rhyming. As the gimmick grew, Cena began adopting a variant of the 1980s WWF logo -- dropping the "F '' -- as his "signature symbol '', along with the slogan "Word Life ''. At Rebellion, Cena would team with Dawn Marie in a losing effort against Kidman and Torrie Wilson in a mixed tag team match.
Eventually, Cena was joined by an enforcer, Bull Buchanan, who was rechristened B - 2 (also written B2 and pronounced "B - Squared ''). B - 2 helped Cena kick off 2003 in victorious fashion with a win over Rikishi on the January 2 episode of SmackDown! and a win over Chavo Guerrero on the January 9 episode of SmackDown!. Both Cena and B - 2 participated in the 2003 Royal Rumble match, but were unsuccessful. Cena and B - 2 failed to capture the WWE Tag Team Championship from Los Guerreros, resulting in Cena replacing B - 2 with Red Dogg until he was sent to the Raw brand in February 2003.
For the first half of 2003, Cena sought the WWE Championship and chased the reigning champion Brock Lesnar after WrestleMania XIX, gaining upset wins over Eddie Guerrero, The Undertaker and Chris Benoit, who mocked him by wearing a "Toothless Aggression '' shirt. Cena won a number one contender 's tournament for the right to face off against Lesnar for the WWE Championship at Backlash, but he failed to win the title at the event. After Backlash, Cena entered into a feud with Rhyno and Chris Benoit, which led to Cena, along with Chuck Palumbo and Johnny Stamboli, defeating the team of Spanky, Rhyno and Benoit at Judgment Day. Shortly thereafter, Cena began mocking The Undertaker before and after his matches leading to a match between the two at Vengeance, where he lost a singles match against The Undertaker. In a rematch between the two, Cena would once again defeat The Undertaker on the August 5 episode of SmackDown!, this time with assistance from A-Train. The feud between the two came to an end on the August 19 episode of SmackDown!, when Cena and A-Train defeated Undertaker and Orlando Jordan in a tag team match. Cena then pursued the United States Championship, but lost to then champion Eddie Guerrero in a Latino Street Fight for the title.
After losing to Kurt Angle at No Mercy, Cena became a fan favorite (of which he 's remained since) when he joined Angle as a member of his team at Survivor Series, where Cena and Chris Benoit were the survivors. Despite feuding, Cena and Benoit would later join forces as a makeshift tag team and on the November 27 episode of SmackDown! both won a 20 - man battle royal to earn a WWE Championship match when, after being the last two men remaining, they would eliminate each other at the same time and were both declared joint winners of the match. However, Benoit defeated Cena the following week on SmackDown! to earn a WWE Championship match against Lesnar that same night.
In early 2004, Cena participated in the Royal Rumble match at the Royal Rumble, making it to the final six before being eliminated by Big Show. Chris Benoit was the eventual winner of the match. The Royal Rumble elimination led to a feud with Big Show. At No Way Out, Cena faced Big Show and Kurt Angle in a triple threat match to earn a WWE Championship match, with Angle beating Cena by submission. Cena won his first singles championship in WWE, the United States Championship from Big Show at WrestleMania XX after delivering an F-U for the pinfall victory. The reign ended almost four months after successful title defences against the likes of Rene Dupree, Rob Van Dam and Booker T, when he was stripped of the title on the July 8 episode of SmackDown! by Angle after he accidentally knocked him over, thus attacking an official. Cena won the championship back defeating Booker T in a best of five series that culminated at No Mercy, only to drop it to the débuting Carlito Caribbean Cool the following week on SmackDown!. After the loss to Carlito, the duo began a feud, which resulted in Cena allegedly being stabbed in the kidney while at a Boston - area nightclub by Carlito 's bodyguard, Jesús. This worked injury was used to keep Cena out of action for a month while Cena was filming The Marine. Immediately on his return in November, Cena won the United States Championship back from Carlito. Cena later successfully defended the championship against Jesus at Armageddon in a street fight match.
Cena took part in the 2005 Royal Rumble match, making it to the final two along with Batista until both went over the top rope at the same time, ostensibly ending the match, which was restarted and won by Batista. The next month, Cena defeated Kurt Angle to earn a spot in the SmackDown! brand 's WrestleMania 21 main event match, beginning a feud with then WWE Champion John "Bradshaw '' Layfield (JBL) and his Cabinet in the process. In the early stages of the feud, Cena lost the United States Championship to Cabinet member Orlando Jordan, Cena defeated JBL at WrestleMania to win the WWE Championship, giving Cena his first world championship. Cena then had a spinner WWE Championship belt made, while JBL took the original title belt and claimed to still be WWE Champion, until Cena reclaimed the original championship belt in an "I Quit '' match at Judgment Day.
Cena was drafted to the Raw brand on June 6, 2005, becoming the first wrestler selected in the annual draft lottery. Cena immediately entered a feud with Eric Bischoff, after refusing to participate in the "war '' against the Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) roster at One Night Stand. With Bischoff vowing to make Cena 's stint on Raw difficult, he hand picked Jericho to take Cena 's championship from him. During their feud, even though Cena was portrayed as the "face '' (hero) and Jericho as the "heel '' (villain), a vocal section of live crowds, nonetheless, were cheering Jericho during their matches. Crowds started to heavily boo Cena during his next feud with Kurt Angle, who took over as Bischoff 's hand - picked number - one contender after Cena defeated Jericho in a You 're Fired match on the August 22 Raw. Cena held on to the WWE Championship through his feud with Angle, losing to him by disqualification at Unforgiven and pinning him at Taboo Tuesday in a match also involving Shawn Michaels and Survivor Series. The feud with Angle also saw Cena add a secondary, submission based, finishing maneuver -- the STFU (a stepover toehold sleeper, though named for a stepover toehold facelock) -- when he was put into a triple threat submissions only match on the November 28 episode of Raw.
At New Year 's Revolution, Cena participated in the main event Elimination Chamber match where he retained the WWE Championship when he pinned Carlito. Immediately after a bloodied Cena won, Edge made his way to the ring to cash in his Money in the Bank contract -- a "guaranteed title match for the WWE Champion at a time and place of the owner 's choosing ''. Two quick spears allowed Edge to pin Cena, winning him the championship. Three weeks later, Cena won the championship back at the Royal Rumble. After winning the championship, Cena began feuding with Triple H, in which the crowd again started booing Cena and cheering the intended villain, Triple H, after being mostly cheered the last few months. Cena beat Triple H at WrestleMania 22 to retain the WWE Championship. The negative reaction towards Cena intensified when facing Rob Van Dam at One Night Stand. Taking place in front of a boisterous crowd of mostly original ECW fans at the Hammerstein Ballroom, Cena was met with raucous jeering and chants of "Fuck you, Cena '', "You ca n't wrestle '', and "Same old shit ''. When he began performing different moves into the match, the fans began chanting "You still suck ''. Cena lost the WWE Championship at One Night Stand, with Van Dam pinning Cena after interference from Edge.
In July, Edge won the championship from Van Dam in a triple threat match that also involved Cena, re-igniting the feud between him and Cena from earlier in the year. After Edge went about retaining the title by dubious means -- getting himself disqualified (for which championships do not change hands) and using brass knuckles -- he introduced his own version of Cena 's "custom '' title belt, this one with his logo placed on the spinner. Cena eventually won the championship back in a match and arena of Edge 's choice: a Tables, Ladders and Chairs match at Unforgiven at the Air Canada Centre in Edge 's hometown of Toronto, Ontario, Canada after performing the FU on Edge through two tables off a ladder. The match had a stipulation that, had Cena lost, he would have left the Raw brand for SmackDown!. Cena returned his version of the spinner title belt on the next night 's Raw.
On the heels of his feud with Edge, Cena was placed in an inter-brand angle to determine the "Champion of Champions '' -- or which was the most dominant champion in WWE 's three brands. Cena, the World Heavyweight Champion King Booker, and the ECW World Champion Big Show engaged in a mini-feud leading to a triple threat match at Cyber Sunday, with the viewers voting on which of the three championships would be placed on the line. At the same time, Cena became involved in a storyline with non-wrestler Kevin Federline, when he began appearing on Raw with Johnny Nitro and Melina. After getting into a worked physical altercation with Federline on Raw, Federline appeared at Cyber Sunday to hit Cena with the World Heavyweight Championship during the match, helping King Booker retain his championship. 2006 ended with Cena beginning a feud with the undefeated Umaga over the WWE Championship, while 2007 began with the end of his storyline with Kevin Federline. On the first Raw of the new year, Cena was pinned by Federline with an assist from Umaga, although later in the night he was able to get his hands on Federline performing an FU on him. At the pay - per - view event, New Year 's Revolution, Cena defeated Umaga to end his undefeated streak and retain the WWE Championship. At the Royal Rumble, Cena defeated Umaga in a Last Man Standing match and retained the title after Umaga was unable to get to his feet before the referee counted to ten.
One night after the Royal Rumble, an impromptu team of Cena and Shawn Michaels defeated Rated - RKO (Edge and Randy Orton) for the World Tag Team Championship, making Cena a double champion. On the April 2 episode of Raw, after losing a WWE Championship match to Cena at WrestleMania 23, Michaels turned on Cena, costing them the championship in the second of two 10 - team battles royals, by throwing Cena over the top rope and eliminating the team. The Hardys (Matt and Jeff) eventually won the match and the championship. For the rest of the month, Cena feuded with Michaels, Orton, and Edge until The Great Khali declared his intentions to challenge for Cena 's championship attacking and "laying out '' all three of the top contenders before assaulting Cena himself and stealing the physical title belt. For the next two months, Cena feuded with Khali over the championship, eventually becoming the first person in WWE to defeat him by submission at Judgment Day and then by pinfall at One Night Stand. Later that summer, Randy Orton was named the number one contender for the WWE Championship, starting a feud between the two. Leading up to SummerSlam, Orton delivered a number of sneak - attacks, performing three RKOs to Cena, who in the actual match retained the championship. A rematch between the two occurred at Unforgiven, with Orton winning by disqualification after Cena ignored the referee 's instructions and continued to beat on him in the corner.
During a match with Mr. Kennedy on the October 1, 2007 episode of Raw, Cena suffered a legitimate torn pectoral muscle while executing a hip toss. Though finishing the match and taking part in the scripted attack by Orton after the match, surgery the following day found that his pectoralis major muscle was torn completely from the bone, estimating at the time to require seven months to a year of rehabilitation. As a result, Cena was stripped of the title by Mr. McMahon on the next night 's episode of ECW, ending what was the longest WWE Championship reign in over 19 years. Cena 's surgery was performed by orthopedic surgeon James Andrews at St. Vincent 's Hospital in Birmingham, Alabama. Two weeks later in a video update on WWE.com, Dr. Andrews and Cena 's physical trainer both said that he was several weeks ahead of where he was expected to be in his rehabilitation at that time. Despite his injury, Cena attended the annual WWE 's Tribute to the Troops show filmed at Camp Speicher in Tikrit, Iraq on December 7, and aired on December 24.
Cena made a surprise return as the final participant of the Royal Rumble match, winning the match, and the traditional WrestleMania title shot, by last eliminating Triple H. Instead of waiting until WrestleMania, the title shot was cashed in against then WWE Champion Randy Orton at February 's No Way Out pay - per - view in a match where Cena won by disqualification, resulting in him not getting the championship. The night after No Way Out, Cena was placed back into WrestleMania XXIV 's WWE Championship match by defeating Orton in a non-title match with Triple H as special guest referee, making it a triple threat match between the three men, during which he was pinned by Orton. At Backlash, Cena failed to regain the title in a fatal four - way elimination match, in which he was eliminated by Orton. During that match, Cena eliminated JBL, renewing their feud from 2005. Cena defeated JBL at Judgment Day and then at One Night Stand in a First Blood match. However, JBL defeated him in a New York City Parking Lot Brawl at The Great American Bash in July. Cena also failed to regain the WWE Championship from Triple H at Night of Champions.
On the August 4 episode of Raw, Cena became a World Tag Team Champion for a second time, teaming with Batista to defeat Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase, but failed to retain the championship the following week against the former champions. Cena lost to Batista at SummerSlam. Shortly after, Cena was named one of four contenders for CM Punk 's World Heavyweight Championship in the Championship Scramble match at Unforgiven, but he was replaced by Rey Mysterio after suffering a herniated disc in his neck, which required surgery. Cena underwent successful surgery to repair the injury.
Cena made his in - ring return at the November pay - per - view event, Survivor Series, defeating Chris Jericho to win his first World Heavyweight Championship. The two continued their rivalry up to Armageddon, where Cena retained his championship. After defeating JBL at the Royal Rumble, Cena lost the championship at No Way Out to Edge, after Kofi Kingston was attacked by Edge, who took his place in the Elimination Chamber match. Cena was given an opportunity to regain the title at WrestleMania XXV in a triple threat match also involving Big Show, which Cena won.
Cena lost the championship back to Edge in a Last Man Standing match at Backlash after interference from Big Show, who chokeslammed Cena through a big spotlight. This resulted in Cena beginning a feud with Big Show in which Cena defeated Big Show at Judgment Day and at Extreme Rules in a submission match by applying the STFU. During Cena 's feud with Big Show, The Miz challenged him to a match on the April 27 episode of Raw, but as Cena was out due to injury, Miz claimed an unofficial win via forfeit and continued to do this over the following weeks, until Cena defeated him in a singles match at The Bash.
At Night of Champions in July, Cena participated in a triple threat match for the WWE Championship against Triple H and defending champion Randy Orton (a rematch from WrestleMania 24), but lost when Orton pinned him after interference from Orton 's protegés Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase. The next night, Cena won a beat the clock challenge to earn another shot at the WWE Championship at SummerSlam, where Orton would use several underhanded tactics to retain his title. A month later at Breaking Point, Cena defeated Orton in an "I Quit '' match to win his fourth WWE Championship, but lost the title back to Orton in a Hell in a Cell match at the eponymous event. Three weeks later, at Bragging Rights, Cena defeated Orton in a 60 - minute Iron Man match to regain the championship and end his long - standing feud with Orton. Cena successfully defended the title against both Triple H and Shawn Michaels in a triple threat match at Survivor Series, but lost it to Sheamus at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs in a tables match. The next night, Cena competed in a tournament to crown the 2009 Superstar of the Year, defeating CM Punk in the first round and longtime rival Randy Orton in the finals later that night to win the honor. He would get his rematch for the WWE Championship against Sheamus on the final Raw of 2009, where he won by disqualification, but did not win the championship. While Cena regained the title at the Elimination Chamber pay - per - view in an Elimination Chamber match, his reign was cut short after Mr. McMahon immediately made him defend the title against Batista, who won the title. Cena defeated Batista at WrestleMania XXVI for the title, and successfully defended it at Extreme Rules, in a Last Man Standing rematch. Cena faced Batista one more time, winning an "I Quit '' match at Over the Limit, thus ending their long - time feud.
On the June 7, 2010 episode of Raw, Cena was suddenly thrust into a new storyline when during his main event match against CM Punk, he was attacked by all eight former contestants of the first season of NXT, with Wade Barrett as their leader. Punk, his follower Luke Gallows, and other personnel around the ring were attacked as well, but Cena took the worst of the attack and was carried out on a stretcher. This group later referred to itself as The Nexus. At Fatal 4 - Way, Cena lost the WWE Championship to Sheamus, in a fatal four - way match involving Edge and Randy Orton, after The Nexus interfered. Cena again lost to Sheamus in a steel cage match at Money in the Bank, after The Nexus again interfered. Cena, in retaliation to The Nexus, formed an alliance with Edge, Chris Jericho, John Morrison, R - Truth, The Great Khali, and Bret Hart. They defeated The Nexus at SummerSlam, with help from the returning Daniel Bryan, a former member of Nexus, who replaced Khali after he was injured.
Hoping to end The Nexus, Cena challenged Wade Barrett to a match at Hell in a Cell with the stipulations that if he were to lose, he would join The Nexus. After Barrett defeated Cena, he joined The Nexus, and was forced by the anonymous Raw general manager to follow their orders or be fired. Cena and fellow Nexus member David Otunga defeated Cody Rhodes and Drew McIntyre to win the WWE Tag Team Championship at Bragging Rights. Later that night, he was forced to help Barrett defeat Orton in a WWE Championship match, giving Barrett the disqualification win, but not the title. The following night on Raw, Cena and Otunga lost the WWE Tag Team Championship to fellow Nexus members Heath Slater and Justin Gabriel, when Barrett ordered Otunga to lay down and lose the title. At Survivor Series, Cena officiated a match for the WWE Championship between Wade Barrett and Randy Orton. Per stipulation, if Barrett did n't win the championship, Cena would be "fired '' from the WWE.
Orton defeated Barrett to retain the title, thus terminating Cena 's WWE contract (kayfabe). The following night on Raw, Cena gave a farewell speech, before costing Wade Barrett the WWE Championship by interfering in his rematch with Randy Orton. A week later, Cena invaded Raw, first as a spectator, but then attacked members of Nexus, explaining that he would still take down Nexus one by one, despite not having a job in the WWE anymore. On the December 13 episode of Raw, Cena was rehired by Barrett, in exchange that he would face him on December 19 at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs in a chairs match, which Cena won.
On the December 27 episode of Raw, The Nexus, minus Barrett, announced they were under new management and offered to bury the hatchet with Cena, to which he refused. The Nexus attacked Cena, leaving a Nexus armband in the ring during the process. As the group retreated, CM Punk, who had attacked Cena with a steel chair twice the week before, came to the ring to apparently attack Cena, but instead put on the armband left behind to symbolically announce his allegiance with The Nexus, becoming leader the following week by manipulating Barrett 's banishment from the group. On the January 17 episode of Raw, Cena returned and faced Punk in a match, which ended in a no contest after Cena was attacked by the debuting Mason Ryan, who later joined The Nexus. Cena competed in the 2011 Royal Rumble match at the pay - per - view, which saw Cena eliminate most of the Nexus members, ending his feud with the stable.
During the same match at the Rumble, Cena made it to the final five before being eliminated by then WWE Champion The Miz, who was not part of the match. Cena won the Elimination Chamber match at the titular pay - per - view to face Miz at WrestleMania XXVII for the WWE Championship.
On the February 21 episode of Raw, Cena replied in rap form to comments made by The Rock the previous week, as The Rock returned as the announced guest host of WrestleMania. That night, Cena was placed into a WWE Tag Team Championship match, with him teaming with The Miz, where they defeated Justin Gabriel and Heath Slater to become WWE Tag Team Champions. However, their rematch clause was immediately invoked and they won the title back after The Miz attacked Cena. After weeks of insults, Cena and Rock finally met, where, after a verbal confrontation, and brief attack by The Miz and Alex Riley, Cena attacked The Rock with the Attitude Adjustment. At WrestleMania XXVII, Cena and Miz fought to a double countout, but The Rock restarted the match and performed a Rock Bottom on Cena, allowing The Miz to retain the title. The next night on Raw, Cena, in response to The Rock "screwing '' him out of the title, agreed to face him in the main event of WrestleMania XXVIII, making it the first match to be set up for WrestleMania one year in advance. At Extreme Rules, Cena defeated The Miz and John Morrison to become WWE Champion. Cena went on to successfully defend the title against The Miz at Over the Limit in an "I Quit '' match and R - Truth at Capitol Punishment. Cena then began a feud with CM Punk, who was leaving the company at Money in the Bank, where he defeated Cena to win the WWE Championship, and left the company with the title. After Rey Mysterio won the WWE Championship in a tournament, Cena challenged and defeated him later that night to become WWE Champion for a record - breaking ninth time, only to be interrupted by CM Punk, who also claimed to be champion. Punk again defeated Cena at SummerSlam in a championship unification match. After Alberto Del Rio became WWE Champion by cashing in his Money in the Bank briefcase, Cena became number one contender and beat Del Rio at Night of Champions to win the WWE Championship for the tenth time. He lost it back to Del Rio at Hell in a Cell, in a triple threat Hell in a Cell match also involving CM Punk. Cena lost his rematch to Alberto Del Rio at Vengeance in a Last Man Standing match, due to interference by The Miz and R - Truth. After a few weeks of Miz and Truth attacking Cena and other employees, Cena was allowed to choose his partner to challenge Miz and Truth at Survivor Series and Cena chose The Rock as his partner. Despite exchanging insults in the following weeks, they defeated Miz and Truth, though Rock closed the show by giving Cena a Rock Bottom.
Cena then began a feud with Kane, who cited his disgust for Cena 's "Rise Above Hate '' slogan and claimed that Cena would need to embrace the hate in order to defeat The Rock at WrestleMania. Cena fought Kane to a draw at the Royal Rumble, and then defeated him in an Ambulance match at Elimination Chamber. At WrestleMania XXVIII, Cena faced The Rock in the main event match which had been building for a year and was billed as "once in a lifetime ''. The match ended when Cena attempted the People 's Elbow on The Rock, and Rock countered with a Rock Bottom for the pinfall. The following night on Raw, Cena accepted his loss and invited The Rock to the ring so that he could congratulate him. However, Cena 's call was answered instead by the returning Brock Lesnar, who then attacked Cena with an F - 5. This resulted in Cena feuding with the Raw general manager John Laurinaitis, who revealed that he signed Lesnar to bring "legitimacy '' to WWE and for Lesnar to become its "new face ''. At Extreme Rules, Cena defeated Lesnar in an Extreme Rules match. His feud with Laurinaitis escalated after Big Show cost Cena a match against him at Over the Limit, but Laurinaitis was fired at No Way Out after Cena defeated Big Show in a match with both of their jobs on the line. Cena won the Money in the Bank ladder match at the eponymous pay - per - view, earning a contract for a shot at the WWE Championship anytime within a year. At Raw 1000, Cena cashed in his contract on CM Punk, and won the match by disqualification after Big Show interfered, becoming the first person to cash in a Money in the Bank contract and not win a title. Cena 's feud with Punk continued into SummerSlam, where Punk defeated Cena and Big Show to retain the title, and at Night of Champions, where they fought to a draw. After being sidelined with a legitimate arm injury, Cena returned at Survivor Series to be pinned by Punk in a match which also featured Ryback. Cena then feuded with Dolph Ziggler over an alleged relationship with AJ Lee and at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs, lost to him in a ladder match for his Money in the Bank contract, after AJ turned on Cena. The following night on Raw, Cena teamed with Vickie Guerrero to face Ziggler and AJ in a mixed tag team match which ended in a disqualification after Cena was attacked by the debuting Big E Langston. Cena then defeated Ziggler on the January 7, 2013 episode of Raw in a singles match, and again in a steel cage match the following week, despite interference from AJ and Langston in both matches to end the feud.
On January 27, 2013, Cena won his second Royal Rumble match, and later announced that he 'd pursue the WWE Championship at WrestleMania 29. Cena, along with Ryback and Sheamus, began feuding with The Shield, which culminated in a six - man tag team match at Elimination Chamber, where The Shield were victorious. On the February 25 episode of Raw, Cena defeated CM Punk to reaffirm his status as number one contender for the Rock 's WWE Championship. He then returned to his rivalry with The Rock, with Cena blaming his personal and professional troubles on his loss to The Rock the previous year, going so far as admitting his own vanity had cost him the match. At WrestleMania 29, Cena defeated Rock in their rematch to win his eleventh WWE Championship and shook hands with Rock as sign of respect. Cena then began a rivalry with Ryback, during which Cena suffered a legitimate achilles tendon injury, while also battling The Shield and facing them in losing efforts. Cena retained his championship against Ryback in a Last Man Standing match at Extreme Rules as the match ended in a no contest aftet both men were down for a 10 count. Cena then defeated Ryback in a Three Stages of Hell match at Payback. He defeated Mark Henry via submission at Money in the Bank. At SummerSlam, Cena lost the WWE Championship to Daniel Bryan, with Triple H as the special guest referee. The following night on Raw, Cena announced that he would undergo surgery for a triceps tear and would be out for four to six months.
Cena returned at the Hell in a Cell pay - per - view and defeated Alberto Del Rio to win his third World Heavyweight Championship. Cena successfully defended his championship against Damien Sandow on the October 28 episode of Raw, and Alberto Del Rio in a rematch at Survivor Series. Next, Cena challenged then WWE Champion Randy Orton to unify their respective championships, with The Authority agreeing and arranging for a Tables, Ladders and Chairs title unification match at the TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs pay - per - view, which Cena lost. A rematch occurred at the Royal Rumble for the now unified WWE World Heavyweight Championship, where Cena lost after being distracted by The Wyatt Family. The Wyatts continued to interfere in Cena 's matches, and at Elimination Chamber, caused Cena 's elimination in the Elimination Chamber match.
After Elimination Chamber, Bray Wyatt accepted Cena 's challenge for a WrestleMania match, Wyatt wanted to prove that Cena 's heroic act was a facade characteristic of "this era of lies '' while further wanting to turn Cena into a "monster ''. At WrestleMania XXX, Cena overcame interference from Luke Harper and Erick Rowan to defeat Wyatt. The feud continued after WrestleMania based on the story that Wyatt was capturing Cena 's fanbase, which was exemplified by Wyatt leading a children 's choir to the ring on the April 28 episode of Raw, with the children later putting on sheep masks. At Extreme Rules, Wyatt defeated Cena in a steel cage match, after repeated interference from the rest of the Wyatt Family members and a demonic child. Cena 's feud with Wyatt continued with a Last Man Standing match being set up for Payback, where Cena buried Wyatt under multiple equipment cases to win the match.
On the June 16 episode of Raw, Cena defeated Kane in a stretcher match to qualify for the ladder match for the vacant WWE World Heavyweight Championship at Money in the Bank, where Cena won his 15th world championship. Cena then retained the title at Battleground in a fatal four - way match against Roman Reigns, Randy Orton and Kane. At SummerSlam, Cena lost the championship to Brock Lesnar in a squash match, during which Lesnar hit Cena with sixteen suplexes and two F - 5s, ending his reign at 49 days. Cena invoked his title rematch clause against Lesnar for Night of Champions, nearly winning before Seth Rollins attacked him to cause a disqualification, although he became the first wrestler to defeat Lesnar in two WWE pay - per - view events. Cena then began feuding with Dean Ambrose for the right to face Rollins at Hell in a Cell, but Ambrose won the right by defeating Cena in a No Holds Barred Contract on a Pole match. Cena would instead face Randy Orton in a Hell in a Cell match to determine the # 1 contender for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship, which Cena won.
On October 27 episode of Raw, Cena rejected The Authority 's offer to join forces, which resulted in a 5 - on - 5 Survivor Series elimination tag match between Team Cena and Team Authority at Survivor Series. Cena 's team consisted of Dolph Ziggler, Big Show, Erick Rowan and Ryback; at Survivor Series, Show turned on Cena, causing Cena 's elimination, but Ziggler eventually won the match for Team Cena with the interfering Sting 's help. Thus as per the match stipulation, The Authority were stripped from power and only Cena could bring them back. At TLC: Tables, Ladders, Chairs & Stairs, Cena defeated Rollins in a tables match to retain his WWE World Heavyweight Championship No. 1 contender status. It was then announced that Cena would face Lesnar for the title at the Royal Rumble. On the December 29 episode of Raw, Rollins and Big Show held guest host Edge hostage, forcing Cena to reinstate The Authority. On the January 5 episode of Raw, The Authority added Rollins to the title match at the Royal Rumble involving Cena and Lesnar, and Ziggler, Ryback and Rowan were "fired '' for joining Team Cena at Survivor Series. On the January 19 episode of Raw, Cena won a handicap match against Rollins, Big Show and Kane to retain his title shot at the Royal Rumble and win back the jobs of Ziggler, Ryback and Rowan. At the Royal Rumble, Cena was unsuccessful in capturing the title.
Following the Royal Rumble, Cena began feuding with then United States Champion Rusev and at Fastlane, Rusev defeated Cena to reatin his title after Cena passed out to his submission, the Accolade, after Rusev hit Cena with a low blow following a distraction from his manager Lana. In the following weeks, Cena challenged Rusev to a rematch, which was declined, and Stephanie McMahon decreed that Cena would not compete at WrestleMania 31 unless Rusev agreed to a rematch. On the March 9 episode of Raw, Cena attacked Rusev, refusing to release the STF submission hold, causing Lana to grant Cena the match. Cena defeated Rusev at WrestleMania to win the United States Championship for the fourth time, marking Rusev 's first pinfall loss in the main roster. The following night on Raw, Cena announced that he would issue an open challenge each week on Raw with his United States Championship on the line -- he successfully defended his title against the likes of Dean Ambrose, Stardust, Bad News Barrett, Kane, Sami Zayn, Neville, Zack Ryder and Cesaro. Cena retained his title against Rusev in a Russian Chain match at Extreme Rules and a "I Quit '' match at Payback. The following night on Raw, Cena was attacked by then NXT Champion Kevin Owens, setting up a Champion vs. Champion match at Elimination Chamber, where Owens defeated Cena, but Cena defeated Owens in a rematch at Money in the Bank. Cena defeated Owens at Battleground to retain the United States Championship and end the feud. Cena then resumed his feud with then WWE World Heavyweight Champion Seth Rollins, with Rollins refusing Cena 's challenges for the title. On the July 27 episode of Raw, The Authority forced Cena to defend the United States Championship against Rollins. Cena defeated Rollins despite suffering a legitimate broken nose during the match. Cena then faced Rollins in a "Winner Takes All '' match at SummerSlam, for both the WWE World Heavyweight Championship and the United States Championship, which Cena lost after guest host Jon Stewart, appearing to side with Cena, instead attacked him with a steel chair, ending Cena 's reign at 147 days.
Cena defeated Rollins to win the title for the fifth time at Night of Champions, a record in the WWE ownership era of the title. Cena then retained his title against Rollins the following night on Raw and then in a steel cage match at WWE Live from Madison Square Garden, while also restarting his open challenges and successfully defend the title against New Day members Xavier Woods and Big E and Dolph Ziggler. At Hell in a Cell, Cena lost the title to the returning Alberto Del Rio in an open challenge. After a hiatus, Cena returned on the December 28 episode of Raw, defeating Del Rio by disqualification in a rematch for the title. On the January 7, 2016 episode of SmackDown taped on January 5, Cena aided Kalisto at ringside to victory against Del Rio. That same day he underwent surgery on a shoulder injury, which would keep him out of action for an undisclosed amount of time.
Cena returned at WrestleMania 32, helping The Rock fend off The Wyatt Family. Cena then made his full return on the Memorial Day edition of Raw on May 30, four months earlier than had been expected for his type of injury. He was confronted by AJ Styles, only to be betrayed by Styles, who joined his former Club teammates Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson in attacking Cena. This set up a match between Cena and Styles at Money in the Bank, which Styles won with interference from Gallows and Anderson. On the July 4 episode of Raw, Cena was again attacked by the Club, but was saved by Enzo Amore and Big Cass. Subsequently, a six - man tag team match was made between the two teams for Battleground. On July 19 at the 2016 WWE draft, Cena was drafted to the SmackDown brand, while also defeating Club member Luke Gallows via pinfall in a singles contest. Cena, Amore and Cass defeated The Club at Battleground after Cena pinned Styles. Cena continued his feud with Styles, which resulted in him losing their match at SummerSlam on August 21. With Styles later winning the renamed WWE World Championship, Cena challenged him and previous champion Dean Ambrose in a triple threat match for the title at No Mercy. He lost the match after being pinned by Styles, which came after Ambrose and Cena simultaneously made Styles submit, therefore restarting the match. Cena then took a hiatus from WWE to film American Grit season 2.
On the December 13 episode of SmackDown Live it was announced that Cena would be returning on the December 27 episode. On his return, he addressed rumors about him during the past year, stated that the New Era was "B.S. '', and then challenged the winner of that night 's championship match, which was AJ Styles, for the again renamed WWE Championship at the Royal Rumble. On January 29, 2017, Cena defeated Styles at the Royal Rumble to tie Ric Flair for the most world title reigns at 16, although Flair has actually won the world title several more times with the number 16 having been called "WWE mythology ''. Cena then entered the Elimination Chamber match as WWE Champion. He was eliminated fourth after a Sister Abigail from Bray Wyatt, who went on to win the championship. Two nights later on SmackDown Live, Cena lost a triple threat match against Wyatt for the championship in a match also featuring Styles. Cena then began a feud with The Miz; after Cena eliminated Miz from both the Elimination Chamber and a 10 - man battle royal to face Wyatt at WrestleMania 33, Miz came back in and eliminated Cena. The next week, Miz accused Cena of being a hypocrite due to his movie commitments, while Cena accused Miz of stealing other wrestlers ' moves and personalities. Miz 's wife Maryse then slapped Cena before Cena and his girlfriend Nikki Bella sent Miz and Maryse retreating. SmackDown GM Daniel Bryan then set up a mixed tag team match between the two pairs for WrestleMania 33, which Cena and Bella won. Cena proposed marriage to Bella after the match and she accepted. Cena then went on a hiatus from WWE to film season 2 of American Grit.
Cena appeared on the Memorial Day episode of Raw on May 29, providing a voice over for the opening video package. On the June 6 episode of SmackDown, it was announced that Cena would make his return to the brand on the July 4 episode. However, the following week on Raw, it was announced that Cena was a free agent. Soon after in a WWE.com article, it was revealed that he became a free agent during the 2017 WWE Superstar Shake - up. Although he was scheduled for the July 4 episode of SmackDown, it was unclear if he would remain with the brand or move to Raw. Cena confirmed he would appear for both the Raw and SmackDown brands upon his return. At this point, Cena would begin to become "meta '' during promos, breaking the fourth wall while talking and going so far as to refer to himself as "Super Cena '', a name that wrestling fans have given him over the years due to his constant victories over opponents. He was interrupted by the also returning Rusev, whom after a war of words, Cena challenged to a flag match and Rusev accepted. General Manager Daniel Bryan scheduled the match for Battleground, where Cena emerged victorious. He would then face Shinsuke Nakamura for the right to face Jinder Mahal for the WWE Championship at SummerSlam, but was defeated by Nakamura. Cena saved Nakamura from an attack by Baron Corbin after the show and a match between Cena and Corbin at SummerSlam was made the following week. On the August 15 episode of SmackDown, Corbin attacked Cena during a non-title WWE Championship match against Mahal causing a disqualification victory for Cena. Afterwards, Corbin cashed in his Money in the Bank contract, but he attacked Cena instead, allowing Mahal to roll - up for the victory. Cena defeated Corbin at the pay - per - view event.
Cena then appeared on Raw the night after SummerSlam, explaining he wanted to be "face to face '' with a certain WWE wrestler, confirmed to be Roman Reigns. The next week, a match between the two was scheduled for No Mercy. In the weeks leading up to the match, the two cut various worked shoot promos on each other, going back and forth about what they perceive the other as and why the crowds react the way they do. At No Mercy, Cena lost to Reigns. Cena would then make a return to SmackDown, after Commissioner Shane McMahon named him the final member of Team SmackDown for men 's 5 - on - 5 elimination match against Team Raw 's men at Survivor Series, in which Cena was eliminated by Kurt Angle and Team SmackDown was defeated. Cena then made a return to Raw 's Christmas episode where he was confronted by Elias and then defeated him in an impromptu match. Cena then appeared on RAW 's 25th Anniversary where Elias smashed a guitar on Cena 's back after giving him a low - blow. Cena then participated in the annual Royal Rumble match at the namesake pay - per - view but failed to win the match after being eliminated by the eventual winner Nakamura. The next day on the January 29 episode of Raw, Cena defeated Finn Bálor to qualify for the Elimination Chamber match for a WWE Universal Championship title match at WrestleMania 34, at the Elimination Chamber pay - per - view event.
During his first years in WWE, Cena portrayed a vastly different character. This character, a white rapper who wore jerseys, backwards hats, and a chain with a padlock around his neck, was known as the "Doctor of Thuganomics ''. Cena sometimes used underhanded tactics to score victories, such as using his chain as a weapon behind the referee 's back. Cena often rapped before his matches, insulting his opponents, events that happened in the media, and even the crowd on occasion. Cena also regularly performed "rap battles '', where he and his opponent took turns rapping on each other. Cena reverted to this persona once during his feud with The Rock. In 2005, shortly after his first debut film, The Marine, his wrestling character was shifted from a white rapper to that of a young private.
Cena has portrayed a heroic character throughout his WWE career, with the exception of a villainous run in 2002 -- 2003. Cena 's signature ring gear includes jean shorts, sneakers, and wrist and armbands. Cena also wears a variety of T - shirts and baseball caps which commonly include one of his catchphrases like "never give up '', "you ca n't see me '', and "hustle, loyalty, respect ''.
Cena has a history of returning from actual (and kayfabe) injuries much sooner than expected. In 2016, ESPN reported David Shoemaker said of him, "Never underestimate Cena 's recuperative abilities. He 's somewhere on the recovery scale between German platelet - rich plasma therapy and Deadpool. '' Big Show stated he felt the most stable to be lifted by Cena, despite Cena being over 200 lbs lighter and almost a foot shorter, a testament to Cena 's functional strength.
WWE Studios, a division of WWE which produces and finances motion pictures, produced Cena 's first movie -- The Marine, which was distributed theatrically by 20th Century Fox America beginning on October 13, 2006. In its first week, the film made approximately US $7 million at the United States box office. After ten weeks in theaters, the film grossed $18.7 million. Once the film was released on DVD, it fared better, making $30 million in rentals in the first twelve weeks.
His second film, also produced by WWE Studios, was 12 Rounds. Filming began on February 25, 2008 in New Orleans; the film was released on March 27, 2009.
Cena co-starred in his third film produced by WWE Studios, titled Legendary, which was played in selected theaters starting on September 10, 2010, for a limited time, then it was released on DVD on September 28, 2010.
That same year, Cena starred in the children 's film Fred: The Movie, a film based on Lucas Cruikshank 's YouTube videos of the same name, where he plays Fred 's imaginary father. The movie was first aired on Nickelodeon in September 2010.
In 2015, Cena made appearances in the comedy films Trainwreck, Sisters and a cameo in Daddy 's Home.
He was the pace car driver for the 58th annual Daytona 500.
In 2017, Cena lent his voice for the animated film, Ferdinand. He also appeared Daddy 's Home 2 reprising his role from the 2015 film.
In 2018, Cena will star in the comedy Blockers and the Transformers spin - off prequel, Bumblebee: The Movie.
Before his WWE debut, Cena made an appearance on the webcast Go Sick as Bruebaker, an angry, cursing wrestler in 2001.
During his WWE career, Cena has appeared on ABC 's Jimmy Kimmel Live! three times. Cena has also appeared on morning radio shows; including the CBS and XM versions of Opie and Anthony as part of their "walkover '' on October 10, 2006. Other appearances have included NBC 's Late Night with Conan O'Brien, Fuse 's Celebrity Playlist, Fox Sports Net 's The Best Damn Sports Show Period, FOX 's MADtv, G4 's Training Camp (with Shelton Benjamin), and two appearances on MTV 's Punk 'd (August 2006 and May 2007), as the victim of a practical joke. He also served as a co-presenter, with Hulk Hogan, at the 2005 Teen Choice Awards, as a guest judge during the third week of the 2006 season of Nashville Star, and appeared at the 2007 Nickelodeon UK Kids Choice Awards.
In January 2007, Cena, Batista, and Ashley Massaro appeared representing WWE on an episode of Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, giving the children of the family whose house was being renovated WWE merchandise and eight tickets to WrestleMania 23. Two months later, he and Bobby Lashley appeared on the NBC game show Deal or No Deal as "moral support '' to longtime WWE fan and front row staple, Rick "Sign Guy '' Achberger. Edge and Randy Orton also appeared, but as antagonists. On April 9, 2008, Cena, along with fellow wrestlers Triple H and Chris Jericho, appeared on the Idol Gives Back fund - raising special. In March 2009, Cena made an appearance on Saturday Night Live during the show 's cold opening sequence. On March 7, 2009, he was a guest on NPR 's quiz show Wait Wait... Do n't Tell Me! in a Not My Job sequence titled "Sure, pro wrestling is a good gig, but when you win, do they throw teddy bears into the ring? ''.
In 2001, between his training in Ultimate Pro Wrestling and Ohio Valley Wrestling, Cena was involved in the UPN produced reality show Manhunt, in which he portrayed Big Tim Kingman, leader of the group of bounty hunters who chased down the contestants who acted as fugitives. The show, however, was mired in controversy when it was alleged that the portions of the show were rigged to eliminate certain players, scenes were re-shot or staged to enhance drama, and contestants read from scripts.
Cena was featured on the ABC reality series Fast Cars and Superstars: The Gillette Young Guns Celebrity Race, which aired in June 2007, making it to the final round before being eliminated on June 24, placing third in the competition overall.
In 2007, Cena was interviewed for the CNN Special Investigations Unit documentary, Death Grip: Inside Pro Wrestling, which focused on steroid and drug use in professional wrestling. When asked if he had taken steroids he was heard to reply, "I ca n't tell you that I have n't, but you will never prove that I have ''. The day after the documentary aired, WWE accused CNN of taking Cena 's comments out of context to present a biased point of view, backing up their claim by posting an unedited video of Cena answering the same question -- filmed by WWE cameras from another angle -- in which he is heard beginning the same statement with "absolutely not ''. A text interview on the website with Cena later had him saying the news outlet should apologize for misrepresenting him, which CNN refused, saying they felt the true answer to the question began with the phrase "my answer to that question ''. However, they did edit the documentary on subsequent airings to include the "absolutely not ''.
Cena hosted the Australian Nickelodeon Kids Choice Awards with Natalie Bassingthwaighte on October 11, 2008 in Melbourne.
Cena guest starred as Ewan O'Hara, brother of Juliet O'Hara, in an episode of the fourth season of the comedy drama Psych. He also guest starred as himself in the seventh episode of Disney Channel 's Hannah Montana Forever.
On August 17, 2015, Cena guest co-hosted Today on NBC. He co-hosted the show again on December 28 and 29, 2015. Cena appeared on Late Night with Seth Meyers on August 21, 2015. Cena co-hosted Today again on March 28 -- 30 and May 9, 10, 13 and 30, 2016.
Cena hosts American Grit on Fox, which is a reality television series with 10 episodes. 16 men and women were split into four teams, where challenges were given. A $1 million USD prize was given to the winning team. American Grit premiered on Fox on April 14, 2016. Cena has been retweeting motivational tweets from his followers on Twitter who used the hashtag # ShowYourGrit, in a way that the fan did something motivational to his / her friends in a real - life scenario. The finale of Season 1 aired on June 9, 2016.
Cena hosted the ESPN ESPY Awards on July 13, 2016 in Los Angeles.
On December 10, 2016, Cena was the guest host of Saturday Night Live (SNL) on NBC.
On January 24, 2017, Nickelodeon announced that Cena would host the 2017 Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards ceremony on March 11. On January 11, 2018, it was announced that he would be hosting the awards ceremony again on March 24, 2018, becoming the third host behind Whitney Houston, and Rosie O'Donnell to host the ceremony back to back years. In addition, he will be working in Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles voicing a recurring villain named Baron Draxum.
Before his professional wrestling career, Cena appeared in an advertisement for Gold 's Gym. As a wrestler, he has endorsed the energy drink YJ Stinger, appearing in commercials beginning in October 2003, and Subway, for whom he filmed advertisements with their spokesperson Jared Fogle in November 2006 that began airing the next January. For a time in 2007, he also endorsed two "signature collections '' of energy drinks and energy bars sold by American Body Builders. In 2008, Cena filmed a commercial as part of Gillette 's "Young Guns '' NASCAR campaign.
In 2009, Cena expanded his relationship with Gillette by introducing a new online campaign called "Be A Superstar '' featuring himself alongside fellow WWE wrestlers Chris Jericho and Cody Rhodes. The campaign features motivational videos. After Dwayne "The Rock '' Johnson called Cena "Fruity Pebbles '' during their feud (in reference to Cena 's colorful merchandise) Cena appeared on the box of Fruity Pebbles cereal in 2013.
On October 13, 2016, Cena made his debut as the voice of Ernie the Elephant in a new commercial campaign launched by Wonderful Pistachios. He was named to Adweek 's "Creative 100 '' and received praise for the performance.
During his WWE career, Cena 's attire has attempted to reflect the most current fashions and stylings within the hip hop culture that his character represents. Cena started out wearing "throwback jerseys '' until WWE produced specific Cena merchandise which he began wearing. While Cena was a member of the SmackDown! brand, one of his WWE produced T - shirts bore the suggestive spoonerism "Ruck Fules ''. Whenever it appeared on television the image was censored, not by the network, but by WWE to sell more shirts under the premise that it was "too hot for TV ''. He also wore a chain with a large padlock, occasionally using it as a weapon, until WrestleMania 21, when it was replaced with a chromed and diamond studded "Chain Gang '' spinner medallion -- reminiscent of the ones worn by members of G - Unit -- matching his spinner title belt.
Around the time The Marine was released, Cena began wearing attire more military related, including camouflage shorts, dog tags, a Marine soldier cap, and a WWE produced shirt with the legend "Chain Gang Assault Battalion ''. Shortly after WrestleMania 23, when promotion for The Marine ended, the military attire diminished and was replaced with apparel bearing his new slogan "American Made Muscle '' along with denim shorts, not seen since he was a member of the SmackDown! roster. He then wore shirts that promoted Cenation and his trademark line "You Ca n't See Me ''.
Cena has granted over 500 wishes for children with life - threatening illnesses through the Make - A-Wish Foundation; the most in Make - A-Wish history. In 2009, Cena received the Chris Greicius Celebrity Award.
From late 2011 until WrestleMania XXVIII, Cena wore a black "Rise Above Hate '' T - shirt promoting WWE 's "Be a Star '' anti-bullying campaign. In September and October 2012, Cena wore pink and black with the phrase "Rise Above Cancer '' in partnership with Susan G. Komen for the Cure as part of Breast Cancer Awareness Month.
In November 2016 Cena appeared in a public service announcement, "We Are America '', sponsored by the Ad Council, as part of its "Love Has No Labels '' campaign.
In addition to his wrestling career, Cena is a rapper. He performed his fifth WWE theme song, "Basic Thuganomics '', and it was featured on the WWE soundtrack album WWE Originals. He also recorded a song, "Untouchables '', for the company 's next soundtrack album WWE ThemeAddict: The Music, Vol. 6. He collaborated on a remix for the song "H-U-S-T-L-E '' along with Murs, E-40, and Chingo Bling.
Cena 's debut album, You Ca n't See Me, was recorded with his cousin Tha Trademarc. It features, amongst other songs, his entrance theme, "The Time is Now '', and the single "Bad, Bad Man '', for which a music video was made that parodied 1980s culture, including the television show The A-Team. A video was also made for the second single, "Right Now, '' and premiered on the August 8 Raw. Cena and Tha Trademarc were later featured on a track by The Perceptionists named "Champion Scratch ''. Cena appeared on Tionne "T - Boz '' Watkins ' album Still Cool.
In October 2014, Cena was featured on two songs with rapper Wiz Khalifa for his two singles "All Day '' and "Breaks '' for the soundtrack to the WWE 2K15 video game.
In mid-2015, Cena was the subject of the Internet meme "Unexpected John Cena '', also known as simply "Unexpected Cena '' or "It 's John Cena ''.
Cena resides in Tampa, Florida.
While promoting his 2009 film 12 Rounds, Cena announced his engagement to Elizabeth Huberdeau. They were married on July 11, 2009. On May 1, 2012, Cena filed for divorce, which was finalized on July 18. The divorce was mentioned on - screen during Cena 's feud with The Rock as part of their rematch at WrestleMania 29. Since November 2012, he has been dating fellow wrestler Nikki Bella. They became engaged on April 2, 2017, when Cena proposed to her after their victory over The Miz and Maryse in an intergender tag team match at WrestleMania 33.
Cena is a fan of Japanese anime and has named Fist of the North Star as his favorite anime movie. He also plays video games, citing the Command & Conquer series as his favorite. Cena supports the Boston Bruins, Boston Celtics, Boston Red Sox, New England Patriots, and Tottenham Hotspur FC. He has over 20 muscle cars, some of which are one - of - a-kind.
Cena started learning Mandarin Chinese in 2016 to help WWE expand its reach, and he spoke the language relatively smoothly at a press conference in China.
In December 2017, the Ford Motor Company filed a lawsuit against Cena for selling his 2017 Ford GT, therefore violating his purchase agreement. According to Ford, he signed a contract to keep the car for at least two years, but breached the agreement by selling it to make a net profit shortly after receiving it.
During Cena 's 12th reign, the championship was called the WWE World Heavyweight Championship.
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who called milton the master of grand style | John Milton - wikipedia
John Milton (9 December 1608 -- 8 November 1674) was an English poet, polemicist, man of letters, and civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under its Council of State and later under Oliver Cromwell. He wrote at a time of religious flux and political upheaval, and is best known for his epic poem Paradise Lost (1667), written in blank verse.
Writing in English, Latin, Greek, and Italian, he achieved international renown within his lifetime, and his celebrated Areopagitica (1644), written in condemnation of pre-publication censorship, is among history 's most influential and impassioned defences of free speech and freedom of the press. His desire for freedom extended into his style: he introduced new words (coined from Latin) to the English language, and was the first to employ non-rhymed verse outside of the theatre.
William Hayley 's 1796 biography called him the "greatest English author '', and he remains generally regarded "as one of the preeminent writers in the English language '', though critical reception has oscillated in the centuries since his death (often on account of his republicanism). Samuel Johnson praised Paradise Lost as "a poem which... with respect to design may claim the first place, and with respect to performance, the second, among the productions of the human mind '', though he (a Tory and recipient of royal patronage) described Milton 's politics as those of an "acrimonious and surly republican ''. Poets such as William Blake, William Wordsworth and Thomas Hardy revered him.
The phases of Milton 's life parallel the major historical and political divisions in Stuart Britain. Milton studied, travelled, wrote poetry mostly for private circulation, and launched a career as pamphleteer and publicist under the increasingly personal rule of Charles I and its breakdown in constitutional confusion and war. The shift in accepted attitudes in government placed him in public office under the Commonwealth of England, from being thought dangerously radical and even heretical, and he even acted as an official spokesman in certain of his publications. The Restoration of 1660 deprived Milton, now completely blind, of his public platform, but this period saw him complete most of his major works of poetry.
Milton 's views developed from his very extensive reading, as well as travel and experience, from his student days of the 1620s to the English Civil War. By the time of his death in 1674, Milton was impoverished and on the margins of English intellectual life, yet famous throughout Europe and unrepentant for his political choices.
John Milton was born in Bread Street, London on 9 December 1608, the son of composer John Milton and his wife Sarah Jeffrey. The senior John Milton (1562 -- 1647) moved to London around 1583 after being disinherited by his devout Catholic father Richard Milton for embracing Protestantism. In London, the senior John Milton married Sarah Jeffrey (1572 -- 1637) and found lasting financial success as a scrivener. He lived in and worked from a house on Bread Street, where the Mermaid Tavern was located in Cheapside. The elder Milton was noted for his skill as a musical composer, and this talent left his son with a lifelong appreciation for music and friendships with musicians such as Henry Lawes.
Milton 's father 's prosperity provided his eldest son with a private tutor, Thomas Young, a Scottish Presbyterian with an M.A. from the University of St. Andrews. Research suggests that Young 's influence served as the poet 's introduction to religious radicalism. After Young 's tutorship, Milton attended St Paul 's School in London. There he began the study of Latin and Greek, and the classical languages left an imprint on his poetry in English (he also wrote in Italian and Latin).
Milton 's first datable compositions are two psalms done at age 15 at Long Bennington. One contemporary source is the Brief Lives of John Aubrey, an uneven compilation including first - hand reports. In the work, Aubrey quotes Christopher, Milton 's younger brother: "When he was young, he studied very hard and sat up very late, commonly till twelve or one o'clock at night ''. Aubrey adds, "'' His complexion exceeding faire -- he was so faire that they called him the Lady of Christ 's College. ''
In 1625, Milton began attending Christ 's College, Cambridge. He graduated with a B.A. in 1629, ranking fourth of 24 honours graduates that year in the University of Cambridge. Preparing to become an Anglican priest, Milton stayed on and obtained his Master of Arts degree on 3 July 1632.
Milton may have been rusticated (suspended) in his first year for quarrelling with his tutor, Bishop William Chappell. He was certainly at home in London in the Lent Term 1626; there he wrote his Elegia Prima, a first Latin elegy, to Charles Diodati, a friend from St Paul 's. Based on remarks of John Aubrey, Chappell "whipt '' Milton. This story is now disputed, though certainly Milton disliked Chappell. Historian Christopher Hill cautiously notes that Milton was "apparently '' rusticated, and that the differences between Chappell and Milton may have been either religious or personal. It is also possible that, like Isaac Newton four decades later, Milton was sent home because of the plague, by which Cambridge was badly affected in 1625. In 1626, Milton 's tutor was Nathaniel Tovey.
At Cambridge, Milton was on good terms with Edward King, for whom he later wrote "Lycidas ''. He also befriended Anglo - American dissident and theologian Roger Williams. Milton tutored Williams in Hebrew in exchange for lessons in Dutch. Despite developing a reputation for poetic skill and general erudition, Milton experienced alienation from his peers and university life as a whole. Having once watched his fellow students attempting comedy upon the college stage, he later observed ' they thought themselves gallant men, and I thought them fools '.
Milton was disdainful of the university curriculum, which consisted of stilted formal debates conducted in Latin on abstruse topics. His own corpus is not devoid of humour, notably his sixth prolusion and his epitaphs on the death of Thomas Hobson. While at college, he wrote a number of his well - known shorter English poems, among them "On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity '', his "Epitaph on the admirable Dramaticke Poet, W. Shakespeare '' (his first poem to appear in print), L'Allegro, and Il Penseroso.
-- Samuel Johnson, Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets
Upon receiving his M.A. in 1632, Milton retired to Hammersmith, his father 's new home since the previous year. He also lived at Horton, Berkshire, from 1635 and undertook six years of self - directed private study. Hill argues that this was not retreat into a rural idyll; Hammersmith was then a "suburban village '' falling into the orbit of London, and even Horton was becoming deforested and suffered from the plague. He read both ancient and modern works of theology, philosophy, history, politics, literature, and science in preparation for a prospective poetical career. Milton 's intellectual development can be charted via entries in his commonplace book (like a scrapbook), now in the British Library. As a result of such intensive study, Milton is considered to be among the most learned of all English poets. In addition to his years of private study, Milton had command of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, and Italian from his school and undergraduate days; he also added Old English to his linguistic repertoire in the 1650s while researching his History of Britain, and probably acquired proficiency in Dutch soon after.
Milton continued to write poetry during this period of study; his Arcades and Comus were both commissioned for masques composed for noble patrons, connections of the Egerton family, and performed in 1632 and 1634 respectively. Comus argues for the virtuousness of temperance and chastity. He contributed his pastoral elegy Lycidas to a memorial collection for one of his fellow - students at Cambridge. Drafts of these poems are preserved in Milton 's poetry notebook, known as the Trinity Manuscript because it is now kept at Trinity College, Cambridge.
In May 1638, Milton embarked upon a tour of France and Italy that lasted until July or August 1639. His travels supplemented his study with new and direct experience of artistic and religious traditions, especially Roman Catholicism. He met famous theorists and intellectuals of the time, and was able to display his poetic skills. For specific details of what happened within Milton 's "grand tour '', there appears to be just one primary source: Milton 's own Defensio Secunda. There are other records, including some letters and some references in his other prose tracts, but the bulk of the information about the tour comes from a work that, according to Barbara Lewalski, "was not intended as autobiography but as rhetoric, designed to emphasise his sterling reputation with the learned of Europe. ''
He first went to Calais and then on to Paris, riding horseback, with a letter from diplomat Henry Wotton to ambassador John Scudamore. Through Scudamore, Milton met Hugo Grotius, a Dutch law philosopher, playwright, and poet. Milton left France soon after this meeting. He travelled south from Nice to Genoa, and then to Livorno and Pisa. He reached Florence in July 1638. While there, Milton enjoyed many of the sites and structures of the city. His candour of manner and erudite neo-Latin poetry earned him friends in Florentine intellectual circles, and he met the astronomer Galileo who was under house arrest at Arcetri, as well as others. Milton probably visited the Florentine Academy and the Academia della Crusca along with smaller academies in the area, including the Apatisti and the Svogliati.
-- Milton 's account of Florence in Defensio Secunda
He left Florence in September to continue to Rome. With the connections from Florence, Milton was able to have easy access to Rome 's intellectual society. His poetic abilities impressed those like Giovanni Salzilli, who praised Milton within an epigram. In late October, Milton attended a dinner given by the English College, Rome, despite his dislike for the Society of Jesus, meeting English Catholics who were also guests -- theologian Henry Holden and the poet Patrick Cary. He also attended musical events, including oratorios, operas, and melodramas. Milton left for Naples toward the end of November, where he stayed only for a month because of the Spanish control. During that time, he was introduced to Giovanni Battista Manso, patron to both Torquato Tasso and to Giambattista Marino.
Originally, Milton wanted to leave Naples in order to travel to Sicily and then on to Greece, but he returned to England during the summer of 1639 because of what he claimed in Defensio Secunda were "sad tidings of civil war in England. '' Matters became more complicated when Milton received word that his childhood friend Diodati had died. Milton in fact stayed another seven months on the continent, and spent time at Geneva with Diodati 's uncle after he returned to Rome. In Defensio Secunda, Milton proclaimed that he was warned against a return to Rome because of his frankness about religion, but he stayed in the city for two months and was able to experience Carnival and meet Lukas Holste, a Vatican librarian who guided Milton through its collection. He was introduced to Cardinal Francesco Barberini who invited Milton to an opera hosted by the Cardinal. Around March, Milton travelled once again to Florence, staying there for two months, attending further meetings of the academies, and spending time with friends. After leaving Florence, he travelled through Lucca, Bologna, and Ferrara before coming to Venice. In Venice, Milton was exposed to a model of Republicanism, later important in his political writings, but he soon found another model when he travelled to Geneva. From Switzerland, Milton travelled to Paris and then to Calais before finally arriving back in England in either July or August 1639.
On returning to England where the Bishops ' Wars presaged further armed conflict, Milton began to write prose tracts against episcopacy, in the service of the Puritan and Parliamentary cause. Milton 's first foray into polemics was Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England (1641), followed by Of Prelatical Episcopacy, the two defences of Smectymnuus (a group of Presbyterian divines named from their initials; the "TY '' belonged to Milton 's old tutor Thomas Young), and The Reason of Church - Government Urged against Prelaty. He vigorously attacked the High - church party of the Church of England and their leader William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, with frequent passages of real eloquence lighting up the rough controversial style of the period, and deploying a wide knowledge of church history.
He was supported by his father 's investments, but Milton became a private schoolmaster at this time, educating his nephews and other children of the well - to - do. This experience and discussions with educational reformer Samuel Hartlib led him to write his short tract Of Education in 1644, urging a reform of the national universities.
In June 1642, Milton paid a visit to the manor house at Forest Hill, Oxfordshire, and returned with 16 - year - old bride Mary Powell. Mary found life difficult with the severe 35 year - old schoolmaster and pamphleteer, and she returned to her family a month later. She did not return until 1645, partly because of the outbreak of the Civil War.
In the meantime, her desertion prompted Milton to publish a series of pamphlets over the next three years arguing for the legality and morality of divorce. (Anna Beer, one of Milton 's most recent biographers, points to a lack of evidence and the dangers of cynicism in urging that it was not necessarily the case that the private life so animated the public polemicising.) In 1643, Milton had a brush with the authorities over these writings, in parallel with Hezekiah Woodward, who had more trouble. It was the hostile response accorded the divorce tracts that spurred Milton to write Areopagitica; A speech of Mr. John Milton for the Liberty of Unlicenc 'd Printing, to the Parlament of England, his celebrated attack on pre-printing censorship. In Areopagitica, Milton aligns himself with the parliamentary cause, and he also begins to synthesize the ideal of neo-Roman liberty with that of Christian liberty.
With the parliamentary victory in the Civil War, Milton used his pen in defence of the republican principles represented by the Commonwealth. The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649) defended the right of the people to hold their rulers to account, and implicitly sanctioned the regicide; Milton 's political reputation got him appointed Secretary for Foreign Tongues by the Council of State in March 1649. His main job description was to compose the English Republic 's foreign correspondence in Latin, but he also was called upon to produce propaganda for the regime and to serve as a censor.
In October 1649, he published Eikonoklastes, an explicit defence of the regicide, in response to the Eikon Basilike, a phenomenal best - seller popularly attributed to Charles I that portrayed the King as an innocent Christian martyr. Milton tried to break this powerful image of Charles I (the literal translation of Eikonoklastes is ' the image breaker '). A month later, however, the exiled Charles II and his party published the defence of monarchy Defensio Regia pro Carolo Primo, written by leading humanist Claudius Salmasius. By January of the following year, Milton was ordered to write a defence of the English people by the Council of State. Milton worked more slowly than usual, given the European audience and the English Republic 's desire to establish diplomatic and cultural legitimacy, as he drew on the learning marshalled by his years of study to compose a riposte.
On 24 February 1652, Milton published his Latin defence of the English people Defensio pro Populo Anglicano, also known as the First Defence. Milton 's pure Latin prose and evident learning exemplified in the First Defence quickly made him a European reputation, and the work ran to numerous editions. He addressed his Sonnet 16 to ' The Lord Generall Cromwell in May 1652 ' beginning "Cromwell, our chief of men... '', although it was not published until 1654.
In 1654, Milton completed the second defence of the English nation Defensio secunda in response to an anonymous Royalist tract "Regii Sanguinis Clamor ad Coelum Adversus Parricidas Anglicanos '' (The Cry of the Royal Blood to Heaven Against the English Parricides), a work that made many personal attacks on Milton. The second defence praised Oliver Cromwell, now Lord Protector, while exhorting him to remain true to the principles of the Revolution. Alexander Morus, to whom Milton wrongly attributed the Clamor (in fact by Peter du Moulin), published an attack on Milton, in response to which Milton published the autobiographical Defensio pro se in 1655. Milton held the appointment of Secretary for Foreign Tongues to the Commonwealth Council of State until 1660, although after he had become totally blind, most of the work was done by his deputies, Georg Rudolph Wecklein, then Philip Meadows, and from 1657 by the poet Andrew Marvell.
By 1654, Milton had become totally blind; the cause of his blindness is debated but bilateral retinal detachment or glaucoma are most likely. His blindness forced him to dictate his verse and prose to amanuenses who copied them out for him; one of these was poet, Andrew Marvell. One of his best - known sonnets is presumed to date from this period, When I Consider How My Light is Spent, titled by a later editor, Bishop John Newton, "On His Blindness ''.
Cromwell 's death in 1658 caused the English Republic to collapse into feuding military and political factions. Milton, however, stubbornly clung to the beliefs that had originally inspired him to write for the Commonwealth. In 1659, he published A Treatise of Civil Power, attacking the concept of a state - dominated church (the position known as Erastianism), as well as Considerations touching the likeliest means to remove hirelings, denouncing corrupt practises in church governance. As the Republic disintegrated, Milton wrote several proposals to retain a non-monarchical government against the wishes of parliament, soldiers, and the people.
Upon the Restoration in May 1660, Milton went into hiding for his life, while a warrant was issued for his arrest and his writings were burnt. He re-emerged after a general pardon was issued, but was nevertheless arrested and briefly imprisoned before influential friends intervened, such as Marvell, now an MP. Milton married for a third and final time on 24 February 1663, marrying Elizabeth (Betty) Minshull aged 24, a native of Wistaston, Cheshire. He spent the remaining decade of his life living quietly in London, only retiring to a cottage during the Great Plague of London -- Milton 's Cottage in Chalfont St. Giles, his only extant home.
During this period, Milton published several minor prose works, such as the grammar textbook Art of Logic and a History of Britain. His only explicitly political tracts were the 1672 Of True Religion, arguing for toleration (except for Catholics), and a translation of a Polish tract advocating an elective monarchy. Both these works were referred to in the Exclusion debate, the attempt to exclude the heir presumptive from the throne of England -- James, Duke of York -- because he was Roman Catholic. That debate preoccupied politics in the 1670s and 1680s and precipitated the formation of the Whig party and the Glorious Revolution.
Milton died of kidney failure on 8 November 1674 and was buried in the church of St Giles Cripplegate, Fore Street, London. According to an early biographer, his funeral was attended by "his learned and great Friends in London, not without a friendly concourse of the Vulgar. '' A monument was added in 1793, sculpted by John Bacon the Elder.
Milton and his first wife Mary Powell (1625 -- 1652) had four children:
Mary Powell died on 5 May 1652 from complications following Deborah 's birth. Milton 's daughters survived to adulthood, but he always had a strained relationship with them.
On 12 November 1656, Milton was married to Katherine Woodcock at St Margaret 's, Westminster. She died on 3 February 1658, less than four months after giving birth to her daughter Katherine, who also died.
Milton married for a third time on 24 February 1663 to Elizabeth Mynshull or Minshull (1638 -- 1728), the niece of Thomas Mynshull, a wealthy apothecary and philanthropist in Manchester. The marriage took place at St Mary Aldermary in the City of London. Despite a 31 - year age gap, the marriage seemed happy, according to John Aubrey, and lasted more than 12 years until Milton 's death. (A plaque on the wall of Mynshull 's House in Manchester describes Elizabeth as Milton 's "3rd and Best wife ''.) Samuel Johnson, however, claims that Mynshull was "a domestic companion and attendant '' and that Milton 's nephew Edward Phillips relates that Mynshull "oppressed his children in his lifetime, and cheated them at his death ''.
His nephews, Edward and John Phillips (sons of Milton 's sister Anne), were educated by Milton and became writers themselves. John acted as a secretary, and Edward was Milton 's first biographer.
Milton 's poetry was slow to see the light of day, at least under his name. His first published poem was "On Shakespeare '' (1630), anonymously included in the Second Folio edition of William Shakespeare 's plays in 1632. Milton collected his work in 1645 Poems in the midst of the excitement attending the possibility of establishing a new English government. The anonymous edition of Comus was published in 1637, and the publication of Lycidas in 1638 in Justa Edouardo King Naufrago was signed J.M. Otherwise. The 1645 collection was the only poetry of his to see print until Paradise Lost appeared in 1667.
Milton 's magnum opus, the blank - verse epic poem Paradise Lost, was composed by the blind and impoverished Milton from 1658 to 1664 (first edition), with small but significant revisions published in 1674 (second edition). As a blind poet, Milton dictated his verse to a series of aides in his employ. It has been argued that the poem reflects his personal despair at the failure of the Revolution, yet affirms an ultimate optimism in human potential. Some literary critics have argued that Milton encoded many references to his unyielding support for the "Good Old Cause ''.
On 27 April 1667, Milton sold the publication rights for Paradise Lost to publisher Samuel Simmons for £ 5 (equivalent to approximately £ 770 in 2015 purchasing power), with a further £ 5 to be paid if and when each print run sold out of between 1,300 and 1,500 copies. The first run was a quarto edition priced at three shillings per copy (about £ 23 in 2015 purchasing power equivalent), published in August 1667, and it sold out in eighteen months.
Milton followed up the publication Paradise Lost with its sequel Paradise Regained, which was published alongside the tragedy Samson Agonistes in 1671. Both of these works also resonate with Milton 's post-Restoration political situation. Just before his death in 1674, Milton supervised a second edition of Paradise Lost, accompanied by an explanation of "why the poem rhymes not '', and prefatory verses by Andrew Marvell. In 1673, Milton republished his 1645 Poems, as well as a collection of his letters and the Latin prolusions from his Oxford days.
An unfinished religious manifesto, De doctrina christiana, probably written by Milton, lays out many of his heterodox theological views, and was not discovered and published until 1823. Milton 's key beliefs were idiosyncratic, not those of an identifiable group or faction, and often they go well beyond the orthodoxy of the time. Their tone, however, stemmed from the Puritan emphasis on the centrality and inviolability of conscience. He was his own man, but he was anticipated by Henry Robinson in Areopagitica.
By the late 1650s, Milton was a proponent of monism or animist materialism, the notion that a single material substance which is "animate, self - active, and free '' composes everything in the universe: from stones and trees and bodies to minds, souls, angels, and God. Milton devised this position to avoid the mind - body dualism of Plato and Descartes as well as the mechanistic determinism of Hobbes. Milton 's monism is most notably reflected in Paradise Lost when he has angels eat (5.433 -- 39) and engage in sexual intercourse (8.622 -- 29) and the De Doctrina, where he denies the dual natures of man and argues for a theory of Creation ex Deo.
In his political writing, Milton addressed particular themes at different periods. The years 1641 -- 42 were dedicated to church politics and the struggle against episcopacy. After his divorce writings, Areopagitica, and a gap, he wrote in 1649 -- 54 in the aftermath of the execution of Charles I, and in polemic justification of the regicide and the existing Parliamentarian regime. Then in 1659 -- 60 he foresaw the Restoration, and wrote to head it off.
Milton 's own beliefs were in some cases both unpopular and dangerous, and this was true particularly to his commitment to republicanism. In coming centuries, Milton would be claimed as an early apostle of liberalism. According to James Tully:
... with Locke as with Milton, republican and contraction conceptions of political freedom join hands in common opposition to the disengaged and passive subjection offered by absolutists such as Hobbes and Robert Filmer.
A friend and ally in the pamphlet wars was Marchamont Nedham. Austin Woolrych considers that although they were quite close, there is "little real affinity, beyond a broad republicanism '', between their approaches. Blair Worden remarks that both Milton and Nedham, with others such as Andrew Marvell and James Harrington, would have taken their problem with the Rump Parliament to be not the republic itself, but the fact that it was not a proper republic. Woolrych speaks of "the gulf between Milton 's vision of the Commonwealth 's future and the reality ''. In the early version of his History of Britain, begun in 1649, Milton was already writing off the members of the Long Parliament as incorrigible.
He praised Oliver Cromwell as the Protectorate was set up; though subsequently he had major reservations. When Cromwell seemed to be backsliding as a revolutionary, after a couple of years in power, Milton moved closer to the position of Sir Henry Vane, to whom he wrote a sonnet in 1652. The group of disaffected republicans included, besides Vane, John Bradshaw, John Hutchinson, Edmund Ludlow, Henry Marten, Robert Overton, Edward Sexby and John Streater; but not Marvell, who remained with Cromwell 's party. Milton had already commended Overton, along with Edmund Whalley and Bulstrode Whitelocke, in Defensio Secunda. Nigel Smith writes that
... John Streater, and the form of republicanism he stood for, was a fulfilment of Milton 's most optimistic ideas of free speech and of public heroism (...)
As Richard Cromwell fell from power, he envisaged a step towards a freer republic or "free commonwealth '', writing in the hope of this outcome in early 1660. Milton had argued for an awkward position, in the Ready and Easy Way, because he wanted to invoke the Good Old Cause and gain the support of the republicans, but without offering a democratic solution of any kind. His proposal, backed by reference (amongst other reasons) to the oligarchical Dutch and Venetian constitutions, was for a council with perpetual membership. This attitude cut right across the grain of popular opinion of the time, which swung decisively behind the restoration of the Stuart monarchy that took place later in the year. Milton, an associate of and advocate on behalf of the regicides, was silenced on political matters as Charles II returned.
Like many Renaissance artists before him, Milton attempted to integrate Christian theology with classical modes. In his early poems, the poet narrator expresses a tension between vice and virtue, the latter invariably related to Protestantism. In Comus, Milton may make ironic use of the Caroline court masque by elevating notions of purity and virtue over the conventions of court revelry and superstition. In his later poems, Milton 's theological concerns become more explicit.
His use of biblical citation was wide - ranging; Harris Fletcher, standing at the beginning of the intensification of the study of the use of scripture in Milton 's work (poetry and prose, in all languages Milton mastered), notes that typically Milton clipped and adapted biblical quotations to suit the purpose, giving precise chapter and verse only in texts for a more specialized readership. As for the plenitude of Milton 's quotations from scripture, Fletcher comments, "For this work, I have in all actually collated about twenty - five hundred of the five to ten thousand direct Biblical quotations which appear therein ''. Milton 's customary English Bible was the Authorized King James. When citing and writing in other languages, he usually employed the Latin translation by Immanuel Tremellius, though "he was equipped to read the Bible in Latin, in Greek, and in Hebrew, including the Targumim or Aramaic paraphrases of the Old Testament, and the Syriac version of the New, together with the available commentaries of those several versions ''.
Milton embraced many heterodox Christian theological views. He has been accused of rejecting the Trinity, believing instead that the Son was subordinate to the Father, a position known as Arianism; and his sympathy or curiosity was probably engaged by Socinianism: in August 1650 he licensed for publication by William Dugard the Racovian Catechism, based on a non-trinitarian creed. Milton 's alleged Arianism, like much of his theology, is still subject of debate and controversy. Rufus Wilmot Griswold argued that "In none of his great works is there a passage from which it can be inferred that he was an Arian; and in the very last of his writings he declares that "the doctrine of the Trinity is a plain doctrine in Scripture. '' In Areopagitica, Milton classified Arians and Socinians as "errorists '' and "schismatics '' alongside Arminians and Anabaptists. A source has interpreted him as broadly Protestant, if not always easy to locate in a more precise religious category.
In his 1641 treatise, Of Reformation, Milton expressed his dislike for Catholicism and episcopacy, presenting Rome as a modern Babylon, and bishops as Egyptian taskmasters. These analogies conform to Milton 's puritanical preference for Old Testament imagery. He knew at least four commentaries on Genesis: those of John Calvin, Paulus Fagius, David Pareus and Andreus Rivetus.
Through the Interregnum, Milton often presents England, rescued from the trappings of a worldly monarchy, as an elect nation akin to the Old Testament Israel, and shows its leader, Oliver Cromwell, as a latter - day Moses. These views were bound up in Protestant views of the Millennium, which some sects, such as the Fifth Monarchists predicted would arrive in England. Milton, however, would later criticise the "worldly '' millenarian views of these and others, and expressed orthodox ideas on the prophecy of the Four Empires.
The Restoration of the Stuart monarchy in 1660 began a new phase in Milton 's work. In Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes, Milton mourns the end of the godly Commonwealth. The Garden of Eden may allegorically reflect Milton 's view of England 's recent Fall from Grace, while Samson 's blindness and captivity -- mirroring Milton 's own lost sight -- may be a metaphor for England 's blind acceptance of Charles II as king. Illustrated by Paradise Lost is mortalism, the belief that the soul lies dormant after the body dies.
Despite the Restoration of the monarchy, Milton did not lose his personal faith; Samson shows how the loss of national salvation did not necessarily preclude the salvation of the individual, while Paradise Regained expresses Milton 's continuing belief in the promise of Christian salvation through Jesus Christ.
Though he may have maintained his personal faith in spite of the defeats suffered by his cause, the Dictionary of National Biography recounted how he had been alienated from the Church of England by Archbishop William Laud, and then moved similarly from the Dissenters by their denunciation of religious tolerance in England.
Milton had come to stand apart from all sects, though apparently finding the Quakers most congenial. He never went to any religious services in his later years. When a servant brought back accounts of sermons from nonconformist meetings, Milton became so sarcastic that the man at last gave up his place.
Milton called in the Areopagitica for "the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties '' (applied, however, only to the conflicting Protestant denominations, and not to atheists, Jews, Muslims or Catholics). "Milton argued for disestablishment as the only effective way of achieving broad toleration. Rather than force a man 's conscience, government should recognise the persuasive force of the gospel. ''
Milton wrote The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce in 1643, at the beginning of the English Civil War. In August of that year, he presented his thoughts to the Westminster Assembly of Divines, which had been created by the Long Parliament to bring greater reform to the Church of England. The Assembly convened on 1 July against the will of King Charles I.
Milton 's thinking on divorce caused him considerable trouble with the authorities. An orthodox Presbyterian view of the time was that Milton 's views on divorce constituted a one - man heresy:
The fervently Presbyterian Edwards had included Milton 's divorce tracts in his list in Gangraena of heretical publications that threatened the religious and moral fabric of the nation; Milton responded by mocking him as "shallow Edwards '' in the satirical sonnet "On the New Forcers of Conscience under the Long Parliament '', usually dated to the latter half of 1646.
Even here, though, his originality is qualified: Thomas Gataker had already identified "mutual solace '' as a principal goal in marriage. Milton abandoned his campaign to legitimise divorce after 1645, but he expressed support for polygamy in the De Doctrina Christiana, the theological treatise that provides the clearest evidence for his views.
Milton wrote during a period when thoughts about divorce were anything but simplistic; rather, there was active debate among thinkers and intellectuals at the time. However, Milton 's basic approval of divorce within strict parameters set by the biblical witness was typical of many influential Christian intellectuals, particularly the Westminster divines. Milton addressed the Assembly on the matter of divorce in August 1643, at a moment when the Assembly was beginning to form its opinion on the matter. In the Doctrine & Discipline of Divorce, Milton argued that divorce was a private matter, not a legal or ecclesiastical one. Neither the Assembly nor Parliament condemned Milton or his ideas. In fact, when the Westminster Assembly wrote the Westminster Confession of Faith they allowed for divorce (' Of Marriage and Divorce, ' Chapter 24, Section 5) in cases of infidelity or abandonment. Thus, the Christian community, at least a majority within the ' Puritan ' sub-set, approved of Milton 's views.
Nevertheless, reaction among Puritans to Milton 's views on divorce was mixed. Herbert Palmer (Puritan) condemned Milton in the strongest possible language. Palmer, who was a member of the Westminster Assembly, wrote:
If any plead Conscience... for divorce for other causes than Christ and His Apostles mention; Of which a wicked booke is abroad and uncensured, though deserving to be burnt, whose Author, hath been so impudent as to set his Name to it, and dedicate it to your selves... will you grant a Toleration for all this?
Palmer expressed his disapproval in a sermon addressed to the Westminster Assembly. The Scottish commissioner Robert Baillie described Palmer 's sermon as one "of the most Scottish and free sermons that ever I heard any where. ''
History was particularly important for the political class of the period, and Lewalski considers that Milton "more than most illustrates '' a remark of Thomas Hobbes on the weight placed at the time on the classical Latin historical writers Tacitus, Livy, Sallust and Cicero, and their republican attitudes. Milton himself wrote that "Worthy deeds are not often destitute of worthy relaters '', in Book II of his History of Britain. A sense of history mattered greatly to him:
The course of human history, the immediate impact of the civil disorders, and his own traumatic personal life, are all regarded by Milton as typical of the predicament he describes as "the misery that has bin since Adam ''.
Once Paradise Lost was published, Milton 's stature as epic poet was immediately recognised. He cast a formidable shadow over English poetry in the 18th and 19th centuries; he was often judged equal or superior to all other English poets, including Shakespeare. Very early on, though, he was championed by Whigs, and decried by Tories: with the regicide Edmund Ludlow he was claimed as an early Whig, while the High Tory Anglican minister Luke Milbourne lumped Milton in with other "Agents of Darkness '' such as John Knox, George Buchanan, Richard Baxter, Algernon Sidney and John Locke. The political ideas of Milton, Locke, Sidney, and James Harrington strongly influenced the Radical Whigs, whose ideology in turn was central to the American Revolution. Modern scholars of Milton 's life, politics, and work are known as Miltonists: "his work is the subject of a very large amount of academic scholarship ''.
John Dryden, an early enthusiast, in 1677 began the trend of describing Milton as the poet of the sublime. Dryden 's The State of Innocence and the Fall of Man: an Opera (1677) is evidence of an immediate cultural influence. In 1695, Patrick Hume became the first editor of Paradise Lost, providing an extensive apparatus of annotation and commentary, particularly chasing down allusions.
In 1732, the classical scholar Richard Bentley offered a corrected version of Paradise Lost. Bentley was considered presumptuous, and was attacked in the following year by Zachary Pearce. Christopher Ricks judges that, as critic, Bentley was both acute and wrong - headed, and "incorrigibly eccentric ''; William Empson also finds Pearce to be more sympathetic to Bentley 's underlying line of thought than is warranted.
There was an early, partial translation of Paradise Lost into German by Theodore Haak, and based on that a standard verse translation by Ernest Gottlieb von Berge. A subsequent prose translation by Johann Jakob Bodmer was very popular; it influenced Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. The German - language Milton tradition returned to England in the person of the artist Henry Fuseli.
Many enlightenment thinkers of the 18th century revered and commented on Milton 's poetry and non-poetical works. In addition to John Dryden, among them were Alexander Pope, Joseph Addison, Thomas Newton, and Samuel Johnson. For example, in The Spectator, Joseph Addison wrote extensive notes, annotations, and interpretations of certain passages of Paradise Lost. Jonathan Richardson, senior, and Jonathan Richardson, the younger, co-wrote a book of criticism. In 1749, Thomas Newton published an extensive edition of Milton 's poetical works with annotations provided by himself, Dryden, Pope, Addison, the Richardsons (father and son) and others. Newton 's edition of Milton was a culmination of the honour bestowed upon Milton by early Enlightenment thinkers; it may also have been prompted by Richard Bentley 's infamous edition, described above. Samuel Johnson wrote numerous essays on Paradise Lost, and Milton was included in his Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets (1779 -- 1781). In The Age of Louis XIV, Voltaire said "Milton remains the glory and the wonder (l'admiration) of England. ''
William Blake considered Milton the major English poet. Blake placed Edmund Spenser as Milton 's precursor, and saw himself as Milton 's poetical son. In his Milton a Poem, Blake uses Milton as a character.
Edmund Burke was a theorist of the sublime, and he regarded Milton 's description of Hell as exemplary of sublimity as an aesthetic concept. For Burke, it was to set alongside mountain - tops, a storm at sea, and infinity. In The Beautiful and the Sublime, he wrote: "No person seems better to have understood the secret of heightening, or of setting terrible things, if I may use the expression, in their strongest light, by the force of a judicious obscurity than Milton. ''
The Romantic poets valued his exploration of blank verse, but for the most part rejected his religiosity. William Wordsworth began his sonnet "London, 1802 '' with "Milton! thou should'st be living at this hour '' and modelled The Prelude, his own blank verse epic, on Paradise Lost. John Keats found the yoke of Milton 's style uncongenial; he exclaimed that "Miltonic verse can not be written but in an artful or rather artist 's humour. '' Keats felt that Paradise Lost was a "beautiful and grand curiosity '', but his own unfinished attempt at epic poetry, Hyperion, was unsatisfactory to the author because, amongst other things, it had too many "Miltonic inversions ''. In The Madwoman in the Attic, Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar note that Mary Shelley 's novel Frankenstein is, in the view of many critics, "one of the key ' Romantic ' readings of Paradise Lost. ''
The Victorian age witnessed a continuation of Milton 's influence, George Eliot and Thomas Hardy being particularly inspired by Milton 's poetry and biography. Hostile 20th - century criticism by T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound did not reduce Milton 's stature. F.R. Leavis, in The Common Pursuit, responded to the points made by Eliot, in particular the claim that "the study of Milton could be of no help: it was only a hindrance '', by arguing, "As if it were a matter of deciding not to study Milton! The problem, rather, was to escape from an influence that was so difficult to escape from because it was unrecognized, belonging, as it did, to the climate of the habitual and ' natural '. '' Harold Bloom, in The Anxiety of Influence, wrote that "Milton is the central problem in any theory and history of poetic influence in English (...) ''.
Milton 's Areopagitica is still cited as relevant to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. A quotation from Areopagitica -- "A good book is the precious lifeblood of a master spirit, embalmed and treasured up on purpose to a life beyond life '' -- is displayed in many public libraries, including the New York Public Library.
The title of Philip Pullman 's His Dark Materials trilogy is derived from a quotation, "His dark materials to create more worlds '', line 915 of Book II in Paradise Lost. Pullman was concerned to produce a version of Milton 's poem accessible to teenagers, and has spoken of Milton as "our greatest public poet ''.
Titles of a number of other well - known literary works are also derived from Milton 's writings. Examples include Thomas Wolfe 's Look Homeward, Angel, Aldous Huxley 's Eyeless in Gaza, Arthur Koestler 's Darkness at Noon, and William Golding 's Darkness Visible.
T.S. Eliot believed that "of no other poet is it so difficult to consider the poetry simply as poetry, without our theological and political dispositions... making unlawful entry ''.
Milton 's use of blank verse, in addition to his stylistic innovations (such as grandiloquence of voice and vision, peculiar diction and phraseology) influenced later poets. At the time, poetic blank verse was considered distinct from its use in verse drama, and Paradise Lost was taken as a unique examplar. Said Isaac Watts in 1734, "Mr. Milton is esteemed the parent and author of blank verse among us ''. "Miltonic verse '' might be synonymous for a century with blank verse as poetry, a new poetic terrain independent from both the drama and the heroic couplet.
Lack of rhyme was sometimes taken as Milton 's defining innovation. He himself considered the rhymeless quality of Paradise Lost to be an extension of his own personal liberty:
This neglect then of Rhime... is to be esteem 'd an example set, the first in English, of ancient liberty recover 'd to heroic Poem from the troublesom and modern bondage of Rimeing.
This pursuit of freedom was largely a reaction against conservative values entrenched within the rigid heroic couplet. Within a dominant culture that stressed elegance and finish, he granted primacy to freedom, breadth and imaginative suggestiveness, eventually developed into the romantic vision of sublime terror. Reaction to Milton 's poetic worldview included, grudgingly, acknowledgement that of poet 's resemblance to classical writers (Greek and Roman poetry being unrhymed). Blank verse came to be a recognised medium for religious works and for translations of the classics. Unrhymed lyrics like Collins ' Ode to Evening (in the meter of Milton 's translation of Horace 's Ode to Pyrrha) were not uncommon after 1740.
A second aspect of Milton 's blank verse was the use of unconventional rhythm:
His blank - verse paragraph, and his audacious and victorious attempt to combine blank and rhymed verse with paragraphic effect in Lycidas, lay down indestructible models and patterns of English verse - rhythm, as distinguished from the narrower and more strait - laced forms of English metre.
Before Milton, "the sense of regular rhythm... had been knocked into the English head so securely that it was part of their nature ''. The "Heroick measure '', according to Samuel Johnson, "is pure... when the accent rests upon every second syllable through the whole line The repetition of this sound or percussion at equal times, is the most complete harmony of which a single verse is capable '', Caesural pauses, most agreed, were best placed at the middle and the end of the line. In order to support this symmetry, lines were most often octo - or deca - syllabic, with no enjambed endings. To this schema Milton introduced modifications, which included hypermetrical syllables (trisyllabic feet), inversion or slighting of stresses, and the shifting of pauses to all parts of the line. Milton deemed these features to be reflective of "the transcendental union of order and freedom ''. Admirers remained hesitant to adopt such departures from traditional metrical schemes: "The English... had been writing separate lines for so long that they could not rid themselves of the habit ''. Isaac Watts preferred his lines distinct from each other, as did Oliver Goldsmith, Henry Pemberton, and Scott of Amwell, whose general opinion it was that Milton 's frequent omission of the initial unaccented foot was "displeasing to a nice ear ''. It was not until the late 18th century that poets (beginning with Gray) began to appreciate "the composition of Milton 's harmony... how he loved to vary his pauses, his measures, and his feet, which gives that enchanting air of freedom and wilderness to his versification ''.
While neo-classical diction was as restrictive as its prosody, and narrow imagery paired with uniformity of sentence structure resulted in a small set of 800 nouns circumscribing the vocabulary of 90 % of heroic couplets ever written up to the eighteenth century, and tradition required that the same adjectives attach to the same nouns, followed by the same verbs, Milton 's pursuit of liberty extended into his vocabulary as well. It included many Latinate neologisms, as well as obsolete words already dropped from popular usage so completely that their meanings were no longer understood. In 1740, Francis Peck identified some examples of Milton 's "old '' words (now popular). The "Miltonian dialect '' as it was called, was emulated by later poets; Pope used the diction of Paradise Lost in his Homer translation, while the lyric poetry of Gray and Collins was frequently criticised for their use of "obsolete words out of Spenser and Milton ''. The language of Thomson 's finest poems (e.g. The Seasons, Castle of Indolence) was self - consciously modelled after the Miltonian dialect, with the same tone and sensibilities as Paradise Lost. Following to Milton, English poetry from Pope to John Keats exhibited a steadily increasing attention to the connotative, the imaginative and poetic, value of words.
Milton 's ode At a solemn Musick was set for choir and orchestra as Blest Pair of Sirens by Hubert Parry (1848 -- 1918), and Milton 's poem On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity was set as a large - scale choral work by Cyril Rootham (1875 -- 1938). Milton also wrote the hymn Let us with a gladsome mind, a versification of Psalm 136. His ' L'Allegro ' and ' Il Penseroso ', with additional material, were magnificently set by Handel (1740).
Paradise Lost By John Milton (Summary, Book Review, Online Reading, PDF, Download): To Evolution
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ozone layer depletion in antartica is due to which compound | Ozone depletion - Wikipedia
Ozone depletion describes two related events observed since the late 1970s: a steady lowering of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth 's (atmosphere)) (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth 's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. There are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to these stratospheric events.
The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is man - made chemicals, especially man - made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam - blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), referred to as ozone - depleting substances (ODS). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by the winds after being emitted at the surface. Once in the stratosphere, they release halogen atoms through photodissociation, which catalyze the breakdown of ozone (O) into oxygen (O). Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased.
Ozone depletion and the ozone hole have generated worldwide concern over increased cancer risks and other negative effects. The ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth 's atmosphere. These wavelengths cause skin cancer, sunburn, and cataracts, which were projected to increase dramatically as a result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants and animals. These concerns led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone - depleting chemicals.
The ban came into effect in 1989. Ozone levels stabilized by the mid-1990s and began to recover in the 2000s. Recovery is projected to continue over the next century, and the ozone hole is expected to reach pre-1980 levels by around 2075. The Montreal Protocol is considered the most successful international environmental agreement to date.
Three forms (or allotropes) of oxygen are involved in the ozone - oxygen cycle: oxygen atoms (O or atomic oxygen), oxygen gas (O or diatomic oxygen), and ozone gas (O or triatomic oxygen). Ozone is formed in the stratosphere when oxygen molecules photodissociate after intaking ultraviolet photons. This converts a single O into two atomic oxygen radicals. The atomic oxygen radicals then combine with separate O molecules to create two O molecules. These ozone molecules absorb ultraviolet (UV) light, following which ozone splits into a molecule of O and an oxygen atom. The oxygen atom then joins up with an oxygen molecule to regenerate ozone. This is a continuing process that terminates when an oxygen atom recombines with an ozone molecule to make two O molecules.
O + O → 2 O
The total amount of ozone in the stratosphere is determined by a balance between photochemical production and recombination.
Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts; the most important are the hydroxyl radical (OH), nitric oxide radical (NO), chlorine radical (Cl) and bromine radical (Br). The dot is a notation to indicate that each species has an unpaired electron and is thus extremely reactive. All of these have both natural and man - made sources; at the present time, most of the OH and NO in the stratosphere is naturally occurring, but human activity has drastically increased the levels of chlorine and bromine. These elements are found in stable organic compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons, which can travel to the stratosphere without being destroyed in the troposphere due to their low reactivity. Once in the stratosphere, the Cl and Br atoms are released from the parent compounds by the action of ultraviolet light, e.g.
CFCl + electromagnetic radiation → Cl + CFCl
Ozone is a highly reactive molecule that easily reduces to the more stable oxygen form with the assistance of a catalyst. Cl and Br atoms destroy ozone molecules through a variety of catalytic cycles. In the simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (O), taking an oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and leaving an oxygen molecule (O). The ClO can react with a second molecule of ozone, releasing the chlorine atom and yielding two molecules of oxygen. The chemical shorthand for these gas - phase reactions is:
The overall effect is a decrease in the amount of ozone, though the rate of these processes can be decreased by the effects of null cycles. More complicated mechanisms have also been discovered that lead to ozone destruction in the lower stratosphere.
A single chlorine atom would continuously destroy ozone (thus a catalyst) for up to two years (the time scale for transport back down to the troposphere) were it not for reactions that remove them from this cycle by forming reservoir species such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) and chlorine nitrate (ClONO). Bromine is even more efficient than chlorine at destroying ozone on a per atom basis, but there is much less bromine in the atmosphere at present. Both chlorine and bromine contribute significantly to overall ozone depletion. Laboratory studies have also shown that fluorine and iodine atoms participate in analogous catalytic cycles. However, fluorine atoms react rapidly with water and methane to form strongly bound HF in the Earth 's stratosphere, while organic molecules containing iodine react so rapidly in the lower atmosphere that they do not reach the stratosphere in significant quantities.
A single chlorine atom is able to react with an average of 100,000 ozone molecules before it is removed from the catalytic cycle. This fact plus the amount of chlorine released into the atmosphere yearly by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) demonstrates the danger of CFCs and HCFCs to the environment.
The ozone hole is usually measured by reduction in the total column ozone above a point on the Earth 's surface. This is normally expressed in Dobson units; abbreviated as "DU ''. The most prominent decrease in ozone has been in the lower stratosphere. Marked decreases in column ozone in the Antarctic spring and early summer compared to the early 1970s and before have been observed using instruments such as the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS).
Reductions of up to 70 percent in the ozone column observed in the austral (southern hemispheric) spring over Antarctica and first reported in 1985 (Farman et al.) are continuing. Antarctic total column ozone in September and October have continued to be 40 -- 50 percent lower than pre-ozone - hole values since the 1990s. A gradual trend toward "healing '' was reported in 2016. In 2017, NASA announced that the ozone hole was the weakest since 1988 because of warm stratospheric conditions. It is expected to recover around 2070.
The amount lost is more variable year - to - year in the Arctic than in the Antarctic. The greatest Arctic declines are in the winter and spring, reaching up to 30 percent when the stratosphere is coldest.
Reactions that take place on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play an important role in enhancing ozone depletion. PSCs form more readily in the extreme cold of the Arctic and Antarctic stratosphere. This is why ozone holes first formed, and are deeper, over Antarctica. Early models failed to take PSCs into account and predicted a gradual global depletion, which is why the sudden Antarctic ozone hole was such a surprise to many scientists.
It is more accurate to speak of ozone depletion in middle latitudes rather than holes. Total column ozone declined below pre-1980 values between 1980 and 1996 for mid-latitudes. In the northern mid-latitudes, it then increased from the minimum value by about two percent from 1996 to 2009 as regulations took effect and the amount of chlorine in the stratosphere decreased. In the Southern Hemisphere 's mid-latitudes, total ozone remained constant over that time period. There are no significant trends in the tropics, largely because halogen - containing compounds have not had time to break down and release chlorine and bromine atoms at tropical latitudes.
Large volcanic eruptions have been shown to have substantial albeit uneven ozone - depleting effects, as observed with the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinotubo in the Philippines.
Ozone depletion also explains much of the observed reduction in stratospheric and upper tropospheric temperatures. The source of the warmth of the stratosphere is the absorption of UV radiation by ozone, hence reduced ozone leads to cooling. Some stratospheric cooling is also predicted from increases in greenhouse gases such as CO and CFCs themselves; however, the ozone - induced cooling appears to be dominant.
Predictions of ozone levels remain difficult, but the precision of models ' predictions of observed values and the agreement among different modeling techniques have increased steadily. The World Meteorological Organization Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project -- Report No. 44 comes out strongly in favor of the Montreal Protocol, but notes that a UNEP 1994 Assessment overestimated ozone loss for the 1994 -- 1997 period.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated ozone depleting substances (ODS) are mainly responsible for man - made chemical ozone depletion. The total amount of effective halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the stratosphere can be calculated and are known as the equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC).
CFCs were invented by Thomas Midgley, Jr. in the 1930s. They were used in air conditioning and cooling units, as aerosol spray propellants prior to the 1970s, and in the cleaning processes of delicate electronic equipment. They also occur as by - products of some chemical processes. No significant natural sources have ever been identified for these compounds -- their presence in the atmosphere is due almost entirely to human manufacture. As mentioned above, when such ozone - depleting chemicals reach the stratosphere, they are dissociated by ultraviolet light to release chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms act as a catalyst, and each can break down tens of thousands of ozone molecules before being removed from the stratosphere. Given the longevity of CFC molecules, recovery times are measured in decades. It is calculated that a CFC molecule takes an average of about five to seven years to go from the ground level up to the upper atmosphere, and it can stay there for about a century, destroying up to one hundred thousand ozone molecules during that time.
1, 1, 1 - Trichloro - 2, 2, 2 - trifluoroethane, also known as CFC - 113a, is one of four man - made chemicals newly discovered in the atmosphere by a team at the University of East Anglia. CFC - 113a is the only known CFC whose abundance in the atmosphere is still growing. Its source remains a mystery, but illegal manufacturing is suspected by some. CFC - 113a seems to have been accumulating unabated since 1960. Between 2010 and 2012, emissions of the gas jumped by 45 percent.
Scientists have attributed ozone depletion to the increase of man - made (anthropogenic) halogen compounds from CFCs by combining observational data with computer models. These complex chemistry transport models (e.g. SLIMCAT, CLaMS -- Chemical Lagrangian Model of the Stratosphere) work by combining measurements of chemicals and meteorological fields with chemical reaction rate constants. They identify key chemical reactions and transport processes that bring CFC photolysis products into contact with ozone.
The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere in which the recent ozone levels have dropped to as low as 33 percent of their pre-1975 values. The ozone hole occurs during the Antarctic spring, from September to early December, as strong westerly winds start to circulate around the continent and create an atmospheric container. Within this polar vortex, over 50 percent of the lower stratospheric ozone is destroyed during the Antarctic spring.
As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine - containing source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl - catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).
These polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) form during winter, in the extreme cold. Polar winters are dark, consisting of 3 months without solar radiation (sunlight). The lack of sunlight contributes to a decrease in temperature and the polar vortex traps and chills air. Temperatures hover around or below − 80 ° C. These low temperatures form cloud particles. There are three types of PSC clouds -- nitric acid trihydrate clouds, slowly cooling water - ice clouds, and rapid cooling water - ice (nacerous) clouds -- provide surfaces for chemical reactions whose products will, in the spring lead to ozone destruction.
The photochemical processes involved are complex but well understood. The key observation is that, ordinarily, most of the chlorine in the stratosphere resides in "reservoir '' compounds, primarily chlorine nitrate (ClONO) as well as stable end products such as HCl. The formation of end products essentially remove Cl from the ozone depletion process. The former sequester Cl, which can be later made available via absorption of light at shorter wavelengths than 400 nm. During the Antarctic winter and spring, however, reactions on the surface of the polar stratospheric cloud particles convert these "reservoir '' compounds into reactive free radicals (Cl and ClO). The process by which the clouds remove NO from the stratosphere by converting it to nitric acid in the PSC particles, which then are lost by sedimentation is called denitrification. This prevents newly formed ClO from being converted back into ClONO.
The role of sunlight in ozone depletion is the reason why the Antarctic ozone depletion is greatest during spring. During winter, even though PSCs are at their most abundant, there is no light over the pole to drive chemical reactions. During the spring, however, the sun comes out, providing energy to drive photochemical reactions and melt the polar stratospheric clouds, releasing considerable ClO, which drives the hole mechanism. Further warming temperatures near the end of spring break up the vortex around mid-December. As warm, ozone and NO - rich air flows in from lower latitudes, the PSCs are destroyed, the enhanced ozone depletion process shuts down, and the ozone hole closes.
Most of the ozone that is destroyed is in the lower stratosphere, in contrast to the much smaller ozone depletion through homogeneous gas phase reactions, which occurs primarily in the upper stratosphere.
Public misconceptions and misunderstandings of complex issues like the ozone depletion are common. The limited scientific knowledge of the public led to a confusion with global warming or the perception of global warming as a subset of the "ozone hole ''. In the beginning, classical green NGOs refrained from using CFC depletion for campaigning, as they assumed the topic was too complicated. They became active much later, e.g. in Greenpeace 's support for a CFC - free fridge produced by the former East German company VEB dkk Scharfenstein.
The metaphors used in the CFC discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) are not "exact '' in the scientific sense. The "ozone hole '' is more of a depression, less "a hole in the windshield ''. The ozone does not disappear through the layer, nor is there a uniform "thinning '' of the ozone layer. However they resonated better with non-scientists and their concerns. The ozone hole was seen as a "hot issue '' and imminent risk as lay people feared severe personal consequences such as skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean 's photic zone. Not only on the policy level, ozone regulation compared to climate change fared much better in public opinion. Americans voluntarily switched away from aerosol sprays before legislation was enforced, while climate change failed to achieve comparable concern and public action. The sudden recognition in 1985 that there was a substantial "hole '' was widely reported in the press. The especially rapid ozone depletion in Antarctica had previously been dismissed as a measurement error. Scientific consensus was established after regulation.
While the Antarctic ozone hole has a relatively small effect on global ozone, the hole has generated a great deal of public interest because:
Since the ozone layer absorbs UVB ultraviolet light from the sun, ozone layer depletion increases surface UVB levels (all else equal), which could lead to damage, including increase in skin cancer. This was the reason for the Montreal Protocol. Although decreases in stratospheric ozone are well - tied to CFCs and to increases in surface UVB, there is no direct observational evidence linking ozone depletion to higher incidence of skin cancer and eye damage in human beings. This is partly because UVA, which has also been implicated in some forms of skin cancer, is not absorbed by ozone, and because it is nearly impossible to control statistics for lifestyle changes over time.
Ozone, while a minority constituent in Earth 's atmosphere, is responsible for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB radiation that penetrates through the ozone layer decreases exponentially with the slant - path thickness and density of the layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB reach the Earth 's surface. UV - driven phenolic formation in tree rings has dated the start of ozone depletion in northern latitudes to the late 1700s.
In October 2008, the Ecuadorian Space Agency published a report called HIPERION. The study used ground instruments in Ecuador and the last 28 years ' data from 12 satellites of several countries, and found that the UV radiation reaching equatorial latitudes was far greater than expected, with the UV Index climbing as high as 24 in Quito; the WHO considers 11 as an extreme index and a great risk to health. The report concluded that depleted ozone levels around the mid-latitudes of the planet are already endangering large populations in these areas. Later, the CONIDA, the Peruvian Space Agency, published its own study, which yielded almost the same findings as the Ecuadorian study.
The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the effects of increased surface UV radiation on human health. So far, ozone depletion in most locations has been typically a few percent and, as noted above, no direct evidence of health damage is available in most latitudes. If the high levels of depletion seen in the ozone hole were to be common across the globe, the effects could be substantially more dramatic. As the ozone hole over Antarctica has in some instances grown so large as to affect parts of Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Argentina, and South Africa, environmentalists have been concerned that the increase in surface UV could be significant.
Ozone depletion would magnify all of the effects of UV on human health, both positive (including production of Vitamin D) and negative (including sunburn, skin cancer, and cataracts). In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to humans.
The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, have been strongly linked to UVB exposure. The mechanism by which UVB induces these cancers is well understood -- absorption of UVB radiation causes the pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule to form dimers, resulting in transcription errors when the DNA replicates. These cancers are relatively mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery. By combining epidemiological data with results of animal studies, scientists have estimated that every one percent decrease in long - term stratospheric ozone would increase the incidence of these cancers by two percent.
Another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15 -- 20 percent of the cases diagnosed. The relationship between malignant melanoma and ultraviolet exposure is not yet fully understood, but it appears that both UVB and UVA are involved. Because of this uncertainty, it is difficult to estimate the effect of ozone depletion on melanoma incidence. One study showed that a 10 percent increase in UVB radiation was associated with a 19 percent increase in melanomas for men and 16 percent for women. A study of people in Punta Arenas, at the southern tip of Chile, showed a 56 percent increase in melanoma and a 46 percent increase in nonmelanoma skin cancer over a period of seven years, along with decreased ozone and increased UVB levels.
Epidemiological studies suggest an association between ocular cortical cataracts and UVB exposure, using crude approximations of exposure and various cataract assessment techniques. A detailed assessment of ocular exposure to UVB was carried out in a study on Chesapeake Bay Watermen, where increases in average annual ocular exposure were associated with increasing risk of cortical opacity. In this highly exposed group of predominantly white males, the evidence linking cortical opacities to sunlight exposure was the strongest to date. Based on these results, ozone depletion is predicted to cause hundreds of thousands of additional cataracts by 2050.
Increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone. Ground - level ozone is generally recognized to be a health risk, as ozone is toxic due to its strong oxidant properties. The risks are particularly high for young children, the elderly, and those with asthma or other respiratory difficulties. At this time, ozone at ground level is produced mainly by the action of UV radiation on combustion gases from vehicle exhausts.
Vitamin D is produced in the skin by ultraviolet light. Thus, higher UVB exposure raises human vitamin D in those deficient in it. Recent research (primarily since the Montreal Protocol) shows that many humans have less than optimal vitamin D levels. In particular, in the U.S. population, the lowest quarter of vitamin D (< 17.8 ng / ml) were found using information from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to be associated with an increase in all - cause mortality in the general population. While blood level of Vitamin D in excess of 100 ng / ml appear to raise blood calcium excessively and to be associated with higher mortality, the body has mechanisms that prevent sunlight from producing Vitamin D in excess of the body 's requirements.
A November 2010 report by scientists at the Institute of Zoology in London found that whales off the coast of California have shown a sharp rise in sun damage, and these scientists "fear that the thinning ozone layer is to blame ''. The study photographed and took skin biopsies from over 150 whales in the Gulf of California and found "widespread evidence of epidermal damage commonly associated with acute and severe sunburn '', having cells that form when the DNA is damaged by UV radiation. The findings suggest "rising UV levels as a result of ozone depletion are to blame for the observed skin damage, in the same way that human skin cancer rates have been on the increase in recent decades. ''
An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of economically important species of plants, such as rice, depend on cyanobacteria residing on their roots for the retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV radiation and would be affected by its increase. "Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair the effects of increased ultraviolet radiation, plants have a limited ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB, therefore plant growth can be directly affected by UVB radiation. ''
The full extent of the damage that CFCs have caused to the ozone layer is not known and will not be known for decades; however, marked decreases in column ozone have already been observed. The Montreal and Vienna conventions were installed long before a scientific consensus was established or important uncertainties in the science field were being resolved. The ozone case was understood comparably well by lay persons as e.g. Ozone shield or ozone hole were useful "easy - to - understand bridging metaphors ''. Americans voluntarily switched away from aerosol sprays, resulting in a 50 percent sales loss even before legislation was enforced.
After a 1976 report by the United States National Academy of Sciences concluded that credible scientific evidence supported the ozone depletion hypothesis a few countries, including the United States, Canada, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, moved to eliminate the use of CFCs in aerosol spray cans. At the time this was widely regarded as a first step towards a more comprehensive regulation policy, but progress in this direction slowed in subsequent years, due to a combination of political factors (continued resistance from the halocarbon industry and a general change in attitude towards environmental regulation during the first two years of the Reagan administration) and scientific developments (subsequent National Academy assessments that indicated that the first estimates of the magnitude of ozone depletion had been overly large). A critical DuPont manufacturing patent for Freon was set to expire in 1979. The United States banned the use of CFCs in aerosol cans in 1978. The European Community rejected proposals to ban CFCs in aerosol sprays, and in the U.S., CFCs continued to be used as refrigerants and for cleaning circuit boards. Worldwide CFC production fell sharply after the U.S. aerosol ban, but by 1986 had returned nearly to its 1976 level. In 1993, DuPont Canada closed its CFC facility.
The U.S. Government 's attitude began to change again in 1983, when William Ruckelshaus replaced Anne M. Burford as Administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Under Ruckelshaus and his successor, Lee Thomas, the EPA pushed for an international approach to halocarbon regulations. In 1985 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone - depleting substances. That same year, the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole was announced, causing a revival in public attention to the issue. In 1987, representatives from 43 nations signed the Montreal Protocol. Meanwhile, the halocarbon industry shifted its position and started supporting a protocol to limit CFC production. However, this shift was uneven with DuPont acting more quickly than their European counterparts. DuPont may have feared court action related to increased skin cancer especially as the EPA had published a study in 1986 claiming that an additional 40 million cases and 800,000 cancer deaths were to be expected in the U.S. in the next 88 years. The EU shifted its position as well after Germany gave up its defence of the CFC industry and started supporting moves towards regulation. Government and industry in France and the UK tried to defend their CFC producing industries even after the Montreal Protocol had been signed.
At Montreal, the participants agreed to freeze production of CFCs at 1986 levels and to reduce production by 50 percent by 1999. After a series of scientific expeditions to the Antarctic produced convincing evidence that the ozone hole was indeed caused by chlorine and bromine from manmade organohalogens, the Montreal Protocol was strengthened at a 1990 meeting in London. The participants agreed to phase out CFCs and halons entirely (aside from a very small amount marked for certain "essential '' uses, such as asthma inhalers) by 2000 in non-Article 5 countries and by 2010 in Article 5 (less developed) signatories. At a 1992 meeting in Copenhagen, the phase - out date was moved up to 1996. At the same meeting, methyl bromide (MeBr), a fumigant used primarily in agricultural production, was added to the list of controlled substances. For all substances controlled under the protocol, phaseout schedules were delayed for less developed (' Article 5 (1) ') countries, and phaseout in these countries was supported by transfers of expertise, technology, and money from non-Article 5 (1) Parties to the Protocol. Additionally, exemptions from the agreed schedules could be applied for under the Essential Use Exemption (EUE) process for substances other than methyl bromide and under the Critical Use Exemption (CUE) process for methyl bromide.
Civil society including especially NGOs, played critical roles at all stages of policy development leading up to the Vienna Conference, the Montreal Protocol, and in assessing compliance afterwards. The major companies claimed that no alternatives to HFC existed. An ozone - safe hydrocarbon refrigerant was developed at a Hamburg technological institute in Germany, and in 1992 came to the attention of the non-governmental organization (NGO) Greenpeace. Greenpeace was given the patent, called it "Greenfreeze, '' and left the patent as open source. The NGO then worked successfully first with a small and struggling company to market an appliance beginning in Europe, then Asia and later Latin America, receiving a 1997 UNEP award. By 1995, Germany had already made CFC refrigerators illegal. Since 2004, corporations like Coca - Cola, Carlsberg, and IKEA have been forming a coalition to promote the ozone - safe Greenfreeze units. Production spread to companies like Electrolux, Bosch, and LG, with sales reaching some 300 million refrigerators by 2008. In Latin America, a domestic Argentinian company began Greenfreeze production in 2003, while the giant Bosch in Brazil began a year later. By 2013 it was being used by some 700 million refrigerators, making up about 40 percent of the market. In the U.S., however, change has been much slower. To some extent, CFCs were being replaced by the less damaging hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), although concerns remain regarding HCFCs also. In some applications, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) were being used to replace CFCs. HFCs, which contain no chlorine or bromine, do not contribute at all to ozone depletion although they are potent greenhouse gases. The best known of these compounds is probably HFC - 134a (R - 134a), which in the United States has largely replaced CFC - 12 (R - 12) in automobile air conditioners. In laboratory analytics (a former "essential '' use) the ozone depleting substances can be replaced with various other solvents. Chemical companies like Du Pont, whose representatives even disparaged Greenfreeze as "that German technology, '' maneuvered the EPA to block the technology in the U.S. until 2011. Ben & Jerry 's of Unilever and General Electric, spurred by Greenpeace, had expressed formal interest in 2008 which figured in the EPA 's final approval.
More recently, policy experts have advocated for efforts to link ozone protection efforts to climate protection efforts. Many ODS are also greenhouse gases, some thousands of times more powerful agents of radiative forcing than carbon dioxide over the short and medium term. Thus policies protecting the ozone layer have had benefits in mitigating climate change. In fact, the reduction of the radiative forcing due to ODS probably masked the true level of climate change effects of other GHGs, and was responsible for the "slow down '' of global warming from the mid-90s. Policy decisions in one arena affect the costs and effectiveness of environmental improvements in the other.
The IMO has amended MARPOL Annex VI Regulation 12 regarding ozone depleting substances. As from July 1, 2010, all vessels where MARPOL Annex VI is applicable should have a list of equipment using ozone depleting substances. The list should include name of ODS, type and location of equipment, quantity in kg and date. All changes since that date should be recorded in an ODS Record book on board recording all intended or unintended releases to the atmosphere. Furthermore, new ODS supply or landing to shore facilities should be recorded as well.
Since the adoption and strengthening of the Montreal Protocol has led to reductions in the emissions of CFCs, atmospheric concentrations of the most - significant compounds have been declining. These substances are being gradually removed from the atmosphere; since peaking in 1994, the Effective Equivalent Chlorine (EECl) level in the atmosphere had dropped about 10 percent by 2008. The decrease in ozone - depleting chemicals has also been significantly affected by a decrease in bromine - containing chemicals. The data suggest that substantial natural sources exist for atmospheric methyl bromide (CH Br). The phase - out of CFCs means that nitrous oxide (N O), which is not covered by the Montreal Protocol, has become the most highly emitted ozone - depleting substance and is expected to remain so throughout the 21st century.
A 2005 IPCC review of ozone observations and model calculations concluded that the global amount of ozone has now approximately stabilized. Although considerable variability is expected from year to year, including in polar regions where depletion is largest, the ozone layer is expected to begin to recover in coming decades due to declining ozone - depleting substance concentrations, assuming full compliance with the Montreal Protocol.
The Antarctic ozone hole is expected to continue for decades. Ozone concentrations in the lower stratosphere over Antarctica will increase by 5 -- 10 percent by 2020 and return to pre-1980 levels by about 2060 -- 2075. This is 10 -- 25 years later than predicted in earlier assessments, because of revised estimates of atmospheric concentrations of ozone - depleting substances, including a larger predicted future usage in developing countries. Another factor that may prolong ozone depletion is the drawdown of nitrogen oxides from above the stratosphere due to changing wind patterns. A gradual trend toward "healing '' was reported in 2016.
The basic physical and chemical processes that lead to the formation of an ozone layer in the Earth 's stratosphere were discovered by Sydney Chapman in 1930. Short - wavelength UV radiation splits an oxygen (O) molecule into two oxygen (O) atoms, which then combine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone. Ozone is removed when an oxygen atom and an ozone molecule "recombine '' to form two oxygen molecules, i.e. O + O → 2O. In the 1950s, David Bates and Marcel Nicolet presented evidence that various free radicals, in particular hydroxyl (OH) and nitric oxide (NO), could catalyze this recombination reaction, reducing the overall amount of ozone. These free radicals were known to be present in the stratosphere, and so were regarded as part of the natural balance -- it was estimated that in their absence, the ozone layer would be about twice as thick as it currently is.
In 1970 Paul Crutzen pointed out that emissions of nitrous oxide (N O), a stable, long - lived gas produced by soil bacteria, from the Earth 's surface could affect the amount of nitric oxide (NO) in the stratosphere. Crutzen showed that nitrous oxide lives long enough to reach the stratosphere, where it is converted into NO. Crutzen then noted that increasing use of fertilizers might have led to an increase in nitrous oxide emissions over the natural background, which would in turn result in an increase in the amount of NO in the stratosphere. Thus human activity could affect the stratospheric ozone layer. In the following year, Crutzen and (independently) Harold Johnston suggested that NO emissions from supersonic passenger aircraft, which would fly in the lower stratosphere, could also deplete the ozone layer. However, more recent analysis in 1995 by David W. Fahey, an atmospheric scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, found that the drop in ozone would be from 1 -- 2 percent if a fleet of 500 supersonic passenger aircraft were operated. This, Fahey expressed, would not be a showstopper for advanced supersonic passenger aircraft development.
In 1974 Frank Sherwood Rowland, Chemistry Professor at the University of California at Irvine, and his postdoctoral associate Mario J. Molina suggested that long - lived organic halogen compounds, such as CFCs, might behave in a similar fashion as Crutzen had proposed for nitrous oxide. James Lovelock had recently discovered, during a cruise in the South Atlantic in 1971, that almost all of the CFC compounds manufactured since their invention in 1930 were still present in the atmosphere. Molina and Rowland concluded that, like N O, the CFCs would reach the stratosphere where they would be dissociated by UV light, releasing chlorine atoms. A year earlier, Richard Stolarski and Ralph Cicerone at the University of Michigan had shown that Cl is even more efficient than NO at catalyzing the destruction of ozone. Similar conclusions were reached by Michael McElroy and Steven Wofsy at Harvard University. Neither group, however, had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of stratospheric chlorine -- instead, they had been investigating the possible effects of HCl emissions from the Space Shuttle, which are very much smaller.
The Rowland -- Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The Chair of the Board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale... a load of rubbish... utter nonsense ''. Robert Abplanalp, the President of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about Rowland 's public statements. Nevertheless, within three years most of the basic assumptions made by Rowland and Molina were confirmed by laboratory measurements and by direct observation in the stratosphere. The concentrations of the source gases (CFCs and related compounds) and the chlorine reservoir species (HCl and ClONO) were measured throughout the stratosphere, and demonstrated that CFCs were indeed the major source of stratospheric chlorine, and that nearly all of the CFCs emitted would eventually reach the stratosphere. Even more convincing was the measurement, by James G. Anderson and collaborators, of chlorine monoxide (ClO) in the stratosphere. ClO is produced by the reaction of Cl with ozone -- its observation thus demonstrated that Cl radicals not only were present in the stratosphere but also were actually involved in destroying ozone. McElroy and Wofsy extended the work of Rowland and Molina by showing that bromine atoms were even more effective catalysts for ozone loss than chlorine atoms and argued that the brominated organic compounds known as halons, widely used in fire extinguishers, were a potentially large source of stratospheric bromine. In 1976 the United States National Academy of Sciences released a report concluding that the ozone depletion hypothesis was strongly supported by the scientific evidence. In response the United States, Canada and Norway banned the use of CFCs in aerosol spray cans in 1978. Early estimates were that, if CFC production continued at 1977 levels, the total atmospheric ozone would after a century or so reach a steady state, 15 to 18 percent below normal levels. By 1984, when better evidence on the speed of critical reactions was available, this estimate was changed to 5 to 9 percent steady - state depletion.
Crutzen, Molina, and Rowland were awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on stratospheric ozone.
The discovery of the Antarctic "ozone hole '' by British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin (first reported in a paper in Nature in May 1985) came as a shock to the scientific community, because the observed decline in polar ozone was far larger than anyone had anticipated. Satellite measurements showing massive depletion of ozone around the south pole were becoming available at the same time. However, these were initially rejected as unreasonable by data quality control algorithms (they were filtered out as errors since the values were unexpectedly low); the ozone hole was detected only in satellite data when the raw data was reprocessed following evidence of ozone depletion in in situ observations. When the software was rerun without the flags, the ozone hole was seen as far back as 1976.
Susan Solomon, an atmospheric chemist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), proposed that chemical reactions on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) in the cold Antarctic stratosphere caused a massive, though localized and seasonal, increase in the amount of chlorine present in active, ozone - destroying forms. The polar stratospheric clouds in Antarctica are only formed when there are very low temperatures, as low as − 80 ° C, and early spring conditions. In such conditions the ice crystals of the cloud provide a suitable surface for conversion of unreactive chlorine compounds into reactive chlorine compounds, which can deplete ozone easily.
Moreover, the polar vortex formed over Antarctica is very tight and the reaction occurring on the surface of the cloud crystals is far different from when it occurs in atmosphere. These conditions have led to ozone hole formation in Antarctica. This hypothesis was decisively confirmed, first by laboratory measurements and subsequently by direct measurements, from the ground and from high - altitude airplanes, of very high concentrations of chlorine monoxide (ClO) in the Antarctic stratosphere.
Alternative hypotheses, which had attributed the ozone hole to variations in solar UV radiation or to changes in atmospheric circulation patterns, were also tested and shown to be untenable.
Meanwhile, analysis of ozone measurements from the worldwide network of ground - based Dobson spectrophotometers led an international panel to conclude that the ozone layer was in fact being depleted, at all latitudes outside of the tropics. These trends were confirmed by satellite measurements. As a consequence, the major halocarbon - producing nations agreed to phase out production of CFCs, halons, and related compounds, a process that was completed in 1996.
Since 1981 the United Nations Environment Programme, under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization, has sponsored a series of technical reports on the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion, based on satellite measurements. The 2007 report showed that the hole in the ozone layer was recovering and the smallest it had been for about a decade. The 2010 report found, "Over the past decade, global ozone and ozone in the Arctic and Antarctic regions is no longer decreasing but is not yet increasing. The ozone layer outside the Polar regions is projected to recover to its pre-1980 levels some time before the middle of this century. In contrast, the springtime ozone hole over the Antarctic is expected to recover much later. '' In 2012, NOAA and NASA reported "Warmer air temperatures high above the Antarctic led to the second smallest season ozone hole in 20 years averaging 17.9 million square kilometres. The hole reached its maximum size for the season on Sept 22, stretching to 21.2 million square kilometres. '' A gradual trend toward "healing '' was reported in 2016.
The hole in the Earth 's ozone layer over the South Pole has affected atmospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere all the way to the equator. The ozone hole has influenced atmospheric circulation all the way to the tropics and increased rainfall at low, subtropical latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.
On March 3, 2005, the journal Nature published an article linking 2004 's unusually large Arctic ozone hole to solar wind activity.
On March 15, 2011, a record ozone layer loss was observed, with about half of the ozone present over the Arctic having been destroyed. The change was attributed to increasingly cold winters in the Arctic stratosphere at an altitude of approximately 20 km (12 mi), a change associated with global warming in a relationship that is still under investigation. By March 25, the ozone loss had become the largest compared to that observed in all previous winters with the possibility that it would become an ozone hole. This would require that the quantities of ozone to fall below 200 Dobson units, from the 250 recorded over central Siberia. It is predicted that the thinning layer would affect parts of Scandinavia and Eastern Europe on March 30 -- 31.
On October 2, 2011, a study was published in the journal Nature, which said that between December 2010 and March 2011 up to 80 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere at about 20 kilometres (12 mi) above the surface was destroyed. The level of ozone depletion was severe enough that scientists said it could be compared to the ozone hole that forms over Antarctica every winter. According to the study, "for the first time, sufficient loss occurred to reasonably be described as an Arctic ozone hole. '' The study analyzed data from the Aura and CALIPSO satellites, and determined that the larger - than - normal ozone loss was due to an unusually long period of cold weather in the Arctic, some 30 days more than typical, which allowed for more ozone - destroying chlorine compounds to be created. According to Lamont Poole, a co-author of the study, cloud and aerosol particles on which the chlorine compounds are found "were abundant in the Arctic until mid March 2011 -- much later than usual -- with average amounts at some altitudes similar to those observed in the Antarctic, and dramatically larger than the near - zero values seen in March in most Arctic winters ''.
As winters that are colder are more affected, at times there is an ozone hole over Tibet. In 2006, a 2.5 million square kilometer ozone hole was detected over Tibet. Also again in 2011 an ozone hole appeared over mountainous regions of Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai and the Hindu Kush, along with an unprecedented hole over the Arctic, though the Tibet one is far less intense than the ones over the Arctic or Antarctic.
Research in 2012 showed that the same process that produces the ozone hole over Antarctica occurs over summer storm clouds in the United States, and thus may be destroying ozone there as well.
Among others, Robert Watson had a role in the science assessment and in the regulation efforts of ozone depletion and global warming. Prior to the 1980s, the EU, NASA, NAS, UNEP, WMO and the British government had dissenting scientific reports and Watson played a role in the process of unified assessments. Based on the experience with the ozone case, the IPCC started to work on a unified reporting and science assessment to reach a consensus to provide the IPCC Summary for Policymakers.
There are various areas of linkage between ozone depletion and global warming science:
Since CFC molecules are heavier than air (nitrogen or oxygen), it is commonly believed that the CFC molecules can not reach the stratosphere in significant amount. However, atmospheric gases are not sorted by weight; the forces of wind can fully mix the gases in the atmosphere. Lighter CFCs are evenly distributed throughout the turbosphere and reach the upper atmosphere, although some of the heavier CFCs are not evenly distributed.
Another misconception is that "it is generally accepted that natural sources of tropospheric chlorine are four to five times larger than man - made ones. '' While strictly true, tropospheric chlorine is irrelevant; it is stratospheric chlorine that affects ozone depletion. Chlorine from ocean spray is soluble and thus is washed by rainfall before it reaches the stratosphere. CFCs, in contrast, are insoluble and long - lived, allowing them to reach the stratosphere. In the lower atmosphere, there is much more chlorine from CFCs and related haloalkanes than there is in HCl from salt spray, and in the stratosphere halocarbons are dominant. Only methyl chloride, which is one of these halocarbons, has a mainly natural source, and it is responsible for about 20 percent of the chlorine in the stratosphere; the remaining 80 percent comes from manmade sources.
Very violent volcanic eruptions can inject HCl into the stratosphere, but researchers have shown that the contribution is not significant compared to that from CFCs. A similar erroneous assertion is that soluble halogen compounds from the volcanic plume of Mount Erebus on Ross Island, Antarctica are a major contributor to the Antarctic ozone hole.
Nevertheless, a 2015 study showed that the role of Mount Erebus volcano in the Antarctic ozone depletion was probably underestimated. Based on the NCEP / NCAR reanalysis data over the last 35 years and by using the NOAA HYSPLIT trajectory model, researchers showed that Erebus volcano gas emissions (including hydrogen chloride (HCl)) can reach the Antarctic stratosphere via high - latitude cyclones and then the polar vortex. Depending on Erebus volcano activity, the additional annual HCl mass entering the stratosphere from Erebus varies from 1.0 to 14.3 kt.
G.M.B. Dobson (Exploring the Atmosphere, 2nd Edition, Oxford, 1968) mentioned that when springtime ozone levels in the Antarctic over Halley Bay were first measured in 1956, he was surprised to find that they were ~ 320 DU, or about 150 DU below spring Arctic levels of ~ 450 DU. These were at that time the only known Antarctic ozone values available. What Dobson describes is essentially the baseline from which the ozone hole is measured: actual ozone hole values are in the 150 -- 100 DU range.
The discrepancy between the Arctic and Antarctic noted by Dobson was primarily a matter of timing: during the Arctic spring ozone levels rose smoothly, peaking in April, whereas in the Antarctic they stayed approximately constant during early spring, rising abruptly in November when the polar vortex broke down.
The behavior seen in the Antarctic ozone hole is completely different. Instead of staying constant, early springtime ozone levels suddenly drop from their already low winter values, by as much as 50 percent, and normal values are not reached again until December.
Some people thought that the ozone hole should be above the sources of CFCs. However, CFCs are well mixed globally in the troposphere and stratosphere. The reason for occurrence of the ozone hole above Antarctica is not because there are more CFCs concentrated but because the low temperatures help form polar stratospheric clouds. In fact, there are findings of significant and localized "ozone holes '' above other parts of the earth.
In 1994, the United Nations General Assembly voted to designate September 16 as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer, or "World Ozone Day '', to commemorate the signing of the Montreal Protocol on that date in 1987.
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how does glucokinase act as a glucose sensor | Glucokinase - wikipedia
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Glucokinase (EC 2.7. 1.2) is an enzyme that facilitates phosphorylation of glucose to glucose - 6 - phosphate. Glucokinase occurs in cells in the liver and pancreas of humans and most other vertebrates. In each of these organs it plays an important role in the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism by acting as a glucose sensor, triggering shifts in metabolism or cell function in response to rising or falling levels of glucose, such as occur after a meal or when fasting. Mutagens of the gene for this enzyme can cause unusual forms of diabetes or hypoglycemia.
Glucokinase (GK) is a hexokinase isozyme, related homologously to at least three other hexokinases. All of the hexokinases can mediate phosphorylation of glucose to glucose - 6 - phosphate (G6P), which is the first step of both glycogen synthesis and glycolysis. However, glucokinase is coded by a separate gene and its distinctive kinetic properties allow it to serve a different set of functions. Glucokinase has a lower affinity for glucose than the other hexokinases do, and its activity is localized to a few cell types, leaving the other three hexokinases as more important preparers of glucose for glycolysis and glycogen synthesis for most tissues and organs. Because of this reduced affinity, the activity of glucokinase, under usual physiological conditions, varies substantially according to the concentration of glucose.
Alternative names for this enzyme are: human hexokinase IV, hexokinase D, and ATP: D - hexose 6 - phosphotransferase, EC 2.7. 1.1 (previously 2.7. 1.2). The common name, glucokinase, is derived from its relative specificity for glucose under physiologic conditions.
Some biochemists have argued that the name glucokinase should be abandoned as misleading, as this enzyme can phosphorylate other hexoses in the right conditions, and there are distantly related enzymes in bacteria with more absolute specificity for glucose that better deserve the name and the EC 2.7. 1.2. Nevertheless, glucokinase remains the name preferred in the contexts of medicine and mammalian physiology.
Another mammalian glucose kinase, ADP - specific glucokinase, was discovered in 2004. The gene is distinct and similar to that of primitive organisms. It is dependent on ADP rather than ATP (suggesting the possibility of more effective function during hypoxia), and the metabolic role and importance remain to be elucidated.
The principal substrate of physiologic importance of glucokinase is glucose, and the most important product is glucose - 6 - phosphate (G6P). The other necessary substrate, from which the phosphate is derived, is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) when the phosphate is removed. The reaction catalyzed by glucokinase is:
ATP participates in the reaction in a form complexed to magnesium (Mg) as a cofactor. Furthermore, under certain conditions, glucokinase, like other hexokinases, can induce phosphorylation of other hexoses (6 carbon sugars) and similar molecules. Therefore, the general glucokinase reaction is more accurately described as:
Among the hexose substrates are mannose, fructose, and glucosamine, but the affinity of glucokinase for these requires concentrations not found in cells for significant activity.
Two important kinetic properties distinguish glucokinase from the other hexokinases, allowing it to function in a special role as glucose sensor.
These two features allow it to regulate a "supply - driven '' metabolic pathway. That is, the rate of reaction is driven by the supply of glucose, not by the demand for end products.
Another distinctive property of glucokinase is its moderate cooperativity with glucose, with a Hill coefficient (n) of about 1.7. Glucokinase has only a single binding site for glucose and is the only monomeric regulatory enzyme known to display substrate cooperativity. The nature of the cooperativity has been postulated to involve a "slow transition '' between two different enzyme states with different rates of activity. If the dominant state depends upon glucose concentration, it would produce an apparent cooperativity similar to that observed.
Because of this cooperativity, the kinetic interaction of glucokinase with glucose does not follow classical Michaelis - Menten kinetics. Rather than a K for glucose, it is more accurate to describe a half - saturation level S, which is the concentration at which the enzyme is 50 % saturated and active.
The S and nH extrapolate to an "inflection point '' of the curve describing enzyme activity as a function of glucose concentration at about 4 mmol / L. In other words, at a glucose concentration of about 72 mg / dl, which is near the low end of the normal range, glucokinase activity is most sensitive to small changes in glucose concentration.
The kinetic relationship with the other substrate, MgATP, can be described by classical Michaelis - Menten kinetics, with an affinity at about 0.3 -- 0.4 mmol / L, well below a typical intracellular concentration of 2.5 mmol / L. The fact that there is nearly always an excess of ATP available implies that ATP concentration rarely influences glucokinase activity.
The maximum specific activity (k, also known as the turnover rate) of glucokinase when saturated with both substrates is 62 / s.
A "minimal mathematical model '' has been devised based on the above kinetic information to predict the beta cell glucose phosphorylation rate (BGPR) of normal ("wild type '') glucokinase and the known mutations. The BGPR for wild type glucokinase is about 28 % at a glucose concentration of 5 mmol / l, indicating that the enzyme is running at 28 % of capacity at the usual threshold glucose for triggering insulin release.
The sulfhydryl groups of several cysteines surround the glucose binding site. All except cys 230 are essential for the catalytic process, forming multiple disulfide bridges during interaction with the substrates and regulators. At least in the beta cells, the ratio of active to inactive glucokinase molecules is at least partly determined by the balance of oxidation of sulfhydryl groups or reduction of disulfide bridges.
These sulfhydryl groups are quite sensitive to the oxidation status of the cells, making glucokinase one of the components most vulnerable to oxidative stress, especially in the beta cells.
Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles.
Glucokinase is a monomeric protein of 465 amino acids and a molecular weight of about 50 kD. There are at least two clefts, one for the active site, binding glucose and MgATP, and the other for a putative allosteric activator that has not yet been identified.
This is about half the size of the other mammalian hexokinases, which retain a degree of dimeric structure. Several sequences and the three - dimensional structure of the key active sites. The ATP binding domain, for example, are shared with hexokinases, bacterial glucokinases, and other proteins, and the common structure is termed an actin fold.
Human glucokinase is coded for by the GCK gene on chromosome 7. This single autosomal gene has 10 exons. Genes for glucokinase in other animals are homologous to human GCK.
A distinctive feature of the gene is that it begins with two promoter regions. The first exon from the 5 ' end contains two tissue - specific promoter regions. Transcription can begin at either promoter (depending on the tissue) so that the same gene can produce a slightly different molecule in liver and in other tissues. The two isoforms of glucokinase differ only by 13 -- 15 amino acids at the N - terminal end of the molecule, which produces only a minimal difference in structure. The two isoforms have the same kinetic and functional characteristics.
The first promoter from the 5 ' end, referred to as the "upstream '' or neuroendocrine promoter, is active in pancreatic islet cells, neural tissue, and enterocytes (small intestine cells) to produce the "neuroendocrine isoform '' of glucokinase. The second promoter, the "downstream '' or liver promoter, is active in hepatocytes and directs production of the "liver isoform ''. The two promoters have little or no sequence homology and are separated by a 30 k bp sequence which has not yet been shown to incur any functional differences between isoforms. The two promoters are functionally exclusive and governed by distinct sets of regulatory factors, so that glucokinase expression can be regulated separately in different tissue types. The two promoters correspond to two broad categories of glucokinase function: In liver, glucokinase acts as the gateway for the "bulk processing '' of available glucose, while, in the neuroendocrine cells, it acts as a sensor, triggering cell responses that affect body - wide carbohydrate metabolism.
Glucokinase has been discovered in specific cells in four types of mammalian tissue: liver, pancreas, small intestine, and brain. All play crucial roles in responding to rising or falling levels of blood glucose.
Liver glucokinase occurs widely but not universally throughout vertebrate species. The gene structure and amino acid sequence are highly conserved among most mammals (e.g., rat and human glucokinase is more than 80 % homologous). However, there are some unusual exceptions: For example, it has not been discovered in cats and bats, though some reptiles, birds, amphibians, and fish have it. Whether glucokinase occurs similarly in the pancreas and other organs has not yet been determined. It has been postulated that the presence of glucokinase in liver reflects the ease with which carbohydrates can be included in the animals ' diets.
Most of the glucokinase in a mammal is found in the liver, and glucokinase provides approximately 95 % of the hexokinase activity in hepatocytes. Phosphorylation of glucose to glucose - 6 - phosphate (G6P) by glucokinase is the first step of both glycogen synthesis and glycolysis in the liver.
When ample glucose is available, glycogen synthesis proceeds at the periphery of the hepatocytes until the cells are replete with glycogen. Excess glucose is then increasingly converted into triglycerides for export and storage in adipose tissue. Glucokinase activity in the cytoplasm rises and falls with available glucose.
G6P, the product of glucokinase, is the principal substrate of glycogen synthesis, and glucokinase has a close functional and regulatory association with glycogen synthesis. When maximally active, GK and glycogen synthase appears to be located in the same peripheral areas of hepatocyte cytoplasm in which glycogen synthesis occurs. The supply of G6P affects the rate of glycogen synthesis not only as the primary substrate, but by direct stimulation of glycogen synthase and inhibition of glycogen phosphorylase.
Glucokinase activity can be rapidly amplified or damped in response to changes in the glucose supply, typically resulting from eating and fasting. Regulation occurs at several levels and speeds, and is influenced by many factors that affect mainly two general mechanisms:
Insulin acting via the sterol regulatory element binding protein - 1c (SREBP1c) is thought to be the most important direct activator of glucokinase gene transcription in hepatocytes. SREBP1c is a basic helix - loop - helix zipper (bHLHZ) transactivator. This class of transactivators bind to the "E box '' sequence of genes for a number of regulatory enzymes. The liver promoter in the first exon of the glucokinase gene includes such an E box, which appears to be the principal insulin - response element of the gene in hepatocytes. It was previously thought that SREBP1c must be present for transcription of glucokinase in hepatocytes however, it was recently shown that glucokinase transcription was carried out normally in SREBP1c knock out mice. SREBP1c increases in response to a high - carbohydrate diet, presumed as a direct effect of frequent insulin elevation. Increased transcription can be detected in less than an hour after hepatocytes are exposed to rising insulin levels.
Fructose - 2, 6 - bisphosphate (F2, 6P 2) also stimulates GK transcription, it seems by way of Akt2 rather than SREBP1c. It is not known whether this effect is one of the downstream effects of activation of insulin receptors or independent of insulin action. Levels of F2, 6P 2 play other amplifying roles in glycolysis in hepatocytes.
Other transacting factors suspected of playing a role in liver cell transcription regulation include:
Insulin is by far the most important of the hormones that have direct or indirect effects on glucokinase expression and activity in the liver. Insulin appears to affect both glucokinase transcription and activity through multiple direct and indirect pathways. While rising portal vein glucose levels increase glucokinase activity, the concomitant rise of insulin amplifies this effect by induction of glucokinase synthesis. Glucokinase transcription begins to rise within an hour of rising insulin levels. Glucokinase transcription becomes nearly undetectable in prolonged starvation, severe carbohydrate deprivation, or untreated insulin - deficient diabetes.
The mechanisms by which insulin induces glucokinase may involve both of the major intracellular pathways of insulin action, the extracellular signal - regulated kinase (ERK 1 / 2) cascade, and the phosphoinositide 3 - kinase (PI3 - K) cascade. The latter may operate via the FOXO1 transactivator.
However, as would be expected given its antagonistic effect on glycogen synthesis, glucagon and its intracellular second messenger cAMP suppresses glucokinase transcription and activity, even in the presence of insulin.
Other hormones such as triiodothyronine (T 3) and glucocorticoids provide permissive or stimulatory effects on glucokinase in certain circumstances. Biotin and retinoic acid increase GCK mRNA transcription as well as GK activity. Fatty acids in significant amounts amplify GK activity in the liver, while long chain acyl CoA inhibits it.
Glucokinase can be rapidly activated and inactivated in hepatocytes by a novel regulatory protein (glucokinase regulatory protein), which operates to maintain an inactive reserve of GK, which can be made quickly available in response to rising levels of portal vein glucose.
GKRP moves between nucleus and cytoplasm of the hepatocytes and may be tethered to the microfilament cytoskeleton. It forms reversible 1: 1 complexes with GK, and can move it from the cytoplasm into the nucleus. It acts as a competitive inhibitor with glucose, such that the enzyme activity is reduced to near - zero while bound. GK: GKRP complexes are sequestered in the nucleus while glucose and fructose levels are low. Nuclear sequestration may serve to protect GK from degradation by cytoplasmic proteases. GK can be rapidly released from GKRP in response to rising levels of glucose. Unlike GK in beta cells, GK in hepatocytes is not associated with mitochondria.
Fructose in tiny (micromolar) amounts (after phosphorylation by ketohexokinase to fructose - 1 - phosphate (F1P)) accelerates release of GK from GKRP. This sensitivity to the presence of small amounts of fructose allows GKRP, GK, and ketohexokinase to act as a "fructose sensing system, '' which signals that a mixed carbohydrate meal is being digested, and accelerates the utilization of glucose. However, fructose 6 - phosphate (F6P) potentiates binding of GK by GKRP. F6P decreases phosphorylation of glucose by GK when glycogenolysis or gluconeogenesis are underway. F1P and F6P both bind to the same site on GKRP. It is postulated that they produce 2 different conformations of GKRP, one able to bind GK and the other not.
Although most of the glucokinase in the body is in the liver, smaller amounts in the beta and alpha cells of the pancreas, certain hypothalamic neurons, and specific cells (enterocytes) of the gut play an increasingly appreciated role in regulation of carbohydrate metabolism. In the context of glucokinase function, these cell types are collectively referred to as neuroendocrine tissues, and they share some aspects of glucokinase regulation and function, especially the common neuroendocrine promoter. Of the neuroendocrine cells, the beta cells of the pancreatic islets are the most - studied and best - understood. It is likely that many of the regulatory relationships discovered in the beta cells will also exist in the other neuroendocrine tissues with glucokinase.
In islet beta cells, glucokinase activity serves as a principal control for the secretion of insulin in response to rising levels of blood glucose. As G6P is consumed, increasing amounts of ATP initiate a series of processes that result in release of insulin. One of the immediate consequences of increased cellular respiration is a rise in the NADH and NADPH concentrations (collectively referred to as NAD (P) H). This shift in the redox status of the beta cells results in rising intracellular calcium levels, closing of the K channels, depolarization of the cell membrane, merging of the insulin secretory granules with the membrane, and release of insulin into the blood.
It is as a signal for insulin release that glucokinase exerts the largest effect on blood sugar levels and overall direction of carbohydrate metabolism. Glucose, in turn, influences both the immediate activity and the amount of glucokinase produced in the beta cells.
Glucose immediately amplifies glucokinase activity by the cooperativity effect.
A second important rapid regulator of glucokinase activity in beta cells occurs by direct protein - protein interaction between glucokinase and the "bifunctional enzyme '' (phosphofructokinase - 2 / fructose - 2, 6 - bisphosphatase), which also plays a role in the regulation of glycolysis. This physical association stabilizes glucokinase in a catalytically favorable conformation (somewhat opposite the effect of GKRP binding) that enhances its activity.
In as little as 15 minutes, glucose can stimulate GCK transcription and glucokinase synthesis by way of insulin. Insulin is produced by the beta cells, but some of it acts on beta cell B - type insulin receptors, providing an autocrine positive - feedback amplification of glucokinase activity. Further amplification occurs by insulin action (via A-type receptors) to stimulate its own transcription.
Transcription of the GCK gene is initiated through the "upstream, '' or neuroendocrine, promoter. This promoter, in contrast to the liver promoter, has elements homologous to other insulin - induced gene promoters. Among the probable transacting factors are Pdx - 1 and PPARγ. Pdx - 1 is a homeodomain transcription factor involved in the differentiation of the pancreas. PPARγ is a nuclear receptor that responds to glitazone drugs by enhancing insulin sensitivity.
Much, but not all, of the glucokinase found in the cytoplasm of beta cells is associated with insulin secretory granules and with mitochondria. The proportion thus "bound '' falls rapidly in response to rising glucose and insulin secretion. It has been suggested that binding serves a purpose similar to the hepatic glucokinase regulatory protein -- protecting glucokinase from degradation so that it is rapidly available as the glucose rises. The effect is to amplify the glucokinase response to glucose more rapidly than transcription could do so.
It has also been proposed that glucokinase plays a role in the glucose sensing of the pancreatic alpha cells, but the evidence is less consistent, and some researchers have found no evidence of glucokinase activity in these cells. Alpha cells occur in pancreatic islets, mixed with beta and other cells. While beta cells respond to rising glucose levels by secreting insulin, alpha cells respond by reducing glucagon secretion. When blood glucose concentration falls to hypoglycemic levels, alpha cells release glucagon. Glucagon is a protein hormone that blocks the effect of insulin on hepatocytes, inducing glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and reduced glucokinase activity in hepatocytes. The degree to which glucose suppression of glucagon is a direct effect of glucose via glucokinase in alpha cells, or an indirect effect mediated by insulin or other signals from beta cells, is still uncertain.
While all neurons use glucose for fuel, certain glucose - sensing neurons alter their firing rates in response to rising or falling levels of glucose. These glucose - sensing neurons are concentrated primarily in the ventromedial nucleus and arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, which regulate many aspects of glucose homeostasis (especially the response to hypoglycemia), fuel utilization, satiety and appetite, and weight maintenance. These neurons are most sensitive to glucose changes in the 0.5 -- 3.5 mmol / L glucose range.
Glucokinase has been found in the brain in largely the same areas that contain glucose - sensing neurons, including both of the hypothalamic nuclei. Inhibition of glucokinase abolishes the ventromedial nucleus response to a meal. However, brain glucose levels are lower than plasma levels, typically 0.5 -- 3.5 mmol / L. Although this range is matches the sensitivity of the glucose - sensing neurons, it is below the optimal inflection sensitivity for glucokinase. The presumption, based on indirect evidence and speculation, is that neuronal glucokinase is somehow exposed to plasma glucose levels even in the neurons.
While glucokinase has been shown to occur in certain cells (enterocytes) of the small intestine and stomach, its function and regulation have not been worked out. It has been suggested that here, also, glucokinase serves as a glucose sensor, allowing these cells to provide one of the earliest metabolic responses to incoming carbohydrates. It is suspected that these cells are involved in incretin functions.
Because insulin is one of, if not the most important, regulators of glucokinase synthesis, diabetes mellitus of all types diminishes glucokinase synthesis and activity by a variety of mechanisms. Glucokinase activity is sensitive to oxidative stress of cells, especially the beta cells.
Around 200 mutations of the human glucokinase gene GCK have been discovered, that can change the efficiency of glucose binding and phosphorylation, increasing or decreasing the sensitivity of beta cell insulin secretion in response to glucose, and producing clinically significant hyperglycemia or hypoglycemia.
Over 190 of these mutations reduce the functional efficiency of the glucokinase molecule. Heterozygosity for alleles with reduced enzyme activity results in a higher threshold for insulin release and persistent, mild hyperglycemia. This condition is referred to as maturity onset diabetes of the young, type 2 (MODY2).
Homozygosity for GCK alleles with reduced function can cause severe congenital insulin deficiency, resulting in persistent neonatal diabetes.
As of 2004, 5 mutations have been found to enhance insulin secretion. Heterozygosity for gain of function mutations reduces the threshold glucose that triggers insulin release. This creates hypoglycemia of varying patterns, including transient or persistent congenital hyperinsulinism, or fasting or reactive hypoglycemia appearing at an older age.
Homozygosity for gain of function mutations has not been found.
Several laboratories sponsored by pharmaceutical companies are researching molecules that activate glucokinase in hope that it will be useful in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Potential glucokinase activator MK - 0941 led to unsustained glycemic improvements, as well as increased blood pressure and hypoglycemia risk.
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difference between binocular vision and binocular single vision | Binocular vision - wikipedia
In biology, binocular vision is a type of vision in which an animal having two eyes is able to perceive a single three - dimensional image of its surroundings. Neurological researcher Manfred Fahle has stated six specific advantages of having two eyes rather than just one:
Other phenomena of binocular vision include utrocular discrimination (the ability to tell which of two eyes has been stimulated by light), eye dominance (the habit of using one eye when aiming something, even if both eyes are open), allelotropia (the averaging of the visual direction of objects viewed by each eye when both eyes are open), binocular fusion or singleness of vision (seeing one object with both eyes despite each eye 's having its own image of the object), and binocular rivalry (seeing one eye 's image alternating randomly with the other when each eye views images that are so different they can not be fused).
Binocular vision helps with performance skills such as catching, grasping, and locomotion. It also allows humans to walk over and around obstacles at greater speed and with more assurance. Optometrists and / or orthoptists are eyecare professionals who fix binocular vision problems.
The term binocular comes from two Latin roots, bini for double, and oculus for eye.
Some animals, usually, but not always, prey animals, have their two eyes positioned on opposite sides of their heads to give the widest possible field of view. Examples include rabbits, buffaloes, and antelopes. In such animals, the eyes often move independently to increase the field of view. Even without moving their eyes, some birds have a 360 - degree field of view.
Some other animals, usually, but not always, predatory animals, have their two eyes positioned on the front of their heads, thereby allowing for binocular vision and reducing their field of view in favor of stereopsis. However, eyes on the front is a highly evolved trait in vertebrates, and there are only three extant groups of vertebrates with truly forward - facing eyes: primates, carnivorous mammals, and birds of prey.
Some predator animals, particularly large ones such as sperm whales and killer whales, have their two eyes positioned on opposite sides of their heads, although it is possible they have some binocular visual field. Other animals that are not necessarily predators, such as fruit bats and a number of primates also have forward - facing eyes. These are usually animals that need fine depth discrimination / perception; for instance, binocular vision improves the ability to pick a chosen fruit or to find and grasp a particular branch.
The direction of a point relative to the head (the angle between the straight ahead position and the apparent position of the point, from the egocenter) is called visual direction, or version. The angle between the line of sight of the two eyes when fixating a point is called the absolute disparity, binocular parallax, or vergence demand (usually just vergence). The relation between the position of the two eyes, version and vergence is described by Hering 's law of visual direction.
In animals with forward - facing eyes, the eyes usually move together.
Eye movements are either conjunctive (in the same direction), version eye movements, usually described by their type: saccades or smooth pursuit (also nystagmus and vestibulo - ocular reflex). Or they are disjunctive (in opposite direction), vergence eye movements. The relation between version and vergence eye movements in humans (and most animals) is described by Hering 's law of equal innervation.
Some animals use both of the above strategies. A starling, for example, has laterally placed eyes to cover a wide field of view, but can also move them together to point to the front so their fields overlap giving stereopsis. A remarkable example is the chameleon, whose eyes appear as if mounted on turrets, each moving independently of the other, up or down, left or right. Nevertheless, the chameleon can bring both of its eyes to bear on a single object when it is hunting, showing vergence and stereopsis.
Binocular summation is the process by which the detection threshold for a stimulus is lower with two eyes than with one. There are various types of possibilities when comparing binocular performance to monocular. Neural binocular summation occurs when the binocular response is greater than the probability summation. Probability summation assumes complete independence between the eyes and predicts a ratio ranging between 9 - 25 %. Binocular inhibition occurs when binocular performance is less than monocular performance. This suggests that a weak eye affects a good eye and causes overall combined vision. Maximum binocular summation occurs when monocular sensitivities are equal. Unequal monocular sensitivities decrease binocular summation. There are unequal sensitivities of vision disorders such as unilateral cataract and amblyopia. Other factors that can affect binocular summation include are, spatial frequency, stimulated retinal points, and temporal separation.
Apart from binocular summation, the two eyes can influence each other in at least three ways.
Once the fields of view overlap, there is a potential for confusion between the left and right eye 's image of the same object. This can be dealt with in two ways: one image can be suppressed, so that only the other is seen, or the two images can be fused. If two images of a single object are seen, this is known as double vision or diplopia.
Fusion of images (commonly referred to as ' binocular fusion ') occurs only in a small volume of visual space around where the eyes are fixating. Running through the fixation point in the horizontal plane is a curved line for which objects there fall on corresponding retinal points in the two eyes. This line is called the empirical horizontal horopter. There is also an empirical vertical horopter, which is effectively tilted away from the eyes above the fixation point and towards the eyes below the fixation point. The horizontal and vertical horopters mark the centre of the volume of singleness of vision. Within this thin, curved volume, objects nearer and farther than the horopters are seen as single. The volume is known as Panum 's fusional area (it 's presumably called an area because it was measured by Panum only in the horizontal plane). Outside of Panum 's fusional area (volume), double vision occurs.
When each eye has its own image of objects, it becomes impossible to align images outside of Panum 's fusional area with an image inside the area. This happens when one has to point to a distant object with one 's finger. When one looks at one 's fingertip, it is single but there are two images of the distant object. When one looks at the distant object it is single but there are two images of one 's fingertip. To point successfully, one of the double images has to take precedence and one be ignored or suppressed (termed "eye dominance ''). The eye that can both move faster to the object and stay fixated on it is more likely to be termed as the dominant eye.
The overlapping of vision occurs due to the position of the eyes on the head (eyes are located on the front of the head, not on the sides). This overlap allows each eye to view objects with a slightly different viewpoint. As a result of this overlap of vision, binocular vision provides depth. Stereopsis (from stereo - meaning "solid '' or "three - dimensional '', and opsis meaning "appearance '' or "sight '') is the impression of depth that is perceived when a scene is viewed with both eyes by someone with normal binocular vision. Binocular viewing of a scene creates two slightly different images of the scene in the two eyes due to the eyes ' different positions on the head. These differences, referred to as binocular disparity, provide information that the brain can use to calculate depth in the visual scene, providing a major means of depth perception. There are two aspects of stereopsis: the nature of the stimulus information specifying stereopsis, and the nature of the brain processes responsible for registering that information. The distance between the two eyes on an adult is almost always 6.5 cm and that is the same distance in shift of an image when viewing with only one eye. Retinal disparity is the separation between objects as seen by the left eye and the right eye and helps to provide depth perception. Retinal disparity provides relative depth between two objects, but not exact or absolute depth. The closer objects are to each other, the retinal disparity will be small. If the objects are farther away from each other, then the retinal disparity will be larger. When objects are at equal distances, the two eyes view the objects as the same and there is zero disparity.
Because the eyes are in different positions on the head, any object away from fixation and off the plane of the horopter has a different visual direction in each eye. Yet when the two monocular images of the object are fused, creating a Cyclopean image, the object has a new visual direction, essentially the average of the two monocular visual directions. This is called allelotropia. The origin of the new visual direction is a point approximately between the two eyes, the so - called cyclopean eye. The position of the cyclopean eye is not usually exactly centered between the eyes, but tends to be closer to the dominant eye.
When very different images are shown to the same retinal regions of the two eyes, perception settles on one for a few moments, then the other, then the first, and so on, for as long as one cares to look. This alternation of perception between the images of the two eyes is called binocular rivalry. Humans have limited capacity to process an image fully at one time. That is why the binocular rivalry occurs. Several factors can influence the duration of gaze on one of the two images. These factors include context, increasing of contrast, motion, spatial frequency, and inverted images. Recent studies have even shown that facial expressions can cause longer attention to a particular image. When an emotional facial expression is presented to one eye, and a neutral expression is presented to the other eye, the emotional face dominates the neutral face and even causes the neutral face to not been seen.
To maintain stereopsis and singleness of vision, the eyes need to be pointed accurately. The position of each eye in its orbit is controlled by six extraocular muscles. Slight differences in the length or insertion position or strength of the same muscles in the two eyes can lead to a tendency for one eye to drift to a different position in its orbit from the other, especially when one is tired. This is known as phoria. One way to reveal it is with the cover - uncover test. To do this test, look at a cooperative person 's eyes. Cover one eye of that person with a card. Have the person look at your finger tip. Move the finger around; this is to break the reflex that normally holds a covered eye in the correct vergence position. Hold your finger steady and then uncover the person 's eye. Look at the uncovered eye. You may see it flick quickly from being wall - eyed or cross-eyed to its correct position. If the uncovered eye moved from out to in, the person has exophoria. If it moved from in to out, the person has esophoria. If the eye did not move at all, the person has orthophoria. Most people have some amount of exophoria or esophoria; it is quite normal. If the uncovered eye also moved vertically, the person has hyperphoria (if the eye moved from up to down) or hypophoria (if the eye moved from down to up). Such vertical phorias are quite rare. It is also possible for the covered eye to rotate in its orbit. Such cyclophorias can not be seen with the cover - uncover test; they are rarer than vertical phorias.
The cover - uncover test can also be used for more problematic disorders of binocular vision, the tropias. In the cover part of the test, the examiner looks at the first eye as he or she covers the second. If the eye moves from out to in, the person has exotropia. If it moved from in to out, the person has esotropia. People with exotropia or esotropia are wall - eyed or cross-eyed respectively. These are forms of strabismus that can be accompanied by amblyopia. There are numerous definitions of amblyopia. A definition that incorporates all of these defines amblyopia as a unilateral condition in which vision in worse than 20 / 20 in the absence of any obvious structural or pathologic anomalies, but with one or more of the following conditions occurring before the age of six: amblyogenic anisometropia, constant unilateral esotropia or exotropia, amblyogenic bilateral isometropia, amblyogenic unilateral or bilateral astigmatism, image degradation. When the covered eye is the non-amblyopic eye, the amblyopic eye suddenly becomes the person 's only means of seeing. The strabismus is revealed by the movement of that eye to fixate on the examiner 's finger. There are also vertical tropias (hypertropia and hypotropia) and cyclotropias.
Binocular vision anomalies include: diplopia (double vision), visual confusion (the perception of two different images superimposed onto the same space), suppression (where the brain ignores all or part of one eye 's visual field), horror fusionis (an active avoidance of fusion by eye misalignment), and anomalous retinal correspondence (where the brain associates of the fovea of one eye with an extrafoveal area of the other eye).
Binocular vision anomalies are among the most common visual disorders. They are usually associated with symptoms such as headaches, asthenopia, eye pain, blurred vision, and occasional diplopia. About 20 % of patients who come to optometry clinics will have binocular vision anomalies. The most effective way to diagnosis vision anomalies is with the near point of convergence test. During the NPC test, a target, such as a finger, is brought towards the face until the examiner notices that one eye has turned outward and / or the person has experienced diplopia or doubled vision.
Up to a certain extent, binocular disparities can be compensated for by adjustments of the visual system. If, however, defects of binocular vision are too great -- for example if they would require the visual system to adapt to overly large horizontal, vertical, torsional or aniseikonic deviations -- the eyes tend to avoid binocular vision, ultimately causing or worsening a condition of strabismus.
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what are the rounds of the world cup | 2018 FIFA World Cup knockout stage - wikipedia
The knockout stage of the 2018 FIFA World Cup was the second and final stage of the competition, following the group stage. It began on 30 June with the round of 16 and ended on 15 July with the final match, held at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow. The top two teams from each group (16 in total) advanced to the knockout stage to compete in a single - elimination style tournament. A third place play - off was also played between the two losing teams of the semi-finals.
France won the final 4 -- 2 against Croatia for their second title.
All times listed are local time.
In the knockout stage, if a match was level at the end of 90 minutes of normal playing time, extra time was played (two periods of 15 minutes each), where each team was allowed to make a fourth substitution. If still tied after extra time, the match was decided by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winners.
The top two placed teams from each of the eight groups qualified for the knockout stage.
The teams had faced each other in 11 previous matches, including two World Cup group stage matches, both won by Argentina (1 -- 0 in 1930, and 2 -- 1 in 1978).
After nine minutes, Antoine Griezmann 's 25 - yard free - kick crashed back off Franco Armani 's crossbar. After picking the ball up deep inside his own half, Kylian Mbappé set off on a run that was halted when Marcos Rojo hauled him down just inside the area. Griezmann stepped up and converted from the spot, sending the ball low to Armani 's right. Four minutes before the interval, Ángel Di María shot from distance with his left foot to beat Hugo Lloris into the top right corner of the net. Three minutes after the restart, Éver Banega 's free - kick was headed out towards Lionel Messi whose effort towards goal from the right was diverted past Lloris by Gabriel Mercado with his left leg. Nine minutes later, Lucas Hernández 's cross from the left found Benjamin Pavard, who shot a half - volley from outside the area, sending it into Armani 's top - right corner. Mbappé put France ahead again in the 64th minute when he picked up a loose ball in the left of the area, found a yard of space and fired in low with his left foot under Armani. His second -- a first - time low finish from the right of the penalty area with his right foot -- followed just four minutes later. Sergio Agüero nodded home in the third minute of stoppage time from a Messi cross from the right. Argentina had a final chance to score, but the ball was deflected, dumping them out of the World Cup. This game was hailed as "one of the greatest World Cup games of all time '' by The Independent.
Didier Deschamps is now the longest - serving coach in the history of the French national team, with his 80th game in charge of France, moving ahead of his predecessor Raymond Domenech. Mbappé became the first teenager to score at least twice in a World Cup tournament since Michael Owen in 1998, and the first teenager to score at least twice in a single World Cup match since Pelé netted twice for Brazil against Sweden in the 1958 final. Argentina are the first team to score at least three goals but still lose a World Cup match since the Soviet Union vs Belgium in 1986. Pavard 's strike was later voted as goal of the tournament.
Man of the Match: Kylian Mbappé (France)
Assistant referees: Reza Sokhandan (Iran) Mohammadreza Mansouri (Iran) Fourth official: Julio Bascuñán (Chile) Reserve assistant referee: Christian Schiemann (Chile) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
The teams had met in two previous matches, most recently in Brazil Independence Cup in 1972, the match ending in a 1 -- 1 draw.
In the seventh minute, Edinson Cavani switched play from right to left with a sweeping pass out to Luis Suárez, who delivered a cross which the former crashed home at the back post from six yards out. In the 55th minute, Raphaël Guerreiro delivered a cross from a short corner on the left, which Pepe finished with a downward header. Just seven minutes later, Rodrigo Bentancur collected the ball around 30 yards out and slipped a pass out to Cavani on the left side of the penalty area, Cavani then shot a curling right - foot strike into the right corner of the net to reclaim the lead for Uruguay. Bernardo Silva shot off - target with the goal gaping after Fernando Muslera 's mistake, with Cavani seeming to pick up an injury in the scramble.
Pepe, aged 35 years and 124 days, became Portugal 's oldest goal - scorer at a FIFA World Cup. This is the first time Uruguay have won their opening four games at a World Cup tournament since 1930, with the fourth game in that run being their 4 -- 2 victory over Argentina in the final.
Man of the Match: Edinson Cavani (Uruguay)
Assistant referees: Marvin Torrentera (Mexico) Miguel Hernández (Mexico) Fourth official: Jair Marrufo (United States) Reserve assistant referee: Corey Rockwell (United States) Video assistant referee: Mark Geiger (United States) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Joe Fletcher (Canada) Danny Makkelie (Netherlands)
The teams had met in six previous games, most recently in a friendly in 2017, which ended in a 3 -- 3 draw. Playing as the Soviet Union, the teams had faced each other five times. Russia has only had one victory over Spain.
In the 12th minute, Isco 's free - kick from deep on the right saw Sergei Ignashevich grappling with Sergio Ramos at the back post, the ball bouncing past Igor Akinfeev off the defender 's heel. Russia were then awarded a penalty when Gerard Piqué handled in the box after a corner from the right. Artem Dzyuba shot home to the right of the net from 12 yards to send the sides into half - time level. In the 85th minute, Akinfeev got down low to his right to save a shot from Andrés Iniesta, the goalkeeper then denied Iago Aspas on the rebound. Piqué and Ramos both appeared to be held from a set - piece but, after a VAR check, the referee waved away Spain 's appeals. In the penalties, Akinfeev kept out a Koke effort and saw Aspas ' effort diverted away by his leg to give Russia the win; as all Russia 's penalty kicks ended up successful.
Spain have now lost three of their four World Cup penalty shootouts (after losing to Belgium in 1986, beating the Republic of Ireland in 2002 and losing to South Korea in 2002), and still have never defeated a host nation at FIFA World Cup, after losing to Italy 0 -- 1 in 1934, Brazil 1 -- 6 in 1950, and South Korea after penalties in 2002. Russia have reached the quarter - final of the World Cup for the first time since the break - up of the Soviet Union. Ignashevich became the oldest player to score an own goal at the World Cup, aged 38 years and 352 days. The match marked the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup in which a fourth substitution was made during extra time, after Aleksandr Yerokhin of Russia entered the pitch in the 97th minute.
Man of the Match: Igor Akinfeev (Russia)
Assistant referees: Sander van Roekel (Netherlands) Erwin Zeinstra (Netherlands) Fourth official: Clément Turpin (France) Reserve assistant referee: Nicolas Danos (France) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Mark Borsch (Germany) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The teams had met in five matches, which includes two matches played in 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification, the first fixture ending in a 1 -- 1 draw and the reverse fixture a 3 -- 1 Denmark win.
In the first minute, a long throw into the Croatia penalty area by Jonas Knudsen, allowed a run to Thomas Delaney who touched the ball on to Mathias Jørgensen, who side - footed it into the net via deflections off goalkeeper Danijel Subašić and the post. After three minutes, Šime Vrsaljko 's ball into the box reached Henrik Dalsgaard, whose clearance hit Andreas Christensen in the face and saw Mario Mandžukić tucking the ball between Kasper Schmeichel and the left post with a shot on the turn from six yards. During extra time, Ante Rebić burst clear of the Denmark defence and was felled by Mathias Jørgensen when he was clean through on goal, only for Schmeichel to save Luka Modrić 's spot - kick by diving down to his left and clutching the ball to his chest. In the shoot - out, Subašić tipped off Christian Eriksen 's penalty onto the post but Schmeichel saved from Milan Badelj to bring the sides level. Lasse Schöne 's shot was saved by Subašić and Josip Pivarić was denied by an acrobatic Schmeichel stop. On the final spot kicks for both the teams, Nicolai Jørgensen took a shot from a staggered run - up which Subašić saved with his feet, before Ivan Rakitić slotted the ball into the bottom left corner of the net.
Croatia have qualified for their first World Cup quarter - final since 1998.
Man of the Match: Kasper Schmeichel (Denmark)
Assistant referees: Hernán Maidana (Argentina) Juan Pablo Belatti (Argentina) Fourth official: Enrique Cáceres (Paraguay) Reserve assistant referee: Eduardo Cardozo (Paraguay) Video assistant referee: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Assistant video assistant referees: Gery Vargas (Bolivia) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Daniele Orsato (Italy)
The teams had met in 40 previous matches including two games at CONCACAF Gold Cup finals (1996 and 2003, both won by Mexico), the 1999 FIFA Confederations Cup Final (won 4 -- 3 by Mexico), and four times in the FIFA World Cup group stage, three won by Brazil and one ending in a draw (4 -- 0 in 1950, 5 -- 0 in 1954, 2 -- 0 in 1962 and 0 -- 0 in 2014).
Hirving Lozano 's half - volley was well blocked by Miranda, while at the other end, Guillermo Ochoa saved Neymar 's drive from just outside the penalty area. After 25 minutes, Neymar raced past Edson Álvarez in the area and forced Ochoa into a save with his left hand. Gabriel Jesus went close in the 33rd minute, finding space in a crowded area and drilling in a left - footed strike that Ochoa palmed away. In the 51st minute, Neymar 's back - heel on the edge of the area teed up Willian for a burst into the box and his scuffed cross from the left was slid into an empty net by Neymar from close range. With two minutes remaining, Neymar powered through on the left and his low effort was diverted by Ochoa 's foot into the path of Roberto Firmino, who tapped the ball into an empty net from close range.
Since the introduction of the round of 16 in 1986, Mexico have been eliminated at this stage of the World Cup seven times -- more than twice as many as any other nation. This was also Mexico 's fourth defeat on the hand of Brazil, and moreover, Mexico had never scored a single goal against Brazil in the FIFA World Cup.
Man of the Match: Neymar (Brazil)
Assistant referees: Elenito Di Liberatore (Italy) Mauro Tonolini (Italy) Fourth official: Antonio Mateu Lahoz (Spain) Reserve assistant referee: Pau Cebrián Devís (Spain) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Daniele Orsato (Italy)
The teams had faced each other in 5 previous matches, including one World Cup group stage match in 2002, which ended in a 2 -- 2 draw. Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2017, a 1 -- 0 Belgium win and also Belgium 's first victory over Japan.
In the 48th minute, Gaku Shibasaki slipped a pass through to Genki Haraguchi, who rifled a shot across Thibaut Courtois from the right which went into the left corner of the net. After 4 minutes, Japan scored a second, Shinji Kagawa collecting a loose ball and feeding Takashi Inui, the midfielder working himself a yard of space before arrowing home from 25 - yards into the bottom right corner of the net. Jan Vertonghen 's looping header from the left eluded goalkeeper Eiji Kawashima and landed in the right corner of the net after a corner caused chaos in the Japan penalty area -- and five minutes later they were back on level terms. Eden Hazard twisted and turned to create space on the left wing, his cross delivered for Marouane Fellaini to climb above his marker and crash in a downward header. In the last minute of stoppage time, Courtois found Kevin De Bruyne with a long throw, who freed Thomas Meunier with a pass, Meunier squared a low cross from the right and, when Romelu Lukaku dummied the ball, substitute Nacer Chadli was on hand to complete the comeback for Belgium with a low finish.
Belgium are the first team to come from two or more goals down to win a World Cup knockout stage match within 90 minutes since Portugal beat North Korea in the 1966 quarter - final (3 -- 0 down, 5 -- 3 win); and for the first time comeback from two goals down since West Germany 's comeback 3 -- 2 victory over England at 1970. Japan scored six goals at Russia 2018, their highest ever tally in a single World Cup tournament. Belgium have reached the World Cup quarter - finals in successive tournaments for the first time.
Man of the Match: Eden Hazard (Belgium)
Assistant referees: Djibril Camara (Senegal) El Hadji Samba (Senegal) Fourth official: Bakary Gassama (Gambia) Reserve assistant referee: Jean Claude Birumushahu (Burundi) Video assistant referee: Felix Zwayer (Germany) Assistant video assistant referees: Clément Turpin (France) Mark Borsch (Germany) Danny Makkelie (Netherlands)
The teams had faced each other in 28 previous matches, which includes three matches in 1962 FIFA World Cup qualification, Switzerland winning twice (3 -- 2 and 2 -- 1) and Sweden winning once (4 -- 0), and also twice in 1978 FIFA World Cup qualification, both matches ending in a 2 -- 1 Sweden win.
Stephan Lichtsteiner and Fabian Schär were both ruled out through suspension. Albin Ekdal 's volley missed the target prior to the break from a Mikael Lustig cross. Ola Toivonen fired over when well positioned inside the penalty area before Emil Forsberg finally broke the deadlock, his right foot shot from just outside the penalty area clipping Manuel Akanji to beat Yann Sommer. Switzerland sent on forwards Breel Embolo and Haris Seferović, and the latter tested Sweden goalkeeper Robin Olsen with a header in the closing stages. Sweden were denied the chance to double their lead from the spot following Michael Lang 's late dismissal for taking out Martin Olsson, with Sommer beating away Toivonen 's driven free - kick after a lengthy delay.
Sweden have qualified for their first World Cup quarter - final since 1994. Sweden have won back - to - back World Cup matches for the first time since 1958, when they won the quarter - final and semi-final on their way to the final as host nation that year. Olsen has kept three clean sheets at Russia 2018, a joint - record for a Swedish goalkeeper in World Cup finals history (also three clean sheets for Ronnie Hellström in 1974 and Kalle Svensson in 1958).
Man of the Match: Emil Forsberg (Sweden)
Assistant referees: Jure Praprotnik (Slovenia) Robert Vukan (Slovenia) Fourth official: Nawaf Shukralla (Bahrain) Reserve assistant referee: Yaser Tulefat (Bahrain) Video assistant referee: Daniele Orsato (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Massimiliano Irrati (Italy)
The teams had faced each other in five previous matches, including one World Cup group stage match in 1998, a 2 -- 0 England win. Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2005, a 3 -- 2 England win.
In the 16th minute, Harry Kane arrived beyond the back post to meet a Kieran Trippier cross, but was unable to direct his header on target. Wílmar Barrios was booked when he appeared to headbutt Jordan Henderson in the build - up to a free - kick Trippier bent narrowly wide. Colombia gave away a penalty early in the second half when Carlos Sánchez dragged Kane down in the box after a corner from the right. Kane scored from 12 yards, shooting down the middle to give England the lead. Colombia forced their way into extra-time, Yerry Mina scoring a downward header from a Juan Cuadrado corner from the right. Eric Dier scored the final penalty in the shoot - out, England came from 3 -- 2 down after Mateus Uribe and Carlos Bacca failed to convert their spot - kicks.
This was the first time that England had won a penalty shoot - out at the FIFA World Cup, and only the second time they had won on penalties at any major tournament (the previous occasion being against Spain at Euro 1996). Kane became the first player to score in six consecutive England appearances since Tommy Lawton did so in 1939. England conceded in injury time at the end of the second half for the first time in World Cup history, with Mina 's goal coming after 92 minutes and 33 seconds.
Man of the Match: Harry Kane (England)
Assistant referees: Joe Fletcher (Canada) Frank Anderson (United States) Fourth official: Matthew Conger (New Zealand) Reserve assistant referee: Tevita Makasini (Tonga) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Mauro Vigliano (Argentina)
The teams had met in eight previous matches including three times in the FIFA World Cup group stage, one won by Uruguay and the other two ending in a draw (2 -- 1 in 1966, 0 -- 0 in 2002 and 0 -- 0 in 2010).
In the 15th minute, after latching on to Olivier Giroud 's knockdown in the box, Kylian Mbappé headed the ball over Fernando Muslera 's crossbar. Five minutes before the break, Antoine Griezmann 's inswinging free - kick from the right was met by Raphaël Varane, who headed the ball into the bottom left corner. Four minutes later, Martín Cáceres ' header was saved by Hugo Lloris low to his right and Diego Godín shot the rebound over. In the 61st minute, Griezmann 's left footed shot from outside the penalty area slipped through Muslera 's hands and into the net as France doubled their lead. Mbappé went down softly under a challenge from Cristian Rodríguez, prompting angry confrontations involving Godín, Nahitan Nández and Paul Pogba. In the 73rd minute, Corentin Tolisso 's shot curled over, while Griezmann also flashed a late free - kick over the top.
France have become only the second team to beat three different South American sides in a single World Cup tournament, after the Netherlands in 1974. France are unbeaten in 10 World Cup matches against South American sides (W6 D4), since a 2 -- 1 loss v Argentina in 1978 -- the joint longest run alongside Italy (1982 to 2010).
Man of the Match: Antoine Griezmann (France)
Assistant referees: Hernán Maidana (Argentina) Juan Pablo Belatti (Argentina) Fourth official: Alireza Faghani (Iran) Reserve assistant referee: Reza Sokhandan (Iran) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
The teams had met in four previous matches. Their most recent meeting came in a World Cup knockout stage match in 2002, Brazil winning 2 -- 0 to advance to the quarter - finals. That match was also the only time the two sides had previously met in a World Cup.
Belgium scored from their first corner of the game in the 13th minute, Vincent Kompany flicked on Eden Hazard 's left - wing delivery but the decisive touch came from Fernandinho, who turned the ball past Alisson via his arm. Belgium doubled their lead by breaking from a Brazil corner in the 31st minute, Kevin De Bruyne arrowed a right foot drive across Alisson and into the left corner of the net from the edge of the penalty area after Romelu Lukaku collected the ball, turned and embarked on a 40 - yard run with a pass at the end to free De Bruyne. Brazil 's third change yielded a goal three minutes and 14 seconds after his introduction, Renato Augusto gliding between two Belgium defenders to nod a flicked header past Thibaut Courtois from a Philippe Coutinho cross. Coutinho 's first - time shot flew wide and yet another Neymar penalty appeal was rejected, before he drew a fingertip save from Courtois in the 94th minute.
De Bruyne became the 100th player to score at Russia 2018 (excluding own goals). Belgium have reached the World Cup semi-finals for only the second time, losing out to eventual winners Argentina in 1986. Belgium 's victory was only their second ever against Brazil, and first since a 1963 friendly match in Brussels. This was the first time in 30 matches in all competitions that Brazil had conceded more than once in a game, since a 2 -- 2 draw with Paraguay in March 2016.
Man of the Match: Kevin De Bruyne (Belgium)
Assistant referees: Milovan Ristić (Serbia) Dalibor Đurđević (Serbia) Fourth official: Jair Marrufo (United States) Reserve assistant referee: Corey Rockwell (United States) Video assistant referee: Daniele Orsato (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Paweł Gil (Poland) Mark Borsch (Germany) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The teams had faced each other in 23 previous matches, including two times in the group stage of the World Cup, both matches ending in a draw (1 -- 1 in 2002 and 2 -- 2 in 2006). Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2012, a 4 -- 2 Sweden win.
England took the lead in the 30th minute, Ashley Young 's outswinging corner from the left found Harry Maguire, goalkeeper Robin Olsen and Ola Toivonen on the line were unable to stop the defender 's downward header. Olsen did well with a strong hand to deny Raheem Sterling, who dallied with the rebound and allowed Andreas Granqvist to make a vital block. Shortly after the restart, Jordan Pickford dived to his left to palm away a header from Marcus Berg, who climbed above Young at the back post. In the 58th minute, another England set - piece caused chaos and, although Sweden initially cleared their lines when Jesse Lingard delivered a cross from the right to the back post, Dele Alli was there to double his side 's advantage with a header. John Guidetti teed up strike partner Berg in the 71st minute but Pickford, tipped the effort over the crossbar.
Alli 's goal was England 's 11th at Russia 2018, equalling the country 's record of most goals at a single World Cup set in 1966. Alli is the second youngest player to score for England at the World Cup (22 years and 87 days), behind only Michael Owen (18 years and 190 days against Romania in 1998). Maguire became the first player to score their first England goal in a World Cup knockout match since Rio Ferdinand in 2002 against Denmark. Pickford made three saves in this match and became the youngest England goalkeeper to keep a clean sheet in a World Cup match (24 years and 122 days). England qualified for their first World Cup semi-final since 1990.
Man of the Match: Jordan Pickford (England)
Assistant referees: Sander van Roekel (Netherlands) Erwin Zeinstra (Netherlands) Fourth official: Antonio Mateu Lahoz (Spain) Reserve assistant referee: Pau Cebrián Devís (Spain) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The teams had faced each other in three previous matches. Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2015, a 3 -- 1 Croatia win.
In the 31st minute, Denis Cheryshev came in from the left and, after a one - two with Artem Dzyuba, skipped away from Luka Modrić to curl a left foot effort beyond Danijel Subašić and into the left of the net. Six minutes before half - time, Mario Mandžukić advanced down the left to set up the chance for Andrej Kramarić to head home the equaliser. In the first period of extra time, Croatia took the lead as Domagoj Vida nodded down past Igor Akinfeev and into the right corner of the net after a corner from the right. Mário Fernandes drew his team level, converting Alan Dzagoev 's free - kick with a glancing header to the left corner of the net after a free - kick from the right. Penalties were required and while Fyodor Smolov 's Panenka attempt with the first effort was foiled by Subašić, parity was restored when Akinfeev got down to his left to keep out Mateo Kovačić 's second kick for Croatia. After Fernandes ' failure, Modrić 's strike found the net, following touches off Akinfeev 's glove and the post. The decisive penalty fell to Ivan Rakitić, who rolled the ball into the bottom - left corner to give Croatia the win.
Russia became the first country in World Cup history to contest two shoot - outs while hosting the event. There were three headed goals in this match -- the most in a World Cup match since Germany 8 -- 0 Saudi Arabia in 2002 (5 headers). Croatia are the second team to win two penalty shootouts at a single World Cup tournament -- the other was Argentina in 1990 (against Yugoslavia and Italy). Croatia has qualified for the semifinal for the first time since 1998 (their first World Cup tournament).
Man of the Match: Luka Modrić (Croatia)
Assistant referees: Emerson de Carvalho (Brazil) Marcelo Van Gasse (Brazil) Fourth official: Janny Sikazwe (Zambia) Reserve assistant referee: Jerson Dos Santos (Angola) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Wilton Sampaio (Brazil) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
For the first time since 1966, all multiple World Cup winners were eliminated before the semi-final stage. This is only the second time that neither Brazil nor Germany were in the last four, the other being the inaugural 1930 tournament. With Uruguay and Brazil eliminated in the quarter - finals, an all - European semi-final line up was completed for the fifth time (after the 1934, 1966, 1982, and 2006 tournaments). This also ensured that a European side would win the World Cup for the fourth tournament in a row.
The teams had faced each other in 73 previous matches, including two times in the World Cup, France winning both matches (3 -- 1 in the round of 16 in 1938 and 4 -- 2 in the third place play - off in 1986). Their most recent meeting came in a friendly in 2015, a 4 -- 3 Belgium win.
Eden Hazard twice went close, narrowly missing the target with a low, left - footed drive before seeing a curler with his right deflected over the crossbar by the head of Raphaël Varane. Hugo Lloris ' full - length dive kept out a first - time strike on the turn from Toby Alderweireld, while Thibaut Courtois blocked Benjamin Pavard 's attempt from a tight angle on the right at the other end. Six minutes after the break, Vincent Kompany 's block turned away Olivier Giroud 's shot, and Antoine Griezmann 's inswinging delivery from the right to the front post was turned in by Samuel Umtiti, who outjumped his marker, Marouane Fellaini, to head beyond Courtois. Dries Mertens 's cross from the right flank saw Fellaini narrowly miss the target with a header. Axel Witsel 's long - range drive was pushed away by Lloris as France secured their place into the finals.
Didier Deschamps has now managed more games for France at the World Cup than any other previous France manager, overtaking Raymond Domenech and Michel Hidalgo after this match. This was Belgium 's first defeat of any kind since a friendly loss against Spain in September 2016. France have reached their third World Cup final, also doing so in 1998 and 2006. Only Germany (8) and Italy (6) have reached more among European nations.
Man of the Match: Samuel Umtiti (France)
Assistant referees: Nicolás Tarán (Uruguay) Mauricio Espinosa (Uruguay) Fourth official: César Arturo Ramos (Mexico) Reserve assistant referee: Marvin Torrentera (Mexico) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Roberto Díaz Pérez (Spain) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
The teams had faced each other in seven previous matches, which includes two matches played in the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification, England winning on both occasions (4 -- 1 and 5 -- 1).
Luka Modrić stopped a Dele Alli run, by fouling him at the edge of the area. Kieran Trippier found the top right corner of the net from the resulting free kick with his right foot. After half - time, Ivan Perišić met Šime Vrsaljko 's deep cross from the right with a flying left - footed finish to the left of the net. Soon after, Perišić shot against the right - hand post from the left before Ante Rebić put the rebound into Jordan Pickford 's hands. In extra-time, John Stones had a header cleared off the line by Vrsaljko in the 98th minute. Pickford at the other end, denied Mario Mandžukić at point - blank range after the striker met Perišić 's cross from the left. But Mandžukić came out on top soon after the break, latching on to Perišić 's headed pass on the left and sending a left - footed effort across Pickford to find the bottom - right corner, securing Croatia 's entrance into their first ever World Cup final.
Croatia are the first team to avoid defeat after trailing in three knockout matches at a single World Cup. They become the 13th different nation to reach their first World Cup Final. Trippier became the first player to score a direct free - kick for England at the World Cup since David Beckham in 2006 against Ecuador. Trippier 's goal after four minutes and 44 seconds was the fastest goal scored in a World Cup semi-final since 1958 (Vavá after two minutes for Brazil v France). Croatia became the first team to play extra time in three consecutive World Cup matches since England in 1990. England scored nine goals from set - pieces at the 2018 World Cup -- the most by a team in a single World Cup tournament since 1966.
Man of the Match: Ivan Perišić (Croatia)
Assistant referees: Bahattin Duran (Turkey) Tarık Ongun (Turkey) Fourth official: Björn Kuipers (Netherlands) Reserve assistant referee: Sander van Roekel (Netherlands) Video assistant referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Felix Zwayer (Germany)
The two teams had met in 22 matches, including three matches at the World Cup, one round of 16 game at the 1990 FIFA World Cup which ended in a 1 -- 0 victory for England, one group stage game at the 1954 FIFA World Cup which ended in a 4 -- 4 draw and their most recent encounter in Group G of this tournament which Belgium won 1 -- 0.
After four minutes, Thomas Meunier raced into the box to get across Danny Rose and tucked home Nacer Chadli 's low cross in from the left from six yards out. Harry Kane scuffed wide of the left post, from a Raheem Sterling lay - off. In the 70th minute, Eric Dier burst through for a one - on - one and dinked over Thibaut Courtois, only to see a retreating Toby Alderweireld hack the ball off the line. Jordan Pickford made a one - handed save to deny Meunier in the 80th minute. Eden Hazard scored the second with a near - post finish with his right foot, having been sent clean through by Kevin De Bruyne.
Meunier was the 10th player to score for Belgium at Russia 2018. No other team has had more, equalling France in 1982 and Italy in 2006. This is Belgium 's best finish at a World Cup, having previously finished fourth in 1986. This was England 's 100th match at a major tournament -- 69 at the World Cup, 31 at the European Championship. Since 1966, no player has been involved in more World Cup goals for Belgium than Hazard (seven -- three goals and four assists), level with Jan Ceulemans (also four goals and three assists).
Man of the Match: Eden Hazard (Belgium)
Assistant referees: Reza Sokhandan (Iran) Mohammadreza Mansouri (Iran) Fourth official: Malang Diedhiou (Senegal) Reserve assistant referee: Djibril Camara (Senegal) Video assistant referee: Mark Geiger (United States) Assistant video assistant referees: Bastian Dankert (Germany) Joe Fletcher (Canada) Paolo Valeri (Italy)
The match was the sixth meeting between France and Croatia, with France undefeated in the previous fixtures with three wins and two draws. The two sides first met in the 1998 World Cup semi-final, with hosts France winning 2 -- 1. Their only other competitive meeting was during the group stage of Euro 2004, which finished as a 2 -- 2 draw. Their next and most recent meeting was in a March 2011 friendly match, which finished as a 0 -- 0 draw.
Man of the Match: Antoine Griezmann (France)
Assistant referees: Hernán Maidana (Argentina) Juan Pablo Belatti (Argentina) Fourth official: Björn Kuipers (Netherlands) Reserve assistant referee: Erwin Zeinstra (Netherlands) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Danny Makkelie (Netherlands)
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when does dragon ball super episode 117 release | List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia
Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5, 2015 on Fuji TV. It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years. Storywise, the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films, Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ', which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z. Afterward, the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes, the reemergence of Future Trunks, and a new threat to his Earth known as Goku Black, along with a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu. Later on, the Z Fighters participate in a universal tournament held by Zeno - sama to decide the fate of multiple universes. If they lose in the universal tournament, then their entire universe will be erased.
Thirteen pieces of theme music are used: two opening themes and eleven ending themes. For the first 76 episodes, the opening theme is "Chōzetsu ☆ Dynamic! '' (超絶 ☆ ダイナミック!, Chōzetsu Dainamikku, "Excellent Dynamic! '') performed by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey. The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series. Beginning with episode 77, the second opening theme is "Limit - Break x Survivor '' (限界 突破 × サバイバー, Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā) by Kiyoshi Hikawa. Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number "Genkai Toppa x Survivor '' and Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music. For the first 12 episodes, the ending theme is "Hello Hello Hello '' (ハロー ハロー ハロー, Harō Harō Harō) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America. The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is "Starring Star '' (スターリング スター, Sutāringu Sutā) by Key Talk. The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is "Usubeni '' (薄 紅, "Light Pink '') by Lacco Tower. The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is "Forever Dreaming '' (フォーエバー ドリーミング, Fōebā Dorīmingu) by Czecho No Republic. The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is "Yokayoka Dance '' (よかよか ダンス, Yokayoka Dansu, "It 's Fine Dance '') by idol group Batten Showjo Tai. The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is "Chao Han Music '' (炒飯 MUSIC, Chāhan Myūjikku) by Arukara. The seventh ending theme from episodes 73 to 83 is "Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' (悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔, An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil) by THE COLLECTORS. The eighth ending theme from episodes 84 to 96 is "Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue. The ninth ending theme from episodes 97 to 108 is "Haruka '' by Lacco Tower. The tenth ending theme from episodes 109 to 121 is "By A 70cm Square Window '' by RottenGraffty. From episodes 122 onwards, the eleventh ending theme is "Lagrima '' by OnePixcel.
The anime episodes are being released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each. The first set was released on December 2, 2015. The second set was released on March 2, 2016. The third set was released on July 2, 2016. The fourth set was released on October 10, 2016.
Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia in January 2017. The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC. Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France, Italy, Spain, and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016. An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll, Daisuki.net, and Anime Lab beginning October 22, 2016. Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub. As well as officially announcing the dub, it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform, FunimationNow. Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super began airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting on January 7, 2017.
The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle, but they fear the worst is still to come. On Earth, Vegeta, Whis, and the others are still standing by while watching the battle. Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee. In space, Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack, which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth. Shortly after, the light clears out, which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion. Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion, which saved the universe. Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast, Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again. Despite being at his limit, Goku remains calm, which annoys the God of Destruction. Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding, which Goku promptly denies. Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought. The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting, but this time both are at their limit. As soon as they start, Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form. Upon noticing that, Beerus decides to quit. He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan. However, Goku does not notice and keeps going at it. Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy. Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost. However, Piccolo begs to differ. Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form, Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power. This made him stronger in his ordinary form. With or without the Super Saiyan God form, Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against. Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods.
To counter Goku 's increase in power, Kefla powers up to Super Saiyan 2, and the two of them face off. Goku still easily dodges Kefla 's attacks, but his own attacks are not strong enough to take her down. Whis explains that when Goku launches his attacks, it interferes with his concentration and prevents him from using Ultra Instinct - Sign - to its full potential. Jiren senses the energy from the battle, which prompts him to awaken from his meditation and rejoin Toppo and Dyspo. Vegeta realizes that Ultra Instinct is the level of skill that Whis was training him and Goku to attain, and decides that he must reach it too. Goku begins running low on stamina, so he declares that he will end the fight with his next attack. Kefla panics and unleashes a multitude of deadly energy beams. Her ultimate attack devastates the ring, but Goku easily dodges her blasts while charging a Kamehameha. Goku jumps into the air, so Kefla focuses all of her power into a single blast and launches it at him, taking advantage of his apparent inability to dodge. However, he backflips and uses the charged - up energy to slide over her attack, and launches his Kamehameha at point - blank range, blasting Kefla out of the ring and eliminating her. Her Potara earrings shatter, and she splits back into Kale and Caulifla. With both of them eliminated, Saonel and Pirina are the only remaining warriors from Team Universe 6.
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what is the significance of this years barangay sk election | Philippine barangay and Sangguniang Kabataan elections, 2018 - Wikipedia
Barangay elections in the Philippines will be held in May, 2018. The election shall elect the Punong Barangay, more commonly known as barangay captains, and members of the Sangguniang Barangay, or barangay council, in 42,028 barangays (villages) throughout the country whose terms start in November 2017. Barangays are the smallest local government unit in the Philippines.
Elections for the reformed Sangguniang Kabataan (SK) will also be held at the same time.
Originally scheduled for October 2016, these elections supposedly concluded the 2016 election cycle that start in May with the election of the Philippine president, the members of Philippine Congress and provincial, city and municipal officials. Upon their election, barangay captains shall elect their cities ' or municipalities ' League of Barangays of the Philippines chairman, also known as the Association of Barangay Captains or ABC Chairman, who will also sit on their respective local municipal or city council. The provincial ABC chairman will also sit on the provincial board.
On October 18, 2016, or roughly two weeks before the elections, it was confirmed that President Rodrigo Duterte signed into law a bill postponing the October 2016 barangay elections to October 2017. In addition, the subsequent election would be on the second Monday of May 2020, and every three years thereafter. Officials who were elected in 2013 shall continue to serve until 2017.
By March 2017, Duterte expressed that he wanted to postpone the barangay elections until 2020, and replace the barangay officials whose terms are expiring, with his own appointees. This allegedly due to prevent drug money from influencing the result of the elections. His allies in Congress moved to enact a bill doing such. Experts later said that appointing barangay officials is unconstitutional.
In October 2, 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte signed into law a bill postponing again the 2017 barangay and SK election to May 2018.
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who sang we're a couple of swells | Easter Parade (film) - Wikipedia
Easter Parade is a 1948 American musical film starring Judy Garland, Fred Astaire and Peter Lawford, featuring music by Irving Berlin, including some of Astaire and Garland 's best - known songs, such as "Easter Parade '', "Steppin ' Out with My Baby '', and "We 're a Couple of Swells ''. The story bears certain similarities to Pygmalion.
It was the most financially successful picture for both Garland and Astaire as well as the highest - grossing musical of the year.
In 1912, Broadway star Don Hewes (Fred Astaire) is buying Easter presents for his sweetheart ("Happy Easter ''). He buys a cuddly Easter rabbit after persuading a young boy to part with it and buy a set of drums instead ("Drum Crazy ''). Hewes takes the gifts to his dancing partner, Nadine Hale (Ann Miller), who explains that she has an offer for a show that would feature her as a solo star. Don tries to change her mind and it looks as if he has succeeded ("It Only Happens When I Dance With You ''), until Don 's best friend, Johnny (Peter Lawford), turns up. Nadine reveals that she and Don are no longer a team and it becomes obvious that Nadine is attracted to Johnny. She continues to pursue Johnny, but he refuses her out of respect for Don.
Don drowns his sorrows at a bar, where he brags that he can make a star of the next dancer he meets. He picks one of the girls dancing on the stage, Hannah Brown (Judy Garland), and tells her to meet him for rehearsal the next day. Don tries to turn Hannah into a copy of Nadine, teaching her to dance the same way, buying her dresses in a similar style and giving her an "exotic '' stage name, "Juanita. '' However, Hannah makes several mistakes at their first performance, and the show is a fiasco.
Hannah meets Johnny, who is instantly attracted to her and sings "A Fella With An Umbrella '' while walking her to her rehearsal with Don. After Johnny tries - unsuccessfully - to reunite Nadine and Don by inviting them both to lunch and then leaving them alone, she tells him her friends are laughing because Hannah is trying to be her. Don realizes his mistake and after hearing Hannah sing "I Love A Piano, '' works out routines more suited to Hannah 's personality. Now known as "Hannah & Hewes '', the duo are shown much more successfully performing "Snookie - Ookums '', "The Ragtime Violin '', and "When That Midnight Choo - Choo Leaves For Alabam. ' ''
At an audition for Ziegfeld Follies, they meet Nadine, who is starring in the show. Hannah realizes that Nadine was Don 's former dancing partner and demands to know if they were in love. Later, Don meets Hannah back at the hotel and reveals that he turned down the Ziegfeld offer, believing that Hannah and Nadine do not belong in the same show. Johnny arrives and takes Hannah out for dinner, at which Johnny reveals that he has fallen in love with Hannah. While Hannah does like Johnny, she admits she is actually in love with Don. She and Johnny continue to have a close friendship.
Nadine 's show opens and Don goes to see it ("Shakin ' The Blues Away ''). He meets Hannah the next day, tells her they will be starring in another show and invites her to dinner to celebrate. Hannah goes to dinner at Don 's, only to have him suggest a dance rehearsal. She is immediately upset and tells him that he does n't see her as a woman, but as a dancing aid. She tries to leave, but Don stops her and kisses her. Hannah then plays the piano and sings "It Only Happens When I Dance With You, '' after which Don realizes he is in love with Hannah and they embrace.
The couple take part in a variety show, with a solo by Don ("Steppin ' Out With My Baby '') and then comes the most famous musical number in the film ("A Couple of Swells ''), in which Don and Hannah play a pair of street urchins with vivid imaginations. Don and Hannah go out to celebrate after the show and end up watching Nadine perform. Nadine is mad with jealousy when the audience gives Don and Hannah a round of applause as they come in. After she dances in a number called "The Girl On The Magazine Cover, '' she insists that Don perform one of their old numbers with her for old times ' sake - "It Only Happens When I Dance With You (Reprise). '' When Don reluctantly agrees, Hannah becomes upset and runs out, believing that Don has only been using her to regain Nadine, and that he has succeeded.
She ends up at the bar where she and Don first met. She pours out her troubles to Mike the bartender ("Better Luck Next Time ''). When Hannah returns to her apartment, she finds Don waiting for her. Don tries to explain that he was forced to dance with Nadine and tells Hannah he 'll wait all night for her to forgive him, but just before Hannah opens the door, Don is kicked out of her building by the house detective. The next morning Hannah tells Johnny about her and Don 's misunderstanding. Johnny says if he loved someone he would let her know it, implying that Hannah should forget the argument and be with Don. Hannah realizes that Johnny is right and goes to meet Don for their date for the Easter Parade.
Meanwhile, Don has been receiving various gifts at his apartment that morning, such as a rabbit and a new top hat, unaware that they 're from Hannah. She arrives unexpectedly at his house, as if the argument never happened. As they walk in the Easter parade, photographers, echoing a scene with Nadine from the beginning of the film, take their pictures, and Don proposes to Hannah ("Easter Parade '').
The film won the 1948 Academy Award for Best Original Music Score. The writers of the film also received the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written American Musical.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
Performance credits below indicate both singing and dancing unless otherwise noted.
One musical number, a seductive performance of "Mr. Monotony '' by Garland wearing the top half of a tuxedo and nylon tights (a style of dress which would become something of a trademark in later years after she wore the same outfit in 1950 's Summer Stock), was cut from the film as it was deemed too risqué for a film supposedly set in 1912. Audiences finally got to see this number in the 1990s when an edited version was included in the 1994 compilation film That 's Entertainment! III. The complete number was first seen as part of the extras on the VHS and Laser Disc special edition versions the following year. When Easter Parade was released to DVD, several minutes of outtakes, raw footage, and alternate takes of this performance were included in addition to the footage previously released.
As with White Christmas six years later, it is impossible to remix the musical numbers from this film into Stereo or surround sound, because the original audio track recordings burned in a fire, leaving only a monaural composite track containing dialogue, music and effects, and an isolated music - only track intended for international release.
The film earned $4,144,000 in the US and Canada and $1,659,000 overseas, resulting in a profit of $5,803,000. According to Variety it was the second most popular film of 1948.
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dragons name on how to train your dragon | How to Train Your Dragon (film) - wikipedia
How to Train Your Dragon is a 2010 American 3D computer - animated action - fantasy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures. Loosely based on the British book series of the same name by Cressida Cowell, the film was directed by Chris Sanders and Dean DeBlois, the duo who directed Disney 's Lilo & Stitch. It stars the voices of Jay Baruchel, Gerard Butler, Craig Ferguson, America Ferrera, Jonah Hill, T.J. Miller, Kristen Wiig, and Christopher Mintz - Plasse.
The story takes place in a mythical Viking world where a young Viking teenager named Hiccup aspires to follow his tribe 's tradition of becoming a dragon slayer. After finally capturing his first dragon, and with his chance at last of gaining the tribe 's acceptance, he finds that he no longer wants to kill the dragon and instead befriends it.
The film was released March 26, 2010, and was a critical and commercial success, earning acclaim from film critics and audiences and earning nearly $500 million worldwide. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Score at the 83rd Academy Awards, but lost to Toy Story 3 and The Social Network, respectively. The movie also won ten Annie Awards, including Best Animated Feature.
A sequel, How to Train Your Dragon 2, was released on June 13, 2014, with Deblois writing and directing by himself. Much like its predecessor, the sequel was also universally acclaimed and became a box office success. A second sequel, How to Train Your Dragon 3 is to be released on March 1, 2019. The film 's success has also inspired other merchandise, including a video game and a television series.
The island of Berk is a remote Viking village, from which dragons periodically steal livestock. Hiccup, the awkward fifteen - year - old son of the village chieftain, Stoick the Vast, is too small to fight the dragons and instead fashions mechanical devices under his apprenticeship with Gobber the blacksmith, though his inventions often backfire. During one attack, Hiccup believes he has shot down a Night Fury, an extremely rare and dangerous dragon. Hiccup later finds it in the forest trapped in his bolas, but finds that he ca n't bring himself to kill the dragon and instead sets it free.
Stoick assembles a fleet to find the dragons ' nest, leaving Hiccup in a dragon - fighting class taught by Gobber. Hiccup returns to the forest to find the Night Fury still there, and realizes it is unable to fly properly because of its crippled caudal fin. Hiccup gradually tames the dragon and gives it the name "Toothless '', for its retractable teeth. Hiccup makes a harness and prosthetic fin that allows him to guide the dragon in free flight. By studying Toothless ' behavior, Hiccup becomes proficient in subduing the captive dragons during training. Stoick 's fleet arrives home unsuccessful, but he is cheered by Hiccup 's unexpected success.
Astrid, a tough Viking girl on whom Hiccup has a crush, discovers Hiccup is training Toothless, but Hiccup takes her for a ride to demonstrate his relationship with the dragon before she can tell the village. Toothless unexpectedly takes the pair to the dragons ' nest where they discover a gargantuan dragon named the Red Death, which eats the smaller dragons unless they bring it stolen livestock.
Back at the village, Hiccup subdues a captive dragon in his final training test in front of his father instead of killing it, but Stoick inadvertently angers the dragon into attacking. Toothless attempts to protect Hiccup in the ensuing panic but is instead captured by the Vikings. Hiccup accidentally reveals to Stoick that Toothless is capable of locating the dragons ' nest. Stoick disowns his son and sets off for the nest with Toothless chained to the lead ship as a guide.
The Vikings expel most of the dragons but are overwhelmed by the Red Death until Hiccup, Astrid and their fellow pupils fly in riding the training dragons from the academy and provide cover fire. Hiccup almost drowns trying to break Toothless free from a sinking ship but Stoick saves them both and then reconciles with his son. Toothless and Hiccup destroy the Red Death but Hiccup is injured in the fight. Hiccup regains consciousness on Berk where his left foot has been replaced by a prosthesis, and the Vikings and the dragons now live in harmony.
The book series by Cressida Cowell began coming to attention to the executives at DreamWorks Animation in 2004. Coming off her success in Over the Hedge, producer Bonnie Arnold shortly became interested in the newly acquired property. She kept focusing on the project as time went on, and when DreamWorks Animation co-president of production Bill Damaschke asked her what she wanted to work on next, she chose "How to Train Your Dragon ''.
In initial development, the plot followed the original novel closely, but about halfway through production Chris Sanders and Dean DeBlois, the writer - directors of Disney 's Lilo & Stitch, took over as co-directors and it was altered. The original plot was described as, "heavily loyal to the book '', but was regarded as being too "sweet '' and "whimsical '' as well as geared towards a too - young demographic, according to Baruchel. In the novel, Hiccup 's dragon, Toothless, is a Common or Garden Dragon, a small breed. In the film, Toothless is a Night Fury, the rarest of all dragons, and is large enough to serve as a flying mount for both Hiccup and Astrid. The filmmakers hired cinematographer Roger Deakins (known for frequently collaborating with the Coen brothers) as a visual consultant to help them with lighting and overall look of the film and to "add a live - action feel ''. Extensive research was done to depict both flight, as the directors knew they would be the biggest draw of the film 's 3D effects, and fire, given animation could break away from the limitations seen in live - action films, where propane flames are usual due to being easier to extinguish. The dragons ' design made sure to create animals that were comical and also innovative compared to other dragon fiction. Toothless in particular tried to combine various dragon traits in a black panther - inspired design, that also had large ears and eyes to convey emotion better.
The directors made sure to cash in the improvisation abilities of the secondary cast -- Christopher Mintz - Plasse, Jonah Hill, Kristen Wiig and T.J Miller -- by frequently bringing them together in the recording sessions.
John Powell returned to DreamWorks Animation to score How to Train Your Dragon, making it his sixth collaboration with the studio, following his previous score for Kung Fu Panda (which he scored with Hans Zimmer). Powell composed an orchestral score, combining bombastic brass with loud percussion and soothing strings, while also using exotic, Scottish and Irish tones with instruments like the penny whistle and bagpipes. Additionally, Icelandic singer Jónsi wrote and performed the song "Sticks & Stones '' for the film. The score was released by Varèse Sarabande on March 23, 2010.
Overall, the score was well received by film score critics. Powell earned his first Academy Award nomination for his work on the film, ultimately losing to Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross for their score for The Social Network.
How to Train Your Dragon had its United States premiere on March 21, 2010, at the Gibson Amphitheatre in Universal City, California. It was theatrically released on March 26, 2010, in the United States. The film was digitally re-mastered into IMAX 3D, and released to 186 North American IMAX theatres, and approximately 80 IMAX theatres outside North America.
A month before the release, DreamWorks Animation CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg protested Warner Bros. ' decision to convert Clash of the Titans from 2D to 3D, then to release it one week after How to Train Your Dragon. Entertainment reporter Kim Masters described the 3D release schedule around March 2010 as a "traffic jam '', and speculated that the lack of 3D screen availability could hurt Katzenberg 's prospects despite his support of the 3D format.
In March 2010, theater industry executives accused Paramount of using high - pressure tactics to coerce theaters to screen How to Train Your Dragon rather than the competing 3D releases, Clash of the Titans and Tim Burton 's Alice in Wonderland. As theater multiplexes often had just one 3D screen, theaters were unable to accommodate more than one 3D presentation at a time.
How to Train Your Dragon topped the North American box office with $43.7 million in its first weekend of release. The film grossed $217,581,231 in the United States and Canada and $277,297,528 in foreign countries with a worldwide total of $494,878,759. How to Train Your Dragon is DreamWorks Animation 's highest - grossing film in the American and Canadian box office other than the Shrek films. It is the fifth highest - grossing animated film of 2010 with $494.8 million, behind Toy Story 3 with $1,063.2 million, Shrek Forever After with $752.6 million, Tangled with $576.6 million, and Despicable Me with $543.1 million and the 10th highest - grossing movie of 2010.
How To Train Your Dragon received critical acclaim upon its release. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 98 % of critics gave the film a positive review, based on 200 reviews from professional critics, with an overall rating average of 7.9 out of 10. The site 's general consensus is that "Boasting dazzling animation, a script with surprising dramatic depth, and thrilling 3 - D sequences, How to Train Your Dragon soars. '' By "Tomatometer '' score, the film is DreamWorks Animation 's highest rated film. On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 0 -- 100 reviews from film critics, the film has a rating score of 74 based on 33 reviews, indicating ' Generally favorable reviews. ' CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend revealed the average grade cinemagoers gave How to Train Your Dragon was A on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of The Chicago Sun - Times gave it 3 stars out of 4, stating that: "It devotes a great deal of time to aerial battles between tamed dragons and evil ones, and not much to character or story development. But it 's bright, good - looking, and has high energy ''. Claudia Puig of USA Today gave it 3.5 out of 4 stars, saying "It 's a thrilling action - adventure saga with exhilarating 3 - D animation, a clever comedy with witty dialogue, a coming - of - age tale with surprising depth and a sweetly poignant tale of friendship between man and animal. '' Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers praised the film, giving it three out of four stars and in his print review wrote, "(The film) works enough miracles of 3 - D animation to charm your socks off. '' Roger Moore of The Orlando Sentinel, who gave the film 21⁄2 stars out of 4, wrote a mixed review describing the film as a "more coming - of - age dramedy or ' everything about your world view is wrong ' message movie than it is a comedy, and that seems like a waste of a funny book, some very funny actors and some darned witty animation. '' Kyle Smith of The New York Post gave the film 2 / 4 stars labeling the film as "Avatar for simpletons. But that title is already taken, by Avatar ''. Contrarily, Brett Michel of The Boston Phoenix stated that the film was better than Avatar. A.O. Scott of At The Movies felt the characters and the story were not strong points, but loved the cinematography and said, "that swooping and soaring, they are worth the price of a ticket, so go see it. '' Village Voice film critic Ella Taylor gave a more negative review of the film, describing it as an "adequate but unremarkable animated tale ''. Film critic James Berardinelli of ReelViews praised the film and its story, giving it 3.5 out of 4 stars he wrote, "Technically proficient and featuring a witty, intelligent, surprisingly insightful script, How to Train Your Dragon comes close to the level of Pixar 's recent output while easily exceeding the juvenilia DreamWorks has released in the last nine years. '' Entertainment Weekly film critic Owen Gleiberman praised the film giving it an A - and wrote, "How to Train Your Dragon rouses you in conventional ways, but it 's also the rare animated film that uses 3 - D for its breathtaking spatial and emotional possibilities. '' ViewLondon 's Mathew Turner gave the film 4 / 5 stars, calling it "beautifully animated and superbly written '', and praised the voice cast, humor, and action. Matt Risley of Variety gave the film a perfect score of 5 / 5 stars, hailing it as "undoubtedly Dreamworks ' best film yet, and quite probably the best dragon movie ever made ''.
How to Train Your Dragon was released on single - disc DVD, 2 - disc Double DVD Pack and Blu - ray / DVD combo pack in Canada and the United States on Friday, October 15, 2010. Among the features available in the 2 - disc DVD edition is an original sequel short film, Legend of the Boneknapper Dragon. As of July 18, 2012, units sold for the DVD stand at more than 6.5 million copies and has grossed $121,663,692.
Samsung signed a deal with DreamWorks to gain exclusive distribution rights to a Blu - ray 3D version of the film. The exclusive agreement ended on September 11, 2011, when How to Train Your Dragon - 3D was released in a Two - Disc Blu - ray combo pack.
It was re-released by Paramount Home Entertainment on Blu - ray and DVD on May 27, 2014.
A sequel, How to Train Your Dragon 2, was confirmed on April 27, 2010. The film was directed and written by Dean DeBlois, the co-director of the first film. Bonnie Arnold, the producer of the first film, also returned. The film was released on June 13, 2014 by 20th Century Fox, to critical acclaim. The entire original voice cast -- Baruchel, Butler, Ferguson, Ferrera, Hill, Mintz - Plasse, Miller and Wiig -- returned for the sequel with the addition of Cate Blanchett, Djimon Hounsou, and Kit Harington.
A third film, How to Train Your Dragon 3, is in development. The film will also be directed and written by DeBlois, produced by Bonnie Arnold, and exec - produced by Chris Sanders, with all the main cast set to return. Cate Blanchett and Djimon Hounsou will also reprise their roles as Valka and Drago respectively from the second film. It is scheduled to be released on March 1, 2019 by Universal Pictures.
Four post-movie short films were released: Legend of the Boneknapper Dragon (2010), Book of Dragons (2011), Gift of the Night Fury (2011) and Dawn of the Dragon Racers (2014).
A television series based on the film premiered on Cartoon Network in Autumn 2012. Jay Baruchel, America Ferrera, Christopher Mintz - Plasse and T.J. Miller reprise their roles as Hiccup, Astrid, Fishlegs and Tuffnut. The series follows Hiccup and his friends as they learn more about dragons, discover new ones, teach others to feel comfortable around them, adapt traditions within the village to fit their new friends and battle against enemies as they explore new worlds. Hiccup has been made head of Berk Dragon Academy.
An action adventure video game released by Activision, called How to Train Your Dragon, was released for the Wii, Xbox 360, PS3 and Nintendo DS gaming consoles. It is loosely based on the film and was released on March 23, 2010.
School of Dragons, a 3D free - to - play MMO, was released on July 17, 2013, at the San Diego Comic - Con. The game is available for PC, Android and iOS.
How To Train Your Dragon Arena Spectacular is an arena show adaptation of the first film featuring 24 animatronic dragons, acrobats and projections. It premiered on March 2, 2012, in Melbourne, Australia.
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how long does it usually take for significant muscular hypertrophy from resistance training to occur | Muscle hypertrophy - wikipedia
Muscle hypertrophy involves an increase in size of skeletal muscle through a growth in size of its component cells. Two factors contribute to hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased muscle glycogen storage; and myofibrillar hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased myofibril size.
A range of stimuli can increase the volume of muscle cells. These changes occur as an adaptive response that serves to increase the ability to generate force or resist fatigue in anaerobic conditions.
Strength training typically produces a combination of the two different types of hypertrophy: contraction against 80 to 90 % of the one - repetition maximum for 2 -- 6 repetitions (reps) causes myofibrillated hypertrophy to dominate (as in powerlifters, Gymnasts, Olympic lifters and strength athletes), whereas several repetitions (generally 8 -- 12 for bodybuilding or 12 or more for muscular endurance) against a submaximal load facilitates mainly sarcoplasmic hypertrophy (professional bodybuilders and endurance athletes).
Progressive overload is one method of training used in muscle hypertrophy. Early muscle growth has been studied and has some association with the implementation of a muscle resistance training program.
The best approach to specifically achieve muscle growth remains controversial (as opposed to focusing on gaining strength, power, or endurance); it was generally considered that consistent anaerobic strength training will produce hypertrophy over the long term, in addition to its effects on muscular strength and endurance. Muscular hypertrophy can be increased through strength training and other short - duration, high - intensity anaerobic exercises. Lower - intensity, longer - duration aerobic exercise generally does not result in very effective tissue hypertrophy; instead, endurance athletes enhance storage of fats and carbohydrates within the muscles, as well as neovascularization.
During a workout, increased blood flow to metabolically active areas causes muscles to temporarily increase in size, known colloquially as being "pumped up ''. About two hours after a workout and typically for seven to eleven days, muscles swell due to an inflammation response as tissue damage is repaired. Longer - term hypertrophy occurs due to more permanent changes in muscle structure.
Biological factors, nutrition, and training variables can affect muscle hypertrophy.
During puberty in males, hypertrophy occurs at an increased rate. Natural hypertrophy normally stops at full growth in the late teens. As testosterone is one of the body 's major growth hormones, on average, males find hypertrophy much easier to achieve than females. Taking additional testosterone, as in anabolic steroids, will increase results. It is also considered a performance - enhancing drug, the use of which can cause competitors to be suspended or banned from competitions. Testosterone is also a medically regulated substance in most countries, making it illegal to possess without a medical prescription. Anabolic steroid use can cause testicular atrophy, cardiac arrest, and gynecomastia.
A positive energy balance, when more calories are consumed rather than burned, is required for anabolism and therefore muscle hypertrophy. An increased requirement for protein, especially branch chained amino acid s, is required for elevated protein synthesis that is seen in athletes training for muscle hypertrophy.
Training variables, in the context of strength training, such as frequency, intensity, and total volume also directly affect the increase of muscle hypertrophy. A gradual increase in all of these training variables will yield the muscular hypertrophy.
The message filters down to alter the pattern of gene expression. The additional contractile proteins appear to be incorporated into existing myofibrils (the chains of sarcomeres within a muscle cell). There appears to be some limit to how large a myofibril can become: at some point, they split. These events appear to occur within each muscle fiber. That is, hypertrophy results primarily from the growth of each muscle cell, rather than an increase in the number of cells. Skeletal muscle cells are however unique in the body in that they can contain multiple nuclei, and the number of nuclei can increase.
Cortisol decreases amino acid uptake by muscle tissue, and inhibits protein synthesis. The short - term increase in protein synthesis that occurs subsequent to resistance training returns to normal after approximately 28 hours in adequately fed male youths. Another study determined that muscle protein synthesis was elevated even 72 hours following training.
A small study performed on young and elderly found that ingestion of 340 grams of lean beef (90 g protein) did not increase muscle protein synthesis any more than ingestion of 113 grams of lean beef (30 g protein). In both groups, muscle protein synthesis increased by 50 %. The study concluded that more than 30 g protein in a single meal did not further enhance the stimulation of muscle protein synthesis in young and elderly. However, this study did n't check protein synthesis in relation to training; therefore conclusions from this research are controversial.
It is not uncommon for bodybuilders to advise a protein intake as high as 2 -- 4 g per kilogram of bodyweight per day. However, scientific literature has suggested this is higher than necessary, as protein intakes greater than 1.8 g per kilogram of body weight showed to have no greater effect on muscle hypertrophy. A study carried out by American College of Sports Medicine (2002) put the recommended daily protein intake for athletes at 1.2 -- 1.8 g per kilogram of body weight. Conversely, Di Pasquale (2008), citing recent studies, recommends a minimum protein intake of 2.2 g / kg "for anyone involved in competitive or intense recreational sports who wants to maximize lean body mass but does not wish to gain weight. However athletes involved in strength events (...) may need even more to maximize body composition and athletic performance. In those attempting to minimize body fat and thus maximize body composition, for example in sports with weight classes and in bodybuilding, it 's possible that protein may well make up over 50 % of their daily caloric intake. ''
Microtrauma, which is tiny damage to the fibers, may play a significant role in muscle growth. When microtrauma occurs (from weight training or other strenuous activities), the body responds by overcompensating, replacing the damaged tissue and adding more, so that the risk of repeat damage is reduced. Damage to these fibers has been theorized as the possible cause for the symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and is why progressive overload is essential to continued improvement, as the body adapts and becomes more resistant to stress. However, work examining the time course of changes in muscle protein synthesis and their relationship to hypertrophy showed that damage was unrelated to hypertrophy. In fact, in that study the authors showed that it was not until the damage subsided that protein synthesis was directed to muscle growth.
In the bodybuilding and fitness community and even in some academic books skeletal muscle hypertrophy is described as being in one of two types: Sarcoplasmic or myofibrillar. According to this hypothesis, during sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, the volume of sarcoplasmic fluid in the muscle cell increases with no accompanying increase in muscular strength, whereas during myofibrillar hypertrophy, actin and myosin contractile proteins increase in number and add to muscular strength as well as a small increase in the size of the muscle. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy is greater in the muscles of bodybuilders because studies suggest sarcoplasmic hypertrophy shows a greater increase in muscle size while myofibrillar hypertrophy proves to increase overall muscular strength making it more dominant in Olympic weightlifters. These two forms of adaptations rarely occur completely independently of one another; one can experience a large increase in fluid with a slight increase in proteins, a large increase in proteins with a small increase in fluid, or a relatively balanced combination of the two.
Examples of increased muscle hypertrophy are seen in various professional sports, mainly strength related sports such as boxing, olympic weightlifting, mixed martial arts, rugby, professional wrestling and various forms of gymnastics. Athletes in other more skill - based sports such as basketball, baseball, ice hockey, and soccer may also train for increased muscle hypertrophy to better suit their position of play. For example, a center (basketball) may want to be bigger and more muscular to better overpower his or her opponents in the low post. Athletes training for these sports train extensively not only in strength but also in cardiovascular and muscular endurance training.
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where is i am a celebrity 2018 filmed | I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! (Australian TV series) - Wikipedia
I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! (occasionally shortened to I 'm a Celebrity) is an Australian reality television series on Network Ten which is based on the British television show of the same name. The series sees celebrities living in the jungle with few creature comforts and compete in various challenges to earn meals and other luxuries. The celebrities compete for $100,000 to be donated to their chosen charity. The series is set in Kruger National Park, South Africa, and is hosted by Julia Morris and Chris Brown.
On 16 July 2015 the series was renewed for a second season, which premiered on 31 January 2016. The second season was accompanied by the companion series I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! Now!. It aired on Eleven following each episode of the main series, hosted by comedian and former season one contestant Joel Creasey and The Bachelor Australia 3 contestant Heather Maltman. On 1 August 2016 the series was renewed for a third season with Morris and Brown returning as hosts, which premiered on 29 January 2017. A fourth season commenced on 28 January 2018 and concluded 12 March 2018.
The premise of the show is that there is a group of well known personalities living together in a specially constructed camp site in a jungle. During their time in the jungle they are isolated from the outside world and are not commonly aware of outside events. The contestants compete for $100,000 to be donated to a charity of their choosing, in addition to being personally reimbursed for their participation. While in the jungle, some of the contestants (generally voted by the viewing public) compete in challenges for food and luxuries for the camp. These challenges often involve local wildlife and are meant to take the contestants out of their comfort zone. Each week one or more of the contestants are evicted from the jungle, based on viewer votes. In addition, if the contestants become overwhelmed by their situation they can leave the series by speaking the phrase "I 'm a celebrity get me out of here! ''. However, it is reported that if contestants do quit they will have their income for participating in the series markedly reduced. Throughout the show, additional contestants (called "intruders '') enter the competition; and beginning with season two, some contestants are only included temporarily (i.e. having a guest appearance). In the end, a final viewer vote occurs to determine the winner of the series, who is given the title of "King and / or Queen of the Jungle ''.
The contastants take part in daily trials to earn food. These trials aim to test both physical and mental abilities. The winner is usually determined by the number of stars collected during the trial, with each star representing a meal earned by the winning contestant for their camp mates.
Two or more celebrities are chosen to take part in the celebrity chest challenge to win luxuries for camp. Each challenge involves completing a task to win a chest to take back to camp. However, to win the luxury item in the chest, the campmates must correctly answer a question. If they fail to answer correctly, the luxury item is forfeited and a joke prize is won. The luxury item is "donated '' by a celebrity from the outside.
This is a challenge where some celebrities have to take part without alerting the other celebrities - if they are successful in their ' missions ', they are rewarded.
A mystery box sees a box delivered to the campsite, each time containing a different gift for the contestants.
The show is broadcast Sunday to Thursday at 7.30 pm, with a weekly eviction show on Sunday (except for the first week, where the celebrities arrive in the ' jungle '). All shows are presented by Julia Morris & Chris Brown from a nearby studio. The program is live to AEDT States (New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory), in other states the program is delayed to accommodate local time zones.
In addition to the television broadcast, for the first season a live feed from the camp site aired for an hour after the AEDT airing of the show on Ten 's website and mobile app, titled The Fallout Zone but more commonly referred to as FOZ. The content of feed was available on the website after the fact so viewers in other states could watch the show after their airing of the main show. The feed was hosted by comedian Sam Mac and producer Ciaran "The Butcher '' Flannery, also known as "The C - Word ''. On 8 and 12 March 2015, producer Dominic "The Domin8or '' Sullivan filled in during Flannery 's absence. The duo interact with viewers through Twitter, using the hashtag # FOZ. Mac and Flannery have no control over the shots used in the stream which has resulted in one episode featuring a 20 - minute shot of a waterfall and, on 16 February 2015, a 15 - minute conversation featuring a sound technician looking for Bob being picked up. On 5 March 2015 the show famously featured audio problems during which Mac and Flannery 's voices fluctuated between chipmunk and Darth Vader filters for the first thirty minutes. The show 's theme song is Highway to the Fallout Zone sung by Sam Mac. The show did not return for the second season.
Throughout the show the public votes on who competes in the following tucker trial and who to evict from the campsite. Viewers can either vote via SMS (by texting the name of the celebrity to 1995 1010) or vote via Social Media (namely Facebook or Twitter) by using the celebrity 's hashtag (# celeb (name)). Voting via social media is limited to 20 votes per account. For tucker trial voting, viewers vote for celebrity they wish to compete. For eviction voting, viewers vote for a celebrity to stay. Voting closes at approximately 7: 30pm AEDT for Sunday 's eviction vote and at approximately 8pm AEDT for voting on other days.
Prior to the premiere of the second season, it was announced that the voting process would change slightly compared to the inaugural season. SMS voting wil be used for both trial and eviction voting while Twitter voting will be used exclusively for trial voting. This change was implemented to even the playing field between celebrities with a larger international fan base (who are more likely to receive Twitter votes from said fan base) and celebrities with a smaller fan base who are only known in Australia. However, this decision was later reversed, allowing Twitter and Facebook votes for the finals.
Winners crowned King or Queen of their respective year.
Key:
In June 2017, Tom Arnold filed a lawsuit against Network Ten and A List Entertainment for defrauding him for being on I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!. Arnold claims that he was promised a payment of $425,000 and a comedy tour in Australia, however he was missing $140,000 in payment and that Network Ten backed out of the comedy tour.
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chronic granulomatous disease is due to an inherent deficiency of | Chronic granulomatous disease - wikipedia
Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) (also known as Bridges -- Good syndrome, chronic granulomatous disorder, and Quie syndrome) is a diverse group of hereditary diseases in which certain cells of the immune system have difficulty forming the reactive oxygen compounds (most importantly the superoxide radical due to defective phagocyte NADPH oxidase) used to kill certain ingested pathogens. This leads to the formation of granulomata in many organs. CGD affects about 1 in 200,000 people in the United States, with about 20 new cases diagnosed each year.
This condition was first discovered in 1950 in a series of 4 boys from Minnesota, and in 1957 it was named "a fatal granulomatosus of childhood '' in a publication describing their disease. The underlying cellular mechanism that causes chronic granulomatous disease was discovered in 1967, and research since that time has further elucidated the molecular mechanisms underlying the disease. Bernard Babior made key contributions in linking the defect of superoxide production of white blood cells, to the cause of the disease. In 1986, the X-linked form of CGD was the first disease for which positional cloning was used to identify the underlying genetic mutation.
Classically, patients with chronic granulomatous disease will suffer from recurrent bouts of infection due to the decreased capacity of their immune system to fight off disease - causing organisms. The recurrent infections they acquire are specific and are, in decreasing order of frequency:
Most people with CGD are diagnosed in childhood, usually before age 5. Early diagnosis is important since these people can be placed on antibiotics to ward off infections before they occur. Small groups of CGD patients may also be affected by McLeod syndrome because of the proximity of the two genes on the same X-chromosome.
People with CGD are sometimes infected with organisms that usually do not cause disease in people with normal immune systems. Among the most common organisms that cause disease in CGD patients are:
Patients with CGD can usually resist infections of catalase - negative bacteria but are susceptible to catalase - positive bacteria. Catalase is an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide in many organisms. In infections caused by organisms that lack catalase (catalase - negative), the host with CGD is successfully able to "borrow '' hydrogen peroxide being made by the organism and use it to fight off the infection. In infections by organisms that have catalase (catalase - positive), this "borrowing mechanism '' is unsuccessful because the enzyme catalase first breaks down any hydrogen peroxide that would be borrowed from the organism. Therefore in the CGD patient, hydrogen peroxide can not be used to make oxygen radicals to fight infection, leaving the patient vulnerable to infection by catalase - positive bacteria.
Most cases of chronic granulomatous disease are transmitted as a mutation on the X chromosome and are thus called an "X-linked trait ''. The affected gene on the X chromosome codes for the gp91 protein p91 - PHOX (p is the weight of the protein in kDa; the g means glycoprotein). CGD can also be transmitted in an autosomal recessive fashion (via CYBA and NCF1) and affects other PHOX proteins. The type of mutation that causes both types of CGD are varied and may be deletions, frame - shift, nonsense, and missense.
A low level of NADPH, the cofactor required for superoxide synthesis, can lead to CGD. This has been reported in women who are homozygous for the genetic defect causing glucose - 6 - phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (G6PD), which is characterised by reduced NADPH levels.
Phagocytes (i.e. neutrophils and macrophages) require an enzyme to produce reactive oxygen species to destroy bacteria after they are ingested (phagocytosis), a process known as the respiratory burst. This enzyme is termed "phagocyte NADPH oxidase '' (PHOX). This enzyme oxidizes NADPH and reduces molecular oxygen to produce superoxide anions, a reactive oxygen species. Superoxide is then disproportionated into peroxide and molecular oxygen by superoxide dismutase. Finally, peroxide is used by myeloperoxidase to oxidize chloride ions into hypochlorite (the active component of bleach), which is toxic to bacteria. Thus, NADPH oxidase is critical for phagocyte killing of bacteria through reactive oxygen species.
(Two other mechanisms are used by phagocytes to kill bacteria: nitric oxide and proteases, but the loss of ROS - mediated killing alone is sufficient to cause chronic granulomatous disease.)
Defects in one of the four essential subunits of phagocyte NADPH oxidase (PHOX) can all cause CGD of varying severity, dependent on the defect. There are over 410 known possible defects in the PHOX enzyme complex that can lead to chronic granulomatous disease.
The nitroblue - tetrazolium (NBT) test is the original and most widely known test for chronic granulomatous disease. It is negative in CGD, meaning that it does not turn blue. The higher the blue score, the better the cell is at producing reactive oxygen species. This test depends upon the direct reduction of NBT to the insoluble blue compound formazan by NADPH oxidase; NADPH is oxidized in the same reaction. This test is simple to perform and gives rapid results, but only tells whether or not there is a problem with the PHOX enzymes, not how much they are affected.
A similar test uses dihydrorhodamine (DHR), in which whole blood is stained with DHR, incubated, and stimulated to produce superoxide radicals which oxidize DHR to rhodamin in cells with normal function. An advanced test called the cytochrome C reduction assay tells physicians how much superoxide a patient 's phagocytes can produce. Once the diagnosis of CGD is established, a genetic analysis may be used to determine exactly which mutation is the underlying cause.
Chronic granulomatous disease is the name for a genetically heterogeneous group of immunodeficiencies. The core defect is a failure of phagocytic cells to kill organisms that they have engulfed because of defects in a system of enzymes that produce free radicals and other toxic small molecules. There are several types, including:
Management of chronic granulomatous disease revolves around two goals: 1) diagnose the disease early so that antibiotic prophylaxis can be given to keep an infection from occurring, and 2) educate the patient about his or her condition so that prompt treatment can be given if an infection occurs.
Physicians often prescribe the antibiotic trimethoprim - sulfamethoxazole to prevent bacterial infections. This drug also has the benefit of sparing the normal bacteria of the digestive tract. Fungal infection is commonly prevented with itraconazole, although a newer drug of the same type called voriconazole may be more effective. The use of this drug for this purpose is still under scientific investigation.
Interferon, in the form of interferon gamma - 1b (Actimmune) is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the prevention of infection in CGD. It has been shown to reduce infections in CGD patients by 70 % and to decrease their severity. Although its exact mechanism is still not entirely understood, it has the ability to give CGD patients more immune function and therefore, greater ability to fight off infections. This therapy has been standard treatment for CGD for several years.
Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation from a matched donor is curative although not without significant risk.
There are currently no studies detailing the long term outcome of chronic granulomatous disease with modern treatment. Without treatment, children often die in the first decade of life. The increased severity of X-linked CGD results in a decreased survival rate of patients, as 20 % of X-linked patients die of CGD - related causes by the age of 10, whereas 20 % of autosomal recessive patients die by the age of 35. Recent experience from centers specializing in the care of patients with CGD suggests that the current mortality has fallen to under 3 % and 1 % respectively. CGD was initially termed "fatal granulomatous disease of childhood '' because patients rarely survived past their first decade in the time before routine use of prophylactic antimicrobial agents. The average patient now survives at least 40 years.
CGD affects about 1 in 200,000 people in the United States, with about 20 new cases diagnosed each year.
Chronic granulomatous disease affects all people of all races, however, there is limited information on prevalence outside of the United States. One survey in Sweden reported an incidence of 1 in 220,000 people, while a larger review of studies in Europe suggested a lower rate: 1 in 250,000 people.
This condition was first described in 1954 by Janeway, who reported five cases of the disease in children. In 1957 it was further characterized as "a fatal granulomatosus of childhood ''. The underlying cellular mechanism that causes chronic granulomatous disease was discovered in 1967, and research since that time has further elucidated the molecular mechanisms underlying the disease. Use of antibiotic prophylaxis, surgical abscess drainage, and vaccination led to the term "fatal '' being dropped from the name of the disease as children survived into adulthood.
Gene therapy is currently being studied as a possible treatment for chronic granulomatous disease. CGD is well - suited for gene therapy since it is caused by a mutation in single gene which only affects one body system (the hematopoietic system). Viruses have been used to deliver a normal gp91 gene to rats with a mutation in this gene, and subsequently the phagocytes in these rats were able to produce oxygen radicals.
In 2006, two human patients with X-linked chronic granulomatous disease underwent gene therapy and blood cell precursor stem cell transplantation to their bone marrow. Both patients recovered from their CGD, clearing pre-existing infections and demonstrating increased oxidase activity in their neutrophils. However, long - term complications and efficacy of this therapy were unknown.
In 2012, a 16 - year - old boy with CGD was treated at the Great Ormond Street Hospital, London with an experimental gene therapy which temporarily reversed the CGD and allowed him to overcome a life - threatening lung disease.
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where does the last name toro come from | Henry David Thoreau - wikipedia
Henry David Thoreau (see name pronunciation; July 12, 1817 -- May 6, 1862) was an American essayist, poet, philosopher, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, and historian. A leading transcendentalist, Thoreau is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay "Civil Disobedience '' (originally published as "Resistance to Civil Government ''), an argument for disobedience to an unjust state.
Thoreau 's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry amount to more than 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions are his writings on natural history and philosophy, in which he anticipated the methods and findings of ecology and environmental history, two sources of modern - day environmentalism. His literary style interweaves close observation of nature, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, symbolic meanings, and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical austerity, and Yankee attention to practical detail. He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoning waste and illusion in order to discover life 's true essential needs.
He was a lifelong abolitionist, delivering lectures that attacked the Fugitive Slave Law while praising the writings of Wendell Phillips and defending the abolitionist John Brown. Thoreau 's philosophy of civil disobedience later influenced the political thoughts and actions of such notable figures as Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King Jr.
Thoreau is sometimes referred to as an anarchist. Though "Civil Disobedience '' seems to call for improving rather than abolishing government -- "I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government '' -- the direction of this improvement contrarily points toward anarchism: "' That government is best which governs not at all; ' and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have. ''
Amos Bronson Alcott and Thoreau 's aunt each wrote that "Thoreau '' is pronounced like the word thorough (/ ˈθʌroʊ / THURR - oh -- in General American, but more precisely / ˈθɔːroʊ / THOR - oh -- in 19th - century New England). Edward Waldo Emerson wrote that the name should be pronounced "Thó - row '', with the h sounded and stress on the first syllable. Among modern - day American speakers, it is perhaps more commonly pronounced / θəˈroʊ / thə - ROH -- with stress on the second syllable.
Thoreau had a distinctive appearance, with a nose that he called his "most prominent feature ''. Of his appearance and disposition, Ellery Channing wrote:
His face, once seen, could not be forgotten. The features were quite marked: the nose aquiline or very Roman, like one of the portraits of Caesar (more like a beak, as was said); large overhanging brows above the deepest set blue eyes that could be seen, in certain lights, and in others gray, -- eyes expressive of all shades of feeling, but never weak or near - sighted; the forehead not unusually broad or high, full of concentrated energy and purpose; the mouth with prominent lips, pursed up with meaning and thought when silent, and giving out when open with the most varied and unusual instructive sayings.
Henry David Thoreau was born David Henry Thoreau in Concord, Massachusetts, into the "modest New England family '' of John Thoreau, a pencil maker, and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather had been born on the UK crown dependency island of Jersey. His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, led Harvard 's 1766 student "Butter Rebellion '', the first recorded student protest in the American colonies. David Henry was named after his recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He began to call himself Henry David after he finished college; he never petitioned to make a legal name change. He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, Sophia. Thoreau 's birthplace still exists on Virginia Road in Concord. The house has been restored by the Thoreau Farm Trust, a nonprofit organization, and is now open to the public.
He studied at Harvard College between 1833 and 1837. He lived in Hollis Hall and took courses in rhetoric, classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science. He was a member of the Institute of 1770 (now the Hasty Pudding Club). According to legend, Thoreau refused to pay the five - dollar fee (approximately equivalent to $123 in 2017) for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master 's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: Harvard College offered it to graduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college. '' He commented, "Let every sheep keep its own skin '', a reference to the tradition of using sheepskin vellum for diplomas.
The traditional professions open to college graduates -- law, the church, business, medicine -- did not interest Thoreau, so in 1835 he took a leave of absence from Harvard, during which he taught school in Canton, Massachusetts. After he graduated in 1837, he joined the faculty of the Concord public school, but he resigned after a few weeks rather than administer corporal punishment. He and his brother John then opened the Concord Academy, a grammar school in Concord, in 1838. They introduced several progressive concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops and businesses. The school closed when John became fatally ill from tetanus in 1842 after cutting himself while shaving. He died in Henry 's arms.
Upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met Ralph Waldo Emerson through a mutual friend. Emerson, who was 14 years his senior, took a paternal and at times patron - like interest in Thoreau, advising the young man and introducing him to a circle of local writers and thinkers, including Ellery Channing, Margaret Fuller, Bronson Alcott, and Nathaniel Hawthorne and his son Julian Hawthorne, who was a boy at the time.
Emerson urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a quarterly periodical, The Dial, and lobbied the editor, Margaret Fuller, to publish those writings. Thoreau 's first essay published in The Dial was "Aulus Persius Flaccus, '' an essay on the Roman playwright, in July 1840. It consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emerson 's suggestion. The first journal entry, on October 22, 1837, reads, "' What are you doing now? ' he asked. ' Do you keep a journal? ' So I make my first entry to - day. ''
Thoreau was a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition. In his early years he followed Transcendentalism, a loose and eclectic idealist philosophy advocated by Emerson, Fuller, and Alcott. They held that an ideal spiritual state transcends, or goes beyond, the physical and empirical, and that one achieves that insight via personal intuition rather than religious doctrine. In their view, Nature is the outward sign of inward spirit, expressing the "radical correspondence of visible things and human thoughts '', as Emerson wrote in Nature (1836).
On April 18, 1841, Thoreau moved into the Emerson house. There, from 1841 to 1844, he served as the children 's tutor; he was also an editorial assistant, repairman and gardener. For a few months in 1843, he moved to the home of William Emerson on Staten Island, and tutored the family 's sons while seeking contacts among literary men and journalists in the city who might help publish his writings, including his future literary representative Horace Greeley.
Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family 's pencil factory, which he would continue to do alongside his writing and other work for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process of making good pencils with inferior graphite by using clay as the binder. This invention allowed profitable use of a graphite source found in New Hampshire that had been purchased in 1821 by Thoreau 's brother - in - law, Charles Dunbar. The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Conté process, had been first patented by Nicolas - Jacques Conté in 1795. The company 's other source of graphite had been Tantiusques, a mine operated by Native Americans in Sturbridge, Massachusetts. Later, Thoreau converted the pencil factory to produce plumbago, a name for graphite at the time, which was used in the electrotyping process.
Once back in Concord, Thoreau went through a restless period. In April 1844 he and his friend Edward Hoar accidentally set a fire that consumed 300 acres (1.2 km) of Walden Woods.
I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. I did not wish to live what was not life, living is so dear; nor did I wish to practise resignation, unless it was quite necessary. I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life, to live so sturdily and Spartan - like as to put to rout all that was not life, to cut a broad swath and shave close, to drive life into a corner, and reduce it to its lowest terms, and, if it proved to be mean, why then to get the whole and genuine meanness of it, and publish its meanness to the world; or if it were sublime, to know it by experience, and be able to give a true account of it in my next excursion.
Thoreau felt a need to concentrate and work more on his writing. In March 1845, Ellery Channing told Thoreau, "Go out upon that, build yourself a hut, & there begin the grand process of devouring yourself alive. I see no other alternative, no other hope for you. '' Two months later, Thoreau embarked on a two - year experiment in simple living on July 4, 1845, when he moved to a small house he had built on land owned by Emerson in a second - growth forest around the shores of Walden Pond. The house was in "a pretty pasture and woodlot '' of 14 acres (57,000 m) that Emerson had bought, 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from his family home.
On July 24 or July 25, 1846, Thoreau ran into the local tax collector, Sam Staples, who asked him to pay six years of delinquent poll taxes. Thoreau refused because of his opposition to the Mexican -- American War and slavery, and he spent a night in jail because of this refusal. The next day Thoreau was freed when someone, likely to have been his aunt, paid the tax, against his wishes. The experience had a strong impact on Thoreau. In January and February 1848, he delivered lectures on "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation to Government '', explaining his tax resistance at the Concord Lyceum. Bronson Alcott attended the lecture, writing in his journal on January 26:
Heard Thoreau 's lecture before the Lyceum on the relation of the individual to the State -- an admirable statement of the rights of the individual to self - government, and an attentive audience. His allusions to the Mexican War, to Mr. Hoar 's expulsion from Carolina, his own imprisonment in Concord Jail for refusal to pay his tax, Mr. Hoar 's payment of mine when taken to prison for a similar refusal, were all pertinent, well considered, and reasoned. I took great pleasure in this deed of Thoreau 's.
Thoreau revised the lecture into an essay titled "Resistance to Civil Government '' (also known as "Civil Disobedience ''). It was published by Elizabeth Peabody in the Aesthetic Papers in May 1849. Thoreau had taken up a version of Percy Shelley 's principle in the political poem "The Mask of Anarchy '' (1819), which begins with the powerful images of the unjust forms of authority of his time and then imagines the stirrings of a radically new form of social action.
At Walden Pond, Thoreau completed a first draft of A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, an elegy to his brother John, describing their trip to the White Mountains in 1839. Thoreau did not find a publisher for the book and instead printed 1,000 copies at his own expense; fewer than 300 were sold. He self - published the book on the advice of Emerson, using Emerson 's publisher, Munroe, who did little to publicize the book.
In August 1846, Thoreau briefly left Walden to make a trip to Mount Katahdin in Maine, a journey later recorded in "Ktaadn '', the first part of The Maine Woods.
Thoreau left Walden Pond on September 6, 1847. At Emerson 's request, he immediately moved back to the Emerson house to help Emerson 's wife, Lidian, manage the household while her husband was on an extended trip to Europe. Over several years, as he worked to pay off his debts, he continuously revised the manuscript of what he eventually published as Walden, or Life in the Woods in 1854, recounting the two years, two months, and two days he had spent at Walden Pond. The book compresses that time into a single calendar year, using the passage of the four seasons to symbolize human development. Part memoir and part spiritual quest, Walden at first won few admirers, but later critics have regarded it as a classic American work that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and cultural conditions.
The American poet Robert Frost wrote of Thoreau, "In one book... he surpasses everything we have had in America. ''
The American author John Updike said of the book, "A century and a half after its publication, Walden has become such a totem of the back - to - nature, preservationist, anti-business, civil - disobedience mindset, and Thoreau so vivid a protester, so perfect a crank and hermit saint, that the book risks being as revered and unread as the Bible. ''
Thoreau moved out of Emerson 's house in July 1848 and stayed at a house on nearby Belknap Street. In 1850, he and his family moved into a house at 255 Main Street, where he lived until his death.
In the summer of 1850, Thoreau and Channing journeyed from Boston to Montreal and Quebec City. These would be Thoreau 's only travels outside the United States. It is as a result of this trip that he developed lectures that eventually became A Yankee in Canada. He jested that all he got from this adventure "was a cold. '' In fact, this proved an opportunity to contrast American civic spirit and democratic values with a colony apparently ruled by illegitimate religious and military power. Whereas his own country had had its revolution, in Canada history had failed to turn.
In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly fascinated with natural history and narratives of travel and expedition. He read avidly on botany and often wrote observations on this topic into his journal. He admired William Bartram and Charles Darwin 's Voyage of the Beagle. He kept detailed observations on Concord 's nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to "anticipate '' the seasons of nature, in his word.
He became a land surveyor and continued to write increasingly detailed observations on the natural history of the town, covering an area of 26 square miles (67 km), in his journal, a two - million - word document he kept for 24 years. He also kept a series of notebooks, and these observations became the source of his late writings on natural history, such as "Autumnal Tints '', "The Succession of Trees '', and "Wild Apples '', an essay lamenting the destruction of indigenous wild apple species.
Until the 1970s, literary critics dismissed Thoreau 's late pursuits as amateur science and philosophy. With the rise of environmental history and ecocriticism as academic disciplines, several new readings of Thoreau began to emerge, showing him to have been both a philosopher and an analyst of ecological patterns in fields and woodlots. For instance, his late essay "The Succession of Forest Trees '' shows that he used experimentation and analysis to explain how forests regenerate after fire or human destruction, through the dispersal of seeds by winds or animals.
He traveled to Canada East once, Cape Cod four times, and Maine three times; these landscapes inspired his "excursion '' books, A Yankee in Canada, Cape Cod, and The Maine Woods, in which travel itineraries frame his thoughts about geography, history and philosophy. Other travels took him southwest to Philadelphia and New York City in 1854 and west across the Great Lakes region in 1861, when he visited Niagara Falls, Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Mackinac Island. He was provincial in his own travels, but he read widely about travel in other lands. He devoured all the first - hand travel accounts available in his day, at a time when the last unmapped regions of the earth were being explored. He read Magellan and James Cook; the arctic explorers John Franklin, Alexander Mackenzie and William Parry; David Livingstone and Richard Francis Burton on Africa; Lewis and Clark; and hundreds of lesser - known works by explorers and literate travelers. Astonishing amounts of reading fed his endless curiosity about the peoples, cultures, religions and natural history of the world and left its traces as commentaries in his voluminous journals. He processed everything he read, in the local laboratory of his Concord experience. Among his famous aphorisms is his advice to "live at home like a traveler. ''
After John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry, many prominent voices in the abolitionist movement distanced themselves from Brown or damned him with faint praise. Thoreau was disgusted by this, and he composed a key speech, A Plea for Captain John Brown, which was uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions. Thoreau 's speech proved persuasive: the abolitionist movement began to accept Brown as a martyr, and by the time of the American Civil War entire armies of the North were literally singing Brown 's praises. As a biographer of Brown put it, "If, as Alfred Kazin suggests, without John Brown there would have been no Civil War, we would add that without the Concord Transcendentalists, John Brown would have had little cultural impact. ''
Thoreau contracted tuberculosis in 1835 and suffered from it sporadically afterwards. In 1860, following a late - night excursion to count the rings of tree stumps during a rainstorm, he became ill with bronchitis. His health declined, with brief periods of remission, and he eventually became bedridden. Recognizing the terminal nature of his disease, Thoreau spent his last years revising and editing his unpublished works, particularly The Maine Woods and Excursions, and petitioning publishers to print revised editions of A Week and Walden. He wrote letters and journal entries until he became too weak to continue. His friends were alarmed at his diminished appearance and were fascinated by his tranquil acceptance of death. When his aunt Louisa asked him in his last weeks if he had made his peace with God, Thoreau responded, "I did not know we had ever quarreled. ''
Aware he was dying, Thoreau 's last words were "Now comes good sailing '', followed by two lone words, "moose '' and "Indian ''. He died on May 6, 1862, at age 44. Amos Bronson Alcott planned the service and read selections from Thoreau 's works, and Channing presented a hymn. Emerson wrote the eulogy spoken at the funeral. Thoreau was buried in the Dunbar family plot; his remains and those of members of his immediate family were eventually moved to Sleepy Hollow Cemetery (42 ° 27 ′ 53 '' N 71 ° 20 ′ 32 '' W / 42.464676 ° N 71.342251 ° W / 42.464676; - 71.342251) in Concord, Massachusetts.
Thoreau 's friend William Ellery Channing published his first biography, Thoreau the Poet - Naturalist, in 1873. Channing and another friend, Harrison Blake, edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau 's journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, were first published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation. A new, expanded edition of the journals is under way, published by Princeton University Press. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international Thoreau Society and his legacy honored by the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods, established in 1998 in Lincoln, Massachusetts.
Most of the luxuries and many of the so - called comforts of life are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation of mankind.
Thoreau was an early advocate of recreational hiking and canoeing, of conserving natural resources on private land, and of preserving wilderness as public land. He was himself a highly skilled canoeist; Nathaniel Hawthorne, after a ride with him, noted that "Mr. Thoreau managed the boat so perfectly, either with two paddles or with one, that it seemed instinct with his own will, and to require no physical effort to guide it. ''
He was not a strict vegetarian, though he said he preferred that diet and advocated it as a means of self - improvement. He wrote in Walden, "The practical objection to animal food in my case was its uncleanness; and besides, when I had caught and cleaned and cooked and eaten my fish, they seemed not to have fed me essentially. It was insignificant and unnecessary, and cost more than it came to. A little bread or a few potatoes would have done as well, with less trouble and filth. ''
Thoreau neither rejected civilization nor fully embraced wilderness. Instead he sought a middle ground, the pastoral realm that integrates nature and culture. His philosophy required that he be a didactic arbitrator between the wilderness he based so much on and the spreading mass of humanity in North America. He decried the latter endlessly but felt that a teacher needs to be close to those who needed to hear what he wanted to tell them. The wildness he enjoyed was the nearby swamp or forest, and he preferred "partially cultivated country. '' His idea of being "far in the recesses of the wilderness '' of Maine was to "travel the logger 's path and the Indian trail '', but he also hiked on pristine land. In the essay "Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher '' Roderick Nash wrote, "Thoreau left Concord in 1846 for the first of three trips to northern Maine. His expectations were high because he hoped to find genuine, primeval America. But contact with real wilderness in Maine affected him far differently than had the idea of wilderness in Concord. Instead of coming out of the woods with a deepened appreciation of the wilds, Thoreau felt a greater respect for civilization and realized the necessity of balance. '' Of alcohol, Thoreau wrote, "I would fain keep sober always... I believe that water is the only drink for a wise man; wine is not so noble a liquor... Of all ebriosity, who does not prefer to be intoxicated by the air he breathes? ''
Thoreau never married and was childless. He strove to portray himself as an ascetic puritan. However, his sexuality has long been the subject of speculation, including by his contemporaries. Critics have called him heterosexual, homosexual, or asexual. There is no evidence to suggest he had physical relations with anyone, man or woman. Some scholars have suggested that homoerotic sentiments run through his writings and concluded that he was homosexual. The elegy Sympathy was inspired by the eleven - year - old Edmund Sewell, with whom he hiked for five days in 1839. One scholar has suggested that he wrote the poem to Edmund because he could not bring himself to write it to Edmund 's sister, and another that Thoreau 's "emotional experiences with women are memorialized under a camouflage of masculine pronouns '', but other scholars dismiss this. It has been argued that the long paean in Walden to the French - Canadian woodchopper Alek Therien, which includes allusions to Achilles and Patroclus, is an expression of conflicted desire. In some of Thoreau 's writing there is the sense of a secret self. In 1840 he writes in his journal: "My friend is the apology for my life. In him are the spaces which my orbit traverses ''. Thoreau was strongly influenced by the moral reformers of his time, and this may have instilled anxiety and guilt over sexual desire.
Thoreau was fervently against slavery and actively supported the abolitionist movement. He participated in the Underground Railroad, delivered lectures that attacked the Fugitive Slave Law, and in opposition to the popular opinion of the time, supported radical abolitionist militia leader John Brown and his party. Two weeks after the ill - fated raid on Harpers Ferry and in the weeks leading up to Brown 's execution, Thoreau regularly delivered a speech to the citizens of Concord, Massachusetts, in which he compared the American government to Pontius Pilate and likened Brown 's execution to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ:
Some eighteen hundred years ago Christ was crucified; this morning, perchance, Captain Brown was hung. These are the two ends of a chain which is not without its links. He is not Old Brown any longer; he is an angel of light.
In The Last Days of John Brown, Thoreau described the words and deeds of John Brown as noble and an example of heroism. In addition, he lamented the newspaper editors who dismissed Brown and his scheme as "crazy ''.
Thoreau was a proponent of limited government and individualism. Although he was hopeful that mankind could potentially have, through self - betterment, the kind of government which "governs not at all '', he distanced himself from contemporary "no - government men '' (anarchists), writing: "I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government. ''
Thoreau deemed the evolution from absolute monarchy to limited monarchy to democracy as "a progress toward true respect for the individual '' and theorized about further improvements "towards recognizing and organizing the rights of man. '' Echoing this belief, he went on to write: "There will never be a really free and enlightened State until the State comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power, from which all its power and authority are derived, and treats him accordingly. ''
It is on this basis that Thoreau could so strongly inveigh against British and Catholic power in A Yankee in Canada. Despotic authority had crushed the people 's sense of ingenuity and enterprise; the Canadian habitants had been reduced, in his view, to a perpetual childlike state. Ignoring the recent Rebellions, he argued that there would be no revolution in the St. Lawrence River valley.
Although Thoreau believed resistance to unjustly exercised authority could be both violent (exemplified in his support for John Brown) and nonviolent (his own example of tax resistance displayed in Resistance to Civil Government), he regarded pacifist nonresistance as temptation to passivity, writing: "Let not our Peace be proclaimed by the rust on our swords, or our inability to draw them from their scabbards; but let her at least have so much work on her hands as to keep those swords bright and sharp. '' Furthermore, in a formal lyceum debate in 1841, he debated the subject "Is it ever proper to offer forcible resistance? '', arguing the affirmative.
Likewise, his condemnation of the Mexican -- American War did not stem from pacifism, but rather because he considered Mexico "unjustly overrun and conquered by a foreign army '' as a means to expand the slave territory.
Thoreau was ambivalent towards industrialization and capitalism. On one hand he regarded commerce as "unexpectedly confident and serene, adventurous, and unwearied '' and expressed admiration for its associated cosmopolitanism, writing:
I am refreshed and expanded when the freight train rattles past me, and I smell the stores which go dispensing their odors all the way from Long Wharf to Lake Champlain, reminding me of foreign parts, of coral reefs, and Indian oceans, and tropical climes, and the extent of the globe. I feel more like a citizen of the world at the sight of the palm - leaf which will cover so many flaxen New England heads the next summer.
On the other hand, he wrote disparagingly of the factory system:
I can not believe that our factory system is the best mode by which men may get clothing. The condition of the operatives is becoming every day more like that of the English; and it can not be wondered at, since, as far as I have heard or observed, the principal object is, not that mankind may be well and honestly clad, but, unquestionably, that corporations may be enriched.
Thoreau also favored bioregionalism, the protection of animals and wild areas, free trade, and taxation for schools and highways. He disapproved of the subjugation of Native Americans, slavery, technological utopianism, consumerism, philistinism, mass entertainment, and frivolous applications of technology.
Thoreau was influenced by Indian spiritual thought. In Walden, there are many overt references to the sacred texts of India. For example, in the first chapter ("Economy ''), he writes: "How much more admirable the Bhagvat - Geeta than all the ruins of the East! '' American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia classes him as one of several figures who "took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world '', also a characteristic of Hinduism.
Furthermore, in "The Pond in Winter '', he equates Walden Pond with the sacred Ganges river, writing:
In the morning I bathe my intellect in the stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the Bhagvat Geeta since whose composition years of the gods have elapsed, and in comparison with which our modern world and its literature seem puny and trivial; and I doubt if that philosophy is not to be referred to a previous state of existence, so remote is its sublimity from our conceptions. I lay down the book and go to my well for water, and lo! there I meet the servant of the Brahmin, priest of Brahma and Vishnu and Indra, who still sits in his temple on the Ganges reading the Vedas, or dwells at the root of a tree with his crust and water jug. I meet his servant come to draw water for his master, and our buckets as it were grate together in the same well. The pure Walden water is mingled with the sacred water of the Ganges.
Thoreau was aware his Ganges imagery could have been factual. He wrote about ice harvesting at Walden Pond. And he knew that New England 's ice merchants were shipping ice to foreign ports, including Calcutta.
Additionally, Thoreau followed various Hindu customs, including following a diet of rice ("It was fit that I should live on rice, mainly, who loved so well the philosophy of India. ''), flute playing (reminiscent of the favorite musical pastime of Krishna), and yoga.
In an 1849 letter to his friend H.G.O. Blake, he wrote about yoga and its meaning to him:
Free in this world as the birds in the air, disengaged from every kind of chains, those who practice yoga gather in Brahma the certain fruits of their works. Depend upon it that, rude and careless as I am, I would fain practice the yoga faithfully. The yogi, absorbed in contemplation, contributes in his degree to creation; he breathes a divine perfume, he hears wonderful things. Divine forms traverse him without tearing him, and united to the nature which is proper to him, he goes, he acts as animating original matter. To some extent, and at rare intervals, even I am a yogi.
Thoreau read contemporary works in the new science of biology, including the works of Alexander von Humboldt, Charles Darwin, and Asa Gray (Charles Darwin 's staunchest American ally). Thoreau was deeply influenced by Humboldt, especially his work Kosmos.
In 1859, Thoreau purchased and read Darwin 's On the Origin of Species. Unlike many natural historians at the time, including Louis Agassiz who publicly opposed Darwinism in favor of a static view of nature, Thoreau was immediately enthusiastic about the theory of evolution by natural selection and endorsed it, stating:
The development theory implies a greater vital force in Nature, because it is more flexible and accommodating, and equivalent to a sort of constant new creation. (A quote from On the Origin of Species follows this sentence.)
Thoreau 's careful observations and devastating conclusions have rippled into time, becoming stronger as the weaknesses Thoreau noted have become more pronounced (...) Events that seem to be completely unrelated to his stay at Walden Pond have been influenced by it, including the national park system, the British labor movement, the creation of India, the civil rights movement, the hippie revolution, the environmental movement, and the wilderness movement. Today, Thoreau 's words are quoted with feeling by liberals, socialists, anarchists, libertarians, and conservatives alike.
Thoreau 's political writings had little impact during his lifetime, as "his contemporaries did not see him as a theorist or as a radical, '' viewing him instead as a naturalist. They either dismissed or ignored his political essays, including Civil Disobedience. The only two complete books (as opposed to essays) published in his lifetime, Walden and A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers (1849), both dealt with nature, in which he loved to wander. '' His obituary was lumped in with others rather than as a separate article in an 1862 yearbook. Nevertheless, Thoreau 's writings went on to influence many public figures. Political leaders and reformers like Mohandas Gandhi, U.S. President John F. Kennedy, American civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr., U.S. Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, and Russian author Leo Tolstoy all spoke of being strongly affected by Thoreau 's work, particularly Civil Disobedience, as did "right - wing theorist Frank Chodorov (who) devoted an entire issue of his monthly, Analysis, to an appreciation of Thoreau. ''
Thoreau also influenced many artists and authors including Edward Abbey, Willa Cather, Marcel Proust, William Butler Yeats, Sinclair Lewis, Ernest Hemingway, Upton Sinclair, E.B. White, Lewis Mumford, Frank Lloyd Wright, Alexander Posey, and Gustav Stickley. Thoreau also influenced naturalists like John Burroughs, John Muir, E.O. Wilson, Edwin Way Teale, Joseph Wood Krutch, B.F. Skinner, David Brower, and Loren Eiseley, whom Publishers Weekly called "the modern Thoreau ''. English writer Henry Stephens Salt wrote a biography of Thoreau in 1890, which popularized Thoreau 's ideas in Britain: George Bernard Shaw, Edward Carpenter, and Robert Blatchford were among those who became Thoreau enthusiasts as a result of Salt 's advocacy. Mohandas Gandhi first read Walden in 1906 while working as a civil rights activist in Johannesburg, South Africa. He first read Civil Disobedience "while he sat in a South African prison for the crime of nonviolently protesting discrimination against the Indian population in the Transvaal. The essay galvanized Gandhi, who wrote and published a synopsis of Thoreau 's argument, calling its ' incisive logic (...) unanswerable ' and referring to Thoreau as ' one of the greatest and most moral men America has produced '. '' He told American reporter Webb Miller, "(Thoreau 's) ideas influenced me greatly. I adopted some of them and recommended the study of Thoreau to all of my friends who were helping me in the cause of Indian Independence. Why I actually took the name of my movement from Thoreau 's essay ' On the Duty of Civil Disobedience ', written about 80 years ago. ''
Martin Luther King, Jr. noted in his autobiography that his first encounter with the idea of nonviolent resistance was reading "On Civil Disobedience '' in 1944 while attending Morehouse College. He wrote in his autobiography that it was,
Here, in this courageous New Englander 's refusal to pay his taxes and his choice of jail rather than support a war that would spread slavery 's territory into Mexico, I made my first contact with the theory of nonviolent resistance. Fascinated by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system, I was so deeply moved that I reread the work several times. I became convinced that noncooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good. No other person has been more eloquent and passionate in getting this idea across than Henry David Thoreau. As a result of his writings and personal witness, we are the heirs of a legacy of creative protest. The teachings of Thoreau came alive in our civil rights movement; indeed, they are more alive than ever before. Whether expressed in a sit - in at lunch counters, a freedom ride into Mississippi, a peaceful protest in Albany, Georgia, a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, these are outgrowths of Thoreau 's insistence that evil must be resisted and that no moral man can patiently adjust to injustice.
American psychologist B.F. Skinner wrote that he carried a copy of Thoreau 's Walden with him in his youth. and, in 1945, wrote Walden Two, a fictional utopia about 1,000 members of a community living together inspired by the life of Thoreau. Thoreau and his fellow Transcendentalists from Concord were a major inspiration of the composer Charles Ives. The 4th movement of the Concord Sonata for piano (with a part for flute, Thoreau 's instrument) is a character picture and he also set Thoreau 's words.
Actor Ron Thompson did a dramatic portrayal of Henry David Thoreau on the 1976 NBC television series The Rebels.
Thoreau 's ideas have impacted and resonated with various strains in the anarchist movement, with Emma Goldman referring to him as "the greatest American anarchist ''. Green anarchism and anarcho - primitivism in particular have both derived inspiration and ecological points - of - view from the writings of Thoreau. John Zerzan included Thoreau 's text "Excursions '' (1863) in his edited compilation of works in the anarcho - primitivist tradition titled Against civilization: Readings and reflections. Additionally, Murray Rothbard, the founder of anarcho - capitalism, has opined that Thoreau was one of the "great intellectual heroes '' of his movement. Thoreau was also an important influence on late - 19th - century anarchist naturism. Globally, Thoreau 's concepts also held importance within individualist anarchist circles in Spain, France, and Portugal.
For the 200th anniversary of his birth, publishers released several new editions of his work: a recreation of Walden 's 1902 edition with illustrations, a picture book with excerpts from Walden, and an annotated collection of Thoreau 's essays on slavery. The United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp honoring Thoreau on May 23, 2017 in Concord, MA.
Although his writings would receive widespread acclaim, Thoreau 's ideas were not universally applauded. Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson judged Thoreau 's endorsement of living alone and apart from modern society in natural simplicity to be a mark of "unmanly '' effeminacy and "womanish solitude '', while deeming him a self - indulgent "skulker ''.
Nathaniel Hawthorne had mixed feelings about Thoreau. He noted that "He is a keen and delicate observer of nature -- a genuine observer -- which, I suspect, is almost as rare a character as even an original poet; and Nature, in return for his love, seems to adopt him as her especial child, and shows him secrets which few others are allowed to witness. '' On the other hand, he also wrote that Thoreau "repudiated all regular modes of getting a living, and seems inclined to lead a sort of Indian life among civilized men ''.
In a similar vein, poet John Greenleaf Whittier detested what he deemed to be the "wicked '' and "heathenish '' message of Walden, claiming that Thoreau wanted man to "lower himself to the level of a woodchuck and walk on four legs ''.
In response to such criticisms, English novelist George Eliot, writing for the Westminster Review, characterized such critics as uninspired and narrow - minded:
People -- very wise in their own eyes -- who would have every man 's life ordered according to a particular pattern, and who are intolerant of every existence the utility of which is not palpable to them, may pooh - pooh Mr. Thoreau and this episode in his history, as unpractical and dreamy.
Thoreau himself also responded to the criticism in a paragraph of his work Walden by illustrating the irrelevance of their inquiries:
I should not obtrude my affairs so much on the notice of my readers if very particular inquiries had not been made by my townsmen concerning my mode of life, which some would call impertinent, though they do not appear to me at all impertinent, but, considering the circumstances, very natural and pertinent. Some have asked what I got to eat; if I did not feel lonesome; if I was not afraid; and the like. Others have been curious to learn what portion of my income I devoted to charitable purposes; and some, who have large families, how many poor children I maintained. (...) Unfortunately, I am confined to this theme by the narrowness of my experience. Moreover, I, on my side, require of every writer, first or last, a simple and sincere account of his own life, and not merely what he has heard of other men 's lives; (...) I trust that none will stretch the seams in putting on the coat, for it may do good service to him whom it fits.
Recent criticism has accused Thoreau of hypocrisy, misanthropy, and being sanctimonious, based on his writings in Walden, although this criticism has been perceived as highly selective.
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where does mechanical digestion occur in the digestive system | Digestion - wikipedia
Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water - soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.
In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. As these two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes.
After some time (typically 1 -- 2 hours in humans, 4 -- 6 hours in dogs, 3 -- 4 hours in house cats), the resulting thick liquid is called chyme. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95 % of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9. Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (K MK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation.
Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.
Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup ''. In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac - like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.
Bacteria use several systems to obtain nutrients from other organisms in the environments.
In a channel transupport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a simple system, which consists of only three protein subunits: the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein (OMP). This secretion system transports various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes (20 -- 900 kDa). The molecules secreted vary in size from the small Escherichia coli peptide colicin V, (10 kDa) to the Pseudomonas fluorescens cell adhesion protein LapA of 900 kDa.
A type III secretion system means that a molecular syringe is used through which a bacterium (e.g. certain types of Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia) can inject nutrients into protist cells. One such mechanism was first discovered in Y. pestis and showed that toxins could be injected directly from the bacterial cytoplasm into the cytoplasm of its host 's cells rather than simply be secreted into the extracellular medium.
The conjugation machinery of some bacteria (and archaeal flagella) is capable of transporting both DNA and proteins. It was discovered in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which uses this system to introduce the Ti plasmid and proteins into the host, which develops the crown gall (tumor). The VirB complex of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the prototypic system.
The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case, wherein conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation. Such elements as the Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.
The Ti and Ri plasmids are themselves conjugative. Ti and Ri transfer between bacteria uses an independent system (the tra, or transfer, operon) from that for inter-kingdom transfer (the vir, or virulence, operon). Such transfer creates virulent strains from previously avirulent Agrobacteria.
In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above, Gram - negative bacteria possess another method for release of material: the formation of outer membrane vesicles. Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials. Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells. While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective.
The gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body. Extracellular digestion takes place within this central cavity, which is lined with the gastrodermis, the internal layer of epithelium. This cavity has only one opening to the outside that functions as both a mouth and an anus: waste and undigested matter is excreted through the mouth / anus, which can be described as an incomplete gut.
In a plant such as the Venus Flytrap that can make its own food through photosynthesis, it does not eat and digest its prey for the traditional objectives of harvesting energy and carbon, but mines prey primarily for essential nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus in particular) that are in short supply in its boggy, acidic habitat.
A phagosome is a vacuole formed around a particle absorbed by phagocytosis. The vacuole is formed by the fusion of the cell membrane around the particle. A phagosome is a cellular compartment in which pathogenic microorganisms can be killed and digested. Phagosomes fuse with lysosomes in their maturation process, forming phagolysosomes. In humans, Entamoeba histolytica can phagocytose red blood cells.
To aid in the digestion of their food animals evolved organs such as beaks, tongues, teeth, a crop, gizzard, and others.
Birds have bony beaks that are specialised according to the bird 's ecological niche. For example, macaws primarily eat seeds, nuts, and fruit, using their impressive beaks to open even the toughest seed. First they scratch a thin line with the sharp point of the beak, then they shear the seed open with the sides of the beak.
The mouth of the squid is equipped with a sharp horny beak mainly made of cross-linked proteins. It is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. The beak is very robust, but does not contain any minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms, including marine species. The beak is the only indigestible part of the squid.
The tongue is skeletal muscle on the floor of the mouth that manipulates food for chewing (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva. The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth mucous membrane. The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing. The tongue is utilized to roll food particles into a bolus before being transported down the esophagus through peristalsis.
The sublingual region underneath the front of the tongue is a location where the oral mucosa is very thin, and underlain by a plexus of veins. This is an ideal location for introducing certain medications to the body. The sublingual route takes advantage of the highly vascular quality of the oral cavity, and allows for the speedy application of medication into the cardiovascular system, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract.
Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it can not be chewed, so we stop trying.
The shapes, sizes and numbers of types of animals ' teeth are related to their diets. For example, herbivores have a number of molars which are used to grind plant matter, which is difficult to digest. Carnivores have canine teeth which are used to kill and tear meat.
A crop, or croup, is a thin - walled expanded portion of the alimentary tract used for the storage of food prior to digestion. In some birds it is an expanded, muscular pouch near the gullet or throat. In adult doves and pigeons, the crop can produce crop milk to feed newly hatched birds.
Certain insects may have a crop or enlarged esophagus.
Herbivores have evolved cecums (or an abomasum in the case of ruminants). Ruminants have a fore - stomach with four chambers. These are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. In the first two chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, the food is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of solid and liquid material. Solids clump together to form the cud (or bolus). The cud is then regurgitated, chewed slowly to completely mix it with saliva and to break down the particle size.
Fibre, especially cellulose and hemi - cellulose, is primarily broken down into the volatile fatty acids, acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid in these chambers (the reticulo - rumen) by microbes: (bacteria, protozoa, and fungi). In the omasum, water and many of the inorganic mineral elements are absorbed into the blood stream.
The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo - rumen are also digested in the small intestine.
Regurgitation has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of pigeons and doves with which the parents feed their young by regurgitation.
Many sharks have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and evert it out of their mouths in order to get rid of unwanted contents (perhaps developed as a way to reduce exposure to toxins).
Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours -- eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.
Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the faeces of their mother, probably to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to get any nutritional value from many plant components.
An earthworm 's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.
In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:
Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge '' on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).
The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.
In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation.
The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 meters long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.
Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.
In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.
Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.
The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40 % of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.
The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5 % hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1 - 3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.
The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.
Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids. The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens. For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.
Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of fatty acids, mono - and di - glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules.
In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose. This results in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2 glucose molecules) that can be absorbed by the small intestine.
Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose and galactose. Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine. Approximately 65 percent of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat unfermented milk - based foods. This is commonly known as lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance varies widely by ethnic heritage; more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.
Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars fructose and glucose which are readily absorbed by the small intestine.
DNA and RNA are broken down into mononucleotides by the nucleases deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease (DNase and RNase) from the pancreas.
Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups. To digest vitamin B non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.
After the B - haptocorrin complexes pass from the stomach via the pylorus to the duodenum, pancreatic proteases cleave haptocorrin from the B molecules which rebind to intrinsic factor (IF). These B - IF complexes travel to the ileum portion of the small intestine where cubilin receptors enable assimilation and circulation of B - IF complexes in the blood.
There are at least five hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system in mammals. There are variations across the vertebrates, as for instance in birds. Arrangements are complex and additional details are regularly discovered. For instance, more connections to metabolic control (largely the glucose - insulin system) have been uncovered in recent years.
Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.
The stomach 's high acidity inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates within it. This acidity confers two benefits: it denatures proteins for further digestion in the small intestines, and provides non-specific immunity, damaging or eliminating various pathogens.
In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive enzymes. The liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralize the acidic conditions from the stomach, and the pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum, adding bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme, thus creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines is alkaline with a pH of about 8.5.
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when did the catholic church start canonizing saints | Canonization - Wikipedia
Canonization is the act by which a Christian church declares that a person who has died was a saint, upon which declaration the person is included in the "canon '', or list, of recognized saints. Originally, a person was recognized as a saint without any formal process. Later, different processes were developed, such as those used today in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion.
The first persons honored as saints were the martyrs. Pious legends of their deaths were considered affirmations of the truth of their faith in Christ.
The Roman Rite 's Canon of the Mass contains only the names of martyrs, along with that of the Blessed Virgin Mary and, since 1962, that of St. Joseph her spouse.
By the fourth century, however, "confessors '' -- people who had confessed their faith not by dying but by word and life -- began to be venerated publicly. Examples of such people are Saint Hilarion and Saint Ephrem the Syrian in the East, and Saint Martin of Tours and Saint Hilary of Poitiers in the West. Their names were inserted in the diptychs, the lists of saints explicitly venerated in the liturgy, and their tombs were honoured in like manner as those of the martyrs. Since the witness of their lives was not as unequivocal as that of the martyrs, they were venerated publicly only with the approval by the local bishop. This process is often referred to as "local canonization ''.
This approval was required even for veneration of a reputed martyr. In his history of the Donatist heresy, Saint Optatus recounts that at Carthage a Catholic matron, named Lucilla, incurred the censures of the Church for having kissed the relics of a reputed martyr whose claims to martyrdom had not been juridically proved. And Saint Cyprian (died 258) recommended that the utmost diligence be observed in investigating the claims of those who were said to have died for the faith. All the circumstances accompanying the martyrdom were to be inquired into; the faith of those who suffered, and the motives that animated them were to be rigorously examined, in order to prevent the recognition of undeserving persons. Evidence was sought from the court records of the trials or from people who had been present at the trials.
Saint Augustine of Hippo (died 430) tells of the procedure which was followed in his day for the recognition of a martyr. The bishop of the diocese in which the martyrdom took place set up a canonical process for conducting the inquiry with the utmost severity. The acts of the process were sent either to the metropolitan or primate, who carefully examined the cause, and, after consultation with the suffragan bishops, declared whether the deceased was worthy of the name of ' martyr ' and public veneration.
Acts of formal recognition, such as the erection of an altar over the saint 's tomb or transferring the saint 's relics to a church, were preceded by formal inquiries into the sanctity of the person 's life and the miracles attributed to that person 's intercession.
Such acts of recognition of a saint were authoritative, in the strict sense, only for the diocese or ecclesiastical province for which they were issued, but with the spread of the fame of a saint, were often accepted elsewhere also.
The Church of England, the Mother Church of the Anglican Communion, canonized Charles I as a saint, in the Convocations of Canterbury and York of 1660.
Corpus Juris Canonici
Ancient Church Orders
Collections of ancient canons
Other
Holy Orders
Confession
Eucharist
Tribunal Officers
Tribunal Procedure
Juridic persons
In the Catholic Church, both Latin and Eastern Churches, the act of canonization is reserved to the Apostolic See and occurs at the conclusion of a long process requiring extensive proof that the candidate for canonization lived and died in such an exemplary and holy way that they are worthy to be recognized as a saint. The Church 's official recognition of sanctity implies that the person is now in Heaven and that they may be publicly invoked and mentioned officially in the liturgy of the Church, including in the Litany of the Saints.
In the Catholic Church, canonization is a decree that allows universal veneration of the saint in the liturgy of the Roman Rite. For permission to venerate merely locally, only beatification is needed.
For several centuries the Bishops, or in some places only the Primates and Patriarchs, could grant martyrs and confessors public ecclesiastical honor; such honor, however, was always decreed only for the local territory of which the grantors had jurisdiction. Only acceptance of the cultus by the Pope made the cultus universal, because he alone can rule the universal Catholic Church. Abuses, however, crept into this discipline, due as well to indiscretions of popular fervor as to the negligence of some bishops in inquiring into the lives of those whom they permitted to be honoured as saints.
In the Medieval West, the Apostolic See was asked to intervene in the question of canonizations so as to ensure more authoritative decisions. The canonization of Saint Udalric, Bishop of Augsburg by Pope John XV in 993 was the first undoubted example of Papal canonization of a saint from outside of Rome; some historians maintain further that the first Papal canonization was of St. Swibert by Pope Leo III in 804.
Thereafter, recourse to the judgment of the Pope was had more frequently. Toward the end of the eleventh century the Popes judged it necessary to restrict episcopal authority regarding canonization, and therefore decreed that the virtues and miracles of persons proposed for public veneration should be examined in councils, more specifically in general councils. Pope Urban II, Pope Calixtus II, and Pope Eugene III conformed to this discipline.
Hugh de Boves, Archbishop of Rouen, canonized Walter of Pontoise, or St. Gaultier, in 1153, the final saint in Western Europe to be canonized by an authority other than the Pope: "The last case of canonization by a metropolitan is said to have been that of St. Gaultier, or Gaucher, (A) bbot of Pontoise, by the Archbishop of Rouen. A decree of Pope Alexander III (in) 1170 gave the prerogative to the (P) ope thenceforth, so far as the Western Church was concerned. '' In a decretal of 1173, Pope Alexander III reprimanded some bishops for permitting veneration of a man who was merely killed while intoxicated, prohibited veneration of the man, and most significantly decreed that "you shall not therefore presume to honor him in the future; for, even if miracles were worked through him, it is not lawful for you to venerate him as a saint without the authority of the Catholic Church. '' Theologians disagree as to the full import of the decretal of Pope Alexander III: either a new law was instituted, in which case the Pope then for the first time reserved the right of beatification to himself, or an existing law was confirmed.
However, the procedure initiated by the decretal of Pope Alexander III was confirmed by a bull of Pope Innocent III issued on the occasion of the canonization of St. Cunegunda in 1200. The bull of Pope Innocent III resulted in increasingly elaborate inquiries to the Apostolic See concerning canonizations. Because the decretal of Pope Alexander III did not end all controversy and some bishops did not obey it in so far as it regarded beatification, the right of which they had certainly possessed hitherto, Pope Urban VIII issued the Apostolic letter Caelestis Hierusalem cives of 5 July 1634 that exclusively reserved to the Apostolic See both its immemorial right of canonization and that of beatification. He further regulated both of these acts by issuing his Decreta servanda in beatificatione et canonizatione Sanctorum on 12 March 1642.
In his De Servorum Dei beatificatione et de Beatorum canonizatione of five volumes the eminent canonist Prospero Lambertini (1675 - 1758), who later became Pope Benedict XIV, elaborated on the procedural norms of Pope Urban VIII 's Apostolic letter Caelestis Hierusalem cives of 1634 and Decreta servanda in beatificatione et canonizatione Sanctorum of 1642, and on the conventional practice of the time. His work published from 1734 -- 38 governed the proceedings until 1917. The article "Beatification and canonization process in 1914 '' describes the procedures followed until the promulgation of the Codex of 1917. The substance of De Servorum Dei beatifιcatione et de Beatorum canonizatione was incorporated into the Codex Iuris Canonici (Code of Canon Law) of 1917, which governed until the promulgation of the revised Codex Iuris Canonici in 1983 by Pope John Paul II. Prior to promulgation of the revised Codex in 1983, Bl. Pope Paul VI initiated a simplification of the procedures.
The Apostolic constitution Divinus Perfectionis Magister of Pope John Paul II of 25 January 1983 and the norms issued by the Congregation for the Causes of Saints on 7 February 1983 to implement the constitution in dioceses, continued the simplification of the process initiated by Bl. Pope Paul VI. Contrary to popular belief, the reforms did not eliminate the office of the Promoter of the Faith (Latin: Promotor Fidei), popularly known as the "Devil 's Advocate '', whose office is to question the material presented in favor of canonization. The reforms were intended to reduce the adversarial nature of the process. In November 2012 Pope Benedict XVI appointed Monsignor Carmello Pellegrino as Promoter of the Faith.
Candidates for canonization undergo the following process:
The satisfaction of the applicable conditions permits beatification, which then bestows on the Venerable the title of "Blessed '' (Latin: "Beatus '' or "Beata ''). A feast day will be designated, but its observance is ordinarily only permitted for the Blessed 's home diocese, to specific locations associated with him, or to the churches or houses of the Blessed 's religious order if he belonged to one. Parishes may not normally be named in honor of beati.
Canonization is a statement of the Church that the person certainly enjoys the Beatific Vision of Heaven. The title of "Saint '' (Latin: "Sanctus '' or "Sancta '') is then proper, reflecting that the Saint is a refulgence of the holiness (sanctitas) of God Himself, which alone comes from God 's gift. The Saint is assigned a feast day which may be celebrated anywhere in the universal Church, although it is not necessarily added to the General Roman Calendar or local calendars as an "obligatory '' feast; parish churches may be erected in his honor; and the faithful may freely celebrate and honor the Saint.
Although recognition of sainthood by the Pope does not directly concern a fact of Divine revelation, nonetheless it must be "definitively held '' by the faithful as infallible pursuant to, at the least, the Universal Magisterium of the Church, because it is a truth related to revelation by historical necessity.
Regarding the Eastern Catholic Churches, individual sui juris churches have the right to "glorify '' saints for their own jurisdictions, though this has rarely happened.
Popes have several times permitted to the universal Church, without executing the ordinary judicial process of canonization described above, the veneration as a saint, the "cultus '' of one long venerated as such locally. This act of a pope is denominated "equipollent '' or "equivalent canonization '' and "confirmation of cultus ''. According to the rules Pope Benedict XIV (regnat 17 August 1740 - 3 May 1758) instituted, there are three conditions for an equipollent canonization: (1) existence of an ancient cultus of the person, (2) a general and constant attestation to the virtues or martyrdom of the person by credible historians, and (3) uninterrupted fame of the person as a worker of miracles.
As examples, prior to his pontificate, of this mode of canonization, Pope Benedict XIV himself enumerated the equipollent canonizations of Saints:
Later equipollent canonizations include those of Saints:
Pope Francis added Saints:
The following terms are used for canonization by the autocephalous national Orthodox Churches: канонизация or прославление "glorification '' (Russian Orthodox Church), კანონიზაცია kanonizats'ia (Georgian Orthodox Church), канонизација (Serbian Orthodox Church), canonizare (Romanian Orthodox Church), and Канонизация (Bulgarian Orthodox Church). The following terms are used for canonization by other autocephalous Orthodox Churches: αγιοκατάταξη (Katharevousa: ἁγιοκατάταξις) agiokatataxi / agiokatataxis, "ranking among saints '' (Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, Church of Cyprus, Church of Greece), kanonizim (Albanian Orthodox Church), kanonizacja (Polish Orthodox Church), and kanonizace / kanonizácia (Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church).
The Orthodox Church in America, an Eastern Orthodox Church partly recognized as autocephalous, uses the term "glorification '' for granting official recognition to someone as a saint -- see glorification.
Within the Armenian Apostolic Church, part of Oriental Orthodoxy, there had been discussions since the 1980s about canonizing the victims of the Armenian Genocide. On April 23, 2015, all of the victims of the genocide were canonized.
The General Conference of the United Methodist Church has formally declared individuals martyrs, including Dietrich Bonhoeffer (in 2008) and Martin Luther King Jr. (in 2012).
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who do the kings in a deck of cards represent | King (playing card) - wikipedia
The king is a playing card with a picture of a king on it. The king is usually the highest - ranking face card. In French playing cards and tarot decks, the king immediately outranks the queen. In Italian and Spanish playing cards, the king immediately outranks the knight. In German and Swiss playing cards, the king immediately outranks the Ober. In some games, the king is the highest - ranked card; in others, the ace is higher. Aces began outranking kings around 1500 with Trappola being the earliest known game in which the aces were highest in all four suits. In the Ace - Ten family of games such as pinochle and schnapsen, both the ace and the 10 rank higher than the king.
The king card is the oldest and most universal court card. It most likely originated in Persian Ganjifeh where kings are depicted as seated on thrones and outranking the viceroy cards which are mounted on horses. Playing cards were transmitted to Italy and Spain via the Mamluks and Moors. The best preserved and most complete deck of Mamluk cards, the Topkapı pack, did not display human figures but just listed their rank most likely due to religious prohibition. It is not entirely secure if the Topkapı pack was representative of all Mamluk decks as it was a custom - made luxury item used for display. A fragment of what may be a seated king card was recovered in Egypt which may explain why the poses of court cards in Europe resemble those in Persia and India.
Seated kings were generally common throughout Europe. During the 15th century, the Spanish started producing standing kings. The French originally used Spanish cards before developing their regional deck patterns. Many Spanish court designs were simply reused when the French invented their own suit - system around 1480. The English imported their cards from Rouen until the early 17th century when foreign card imports were banned. The king of hearts is sometimes called the "suicide king '' because he appears to be sticking his sword into his head. This is a result of centuries of bad copying by English card makers where the king 's axe head has disappeared.
Starting in the 15th century, French manufacturers assigned to each of the court cards names taken from history or mythology. This practice survives only in the Paris pattern which ousted all its rivals, including the Rouen pattern around 1780. The names for the kings in the Paris pattern (portrait officiel) are:
Most French - suited continental European patterns are descended from the Paris pattern but they have dropped the names associated with each card.
Kings from French playing cards:
King of Clubs (Russian pattern)
King of Diamonds (Russian pattern)
King of Hearts (Russian pattern)
King of Spades (Russian pattern)
Industrie und Glück pattern
Kings from Italian playing cards:
King of Clubs (Bergamo pattern)
King of Coins (Bergamo pattern)
King of Cups (Bergamo pattern)
King of Swords (Bergamo pattern)
Kings from Spanish playing cards:
King of Clubs (Aluette)
King of Coins (Aluette)
King of Cups (Aluette)
King of Swords (Aluette)
Catalan pattern
Castilian pattern
Kings from German playing cards:
King of Acorns (Saxon pattern)
King of Bells (Saxon pattern)
King of Hearts (Saxon pattern)
King of Leaves (Saxon pattern)
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the walking dead season 1 episode 5 wildfire | Wildfire (the Walking Dead) - wikipedia
"Wildfire '' is the fifth episode of the post-apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead. It originally aired on AMC in the United States on November 28, 2010. The episode was written by Glen Mazzara and directed by Ernest Dickerson.
In the episode, the survivors deal with the aftermath of the walker attack, and decide to move to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention facilities, hoping to find a cure for an infected Jim (Andrew Rothenberg). Meanwhile, Shane Walsh (Jon Bernthal), finding his leadership position challenged by Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln), succumbs to his inner demons.
The survivors deal with the aftermath of the zombie attack, burying their dead and burning the bodies of the zombies. Andrea stays with the body of Amy, apologizing for not spending more time with her, before the body starts to re-animate and she shoots it in the head. As they reassess their situation, Jim reveals he was bitten in the attack, and while Daryl Dixon wants to kill him before he turns, Rick Grimes stops him, telling him they do n't kill the living.
Fearing the camp is no longer safe, Rick suggests the group travel to the CDC facility in Druid Hills, Georgia where they may have a cure. Shane does not believe it is safe, and tries to convince Lori, Rick 's wife, to change Rick 's mind, but she refuses. Shane, still resenting Rick 's reappearance disrupting his relationship with Lori, attempts to shoot Rick but stops when Dale spots him. The camp packs up, with Rick radioing Morgan Jones that Atlanta is not safe. Morales and his family elect to go on their own towards Birmingham, and Rick gives them some of the weapons and supplies. The remainder of the survivors heads to the CDC. En route, as they fix Dale 's RV, Jim starts to feel as if he is about to turn and asks to be left behind; the group leaves him under a tree by the road.
At the CDC, a lone scientist, Edwin Jenner, is sampling tissue that is part of the "Wildfire '' epidemic that has lasted for over 190 days. During one test, his biohazard protection suit is damaged, and he quickly takes emergency precautions, which destroy the remaining samples he has to study. With no further means to proceed, Jenner contemplates suicide when he sees Rick 's group appear outside the sealed building. Rick sees surveillance cameras watching them, and demands they be let in before an approaching horde of zombies reach them. Jenner triggers the external doors, allowing Rick 's group in to safety.
"Wildfire '' was directed by Ernest Dickerson and written by Glen Mazzara. Actor Noah Emmerich made a guest appearance on the show, portraying the character of Edwin Jenner, one of the few remaining medical personnel dedicated to eradicating the virus. Emmerich 's appearance was formally announced in November 2010. Creator Frank Darabont foreshadowed the development of the episode the same month, alongside predecessor "Vatos '' and the first season finale, "TS - 19 ''. "Before it 's all said and done, the opinions and actions of the group are divided. '' Producer Gale Anne Hurd added, "Stakes are higher, dissension develops, rivalries intensify. ''
Principal photography for "Wildfire '' transpired at the Cobb Energy Performing Arts Centre, which was depicted as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Producers of the show were not allowed to photograph the interior of the actual buildings as part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as a point of reference due to its high security. As opposed to the successive episode, where filming mostly took place inside of the Cobb Energy Performing Arts Centre, production for "Wildfire '' occurred outside of the building. Darabont conceived the idea of exploring into the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, as its headquarters are in close proximity to Atlanta. Although the location was not featured in the comics of the same name, Kirkman was content with the idea, and stated that Darabont was looking to diverge from the comics in lieu of a literal interpretation. "Frank has always maintained that the comic book is a path but we 're not stuck on it. If a story idea comes up, we 'll leave the path for an episode or two, but we 'll always come back to it, '' he said.
In "Wildfire '', Andrea shoots her deceased sister Amy after she slowly resurrected into a walker. Greg Nicotero, the special effect director for The Walking Dead, made Bell wear contact lenses that were less harsh in appearance, as he wanted an emotional connection to resonate between the characters. Bell admitted that she was perplexed on how to approach the scene. "I laid down on the wood chips and just sort of stared at the sky and staring at my sister 's face, '' explained Bell. "All of these thoughts and emotions started flooding in, so I was really lucky. ''
Bear McCreary composed fewer scores in "Wildfire '' in comparison to other episode of the series, putting an emphasis on silence, which McCreary felt that the music was more subtle when corresponding with silence. He found that as a result, the music was more effective because he was not adding sound "for the sake of being heard ''. "When you do n't have ambient beds going through your whole score, '' he said, "it means that just the entrance of music has a lot more power. We really pushed the limits of how long can we go without music. ''
Ideas relating to guilt recur throughout the episode. Proclaiming "Wildfire '' as an installment "full of guilt trips '', Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly explained that Rick Grimes and Andrea epitomized such themes given their situations. "Andrea feels guilty about ' not being there ' for Amy -- but is motivated towards a mercy. Shane made Rick feel bad for not being at the camp when the zombies attacked, and Lori did n't do much to make her husband feel better, '' Snierson stated. "She also told Rick she needs more ' certainties ' from him that decisions made from hunch and instinct. '' A columnist for the same publication, Jeff Jensen stated that "Wildfire '' was a commentary on humanity, and added that the episode demonstrated "the need for the group to honor the departed '' so they could identify with their humanity.
The title of the episode is an homage to Michael Crichton 's The Andromeda Strain, which also involves studying a pathogen in an underground laboratory.
Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club gave it a grade of A - on a F to A scale, calling the episode "a very good one, gripping as hell and maybe my favorite episode of the season so far. '' He also complimented the directing of Ernest Dickerson, saying he "provided some fantastic shot set - ups and used the 16mm camera better than anyone has so far. '' Overall, he commented, "The episode provided a lot of emotional drama, and while it was somewhat light on zombie action, it did deliver a huge rush of action thrills at the end. It 's stripping down the characters to the point where their relationships are becoming more meaningful, and it 's introduced a real wild card at just the right time. '' Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode 8 out of 10.
Upon its initial broadcast on November 28, 2010, "Wildfire '' was watched by 5.56 million viewers, which increased in viewership from the previous episode. At the time, it was the highest - rated episode of the series in both overall viewership and in the 18 - 49 demographic.
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who dies in percy jackson the titan's curse | The Titan 's Curse - wikipedia
The Titan 's Curse is a 2007 fantasy - adventure novel based on Greek mythology written by Rick Riordan. It is the third novel in the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series and the sequel to The Sea of Monsters. It charts the adventures of the fourteen - year - old demigod Percy Jackson as he and his friends go on a dangerous quest to rescue his friend Annabeth Chase and the Greek goddess Artemis, who have both been kidnapped.
The Titan 's Curse was published by Miramax Books, an imprint of Hyperion Books for Children and thus Disney Publishing (succeeded by the Disney Hyperion imprint). It was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on May 1, 2007. The novel was also released in audiobook format, read by Jesse Bernstein.
Mostly well - received, The Titan 's Curse was nominated for numerous awards, winning ones such as the No. 1 The New York Times children 's series best seller and Book Sense Top Ten Summer Pick for 2007.
Percy Jackson, Annabeth Chase, and Thalia Grace get a ride from Mrs. Jackson to Westover Hall, a boarding school in Bar Harbor, Maine, to escort two sibling half - bloods named Nico and Bianca di Angelo that Grover Underwood has found. They are attacked by a manticore named Dr. Thorn. Though Artemis and her hunters arrive to help, Dr. Thorn jumps off a cliff with Annabeth on his back. Artemis is troubled by the manticore 's mention of a "Great Stirring '' of monsters, and goes off alone to hunt an Olympus - destroying monster she believes to have finally returned from Tartarus. She sends the half - bloods and Hunters (whose number now includes Bianca di Angelo) to Camp Half - Blood with her brother Apollo.
While there, Nico settles into camp life; Percy and Blackjack save a sea monster Percy nicknames Bessie; and Artemis 's lieutenant Zoë Nightshade has mysterious dreams about the goddess being in grave danger. Percy has similar dreams about Annabeth saving Luke from being crushed by the ceiling of some cave and holding it up for him. Both are unable to act, however, until the Oracle (a shriveled mummy) somehow leaves the attic where it was kept and delivers the Huntress a prophecy. Chiron and Zoë organize a quest, but Percy is forbidden from going because the Hunters refuse to travel with a boy. He successfully sneaks away from camp on Blackjack, though he is almost stopped by Mr. D (Dionysus) who agrees to let him go because there is a good chance that Percy will get killed while on the quest.
When they arrive in Washington, D.C., Percy notices Dr. Thorn heading into the National Museum of Natural History, and follows him using an invisibility cap. Luke and a man called the General are there, and summon spartoi to hunt the official quest group, who are currently in the National Air and Space Museum nearby. Percy runs to warn them, but they are attacked by the Nemean Lion before they can leave. They flee, and, on the advice of Apollo, travel to Cloudcroft, New Mexico. In Cloudcroft, Grover senses the presence of Pan, who sends the Erymanthian Boar to help them escape the spartoi who have caught up with them. The boar carries them as far as Gila Claw, Arizona and the "junkyard of the gods ''. After a brief encounter with Ares and Aphrodite, the group enters the junkyard, where Bianca tries to take a cursed statuette for Nico. Her theft awakens a prototype of Talos, and she gives her life to bring it down. The remaining quest members travel to the Hoover Dam, and, after narrowly escaping the spartoi again, arrive in San Francisco on the backs of two bronze flying angels.
Once there, Percy seeks out Nereus and learns that the monster Artemis was hunting is Bessie, the monster he saved, who is an ophiotaurus. After a final encounter with Dr. Thorn in which Percy pleads with Mr. D to help him defeat the manticore, Grover heads back to Camp Half - Blood with the ophiotaurus. Zoë, Percy, and Thalia go to find Frederick Chase in the hope that he will help them reach their final destination: Mount Tamalpais, which is the modern location of the Titans ' fortress on Mount Othrys. With Mr. Chase 's car, they travel to the Garden of Hesperides. Zoë is wounded by the dragon Ladon while they pass through. From the place where Atlas once held up the sky, they see Artemis now doing his job. Seeing Annabeth tied up and held hostage by Luke and learning that "the General '' is Zoë 's father, the Titan Atlas, Percy takes the sky from Artemis so she can fight the Titan 's advance guard. Artemis engages Atlas and is able to trap him under the sky again, but not before he seriously wounds Zoë by pushing her off of a cliff. Thalia battles Luke, and he falls from a cliff, apparently dead. With the help of Mr. Chase, who arrives in a biplane he has fitted with machine guns with Celestial bronze bullets, they escape and travel to a nearby airfield in Artemis ' silver chariot. Zoë dies shortly after landing and Artemis makes a constellation in her honor. The rest of the group then heads for Olympus.
During the winter solstice meeting, the gods are finally convinced by Artemis to take action against the Titans. Thalia is also asked by Artemis to become an immortal Huntress, and her acceptance is the only thing that prevents the onset of the Great Prophecy. Percy is told by his father that Luke is somehow not dead, and he and Annabeth return to Camp Half - Blood worried about the future. Before he can relax, however, Percy is forced to explain Bianca 's death to Nico. Nico blames Percy, and when a group of spartoi arrive to attack the son of Poseidon, Nico banishes them to the realm of Hades, and Percy realizes that he must be a son of Hades. Nico runs away, and the only people Percy tells the truth are Annabeth and Grover. They promise to hide this fact from everyone else, especially the Titan 's army.
The prophecy given by the oracle to Zoë Nightshade reads:
Five shall go west to the goddess in chains,
One shall be lost in the land without rain,
The bane of Olympus shows the trail,
Campers and Hunters combined prevail,
The Titan 's curse must one withstand,
And one shall perish by a parent 's hand.
1. The group consisting of Zoë, Thalia, Grover, Bianca, and Percy (originally Phoebe). The questers travel to Mount Othrys in the west to free Artemis from her confinement.
2. Bianca sacrificed herself in the desert to save the group against a defective prototype of Hephaestus ' robot, Talos.
3. They followed the Ophiotaurus (half cow, half serpent) named Bessie, which was called the bane of Olympus because if he was sacrificed in flames, the person that sacrificed it would have the power to destroy Olympus. During the quest, it keeps appearing in various bodies of water.
4. The only way the quest would be successful was if campers and Hunters worked together. The quest consisted of three campers (Percy, Grover, and Thalia) and two Hunters (Zoë and Bianca).
5. The curse of holding the sky above the earth had to be taken by someone (Luke took the sky from Atlas; Annabeth took the sky from Luke; Artemis took it from Annabeth; Percy took it for Artemis and Artemis forced Atlas back under the sky).
6. In the end, Zoë after already suffering from being poisoned by the dragon Ladon, was killed by her father Atlas after he tossed her against a wall.
The Titan 's Curse received relatively positive reviews, which often lauded the humor and action in the story. Children 's Literature, which commended the book 's fast pace and humor, wrote, "Readers will relate to good natured Percy, the protagonist. '' Kirkus Reviews awarded it a starred review with, "This third in the Olympians series makes the Greek myths come alive in a way no dreary classroom unit can... will have readers wondering how literature can be this fun. This can stand alone, though newcomers to the series will race back to the first two volumes and eagerly await a fourth installment. '' School Library Journal praised the "adventurous '' plot as well as the book 's appeal: "Teachers will cheer for Percy Jackson and the Olympians as they inspire students to embrace Greek mythology and score the ultimate Herculean challenge: getting kids to read. All in all, a winner of Olympic proportions and a surefire read - aloud. '' Booklist 's starred review approved of the novel 's humor action, and plotting: "The Percy Jackson & the Olympians series is built around a terrific idea -- that the half - mortal offspring of Greek gods live among us, playing out struggles of mythic scale -- and Riordan takes it from strength to strength with this exciting installment, adding even more depth to the characters and story arc while retaining its predecessors ' nonstop laughs and action. '' Kidsreads raved, "Rick Riordan 's Olympian adventures have gained great popularity thanks to their combination of humor, adventure and a winning hero... Readers who are familiar with ancient mythology will enjoy Riordan 's tongue - in - cheek approach; those who are n't just might be tempted to go to the original sources to learn more. ''
The Titan 's Curse received several literature - related awards, including: number one The New York Times children 's series best seller and Book Sense Top Ten Summer Pick for 2007. It was also a Quill Award nominee.
An eight - hour - and - forty - eight - minute audiobook read by the actor Jesse Bernstein and published by Listening Library was released on April 24, 2007.
AudioFile Magazine lauded Bernstein 's interpretation, writing, "Sounding alternately young, or old, or really scary, Jesse Bernstein... effectively voices the confusion and loss the team experiences. ''
In The Battle of the Labyrinth, Annabeth and Percy find an entrance into the Labyrinth during a game of capture the flag. Percy soon learns that Luke had used the entrance and will lead his army through the Labyrinth straight in to the heart of camp. To get into the Labyrinth, Percy has to find the symbol of Daedalus, the Greek letter delta, (Δ) on a passageway, touch it, and then enter the Labyrinth. Using the Labyrinth, Percy tries to find Daedalus so Luke can not get Ariadne 's string, thereby foiling Luke 's invasion.
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when will the night circus movie be released | The Night circus - wikipedia
The Night Circus is a 2011 fantasy novel by Erin Morgenstern. It was originally written for the annual writing competition NaNoWriMo over the span of three NaNoWriMos. The novel is written in third - person present tense, and arranged to have a nonlinear narrative written from multiple viewpoints.
The Night Circus is a phantasmagorical fairy tale set near an ahistorical Victorian London in a wandering magical circus that is open only from sunset to sunrise. Le Cirque des Rêves (The Circus of Dreams) features such wonders and "ethereal enigmas '' as a blooming garden made all of ice, acrobats soaring without a net, and a vertical cloud maze where patrons who get lost simply step off and float gently to the floor. The circus has no set schedule, appearing without warning and leaving without notice; they travel in a train disguised as an ordinary coal transport. A network of devoted fans styling themselves "rêveurs '' ("dreamers '') develops around the circus; they identify to each other by adding a splash of red to garb that otherwise matches the characteristic black and white of the circus tents. The magical nature of the circus is occluded under the guise of legerdemain; the illusionist truly transforms her jacket into a raven and the fortune teller truly reads the uncertain future, and both are applauded for their ingenuity.
The circus serves a darker purpose beyond entertainment and profit. Two powerful magicians, Prospero the Enchanter and the enigmatic Mr. A.H -, groom their young proteges, Celia Bowen and Marco Alisdair, to proxy their rivalry with the exhibits as a stage. Prospero teaches his daughter to hone her innate talents by holding ever larger and more complex magical workings in her mind. Celia takes her position on the game board as the illusionist who makes true transformations, adding tents and maintaining wondrous aspects from the inside. Mr. A.H -- trains his orphan ward with books in the ways of glyphs and sympathetic magic and illusory worlds that exist only in the mind of the beholder. Marco takes a position as an assistant to the producer of the circus; he works from the outside in, connected to the circus via a magical link to the central bonfire, but not a part of it. The two beguile the circus goers and each other with nightly wonders, soon falling in love despite being magically bound to a deadly competition with rules neither understands.
As the competition continues, both competitors become strained with no sign of a conclusion in sight, nor inclination of how a winner will be determined. Others within the circus start to notice strange events connected to it: the blueprints disappear from the designers ' offices, and the performers appear bound to the circus and can never fail, leave permanently, have accidents, or even age. Two children -- Poppet and Widget -- born to a performer on opening night, have developed magical powers. The producer of the circus has his memories erased, and one of the initial investors dies in dubious circumstances - when they begin to discover the underlying truth. When the building tensions between Prospero and A.H - and the jealousy of Marco 's ex-girlfriend spurned for Celia result in an innocent "rêveur '' being accidentally stabbed in a circus tent, Celia begins to search for a way to end the game as quickly as possible while preserving the circus and those involved with it.
Celia learns from Prospero that the game must continue until one of the participants is unable to go on, which usually means their death. She also learns the circus contortionist, Tsukiko, is not only a magician herself but the winner of a previous contest in which her opponent committed suicide. After Celia and Marco 's negotiations with their mentors fail, Tsukiko believes the competition is putting the circus and its members at risk. She plans to magically kill Marco to end the contest, believing him to be less important than Celia because he was not part of the circus. At the last moment, Celia rushes to save him, resulting in both of them being ripped from reality and becoming incorporeal spirits bound to the circus. With its magical keystones removed, the central bonfire goes out and the circus environment begins to break down. Celia and Marco preserve the circus by magically rebinding Poppet, Widget, and their new friend, a keen circusgoer called Bailey, back to the circus, relighting the fire and bringing back the spirit of the circus.
With Celia and Marco both existing only as ghosts, unable to compete but content to haunt the circus together forever, the contest is declared complete via stalemate with no winner. Poppet and Widget negotiate the release of the remaining circus properties from the former producer and Mr. A.H -, and the book ends with the revelation that Poppet, Widget, Bailey and the circus still exist in the modern day, preserved for a century and more.
The book has been extensively promoted, often with mention of Harry Potter or Twilight, but also in comparison to Neil Gaiman, Something Wicked This Way Comes, or Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell. Ron Charles writing for The Washington Post compares Morgenstern 's imagery to Steven Millhauser 's, albeit with "more playful and more dramatic surrealism ''. Olivia Laing writing for The Observer compares the book to an "eminently intriguing cabinet of curiosities '' with an intricate but unmoored setting and colorful but clockwork characters. Laura Miller writing for Salon likewise praises the "aesthetic fantasia with all the trimmings '' but not the plot itself. Sarah Stegall writing for SFScope praises the vivid imagery, predicting that it should be nominated for literary awards. Richard Peabody writing for The Washington Independent Review of Books describes the narrative as nonlinear, with frequent shifts in points of view, tangential vignettes, and short almost cinematic chapters. Stacey D'Erasmo writing for The New York Times Book Review criticizes the lack of specificity of the imagery, describing the experience as being "continually told how magical the circus and its denizens are without ever being truly surprised, entranced or beguiled. ''
The Night Circus was a candidate for the 2011 Guardian First Book Award. It won an Alex Award from the American Library Association in 2012. The novel spent seven weeks on The New York Times Best Seller list, reaching number two on the hardcover fiction list.
An audiobook version of The Night Circus is read by Jim Dale.
The UK publisher, Harvill Secker, contracted Failbetter Games, creators of Echo Bazaar!, to create a puzzle game to accompany the book. The site went live on September 1, 2011, two weeks before the book was published. The game has since been moved to the Storynexus site and modified to remove the aggressive social promotion that the original included.
The film and TV rights to The Night Circus were optioned by Summit Entertainment, and a film is being produced by David Heyman and Jeff Clifford under Heyday Films. Moira Buffini was hired in February 2012 to write the screenplay. As of April 2018 there is still no confirmation if a film or TV show will ever be made.
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where did the name palm springs come from | Palm Springs, California - wikipedia
Palm Springs (Cahuilla: Se - Khi) is a desert resort city in Riverside County, California, United States, within the Coachella Valley. It is located approximately 55 mi (89 km) east of San Bernardino, 107 mi (172 km) east of Los Angeles, 123 mi (198 km) northeast of San Diego, and 268 mi (431 km) west of Phoenix, Arizona. The population was 44,552 as of the 2010 census. Palm Springs covers approximately 94 square miles (240 km), making it the largest city in the county by land area.
Biking, golf, hiking, horseback riding, swimming, and tennis in the nearby desert and mountain areas are major forms of recreation in Palm Springs. The city is also known for its mid-century modern architecture, design elements, and arts and cultural scene.
The first humans to settle here were the Cahuilla people, 2,000 years ago. Cahuilla Indians lived here in isolation from other cultures for hundreds of years prior to European contact. They spoke Ivilyuat, which is a dialect of the Uto - Aztecan language family. Numerous prominent and powerful Cahuilla leaders were from Palm Springs, including Cahuilla Lion (Chief Juan Antonio). While Palm Canyon was occupied during winter months, they often moved to cooler Chino Canyon during the summer months.
The Cahuilla Indians had several permanent settlements in the canyons of Palm Springs, due to the abundance of water and shade. Various hot springs were used during wintertime. The Cahuilla hunted rabbit, mountain goat and quail, while also trapping fish in nearby lakes and rivers. While men were responsible for hunting, women were responsible for collecting berries, acorns and seeds. They also made tortillas from mesquite beans. While the Cahuillas often spent the summers in Indian Canyons, the current site of Spa Resort Casino in downtown was often used during winter due to its natural hot springs.
Native - American petroglyphs can be seen in Tahquitz -, Chino - and Indian Canyons. The Cahuilla 's irrigation ditches, dams and house pits can also be seen here. Ancient petroglyphs, pictographs and mortar holes can be seen in Andreas Canyon. The mortar holes were used to grind acorns into meals.
The Agua Caliente ("Hot Water '') Reservation was established in 1876 and consists of 31,128 acres. 6,700 acres are located by Downtown Palm Springs. The Native - American land is on long lease land and next to one of California 's highend communities, making the tribe one of the wealthiest in California.
The first name for Palm Springs was given by the native Cahuilla: "Se - Khi '' (boiling water). When the Agua Caliente Reservation was established by the United States government in 1876, the reservation land was composed of alternating sections (640 acres) of land laid out across the desert in a checkerboard pattern. The alternating non-reservation sections were granted to the Southern Pacific Railroad as an incentive to bring rail lines through the Sonoran desert.
A number of streets and areas in Palm Springs are named for Native - American notables, including Andreas, Arenas, Amado, Belardo, Lugu, Patencio, Saturnino and Chino. All of these are common Cahuilla surnames.
Presently the Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians are composed of several smaller bands who live in the modern day Coachella Valley and San Gorgonio Pass. The Agua Caliente Reservation occupies 32,000 acres (13,000 ha), of which 6,700 acres (2,700 ha) lie within the city limits, making the Agua Caliente natives the city 's largest landowners. (Tribal enrollment as of 2010 is 410 people.)
As of 1821 Mexico was independent of Spain and in March 1823 the Mexican Monarchy ended. That same year (in December) Mexican diarist José María Estudillo and Brevet Captain José Romero were sent to find a route from Sonora to Alta California; on their expedition they first recorded the existence of "Agua Caliente '' at Palm Springs, California. With the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo after the Mexican - American war, the region became part of the United States in 1848.
One possible origin of palm in the place name comes from early Spanish explorers who referred to the area as La Palma de la Mano de Dios or "The Palm of God 's hand ''. The earliest use of the name "Palm Springs '' is from United States Topographical Engineers who used the term in 1853 maps. According to William Bright, when the word "palm '' appears in Californian place names, it usually refers to the native California fan palm, Washingtonia filifera, which is abundant in the Palm Springs area. Other early names were "Palmetto Spring '' and "Big Palm Springs ''.
The first European resident in Palm Springs itself was Jack Summers, who ran the stagecoach station on the Bradshaw Trail in 1862. Fourteen years later (1876), the Southern Pacific railroad was laid 6 miles to the north, isolating the station. In 1880, local Indian Pedro Chino was selling parcels near the springs to William Van Slyke and Mathew Bryne in a series of questionable transactions; they in turn brought in W.R. Porter to help market their property through the "Palm City Land and Water Company ''. By 1885, when San Francisco attorney (later known as "Judge '') John Guthrie McCallum began buying property in Palm Springs, the name was already in wide acceptance. The area was named "Palm Valley '' when McCallum incorporated the "Palm Valley Land and Water Company '' with partners O.C. Miller, H.C. Campbell, and James Adams, M.D.
McCallum, who had brought his ill son to the dry climate for health, brought in irrigation advocate Dr. Oliver Wozencroft and engineer J.P. Lippincott to help construct a canal from the Whitewater River to fruit orchards on his property. He also asked Dr. Welwood Murray to establish a hotel across the street from his residence. Murray did so in 1886 (he later became a famous horticulturalist). The crops and irrigation systems suffered flooding in 1893 from record rainfall, and then an 11 - year drought (1894 -- 1905) caused further damage.
The city became a fashionable resort in the 1900s when health tourists arrived with conditions that required dry heat. Because of the heat, however, the population dropped markedly in the summer months. In 1906 naturalist and travel writer George Wharton James ' two volume The Wonders of the Colorado Desert described Palm Springs as having "great charms and attractiveness '' and included an account of his stay at Murray 's hotel. As James also described, Palm Springs was more comfortable in its microclimate because the area was covered in the shadow of Mount San Jacinto to the west and in the winter the mountains block cold winds from the San Gorgonio pass. Early illustrious visitors included John Muir and his daughters, U.S. Vice President Charles Fairbanks, and Fanny Stevenson, widow of Robert Louis Stevenson; still, Murray 's hotel was closed in 1909 and torn down in 1954.
Nellie N. Coffman and her physician husband Harry established The Desert Inn as a hotel and sanitarium in 1909. It was expanded as a modern hotel in 1927 and continued on until 1967. Coffman herself was a "driving force '' in the city 's tourism industry until her death in 1950.
James ' Wonders of the Colorado Desert was followed in 1920 by J. Smeaton Chase 's Our Araby: Palm Springs and the Garden of the Sun, which also served to promote the area. In 1924 Pearl McCallum (daughter of Judge McCallum) returned to Palm Springs and built the Oasis Hotel with her husband Austin G. McManus; the Modern / Art Deco resort was designed by Lloyd Wright and featured a 40 - foot tower.
The next major hotel was the El Mirador, a large and luxurious resort that attracted the biggest movie stars; opening in 1927, its prominent feature was a 68 - foot tall Renaissance style tower. Silent film star Fritzi Ridgeway 's 100 - room Hotel del Tahquitz was built in 1929, next to the "Fool 's Folly '' mansion built by Chicago heiress Lois Kellogg. Golfing was available at the O'Donnell 9 hole course (1926) and the El Mirador (1929) course (see Golf below). Hollywood movie stars were attracted by the hot dry, sunny weather and seclusion -- they built homes and estates in the Warm Sands, The Mesa, and Historic Tennis Club neighborhoods (see Neighborhoods below). About 20,000 visitors came to the area in 1922.
Palm Springs became popular with movie stars in the 1930s and estate building expanded into the Movie Colony neighborhoods, Tahquitz River Estates, and Las Palmas neighborhoods. Actors Charles Farrell and Ralph Bellamy opened the Racquet Club in 1934 and Pearl McCallum opened the Tennis Club in 1937. Nightclubs were set up as well, with Al Wertheimer opening The Dunes outside of Palm Springs in 1934 and the Chi Chi nightclub opening in 1936. Besides the gambling available at the Dunes Club, other casinos included The 139 Club and The Cove Club outside of the city. Southern California 's first self - contained shopping center was established in Palm Springs as the Plaza Shopping Center in 1936.
When the United States entered World War II, Palm Springs and the Coachella Valley were important in the war effort. The original airfield near Palm Springs became a staging area for the Air Corps Ferrying Command 's 21st Ferrying Group in November 1941 and a new airfield was built 1⁄2 mile from the old site. The new airfield, designated Palm Springs Army Airfield, was completed in early 1942. Personnel from the Air Transport Command 560th Army Air Forces Base Unit stayed at the La Paz Guest Ranch and training was conducted at the airfield by the 72nd and 73rd Ferrying Squadrons. Later training was provided by the IV Fighter Command 459th Base Headquarters and Air Base Squadron.
Eight months before Pearl Harbor Day, the El Mirador Hotel was fully booked and adding new facilities. After the war started, the U.S. government bought the hotel from owner Warren Phinney for $750,000 and converted it into the Torney General Hospital, with Italian prisoners of war serving as kitchen help and orderlies in 1944 and 1945. Through the war it was staffed with 1,500 personnel and treated some 19,000 patients.
General Patton 's Desert Training Center encompassed the entire region, with its headquarters in Camp Young at the Chiriaco Summit and an equipment depot maintained by the 66th Ordnance in present - day Palm Desert.
Architectural modernists flourished with commissions from the stars, using the city to explore architectural innovations, new artistic venues, and an exotic back - to - the - land experiences. Inventive architects designed unique vacation houses, such as steel houses with prefabricated panels and folding roofs, a glass - and - steel house in a boulder - strewn landscape, and a carousel house that turned to avoid the sun 's glare.
In 1946 Richard Neutra designed the Edgar and Liliane Kaufmann House. A modernist classic, this mostly glass residence incorporated the latest technological advances in building materials, using natural lighting and floating planes and flowing space for proportion and detail. In recent years an energetic preservation program has protected and enhanced many classic buildings.
Culver (2010) argues that Palm Springs architecture became the model for mass - produced suburban housing, especially in the Southwest. This "Desert Modern '' style was a high - end architectural style featuring open - design plans, wall - to - wall carpeting, air - conditioning, swimming pools, and very large windows. As Culver concludes, "While environmentalists might condemn desert modern, the masses would not. Here, it seemed, were houses that fully merged inside and outside, providing spaces for that essential component of Californian -- and indeed middle - class American -- life: leisure. While not everyone could have a Neutra masterpiece, many families could adopt aspects of Palm Springs modern. ''
Hollywood values permeated the resort as it combined celebrity, health, new wealth, and sex. As Culver (2010) explains: "The bohemian sexual and marital mores already apparent in Hollywood intersected with the resort atmosphere of Palm Springs, and this new, more open sexuality would gradually appear elsewhere in national tourist culture. '' During this period, the city government, stimulated by real estate developers systematically removed and excluded poor people and Indians.
Palm Springs was pictured by the French photographer Robert Doisneau in November 1960 as part of an assignment for Fortune on the construction of golf courses in this particularly dry and hot area of the Colorado desert. Doisneau submitted around 300 slides following his ten - day stay depicting the lifestyle of wealthy retirees and Hollywood stars in the 1960s. At the time, Palm Springs counted just 19 courses, which had grown to 125 by 2010.
Similar to the pre-war era, Palm Springs remained popular with the rich and famous of Hollywood, as well as retirees and Canadian tourists. Between 1947 and 1965, the Alexander Construction Company built some 2,200 houses in Palm Springs effectively doubling its housing capacity.
As the 1970s drew to a close, increasing numbers of retirees moved to the Coachella Valley. As a result, Palm Springs began to evolve from a virtual ghost town in the summer to a year - round community. Businesses and hotels that used to close for the months of July and August instead remained open all summer. As commerce grew, so too did the number of families with children.
The recession of 1973 -- 1975 affected Palm Springs as many of the wealthy residents had to cut back on their spending. Later in the 1970s numerous Chicago mobsters invested $50 million in the Palm Springs area, buying houses, land, and businesses. While Palm Springs faced competition from the desert cities to the east in the later 1980s, it has continued to prosper into the 21st century.
Since the early 1950s the city had been a popular spring break resort. Glamorized as a destination in the 1963 movie Palm Springs Weekend, the number of visitors grew and at times the gatherings had problems. In 1969 an estimated 15,000 people had gathered for a concert at the Palm Springs Angel Stadium and 300 were arrested for drunkenness or disturbing the peace. In the 1980s 10,000 + college students would visit the city and form crowds and parties -- and another rampage occurred in 1986 when Palm Springs Police in riot gear had to put down the rowdy crowd. In 1990, due to complaints by residents, mayor Sonny Bono and the city council closed the city 's Palm Canyon Drive to Spring Breakers and the downtown businesses lost money normally filled by the tourists.
Tourism is a major factor in the city 's economy with 1.6 million visitors in 2011. The city has over 130 hotels and resorts, numerous bed and breakfasts and over 100 restaurants and dining spots.
Following the 2008 recession, Palm Springs is revitalizing its Downtown or "the Village ''. Rebuilding started with the demolition of the Bank of America building in January 2012, with the Desert Fashion Plaza scheduled for demolition later in 2012.
The movement behind Mid-Century modern architecture (1950s / 60s era) in Palm Springs is backed by architecture enthusiasts, artistic designers and local historians to preserve many of Central Palm Springs ' buildings and houses of famous celebrities, businessmen and politicians.
Palm Springs is located at 33 ° 49 ′ 26 '' N 116 ° 31 ′ 49 '' W / 33.82389 ° N 116.53028 ° W / 33.82389; - 116.53028 (33.823990, − 116.530339) in the Sonoran Desert. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 95.0 square miles (246 km), of which 94.1 square miles (244 km) is land and 0.9 square miles (2.3 km) (1 %) is water. Located in the Coachella Valley desert region, Palm Springs is sheltered by the San Bernardino Mountains to the north, the Santa Rosa Mountains to the south, by the San Jacinto Mountains to the west and by the Little San Bernardino Mountains to the east.
Palm Springs has a hot desert climate, with over 300 days of sunshine and around 4.83 inches (122.7 mm) of rain annually. The winter months are warm, with a majority of days reaching 70 ° F (21 ° C) and in January and February days often see temperatures of 80 ° F (27 ° C) and on occasion reach over 90 ° F (32 ° C), while, on average, there are 17 nights annually dipping to or below 40 ° F (4 ° C); freezing temperatures occur in less than half of years. The lowest temperature recorded is 19 ° F (− 7 ° C), on January 22, 1937. Summer often sees daytime temperatures above 110 ° F (43 ° C) coupled with warm overnight lows remaining above 80 ° F (27 ° C). The mean annual temperature is 74.6 ° F (23.7 ° C). There are 180 days with a high reaching 90 ° F (32 ° C), and 100 ° F (38 ° C) can be seen on 116 days. The highest temperature on record in Palm Springs is 123 ° F (51 ° C), most recently achieved on July 28 and 29, 1995.
The locale features a variety of native Low Desert flora and fauna. A notable tree occurring in the wild and under cultivation is the California Fan Palm, Washingtonia filifera.
The City of Palm Springs has developed a program to identify distinctive neighborhoods in the community. Of the 33 neighborhoods, 7 have historical and cultural significance.
The Movie Colony is just east of Palm Canyon Drive. The Movie Colony East neighborhood extends further east from the Ruth Hardy Park. These areas started growing in the 1930s as Hollywood movie stars built their smaller getaways from their Los Angeles area estates. Bob Hope, Frank Sinatra, Estée Lauder, and Bing Crosby built homes in these neighborhoods.
In the 1960s, Robert Fey built 70 homes designed by Donald Wexler and Ric Harrison in the El Rancho Vista Estates. Noted residents included Jack LaLanne and comic Andy Dick.
Historic homes in the Warm Sands area date from the 1920s and many were built from adobe. It also includes small resorts and the Ramon Mobile Home Park. Noted residents have included screenwriter Walter Koch, artist Paul Grimm, activist Cleve Jones and actor Wesley Eure.
The Mesa started off as a gated community developed in the 1920s near the Indian Canyons. Noted residents have included King Gillette, Zane Grey, Clark Gable, Carole Lombard, Suzanne Somers, Herman Wouk, Henry Fernandez, Barry Manilow and Trina Turk. Distinctive homes include Donald Wexler 's "butterfly houses '' and the "Streamline Moderne Ship of the Desert ''.
Some of the homes in this neighborhood date from the 1930s. The area was owned by Pearl McCallum McManus and she started building homes in the neighborhood after World War II ended. Dr. William Scholl (Dr. Scholl 's foot products) owned a 10 - acre estate here. Today the neighborhood is the largest neighborhood organization with 600 homes and businesses within its boundaries.
During World War II, the original Sunmor Estates area was the western portion the Palm Springs Army Airfield. Homes here were developed by Robert Higgins and the Alexander Construction Company. Actor and former mayor Frank Bogert bought his home for $16,000 and lived there for more than 50 years.
Impoverished artist Carl Eytel first set up his cabin on what would become the Tennis Club in 1937. Another artist in the neighborhood, who built his Moroccan - style "Dar Marrac '' estate in 1924, was Gordon Coutts. Other estates include Samuel Untermyer 's Mediterranean style villa (now The Willows Historic Palm Springs Inn), the Casa Cody Inn, built by Harriet and Harold William Cody (cousin of Buffalo Bill Cody) and the Ingleside Inn, built in the 1920s by the Humphrey Birge family. The neighborhood now has about 400 homes, condos, apartments, inns and restaurants.
To the west of Palm Canyon Drive are the Vista Las Palmas, Old Las Palmas, and Little Tuscany neighborhoods. These areas also feature distinctive homes and celebrity estates.
Historic Racquet Club Estates, located north of Vista Chino, is home to over five hundred mid-century modern homes from the Alexander Construction Company. "Meiselman '' homes, and the famed Donald Wexler steel homes (having Class One historic designation) are also prominent in the area. Racquet Club Estates was Palm Springs ' first middle income neighborhood.
Deepwell Estates, the eastern portion of the square mile defined by South / East Palm Canyon, Mesquite, and Sunrise, contains around 370 homes, including notable homes architecturally and of celebrity figures. Among the celebrities who lived in the neighborhood are Jerry Lewis, Loretta Young, Liberace, and William Holden.
The 2010 United States Census reported that Palm Springs had a population of 44,552. The population density was 469.1 people per square mile (181.1 / km2). The racial makeup of Palm Springs was 33,720 (75.7 %) White (63.6 % Non-Hispanic White), 1,982 (4.4 %) African American, 467 (1.0 %) Native American, 1,971 (4.4 %) Asian, 71 (0.2 %) Pacific Islander, 4,949 (11.1 %) from other races, and 1,392 (3.1 %) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11,286 persons (25.3 %).
The Census reported that 44,013 people (98.8 % of the population) lived in households, 343 (0.8 %) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 196 (0.4 %) were institutionalized.
There were 22,746 households, out of which 3,337 (14.7 %) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 5,812 (25.6 %) were opposite - sex married couples living together, 1,985 (8.7 %) had a female householder with no husband present, 868 (3.8 %) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,031 (4.5 %) unmarried opposite - sex partnerships, and 2,307 (10.1 %) same - sex married couples or partnerships. 10,006 households (44.0 %) were made up of individuals and 4,295 (18.9 %) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.93. There were 8,665 families (38.1 % of all households); the average family size was 2.82.
The population was spread out with 6,125 people (13.7 %) under the age of 18, 2,572 people (5.8 %) aged 18 to 24, 8,625 people (19.4 %) aged 25 to 44, 15,419 people (34.6 %) aged 45 to 64, and 11,811 people (26.5 %) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 51.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 129.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 133.8 males.
There were 34,794 housing units at an average density of 366.3 per square mile (141.4 / km2), of which 13,349 (58.7 %) were owner - occupied, and 9,397 (41.3 %) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 6.7 %; the rental vacancy rate was 15.5 %. 24,948 people (56.0 % of the population) lived in owner - occupied housing units and 19,065 people (42.8 %) lived in rental housing units.
During 2009 -- 2013, Palm Springs had a median household income of $45,198, with 18.2 % of the population living below the federal poverty line.
As of the census of 2000, there were 42,807 people, 20,516 households, and 9,457 families residing in the city. The population density was 454.2 people per square mile (175.4 / km). There were 30,823 housing units at an average density of 327.0 per square mile (126.3 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 78.3 % White, 3.9 % African American, 0.9 % Native American, 3.8 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 9.8 % from other races, and 3.1 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 23.7 % of the population.
There were 20,516 out of which 16.3 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.0 % were married couples living together, 8.5 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 53.9 % were non-families. 41.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 18.3 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.1 and the average family size was 2.9.
In the city, the population was spread out with 17.0 % under the age of 18, 6.1 % from 18 to 24, 24.2 % from 25 to 44, 26.4 % from 45 to 64, and 26.2 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47 years. For every 100 females, there were 107.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 107.4 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $35,973 and the median income for a family was $45,318. Males had a median income of $33,999 versus $27,461 for females. The per capita income for the city was $25,957. About 11.2 % of families and 15.1 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 28.2 % of those under age 18 and 6.8 % of those age 65 or over.
Palm Springs has one of the highest concentrations of same - sex couples of any community in the United States. In the city, 7.2 % of households belong to a same - sex couple compared to the national average of 1 %. Palm Springs has the fifth - highest percentage of same - sex households in the nation. Former mayor Ron Oden estimated that about a third of Palm Springs is gay. Over various times, the city has catered to LGBT tourists. Palm Springs is host to the Greater Palm Springs Pride Celebration. This celebration, held every year in November, includes events such as the Palm Springs Pride Golf Classic, the Stonewall Equality Concert, and a Broadway in Drag Pageant. The city also held same sex wedding ceremonies at the iconic ' Forever Marilyn ' statue located downtown, before its relocation in 2014.
Though celebrities still retreat to Palm Springs, many today establish residences in other areas of the Coachella Valley. The city 's economy now relies on tourism, and local government is largely supported by related retail sales taxes and the TOT (transient occupancy tax). It is a city of numerous festivals, conventions, and international events including the Palm Springs International Film Festival.
The world 's largest rotating aerial tramcars (cable cars) can be found at the Palm Springs Aerial Tramway. These cars, built by Von Roll Tramways, ascend from Chino Canyon two - and - a-half miles up a steep incline to the station at 8,516 feet (2,596 m). The San Jacinto Wilderness is accessible from the top of the tram and there is a restaurant with notable views.
The Palm Springs Convention Center underwent a multimillion - dollar expansion and renovation under Mayor Will Kleindienst. The City Council Sub-Committee of Mayor Kleindienst and City Council Member Chris Mills selected Fentress Bradburn Architects from Denver, Colorado for the redesign.
Numerous hotels, restaurants and attractions cater to tourists, while shoppers can find a variety of high - end boutiques in downtown and uptown Palm Springs. The city is home to 20 clothing - optional resorts including many catering to gay men.
The Palm Springs Black History Committee celebrates Black History Month with a parade and town fair every February.
The following three parades, held on Palm Canyon Drive, were created by former Mayor Will Kleindienst:
For many years, The Fabulous Palm Springs Follies was a stage - show at the historic Plaza Theatre featuring performers over the age of 55. Still Kicking: The Fabulous Palm Springs Follies is a 1997 Mel Damski short documentary film about the Follies. The Palm Springs Follies closed for good after the 2013 - 14 season.
Starting in 2004, the city worked with downtown businesses to develop the weekly Palm Springs VillageFest. The downtown street fair has been a regular Thursday evening event, drawing tourists and locals alike to Palm Canyon Drive to stroll amid the food and craft vendors.
Events related to films and film - craft are sponsored by the Desert Film Society.
The city council has established a 7 - member commission to promote art in the city. The commission has sponsored several notable public art projects in the city, including:
Numerous galleries and studios are located in the city and region. The California Art Club has a chapter in Palm Springs. The Desert Art Center of Coachella Valley was established in Palm Springs in 1950.
Palm Springs is home to the Palm Springs POWER, a semi-pro collegiate league baseball team composed of college all - stars of the Southern California Collegiate Baseball Association. It has a winter league baseball team, the POWER winter team and Palm Springs Chill of the California Winter League (2010) consists of 12 other teams as of 2016. The League plays its games in Palm Springs Stadium and also on the baseball field in nearby Palm Springs High School. Both sites feature 6 teams of the Palm Springs Collegiate League in the summer.
The Palm Springs stadium was once the spring training site of the Major League Baseball California Angels (now the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim) of the American League from 1961 to 1993. The stadium also hosted spring training of the Oakland A 's and Chicago White Sox, and the 1950s minor league Seattle Rainiers of the Pacific Coast League also trained there.
The Palm Springs area features a number of sporting events including the BNP Paribas Open, one of the most significant tennis events in the world, after the four Grand Slam tournaments.
The Easter Bowl, sponsored by the United States Tennis Association for Juniors has been held in the Palm Springs area in 2008, 2009, and 2010.
With more golf courses than any other region in California, Coachella Valley is the most popular golf vacation destination in California. Early golf courses in Palm Springs were the O'Donnell Golf Club (built by oil magnate Thomas A. O'Donnell) and the El Mirador Hotel course, both of which opened in the 1920s. After the Cochran - Odlum (Indio) and Shadow Mountain pitch and putt courses were built after World II, the first 18 - hole golf course in the area was the Thunderbird Country Club, established 1951 in Rancho Mirage. Thunderbird was designed by golf course architects Lawrence Hughes and Johnny Dawson and in 1955 it hosted the 11th Ryder Cup championship.
In the 1970s the area had over 40 courses and in 2001 the 100th course was opened. The area is also home to the PGA Tour 's Humana Challenge in partnership with the Clinton Foundation (formerly the Bob Hope Chrysler Classic), the LPGA 's ANA Inspiration and the Canadian Tour 's Desert Dunes Classic.
The Palm Springs AYSO Region 80 plays in Section 1H of the American Youth Soccer Organization.
The Desert Fire Cats women 's football team plays in Palm Springs. They were scheduled to play in the Independent Women 's Football League in 2011, but the team 's season was cancelled and they moved to play as an affiliate team in the Women 's Spring Football League.
In 1931 the Desert Riders was established. Starting off as a social organization for the cream of Palm Springs society, the group sponsors horseback riding and trail building for equestrians, hikers, and bicyclists. The Desert Riders were also significant in providing combination chuckwagon meals and rides through nearby canyons to hotel guests as Palm Springs developed its tourist industry.
Business owners in the village first established a Palm Springs Board of Trade in 1918, followed by a chamber of commerce; the City itself was established by election in 1938 and converted to a charter city, with a charter adopted by the voters in 1994.
Presently the city has a council - manager type government, with a five - person city council that hires a city manager and city attorney. The mayor is directly elected and serves a four - year term. The other four council members also serve four - year terms, with staggered elections. The city is considered a full - service city, in that it staffs and manages its own police and fire departments including parks and recreation programs, public library, sewer system and wastewater treatment plant, international airport, and planning and building services.
The city government is a member of the Southern California Association of Governments.
The current mayor is Robert Moon, elected in 2015. Mr. Moon is the City 's third openly gay mayor in the city 's history. Palm Springs ' longest - tenured mayor was Frank Bogert (1958 -- 66 and 1982 -- 88), but the best - known mayor in the city 's history was Sonny Bono. Bono served from 1988 to 1992 and was eventually elected to the U.S. Congress.
Palm Springs is in Supervisorial District 4 of Riverside County.
In the California State Legislature, Palm Springs is in the 28th Senate District, represented by Republican Jeff Stone, and in the 42nd Assembly District, represented by Republican Chad Mayes.
In the United States House of Representatives, Palm Springs is in California 's 36th congressional district, represented by Democrat Raul Ruiz.
Public education in Palm Springs is under the jurisdiction of the Palm Springs Unified School District, an independent district with five board members. The Palm Springs High School is the oldest school in the district, built in 1938. Originally it was a K -- 12 school in the 1920s and had the College of the Desert campus from 1958 to 1964.
Elementary schools in Palm Springs include:
Alternative education is provided by the Ramon Alternative Center.
Private schools in Palm Springs and nearby communities include Desert Chapel Christian School (K - 12), Desert Adventist Academy (K -- 8), Sacred Heart School (PS - 8), St. Theresa (PreK -- 8), King 's School -- formerly known as Palm Valley School (K -- 8), Desert Christian (K -- 12), Marywood - Palm Valley School, and The Academy.
In 2006 the Roman Catholic Diocese of San Bernardino built the Xavier College Preparatory High School in Palm Desert.
The Desert Community College District, headquartered with its main campus, College of the Desert, is located in Palm Desert. California State University, San Bernardino and University of California, Riverside used to have satellite campuses available within the College of the Desert campus, but now have their own buildings in Palm Desert.
Private post-secondary education institutions include Brandman University (branch in Palm Desert), California Desert Trial Academy College of Law (in Indio), Kaplan College (Palm Springs), University of Phoenix (Palm Desert), Mayfield College (Cathedral City), and California Nurses Educational Institute (Palm Springs).
Palm Springs is the 144th largest TV market as defined by AC Nielsen. The Palm Springs DMA is unique among TV markets as it is entirely located within only a small portion of Riverside County. Also, while most areas received their first local television stations during the 1950s, Palm Springs did not receive its first TV stations until October 1968 when stations KPLM - TV (now KESQ) and KMIR - TV debuted. Prior to that time, Palm Springs was served by TV stations from the Los Angeles market, which were carried on the local cable system that began operations in the 1950s and which predated the emergence of local broadcast stations by more than a decade.
TV stations serving the Palm Springs and Coachella Valley area include:
The CW, Fox, MyNetworkTV, PBS and other networks are covered by low power TV stations in the market.
Additionally, Palm Springs and the surrounding area are served by AM and FM radio stations including the following:
The city 's library was started in 1924 and financed by Martha Hitchcock. It expanded in 1940 on land donated to the newly incorporated city by Dr. Welwood Murray and was financed through the efforts of Thomas O'Donnell. The present site now operates as a branch library, research library for the Palm Springs Historical Society, and tourism office for the Palm Springs Bureau of Tourism.
One of the first transportation routes for Palm Springs was on the Bradshaw Trail, an historic overland stage coach route from San Bernardino to La Paz, Arizona. The Bradshaw Trail operated from 1862 to 1877. In the 1870s the Southern Pacific Railroad expanded its lines into the Coachella Valley.
Modern transportation services include:
Highways include:
In 1890, the Jane Augustine Patencio Cemetery was established on Tahquitz Way with the burial of Jane Augustine Patencio. It is maintained by the Agua Caliente Tribe.
The Welwood Murray Cemetery was started by hotel operator Welwood Murray in 1894 when his son died. It is maintained by the Palm Springs Cemetery District, which also maintains the Desert Memorial Park in Cathedral City.
Also in Cathedral City is the Forest Lawn Cemetery, maintained by Forest Lawn Memorial - Parks & Mortuaries.
Over 300 Palm Springs residents have been recognized on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars.
Besides its tradition of mid-century modern architecture, Palm Springs and the region features numerous noted architects. Other (non-Mid - Century Modern) include Edward H. Fickett, Haralamb H. Georgescu, Howard Lapham, and Karim Rashid.
The Palm Springs area has been a filming location, topical setting, and storyline subject for many films, television shows, and literature.
The fauna of Palm Springs is mostly species adapted to desert, temperature extremes and to lack of moisture. It is located within the Nearctic faunistic realm in a region containing an assemblage of species similar to Northern Africa. Native fauna includes Pronghorns, Desert Bighorn Sheep, Desert Tortoise, Kit Fox, Desert Iguanas, Horned Lizards, Chuckwalla, Bobcats, Mountain lions and Gila Monsters. Other animals include ground squirrels, rock squirrels, porcupines, skunks, cactus mice, kangaroo rats, pocket gophers and raccoons. Desert birds here include the iconic Roadrunner, which can run at speeds exceeding 15 mp / h. Other avifauna includes the Ladder - backed woodpecker, flycatchers, elf owls, great horned owls, sparrow hawks and a variety of raptors.
The Sonoran Desert has more species of rattlesnakes (11) than anywhere else in the world. The most common species is the extremely venomous Mojave rattler, which is considered the world 's most dangerous rattlesnake. The largest rattle snake species here is the Western diamondback rattlesnake, while other species include the Black - tailed rattlesnake, Tiger rattler and Sidewinder rattler. Palm Springs is home to Tarantulas and various Scorpion species, including the Vinegaroon.
Although Black bears are not common in the Coachella Valley, bears have been observed in Palm Springs and other parts of California.
Today, Jaguars roam the northern Mexican dry - lands, however, they were previously common throughout the Coachella Valley. The last documented Jaguar sighting in Palm Springs, was in 1860.
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discuss the basics of service tax in india | Service tax - Wikipedia
Service tax was a tax levied by Central Government of India on services provided or agreed to be provided excluding services covered under negative list and considering the Place of Provision of Services Rules, 2012 and collected as per Point of Taxation Rules, 2011 from the person liable to pay service tax. Person liable to pay service tax is governed by Service Tax Rules, 1994 he may be service provider or service receiver or any other person made so liable. It is an indirect tax wherein the service provider collects the tax on services from service receiver and pays the same to government of India. Few services are presently exempt in public interest via Mega Exemption Notification 25 / 2012 - ST as amended up to date and few services are charged service tax at abated rate as per Notification No. 26 / 2012 - ST as amended up to date. Presently from 1 June 2016, service tax rate has been increased to consolidated rate at 14 % + 0.5 % + 0.5 % = 15 % of value of services provided or to be provided. The service tax rate now is consolidated rate as education cess and secondary higher education cess are subsumed with 2 % of "Swach Bharat Cess (0.50 %) '' has been notified by the Government.
From 15 November 2015, the effective rate of service tax plus Swachh Bharat Cess, post introduction of Swachh Bharat Cess, was 14.5 %. Currently, Swachh Bharat Cess and Krishi Kalyan Cess would also be levied on all services on which Service Tax is being levied and therefore, the Service Tax (including Swachh Bharat Cess and Krishi Kalyan Cess) applicable from 1 June 2016 has become 15 %.
Dr. Raja Chelliah Committee on tax reforms recommended the introduction of service tax. Service tax had been first levied at a rate of five per cent flat from 1 July 1994 till 13 May 2003, at the rate of eight percent flat w.e.f 1 plus an education cess of 2 % thereon w.e.f 10 September 2004 on the services provided by service providers. The rate of service tax was increased to 12 % by Finance Act, 2006 w.e.f 18.4. 2006. Finance Act, 2007 has imposed a new secondary and higher education cess of one percent on the service tax w.e.f 11.5. 2007, increasing the total education cess to three percent and a total levy of 12.36 percent. The revenue from the service tax to the Government of India have shown a steady rise since its inception in 1994. The tax collections have grown substantially since 1994 -- 95 i.e. from ₹ 410 crore (US $64 million) in 1994 -- 95 to ₹ 132,518 crore (US $21 billion) in 2012 -- 13. The total number of Taxable services also increased from 3 in 1994 to 119 in 2012. However, from 1 July 2012 the concept of taxation on services was changed from a ' Selected service approach ' to a ' Negative List regime '. This changed the taxation system of services from tax on some Selected services to tax being levied on the every service other than services mentioned in Negative list.
Under the Service tax from the year of original levying year of 1994 are constantly growing. The collections are shown as in the following table:
Service Tax which started out at a nominal 5 % is now at 15 %.
It was increased to 14 % for transactions that happened on or after 1 June 2015 and then for transactions that occurred on or after 15 Nov 2015, the new Swachh Bharat Cess at 0.5 % was also added to the Service Tax. Therefore, the effective rate became 14.5 % with effect from 15 Nov 2015.
For transactions that occurred on or after 1 June 2016 this tax is at 15 %. 2016 Union budget of India has proposed to impose a cess, called the Krishi Kalyan Cess, at 0.5 % on all taxable services effective from 1 June 2016. The current service tax is at 15 %.
Krishi Kalyan Cess: -
With introduction of Krishi Kalyan Cess at 0.5 % w.e.f June 1, 2016, effective rate of Service tax would eventually go up to 15 %, which was earlier increased to 14 % (with subsumation of Education Cess and Secondary and Higher Education Cess) from 12.36 % w.e.f June 1, 2015 and Swachh Bharat Cess at 0.5 % on value of all taxable services imposed w.e.f November 15, 2015. Krishi Kalyan Cess, which was announced during the 2016 -- 17 Budget, has become applicable from 1 June. A tax of 0.5 % would be levied over and above the Service Tax and Swachh Bharat Cess. Till 31 May 2016, the Service Tax rate was 14.5 %. With Krishi Kalyan cess, the service tax would increase to 15 %. While Swachh Bharat Cess was levied to conduct cleanliness drive in India, the new cess has been levied for the purpose of financing and promoting initiatives to improve agricultural growth.
History of Service Tax Rates in India 01 / 07 / 1994 -- 13 / 05 / 2003 -- 5 % 14 / 05 / 2003 -- 09 / 09 / 2004 -- 8 % 10 / 09 / 2004 -- 17 / 04 / 2006 -- 10.20 % 18 / 04 / 2006 -- 10 / 05 / 2007 -- 12.24 % 11 / 05 / 2007 -- 23 / 02 / 2009 -- 12.36 % 24 / 02 / 2009 -- 31 / 03 / 2012 -- 10.30 % 01 / 04 / 2012 -- 30 / 05 / 2015 - 12.36 % 01 / 06 / 2015 -- 14 / 11 / 2015 -- 14 % 15 / 11 / 2015 -- 31 / 05 / 2016 -- 14.5 % (14 % Service Tax + 0.50 % Swach Bharath Cess) 01 / 06 / 2016 -- 30 / 06 / 2017 -- 15 % (14 % Service Tax + 0.50 % Swach Bharath Cess + 0.50 % Krishi Kalyan Cess)
Service tax is only liable to be paid in case the total value of the service provided during the financial year is more than ₹ 10 lakh (US $16,000). If the value of services provided during a preceding financial year is less than ₹ 10 lakh (US $16,000), only then this exemption is applicable in the current financial year. it is optional for he wants to avail this exemption or not.
In the year of 2012, service tax laws has witnessed a paradigm shift when the taxation shifts from positive list of services to negative list of services. At that time, another concept of declared service was introduced by the Government of India via Section 66E of Finance Act, 1994.
Declared service is the deeming fiction of law. It provides the lawmakers with an arbitrary power to declare any activity as a service. Section 65B (22) defines the declared service as any activity carried out by a person for another person for consideration and declared as such under section 66E. Further, the definition of service under section 65B (44) also specifically covers the declared service under the definition of service.
This section is also one of the vital sections of Finance Act, 1994. Any service included under this section will be liable to service tax straight.
Budget 2012 revamped the taxation provisions for services by introducing a new system of taxation of services in India. In the new system all services, except those specified in the negative list, are subject to taxation. Earlier the levy of service tax was based on positive list -- specified 119 taxable services.
As per clause (34) of section 65B of the Finance Act, 1994, the term "Negative List '' means the services which are listed in section 66D. 66D; government service
As per Service Tax Law it is mandatory for the following categories of persons obtain registration: -
Every person mentioned above will have to get themselves registered under the service tax law within 30 days from the date of commencement of such service or business.
Whereas in case of service provider whose aggregate value of taxable service not exceeded 9 lakhs in a financial year not need to obtain registration, where in case he has obtained registration he is liable to payment of service tax only if the value of taxable services exceeds 10 lakhs rupees. (2)
Rule 4A prescribes that taxable services shall be provided and input credit shall be distributed only on the basis of a bill, invoice or challan. Such bill, invoice or challan will also include documents used by service providers of banking services (such as pay - in - slip, debit credit advice etc.) and consignment note issued by goods transport agencies. Rule 4B provides for issuance of a consignment note to a customer by the service provider in respect of goods transport booking services.
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who plays gaston in beauty and the beast | Luke Evans (actor) - wikipedia
Luke George Evans (born 15 April 1979) is a Welsh actor. Evans began his career on the stage, performing in many of London 's West End productions such as Rent, Miss Saigon, and Piaf before getting his Hollywood breakthrough role starring in the Clash of the Titans 2010 remake. Following his debut, Evans was cast in such action and thriller films as Immortals (2011), The Raven (2012), and the re-imagined The Three Musketeers (2011).
In 2013, Evans starred as the main antagonist Owen Shaw in the blockbuster Fast & Furious 6, and also played Bard the Bowman in Peter Jackson 's three - part adaptation of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Hobbit. Evans also portrayed the vampire Dracula in the character 's film origin story, Dracula Untold. In 2017, Evans starred as Gaston in Disney 's live action adaptation of Beauty and the Beast, and portrayed American psychologist William Moulton Marston, creator of fictional character Wonder Woman, in the biographical drama Professor Marston and the Wonder Women.
Evans was born on Easter Sunday, 15 April 1979, in Pontypool, and brought up in Aberbargoed, a small town in the Rhymney Valley, Wales, the only child of Yvonne and David Evans. He was raised as a Jehovah 's Witness, though he left the religion when he was 16 and left school at the same time.
At the age of seventeen, he moved to Cardiff, where he studied under the supervision of Louise Ryan, an established singing coach. In 1997, he won a scholarship to London Studio Centre, then in Kings Cross, London. He graduated in 2000.
From 2000 to 2008, Evans starred in many of London 's West End productions including La Cava, Taboo, Rent, Miss Saigon and Avenue Q, as well as several fringe shows in London and at the Edinburgh Festival.
In 2008, he landed his most significant theatre role playing Vincent in the play Small Change written and directed by Peter Gill at the Donmar Warehouse. For his performance he gained recognition from film casting directors and US agencies and was nominated for the Evening Standard Award for best newcomer. Later that same year he did his second show at the Donmar Warehouse, Piaf, in which he played Yves Montand.
Evans got his first film audition aged thirty. In 2009, he landed his first film, playing the Greek god Apollo in the 2010 remake Clash of the Titans. Also in 2010, he appeared as Clive in the film Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll, directed by Matt Whitecross, as the Sheriff of Nottingham 's thug in Robin Hood, alongside Matthew Macfadyen (whom he would later play alongside again in The Three Musketeers), and played handyman and good guy Andy, in director Stephen Frears ' film Tamara Drewe, based on Posy Simmond 's comic strip. Evans went on to portray DI Craig Stokes in Blitz (2011), the film adaptation of Ken Bruen 's novel of the same name, in which he starred with Jason Statham and Paddy Considine. In early 2010, he shot the independent movie, Flutter, directed by Giles Borg.
Evans played the Musketeer Aramis in Paul W.S. Anderson 's version of The Three Musketeers (filmed in 2010 and released in 2011). He was cast in a lead role in Tarsem Singh 's Greek epic, Immortals (2011), in which he played the King of the Gods, Zeus. And at the end of 2010, he took a role opposite John Cusack in James McTeigue 's film The Raven, replacing Jeremy Renner. In the film, released in 2012 and set in mid-19th century Baltimore, Evans played Detective Emmett Fields, who investigates a series of murders alongside Cusack 's Edgar Allan Poe. Shooting took place in Budapest and Serbia in November 2010. In 2011, he shot No One Lives, a psychological horror film directed by Ryuhei Kitamura, in New Orleans, and began filming a role in Peter Jackson 's three - part adaptation of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Hobbit, playing the role of Bard the Bowman.
In 2013, Evans played the antagonist Owen Shaw in Furious 6, and in 2014, he played Dracula in the film Dracula Untold. Evans was cast as Eric Draven in the reboot of The Crow. In June 2014, he joined the cast of the film High - Rise with Tom Hiddleston and Jeremy Irons. In January 2015, Evans officially exited The Crow to pursue other projects. The same year, he was named one of GQ 's 50 best dressed British men.
In 2016, Evans appeared in the thriller film The Girl on the Train, co-starring Emily Blunt. In 2017, he had the villainous role of Gaston in Disney 's live action remake, Beauty and the Beast, which co-stars Emma Watson; and also played the lead role, William Moulton Marston, the creator of Wonder Woman, in the film Professor Marston and the Wonder Women.
In 2018, Evans stars in TNT drama The Alienist, as newspaper illustrator John Moore.
Evans is openly gay. In a 2002 interview, he said, "Everybody knew me as a gay man, and in my life in London I never tried to hide it, '' and that by being open he would not have "that skeleton in the closet they can rattle out ''. In 2004, he said his acting career had not suffered by being out. In 2014, Evans acknowledged the importance of marketability, and that, although he does not hide his sexuality, he is reticent to discuss it with the media.
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who has been trained by ra's al ghul | Ra 's al Ghul - Wikipedia
Ra 's al Ghul (Arabic: رأس الغول Raʾs al - Ghūl; "Ghoul 's Head '' or "Demon 's Head '') is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, commonly as an adversary of the superhero Batman. Created by editor Julius Schwartz, writer Dennis O'Neil, and artist Neal Adams, the character first appeared in Batman # 232 's "Daughter of the Demon '' (June 1971). The character is one of Batman 's most enduring enemies and belongs to the collective of adversaries that make up Batman 's rogues gallery, though given his high status as a supervillain, he has also come into conflict with Superman and other superheroes in the DC Universe.
Most notable as the leader of the League of Assassins, Ra 's al Ghul 's name in Arabic translates to "The Demon 's Head ''. He is the son of Sensei, the father of Talia al Ghul, Nyssa Raatko, and Dusan al Ghul, and the maternal grandfather of Damian Wayne. Stories featuring Ra 's al Ghul often involve the Lazarus Pits, which restore life to the dying. The Lazarus Pits have considerably prolonged Ra 's life, making him particularly dangerous as he has honed his combat skills for centuries.
Ra 's al Ghul has been featured in various media adaptations. The character was voiced / portrayed by David Warner in Batman: The Animated Series, Liam Neeson in The Dark Knight Trilogy, Jason Isaacs in Batman: Under the Red Hood, Dee Bradley Baker in the Batman: Arkham video game series, Matt Nable in the Arrowverse television series, and Alexander Siddig in Gotham.
IGN 's list of the Top 100 Comic Book Villains of All Time List ranked Ra 's as # 7.
Created by editor Julius Schwartz, writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Neal Adams, he was introduced in Batman # 232 's "Daughter of the Demon '' (June 1971). The character 's creation and depiction was inspired by other works of fiction, such as the 1969 James Bond film On Her Majesty 's Secret Service, and the Fu Manchu fiction. The Bond film has international crime lord Draco wanting the agent to marry his daughter Contessa Teresa. Another visual antecedent for Ra 's al Ghul and his daughter Talia are found in Saloud (actor James Lanphier) and Princess Dala (Claudia Cardinale) in the 1963 film The Pink Panther.
Ra 's al Ghul is an international criminal mastermind whose ultimate goal is a world in perfect environmental balance. He believes that the best way to achieve this balance is to eliminate most of humanity. Ra 's usually tries to assault the world 's human populace with a biological weapon, such as a genetically - engineered virus. He is aided in this quest by the Lazarus Pits, reservoirs of rejuvenating chemicals that restore the dead and dying to life; these pits have granted him a lifespan of several centuries.
He regards Batman as his worthiest opponent, addressing him as "Detective '' out of respect for his intellectual brilliance, and has frequently sought to make the Dark Knight his successor. He is one of the few criminals in Batman 's rogues gallery to have deduced his secret identity as Bruce Wayne, but keeps silent on the matter due to the same sense of respect for Batman. For his own part, Batman 's opposition to Ra 's is complicated by both his own respect for al Ghul 's genius (if not his goals and methods) and his attraction to his daughter, Talia, which she reciprocates.
Ra 's al Ghul 's real name, early life, and exact age have been described differently by various writers. His Post-Crisis origin story is told in the graphic novel Batman: Birth of the Demon (1992) by Dennis O'Neil and Norm Breyfogle.
As told in Birth of the Demon, Ra 's al Ghul was born over 600 years before his first appearance in Batman comics, to a Bedouin tribe of nomads in a desert somewhere in Arabia, near a city whose inhabitants ' ancestors had journeyed to the Arabian Peninsula from Morocco. Developing an interest in the sciences at an early age, Ra 's abandoned his tribe to live in the city where he pursued life as a researcher. He subsequently became a physician and married a woman named Sora.
Ra 's discovered the secret of the Lazarus Pit, and he saves a dying prince by lowering him into it. The prince, who is sadistic to begin with, is driven completely insane by the Lazarus Pit. He proceeds to strangle Sora, on whom he has already had his eye for some time. The sultan, unwilling to admit to himself his son 's culpability, declares Ra 's guilty of the crime and sentences him to a slow, tortured death in a cage with Sora 's corpse.
Ra 's is set free by the son of a dying elderly woman, who Ra 's had earlier examined. The son feels that he owes Ra 's a debt for easing his mother 's suffering during her last few hours. Ra 's and the son head into the desert to seek the tribe of Ra 's ' birth. Ra 's convinces the head of his tribe, his uncle, to follow Ra 's in his quest for revenge by promising the downfall of the sultan. By understanding the germ theory of disease hundreds of years before anyone else, Ra 's is able to infect the prince with a deadly virus by sending him contaminated fabrics. When the sultan comes to ask Ra 's to cure the prince again, Ra 's kills both him and his son. Ra 's then leads his tribe to raze the city to the ground and kill all of its inhabitants. Subsequently, Ra 's declares himself "Ra 's al Ghul '', the "Demon 's Head ''.
Batman: Birth of the Demon provides a rough figure of 500 years for Ra 's al Ghul 's age. Due to living so long, he is assumed to have lost track of how old he is. Azrael # 6 (July 1995; written by Dennis O'Neil) places Ra 's age closer to 450 years. As he tells Jean Paul Valley, "I appear to be a vigorous fifty. I am actually a very vigorous four hundred and forty - eight... or is it four hundred and fifty - three? I lost count during the Black Plague. No matter ''. In Batman Annual # 25 (published in 2006), Ra 's al Ghul is described as a "700 - Year Old International Terrorist ''.
Using the Lazarus Pits to extend his life, Ra 's spends the next several centuries journeying the world. He fights in the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars and becomes a formidable warrior. As the world entered the modern age and industrialization began to cover much of the Earth, Ra 's grew to despise the humans who he believed were destroying the world 's natural beauty, thus setting him on a path of eco-terrorism. Also during this time, Ra 's, his uncle, and the boy who freed him from the sultan are all using the Lazarus Pits to prolong their lives until an incident in London. Ra 's catches the boy writing his own memoirs in their original language, of which Ra 's has forbidden all records. During a battle, Ra 's kills the boy and flees to a Lazarus Pit, which he uses. When he returns to their home in London, his uncle has vanished with the remnants of their historical records.
Over time, he becomes a master of many forms of combat, notably fencing. He also builds up vast wealth and creates The Demon, a huge international organization. According to Justice League of America (1st series) # 94; "It has been whispered in the darkest places for 500 years that a cartel of criminals has slowly sucked its way into the rich veins of the Earth. Many are its names spit from the mouths of men, but most often it is cursed only as. The Demon. It has a leader. A Head ''. The League of Assassins, one of the many smaller organizations making up The Demon, is thus sometimes called "The Demon 's Fang '' or "Demonfang ''.
Ra 's returns to prominence and comes dangerously close to realizing his dream of worldwide genocide in the "Contagion '' story arc of the Batman titles. His organization unleashes a deadly virus known as Ebola Gulf A (a.k.a. "The Clench '') in Gotham City, putting Batman in conflict with a force he seemingly can not defeat. A cure is eventually located by Batman and his allies, though the mastermind behind the outbreak is not discovered until the follow - up story "Legacy ''.
Learning that the Demon 's Head still lives, Batman and his team circle the globe, preventing further outbreaks of the virus. Ra 's allies himself with Bane, the man who once crippled and nearly killed Batman. Ra 's considers Bane a potential heir to his empire, despite his daughter Talia 's distaste for the criminal mastermind. Eventually, Batman deduces a way to eliminate the Clench virus from an ancient "Wheel of Plagues '' artifact whose knowledge has aided Ra 's in the creation of the disease. The long - lived madman eludes justice again.
In the "Tower of Babel '' storyline, in JLA # 43 -- 46, Ra 's discovers Batman 's contingency plans for stopping the other members of the Justice League of America, should they turn or be turned evil, and uses them to try to destroy the group. Meanwhile, Ra 's steals the bodies of Batman 's parents. This theft prevents Batman from realizing Ra 's is using his traps until it is too late, as he is distracted by the search for the corpses of his parents.
Though defeated, Ra 's does cause the temporary exit of Batman from the JLA, who now distrust the Caped Crusader. However, though some of the League resent Batman 's plans, they eventually accept that the plans were created for the right reasons once Batman confirms that he trusts them by revealing his secret identity to the rest of the team.
Talia, disillusioned with her father, leaves the League to run LexCorp for former U.S. President Lex Luthor, before selling the company to Bruce Wayne for his Wayne Foundation to aid Batman and Superman 's victory over Luthor. Ra 's blames Batman for his failed relationship with Talia, and stages a plot where he tries to separate Batman from his heir, Dick Grayson, shortly before Wayne officially adopts his former ward as his son. The plan fails, and Wayne and Grayson go ahead with the adoption.
Ra 's is also featured in Birds of Prey # 31 -- 35, where he has a romantic fling with the Black Canary. The superheroine is injured and healed in the Lazarus Pit, which also restores the Canary Cry she lost years earlier.
In Death and the Maidens (2004), Ra 's ' other daughter, Nyssa Raatko, furious at her father for abandoning her in a Nazi concentration camp during World War II, begins plotting to destroy him, prompting Ra 's to contact Batman to make a deal for access to a Lazarus Pit to give him the strength for a final confrontation with Nyssa; in exchange for the location of a Pit, Ra 's provides Batman with a serum that will allow him to walk in the spirit world and speak with his parents. While Batman experiences his "vision '', Nyssa befriends Talia and then kidnaps and brainwashes her. Nyssa plots to destroy all hope and optimism in the world by assassinating Superman with Kryptonite bullets she steals from the Batcave. While Batman stops Nyssa from killing Superman, he is unable to stop her from mortally injuring her father. A dying Ra 's reveals that this is all part of his greater plan to ensure that his daughters will realize that he is correct in his perceptions about the world and what needs to be done to it, and that they would come to accept their destinies as his heirs. Ra 's ' plan works: both Nyssa and Talia become the heads of The Demon and the League of Assassins. Talia disavows her love for Bruce Wayne, and both sisters declare Batman their enemy. It is too late for Ra 's, as Nyssa stabs her father through the heart, seemingly killing him for good. To ensure Ra 's will not return, Batman oversees his nemesis ' cremation.
In Batman Annual # 26, Talia is prompted to read the history of Ra 's al Ghul to her son Damian by a mysterious figure from Ra 's ' past: the White Ghost. Unbeknownst to her, the White Ghost plans to use Damian as a vessel for Ra 's ' return. However, mother and son escape before the plan is completed. After the escape, Batman confronts the White Ghost; he fights Batman, but accidentally falls into a Lazarus Pit.
As of Batman # 670 Ra 's al Ghul has returned, having evaded death by transferring his consciousness into the body of another. Because his host body is decaying from radiation poisoning, he needs to transfer his mind into another host body. His first choice is that of his grandson Damian Wayne, but Damian escapes to alert his father.
Upon taking Ra 's to a "Fountain of Essence '', which contains the qualities of a Lazarus Pit, Batman is confronted with the sight of the Sensei, who is revealed to be Ra 's ' father. After defeating Ra 's, Sensei fights and impales Batman with a cane. Determined to win, Batman drags the Sensei into the Fountain, where he is killed for not being a pure soul. Ra 's, meanwhile, has taken over the body of a Nanda Parbat monk and departs. Healed by the Fountain, Batman emerges and yells for Ra 's.
Ra 's attempts to make amends with Batman after his resurrection, but Batman responds by crushing his decaying fingers. Ra 's accepts this latest rebuke and, with the help of his men, overpowers Batman and captures Damian, who has arrived to try to help his father. Ra 's attempts to take over Damian, but Batman breaks free just as Robin, Talia, Alfred Pennyworth, and Nightwing arrive to save him. While the battle ensues at Nanda Parbat, the White Ghost takes Ra 's to a secluded place, where he appears to accept the fact that his death is inevitable. The White Ghost is revealed as Ra 's ' estranged albino son Dusan, and offers up his own body instead. Ra 's performs the transfer of souls, but the White Ghost apparently dies soon afterward. Ra 's resumes the battle and attempts to kill Batman, but the monks at Nanda Parbat stop him and banish him from the temple.
Following his resurrection, Ra 's al Ghul, in his new body, moves his base of operations to Gotham City where it is revealed that a remnant of his son Dusan 's consciousness still remains within him. Since the White Ghost was his son, Ra 's was able to use the resemblance between them to modify his new body 's appearance to be more like his own. This arrogance contributes to the brazen move to Gotham and a subsequent ninja attack on Batman, which indirectly leads to the discovery of a map of all the known Lazarus Pit locations across the globe. Batman then infiltrates Ra 's al Ghul 's new Gotham penthouse headquarters and easily defeats his horde of ninjas and Ra 's himself. To ensure Ra 's is not a constant threat within Gotham City, Batman comes up with the false identity of "Terry Gene Kase '', and plants it along with credible photos, medical records, and police records for both Blackgate Penitentiary and Arkham Asylum. Batman takes an unconscious Ra 's directly to Arkham where it is believed he really is the prisoner "Terry Gene Kase '', a criminal with multiple personality disorder who has just been transferred to Arkham to finish out multiple life sentences. Along with attaching false information and a false identity to Ra 's al Ghul 's file, Batman attaches a false prescription of potent medication that ensures slurred speech and next to zero mobility.
Despite these precautions, Ra 's eventually escapes when the orderlies miss his dosage once, which allows him to become conscious enough to escape from Arkham.
Ra 's realizes that Batman has apparently died after Darkseid 's invasion during Final Crisis. After confronting Nightwing with his knowledge, he and the hero eventually duel with swords. Nightwing defeats Ra 's and earns the immortal 's respect, signified by leaving his sword in the Batcave as a gift after their fight. Ra 's refuses to believe his enemy 's passing despite the evidence, leading him to be involved in the Red Robin 's (Tim Drake) quest concerning the fate of the original Dark Knight. After Drake finds proof that Wayne is still alive but lost in time after his battle with Darkseid, the former Boy Wonder cripples Ra 's ' organization, the League of Assassins, from within. In response, Ra 's returns to Gotham to begin his attack to destroy every legacy of the Wayne Family. While his men target everyone close to the Waynes, Ra 's makes a pact with Hush as part of his plans. Unknown to both men, Bruce Wayne has already named Tim as his heir prior to his disappearance, leaving him in control of the Wayne Family resources.
Enraged, Ra 's then engages Tim Drake in combat, which ends with Tim mocking Ra 's by saying that there 's nothing he can do to harm the Bat Family anymore; in response, Ra 's smiles and says "Well done. Detective '' (a name he has only ever reserved for Batman, and Nightwing once before). He then proceeds to kick him out of a skyscraper window and retreats from the battle. Later, in seclusion, Ra 's reveals everything which happened was a test for Tim Drake, from the League, the Council, the Men of Death, and the plot against Bruce Wayne.
Learning of Bruce Wayne 's return, Ra 's muses that his next confrontation with the detective will be particularly interesting as he believes that Batman has at last had a taste of the immortality that Ra 's himself enjoys.
He goes after Vicki Vale and almost kills her. He spares her life only after she refuses to publish the identity of Batman and gets rid of all of the evidence she has to that effect. He also realizes that Vale may be a descendant of a French opponent, Marcel du Valliere, from centuries before; therefore, his business with her may not be finished.
In The New 52 (a 2011 reboot of the DC Comics universe), Ra 's al Ghul appears in a hooded robe at the League of Assassins ' city of ' Eth Alth'eban. He enters the Well of Sins after an encounter with Jason Todd. When he emerges, Ra 's is consumed by the evil that corrupted the Untitled centuries before, and he feels compelled to rid himself of the machinations of his daughter and Ducra by killing Jason. At Ra 's ' command, the prisoners are brought to him, and he promises to use his newfound power to destroy them. Red Hood engages Ra 's, as Essence joins the battle. She insists that he will allow Jason and his friends to leave his realm, or he will be forced to die a mortal death just as he always feared he would. Despite having destroyed the All - Caste, Ra 's al Ghul 's actions have led to their eventual rebirth. Defeated, he swears that he will visit great agony upon Red Hood if he ever sees him again.
Batman and Aquaman head to an island, where the League of Assassins are located, after Ra 's has the bodies of Damian Wayne and Talia exhumed. Ra 's had ordered the hunt of whales, creating genetically altered super-humans in the wombs of sperm whales, part of a plan to rebuild the League of Assassins. Inside the compound, they find that Ra 's is wiping the hard drives clean, preventing data recovery. As his parting gift, he has left Batman the Heretics to keep him entertained. Batman fights his way to Ra 's escape aircraft. He sees Talia and Damian 's bodies stored within it, and clings to the fuselage from outside as the plane takes off. Though Ra 's plans to go to Paradise Island, he is nearly surprised to see Batman pounding on the cockpit 's windshield. From outside, Batman screams for Ra 's to give back his son, but Ra 's responds that he is blood of Damian 's blood and the boy is in good hands. He orders the plane to tilt its angle, causing the wind shear to rip Batman from his purchase and drop down into the sea. Luckily, Aquaman is there to catch Batman.
Batman and Ra 's then encounter Glorious Godfrey. Glorious Godfrey 's reason to come to Earth is to retrieve the Chaos Shard, a powerful crystal once belonged to Darkseid which Ra 's al Ghul revealed was hidden inside the sarcophaus he crafted for Damian.
During Batman Eternal, Bruce briefly speculates that Ra 's is the mastermind behind most of the attacks against him that have left Wayne Enterprises bankrupt and Batman pushed to the limit. However, when he confronts Ra 's, his foe reveals that, while he was invited to participate in the attack by the true mastermind, he rejected the offer as Ra 's would prefer to destroy Batman when the Dark Knight believes that his legacy will be as eternal as Ra 's, rather than tear him down in such a manner.
Ra 's al Ghul appears in Detective Comics issues # 953 - 956 as part of the "League of Shadows '' story arc, which runs from issue # 951 - 956 (April -- July 2017).
Ra 's al Ghul appears in Dark Nights: Metal issue # 2 as a member of the Immortals, a group formed by the oldest beings in the multiverse. He participates in a discussion on how they will fight the Dark Multiverse invasion.
Due to his expanded life span, Ra 's has accumulated a vast knowledge of hand - to - hand combat, chemistry, detective artistry, physics, and martial arts (all of which are greater than that of Batman). He has also gained many international contacts and a vast fortune over the course of centuries. When in combat, he favors more ancient weaponry (as he has had more time to utilize them than more modern weaponry). These weapons include scimitars, katana, bolas, throwing stars (shuriken), smoke pellets, and miniaturized explosives. Ra 's is also assisted by his devoted, musclebound servant Ubu.
Ra 's ' greatest tools are his Lazarus Pits, which heal any injury including recent death and restore the user back to the prime of life, but cause temporary insanity (or, for those already insane like the Joker, sanity). His constant exposure to the pits have granted him slightly enhanced endurance, strength, and healing but also comes with the price of a gradual onset of insanity if overused.
Along with his physical abilities and resources, Ra 's al Ghul has been shown to possess a certain degree of proficiency with mysticism. In an effort to guarantee his continued existence, he has on several occasions demonstrated the ability to transfer his soul into the bodies of others, giving him a way to live on in the event that his physical body is destroyed and unable to be transported into a Lazarus Pit. The exact details of this process have remained inconsistent; at times it appears as though a complicated ritual is required to achieve this effect, while on other occasions he is capable of performing this feat on a whim, merely by making physical contact with his intended host.
The following are members of Ra 's al Ghul 's family:
Created by Neal Adams in 1968, the Sensei was originally introduced as high - ranking member of the League of Assassins. He was portrayed as an aged but highly skilled martial artist. During the Resurrection of Ra 's al Ghul storyline, he was revealed to be Ra 's al Ghul 's centuries - old father. He dies during the same storyline.
Created by Peter Milligan and David Lopez in 2007, Dusan al Ghul (Arabic: دوسان الغول ) was Ra 's ' only known son. He was also referred to as Ash'Shabah Al - Abyad (Arabic: الشبح الأبيض ), meaning "the White Ghost ''. Though little is known about his past, it is stated that he was born out of a union meant to strengthen his father 's hold over "some long - extinct people '', suggesting that he was older than Ra 's ' other children. As an albino, he was never considered a potential heir to his father 's empire. He ultimately sacrificed himself to ensure his father 's survival during the Resurrection of Ra 's al Ghul storyline.
Created by Greg Rucka and Klaus Janson in 2003, Nyssa Raatko (Arabic: نيسا رعتكو ) is Ra 's al Ghul 's oldest known daughter. She was born to an unnamed woman in 18th century Russia. She would later become a Holocaust survivor. She is murdered by Cassandra Cain during the One Year Later storyline. Nyssa appears in Arrow.
Created by Dennis O'Neil and Bob Brown in 1971, Talia al Ghul (Arabic: تاليه الغول ) is Ra 's al Ghul 's daughter. Talia 's mother was a woman of Arab ancestry named Melisande, who met Ra 's at the Woodstock festival. Talia was born not long after. Talia also appears in 2012 's The Dark Knight Rises. Talia also appears in Arrow season 5.
Originally appearing as an unnamed infant in the 1987 graphic novel Batman: Son of the Demon, the character was introduced as Damian Wayne or Damian al Ghul (Arabic: دميان الغول) by Grant Morrison and Andy Kubert in 2006. Damian is the son of Bruce Wayne and Talia al Ghul, making him the grandson of Ra 's al Ghul. Heir to the Demon Head and expected to one day lead the League. He raised to be the new Alexanda the great. Bred from birth to take and rule the world by his mother Talia al Ghul. He was very aggressive until he met his father, Batman. Batman taught him how to calm himself and trained him to be the new Robin. His genetic perfection and genetic makeup unfortunately marked him as the ideal host for his grandfather who wants to take over his body.
Created by Benjamin Percy and Jonboy Meyers, the character debuted in Teen Titans Vol. 6 in December 2016. Mara al Ghul is a granddaughter of Ra 's al Ghul, daughter to the late Dusan al Ghul and a cousin to Damian Wayne. Introduced as an enemy to Damian she was also raised by the League of Assassins. She and Damian were both members of the Demon 's Fist, an elite group within in the League. Damian was supposed to lead the Demon 's Fist but Mara now leads the group since Damian 's choosing his father over the League. Mara hates Damian since he left her with a scar across her right eye during a training session when they were younger. Mara has not inherited her fathers albinism; she has black hair with red bangs. Like the rest of her family she is a skilled fighter and is also noted to be a talented artist.
Athanasia al Ghul is a character featured so far only in the Injustice 2 prequel comics and does not appear in the prime earth continuity. She is the daughter of Bruce Wayne and Talia al Ghul, sister of Damian Wayne and granddaughter of Ra 's al Ghul. Athanasia is the secret daughter of Talia and Bruce and raised by Talia without Bruce or even Damian 's knowledge. While Talia allowed Damian to become a hero and work with his father for a time, Talia kept Athanasia a secret from her father and raised her as a member of the League of Assassins. Athanasia is first seen beside her mother Talia breaking her brother Damian out of Prison. She is insulted by Damian 's apparent rudeness and wants him to say please before letting him out. When Warden Dan Turpin tries to arrest them she kills him and the guards. While exiting the building Damian tells his mother to control her ' servant ', Athanasia, who then assaults him. It is only then that Talia reveals Athanasia is Damian 's sister and the "Daughter of the Bat ''. After the fall of Superman 's regime Athanasia and the rest of the League come out of hiding. She works alongside her mother and grandfather in a scheme to reclaim the Earth from humans who were destroying it. During a fight with Batman in their secret base in the Amazon Rainforest Athanasia was seemingly killed when El Diablo exploded and Athanasia was n't shielded by the blast. She later appeared again alongside her grandfather in Gorilla City as King Solovar 's guests.
Although he fathered children with several women, Ra 's al Ghul has only two confirmed marriages. The first was to Sora, whose death set Ra 's on the path to becoming the "Demon 's Head ''. The second was to Melisande, Talia 's mother.
Ra 's also appears to have an unnamed sister or half - sister, a female assassin belonging to a group called the "Daughters of Acheron '', whose members share the same father. Another member is a woman using the alias "Promise ''. It is unclear if their common father, "Acheron '', is in fact the Sensei (making them all Ra 's ' half - sisters) or if Ra 's only has one half - sister on his mother 's side.
In Batman and Robin # 12, it is revealed that Talia has cloned her son, Damian. The clone is, therefore, a grandson of sorts of Ra 's al Ghul. Additionally, Nyssa once stated that she has given birth twelve times, opening the possibility of Ra 's having many other descendants.
After Talia encounters and falls in love with Batman in Detective Comics # 411 (May 1971), Ra 's begins to consider Batman as a possible heir. Ra 's first deduces Batman 's secret identity when he reasons that the Dark Knight has to be rich, and learns that only Bruce Wayne has bought the equipment that a crime fighter would have; he is then ready to put Batman to a final test.
Ra 's surprises Batman in the Batcave, seemingly to enlist Batman 's aid in rescuing both Talia and Dick Grayson, the first Robin, both of whom have apparently been kidnapped. Batman soon discovers that the whole affair is a charade orchestrated by Ra 's to test Batman, which he passes. Ra 's asks that Batman become his heir, which Batman refuses, appalled by his genocidal plan to "cleanse '' the world. This story was later adapted into a two - part story in Batman: The Animated Series during its third season under the title "The Demon 's Quest ''.
Despite being mortal enemies, Ra 's al Ghul and Batman maintain some level of respect towards one another. Similar to The Riddler, Ra 's admires Batman 's intellectual prowess first and foremost, regularly referring to Batman as "Detective '' or "The Detective '' when speaking to or about him. And despite being aware of Batman 's true identity as Bruce Wayne since their first meeting, Ra 's has never exposed that information to the public or Batman 's other foes; something Batman once attributed to Ra 's ' personal code of honor. However, Ra 's has repeatedly used that knowledge to his own advantage when fomenting plans and contingencies against Batman.
In the story "Resurrection Night '' in Batman # 400, Ra 's helps all of Batman 's foes to escape from Arkham Asylum and the Gotham State Penitentiary, setting them on a plan to abduct certain individuals across Gotham City who are linked in one form or another to Batman. Ra 's ' true intent is to show Batman the folly of his efforts to protect a corrupt society that, to his mind, allows criminals to exist and flourish. Ra 's eventually uses the Pit while still healthy, both increasing his strength and putting his life at risk, in an attempt to outmatch the Dark Knight. The plan backfires, as Ra 's is left writhing in the pit, seemingly destroyed.
In the graphic novel Son of the Demon, Ra 's successfully enlists Batman 's aid in defeating a rogue assassin and warlord, Qayin (a variation on the spelling of Cain), who has murdered Ra 's ' then - wife Melisande (Talia 's mother). During this storyline, Batman marries Talia and she becomes pregnant. Batman is nearly killed protecting Talia from the assassin 's agents. In the end, Talia ends her relationship with Batman, unwilling to put him in danger. She claims to have miscarried and the marriage is dissolved. The child is eventually born and left at an orphanage (eventually taking the name Ibn al Xu'ffasch). The only identification provided is Talia 's jewel - encrusted necklace, which once belonged to Talia 's mother. Two Elseworlds stories, Kingdom Come and Brotherhood of the Bat, feature two alternate versions of Ibn as an adult, coming to terms with his dual heritage. For a time, DC Comics ' policy was that Son of the Demon was not canon and that Batman had no son. The recent appearance of the child (under the name Damian) in an issue of Batman implies that this policy may have changed.
Ra 's has previously been revealed as alive in the 31st century setting of the post-Zero Hour reboot Legion of Super-Heroes, impersonating Leland McCauley.
In the first Superman & Batman: Generations series, created by John Byrne, Bruce Wayne tracks down Ra 's al Ghul after passing the Batman mantle on to his son. Ra 's offers Bruce (whom he addresses as "Adversary '') a chance at immortality. Ra 's has determined that if two people enter the Lazarus Pit, the Pit will merge both life forces together, destroying one soul in the process and imbuing the other with youth and immortality without the ensuing madness. With his only alternatives being a fifty - fifty chance at death in the Pit or being murdered by Ra 's ' men, Bruce agrees to the process. He survive exposure to the Pit and subsequently uses Ra 's ' criminal empire to clandestinely set up an international humanitarian network. He also becomes a near - immortal, aging one year for every century.
In the Batman & Spider - Man: New Age Dawning crossover book (considered an Elseworlds story), Ra 's begins plans for worldwide devastation. He manipulates the Kingpin to his side by infecting the crime lord 's wife Vanessa with cancer and promising him the cure in return for his allegiance. Ra 's then orders him to press the button on his machines which would send New York City under the ocean. Ultimately, Spider - Man and Batman interfere and the Kingpin reveals that he knows Ra 's ' plans and allows the two heroes to board his plane so they can assist him. Defeated, Ra 's bows out of the plan gracefully but claims that there is no cure for the cancer. Vanessa convinces her husband that she wishes no further violence, and they leave. Talia soon gives the cure to Batman, who then gives it to Spider - Man, who passes it on to the Kingpin.
In The Batman Adventures # 1, albeit Ra 's did n't appear, he plays a larger role behind - the - scenes along the Society of Shadows and the Penguin. Ra 's finally appears in issue # 4, in which he fights Batman again only to be defeated by him one more time. Series writer Ty Templeton originally wanted to bring back Ra 's in issue # 5 depicting him at prison, but his script for the planned story was rejected because DC Comics told him and Dan Slott that they were ' done ' with Ra 's and it was time to move with other characters, resulting in issue # 5 as a story of Black Mask 's False Face Society.
In the Amalgam Comics alternate dimension, Ra 's is fused with Marvel Comics supervillain Apocalypse to become "Ra 's Al - Pocalypse ''. Ra 's ' daughter Talia is fused with Lady Deathstrike to become "Lady Talia ''.
In Captain Carrot and the Final Ark, Ra 's is parodied as Rash Al Paca, an alpaca who plans to save the environment from "animalkind '' by increasing global warming and flooding the planet.
In Kingdom Come, a rogue superhuman claimed that Ra 's al Ghul was killed. Ra 's ' grandson, Ibn al Xu'ffasch, is a member of Lex Luthor 's Mankind Liberation Front. When the appearance of Gog threatens this reality, Ibn uses a Lazarus Pit to restore Ra 's to life to try to find a solution in collaboration with Lex Luthor and Brainiac, but they fail to find a solution. All three of them attempt to betray Ibn, and Lex and Brainiac die in their own trap for him. Ra 's gets into a sword duel with his grandson in the Batcave and is killed by him.
In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Ra 's al Ghul is a young boy and member of the H.I.V.E. council. He voted against using nuclear weapons to end the war in Western Europe between Aquaman and Wonder Woman.
In the Batman / Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles crossover miniseries, when the Foot Clan initially arrive in Gotham, Batman considers the possibility that they are a branch of the League of Assassins, but dismisses the idea as the Foot 's combat skills show a focus on a specific area of martial arts as opposed to the more varied skills of the League. After Shredder attempts to escape a confrontation with Batman and the Turtles, he is confronted by Ra 's, who offers him an alliance. With a batch of fresh mutagen brought to the DC Universe by Casey Jones, Shredder and Ra 's try to bring the world to its knees by unleashing their mutated monstrosities (starting with the inmates of Arkham Asylum), but are defeated by the combined efforts of Batman, Ra 's ' own grandson Damian, the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and Splinter, who force Ra 's into flight.
Ra 's appears as the main antagonist in a crossover story between Batman ' 66 and Wonder Woman ' 77 (taking place in the continuity of Adam West 's portrayal of Batman and Lynda Carter 's portrayal of Wonder Woman). He and his daughter Talia first meet Bruce in the 40s at a Wayne Foundation auction to support the war effort, where The League of Shadows and the Nazis attempt to bid for a book detailing ancient treasures and locations. When they confront the book 's auction winner Mr. Finlay, the young Bruce and Talia escape with both of the books to keep them safe. Ra 's finds Bruce in the maze and threatens his life, but Bruce escapes as Ra 's manages to obtain one of the books.
Twenty - two years later, Talia hires Catwoman to steal the second book from Mr. Finlay. Batman, Robin and Catwoman travel to Paradise Island to warn Wonder Woman and her people that the League of Shadows will be invading one of the nearby areas, with Diana knowing that Ra 's is after the island 's Lazarus Pit. Ra 's uses the pit to restore his youth and offers the four the chance to join the League of Shadows, but they refuse. Ra 's tries to bury them alive, but they are saved thanks to the intervention of Wonder Girl and Talia rescuing them behind her father 's back (still harboring feelings for Bruce). Talia is placed in prison by the Amazons while Ra 's manages to escape.
11 years later, Catwoman aids Talia in escaping Paradise Island and the two Ghuls continue their search for Lazarus Pits. Thanks to spying on Wonder Woman and Batman, the League discovers there 's a Pit in Gotham underneath Arkham Asylum. Ra 's hires the Riddler, Mr. Freeze, Clayface, Killer Croc, and Cheetah to keep the heroes at bay. Batman follows Ra 's near the Pit and tries to stop him, but Ra 's uses his magical assassins to prevent them from interfering. Due to using the Pit sooner than the last time he used it, Ra 's is de-aged into a ten year old. The two Ghuls are taken into authorities, with Batman saddened that Talia chose to follow her father 's influence.
Ra 's serves as a major antagonist in the comic prequel series to the video game Injustice 2. After the fall of the Regime, he takes control of the Suicide Squad, using them to break out Damian Wayne out of Stryker 's Island and kidnap the heads of large companies for execution, including Ted Kord. He also organizes the kidnapping of the relatives of active superheroes as a deterrent to their involvement in his plans and resurrects Alfred Pennyworth with one of his Lazarus Pits. Ra 's ' plan is eventually stopped when Batman and the remnants of the Insurgency, including Ted 's successor as Blue Beetle Jaime Reyes, break into his base, inadvertently killing all endangered life he was protecting. As he leaves, Ra 's reveals that he had ordered Jackson Hyde to attack the US congress, causing the deaths of thousands and damage to Batman 's plans of rebuilding society. It is also revealed that he has been working with Solovar and has possession of the android Amazo.
Ra 's al Ghul has been a staple in the Batman: Arkham franchise where he has been voiced by Dee Bradley Baker:
His stories have been collected into a number of volumes:
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when was the last time veterans day fell on a saturday | Veterans Day - wikipedia
Veterans Day is an official United States public holiday, observed annually on November 11, that honors military veterans; that is, persons who served in the United States Armed Forces. It coincides with other holidays, including Armistice Day and Remembrance Day, celebrated in other countries that mark the anniversary of the end of World War I; major hostilities of World War I were formally ended at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918, when the Armistice with Germany went into effect. The United States previously observed Armistice Day. The U.S. holiday was renamed Veterans Day in 1954.
Veterans Day is not to be confused with Memorial Day, a U.S. public holiday in May; Veterans Day celebrates the service of all U.S. military veterans, while Memorial Day honors those who died while in military service. It is also not to be confused with Armed Forces Day, a minor U.S. remembrance that also occurs in May, which specifically honors those currently serving in the U.S. military.
On November 11, 1919, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson issued a message to his countrymen on the first Armistice Day, in which he expressed what he felt the day meant to Americans:
ADDRESS TO FELLOW - COUNTRYMEN The White House, November 11, 1919. A year ago today our enemies laid down their arms in accordance with an armistice which rendered them impotent to renew hostilities, and gave to the world an assured opportunity to reconstruct its shattered order and to work out in peace a new and juster set of international relations. The soldiers and people of the European Allies had fought and endured for more than four years to uphold the barrier of civilization against the aggressions of armed force. We ourselves had been in the conflict something more than a year and a half. With splendid forgetfulness of mere personal concerns, we remodeled our industries, concentrated our financial resources, increased our agricultural output, and assembled a great army, so that at the last our power was a decisive factor in the victory. We were able to bring the vast resources, material and moral, of a great and free people to the assistance of our associates in Europe who had suffered and sacrificed without limit in the cause for which we fought. Out of this victory there arose new possibilities of political freedom and economic concert. The war showed us the strength of great nations acting together for high purposes, and the victory of arms foretells the enduring conquests which can be made in peace when nations act justly and in furtherance of the common interests of men. To us in America the reflections of Armistice Day will be filled with solemn pride in the heroism of those who died in the country 's service, and with gratitude for the victory, both because of the thing from which it has freed us and because of the opportunity it has given America to show her sympathy with peace and justice in the councils of nations. WOODROW WILSON
The United States Congress adopted a resolution on June 4, 1926, requesting that President Calvin Coolidge issue annual proclamations calling for the observance of November 11 with appropriate ceremonies. A Congressional Act (52 Stat. 351; 5 U.S. Code, Sec. 87a) approved May 13, 1938, made the 11th of November in each year a legal holiday: "a day to be dedicated to the cause of world peace and to be thereafter celebrated and known as ' Armistice Day '. ''
In 1945, World War II veteran Raymond Weeks from Birmingham, Alabama, had the idea to expand Armistice Day to celebrate all veterans, not just those who died in World War I. Weeks led a delegation to Gen. Dwight Eisenhower, who supported the idea of National Veterans Day. Weeks led the first national celebration in 1947 in Alabama and annually until his death in 1985. President Reagan honored Weeks at the White House with the Presidential Citizenship Medal in 1982 as the driving force for the national holiday. Elizabeth Dole, who prepared the briefing for President Reagan, determined Weeks as the "Father of Veterans Day. ''
U.S. Representative Ed Rees from Emporia, Kansas, presented a bill establishing the holiday through Congress. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, also from Kansas, signed the bill into law on May 26, 1954. It had been eight and a half years since Weeks held his first Armistice Day celebration for all veterans.
Congress amended the bill on June 1, 1954, replacing "Armistice '' with "Veterans, '' and it has been known as Veterans Day since.
The National Veterans Award was also created in 1954. Congressman Rees of Kansas received the first National Veterans Award in Birmingham, Alabama, for his support offering legislation to make Veterans Day a federal holiday.
Although originally scheduled for celebration on November 11 of every year, starting in 1971 in accordance with the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, Veterans Day was moved to the fourth Monday of October (Oct 25, 1971; Oct 23, 1972; Oct 22, 1973; Oct 28, 1974; Oct 27, 1975; Oct 25, 1976, and Oct 24, 1977). In 1978, it was moved back to its original celebration on November 11. While the legal holiday remains on November 11, if that date happens to be on a Saturday or Sunday, then organizations that formally observe the holiday will normally be closed on the adjacent Friday or Monday, respectively.
Because it is a federal holiday, some American workers and many students have Veterans Day off from work or school. When Veterans Day falls on a Saturday then either Saturday or the preceding Friday may be designated as the holiday, whereas if it falls on a Sunday it is typically observed on the following Monday. When it falls on weekend many private companies offer it as a floating holiday where employee can choose some other day. A Society for Human Resource Management poll in 2010 found that 21 percent of employers planned to observe the holiday in 2011.
Non-essential federal government offices are closed. No mail is delivered. All federal workers are paid for the holiday; those who are required to work on the holiday sometimes receive holiday pay for that day in addition to their wages.
In his Armistice Day address to Congress, Wilson was sensitive to the psychological toll of the lean War years: "Hunger does not breed reform; it breeds madness, '' he remarked. As Veterans Day and the birthday of the United States Marine Corps (November 10, 1775) are only one day apart, that branch of the Armed Forces customarily observes both occasions as a 96 - hour liberty period.
Election Day is a regular working day, while Veterans Day, which typically falls the following week, is a federal holiday. The National Commission on Federal Election Reform called for the holidays to be merged, so citizens can have a day off to vote. They state this as a way to honor voting by exercising democratic rights.
While the holiday is commonly printed as Veteran 's Day or Veterans ' Day in calendars and advertisements (spellings that are grammatically acceptable), the United States Department of Veterans Affairs website states that the attributive (no apostrophe) rather than the possessive case is the official spelling "because it is not a day that ' belongs ' to veterans, it is a day for honoring all veterans. ''
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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who sang the song mind your own business | Mind Your Own Business (song) - Wikipedia
"Mind Your Own Business '' is a 1949 song written and originally performed by Hank Williams.
"Mind Your Own Business '' was recorded on March 2, 1949, at Castle Studio in Nashville. During the same session, Williams also recorded "You 're Gonna Change (Or I 'm Gonna Leave) '', "My Son Calls Another Man Daddy '', and "Honky Tonk Blues ''. He is backed by Dale Potter (fiddle), Don Davis (steel guitar), Zeke Turner (lead guitar), Clyde Baum (mandolin), Jack Shook (rhythm guitar), and probably Ernie Newton (bass).
In the song, the narrator admonishes a local busybody for snooping and gossiping. While the delivery is light and breezy, the song 's lyrics were likely inspired by the singer 's own tempestuous relationship with wife Audrey Williams and the buzz it created. The opening lines seem to reference this: "If the wife and I are fussin ', brother that 's our right / ' Cause me and that sweet woman 's got a licence to fight... '' His delivery is measured, laconic, and dry. The day before, Hank had cut several duets with his wife Audrey, who by all accounts had limited singing talent. Introducing it in October 1949, he told his radio audience that it was a "little prophecy in song '', and indeed it would prove to be.
The song is similar in tone and structure to Williams ' first Billboard hit "Move It on Over '', with the singer couching his moral indignation in humor, allowing the subject matter to resonate with the public. "Mind Your Own Business '' went to # 6 on the C&W Best Seller list where it stayed for two weeks.
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what is the bottom of a balloon called | Sky lantern - wikipedia
A sky lantern (simplified Chinese: 天 灯; traditional Chinese: 天 燈; pinyin: tiāndēng), also known as Kongming lantern or Chinese lantern, is a small hot air balloon made of paper, with an opening at the bottom where a small fire is suspended.
In Asia and elsewhere around the world, sky lanterns have been traditionally made for centuries, to be launched for play or as part of long - established festivities. The name "sky lantern '' is a translation of the Chinese name but they have also been referred to as sky candles or fire balloons.
The general design is a thin paper shell, which may be from about 30 cm to a couple of metres across, with an opening at the bottom. The opening is usually about 10 to 30 cm wide (even for the largest shells), and is surrounded by a stiff collar that serves to suspend the flame source and to keep it away from the walls.
When lit, the flame heats the air inside the lantern, thus lowering its density and causing the lantern to rise into the air. The sky lantern is only airborne for as long as the flame stays alight, after which the lantern sinks back to the ground.
According to the sinologist and historian of science Joseph Needham, the Chinese experimented with small hot air balloons for signaling from as early as the 3rd century BCE, during the Warring States period. Traditionally, however, their invention is attributed to the sage and military strategist Zhuge Liang (181 -- 234 CE), whose reverent term of address was Kongming. He is said to have used a message written on a sky lantern to summon help on an occasion when he was surrounded by enemy troops. For this reason, they are still known in China as Kongming lanterns (孔明燈, 孔 明 灯, kǒngmíng dēng). Another suggested origin is that the name actually comes from the lantern 's resemblance to the hat Kongming is traditionally shown to be wearing.
Sky lanterns could be a possible explanation for some UFO sightings through the years.
In ancient China, sky lanterns were strategically used in wars. However, later on, non-military applications were employed as they became popular with children at festivals. These lanterns were subsequently incorporated into festivals like the Chinese Mid-Autumn and Lantern Festivals.
Pingxi District in New Taipei City of Taiwan holds an annual Lantern Festival in which sky lanterns are released into the night sky with people 's wishes written, to send the wishes and messages to God. Lantern Festival is also as known as the 15th days of Lunar New Year, the last day of celebration for Lunar New Year.
The Lanna people of northern Thailand use "floating lanterns '' (โคมลอย, khom loi) year round, for celebrations and other special occasions. One very important festival in which sky lanterns are used is the Yi Peng festival, which is held on a full moon of the 2nd month (ยี่ เป็ ง, Yi Peng) of the Lanna calendar (which coincides with Loi Krathong, the traditional festival on the 12th month of the Thai lunar calendar). During the Yi Peng festival, a multitude of lanterns are launched into the air where they resemble large flocks of giant fluorescent jellyfish gracefully floating by through the sky. The most elaborate Yi Peng celebrations can be seen in Chiang Mai, the ancient capital of the former Lanna kingdom. The festival is meant as a time to obtain Buddhist merit (ทําบุญ, tham bun). In recent times, floating lanterns have become so popular with all Thai people that they have become integrated into the festival in the rest of the country.
In addition, people will also decorate their houses, gardens and temples with intricately shaped paper lanterns (โคม ไฟ, khom fai) of various forms. It is considered good:) luck to release a sky lantern, and many Thais believe they are symbolic of problems and worries floating away.
In Brazil, sky lanterns (balão in Portuguese) were a traditional feature of the winter holidays (Festas Juninas) at the end of June. It is claimed that custom was brought to Brazil from Portugal by colonists in the 16th century, and is still strong in Portugal, especially in Porto. The June holidays tradition also includes firecrackers and fireworks, another Chinese invention; so it is conjectured that these elements may have been brought from China by Portuguese explorers around 1500. The design and customs of Brazilian sky lanterns are modified to suit their festivals.
Frei Bartolomeu de Gusmão, using a large scale version of these lanterns, was the first man to fly a hot air balloon in 8 August 1709, in the hall of the Casa da Índia in Lisbon, Portugal, long before the Montgolfier brothers.
Brazilian sky lanterns are usually made by small groups of children and adolescents; but adults sometimes joined the effort, especially for the larger and more elaborate balloons. The launching of a large lantern, which could be one or two metres across, would usually require the cooperation of several people, to hold the balloon fully stretched until it was fully inflated. Lanterns with 20 meters or more and loaded with firecrackers and large flags are not uncommon. It is important to note that launching lanterns in Brazil is an environmental crime, punishable by up to 3 years in jail since 1998.
To represent the Star of Bethlehem during Christmas season, as part of celebrations sky lanterns are released into the night sky with hopes towards a new year. In Bengal and Northeast India, Buddhist people celebrate their Probarona Purnima which signifies end of their three - month lent by releasing lighted sky lanterns (fanush), it is the second largest festival of the Buddhist community. During Diwali festival (The festival of Light) eco-friendly sky lanterns are used for celebrations along with fireworks.
A sky lantern may land when the flame is still alight, making it a fire hazard. In typical designs, as long as the lantern stays upright the paper will not get hot enough to ignite, but if the balloon is tilted (say, by the wind or by hitting some object), it may catch fire while still in the air. All the paper will usually burn in a few seconds, but the flame source may remain lit until it hits the ground.
After the balloon lands, the leftover thin wire frame will rust away very slowly, remaining a hazard to animals that may swallow it. In 2009 British company Sky Orbs Chinese Lanterns developed lanterns with a bio-degradable fireproof rope in place of metal wire. Many other European manufacturers adopted similar designs. In 2012 the same company released a patented design with fireproof base following reports of fires caused by lanterns.
Sky lanterns have also been alleged to pose a danger to aircraft.
On 1 July 2013 the ' largest fire ever ' in the West Midlands of England, involving 100,000 tonnes of recycling material and causing an estimated six million pounds worth of damage, was started by a sky lantern which landed at a plastics recycling plant in Smethwick. Images of the lantern starting the fire were captured on CCTV. In response to the fire, Poundland decided to stop selling sky lanterns and recalled their entire stock on 6 July 2013.
Despite their use for centuries, there has been growing concern by some about the potential danger to cause crop or building fires and even harm animals that may eat their remains. Despite the general lack of prevalence some places have banned them for these reasons.
The city of Sanya in China banned sky lanterns due to their hazards toward aircraft and airspace navigation.
It is illegal to launch a sky lantern in most parts of Germany; where use is not illegal, as in Herford, it is necessary to obtain advance permission from local authorities. In Austria, it is illegal to produce, sell, import, or distribute them. In Argentina, Chile, and Colombia it is illegal to launch lanterns, as well as in Spain and Vietnam. In Brazil launching lanterns is an environmental crime, punishable by up to 3 years in jail since 1998.
Retail sale (but not possession and use) of sky lanterns that "rely on an open flame to heat the air inside the lantern '' was banned in Australia on 1 February 2011.
Sky Lanterns have also been banned in Kittitas County, Washington due to fire concerns on 20 June 2013. Since then, Washington state has banned sky lanterns statewide.
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who played the clown in stephen king movie it | It (miniseries) - wikipedia
It is a 1990 American supernatural horror drama miniseries directed by Tommy Lee Wallace and adapted by Lawrence D. Cohen from the Stephen King novel of the same name. It is the first of two adaptations of the novel; the second being the 2017 film adaptation and its upcoming 2019 sequel.
The story revolves around a predatory shapeshifter which has the ability to transform itself into its prey 's worst fears, allowing it to exploit the phobias of its victims. It mostly takes the form of a sadistic, wisecracking clown called Pennywise played by Tim Curry. The protagonists are The Lucky Seven, or The Losers Club, a group of outcast kids who discover Pennywise and vow to destroy him by any means necessary. The series takes place over two different time periods, the first when the Losers first confront Pennywise as children in 1960, and the second when they return as adults in 1990 to defeat him a second time after he resurfaces.
It features an ensemble cast, starring Richard Thomas, John Ritter, Annette O'Toole, Harry Anderson, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid and Richard Masur as the seven members of the Losers Club, and Tim Curry as Pennywise. The child counterparts of the Losers that appear in part one are played by Jonathan Brandis, Seth Green, Emily Perkins, Brandon Crane, Adam Faraizl, Marlon Taylor and Ben Heller. Michael Cole, Jarred Blancard, Gabe Khouth, Chris Eastman, Olivia Hussey, Frank C. Turner, Tony Dakota, Ryan Michael, Tom Heaton and Chelan Simmons also play supporting roles.
Originally conceived as a four - part eight - hour series, ABC enlisted writer Lawrence D. Cohen to adapt the 1,138 - page King novel. Cohen 's script condensed the source work into a two - part, three - hour mini-series that retained the core elements of the novel, but Cohen was forced to abandon numerous subplots by virtue of the novel 's length and the network 's time - slot restrictions. Production on It began in early 1990, and the series was filmed over a period of three months in New Westminster, British Columbia in mid-1990.
It aired on ABC over two nights on November 18 and 20, 1990, attracting 30 million viewers in its premiere. Critics praised Tim Curry 's performance as Pennywise. For his work on the miniseries, Richard Bellis received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a mini-series or a Special (Dramatic Underscore).
In Derry, Maine, in 1960, Bill Denbrough gives his younger brother Georgie a paper sailboat to take out onto the street to sail in the gutter. Georgie is unable to stop the boat from sailing down the storm drain, but encounters a strange clown in the drain who introduces himself as Pennywise. Pennywise then entices Georgie to reach into the drain to retrieve his boat, killing the boy by ripping his arm off. Months later, during the spring semester at their school, Bill befriends the overweight new kid Ben Hanscom. He introduces Ben to asthmatic Eddie Kaspbrak who lives with his overbearing mother, Beverly Marsh who lives with her abusive father who is also the school janitor, wise - cracking Richie Tozier, and Jewish Boy Scout, Stanley Uris. Besides being tormented by a gang of local bullies led by Henry Bowers, the group each experiences disturbing encounters with Pennywise. During one afternoon when he was going to practice his band instrument for the town parade, Bill and his friends encounter African - American Mike Hanlon being pursued by Henry 's gang. They chase the bullies off with rocks and befriend Mike, with Henry vowing to kill them all. The group, calling themselves "The Losers Club '', come to realize that they are each being terrorized by the same entity. While looking through Mike 's history scrapbook, they deduce Pennywise is a monster that surfaces every 30 years in Derry to feed on the town 's children before returning to hibernation again. They also deduce that the creature, which they dub "It '' since it is not human and has no gender, assumes the appearance of what they fear.
After discovering that It killed his brother, Bill leads the Losers into the sewers under Derry to kill It. They are followed by Henry and his friends, Victor Criss and Belch Huggins, who are intent on killing them. It kills Victor, who had separated to set an ambush on the Losers, and Belch, who helps Henry separate Stan from the others, sparing a horrified Henry while chasing Stan as he regroups with the Losers. Pennywise grabs Stan, only for the Losers to use It 's ability to access their imaginations against him; Eddie imagines his inhaler is full of battery acid and uses it to melt the clown 's face while Beverly uses a slingshot and a silver projectile, which the Losers imagine will kill It, to smash a hole in the clown 's head. Pennywise evades the second projectile and escapes down a drain, seemingly dying. Bill makes the others promise to return and kill It should the creature ever come back. Henry, his hair whitened from fright and driven insane from seeing It 's "Deadlights '', later emerges from the sewers and is institutionalized when he takes credit for murdering his friends, as well as It 's previous victims.
In 1990, Mike, now the town librarian, is investigating a string of missing children and killings and arrives at the crime scene of a murdered girl named Laurie Anne Winterbarger. Finding Georgie 's picture and convinced that It is back, Mike proceeds to contact the others to fulfill their vow. Bill has become a bestselling horror novelist married to British actress Audra Phillips, Ben is an architect who has lost weight due to joining his high school track team, Beverly is a fashion designer abused by her husband Tom Rogan, Richie is a late night television comedian, Eddie runs a limousine service but still lives with his mother, and Stan is a married real estate broker. Prior to Mike 's phone calls, the other Losers had completely forgotten each other along with their childhood traumas and memories of It. While the other five reluctantly agree to come, a fear - stricken Stan slits his wrists in his bathtub and writes "IT '' on the wall in his own blood.
The remaining six find themselves harassed by Pennywise once reaching Derry. They eventually meet at dinner, learning of Stan 's suicide shortly after Mike calls his wife. Two other people also converge on the town: an older Henry, whom Pennywise frees to help him kill the Losers, and a worried Audra who ends up being abducted by It while exposed to the creature 's Deadlights. Mike is hospitalized by Henry, who in turn is killed by his own knife during a scuffle with the other Losers. After Mike gives Bill the two pieces of silver he retrieved from the sewers, the five remaining Losers decide to destroy It for good. They descend into the sewers once again, with Pennywise informing them that they will never see It, just what their "tiny human minds '' can comprehend. Bill learns Audra is being held while overcoming It 's attempt to induce further guilt. The Losers eventually reach It 's inner sanctum, finding both a catatonic Audra and It 's true form as a giant spider. Bill, Ben and Richie nearly get lost in It 's Deadlights and Eddie is killed attempting to save his friends. Beverly mortally wounds It with her slingshot, and as It limps away the surviving Losers pursue and knock the creature down and rip its heart out, supposedly killing It once and for all. They remove the comatose Audra and Eddie 's body from the sewers, burying him in Derry 's cemetery.
With It finally dead, the Losers go their separate ways and move on with their lives as their memories of It fade away. A recovered Mike also has his memories begin to fade as he considers starting a new life elsewhere. Richie is cast in a film with an actor resembling Eddie, while Beverly and Ben are finally married and expect their first child. Bill is the last to leave Derry, using his last hour in town to coax Audra out of her catatonia by giving her a ride down the street on his childhood bicycle, Silver, which he had once used as a child to escape from It, and Audra finally recovers. The film ends with Bill and Audra kissing as a crowd looks on.
ABC had acquired the rights to a television mini-series of It, for what would be the first made - for - television film based on a Stephen King work since Salem 's Lot (1979), directed by Tobe Hooper. Lawrence D. Cohen, who had previously written the film adaptation of Carrie in 1976, was hired to write It. According to both Stephen King and Cohen, King had little to no involvement in the writing of the miniseries. George A. Romero had originally been signed on to direct the project, which at the time ABC had planned for an eight - to - ten - hour series that would run over four two - hour blocks. Romero left the project due to scheduling conflicts, after which ABC condensed it to a three - part series. Shortly after, Tommy Lee Wallace was brought in to direct. After Wallace signed on to the project, ABC had ultimately decided to condense the series to two parts.
According to writer Cohen: "Speaking candidly, ABC was always nervous about It, primarily the fact that it was in the horror genre, but also the eight - to - ten hour commitment. They loved the piece, but lost their nerve in terms of how many hours they were willing to commit. Eventually, they agreed to a two - night, four - hour commitment. '' Given the length of the King novel, which runs 1,138 pages, a great deal of material was left out of Cohen 's adaptation, including subplots concerning the personal lives of the adult characters, one of which had the main male characters each losing their virginity to Beverly. "I ca n't even begin to enumerate my favorite scenes from the book that we had to cut, because there are so many of them, '' Cohen reflected. "I look at it as a glass half full situation. There are scenes in both nights that were created by Steve (King) on the page, and I 'm delighted that they survived, like the fortune cookie scene and adult Beverly going to her childhood house. The way I see it, the best moments from the book made the cut and the rest are casualties of war. ''
However, Wallace and Cohen retained the centrality of Pennywise in the source novel; as noted by film scholar Tony Magistrale in Hollywood 's Stephen King, the miniseries retains the "association between the adult world of Derry and It (which) is further established in the masterful choice of a carnival clown as a unifying symbol for the various creatures representing the monster. ''
The majority of the adult actors in the film, including John Ritter, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid and Harry Anderson, were hand - chosen by Wallace and Cohen for their roles. Annette O'Toole was cast in the film at the suggestion of Ritter, with whom she had recently shot The Dreamer of Oz: The L. Frank Baum Story (1990): "I think (John) may have talked to somebody, because I got an offer (to play Beverly), '' O'Toole recalled. "It happened really fast; I do n't think I even went in for a reading. I was living in Oregon at the time, and the next thing I knew, I was in Vancouver hanging out with the coolest, most fun guys of all time. ''
Emily Perkins and Marlon Taylor, who played the young Beverly Marsh and Mike Hanlon, were cast out of Vancouver, while Seth Green and Jonathan Brandis were cast out of Los Angeles for the parts of young Richie and Bill.
According to Cohen, he had written the script for the series without a specific actor in mind for the role of Pennywise. According to director Tommy Lee Wallace, before he was attached to the project, Malcolm McDowell and Roddy McDowall were in consideration to play Pennywise, but Wallace wanted Tim Curry for the role; Wallace had previously worked with the latter in Fright Night Part 2 (1988).
It was shot over a period of three months in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada on a budget of $12 million. Given that the shooting entailed an adult cast with child counterparts, Wallace sought to have the adult actors meet with the children playing the younger versions of their characters: "We made a point of bringing the adult and children actors together for a couple of days, even though it was costly, since the adults and the kids have no scenes together. '' Filming locations in Vancouver included Stanley Park, Beaver Lake and Saint Thomas Aquinas High School Convent in North Vancouver. Wallace told The Hollywood Reporter that his job as a director "was to give Tim the stage and not get in his way too much. He was like Robin Williams in the way he brought a spontaneous improvisation to the part. '' Curry gave Pennywise a Bronx accent in order to sound like "an old - time Catskills comic ''. "I just let it happen, '' Curry said. "Clowns are your worst fear realized. I think I scared a lot of children. ''
Original storyboards for Pennywise featured exaggerated cheekbones, a sharp chin, and bulbous forehead. According to director Wallace, "Tim (Curry) objected strongly to all the rubber. He had recently been in several movies which covered him in prosthetics and I 'm sure he felt all the glue and latex would just get in his way. He was right, of course. With those eyes, and that mouth, and his crazy, sardonic sense of humor, less turned out to be more in the makeup department. ''
Special effects coordinator Bart Mixon began working on a head cast for the Pennywise character after Curry was cast in the role; he also designed three clay molds for testing. According to Mixon, he based the shape of Pennywise 's head on Lon Chaney in The Phantom of the Opera (1925), "stylized into a clown. '' Three different versions of the clown 's face were created, one of which resembled a hobo clown, another that was "a little meaner, '' and the final one seen in the series. To achieve the white complexion, Curry wore prosthetic make - up cream to make him appear "almost like a living cartoon. ''
The majority of the special effects in the film were done practically without digital alteration, aside from the shower scene in which Pennywise comes out of the drain; this scene was done with replacement animation, an animation technique similar to stop motion animation.
The spider figure in the conclusion of the series was hand - constructed by Mixon and his art department team. Wallace recalled of the spider:
We labored long and hard designing a spider that was very beefy and muscular, almost reptilian in appearance. It looked great in the drawings, and I even recall a little clay model Bart did, which sealed the deal and won my enthusiastic approval. Bart and team went back to Hollywood to work the whole thing up full - size, and shooting started. When the SVFX team returned to Vancouver and unpacked the full - size spider, what I expected to see was the big version of that original model, the beefy, reptilian thing that was scary on sight. What they assembled on set was very, very different. Not chunky at all, very lean and mean. ''
It originally aired on ABC in 1990 on the nights of November 18 and November 20. Part 1 was the fifth highest rated program of the week with an 18.5 / 29 rating / share, and being watched in 17.5 million households. Part 2 was the second highest rated program of the week with a 20.6 / 33 rating / share, and watched in 19.2 million households. According to writer Cohen, It was considered a major success for ABC, garnering nearly 30 million viewers over its two - night premiere.
As of September 2017, the film has a 57 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 14 reviews.
Matt Roush of USA Today gave the series a positive review, writing: "If Twin Peaks is a midnight movie for prime - time live, It is the mini-series equivalent of those Saturday matinee shockers that merrily warped a generation before Freddie and Jason began stalking their more graphic turf... Accept It on its own popcorn - munching terms, and keep the lights on high. '' Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly praised the performances in the film, but had a negative response to its special effects and pacing, noting: "It features a high level of ensemble acting rare for any horror film... in addition to It 's slow pace, I found the ending a big letdown -- unimaginative special effects animate the monster in its final incarnation. But the cast is terrific, Curry 's cackle is chilling, and King 's usual buried theme -- about the pain adults inflict on children without even realizing it (It?) -- is always worth pondering. '' The Hollywood Reporter called It "one big kicky ride thanks to the charismatic acting of Curry as savage, sneering malevolence. ''
Sandra Harris of Movie Pilot gave the film a positive review, noting: "There 's some gorgeous scenery too and a nice interweaving of flashbacks with the regular scenes. For Stephen King fans, this film is a must for your collection. For fans of horror in general, I 'd say you could do a lot worse. Take the phone off the hook and burrow under the duvet for three hours with the popcorn and the remote control. '' Ian Jane of DVD Talk highlighted the mini-series ' combination of childhood nostalgia with horror elements and praised Curry 's performance as Pennywise. Bloody Disgusting 's John Campopiano commended director Tommy Lee Wallace for "relying less on jump scares and more on creating an unsettling atmosphere to contrast against the kids and their stories. '' In 2017, Rolling Stone writer Sean T. Collins called the miniseries "legendary '' and commented that it had become a cult classic. He said although the miniseries "largely bungles Pennywise 's powers '', Curry 's portrayal of Pennywise is "the stuff sleepless nights are made of. He gloats, he giggles, he taunts, he devours the scenery like the monster himself devours middle - schoolers -- and he generally sears his way right into the brain of the viewer. '' Dan Stephens from the UK website Top 10 Films awarded the film four out of five stars. In his review Stephens praised the film 's story, character development, and suspense during the first half. But criticized the second half as disappointing and criticizing the lack of "friendship and togetherness '' of the main characters that was present during the first half, and clichéd ending.
Stephen King commented on the miniseries in a 2015 interview, and was appreciative of it: "You have to remember, my expectations were in the basement. Here was a book that sprawled over 1,000 pages, and they were going to cram it into four hours, with commercials. But the series really surprised me by how good it was. It 's a really ambitious adaptation of a really long book. ''
It was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1991. The original VHS release was on two cassette tapes, one for each part. The VHS and Laserdisc releases feature It as originally aired. In 1998, It was re-released on VHS, this time, on one cassette tape (in EP format). The film was later released on DVD in 2002 and on Blu - ray on October 4, 2016. Both the DVD and the Blu - ray feature an edited version of the film, which presents It as one "movie ''. The suicide scene at the end of Part 1 is shortened, the hotel scene from Part 2 is missing, and the graveyard scene toward the beginning of Part 2 is also slightly shortened to remove the on - screen credits that originally appeared.
A 2 - CD release of the mini-series ' complete score by Richard Bellis was released on November 15, 2011. The music of the film ranges from orchestral music to trumpet - heavy music that accompanies the setting of Derry to unsteady electronic instrument arrangements for the film 's scarier moments. Bellis won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a mini-series or a Special (Dramatic Underscore) for his work on the film.
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who played private ryan in the action film saving private ryan | Saving Private Ryan - wikipedia
Saving Private Ryan is a 1998 American epic war drama film set during the Invasion of Normandy in World War II. Directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Robert Rodat, the film is notable for its graphic portrayal of war, and for the intensity of its opening 27 minutes, which includes a depiction of the Omaha Beach assault during the Normandy landings. It follows United States Army Rangers Captain John H. Miller (Tom Hanks) and a squad (Tom Sizemore, Edward Burns, Barry Pepper, Giovanni Ribisi, Vin Diesel, Adam Goldberg, and Jeremy Davies) as they search for a paratrooper, Private First Class James Francis Ryan (Matt Damon), who is the last - surviving brother of four servicemen.
The film received critical acclaim, winning several awards for film, cast, and crew, as well as earning significant returns at the box office. The film grossed US $481.8 million worldwide, making it the second - highest - grossing film of the year. The film was nominated for 11 Academy Awards; Spielberg 's direction won his second Academy Award for Best Director, with four more awards going to the film. Saving Private Ryan was released on home video in May 1999, earning another $44 million from sales.
In 2014, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. ''
On the morning of June 6, 1944, American soldiers land on Omaha Beach as part of the Normandy Invasion. They suffer heavy losses in assaulting German positions defended by artillery and machine guns. Captain John H. Miller of the 2nd Ranger Battalion assembles a group to penetrate the German defenses, leading to a breakout from the beach. Elsewhere on the beach, a dead soldier is face down in the bloody surf; his pack is stenciled Ryan, S.
In Washington, D.C., at the U.S. War Department, General George Marshall learns that three of the four brothers of the Ryan family were killed in action and that the fourth son, James, is missing in action in Normandy. After reading Abraham Lincoln 's Bixby letter aloud for his staff, he orders that James Ryan be found and returned home immediately.
Three days after D - Day, Miller receives orders to find Ryan and bring him back from the front. He assembles six men from his company -- T / Sgt. Mike Horvath, Privates First Class Richard Reiben and Adrian Caparzo, Privates Stanley Mellish and Danny Jackson, medic Irwin Wade -- plus T / 5 Timothy Upham, a cartographer and interpreter borrowed from another unit. They move out to Neuville, where they meet a squad from the 101st Airborne Division, where Caparzo is killed by a German sniper. They locate a Private James Ryan, but quickly learn he is not their man. They eventually encounter a friend of James Ryan, who tells them that he is defending an important bridge in the town of Ramelle.
On the way to Ramelle, Miller decides to neutralize a German machine gun position, despite his men 's misgivings; Wade is killed in the skirmish. Miller, at Upham 's urging, declines to execute a surviving German (nicknamed "Steamboat Willie '') and sets him free on the condition that he surrender to the first Allied unit he encounters. Losing confidence in Miller 's leadership, Reiben declares his intention to desert, prompting a confrontation with Horvath, which Miller defuses by disclosing his civilian background as a teacher, about which his men had set up a betting pool. Reiben reluctantly decides to stay.
At Ramelle, Miller and the squad find a small group of paratroopers preparing to defend the bridge; one is Ryan. Miller tells Ryan about his brothers and their orders to bring him home and that two men had been lost in finding him. He is distressed at the loss of his brothers, but asks Miller to tell his mother that he intends to stay "with the only brothers (he has) left. '' Miller decides to join his unit with the paratroopers in defense of the bridge against the imminent German attack. Miller forms ambush positions throughout the ruined town, preparing to attack arriving tanks with Molotov cocktails, detonation cords and "sticky bombs '' made from socks filled with Composition B.
Elements of the 2nd SS Panzer Division arrive with infantry and armor. Although they inflict heavy casualties on the Germans, most of the paratroopers, along with Jackson, Mellish, and Horvath are killed, while Upham avoids fighting. Miller attempts to blow the bridge, but is shot and mortally wounded by Steamboat Willie, who has rejoined the Germans. Just before a Tiger tank reaches the bridge, an American P - 51 Mustang flies overhead and destroys the tank, followed by American armored units which rout the remaining Germans. Witnessing Miller 's shooting, Upham confronts Steamboat Willie and his group as they attempt to retreat. Steamboat Willie raises his hands in surrender, believing that Upham will accept because of their earlier encounter. Instead, Upham kills him, but lets the other Germans flee.
Reiben and Ryan are with Miller as he dies and says his last words, "James... earn this. Earn it. '' In the present day, the elderly Ryan and his family visit the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial and discover Miller 's grave. Ryan expresses his appreciation for what Miller and the others did for him. He then asks his wife if he is a "good man '' worthy of their sacrifices, to which she tells him he is. Ryan comes to attention and salutes Miller 's grave.
In 1994, Robert Rodat wrote the script for the film. Rodat 's script was submitted to producer Mark Gordon, who liked it and in turn passed it along to Spielberg to direct. The film is loosely based on the World War II life stories of the Niland brothers. A shooting date was set for June 27, 1997.
In casting the film Spielberg sought to create a cast that "looked '' the part, stating in an interview, "You know, the people in World War II actually looked different than people look today '', adding to this end that he cast partly based on wanting the cast "to match the faces I saw on the newsreels. ''
Before filming began, several of the film 's stars, including Edward Burns, Barry Pepper, Vin Diesel, Adam Goldberg, Giovanni Ribisi, and Tom Hanks, endured ten days of "boot camp '' training led by Marine veteran Dale Dye and Warriors, Inc., a California - based company that specializes in training actors for realistic military portrayals. Matt Damon was intentionally not brought into the camp, to make the rest of the group feel resentment towards the character. Spielberg had stated that his main intention in forcing the actors to go through the boot camp was not to learn the proper techniques but rather "because I wanted them to respect what it was like to be a soldier. ''
The film 's second scene is a 20 + minute sequence recounting the landing on the beaches of Normandy. Spielberg chose to include this particularly violent sequence in order "to bring the audience onto the stage with me '' specifically noting that he did not want the "audience to be spectators '' but rather he wanted to "demand them to be participants with those kids who had never seen combat before in real life, and get to the top of Omaha Beach together. ''
Spielberg had already demonstrated his interest in World War II themes with the films 1941, Empire of the Sun, Schindler 's List, and the Indiana Jones series. Spielberg later co-produced the World War II themed television miniseries Band of Brothers and its counterpart The Pacific with Tom Hanks. When asked about this by American Cinematographer, Spielberg said, "I think that World War II is the most significant event of the last 100 years; the fate of the baby boomers and even Generation X was linked to the outcome. Beyond that, I 've just always been interested in World War II. My earliest films, which I made when I was about 14 years old, were combat pictures that were set both on the ground and in the air. For years now, I 've been looking for the right World War II story to shoot, and when Robert Rodat wrote Saving Private Ryan, I found it. ''
The D - Day scenes were shot in Ballinesker Beach, Curracloe Strand, Ballinesker, just east of Curracloe, County Wexford, Ireland. Hanks recalled to Roger Ebert that although he realized it was a movie, the experience still hit him hard, stating, "The first day of shooting the D - Day sequences, I was in the back of the landing craft, and that ramp went down and I saw the first 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 rows of guys just getting blown to bits. In my head, of course, I knew it was special effects, but I still was n't prepared for how tactile it was. '' Filming began June 27, 1997, and lasted for two months. Some shooting was done in Normandy, for the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in Colleville - sur - Mer and Calvados. Other scenes were filmed in England, such as a former British Aerospace factory in Hatfield, Hertfordshire, Thame Park, Oxfordshire and Wiltshire. Production was due to also take place in Seaham, County Durham, but government restrictions disallowed this.
Saving Private Ryan has received critical acclaim for its realistic portrayal of World War II combat. In particular, the sequence depicting the Omaha Beach landings was named the "best battle scene of all time '' by Empire magazine and was ranked number one on TV Guide 's list of the "50 Greatest Movie Moments ''. The scene cost US $12 million and involved up to 1,500 extras, some of whom were members of the Irish Reserve Defence Forces. Members of local reenactment groups such as the Second Battle Group were cast as extras to play German soldiers. In addition, twenty to thirty actual amputees were used to portray American soldiers maimed during the landing. Spielberg did not storyboard the sequence, as he wanted spontaneous reactions and for "the action to inspire me as to where to put the camera ''.
The historical representation of Charlie Company 's actions, led by its commander, Captain Ralph E. Goranson, was well maintained in the opening sequence. The sequence and details of the events are very close to the historical record, including the sea sickness experienced by many of the soldiers as the landing craft moved toward the shoreline, significant casualties among the men as they disembarked from the boats, and difficulty linking up with adjacent units on the shore.
The distinctive signature "ping '' of the US soldiers ' M1 Garand rifles ejecting their ammunition clips is heard throughout the battle sequence. The contextual details of the Company 's actions were well maintained, for instance, the correct code names for the sector Charlie Company assaulted, and adjacent sectors, were used. Included in the cinematic depiction of the landing was a follow - on mission of clearing a bunker and trench system at the top of the cliffs which was not part of the original mission objectives for Charlie Company, but which they did undertake after the assault on the beach.
The landing craft used included twelve actual World War II examples, 10 LCVPs and 2 LCMs, standing in for the British LCAs that the Ranger Companies rode in to the beach during Operation Overlord. The filmmakers used underwater cameras to better depict soldiers being hit by bullets in the water. Forty barrels of fake blood were used to simulate the effect of blood in the seawater. This degree of realism was more difficult to achieve when depicting World War II German armored vehicles, as few examples survive in operating condition. The Tiger I tanks in the film were copies built on the chassis of old, but functional, Soviet T - 34 tanks. The two vehicles described in the film as Panzers were meant to portray Marder III tank destroyers. One was created for the film using the chassis of a Czech - built Panzer 38 (t) tank similar to the construction of the original Marder III; the other was a cosmetically modified Swedish SAV m / 43 assault gun, which also used the 38 (t) chassis.
There are, however, historical inaccuracies in the film 's depiction of the Normandy campaign. At the time of the mission, American forces from the two American beach areas, Utah and Omaha, had not yet linked up. In reality, a Ranger team operating out of the Omaha beach area would have had to move through the heavily enemy - occupied city of Carentan, or swim or boat across the estuary linking Carentan to the channel, or transfer by boat to the Utah landing area. On the other hand, US forces moving out of Utah would have had direct and much shorter routes, relatively unencumbered by enemy positions, and were already in contact with some teams from both US airborne divisions landed in the area.
The Utah beach landings, however, were relatively uncontested, with assault units landing on largely unoccupied beaches and experiencing far less action than the landings at Omaha. The filmmakers chose to begin the narrative with a depiction of the more dramatic story of Omaha, despite the strategic inaccuracy of an impossible mission that could easily have been pursued from the other beach area. In addition, one of the most notable of the operational flaws is the depiction of the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich as the adversary during the fictional Battle of Ramelle. The 2nd SS was not engaged in Normandy until July, and then at Caen against the British and Canadians, 100 miles east. Furthermore, the Merderet River bridges were not an objective of the 101st Airborne Division but of the 82nd Airborne Division, part of Mission Boston.
Much has also been said about various "tactical errors '' made by both the German and American forces in the film 's climactic battle. Spielberg responded, saying that in many scenes he opted to replace sound military tactics and strict historical accuracy for dramatic effect. Some other technical errors were also made, often censored, including the mistaken reversed orientation of the beach barriers; the tripod obstructions with a mine at the apex.
To achieve a tone and quality that was true to the story as well as reflected the period in which it is set, Spielberg once again collaborated with cinematographer Janusz Kamiński, saying, "Early on, we both knew that we did not want this to look like a Technicolor extravaganza about World War II, but more like color newsreel footage from the 1940s, which is very desaturated and low - tech. '' Kamiński had the protective coating stripped from the camera lenses, making them closer to those used in the 1940s. He explains that "without the protective coating, the light goes in and starts bouncing around, which makes it slightly more diffused and a bit softer without being out of focus. '' The cinematographer completed the overall effect by putting the negative through bleach bypass, a process that reduces brightness and color saturation. The shutter timing was set to 90 or 45 degrees for many of the battle sequences, as opposed to the standard of 180 - degree timing. Kamiński clarifies, "In this way, we attained a certain staccato in the actors ' movements and a certain crispness in the explosions, which makes them slightly more realistic. ''
Saving Private Ryan was a critical and commercial success and is credited with contributing to a resurgence in America 's interest in World War II. Old and new films, video games, and novels about the war enjoyed renewed popularity after its release. The film 's use of desaturated colors, hand - held cameras, and tight angles has profoundly influenced subsequent films and video games. Saving Private Ryan was released in 2,463 theaters on July 24, 1998, and grossed $30.5 million on its opening weekend. The film grossed $216.5 million in the US and Canada. and $265.3 million in other territories, bringing its worldwide total to $481.8 million and making it the highest - grossing US film of the year. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 45.74 million tickets in the United States and Canada.
The film received critical acclaim and has a ' certified fresh ' rating of 92 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 130 reviews with an average score of 8.6 out of 10. The consensus states "Anchored by another winning performance from Hanks, Spielberg 's unflinchingly realistic war film virtually redefines the genre. '' The film also has a score of 90 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 34 reviews indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Much of the praise went for the realistic battle scenes and the actors ' performances. However, it did earn some criticism for ignoring the contributions of several other countries to the D - Day landings in general and at Omaha Beach specifically. The most direct example of the latter is that during the actual landing the 2nd Rangers disembarked from British ships and were taken to Omaha Beach by Royal Navy landing craft (LCAs). The film depicts them as being United States Coast Guard - crewed craft (LCVPs and LCMs) from an American ship, the USS Thomas Jefferson (APA - 30). This criticism was far from universal with other critics recognizing the director 's intent to make an "American '' film. The film was not released in Malaysia after Spielberg refused to cut the violent scenes; however, the film was finally released there on DVD with an 18SG certificate much later in 2005. Many critics associations, such as New York Film Critics Circle and Los Angeles Film Critics Association, chose Saving Private Ryan as Film of the Year. Roger Ebert gave it four stars out of four and called it "a powerful experience ''.
Filmmaker Robert Altman wrote a letter to Spielberg stating, "Private Ryan was awesome -- best I 've seen. '' Filmmaker Quentin Tarantino has expressed admiration for the film and has cited it as an influence on his 2009 film, Inglourious Basterds.
Many World War II veterans stated that the film was the most realistic depiction of combat they had ever seen. The film was so realistic that combat veterans of D - Day and Vietnam left theaters rather than finish watching the opening scene depicting the Normandy invasion. Their visits to posttraumatic stress disorder counselors rose in number after the film 's release, and many counselors advised "' more psychologically vulnerable ' '' veterans to avoid watching it. The Department of Veterans Affairs set up a nationwide hotline for veterans who were affected by the film, and less than two weeks after the film was released it had already received over 170 calls.
The film has gained criticism and negative reviews from war veterans and film critics. Film director and military veteran Oliver Stone has accused the film of promoting "the worship of World War II as the good war, '' and has placed it alongside films such as Gladiator and Black Hawk Down that he believes were well - made, but may have inadvertently contributed to Americans ' readiness for the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In defense of the film 's portrait of warfare, Brian De Palma commented, "The level of violence in something like Saving Private Ryan makes sense because Spielberg is trying to show something about the brutality of what happened. '' Actor Richard Todd, who performed in The Longest Day and was amongst the first of the Allied soldiers to land in Normandy (Operation Tonga), said the film was "Rubbish. Overdone. '' American academic Paul Fussell, who saw combat in France during World War II, objected to what he described as, "the way Spielberg 's Saving Private Ryan, after an honest, harrowing, 15 - minute opening visualizing details of the unbearable bloody mess at Omaha Beach, degenerated into a harmless, uncritical patriotic performance apparently designed to thrill 12 - year - old boys during the summer bad - film season. Its genre was pure cowboys and Indians, with the virtuous cowboys of course victorious. ''
The film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards, and won five including Best Cinematography, Best Sound Mixing, Best Sound Effects Editing, Best Film Editing, and Best Director for Spielberg, but lost the Best Picture award to Shakespeare in Love, being one of a few that have won the Best Director award without also winning Best Picture. The Academy 's decision to not award the film with the Best Picture Oscar has resulted in much criticism in recent years, with many considering it as one of the biggest snubs in the ceremony 's history.
The film also won the Golden Globes for Best Motion Picture -- Drama and Director, the BAFTA Award for Special Effects and Sound, the Directors Guild of America Award, a Grammy Award for Best Film Soundtrack, the Producers Guild of America Golden Laurel Award, and the Saturn Award for Best Action, Adventure, or Thriller Film. The American Film Institute has included Saving Private Ryan in many of its lists, ranking it as the 71st greatest American movie in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition), as well as the 45th most thrilling film in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Thrills, the 10th most inspiring in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Cheers, and the eighth best epic film in "AFI 's 10 Top 10 ''.
On Veterans Day from 2001 -- 2004, the American Broadcasting Company aired the film uncut and with limited commercial interruption. The network airings were given a TV - MA rating, as the violent battle scenes and the profanity were left intact. The 2004 airing was marred by pre-emptions in many markets because of the language, in the backlash of Super Bowl XXXVIII 's halftime show controversy. However, critics and veterans ' groups such as the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars assailed those stations and their owners, including Hearst - Argyle Television (owner of 12 ABC affiliates); Scripps Howard Broadcasting (owner of six); and Belo (owner of four) for putting profits ahead of programming and honoring those who gave their lives at wartime, saying the stations made more money running their own programming instead of being paid by the network to carry the film, especially during a sweeps period.
A total of 65 ABC affiliates -- 28 % of the network -- did not clear the available timeslot for the film, even with the offer of The Walt Disney Company, ABC 's parent, to pay all fines for language to the Federal Communications Commission. In the end, however, no complaints were lodged against ABC affiliates who showed Ryan, perhaps because even conservative watchdogs like the Parents Television Council supported the unedited rebroadcast of the film. Additionally, some ABC affiliates in other markets that were near affected markets, such as Youngstown, Ohio, ABC affiliate WYTV (which is viewable in parts of the Columbus, Cleveland, and Pittsburgh markets, none of which aired the film) and Gainesville, Florida, ABC affiliate WCJB - TV (which is viewable in parts of the Orlando and Tampa markets), still aired the film and gave those nearby markets the option of viewing the film. TNT and Turner Classic Movies have also broadcast the film.
The film was released on home video in May 1999 with a VHS release that earned over $44 million. The DVD release became available in November of the same year, and was one of the best - selling titles of the year, with over 1.5 million units sold. The DVD was released in two separate versions: one with Dolby Digital and the other with DTS 5.1 surround sound. Besides the different 5.1 tracks, the two DVDs are identical. The film was also issued in a very limited 2 - disc LaserDisc release in November 1999, making it one of the very last feature films to ever be issued in this format, as LaserDiscs ceased manufacturing and distribution by the year 's end, due in part to the growing popularity of DVDs.
In 2004, a Saving Private Ryan special edition DVD was released to commemorate the 60th anniversary of D - Day. This two - disc edition was also included in a box set titled World War II Collection, along with two documentaries produced by Spielberg, Price For Peace (about the Pacific War) and Shooting War (about war photographers, narrated by Tom Hanks). The film was released on Blu - ray Disc on April 26, 2010 in the UK and on May 4, 2010 in the US, as part of Paramount Home Video 's premium Sapphire Series. However, only weeks after its release, Paramount issued a recall due to audio synchronization problems. The studio issued an official statement acknowledging the problem, which they attributed to an authoring error by Technicolor that escaped the quality control process, and that they had already begun the process of replacing the defective discs.
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why baguio is the summer capital of the philippines | Baguio - wikipedia
Baguio, officially the City of Baguio (Ibaloi: Ciudad ne Bag - iw; Ilokano: Siudad ti Baguio; Filipino: Lungsod ng Baguio) and popularly referred to as Baguio City, is a mountain resort city located in Northern Luzon, Philippines. It is known as the Summer Capital of the Philippines, owing to its cool climate since the city is located approximately 1,540 meters (5,050 feet) above sea level in the Luzon tropical pine forests ecoregion, which also makes it conducive for the growth of mossy plants and orchids.
Baguio is classified as a Highly Urbanized City (HUC). It is geographically located within Benguet, serving as the provincial capital from 1901 to 1916, but has since been administered independently from the province following its conversion into a chartered city. The city is the center of business, commerce, and education in northern Luzon, as well as the regional center of the Cordillera Administrative Region. According to the 2015 census, Baguio has a population of 345,366.
Baguio was established as a hill station by the Americans in 1900 at the site of an Ibaloi village known as Kafagway. It was the United States ' only hill station in Asia. The name of the city is derived from bag - iw, the Ibaloi word for "moss ''.
Baguio used to be a vast mountain zone with lush highland forests, teeming with various wildlife such as the indigenous deer, cloud rats, Philippine eagles, Philippine warty pigs, and numerous species of flora. The area was a hunting ground of the indigenous peoples, notably the Ibalois and other Igorot ethnic groups. During the 14th and 15th centuries, it was under the control of the Kingdom of Tondo until it returned to an indigenous plutocracy by the 16th century. When the Spanish arrived in the Philippines, the area was never fully subjugated by Spain due to the intensive defense tactics of the indigenous Igorots of the Cordilleras.
During the period of Spanish rule in 1846, the Spaniards established a comandancia in the nearby town of La Trinidad, and organized Benguet into 31 rancherías, one of which was Kafagway, a wide grassy area where the present Burnham Park is situated. Most of the lands in Kafagway were owned by Ibalois prior to the appointment of Mateo Cariño as chieftain. The Spanish presidencia, which was located at Bag - iw at the vicinity of Guisad Valley was later moved to Cariño 's house where the current city hall stands. Bag - iw, a local term for "moss '' once abundant in the area was spelled by the Spaniards as Baguio, which served as the name of the rancheria.
During the Philippine Revolution in July 1899, Filipino revolutionary forces under Pedro Paterno liberated La Trinidad from the Spaniards and took over the government, proclaiming Benguet as a province of the new Philippine Republic. Baguio was converted into a "town '', with Mateo Cariño being the presidente (mayor).
When the United States occupied the Philippines after the Spanish -- American War, Baguio was selected to become the summer capital of the Philippine Islands. Governor - General William Taft, on his first visit in 1901, noted the "air as bracing as Adirondacks or Murray Bay... temperature this hottest month in the Philippines on my cottage porch at three in the afternoon sixty - eight. ''
In 1903, Filipinos, Japanese and Chinese workers were hired to build Kennon Road, the first road directly connecting Baguio with the lowlands of Pangasinan. Before this, the only road to Benguet was Naguilian Road, and it was largely a horse trail at higher elevations. Camp John Hay was established on October 25, 1903 after President Theodore Roosevelt signed an executive order setting aside land in Benguet for a military reservation for the United States Army. It was named after Roosevelt 's Secretary of State, John Milton Hay.
The Mansion, built in 1908, served as the official residence of the American Governor - General during the summer to escape Manila 's heat. The Mansion was designed by architect William E. Parsons based on preliminary plans by architect Daniel Burnham.
Burnham, one of the earliest successful modern city planners, designed the mountain retreat following the tenets of the City Beautiful movement. In 1904, the rest of the city was planned out by Burnham. On 1 September 1909, Baguio was declared as a chartered city and nicknamed the "Summer Capital of the Philippines ''.
The period after saw further development of Baguio with the construction of Wright Park in honor of Governor - General Luke Edward Wright, Burnham Park in honor of Burnham, Governor Pack Road, and Session Road.
Prior to World War II, Baguio was the summer capital of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, and the home of the Philippine Military Academy.
Following the Japanese invasion of the Philippines in 1941, the Imperial Japanese Army used Camp John Hay, an American installation in Baguio, as a military base. The nearby Philippine Constabulary base, Camp Holmes, was used as an internment camp for about 500 civilian enemy aliens, mostly Americans, between April 1942 and December 1944.
By late March 1945, Baguio was within range of the American and Filipino military artillery. President José P. Laurel of the Second Philippine Republic, a puppet state established in 1943, departed the city on 22 March and reached Taiwan eight days later, on 30 March. The remainder of the Second Republic government, along with Japanese civilians, were ordered to evacuate Baguio on March 30. General Tomoyuki Yamashita and his staff then relocated to Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya.
A major offensive to capture Baguio did not occur until mid-April, when the United States Army 's 37th Infantry Division, minus the 145th Infantry Regiment, was released from garrisoning Manila to launch a two - division assault into Baguio from the west and south.
On 26 April 1945, Filipino troops of the 1st, 2nd, 12th, 13th, 15th and 16th Infantry Division of the Philippine Commonwealth Army, 1st Constabulary Regiment of the Philippine Constabulary and the USAFIP - NL 66th Infantry Regiment and the American troops of the 33rd and 37th Infantry Division of the United States Army entered Baguio and fought against Japanese Imperial Army forces led by General Yamashita, which started the Battle of Baguio.
Baguio is the site of the formal surrender of General Yamashita and Vice Admiral Okochi at Camp John Hay 's American Residence in the presence of lieutenant generals Arthur Percival and Jonathan Wainwright.
The 1990 Luzon earthquake (M = 7.8) destroyed much of the city of Baguio on July 16, 1990. A significant number of buildings and infrastructure were damaged, including the Hyatt Terraces Plaza, Nevada Hotel, Baguio Park Hotel, FRB Hotel and Baguio Hilltop Hotel; major highways were temporarily severed; and a number of houses were leveled or severely shaken with a significant loss of life. Some of the fallen buildings were built on or near fault lines. Baguio was rebuilt with the aid from the national government and various international donors such as Japan, Singapore and other countries.
Baguio is located some 1,540 meters (5,050 feet) above sea level, nestled within the Cordillera Central mountain range in northern Luzon. The city is enclosed by the province of Benguet. It covers a small area of 57.5 square kilometres (22.2 sq mi). Most of the developed part of the city is built on uneven, hilly terrain of the northern section. When Daniel Burnham drew plans for the city, he made the City Hall a reference point where the city limits extend 8.2 kilometres (5.1 mi) from east to west and 7.2 kilometres (4.5 mi) from north to south.
Baguio is politically subdivided into 129 barangays.
Under the Köppen climate classification, Baguio features a subtropical highland climate (Cwb) that closely borders a tropical monsoon climate (Am). The city is known for its mild climate owing to its high elevation. The temperature in the city is usually about 7 -- 8 degrees Celsius lower than the temperature in the lowland area. Average temperature ranges from 15 to 23 ° C (59 to 73 ° F) with the lowest temperatures between November and February. The lowest recorded temperature was 6.3 ° C (43.3 ° F) on January 18, 1961 and in contrast, the all - time high of 30.4 ° C (86.7 ° F) was recorded on March 15, 1988 during the 1988 El Niño season. The temperature seldom exceeds 26 ° C (79 ° F) even during the warmest part of the year.
Like many other cities with a subtropical highland climate, Baguio receives noticeably less precipitation during its dry season. However, the city has an extraordinary amount of precipitation during the rainy season with the months of July and August having, on average, more than 700 mm (28 in) of rain. The city averages over 3,100 mm (122 in) of precipitation annually.
The city 's population as of May 2000 was placed at 250,000 persons. The city has a very young age structure as 65.5 percent of its total population is below thirty years old. Females comprise 51.3 percent of the population as against 48.7 percent for males. The household population comprises 98 percent of the total population or 245000 persons. With an average of 4.6 members per household, a total of 53,261 household are gleaned. During the peak of the annual tourist influx, particularly during the Lenten period, transients triple the population.
The majority of Baguio 's population are Roman Catholics. Other Christian denominations and sects in the city include the Pentecostal Missionary Church of Christ (4th Watch), Episcopal Church, Iglesia ni Cristo, Iglesia Filipina Independiente, Jehovah 's Witnesses, United Church of Christ in the Philippines (UCCP), Jesus Is Lord Church (JIL), Jesus Miracle Crusade (JMC), the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS), the United Methodist Church, Assemblies of God (AG), and Baptist, Presbyterian, Lutheran, Members Church of God International (MCGI), Bible Fundamental, and other Evangelical churches.
There is also a significant number of Muslims in the cities, consisting of Filipino Muslims of different ethnicities and Muslims of other nationalities. The largest mosque in the area is Masjid Al - Maarif, which is a known centre of Islamic studies in the Philippines. The city also has smaller numbers of Buddhists and atheists, along with members of other faiths.
Baguio is the melting pot of different peoples and cultures in the Cordillera Administrative Region. Because of this, numerous investments and business opportunities are lured to the city. Baguio has a large retail industry, with shoppers coming to the city to take advantage of the diversity of competitively priced commercial products on sale. The city is also popular with bargain hunters -- some of the most popular bargaining areas include Baguio Market and Maharlika Livelihood Center. Despite the city 's relatively small size, it is home to numerous shopping centers and malls catering to increasing commercial and tourist activity in Baguio: these include SM City Baguio, Baguio Center Mall, Cooyeesan Hotel Plaza, Abanao Square, The Maharlika Livelihood Center, Porta Vaga Mall and Centerpoint Plaza.
Various food and retail businesses run by local residents proliferate, forming a key part of Baguio 's cultural landscape. Several retail outlets and dining outlets are situated along Bonifacio Street, Session Road, near Teacher 's Camp, and Baguio Fastfood Center near the market.
The areas of Session Road, Harrison Road, Magsaysay Avenue and Abanao Street comprise the trade center of the city, where commercial and business structures such as cinemas, hotels, restaurants, department stores, and shopping centers are concentrated. The City Market offers a wide array of locally sourced goods and products, usually from Benguet province, which includes colorful woven fabrics and hand - strung beads to primitive wood carvings, cut flowers, strawberries and "Baguio '' vegetables, the latter often denoting vegetable types that do well in the cooler growing climate. (Strawberries and string beans -- referred to as Baguio beans across the Philippines -- are shipped to major urban markets across the archipelago.)
Another key source of income for Baguio is its position as the commercial hub for the province of Benguet. Many agricultural and mining goods produced in Benguet pass through Baguio for processing, sale or further distribution to the "lowlands ''.
Baguio is one of the country 's most profitable and best investment areas.
A Philippine Economic Zone Authority (PEZA) - accredited business and industrial park called the Baguio City Economic Zone (BCEZ) is located in the southern part of the city between Camp John Hay Country Club and Philippine Military Academy in Barangay Loakan. Firms located in the BCEZ mostly produce and export knitted clothing, transistors, small components for vehicles, electronics and computer parts. Notable firms include Texas Instruments Philippines, which is the second largest exporter in the country. Other companies headquartered inside the economic zone are Moog Philippines, Inc., Linde Philippines, Inc., LTX Philippines Corporation, Baguio - Ayalaland Technohub, and Sitel Philippines, Baguio.
Outsourcing also contributes to the city 's economy and employment. There are many call centers present in the city. Teleperformance Baguio is headquartered in front of Sunshine Park.
Other call centers in downtown are Optimum Transsource, Sterling Global and Global Translogic. While others like Convergys and IHG (InterContinental Hotels Group) have call centers in Camp John Hay away from the city proper. Tech - Synergy operates a large transcription and backoffice operation near Wright park. Sitel ThoughtFocus Technologies, a leading US provider of Software and KPO services decided to set up its KPO operation center in Baguio.
The languages commonly spoken in Baguio are Ibaloi, Kankana - ey and Ifugao, as well as Ilocano, Pangasinan and Kapampangan. Tagalog and English are also understood by many inhabitants within and around the city.
The Panagbenga Festival, the annual Flower Festival, is celebrated each February to showcase Baguio 's rich cultural heritage, its appreciation of the environment, and inclination towards the arts. The indigenous people were initially wary with government - led tourism due to a perceived threat that the government would interfere with or change their communities ' rituals.
The city became a haven for many Filipino artists in the 1970s -- 1990s. Drawn by the cool climate and low cost of living, artists such as Ben Cabrera (now a National Artist) and filmmaker Butch Perez relocated to the city. At the same time, locals such as mixed - media artist Santiago Bose and filmmaker Kidlat Tahimik were also establishing work in the city. Even today, artists like painters and sculptors from all over the country are drawn to the Baguio Arts Festival which is held annually.
Baguio has been included in UNESCO 's Creative Cities Network due to craft and folk art traditions of the city. The city is the first city to be part of the inter-city network which aims to promote the creative industries as well as integrate culture in sustainable urban development.
Tourism is one of Baguio 's main industries due to its cool climate and history. The city is one of the country 's top tourist destinations. During the year end holidays some people from the lowlands prefer spending their vacation in Baguio, to experience cold temperatures they rarely have in their home provinces. Also, during summer, especially during Holy Week, tourists from all over the country flock to the city. During this time, the total number of people in the city doubles. To accommodate all these people there are more than 80 hotels and inns available. Local festivities such as the Panagbenga Festival also attracts both local and foreign tourists.
Baguio is the lone Philippine destination in the 2011 TripAdvisor Traveller 's Choice Destinations Awards (Asia category) with the city being among the top 25 destinations in Asia. The Burnham Park, Mines View Park, Teacher 's Camp, and Baguio Cathedral are among the top tourist sites in Baguio.
Like most Philippine cities, Baguio is governed by a mayor, vice mayor, and 12 councilors. However, as a highly urbanized city with its own charter, it is not subject to the jurisdiction of Benguet province, of which it was formerly a part. The current mayor of Baguio is Mauricio Domogan, and the lone congressional district is currently represented by Congressman Mark Go. They were elected in May 2016.
The Baguio Athletic Bowl within the grounds of Burnham Park is one of Baguio 's primary sporting venues. Baguio has also hosted the 1978 World Chess Championship match between Anatoly Karpov and Viktor Korchnoi.
Loakan Airport is the lone airport serving the general area of Baguio. The airport is classified as a trunkline airport, or a major commercial domestic airport, by the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines but there are currently no regular commercial services in the airport. It is located south of the city center. Due to the limited length of the runway which is 1,802 meters or 5,912 feet, it is restricted to commuter size aircraft. The airport is used primarily by helicopters, turbo - prop and piston engine aircraft, although on rare occasion light business jets (LBJ) have flown into the airport.
The three main access roads leading to Baguio from the lowlands are Kennon Road (formerly known as the Benguet Road), Aspiras -- Palispis Highway (previously known as Marcos Highway) and Naguilian Road, also known as Quirino Highway. Kennon Road starts at Rosario, La Union and winds upwards through a narrow, steep valley. This is often the fastest route to Baguio but it is particularly perilous, with landslides during the rainy season and sharp dropoffs, some without guardrails.
The Aspiras Highway, which starts in Agoo, La Union and connects to Palispis Highway, at the boundary of Benguet and La Union provinces, and Naguilian Road, which starts in Bauang, La Union, are both longer routes but are much safer than Kennon Road especially during rainy season, and are the preferred routes for coaches, buses and trucks.
The Benguet - Nueva Vizcaya Road, which links Baguio to Aritao in Nueva Vizcaya province, traverses the towns of Itogon, Bokod, and Kayapa.
Another road, Halsema Highway, (also known as the Baguio - Bontoc Road or the Mountain Trail) leads north through the mountainous portion of the provinces of Benguet and Mountain Province. It starts at the northern border of Baguio with La Trinidad.
There are several bus lines linking Baguio with Manila and Central Luzon, and provinces such as Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija, Aurora, Cavite, La Union, and those in the Ilocos regions. Taxis and jeepneys are common forms of transportation in the city.
Baguio is a university town with 141,088 students out of the 301,926 population count done in the year 2007. It is the center of education in the entire North Luzon. There are eight major institutions of higher education in Baguio: the Saint Louis University, University of the Philippines Baguio, Philippine Military Academy, University of Baguio, University of the Cordilleras, Baguio Central University, Pines City Colleges, and Easter College.
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edgar allan poe short stories the tell tale heart | The Tell - Tale Heart - wikipedia
"The Tell - Tale Heart '' is a short story by American writer Edgar Allan Poe, first published in 1843. It is relayed by an unnamed narrator who endeavors to convince the reader of his sanity while simultaneously describing a murder he committed. The victim was an old man with a filmy "vulture - eye '', as the narrator calls it. The narrator emphasizes the careful calculation of the murder, and he hides the body by dismembering it, and hiding it under the floorboards. Ultimately, the narrator 's feelings of guilt, or a mental disturbance, result in him hearing a thumping sound, which he interprets as the dead man 's beating heart.
The story was first published in James Russell Lowell 's The Pioneer in January 1843. "The Tell - Tale Heart '' is widely considered a classic of the Gothic fiction genre and is one of Poe 's most famous short stories.
It is unclear what relationship, if any, the old man and his murderer share. The narrator denies having any feelings of hatred or resentment for the man who had, he says, never wronged him. He also denies that he killed for greed. The specific motivation for murder (aside from the narrator 's dislike of the old man 's eye), the relationship between narrator and old man, and other details are left unclear.
It has been speculated that the old man is a father figure, the narrator 's landlord, or that the narrator works for the old man as a servant, and that perhaps his "vulture - eye '' represents some sort of veiled secret, or power. The ambiguity and lack of details about the two main characters stand in stark contrast to the specific plot details leading up to the murder.
"The Tell - Tale Heart '' is a first - person narrative of an unnamed narrator, who insists he is sane but is suffering from a disease (nervousness) which causes "over-acuteness of the senses ''. Due to the ambiguity surrounding the identity of the story 's narrator, the narrator 's gender can not be known for certain. However, for ease of description, masculine pronouns are used in this article.
The old man with whom he lives has a clouded, pale, blue "vulture - like '' eye, which distresses the narrator so much that he plots to murder the old man, despite also insisting that he loves the old man. The narrator insists that his careful precision in committing the murder proves that he can not possibly be insane. For seven nights, the narrator opens the door of the old man 's room in order to shine a sliver of light onto the "evil eye ''. However, the old man 's vulture - eye is always closed, making it impossible to "do the work ''.
On the eighth night, the old man awakens after the narrator 's hand slips and makes a noise, interrupting the narrator 's nightly ritual. But the narrator does not draw back and, after some time, decides to open his lantern. A single thin ray of light shines out and lands precisely on the "evil eye '', revealing that it is wide open. Hearing the old man 's heart beating loudly and dangerously fast from terror, the narrator decides to strike, jumping out with a loud yell and smothering the old man with his own bed. The narrator then dismembers the body and conceals the pieces under the floorboards, and ensures the concealment of all signs of the crime. Even so, the old man 's scream during the night causes a neighbor to report to the police, who the narrator invites in to look around. He claims that the screams heard were his own in a nightmare and that the man is absent in the country. Confident that they will not find any evidence of the murder, the narrator brings chairs for them and they sit in the old man 's room, on the very spot where the body is concealed, and suspect nothing, as the narrator has a pleasant and easy manner about him.
The narrator begins to feel uncomfortable and notices a ringing in his ears. As the ringing grows louder, the narrator comes to the conclusion that it is the heartbeat of the old man coming from under the floorboards. The sound increases steadily, though the officers seem to pay no attention to it. Terrified by the violent beating of the heart, and convinced that the officers are aware not only of the heartbeat, but also of his guilt, the narrator breaks down and confesses, telling them to tear up the floorboards to reveal the remains of the old man 's body.
"The Tell - Tale Heart '' was first published in January 1843 in the inaugural issue of The Pioneer: A Literary and Critical Magazine, a short - lived Boston magazine edited by James Russell Lowell and Robert Carter who were listed as the "proprietors '' on the front cover. The magazine was published in Boston by Leland and Whiting and in Philadelphia by Drew and Scammell.
Poe was likely paid $10 for the story. Its original publication included an epigraph which quoted Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's poem "A Psalm of Life ''. The story was slightly revised when republished in the August 23, 1845, edition of the Broadway Journal. This edition omitted Longfellow 's poem because Poe believed it was plagiarized. "The Tell - Tale Heart '' was reprinted several additional times during Poe 's lifetime.
"The Tell - Tale Heart '' uses an unreliable narrator. The exactness with which the narrator recounts murdering the old man, as if the stealthy way in which he executed the crime were evidence of his sanity, reveals his monomania and paranoia. The focus of the story is the perverse scheme to commit the perfect crime.
The narrator of "The Tell - Tale Heart '' is generally assumed to be male. However, some critics have suggested a woman may be narrating; no pronouns are used to clarify one way or the other. The story starts in medias res. The story opens with a conversation already in progress between the narrator and another person who is not identified in any way. It has been speculated that the narrator is confessing to a prison warden, a judge, a reporter, a doctor or (anachronistically) a psychiatrist. In any case, the narrator explains himself in great detail. What follows is a study of terror but, more specifically, the memory of terror, as the narrator is relating events from the past. The first word of the story, "True! '', is an admission of his guilt, as well as an assurance of reliability. This introduction also serves to gain the reader 's attention. Every word contributes to the purpose of moving the story forward, exemplifying Poe 's theories about the writing of short stories.
The story is driven not by the narrator 's insistence upon his "innocence '', but by his insistence on his sanity. This, however, is self - destructive, because in attempting to prove his sanity he fully admits that he is guilty of murder. His denial of insanity is based on his systematic actions and his precision, as he provides a rational explanation for irrational behavior. This rationality, however, is undermined by his lack of motive ("Object there was none. Passion there was none. ''). Despite this, he says, the idea of murder "haunted me day and night. ''
The story 's final scene shows the result of the narrator 's feelings of guilt. Like many characters in Gothic fiction, he allows his nerves to dictate his nature. Despite his best efforts at defending himself, his "over acuteness of the senses '', which help him hear the heart beating beneath the floorboards, is evidence that he is truly mad. Poe 's contemporaries may well have been reminded of the controversy over the insanity defense in the 1840s.
The narrator claims to have a disease that causes hypersensitivity. A similar motif is used for Roderick Usher in "The Fall of the House of Usher '' (1839) and in "The Colloquy of Monos and Una '' (1841). It is unclear, however, if the narrator actually has very acute senses, or if he is merely imagining things. If his condition is believed to be true, what he hears at the end of the story may not be the old man 's heart but deathwatch beetles. The narrator first admits to hearing beetles in the wall after startling the old man from his sleep. According to superstition, deathwatch beetles are a sign of impending death. One variety of deathwatch beetle raps its head against surfaces, presumably as part of a mating ritual, while others emit ticking sounds. Henry David Thoreau observed in an 1838 article that deathwatch beetles make sounds similar to a heartbeat. The beating could even be the sound of the narrator 's own heart. Alternatively, if the beating is really a product of the narrator 's imagination, it is that uncontrolled imagination that leads to his own destruction.
It is also possible that the narrator has paranoid schizophrenia. Paranoid schizophrenics very often experience auditory hallucinations. These auditory hallucinations are more often voices but can also be sounds.
The relationship between the old man and the narrator is ambiguous. Their names, occupations, and places of residence are not given, contrasting with the strict attention to detail in the plot. The narrator may be a servant of the old man 's or, as is more often assumed, his son. In that case, the "vulture - eye '' of the old man as a father figure may symbolize parental surveillance, or the paternal principles of right and wrong. The murder of the eye, then, is a removal of conscience. The eye may also represent secrecy: only when the eye is found open on the final night, penetrating the veil of secrecy, is the murder carried out.
Richard Wilbur has suggested that the tale is an allegorical representation of Poe 's poem "To Science '', which depicts a struggle between imagination and science. In "The Tell - Tale Heart '', the old man may thus represent the scientific and rational mind, while the narrator may stand for the imaginative.
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pj harvey down by the water lyrics meaning | Down by the Water - wikipedia
"Down by the Water '' is a song by English alternative rock musician PJ Harvey. It is the seventh track and lead single from her third studio album To Bring You My Love, released in February 1995 on Island Records. The song was written by Harvey and self - produced with Flood and John Parish.
The song diverged significantly from Harvey 's former indie rock and punk blues influence, opting to use electronic instruments such as a synthesized organ and an orchestral ensemble. The lyrics narrate the story of a woman drowning her daughter and reference the traditional American folk song "Salty Dog Blues. ''
"Down by the Water '' was Harvey 's mainstream breakthrough in the United States, where the song reached number 2 on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart and received extensive rotation on MTV and college radio stations. The song received critical acclaim upon its release, charting in Canada, Ireland, the United Kingdom and the United States.
"Down by the Water '' was written by Harvey and self - produced with Flood and John Parish. The song opens with vocals and a heavy organ played by Harvey. As the song progresses, it incorporates several elements including percussion instruments, drums, and an orchestral ensemble. Pete Thomas conducted the string arrangements for the song. The musicians in the ensemble include Sonia Slany on violin, Jocelyn Pook and Jules Singleton on viola, and Sian Bell on cello. The song derives elements from blues and electronica, the latter due to notable use of a synthesized organ.
The song 's lyrics tell the story of a woman committing filicide. The woman drowns her daughter "down by the water '' and "wo n't see her again. '' The final coda features Harvey whispering the lines: "little fish, big fish swimming in the water / come back here, man, gim me my daughter. '' The refrain was based on Lead Belly 's rendition of the traditional American folk song "Salty Dog Blues. '' In 2005, Harvey used the song 's lyrics in a Spin interview as an example to demonstrate that her songs were not autobiographical: "Some critics have taken my writing so literally to the point that they 'll listen to ' Down by the Water ' and believe I have actually given birth to a child and drowned her. ''
"Down by the Water '' was released in the United Kingdom and Australia in February 1995 on Island Records. It was the lead single from To Bring You My Love and pressed on CD and 7 '' vinyl. The CD single featured one b - side, "Somebody 's Down, Somebody 's Name '', and the 7 '' and Australian CD single included a second b - side "Lying in the Sun. '' The song charted in four countries upon its release; peaking at number 78 in Canada, number 28 in Ireland, and number 38 in the United Kingdom. The song charted in two charts in the United States; peaking at number 48 on Billboard ' Hot 100 Airplay, and reaching number 2 on the Modern Rock Tracks "Down by the Water '' became a modern rock radio hit due to extensive rotation on MTV and college radio stations.
Critical reception to "Down by the Water '' was positive. Allmusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine retrospectively noted the song was an Allmusic pick and called Harvey 's song - writing "tighter and more melodic than before, '' adding that "the menacing ' Down by the Water ' has genuine hooks. '' Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times noted in 1995 that was one of To Bring You My Love ' "most gripping moments '' adding "she speaks with the captivating clarity and force of someone reaching for a final, life - saving anchor. '' "Down by the Water '' was later nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance at the 38th Grammy Awards.
In 2005, Diplo sampled "Down By The Water '' for a remix of the Mike Jones single "Still Tippin '' and then again the following year on Plastic Little 's indie rap track "Now I Hollar. ''
Maria Mochnacz directed the music video for "Down by the Water ''. Due to To Bring You My Love 's large promotional push by Island Records, the video received a higher budget than Harvey 's two previous music videos for Island. The video was recorded over the course of two days in London with a large crew, by contrast to the "anti-pop '' video for "Man - Size, '' and was shot on 35mm film. Two camera assistants, Seamus McGarvey and Mike Valentine, recorded the separate scenes of the video. McGarvey recorded the dancing scenes and Valentine recorded the underwater scenes. A body double replaced Harvey for some of the underwater sections.
The video features Harvey dancing in a red satin dress with a large wig and excessive make - up. Harvey dubbed her appearance as "Joan Crawford on acid '' in an interview with Spin in 1996. Describing the video in an interview with JBTV, she said: "it was a hard video to make actually that one. It was two days worth of jumping in and out of a swimming pool. Well, one day was just in the swimming pool and the other day was just dancing on a rotating platform but it was quite hard - going after all, '' adding "it was quite scary as well because I was jumping in with a wig which was really, really heavy so it was quite difficult to get to the surface again. And wearing high - heel silver shoes, not the best thing for swimming in. ''
The video was nominated for Best Female Video at the 1995 MTV Video Music Awards and has been featured on an episode of Beavis and Butt - head, Ash vs. Evil Dead and Gotham.
All personnel credits adapted from To Bring You My Love 's liner notes.
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what is a true daily double in jeopardy | Jeopardy! - wikipedia
Jeopardy! is an American television game show created by Merv Griffin. The show features a quiz competition in which contestants are presented with general knowledge clues in the form of answers, and must phrase their responses in the form of questions. The original daytime version debuted on NBC on March 30, 1964, and aired until January 3, 1975. A weekly nighttime syndicated edition aired from September 1974 to September 1975, and a revival, The All - New Jeopardy!, ran on NBC from October 1978 to March 1979. The current version, a daily syndicated show produced by Sony Pictures Television, premiered on September 10, 1984.
Both NBC versions and the weekly syndicated version were hosted by Art Fleming. Don Pardo served as announcer until 1975, and John Harlan announced for the 1978 -- 1979 show. Since its inception, the daily syndicated version has featured Alex Trebek as host and Johnny Gilbert as announcer.
With over 7,000 episodes aired, the daily syndicated version of Jeopardy! has won a record 33 Daytime Emmy Awards and is the only post-1960 game show to be honored with the Peabody Award. In 2013, the program was ranked No. 45 on TV Guide 's list of the 60 greatest shows in American television history. Jeopardy! has also gained a worldwide following with regional adaptations in many other countries. The daily syndicated series ' 34th season premiered on September 11, 2017.
Three contestants each take their place behind a lectern, with the returning champion occupying the leftmost lectern (from the viewer 's perspective). The contestants compete in a quiz game comprising three rounds: Jeopardy!, Double Jeopardy!, and Final Jeopardy!. The material for the clues covers a wide variety of topics, including history and current events, the sciences, the arts, popular culture, literature, and languages. Category titles often feature puns, wordplay, or shared themes, and the host will regularly remind contestants of topics or place emphasis on category themes before the start of the round.
The Jeopardy! and Double Jeopardy! rounds each feature six categories, each of which contains five clues, which are ostensibly valued by difficulty. The dollar values of the clues increased over time. On the original Jeopardy! series, clue values in the first round ranged from $10 to $50. On The All - New Jeopardy!, they ranged from $25 to $125. The current series ' first round originally ranged from $100 to $500, and were doubled to $200 to $1,000 on November 26, 2001. On the Super Jeopardy! specials, clues were valued in points rather than in dollars, and ranged in the first round from 200 to 1,000 points.
The Jeopardy! round begins when the returning champion selects a clue, which may be from any position on the game board. The clue is revealed and read aloud by the host, after which any contestant may ring - in using a hand - held signaling device. The first contestant to ring - in successfully is prompted to provide a response to the clue, phrased in the form of a question. For example, if a contestant were to select "Presidents for $200 '', the resulting clue could be "This ' Father of Our Country ' did n't really chop down a cherry tree '', to which the correct response would be "Who is / was George Washington? '' (Contestants are free to phrase the response in the form of any question; the traditional phrasing of "who is / are '' for people or "what is / are '' for things or words is almost always used.) If the contestant responds correctly, the clue 's dollar value is added to the contestant 's score, and they may select a new clue from the board. An incorrect response, or a failure to respond within five seconds, deducts the clue 's value from the contestant 's score and allows the other contestants the opportunity to ring - in and respond. If no contestant both rings - in and responds correctly, the host gives the correct response; the "last correct questioner '' chooses the next clue.
From the premiere of the original Jeopardy! until the end of the first season of the current syndicated series, contestants were allowed to ring - in as soon as the clue was revealed. Since September 1985, contestants are required to wait until the clue is read before ringing - in. To accommodate the rule change, lights were added to the game board (unseen by home viewers) to signify when it is permissible for contestants to signal; attempting to signal before the light goes on locks the contestant out for half of a second. The change was made to allow the home audience to play along with the show more easily and to keep an extremely fast contestant from potentially dominating the game. In pre-1985 episodes, a buzzer would sound when a contestant signaled; according to Trebek, the buzzer was eliminated because it was "distracting to the viewers '' and sometimes presented a problem when contestants rang in while Trebek was still reading the clue. Contestants who are visually impaired or blind are given a card with the category names printed in Braille before each round begins, and an audible tone is played after the clue has been read aloud.
The second round, Double Jeopardy!, features six new categories of clues. Clue values are doubled from the Jeopardy! round (except in Super Jeopardy!, where Double Jeopardy! values ranged from 500 to 2,500 points). The contestant with the least amount of money at the end of the Jeopardy! round makes the first selection in Double Jeopardy!; if there is a tie, the tied contestant standing at the leftmost lectern selects first.
A "Daily Double '' is hidden behind one clue in the Jeopardy! round, and behind two in Double Jeopardy! The name and inspiration were taken from a horse racing term. Only the contestant who uncovers a Daily Double may respond to that clue and need not use his / her signaling device to do so. Before the clue is revealed, the contestant must declare a wager, from a minimum of $5 to a maximum of his / her entire score (known as a "true Daily Double '') or the highest clue value available in the round, whichever is greater. A correct response adds the value of the wager to the contestant 's score, while an incorrect response deducts it. Whether or not the contestant responds correctly, he or she maintains control of the board.
During the Jeopardy! round, except in response to the Daily Double clue, contestants are not penalized for forgetting to phrase their response in the form of a question, although the host will remind contestants to watch their phrasing in future responses. In the Double Jeopardy! round and in the Daily Double in the Jeopardy! round, the phrasing rule is followed more strictly, with a response not phrased in the form of a question counting as wrong if it is not re-phrased before the host or judges make a ruling. If it is determined that a previous response was wrongly ruled to be correct or incorrect, the scores are adjusted at the first available opportunity. If, after a game is over, a ruling change is made that would have significantly altered the outcome of the game, the affected contestant (s) are invited back to compete on a future show.
Contestants who finish Double Jeopardy! with $0 or a negative score are automatically eliminated from the game at that point and awarded the third place prize. On at least one episode hosted by Art Fleming, all three contestants finished Double Jeopardy! with $0 or less, and as a result, no Final Jeopardy! round was played. This rule is still in - place for the Trebek version, although staff has suggested that it is not set in stone and that executive producer Harry Friedman may decide to display the clue for home viewers ' play if such a situation were ever to occur. During Celebrity Jeopardy! games, contestants with a $0 or negative score are given $1,000 for the Final Jeopardy! round.
The Final Jeopardy! round features a single clue. At the end of the Double Jeopardy! round, the host announces the Final Jeopardy! category, and a commercial break follows. During the break, barriers are placed between the contestant lecterns, and each contestant makes a final wager between $0 and his / her entire score. Contestants write their wagers using a light pen to write on an electronic display on their lectern. After the break, the Final Jeopardy! clue is revealed and read by the host. The contestants have 30 seconds to write their responses on the electronic display, while the show 's iconic "Think! '' music plays in the background. In the event that either the display or the pen malfunctions, contestants can use an index card and a marker to manually write their response and wager. Visually impaired or blind contestants use a Braille keyboard to type in a wager and response.
Contestants ' responses are revealed in order of their pre-Final Jeopardy! scores from lowest to highest. A correct response adds the amount of the contestant 's wager to his / her score, while a miss, failure to respond, or failure to phrase the response as a question (even if correct) deducts it. The contestant with the highest score at the end of the round is that day 's winner. If there is a tie for second place, consolation prizes are awarded based on the scores going into the Final Jeopardy! round. If all three contestants finish with $0, no one returns as champion for the next show, and based on scores going into the Final Jeopardy! round, the two contestants who were first and second will receive the second - place prize, and the contestant in third will receive the third - place prize.
The strategy for wagering in Final Jeopardy! has been studied. If the leader 's score is more than twice the second place contestant 's score, the leader can guarantee victory by making a sufficiently small wager. Otherwise, according to Jeopardy! College Champion Keith Williams, the leader will usually wager such that he or she will have a dollar more than twice the second place contestant 's score, guaranteeing a win with a correct response. Writing about Jeopardy! wagering in the 1990s, Gilbert and Hatcher said that "most players wager aggressively ''.
The top scorer (s) in each game retain the value of their winnings in cash, and return to play in the next match. Non-winners receive consolation prizes. Since May 16, 2002, consolation prizes have been $2,000 for the second - place contestant (s) and $1,000 for the third - place contestant. Since the show does not generally provide airfare or lodging for contestants, cash consolation prizes alleviate contestants ' financial burden. An exception is provided for returning champions who must make several flights to Los Angeles.
Before 1984, all three contestants received their winnings in cash (contestants who finished with $0 or a negative score received consolation prizes). This was changed in order to make the game more competitive, and avoid the problem of contestants who would stop participating in the game, or avoid wagering in Final Jeopardy!, rather than risk losing the money they had already won. From 1984 to 2002, non-winning contestants on the Trebek version received vacation packages and merchandise, which were donated by manufacturers as promotional consideration. The current cash consolation prize is provided by Geico.
The winner of each episode returns to compete against two new contestants on the next episode. Originally, a contestant who won five consecutive days retired undefeated and was guaranteed a spot in the Tournament of Champions; the five - day limit was eliminated at the beginning of season 20 on September 8, 2003.
Ties for first place following Final Jeopardy! are broken with a tie - breaker clue, resulting in only a single champion being named, keeping their winnings, and returning to compete in the next show. The tied contestants are given the single clue, and the contestant must give the correct question. A contestant can not win by default if the opponent gives an incorrect question. That contestant must give a correct question to win the game. If neither player gives the correct question, another clue is given. Previously, if two or all three contestants tied for first place, they were declared "co-champions '', and each retained his or her winnings and returned on the following episode. A tie occurred on the January 29, 2014, episode when Arthur Chu, leading at the end of Double Jeopardy!, wagered to tie challenger Carolyn Collins rather than winning; Chu followed Jeopardy! College Champion Keith Williams 's advice to wager for the tie to increase the leader 's chances of winning. A three - way tie for first place has only occurred once on the Trebek version, on March 16, 2007, when Scott Weiss, Jamey Kirby, and Anders Martinson all ended the game with $16,000. No regular game has ended in a tie - breaker since its adoption. However, numerous tournament games have ended with a tie - breaker.
If no contestant finishes Final Jeopardy! with a positive total, there is no winner. This has happened on several episodes, most recently on January 18, 2016. Three new contestants appear on the next episode. A triple zero has also occurred twice in tournament play (1991 Seniors and 2013 Teen), and also once in a Celebrity Week episode in 1998. All consolation prize money (regular play, with one $2,000 and two $1,000 prizes, and Celebrity play, prize money for charities) are based on standard rules (score after Double Jeopardy!). In tournament play, an additional high scoring non-winner will advance to the next round (but all three players with a zero score in that game are eligible for that position should the score for that non-winner be zero; all tie - breaker rules apply).
Special considerations have been given for contestants who were unable to return as champion because of circumstances beyond their control, especially when there is a considerable time between taping of episodes. This occurred for the first time in season 25, when Priscilla Ball, who won on January 16, 2009, was unable to attend the taping of the next episode because of illness; as a result, three new contestants appeared on the next episode. Ball returned as a co-champion to play on the episode airing April 9, 2009. On the episode aired December 21, 2015, the returning champion, Claudia Corriere, could not return as champion because of a job offered in the weeks between tapings, so three new contestants played that day as well. Corriere returned as a co-champion on the January 18, 2016, episode, but was eliminated in a three - way loss.
Typically, the two challengers participate in a backstage draw to determine lectern positions. In all situations with three new contestants (most notably tournaments in the first round), the draw will also determine who will take the champion 's position and select first to start the game. (The player scoring the highest in the preceding round will be given the chance to select first in the semifinal and finals.)
Tournaments generally run for 10 consecutive episodes and feature 15 contestants. The first five episodes, the quarter - finals, feature three new contestants each day. The winners of these five games, and the four highest scoring non-winners ("wild cards ''), advance to the semi-finals, which run for three days. The winners of these three games advance to play in a two - game final match, in which the scores from both games are combined to determine the overall standings. This format has been used since the first Tournament of Champions in 1985 and was devised by Trebek himself.
To prevent later contestants from playing to beat the earlier wild card scores instead of playing to win, contestants are "completely isolated from the studio until it is their time to compete. ''
If there is a tie for the final wild card position, the non-winner that advances will be based on the same regulations as two contestants who tie for second; the tie - breaker is the contestant 's score after the Double Jeopardy! round, and if further tied, the score after the Jeopardy! round determines the contestant who advances as the wild card.
If two or more contestants tie for the highest score (greater than zero) at the end of match (first round, semi-final game, or end of a two - game final), the standard tiebreaker is used. However, if two or more contestants tie for the highest score at the end of the first game of a two - game final, no tiebreaker is played.
If none of the contestants in a quarter - final or semi-final game end with a positive score, no contestant automatically qualifies from that game, and an additional wild card contestant advances instead. This occurred in the quarter - finals of the 1991 Seniors Tournament and the semi-finals of the 2013 Teen Tournament.
In the finals, contestants who finish Double Jeopardy! with a $0 or negative score on either day do not play Final Jeopardy! that day; their score for that leg is recorded as $0.
In a 1964 Associated Press profile released shortly before the original Jeopardy! series premiered, Merv Griffin offered the following account of how he created the quiz show:
My wife Julann just came up with the idea one day when we were in a plane bringing us back to New York City from Duluth. I was mulling over game show ideas, when she noted that there had not been a successful "question and answer '' game on the air since the quiz show scandals. Why not do a switch, and give the answers to the contestant and let them come up with the question? She fired a couple of answers to me: "5,280 '' -- and the question of course was "How many feet in a mile? ''. Another was "79 Wistful Vista ''; that was Fibber and Mollie McGee 's address. I loved the idea, went straight to NBC with the idea, and they bought it without even looking at a pilot show.
Griffin 's first conception of the game used a board comprising ten categories with ten clues each, but after finding that this board could not easily be shown on camera, he reduced it to two rounds of thirty clues each, with five clues in each of six categories. He originally intended the show to require grammatically correct phrasing (e.g., only accepting "Who is... '' for a person), but after finding that grammatical correction slowed the game down, he decided that the show should instead accept any correct response that was in question form. Griffin discarded his initial title for the show, What 's the Question?, when skeptical network executive Ed Vane rejected his original concept of the game, claiming, "It does n't have enough jeopardies. ''
Jeopardy! was not the first game show to give contestants the answers and require the questions. That format had previously been used by the Gil Fates - hosted program CBS Television Quiz, which aired from July 1941 until May 1942.
The first three versions of the show were hosted by Art Fleming. Don Pardo served as announcer for the original NBC version and weekly syndicated version, but when NBC 's revival The All - New Jeopardy! launched in 1978, Pardo 's announcing duties were taken over by John Harlan.
Alex Trebek has served as host of the daily syndicated version since it premiered in 1984, except when he switched places with Wheel of Fortune host Pat Sajak as an April Fool 's joke on the episode aired April 1, 1997. His most recent contract renewal, from May 2017, takes his tenure through the 2019 -- 2020 season. In the daily syndicated version 's first pilot, from 1983, Jay Stewart served as the show 's announcer, but Johnny Gilbert took over the role when that version was picked up as a series and has held it since then.
The Jeopardy! Clue Crew, introduced on September 24, 2001, is a team of roving correspondents who appear in videos, recorded around the world, to narrate some clues. Explaining why the Clue Crew was added to the show, executive producer Harry Friedman said, "TV is a visual medium, and the more visual we can make our clues, the more we think it will enhance the experience for the viewer. ''
Following the initial announcement of auditions for the team, over 5,000 people applied for Clue Crew posts. The original Clue Crew members were Cheryl Farrell, Jimmy McGuire, Sofia Lidskog, and Sarah Whitcomb. Lidskog departed the Clue Crew in 2004 to become an anchor on the high school news program Channel One News, and a search was held to replace her in early 2005. The winners were Jon Cannon and Kelly Miyahara, who formally joined the crew starting in season 22, which premiered on September 12, 2005. Farrell continued to record clues for episodes aired as late as October 2008, and Cannon continued to appear until July 2009.
The Clue Crew has traveled to 280 cities worldwide, spanning all 50 of the United States and 44 other countries. In addition to appearing in Jeopardy! clue videos, the team 's members also travel to meet fans of the show and future contestants. Occasionally, they visit schools to showcase the educational game Classroom Jeopardy! Miyahara also serves as announcer for the Sports Jeopardy! spin - off series.
Robert Rubin served as the producer of the original Jeopardy! series for most of its run, and later became its executive producer. Following Rubin 's promotion, the line producer was Lynette Williams.
Griffin was the daily syndicated version 's executive producer until his retirement in 2000. Trebek served as producer as well as host until 1987, when he began hosting NBC 's Classic Concentration for the next four years. At that time, he handed producer duties to George Vosburgh, who had formerly produced The All - New Jeopardy!. In the 1997 -- 1998 season, Vosburgh was succeeded as producer by Harry Friedman, Lisa Finneran, and Rocky Schmidt. Beginning in 1999, Friedman became executive producer, and Gary Johnson became the show 's new third producer. In the 2006 -- 2007 season, Deb Dittmann and Brett Schneider became the producers, and Finneran, Schmidt, and Johnson were promoted to supervising producers.
The original Jeopardy! series was directed at different times by Bob Hultgren, Eleanor Tarshis, and Jeff Goldstein. Dick Schneider, who directed episodes of The All - New Jeopardy!, returned as director for the Trebek version 's first eight seasons. Since 1992, the show has been directed by Kevin McCarthy, who had previously served as associate director under Schneider.
The current version of Jeopardy! employs nine writers and five researchers to create and assemble the categories and clues. Billy Wisse and Michele Loud, both longtime staff members, are the editorial producer and editorial supervisor, respectively. Previous writing and editorial supervisors have included Jules Minton, Terrence McDonnell, Harry Eisenberg, and Gary Johnson.
The show 's production designer is Naomi Slodki. Previous art directors have included Henry Lickel, Dennis Roof, Bob Rang, and Ed Flesh (who also designed sets for other game shows such as The $25,000 Pyramid, Name That Tune, and Wheel of Fortune).
The daily syndicated version of Jeopardy! is produced by Sony Pictures Television (previously known as Columbia TriStar Television, the successor company to original producer Merv Griffin Enterprises). The copyright holder is Jeopardy Productions, which, like SPT, operates as a subsidiary of Sony Pictures Entertainment. The rights to distribute the program worldwide are owned by CBS Television Distribution, which absorbed original distributor King World Productions in 2007.
The original Jeopardy! series was taped in Studio 6A at NBC Studios at 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York City, and The All - New Jeopardy! was taped in Studio 3 at NBC 's Burbank Studios at 3000 West Alameda Avenue in Burbank, California. The Trebek version was initially taped at Metromedia Stage 7, KTTV, on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood, but moved its production facilities to Hollywood Center Studios ' Stage 9 in 1985. After the final shows of season 10 were recorded on February 15, 1994, the Jeopardy! production facilities were moved to Sony Pictures Studios ' Stage 10 on Washington Boulevard in Culver City, California, where the show has been recorded ever since.
Various technological and aesthetic changes have been made to the Jeopardy! set over the years. The original game board was exposed from behind a curtain and featured clues printed on cardboard pull cards which were revealed as contestants selected them. The All - New Jeopardy! 's game board was exposed from behind double - slide panels and featured flipping panels with the dollar amount on one side and the clue on the other. When the Trebek version premiered in 1984, the game board used individual television monitors for each clue within categories. The original monitors were replaced with larger and sleeker ones in 1991. In 2006, these monitors were discarded in favor of a nearly seamless projection video wall, which was replaced in 2009 with 36 high - definition flat - panel monitors manufactured by Sony Electronics.
From 1985 to 1997, the sets were designed to have a background color of blue for the Jeopardy! round and red for the Double Jeopardy! and Final Jeopardy! rounds. At the beginning of season 8 in 1991, a brand new set was introduced that resembled a grid. On the episode aired November 11, 1996, two months after the start of season 13, Jeopardy! introduced the first of several sets designed by Naomi Slodki, who intended the set to resemble "the foyer of a very contemporary library, with wood and sandblasted glass and blue granite ''.
Shortly after the start of season 19 in 2002, the show switched to yet another new set, which was given slight modifications when Jeopardy! and sister show Wheel of Fortune transitioned to high - definition broadcasting in 2006. During this time, the show began to feature virtual tours of the set on its official web site. The various HD improvements for Jeopardy! and Wheel represented a combined investment of approximately $4 million, 5,000 hours of labor, and 6 miles (9.7 km) of cable. Both shows had been shot using HD cameras for several years before beginning to broadcast in HD. On standard - definition television broadcasts, the shows continue to be displayed with an aspect ratio of 4: 3.
In 2009, Jeopardy! updated its set once again. The new set debuted with special episodes taped at the 42nd annual International CES technology trade show, hosted at the Las Vegas Convention Center in Winchester (Las Vegas Valley), Nevada, and became the primary set for Jeopardy! when the show began taping its 26th season, which premiered on September 14, 2009. It was significantly remodeled when season 30 premiered in September 2013.
Since the debut of Jeopardy! in 1964, several different songs and arrangements have served as the theme music for the show, most of which were composed by Griffin. The main theme for the original Jeopardy! series was "Take Ten '', composed by Griffin 's wife Julann. The All - New Jeopardy! opened with "January, February, March '' and closed with "Frisco Disco '', both of which were composed by Griffin himself.
The best - known theme song on Jeopardy! is "Think! '', originally composed by Griffin under the title "A Time for Tony '', as a lullaby for his son. "Think! '' has always been used for the 30 - second period in Final Jeopardy! when the contestants write down their responses, and since the syndicated version debuted in 1984, a rendition of that tune has been used as the main theme song. "Think! '' has become so popular that it has been used in many different contexts, from sporting events to weddings. Griffin estimated that the use of "Think! '' had earned him royalties of over $70 million throughout his lifetime. "Think! '' led Griffin to win the Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) President 's Award in 2003, and during GSN 's 2009 Game Show Awards special, it was named "Best Game Show Theme Song ''. In 1997, the main theme and Final Jeopardy! recordings of "Think! '' were rearranged by Steve Kaplan, who served as the show 's music director until his December 2003 death. In 2008, Chris Bell Music and Sound Design overhauled the Jeopardy! music package for the show 's 25th anniversary.
Prospective contestants of the original Jeopardy! series called the show 's office in New York to arrange an appointment and to preliminarily determine eligibility. They were briefed and auditioned together in groups of ten to thirty individuals, participating in both a written test and mock games. Individuals who were successful at the audition were invited to appear on the program within approximately six weeks.
Auditioning for the current version of the show begins with a written exam, comprising fifty questions in total. This exam is administered online periodically, as well as being offered at regional contestant search events. Since season 15 (1998 -- 99), the show has used a Winnebago recreational vehicle called the "Jeopardy! Brain Bus '' to conduct regional events throughout the United States and Canada. Participants who correctly answer at least 35 out of 50 questions advance in the audition process and are invited to compete in mock games. Those who are approved are notified at a later time and invited to appear on the show.
In 2016, producers disallowed Canadians from applying online, citing new Canadian privacy rules regarding personal information on the Internet. Trebek confirmed this to The Ottawa Citizen in an interview. Neither named a particular law or regulation, and The Toronto Star was unable to discern the exact problem.
The original Jeopardy! series premiered on NBC on March 30, 1964, and by the end of the 1960s was the second - highest - rated daytime game show, behind only The Hollywood Squares. The show was successful until 1974, when Lin Bolen, then NBC 's Vice President of Daytime Programming, moved the show out of the noontime slot where it had been located for most of its run, as part of her effort to boost ratings among the 18 -- 34 female demographic. After 2,753 episodes, the original Jeopardy! series ended on January 3, 1975; to compensate Griffin for its cancellation, NBC purchased Wheel of Fortune, another show that he had created, and premiered it the following Monday. A syndicated edition of Jeopardy!, distributed by Metromedia and featuring many contestants who were previously champions on the original series, aired in the primetime during the 1974 -- 1975 season. The NBC daytime series was later revived as The All - New Jeopardy!, which premiered on October 2, 1978 and aired 108 episodes, ending on March 2, 1979; this revival featured significant rule changes, such as progressive elimination of contestants over the course of the main game, and a bonus round instead of Final Jeopardy!
The daily syndicated version debuted on September 10, 1984, and was launched in response to the success of the syndicated version of Wheel and the installation of electronic trivia games in pubs and bars. This version of the program has met with greater success than the previous incarnations; it has outlived 300 other game shows and become the second most popular game show in syndication (behind Wheel), averaging 25 million viewers per week. The show 's most recent renewal, in May 2017, extends it through the 2019 -- 2020 season.
Jeopardy! has spawned versions in many foreign countries throughout the world, including Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, Russia, Denmark, Israel, and Australia. The American syndicated version of Jeopardy! is also broadcast throughout the world, with international distribution rights handled by CBS Studios International.
Three spin - off versions of Jeopardy! have been created. Rock & Roll Jeopardy! debuted on VH1 in 1998 and ran until 2001; the show centered around post-1950s popular music trivia and was hosted by Jeff Probst. Jep!, which aired on GSN during the 1998 -- 1999 season, was a special children 's version hosted by Bob Bergen and featured various rule changes from the original version. Sports Jeopardy!, a sports - themed version hosted by Dan Patrick, premiered in 2014 on the Crackle digital service and eventually moved to the cable sports network NBCSN in 2016.
Only a small number of episodes of the first three Jeopardy! versions survive. From the original NBC daytime version, archived episodes mostly consist of black - and - white kinescopes of the original color videotapes. Various episodes from 1967, 1971, 1973, and 1974 are listed among the holdings of the UCLA Film and Television Archive. The 1964 "test episode '', Episode No. 2,000 (from February 21, 1972), and a June 1975 episode of the weekly syndicated edition exist at the Paley Center for Media. Incomplete paper records of the NBC - era games exist on microfilm at the Library of Congress. GSN holds The All - New Jeopardy! 's premiere and finale in broadcast quality, and aired the latter on December 31, 1999, as part of its "Y2Play '' marathon. The UCLA Archive holds a copy of a pilot taped for CBS in 1977, and the premiere exists among the Paley Center 's holdings.
GSN, which, like Jeopardy!, is an affiliate of Sony Pictures Television, has rerun ten seasons since the channel 's launch in 1994. Copies of 43 Trebek - hosted syndicated Jeopardy! episodes aired between 1989 and 2004 have been collected by the UCLA Archive, and the premiere and various other episodes are included in the Paley Center 's collection.
By 1994 the press called Jeopardy! "an American icon ''. It has won a record 33 Daytime Emmy Awards since 1984. The show holds the record for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show, with fifteen awards won in that category. Another five awards have been won by Trebek for Outstanding Game Show Host. Twelve other awards were won by the show 's directors and writers in the respective categories of Outstanding Direction for a Game / Audience Participation Show and Outstanding Special Class Writing before these categories were removed in 2006. On June 17, 2011, Trebek shared the Lifetime Achievement Award with Sajak at the 38th Annual Daytime Emmy Awards ceremony. The following year, the show was honored with a Peabody Award for its role in encouraging, celebrating, and rewarding knowledge; as such, it holds the distinction of being the only game show since 1960 to win the Peabody Award.
In its April 17 -- 23, 1993 issue, TV Guide named Jeopardy! the best game show of the 1970s as part of a celebration of its 40th anniversary. In January 2001, the magazine ranked the show number 2 on its "50 Greatest Game Shows '' list -- second only to The Price Is Right. It would later rank Jeopardy! number 45 on its list of the 60 Best TV Series of All Time, calling it "habit - forming '' and saying that the program "always makes (its viewers) feel smarter ''. Also in 2013, the show ranked number 1 on TV Guide 's list of the 60 Greatest Game Shows. In the summer of 2006, the show was ranked number 2 on GSN 's list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, second only to Match Game.
A hall of fame honoring Jeopardy! was added to the Sony Pictures Studios tour on September 20, 2011. It features the show 's Emmy Awards as well as retired set pieces, classic merchandise, video clips, photographs, and other memorabilia related to Jeopardy! 's history.
In 1989, Fleming expressed dissatisfaction with the daily syndicated Jeopardy! series in an essay published in Sports Illustrated. He confessed that he only watched the Trebek version infrequently, and then only for a handful of questions; and also criticized this new iteration for having questions he thought were "much too easy '' and for awarding cash winnings only to the champion, never to runners - up. Fleming concluded, "It 's not part of the real world. It 's part of Hollywood. ''
Jeopardy! 's answer - and - question format has become widely entrenched: Fleming observed that other game shows would have contestants phrasing their answers in question form, leading hosts to remind them that they are not competing on Jeopardy!
Starting in 1985, the show has held an annual Tournament of Champions featuring the top fifteen champions who have appeared on the show since the last tournament. The top prize awarded to the winner was originally valued at $100,000, and increased to $250,000 in 2003. Other regular tournaments include the Teen Tournament, with a $100,000 top prize; the College Championship, in which undergraduate students from American colleges and universities compete for a $100,000 top prize; and the Teachers Tournament, where educators compete for a $100,000 top prize. Each tournament runs for ten consecutive episodes in a format devised by Trebek himself, consisting of five quarter - final games, three semifinals, and a final consisting of two games with the scores totaled. Winners of the College Championship and Teachers Tournament are invited to participate in the Tournament of Champions.
Non-tournament events held regularly on the show include Celebrity Jeopardy!, in which celebrities and other notable individuals compete for charitable organizations of their choice; and Kids Week, a special competition for school - age children aged 10 through 12.
Three International Tournaments, held in 1996, 1997, and 2001, featured one - week competitions among champions from each of the international versions of Jeopardy!. Each of the countries that aired their own version of the show in those years could nominate a contestant. The format was identical to the semifinals and finals of other Jeopardy! tournaments. In 1996 and 1997, the winner received $25,000; in 2001, the top prize was doubled to $50,000. The 1997 tournament was recorded in Stockholm on the set of the Swedish version of Jeopardy!, and is significant for being the first week of Jeopardy! episodes to be taped in a foreign country.
There have been a number of special tournaments featuring the greatest contestants in Jeopardy! history. The first of these "all - time best '' tournaments, Super Jeopardy!, aired in the summer of 1990 on ABC, and featured 35 top contestants from the previous seasons of the Trebek version and one notable champion from the original Jeopardy! series competing for a top prize of $250,000. In 1993, that year 's Tournament of Champions was followed by a Tenth Anniversary Tournament conducted over five episodes. In May 2002, to commemorate the Trebek version 's 4,000 th episode, the show invited fifteen champions to play for a $1 million prize in the Million Dollar Masters tournament, which took place at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. The Ultimate Tournament of Champions aired in 2005 and pitted 145 former Jeopardy! champions against each other, with two winners moving on to face Ken Jennings in a three - game final for $2,000,000, the largest prize in the show 's history; overall, the tournament spanned 15 weeks and 76 episodes, starting on February 9 and ending on May 25. In 2014, Jeopardy! commemorated the 30th anniversary of the Trebek version with a Battle of the Decades tournament, in which 15 champions apiece from the first, second, and third decades of Jeopardy! 's daily syndicated history competed for a grand prize of $1,000,000.
In November 1998, Jeopardy! traveled to Boston to reassemble 12 past Teen Tournament contestants for a special Teen Reunion Tournament. In 2008, the 25th season began with reuniting 15 contestants from the first two Kids Weeks to compete in a special reunion tournament of their own. During the next season (2009 -- 2010), a special edition of Celebrity Jeopardy!, called the Million Dollar Celebrity Invitational, was played in which twenty - seven contestants from past celebrity episodes competed for a grand prize of $1,000,000 for charity; the grand prize was won by Michael McKean.
The IBM Challenge aired February 14 -- 16, 2011, and featured IBM 's Watson computer facing off against Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter in a two - game match played over three shows. This was the first man - vs. - machine competition in Jeopardy! 's history. Watson won both the first game and the overall match to win the grand prize of $1 million, which IBM divided between two charities (World Vision International and World Community Grid). Jennings, who won $300,000 for second place, and Rutter, who won the $200,000 third - place prize, both pledged to donate half of their winnings to charity. The competition brought the show its highest ratings since the Ultimate Tournament of Champions.
Jeopardy! 's record for the longest winning streak is held by Ken Jennings, who competed on the show from June 2 through November 30, 2004, winning 74 matches before being defeated by Nancy Zerg in his 75th appearance. He amassed $2,520,700 over his 74 wins and a $2,000 second - place prize in his 75th appearance. At the time, he held the record as the highest money - winner ever on American game shows, and his winning streak increased the show 's ratings and popularity to the point where it became TV 's highest - rated syndicated program. Jennings later won the $500,000 second - place prize in the 2005 Ultimate Tournament of Champions, the $300,000 second - place prize in the IBM Challenge, and the $100,000 second - place prize in the Battle of the Decades.
The highest - earning all - time Jeopardy! contestant is Brad Rutter, who has won a cumulative total of $4,355,102. He became an undefeated champion in 2000 and later won an unprecedented four Jeopardy! tournaments: the 2001 Tournament of Champions, the 2002 Million Dollar Masters Tournament, the 2005 Ultimate Tournament of Champions, and the 2014 Battle of the Decades. Rutter broke Jennings 's record for all - time game show winnings when he defeated Jennings and Jerome Vered in the Ultimate Tournament of Champions finals. Jennings regained the record through appearances on various other game shows, culminating in an appearance on Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader? on October 10, 2008. In 2014, Rutter regained the title after winning $1,000,000 in the Battle of the Decades, defeating Jennings and Roger Craig in the finals.
Craig is the holder of the all - time record for single - day winnings on Jeopardy!. On the episode that aired September 14, 2010, he amassed a score of $47,000 after the game 's first two rounds, then wagered and won an additional $30,000 in the Final Jeopardy! round, finishing with $77,000. The previous single - day record of $75,000 had been set by Jennings.
The record - holder among female contestants on Jeopardy! -- in both number of games and total winnings -- is Julia Collins, who amassed $429,100 over 21 games between April 21 and June 2, 2014. She won $428,100 in her 20 games as champion, plus $1,000 for finishing third in her twenty - first game. Collins also achieved the second - longest winning streak on the show, behind Jennings. The streak, which was interrupted in May by the Battle of the Decades, was broken by Brian Loughnane.
The highest single - day winnings in a Celebrity Jeopardy! tournament was achieved by comedian Andy Richter during a first - round game of the 2009 -- 2010 season 's "Million Dollar Celebrity Invitational '', in which he finished with $68,000 for his selected charity, the St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital.
Four contestants on the Trebek version have won a game with the lowest amount possible ($1). The first was U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Darryl Scott, on the episode that aired January 19, 1993; the second was Benjamin Salisbury, on a Celebrity Jeopardy! episode that aired April 30, 1997; the third was Brandi Chastain, on the Celebrity Jeopardy! episode that aired February 9, 2001; and the fourth was U.S. Navy Lieutenant Manny Abell, on the episode that aired October 17, 2017.
Jeopardy! has been featured in a number of films, television shows and books over the years, mostly with one or more characters participating as contestants, or viewing and interacting with the game show from their own homes.
Over the years, the Jeopardy! brand has been licensed for various products. From 1964 through 1976, Milton Bradley issued annual board games based on the original Fleming version. The Trebek version has been adapted into board games released by Pressman Toy Corporation, Tyco Toys, and Parker Brothers. In addition, Jeopardy! has been adapted into a number of video games released on various consoles and handhelds spanning multiple hardware generations, starting with a Nintendo Entertainment System game released in 1987. The show has also been adapted for personal computers (starting in 1987 with Apple II, Commodore 64, and DOS versions), Facebook, Twitter, Android, and the Roku Channel Store.
A DVD titled Jeopardy!: An Inside Look at America 's Favorite Quiz Show, released by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment on November 8, 2005, features five memorable episodes of the Trebek version (the 1984 premiere, Jennings ' final game, and the three finals matches of the Ultimate Tournament of Champions) and three featurettes discussing the show 's history and question selection process. Other products featuring the Jeopardy! brand include a collectible watch, a series of daily desktop calendars, and various slot machine games for casinos and the Internet.
Jeopardy! 's official website, active as early as 1998, receives over 400,000 monthly visitors. The website features videos, photographs, and other information related to each week 's contestants, as well as mini-sites promoting remote tapings and special tournaments. As the show changes its main title card and corresponding graphics with every passing season, the Jeopardy! website is re-skinned to reflect the changes, and the general content of the site (such as online tests and promotions, programming announcements, "spotlight '' segments, photo galleries, and downloadable content) is regularly updated to align with producers ' priorities for the show. In its 2012 "Readers Choice Awards '', About.com praised the official Jeopardy! website for featuring "everything (visitors) need to know about the show, as well as some fun interactive elements '', and for having a humorous error page.
In November 2009, Jeopardy! launched a viewer loyalty program called the "Jeopardy! Premier Club '', which allowed home viewers to identify Final Jeopardy! categories from episodes for a chance to earn points, and play a weekly Jeopardy! game featuring categories and clues from the previous week 's episodes. Every three months, contestants were selected randomly to advance to one of three quarterly online tournaments; after these tournaments were played, the three highest scoring contestants would play one final online tournament for the chance to win $5,000 and a trip to Los Angeles to attend a taping of Jeopardy! The Premier Club was discontinued by July 2011.
There is an unofficial Jeopardy! fansite known as the "J! Archive '' (j-archive.com), which transcribes games from throughout Jeopardy! 's daily syndicated history. In the archive, episodes are covered by Jeopardy! - style game boards with panels which, when hovered over with a mouse, reveal the correct response to their corresponding clues and the contestant who gave the correct response. The site makes use of a "wagering calculator '' that helps potential contestants determine what amount is safest to bet during Final Jeopardy!, and an alternative scoring method called "Coryat scoring '' that disregards wagering during Daily Doubles or Final Jeopardy! and gauges one 's general strength at the game. The site 's main founding archivist is Robert Knecht Schmidt, a student from Cleveland, Ohio, who himself appeared as a Jeopardy! contestant in March 2010. Before J! Archive, there was an earlier Jeopardy! fansite known as the "Jeoparchive '', created by season 19 contestant Ronnie O'Rourke, who managed and updated the site until Jennings 's run made her disillusioned with the show.
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when does season 2 of ducktales come out | DuckTales (2017 TV series) - wikipedia
DuckTales is an American animated television series developed by Matt Youngberg and Francisco Angones originally for Disney XD, and then later for Disney Channel. Produced by Disney Television Animation, the series is a reboot of the original 1987 series of the same name. DuckTales was announced in February 2015 and premiered on August 12, 2017 with a 44 - minute special entitled "Woo - oo! ''. The first season, which resumed on September 23, 2017, will consist of 21 twenty - two minute episodes and an additional 44 - minute special. The series was renewed for a second season on March 2, 2017.
After not speaking to each other for ten years, Scrooge McDuck is reunited with Donald Duck after he asks Scrooge to watch his three nephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie for the day. The presence of the newcomers rekindles Scrooge 's spirit of adventure, leading the group to go on many new treasure - hunting expeditions, while the nephews and their new friend Webby seek the truth behind their uncles ' broken relationship and the mysterious disappearance of Huey, Dewey, and Louie 's mother and Donald 's sister Della Duck.
The show 's main voice cast include:
Matt Youngberg and Francisco Angones grew up watching the original series and had always wanted to develop an updated version for a newer generation. Youngberg said, "We 're hoping that in thirty years, the kids who watch our show will then be bringing back the next version of DuckTales because they loved what we did so much. ''
In May 2015, Terry McGovern, the original voice of Launchpad McQuack, stated in an interview that the entire voice cast from the original series would not be returning for the reboot, which made him "heartsick '' at the news. The new voice cast for the series was revealed on December 16, 2016 in a video where they sing an a cappella version of the original theme song in promotion of the news. The following May, Lin - Manuel Miranda was announced as the voice of Fenton Crackshell - Cabrera / Gizmoduck. The character was changed to being Latino due to Lin - Manuel 's heritage and because Angones felt that there were not enough positive Latino superheroes. In June, more cast members, including Tony Anselmo reprising his role as Donald Duck, were announced, and during the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con, Disney announced that Darkwing Duck would also make an appearance in the TV series.
The art style of the show is heavily influenced not just by Carl Barks ' original Uncle Scrooge comics, but also some of Barks ' paintings. The theme song, written by Mark Mueller for the 1987 series, was re-recorded for the 2017 reboot. It was arranged by Michael "Smidi '' Smithand and TJ Stafford and sung by Felicia Barton.
The 44 minute pilot, titled Woo - oo!, premiered on August 12 at 12: 00am EST and was repeated consecutively for the next 24 hours. Two days later on August 14, the pilot was also released on YouTube. The pilot also aired on Disney Channel on September 17, 2017. The series officially premiered on September 23, 2017, coinciding with the original show 's 30th anniversary. On May 1, 2018, the show moved to the Disney Channel, with new episodes airing on Fridays beginning May 4, 2018.
In Canada, the pilot premiered on Disney XD on August 12 and the full series started on September 23, 2017. In Australia and New Zealand, the show premiered on Disney Channel on October 13, 2017. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the pilot premiered on Disney Channel on November 4, 2017. The full series debuted on March 1, 2018 on Disney XD.
On March 10, 2017, a trailer for the series aired on Disney Channel during the premiere of Tangled: Before Ever After, and on June 14, 2017, the title sequence for the series, featuring a re-recording of the theme song written by Mark Mueller and performed by Felicia Barton, was released.
A DVD titled Woo - oo! was released on December 19, 2017. The DVD contains the pilot episode and all 6 Welcome to Duckburg shorts.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 100 % based on 9 reviews, with an average rating of 9.0 / 10. IGN 's Chris Hayner gave the series premiere, Woo - oo!, a score of 8.5 out of 10, stating that the reboot "may be aimed at modern young audiences but there 's no denying the heart and adventurous spirit it gets from the original series. ''
An ongoing comic series based on the show is being published by IDW Publishing, with Joe Caramagna serving as writer. Ducktales # 0 was released on July 19, 2017, and # 1 of the monthly series followed on September 27.
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who are the members of the loving spoonful | The Lovin ' Spoonful - wikipedia
The Lovin ' Spoonful is a U.S. rock band, inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2000 and well known for a number of hit songs in the 1960s including "Summer in the City '', "Do You Believe In Magic '', "Did You Ever Have to Make Up Your Mind? '', and "Daydream ''.
The band had its roots in the folk music scene based in the Greenwich Village section of lower Manhattan during the early 1960s. John B. Sebastian, the son of classical harmonicist John Sebastian, grew up in the Village in contact with music and musicians, including folk musicians who were involved with the American folk music revival of the 1950s through the early 1960s. Sebastian formed the Spoonful with guitarist Zal Yanovsky from a bohemian folk group called The Mugwumps (two other members, Cass Elliot and Denny Doherty, later formed half of the Mamas & the Papas), playing local coffee houses and small clubs. The formation of the Lovin ' Spoonful during this period was later described in the lyrics of the Mamas & the Papas ' 1967 top ten hit, "Creeque Alley ''.
Drummer Jan Carl and bassist Steve Boone rounded out the group, but Carl was replaced by drummer - vocalist Joe Butler after the group 's first gig at The Night Owl in Greenwich Village. Butler had previously played with Boone in a group called The Kingsmen (not the hit group of "Louie Louie '' fame). The group 's first Night Owl performances were reportedly so bad that the club owner told them to go away and practice, so they practiced in the basement of the nearby Hotel Albert until they had improved enough to draw audience attention.
The group made its first recordings for Elektra Records in early 1965, and agreed in principle to sign a long - term deal with Elektra in exchange for a $10,000 advance. However, Kama Sutra Records had an option to sign the Lovin ' Spoonful as recording artists as part of a previously signed production deal, and Kama Sutra exercised the option upon learning of Elektra 's intent to sign the band. The four tracks recorded for Elektra were released on the 1966 various artists compilation LP What 's Shakin ' after the band 's success on Kama Sutra.
The band worked with producer Erik Jacobsen to release their first single on July 20, 1965, "Do You Believe in Magic '', written by Sebastian. Additionally, they wrote their own material (aside from a few covers, mostly on their first album), including "Younger Girl '' (which missed the Hot 100), which was a hit for The Critters in mid-1966.
"Do You Believe in Magic '' reached # 9 on the Hot 100, and the band followed it up with a series of hit singles and albums throughout 1965 and 1966, all produced by Jacobsen. The Lovin ' Spoonful became known for such folk - flavored pop hits as "You Did n't Have to Be So Nice '', which reached # 10, and "Daydream '', which went to # 2. Other hits included "Did You Ever Have to Make Up Your Mind? '' (another # 2 hit) and their only song to reach # 1 on the Hot 100, "Summer in the City '' (August 13 -- 27, 1966). Later that year, the # 10 hit "Rain on the Roof '' and the # 8 hit "Nashville Cats '' (which went on to become a staple in the concerts of bluegrass legend Del McCoury) completed the group 's first seven consecutive Hot 100 hits to reach that chart 's top 10. The only other 1960s act to achieve that feat is Gary Lewis & the Playboys. Some years later, Bobby Weinstein and The Lovin ' Cohens turned "Nashville Cats '' into "Noshville Katz '', a frequent Dr. Demento staple.
The Lovin ' Spoonful was one of the most successful pop / rock groups to have jug band and folk roots, and nearly half the songs on their first album were modernized versions of blues standards. Their popularity revived interest in the form, and many subsequent jug bands cite them as an inspiration. The rest of their albums featured mostly original songs, but their jug band roots showed up again and again, particularly in "Daydream '' and the lesser - known "Money '' (which reached only # 48, in 1968), featuring a typewriter as percussion.
Lovin ' Spoonful members termed their approach "good - time music ''. In the liner notes of "Do You Believe in Magic, '' Zal Yanovsky said that he "became a convert to Reddy Kilowatt because it 's loud, and people dance to it, and it 's loud. '' Soon - to - be members of the psychedelic rock band the Grateful Dead were part of the West Coast acoustic folk music scene when the Lovin ' Spoonful came to town on tour. They credited the Lovin ' Spoonful concert as a fateful experience, after which they decided to leave the folk scene and "go electric ''.
At the peak of the band 's success, the producers of the television series that later became The Monkees initially planned to build their series around the Lovin ' Spoonful, but dropped the band from the project due to conflicts over song publishing rights. The band also gained an added bit of publicity when Butler replaced Jim Rado in the role of Claude for a sold - out four - month run with the Broadway production of the rock musical Hair. The Lovin ' Spoonful 's song "Pow! '' was used as the opening theme of Woody Allen 's first feature film, What 's Up, Tiger Lily; the band also composed and played instrumental music for the film and appeared in some live performance sequences in the film (reportedly added during post-production without Allen 's knowledge or consent). Shortly thereafter, John Sebastian composed the music for Francis Ford Coppola 's second film, You 're a Big Boy Now, and the Lovin ' Spoonful played the music for the soundtrack, which included yet another hit, "Darling Be Home Soon ''. Both films were released in 1966. In addition, the Michelangelo Antonioni film Blow - up, also released that year, contained an instrumental version of the Spoonful song, "Butchie 's Tune '', performed by jazz musician Herbie Hancock.
In early 1967, the band broke with their producer Erik Jacobsen, turning to Joe Wissert to produce the single "Six O'Clock '', which reached # 18 in the U.S.
Yanovsky left the band after the soundtrack album You 're a Big Boy Now was released in May 1967, primarily due to a drug bust in San Francisco, in which he was arrested for possession of marijuana and pressured by police to name his supplier. He was a Canadian citizen and feared that he would be barred from re-entering the U.S., so he complied. The incident resulted in a public backlash from the counterculture against the band, with a full - page ad in the Los Angeles Free Press (according to music critic Ralph Gleason) "urging people not to buy Spoonful records and not to attend their concerts and, to the girls, not to ball them. '' Although Yanovsky went on to release a solo single and album, his musical career was severely harmed. He later left the music business and opened a restaurant, Chez Piggy, in Kingston, Ontario, Canada. The restaurant is now owned and run by his daughter.
It should be noted however, that Yanovsky, Sebastian and Boone all independently concurred in interviews that Yanovsky 's sacking was down to Yanovsky 's open disenchantment with the band 's direction and Sebastian 's songwriting. Sebastian 's music was becoming "more personal '' while Yanovsky desired a (probably unachievable) return to their early years club scene.
Yanovsky 's replacement was Jerry Yester, formerly of the Modern Folk Quartet. Around this time, perhaps coincidentally, the band 's sound became more pop - oriented.
The new line - up of the Lovin ' Spoonful recorded two moderately successful Wissert - produced singles ("She Is Still a Mystery '' and "Money ''), as well as the 1967 album Everything Playing. Sebastian then left the group by early 1968 to go solo.
The group was now officially a trio, and drummer Butler (who had previously sung lead on a few album tracks) became the group 's new lead vocalist. Up to this point Sebastian had written (or co-written) and sung every one of the Lovin ' Spoonful 's hits; the band now turned to outside writers for their singles, and used a variety of outside producers. The band 's last two Hot 100 entries, "Never Goin ' Back (to Nashville) '' written by John Stewart and "Me About You '', were sung by Butler. In addition, "Never Goin ' Back '' only featured Yester and Butler 's playing -- the other musical parts were played by session musicians, which had not occurred since drummer Gary Chester played on Do You Believe In Magic. "Never Goin ' Back '' was the highest - charting single of the group 's post-Sebastian career, topping out at # 73.
With commercial success waning, the Lovin ' Spoonful lasted only until early 1969. They split up following the release of their album Revelation: Revolution ' 69. In 1969 Boone produced an album for Mercury Records by a group known as The Oxpetals, a cosmic rock band inspired by The Moody Blues ' "In Search of the Lost Chord ''. When the album failed to chart Boone bought a sailboat and lived aboard for the next 4 years in the Caribbean. In 1973 he moved back to Baltimore, Maryland, took over a recording studio built by engineer George Massenburg, and renamed it Blue Seas after a ship that was salvaged in the Caribbean. Blue Seas went on to record many well known artists, among them Lowell George and Little Feat, who recorded "Feats Do n't Fail Me Now '' there, Robert Palmer and The Seldom Scene. He went on the produce Live at Maguires Hill 16 by The Irish Times in Fort Lauderdale, Florida along with fellow producer Dan Obrien in 1994.
In 1970, following John Sebastian 's 1969 solo performance at Woodstock, Kama Sutra issued the song "Younger Generation '' as a single. Sebastian had closed his Woodstock set with the song. The single version was taken from the two - year - old Everything Playing album and credited to "The Lovin ' Spoonful featuring John Sebastian ''; it failed to chart.
In 1976, however, a solo Sebastian scored another No. 1 Hot 100 hit with "Welcome Back '', the theme song to ABC 's "Welcome Back, Kotter ''.
The original group (Sebastian, Yanovsky, Butler and Boone) reunited briefly in the fall of 1979 for a show at the Concord Hotel in the Catskills for an appearance in the Paul Simon film One Trick Pony, which was released in October 1980.
In 1991, after a long - awaited settlement with their record company, Butler and Boone decided to start up the Lovin ' Spoonful again with Jerry Yester. They were joined by Jerry 's brother, Jim Yester (vocals and guitar), formerly of The Association. Sebastian and Yanovsky declined to participate. In March 1992 drummer John Marrella was added to the band to allow Joe Butler to concentrate on vocals. After a two - month rehearsal in the Berkshire Mountains, the group started touring, with Joe Butler now the most common lead singer. Keyboardist David Jayco was added in June 1992. Jim Yester left this new grouping in March 1993 and was replaced by guitarist Randy Chance. Jerry 's daughter, Lena Yester (vocals and keyboards), replaced David Jayco at the same time. Randy Chance was sacked in June 1993 and was not replaced. Mike Arturi replaced John Marrella on drums in March 1997 and Phil Smith joined on guitar in 2000 replacing Lena Yester.
The original four members of the Lovin ' Spoonful were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on March 6, 2000. All four original members appeared at the ceremony and performed "Do You Believe in Magic '' and "Did You Ever Have to Make Up Your Mind? ''.
Yanovsky died in 2002. Sebastian has stated that he no longer wishes to perform with the remaining members of the group because he wanted to move on when he left the group.
Jerry Yester was fired from the group in 2017 after being arrested on 30 counts of child pornography.
The current group, still led by Butler and Boone, continues to perform.
The band 's name was inspired by some lines in a song of Mississippi John Hurt called the "Coffee Blues ''. John Sebastian and others in the jug - folk scene of the time such as Geoff Muldaur credit Fritz Richmond for suggesting the name.
The song "Coffee Blues '' is a tribute to Maxwell House Coffee, which Hurt describes, "rapping '' in the beginning of the song, as being two or three times any other brand, ergo, he only needs one spoonful to make him feel all right, what he describes as "my lovin ' spoonful '' in the song. The song is part of a group of songs with a long history in recorded blues that generally use the term "a spoonful '' to suggest sex, and in some cases use of a drug such as cocaine. The term "lovin ' spoonful '' has been conjectured as referring to the amount of ejaculate released by a male during a typical orgasm.
In the AMC television series Mad Men, which is set in the 1960s, the characters Sally Draper and Glen Bishop are fans of the band. The band 's song, "Butchie 's Tune, '' is featured in the penultimate episode of the series ' fifth season. Jazz saxophonist Bud Shank released an album of jazz covers of Lovin ' Spoonful songs A Spoonful of Jazz in 1967. In 2016 rock artist Richard Barone recorded a version of the Spoonful 's "Did You Ever Have To Make Up Your Mind? '' featuring John Sebastian on harmonica and autoharp, and making a vocal cameo appearance.
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how many nagar nigam are there in jharkhand | List of municipal corporations in India - wikipedia
The content of this article is based on the "Census of India, 2011 '':
Note: The list includes the city municipal limits, but not urban agglomeration.
Following are the Municipal Corporations in India
Assam
1 Kolkata Kolkata, North 24 Parganas & South 24 Parganas - 2 Bidhannagar - New Town - Rajarhat North 24 Parganas - 3 Barrackpore - Barasat North 24 Parganas - 4 Barasat North 24 Parganas -
- 6 Serampore - Chandanngar Hooghly - 7 Asansol Paschim Bardhaman - 8 Durgapur Paschim Bardhaman - 9 Howrah Howrah - 10 Siliguri Darjeeling & Jalpaiguri - 11 Baharampur Murshidabad - 12 Bardhaman Purba Bardhaman - 13 Kharagpur Paschim Midnapur - 14 Malda Malda - 15 Krishnanagar Nadia - 16 Maheshtala South 24 PGS - 17 Dum Dum North 24 PGS - 18 Chinsurah Hooghly - 19 Kalyani Nadia - 20 Habra North 24 PGS -
Municipal Corporations of India in the Union territories of India.
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when does andrew van de kamp come back | Andrew Van de Kamp - wikipedia
Andrew Van de Kamp is a fictional character in the ABC television series Desperate Housewives played by Shawn Pyfrom, and is the son of one of the title characters, Bree Van de Kamp, and her first husband Rex Van de Kamp.
As one of the few LGBT characters on prime time television secure with his sexuality, Andrew 's storylines have been well received by gay groups. However, his early attitude toward his mother and various crimes have also garnered criticism.
Andrew first appears in the "Pilot '' of season one. His first speaking role is arguing with his mother, Bree, over her desire for perfection. He is attached to his father, Rex, and is upset when Bree tries to cover up their impending divorce. When he confronts her about her lies after she discovers he lied to her, she says, "Just because I chose not to share my marital problems with you does not give you the right to be rude! '': and Andrew replies, "How about driving my father away? Do I get to be rude then? '', and shuts the door in her face. Andrew repeatedly breaks the rules during Season 1, infuriating Bree, who eventually humiliates him by turning up at the strip club he is visiting with his friends while grounded. Bree does later apologize to Andrew (who also admits how much he misses his father) for lying to him, but removes the door to his room in punishment for him smoking marijuana.
His parents ' acrimonious divorce results in Rex buying Andrew a car. Bree tries to get him to give it back but Andrew refuses. Later that episode, in his most serious crime, he knocked down Juanita "Mama '' Solis with his car while drunk. Mama survived this but was in a coma in hospital and died later after waking up from the coma and falling down stairs. His parents help him cover it up but Andrew does n't feel any remorse for his crime. He continues to misbehave and Bree gets him dropped from the school swim team for smoking marijuana in an attempt to make him regret his actions. Further angered by her refusal to allow Rex to convalesce from heart surgery at home, Andrew threatens, "You wan na see how long I can hold a grudge? Go ahead and abandon my father because I promise you will be sorry. '' When he finds out about his father 's adultery, however, he apologizes to Bree and is angry with Rex.
When Bree tells Andrew that if he gets his friend Lisa pregnant, he will marry her. Andrew merely laughs as he is actually developing a relationship with Justin, who confesses to Gabrielle Solis that he and Andrew have been "fooling around '' for some time. Andrew later crashes Zach 's pool party with Justin and some friends and creates mayhem. However, after everyone else has gone home, Susan Mayer catches them naked in the swimming pool kissing; Andrew anxiously shouts, "I 'm not, I 'm not gay! '' Susan then walks away, shocked by what she had just seen. After getting expelled from school for drug abuse and vehicular assault on a school parking attendant, as well as continuing his rudeness towards Bree, Andrew is sent to a juvenile delinquent boot camp.
Some time later, Bree and Rex visit Andrew at the camp. Andrew asks to see his father alone; Bree thinks this is because he blames her for sending him to the camp and storms into the meeting room to tell him she did the right thing. There, Rex reveals that Andrew wanted to see him alone because he fears he is gay. Bree is horrified, and despite Rex 's misgivings, insists Andrew come home with them immediately, saying "Our son just told us that he might be gay. There are two hundred other boys in this camp. Now, I could explain to you what might happen if we left him here, but I 'm a lady and I do n't use that kind of language. '' Rex reminds her that he is still her son and Bree tries to comfort Andrew by telling him "I would love you even if you were a murderer ''.
Bree then invites Reverend Sykes to dinner, who tries to convince Andrew to enroll in Christian counselling. He refuses, saying "I 'm not confused. I know exactly who I am. '' This deeply upsets Bree, who tells him he has to change or he will not be with her in heaven; Andrew is shocked and agrees to meet the reverend. In his final scene of the season, after swearing the reverend to secrecy, Andrew states that, not only that he does not believe in God and lied to his parents about being gay to get out of the camp. This confuses the reverend, who asks him whether he is heterosexual or not: Andrew replies, "Look, I love vanilla ice cream, okay? But every now and then I 'm probably gon na be in the mood for chocolate. '' He then says he will get revenge on Bree for rejecting him by pretending to be a model son and then doing something so awful it is "going to really destroy her ''.
Set just weeks after Rex 's death, Andrew 's first opening shot in Season 2 is to claim Bree is incapable of having murdered his father because "it takes guts to kill somebody ''. He resents George Williams for dating Bree while Rex was still alive, and is very rude to him when he sees him with Bree. Andrew shaved his head after the 1st season. Bree blackmails Andrew with swim club subs into attending dinner with George. In response, Andrew imitates Bree 's pleasure moan to provoke George, who tries to send him to his room but will not tell Bree why, and she refuses to punish Andrew without a reason. George decides to get rid of Andrew by kissing his mother during his swim meet, which angers him so much that he jumps out of the pool and attacks George. That evening, Andrew packs his bags for Camp Hennessey a second time.
After George dies, Bree brings Andrew back from the camp, telling him that George killed Rex in order to marry her; Andrew is disgusted that his father is dead because of her. As a result, Andrew invites Justin to sleep over. He confides to him his reasons for hating Bree, saying:
He also confides his wish for his mother to slip up so that he can "take her down ''. Later, Bree confesses to Andrew that George did n't commit suicide; he overdosed and asked her to call an ambulance, but she sat and watched him die. Andrew now has the "slip up '' that he was waiting for.
When Bree sees Andrew kissing Justin outside her window, she forbids him to bring his boyfriend round again. Andrew mocks her and ensures Bree later walks in them in bed together. Bree threatens to call the police and have Justin forcibly removed, but Andrew replies that he will tell them about what happened to George. This backfires, however, when Bree hires Karl Mayer, a lawyer / friend of the family, who not only explains that Bree has not committed a crime but slams Andrew against a wall and orders him to leave her alone.
Along with his sister, Andrew notices Bree 's increasing alcohol consumption, and uses it against her. When Bree refuses to let Andrew access his trust fund to buy a car, he calls her a "mean old drunk '', and she slaps him. Andrew emotionally blackmails Justin into punching him in the same place Bree slapped him. He then hires a lawyer to file for emancipation from his mother, whom he accuses of hitting him while drunk. Andrew tries to persuade her in "There Is No Other Way '' to just let him go, but she refuses saying she has n't "set him right '' yet. Andrew, after consultation with his lawyer, tells Bree in "Could I Leave You? '' that he will accuse her of molesting him if he does not get his way.
Bree 's father and stepmother arrive, and convince the judge to drop the case. (1) They try to reconcile the two, but Andrew persuades them to let him live with them. Justin is heartbroken when he finds out, and when Bree asks him why, replies:
Bree persuades Justin to supply her with gay magazines and videos, which she plants among Andrew 's things for his grandparents to find; they then leave Andrew behind, and revoke his trust fund. In an attempt to make peace, Bree invites Justin to dinner. (2) Andrew, at this point in time, has attempted to cause pain to his mother multiple times for sinister and unjust causes.
Andrew, however, does n't give up hating his mother or trying to hurt her. He discovers that Peter McMillian, Bree 's boyfriend, is a sex addict, and tries to persuade his sister Danielle Van de Kamp to seduce him. After she refuses, he lures Peter into bed himself, where Bree finds them. Bree finally gives up and leaves him with a bag of clothes and some money by an abandoned gas station because she can no longer love him unconditionally. In his final scene for the season, Andrew, realizing he really is about to lose his mom, tells her that the only good thing is that he has won, Bree - who had already been hurt and betrayed by Andrew multiple times - decides not to argue with him and simply slips him a "good for you. ''
Eight months after the end of Season 2, Bree is about to leave for her honeymoon with Orson when she sees a news report on television about homeless teenagers, in which Andrew is interviewed. Horrified at what has happened to him, she cancels her honeymoon and sets out to retrieve Andrew, eventually finding him in a soup kitchen; she asks him to come back but he refuses. When she shouts "I 'm your mother, for God 's sakes, you 're my son! '', Andrew replies "No, you dumped your son at a gas station seven months ago. I 'm somebody else now '', and runs. When Orson sees how guilty Bree feels, he finds Andrew himself and buys him lunch. During their conversation, Andrew admits he worked the streets as a rent boy whenever he was desperate for money, and asks Orson not to tell his mother, before realizing what he 's said and correcting himself. Orson does not try to force Andrew to come home but instead points out that the reason he is living on the streets is to punish his mother, and ultimately he will only destroy himself. Andrew does not initially appear to heed this, but returns home the next day at the end of "A Weekend In the Country ''. (3)
Bree is delighted, but insists on concocting a reason for Andrew 's long absence. Returning to normal social activities, he is disconcerted to see one of his former clients at a school science fair. Orson is worried for Andrew, which Bree notices and asks him about later that night. Wanting no secrets, Orson confesses that Andrew sold himself for money, and that the man he had been talking to was a previous client. Bree, shocked, and a friend of the man 's wife, confesses all to her. She takes it badly, and tells Bree in return that Danielle is sleeping with her history teacher. Later, Andrew watches the tail end of her argument with Danielle and, concerned, he tries to comfort Bree, explaining that she did instill moral values, "I mean, we know the difference between right and wrong, we just chose wrong '', but also that she pushed them so hard they had to rebel. Bree tries to subtly get him to talk about his prostitution, but he gently brushes her off. Andrew has since got a job working at Tom 's pizzeria, though he takes a fairly lax attitude to his work.
When Andrew overhears the conversation between Bree and Orson about the death of Monique Polier, he believes that it is Orson 's fault when his mother suffers a fall from a rigged ladder. Warning Orson that he has never met "bad Andrew '', but he will if he harms Bree further, Andrew then tells the nurse that Orson is dangerous and should not be left alone with Bree. Later, Andrew leaves Bree under the care of Danielle who is upset she can not go to the Scavo 's pizzeria. Danielle then decides to leave Bree with Gloria, who unexpectedly shows up with soup. At the pizzeria, Andrew sees Danielle, and she confesses she left Bree with Gloria and he then rushes home. However, in "The Little Things You Do Together '', he is knocked out by Gloria Hodge, who actually harmed Bree and intends to kill her. When Andrew comes round, he discovers that Orson has actually been trying to protect Bree, and their relationship returns to normal.
Andrew had no romance this season, though he reveals to Julie Mayer and Danielle that he has tried to seduce Austin McCann, Edie 's nephew by telling them that Austin is not even gay after three beers in episode 11 ' No Fits, No Fights, No Feuds '. It is Andrew who convinces Austin to leave Fairview after he impregnates Danielle. In the episode "Liaisons '' Andrew reveals he is only working at the Scavo 's Pizzeria for $8.50 an hour because he is "doing the beer delivery guy. ''
In this season Andrew seemed to be quite protective of his mother, it looked like they had mended their rocky relationship.
Andrew accidentally leads his grandmother to discover that Bree is not really pregnant. He is there when his sister, Danielle, gives birth to her son.
After Andrew hears his mother talking about how she looks forward to this new chance to finally raise a child correctly, he becomes upset. He decides to move out of his mother 's house and get his own apartment. Bree feels guilty and brings food to his house. Andrew tells his mother that he is not angry anymore and has forgiven her, he 's moved out to try to turn his life around and stand on his own. Bree and Andrew are finally able to reach a full reconciliation. Andrew then makes Bree use a coaster for her drink, providing a humorous moment between the two as she thinks he is becoming more like her. In the season finale, in a scene set five years in the future, Andrew is in business with Bree, who is now a successful author.
Andrew becomes Bree 's personal assistant for her catering company and is engaged to a man named Alex Cominis.
This season Shawn Pyfrom is promoted from "also - starring '' to "starring ''.
Five years later, Andrew is now the personal assistant of his mother, Bree, who, with her new cookbook, is a rising public figure similar to Martha Stewart. He has appeared to have matured and is usually seen alongside his mother wearing a suit. He apparently makes a decent living as he owns a sports car.
Orson Hodge 's plastic surgeon, Alex Cominis, is Andrew 's fiancé. When Bree discovers that Alex was once in gay porn, she tells Andrew and is surprised to learn that Andrew already knew and did not judge Alex for his past mistakes as he himself has a "sordid past '' (referring to the feud between himself and his mother following the death of his father, and his work as a rent boy seven years earlier).
Andrew accuses Bree of being too protective by investigating Alex. She admits to this, and Andrew -- to her surprise -- is glad. It is then insinuated that Bree has come to accept her son 's sexuality and plans on handling the wedding. When Andrew 's soon - to - be mother in - law comes to town, in order to out - do her Bree decides to buy Andrew and Alex the former home of Martha Huber and Felicia Tilman, which is only two houses down and on Wisteria Lane.
Shawn Pyfrom quit Desperate Housewives and did not return as a series regular. He did, however, continue to make occasional guest appearances.
He first returns in "The God - Why - Do n't - You - Love - Me Blues '' to visit Julie while she is in the hospital. There he reveals to her mother, Susan Delfino, that she dropped out of Medical School and has been a waitress while figuring out what to do with her life. He also reveals that she has been involved with a married man who turns out to be Angie 's husband, Nick.
Andrew appears in a non-speaking cameo, gardening with Bree in "You Gotta Get a Gimmick ''.
In "The Chase '', Bree 's new employee Sam Allen (Samuel Page) suggests that Andrew has been sleeping with incompetent employee Tad (Eric Ian Colton). Andrew admits to Sam and his mother that he had a one - time affair with Tad, and defends his actions by stating he had been drinking when Tad came on to him. Bree mentions that Andrew still lives together with Alex, insinuating he is practically committing adultery. Andrew takes this as an opportunity to throw his knowledge of Bree 's own affair with Karl Mayer in her face. It becomes clear that Andrew and Sam do not like each other, and that Sam 's place with the company will be a source of conflict between Andrew and Bree. Sam soon reveals that he is Rex 's son and Bree welcomes him into the family. Andrew is n't happy with his presence and he and Orson are both suspicious of Sam 's true intentions and decide to investigate. Bree soon realizes Sam is emotionally unstable and tries to fire him. However, Sam has discovered (via a drunken Danielle) how Andrew killed Carlos ' mother and blackmails her into signing over the company to him. Orson, who had been unaware of Andrew 's crime, is upset at Bree covering for her son while demanding Orson turn himself in for his hit - and - run of Mike and leaves Bree. Realizing Orson is right, Bree tells Andrew she has to tell Gabrielle the truth.
Bree reveals the truth about Mama 's death to Gabrielle in "Remember Paul? '', and they agree not to tell Carlos for the sake of Andrew 's safety and the Solis marriage (Andrew does not appear in this episode). In "You Must Meet My Wife '' Bree accidentally hits Juanita Solis with her car, Bree and Andrew go to the hospital to make sure Juanita is fine. There, Andrew thanks Gaby for not telling Carlos, but she yells at both him and Bree for trying to run down her whole family. Later on, she forgives them both.
Andrew next appears in "Down the Block There 's a Riot ''. Lynette knocks on Andrew 's door to make sure Andrew has no intention of selling his house to Paul Young. Andrew acts insulted and asks "do you really think I would do that to my mother? '' and Lynette replies "I do n't know, you were pretty nasty as a teenager ''. Andrew is also seen at the homeowners meeting, and during the riot.
In "Everything 's Different, Nothing 's Changed '', Bree fears Andrew is showing signs of alcoholism and it is revealed by Alex that he has indeed been drinking everyday. Bree later confronts Andrew about his addiction and learns that Alex has left him over it. Bree convinces Andrew to attend AA and allow her to help him, by talking to each other.
In "Moments in the Woods '', Andrew is seeking to make amends, and decides to tell Carlos about running over his mother, over Bree 's objections. When Carlos invites Andrew on a camping trip, Bree and Gabrielle fear the worst and follow them. Finding Carlos with a bloody towel and a dirty shovel, Bree jumps to conclusions and blurts out what Andrew did, just as her son enters the cabin. Carlos is outraged at Andrew and Bree for hiding this, trying to force Andrew to drink in his mother 's memory. Carlos leaves the cabin and the trio track him down to his mother 's grave. When Bree tries to take responsibility for Andrew 's condition, he tells her it 's time he finally stood up for his own mistakes. He and Carlos talk and Carlos is able to forgive him for a teenage mistake (although he does blame Bree for hiding it all this time).
Andrew returns home and surprises Bree by revealing he 's engaged to a woman named Mary Beth. When she learns the woman is an heiress, Bree believes Andrew is just marrying her for her money. She arranges an "engagement party '' with several of Andrew 's gay friends. Mary Beth reveals that she knows Andrew is gay but has been unlucky in love so is willing to be with him. Bree encourages her to find a man to truly love her, however, and she breaks up with Andrew. He 's upset as he had lost his job and has massive debt but Bree convinces him to stay with her and let her help him get back on his feet.
Andrew is partially based on writer Marc Cherry himself, who copied much of Bree 's dialogue from his own mother 's reaction when he came out to her. Andrew can be selfish and manipulative, and regularly uses other people to get what he wants, for example, persuading his boyfriend Justin to hit him so he can claim Bree is abusing him. He has also committed a range of crimes, from being expelled from school for smoking marijuana, to running over Mamá Solis while drunk. After Bree hushed up the accident for him, he then refused to feel bad, reasoning "She 's an old lady! I have my whole life ahead of me! '' Marc Cherry has referred to him as being sociopathic. In Season 3, however, Andrew seems to have matured after spending eight months living on the streets.
While fans have heatedly debated his sexual orientation, Shawn Pyfrom has denied that Andrew is totally homosexual, implying he is bisexual. When asked whether Andrew was specifically gay or bisexual, Pyfrom stated "I really do n't even know at this point. I mean, he did make that statement (that 's he 's bisexual). I think he 's a little more gay than he is straight, though. '' In "My Husband, the Pig '', he refers to Austin as a "dog '' and himself as a "dog - lover ''. Whatever Andrew is, he is one of a few LGBT teens on television secure with his sexuality. Marc Cherry has commented, "Andrew Van de Kamp is perhaps the most empowered gay teen in the history of television. He 's gay and he does n't care. ''
From Andrew 's hurt reaction to his mother 's rejection of him, it appears that he deeply loves his mother, as his determination to hurt her in Season 2 is so he can "stop loving her first ''. He also loves and respects his father, and only Rex who can get him to stop tormenting Bree in Season 1, albeit briefly. Later on in Season 2, Karl, another strong male figure, has some similar success in forcing Andrew to stop harassing Bree temporarily. In Season 3, it is Orson, and not Bree, who persuades Andrew to return home and whom he continues to respect throughout the season.
Andrew is very protective of his mother, as is shown in Season 2 when he attacks George after George tries to kiss Bree against her will, and then in Season 3 where he threatens Orson under the belief that Orson may hurt Bree. By the fifth season, a more mature Andrew has inherited traits that he once ridiculed his mother for having, such as blunt sarcasm. His relationship with his mother has also changed dramatically for the better.
As Andrew is a minor character in Desperate Housewives, he is rarely mentioned by critics. However, his storylines have occasionally attracted press coverage. In 2005, when Andrew kissed character Justin while engaging in late night foreplay in a pool in the episode "Impossible '', gay groups applauded a primetime television show willing to show a romantic gay kiss; only six network television shows had done so in the past twenty years, as opposed to thirty for lesbian kisses. Despite the fact that Christian and conservative groups had protested Desperate Housewives before it had even aired, few prominent leaders said anything about the kiss.
Shawn Pyfrom has stated that he has received many letters from gay teens who have been encouraged by Andrew 's ease with his sexuality as one of the few secure and confident LGBT teenage characters on television. Marc Cherry has expressed bemusement at this, saying, "to young people, Andrew is something of a role model which is a little appalling to me because he 's something of a sociopath! '' However, Pyfrom commented that he saw this as a good thing:
Andrew 's relentless torment of his mother and other devious exploits have been negatively received by critics, with one declaring him a "Class - A jerk ''. The Parent 's Television Council named "I Know Things Now '' as their "Worst Episode of the Week '', in part due to Andrew 's seduction of Bree 's boyfriend. However, his improved behavior and deep love for his mother in Season 3 has also disappointed some critics, with one saying "if he has any lines at all, he 's a little angel... as if he 's become something of a Stepford son! ''
The time given is accurate to within 10 seconds, excluding commercial breaks.
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who wrote each book of the new testament | New Testament - wikipedia
The New Testament (Koine Greek: Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē; Latin: Novum Testamentum) is the second part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first - century Christianity. Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament (in whole or in part) has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world. It reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated (along with readings from the Old Testament) into the various Christian liturgies. The New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music.
The New Testament is a collection of Christian works written in the common (Koine) Greek language of the first century, at different times by various writers, and the modern consensus is that it also provides important evidence regarding Judaism in the first century AD. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books. The original texts were written in the first and perhaps the second centuries of the Christian Era, in Greek, which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean from the Conquests of Alexander the Great (335 -- 323 BC) until the Muslim conquests in the 7th century AD. All the works that eventually became incorporated into the New Testament are believed to have been written no later than around 150 AD.
Collections of related texts such as letters of the Apostle Paul (a major collection of which must have been made already by the early 2nd century) and the Canonical Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (asserted by Irenaeus of Lyon in the late - 2nd century as the Four Gospels) gradually were joined to other collections and single works in different combinations to form various Christian canons of Scripture. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation and the Minor Catholic (General) Epistles were introduced into canons in which they were originally absent. Other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. The Old Testament canon is not completely uniform among all major Christian groups including Roman Catholics, Protestants, the Greek Orthodox Church, the Slavic Orthodox Churches, and the Armenian Orthodox Church. However, the twenty - seven - book canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity (see Development of the New Testament canon).
The New Testament consists of:
The term "new testament '' (Koine Greek: Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē), or "new covenant '' (Hebrew בְּרִית חֲדָשָׁה bərîṯ ḥăḏāšâ) first occurs in Jeremiah 31: 31 (Greek Septuagint καινὴ διαθήκη kainḕ diathḗkē, cited in Hebrews 8: 8). The same Greek phrase for "new covenant '' is found elsewhere in the New Testament (Luke 22: 20, 1 Corinthians 11: 25, 2 Corinthians 3: 6, Hebrews 8: 8, and Hebrews 9: 15; cf. 2 Corinthians 3: 14). In early Bible translations into Latin, the phrase was rendered foedus, "federation '', in Jeremiah 31: 31, and was rendered testamentum in Hebrews 8: 8 and other instances from which comes the English term "New Testament. ''
Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, and consequently the treatment of the term διαθήκη diathḗkē varies in Bible translations into English. John Wycliffe 's 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews:
Use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second - century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian (in Against Praxeas 15). In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of
the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the law and the gospel.
And Tertullian continues later in the book, writing:
it is certain that the whole aim at which he (Marcion) has strenuously laboured, even in the drawing up of his Antitheses, centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own Christ may be separate from the Creator, as belonging to this rival god, and as alien from the law and the prophets.
By the 4th century, the existence -- even if not the exact contents -- of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd -- 4th century Christian author wrote in his early - 4th - century Latin Institutiones Divinae (Divine Institutes):
But all scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ -- that is, the law and the prophets -- is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord. ''... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that which was to be given by Christ would be complete.
The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired and constituting the New Testament of the Christian Biblical Canon.
In the period extending roughly from 50 to 150 AD, a number of documents began to circulate among the churches, including epistles, gospel accounts, memoirs, prophecies, homilies, and collections of teachings. While some of these documents were apostolic in origin, others drew upon the tradition the apostles and ministers of the word had utilized in their individual missions, and still others represented a summation of the teaching entrusted to a particular church center. Several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality.
In general, among Christian denominations the New Testament canon came to be agreed - upon as a list of 27 books, although the order of the books can vary from one version of the printed scriptures to the next. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant traditions. The Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders.
Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. The word "gospel '' derives from the Old English gōd - spell (rarely godspel), meaning "good news '' or "glad tidings ''. The gospel was considered the "good news '' of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, the central Christian message. Gospel is a calque (word - for - word translation) of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion (eu - "good '', - angelion "message '').
Since the 2nd century, the four narrative accounts of the life and work of Jesus Christ have been referred to as "The Gospel of... '' or "The Gospel according to... '' followed by the name of the supposed author. Whatever these admittedly early ascriptions may imply about the sources behind or the perception of these gospels, they are anonymous compositions.
The first three gospels listed above are classified as the Synoptic Gospels. They contain similar accounts of the events in Jesus ' life and his teaching, due to their literary interdependence. The Gospel of John is structured differently and includes stories of several miracles of Jesus and sayings not found in the other three.
These four gospels that were eventually included in the New Testament were only a few among many other early Christian gospels. The existence of such texts is even mentioned at the beginning of the Gospel of Luke. Other early Christian gospels such as the so - called "Jewish - Christian Gospels '' or the Gospel of Thomas, also offer both a window into the context of early Christianity and may provide some assistance in the reconstruction of the historical Jesus.
The Acts of the Apostles is a narrative of the apostles ' ministry and activity after Christ 's death and resurrection, from which point it resumes and functions as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. Examining style, phraseology, and other evidence, modern scholarship generally concludes that Acts and the Gospel of Luke share the same author, referred to as Luke -- Acts. Luke - Acts does not name its author. Church tradition identified him as Luke the Evangelist, the companion of Paul, but the majority of scholars reject this due to the many contradictions between Acts and the authentic Pauline letters. The most probable date of composition is around 80 -- 100 AD, and there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.
The epistles of the New Testament are considered by Christians to be divinely inspired and holy letters, written by the apostles and disciples of Christ, to either local congregations with specific needs, or to New Covenant Christians in general, scattered about; or "General Epistles. ''
The Pauline epistles are the thirteen New Testament books that present Paul the Apostle as their author. Six of the letters are disputed. Four are thought by most modern scholars to be pseudepigraphic, i.e., not actually written by Paul even if attributed to him within the letters themselves. Opinion is more divided on the other two disputed letters (2 Thessalonians and Colossians). These letters were written to Christian communities in specific cities or geographical regions, often to address issues faced by that particular community. Prominent themes include the relationship both to broader "pagan '' society, to Judaism, and to other Christians.
(Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk (*).)
The last four Pauline letters in the New Testament are addressed to individual persons. They include the following:
(Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk (*).)
All of the above except for Philemon are known as the Pastoral epistles. They are addressed to individuals charged with pastoral oversight of churches and discuss issues of Christian living, doctrine and leadership. They often address different concerns to those of the preceding epistles. These letters are believed by many to be pseudepigraphic. Some scholars (e.g., Bill Mounce, Ben Witherington) will argue that the letters are genuinely Pauline, or at least written under Paul 's supervision.
The Epistle to the Hebrews addresses a Jewish audience who had come to believe that Jesus was the anointed one (Hebrew: מָשִׁיחַ -- transliterated in English as "Moshiach '', or "Messiah ''; Greek: Χριστός -- transliterated in English as "Christos '', for "Christ '') who was predicted in the writings of the Hebrew Bible. The author discusses the "better - ness '' of the new covenant and the ministry of Jesus, over the Mosaic covenant and urges the readers in the practical implications of this conviction through the end of the epistle.
The book has been widely accepted by the Christian church as inspired by God and thus authoritative, despite the acknowledgment of uncertainties about who its human author was. Regarding authorship, although the Epistle to the Hebrews does not internally claim to have been written by the Apostle Paul, some similarities in wordings to some of the Pauline Epistles have been noted and inferred. In antiquity, some began to ascribe it to Paul in an attempt to provide the anonymous work an explicit apostolic pedigree.
In the 4th century, Jerome and Augustine of Hippo supported Paul 's authorship. The Church largely agreed to include Hebrews as the fourteenth letter of Paul, and affirmed this authorship until the Reformation. The letter to the Hebrews had difficulty in being accepted as part of the Christian canon because of its anonymity. As early as the 3rd century, Origen wrote of the letter, "Men of old have handed it down as Paul 's, but who wrote the Epistle God only knows. ''
Contemporary scholars often reject Pauline authorship for the epistle to the Hebrews, based on its distinctive style and theology, which are considered to set it apart from Paul 's writings.
The General epistles (or "catholic epistles '') consist of both letters and treatises in the form of letters written to the church at large. The term "catholic '' (Greek: καθολική, katholikē), used to describe these letters in the oldest manuscripts containing them, here simply means "general '' or "universal ''. The authorship of a number of these is disputed.
The final book of the New Testament is the Book of Revelation, also known as the Apocalypse of John. In the New Testament canon, it is considered prophetical or apocalyptic literature. Its authorship has been attributed either to John the Apostle (in which case it is often thought that John the Apostle is John the Evangelist, i.e. author of the Gospel of John) or to another John designated "John of Patmos '' after the island where the text says the revelation was received (1: 9). Some ascribe the writership date as circa 81 -- 96 AD, and others at around 68 AD. The work opens with letters to seven churches and thereafter takes the form of an apocalypse, a literary genre popular in ancient Judaism and Christianity.
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The order in which the books of the New Testament appear differs between some collections and ecclesiastical traditions. In the Latin West, prior to the Vulgate (an early 5th - century Latin version of the Bible), the four Gospels were arranged in the following order: Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark. The Syriac Peshitta places the major General epistles (James, 1 Peter, and 1 John) immediately after Acts and before the Pauline epistles.
The order of an early edition of the letters of Paul is based on the size of the letters: longest to shortest, though keeping 1 and 2 Corinthians and 1 and 2 Thessalonians together. The Pastoral epistles were apparently not part of the Corpus Paulinum in which this order originated and were later inserted after 2 Thessalonians and before Philemon. Hebrews was variously incorporated into the Corpus Paulinum either after 2 Thessalonians, after Philemon (i.e. at the very end), or after Romans.
The New Testament of the 16th - century Luther Bible continues, to this day, to place Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Apocalypse last. This reflects the thoughts of the Reformer Martin Luther on the canonicity of these books.
The books that eventually found a permanent place in the New Testament were not the only works of Christian literature produced in the earliest Christian centuries. The long process of canonization began early, sometimes with tacit reception of traditional texts, sometimes with explicit selection or rejection of particular texts as either acceptable or unacceptable for use in a given context (e.g., not all texts that were acceptable for private use were considered appropriate for use in the liturgy).
Over the course of history, those works of early Christian literature that survived but that did not become part of the New Testament have been variously grouped by theologians and scholars. Drawing upon, though redefining, an older term used in early Christianity and among Protestants when referring to those books found in the Christian Old Testament although not in the Jewish Bible, modern scholars began to refer to these works of early Christian literature not included in the New Testament as "apocryphal '', by which was meant non-canonical.
Collected editions of these works were then referred to as the "New Testament apocrypha ''. Typically excluded from such published collections are the following groups of works: The Apostolic Fathers, the 2nd - century Christian apologists, the Alexandrians, Tertullian, Methodius of Olympus, Novatian, Cyprian, martyrdoms, and the Desert Fathers. Almost all other Christian literature from the period, and sometimes including works composed well into Late Antiquity, are relegated to the so - called New Testament apocrypha.
Although not considered to be inspired by God, these "apocryphal '' works may be helpful in the study of the New Testament in that they were produced in the same ancient context and often using the same language as those books that would eventually form the New Testament. Some of these later works are dependent (either directly or indirectly) upon books that would later come to be in the New Testament or upon the ideas expressed in them. There is even an example of a pseudepigraphical letter composed under the guise of a presumably lost letter of the Apostle Paul, the Epistle to the Laodiceans.
The books of the New Testament were all or nearly all written by Jewish Christians -- that is, Jewish disciples of Christ, who lived in the Roman Empire, and under Roman occupation. Luke, who wrote the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts, is frequently thought of as an exception; scholars are divided as to whether Luke was a Gentile or a Hellenic Jew. A few scholars identify the author of the Gospel of Mark as probably a Gentile, and similarly for the Gospel of Matthew, though most assert Jewish - Christian authorship.
Authorship is an area of longstanding and current research and debate, with different works posing different problems for identification. While the various works have traditional ascriptions of authorship, these ascriptions are in some cases defended by scholars, and in other cases disputed or rejected. According to many (if not most) critical scholars, none of the authors of the Gospels were eyewitnesses or even explicitly claimed to be eyewitnesses. Bart Ehrman of the University of North Carolina has argued for a scholarly consensus that many New Testament books were not written by the individuals whose names are attached. He further argues that the Gospels were originally anonymous, and names were not ascribed to them until around 185 AD. Other scholars concur. It is the perspective of some writers that none were written in Palestine.
There is a tradition that the Apostle John was the author of the Gospel of John. Traditionalists (such as Biblical commentators Albert Barnes and Matthew Henry) claim that the writer of the Gospel of John himself claimed to be an eyewitness in their commentaries of John 21: 24 and therefore the gospel was written by an eyewitness; however, this idea is rejected by the majority of modern scholars.
A review of Richard Bauckham 's book Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony states "The common wisdom in the academy is that stories and sayings of Jesus circulated for decades, undergoing countless retellings and embellishments before being finally set down in writing. ''
Most scholars hold to the two - source hypothesis, which claims that the Gospel of Mark was written first. According to the hypothesis, the authors of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke then used the Gospel of Mark and the hypothetical Q document, in addition to some other sources, to write their individual gospel accounts. These three gospels are called the Synoptic gospels because they include many of the same stories, often in the same sequence, and sometimes exactly the same wording. Scholars agree that the Gospel of John was written last, by using a different tradition and body of testimony. In addition, most scholars agree that the author of Luke wrote the Acts of the Apostles. Scholars hold that these books constituted two halves of a single work, Luke - Acts.
Strictly speaking, each gospel and the book of Acts is arguably anonymous. The Gospel of John is somewhat of an exception, although the author simply refers to himself as "the disciple Jesus loved '' and claims to be a member of Jesus ' inner circle. The identities of each author were agreed upon at an early date, certainly no later than the early 2nd century. It is likely that the issue of the authorship of each gospel had been settled at least somewhat earlier, as the earliest sources are in complete agreement on the issue. No one questioned the early 2nd century consensus until the 18th century.
Some scholars today maintain the traditional claim that Luke the Evangelist, an associate of St. Paul who was probably not an eyewitness to Jesus ' ministry, wrote the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles. Scholars are also divided on the traditional claim that Mark the Evangelist, an associate of St. Peter who may have been an eyewitness to Jesus ' ministry, wrote the Gospel of Mark. Scholars are more divided over the traditional claim that Matthew the Apostle wrote the Gospel of Matthew and that John the Apostle wrote the Gospel of John. Opinion, however, is widely divided on this issue and there is no widespread consensus.
The Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles were both written by the same author, and are thus referred to as the Lucan texts. The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book; both were addressed to Theophilus, and the preface to the Acts of the Apostles references "my former book '' about the ministry of Jesus. Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author.
The Pauline epistles are the thirteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to Paul of Tarsus. The anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is, despite unlikely Pauline authorship, often functionally grouped with these thirteen to form a corpus of fourteen "Pauline '' epistles.
Seven letters are generally classified as "undisputed '', expressing contemporary scholarly near consensus that they are the work of Paul: Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon. Six additional letters bearing Paul 's name do not currently enjoy the same academic consensus: Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus.
While many scholars uphold the traditional view, some question whether the first three, called the "Deutero - Pauline Epistles '', are authentic letters of Paul. As for the latter three, the "Pastoral epistles '', some scholars uphold the traditional view of these as the genuine writings of the Apostle Paul; most, however, regard them as pseudepigrapha.
One might refer to the Epistle to the Laodiceans and the Third Epistle to the Corinthians as examples of works identified as pseudonymous. Since the early centuries of the church, there has been debate concerning the authorship of the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews, and contemporary scholars generally reject Pauline authorship.
The epistles all share common themes, emphasis, vocabulary and style; they exhibit a uniformity of doctrine concerning the Mosaic Law, Jesus, faith, and various other issues. All of these letters easily fit into the chronology of Paul 's journeys depicted in Acts of the Apostles.
The author of the Epistle of James identifies himself in the opening verse as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ ''. From the middle of the 3rd century, patristic authors cited the Epistle as written by James the Just. Ancient and modern scholars have always been divided on the issue of authorship. Many consider the epistle to be written in the late 1st or early 2nd centuries.
The author of the First Epistle of Peter identifies himself in the opening verse as "Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ '', and the view that the epistle was written by St. Peter is attested to by a number of Church Fathers: Irenaeus (140 -- 203), Tertullian (150 -- 222), Clement of Alexandria (155 -- 215) and Origen of Alexandria (185 -- 253). Unlike The Second Epistle of Peter, the authorship of which was debated in antiquity, there was little debate about Peter 's authorship of this first epistle until the 18th century. Although 2 Peter internally purports to be a work of the apostle, many biblical scholars have concluded that Peter is not the author. For an early date and (usually) for a defense of the Apostle Peter 's authorship see Kruger, Zahn, Spitta, Bigg, and Green.
The Epistle of Jude title is written as follows: "Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James '' (NRSV). The debate has continued over the author 's identity as the apostle, the brother of Jesus, both, or neither.
The First Epistle of John is traditionally held to have been composed by John the Apostle (the author of the Gospel of John) when the writer was in advanced age. The epistle 's content, language and conceptual style indicate that it may have had the same author as the Gospel of John, 2 John and 3 John. Eusebius claimed that the author of 2nd and 3rd John was not John the Apostle, but an "elder John '' which refers either to the apostle at an advanced age or a hypothetical second individual ("John the Elder ''). Scholars today are divided on the issue.
The author of the Book of Revelation identifies himself several times as "John ''. and states that he was on Patmos when he received his first vision. As a result, the author is sometimes referred to as John of Patmos. The author has traditionally been identified with John the Apostle to whom the Gospel and the epistles of John were attributed. It was believed that he was exiled to the island of Patmos during the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian, and there wrote Revelation. Justin Martyr (c. 100 -- 165 AD) who was acquainted with Polycarp, who had been mentored by John, makes a possible allusion to this book, and credits John as the source. Irenaeus (c. 115 -- 202) assumes it as a conceded point. According to the Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, modern scholars are divided between the apostolic view and several alternative hypotheses put forth in the last hundred years or so. Ben Witherington points out that linguistic evidence makes it unlikely that the books were written by the same person.
The earliest works that became part of the New Testament are the letters of the Apostle Paul. The earliest of the books of the New Testament was First Thessalonians, an epistle of Paul, written probably in 51, or possibly Galatians in 49 according to one of two theories of its writing.
In the 1830s German scholars of the Tübingen school tried to date the books as late as the 3rd century, but the discovery of some New Testament manuscripts and fragments from the 2nd and 3rd centuries, one of which dates as early as 125 (Papyrus 52), disproves a 3rd - century date of composition for any book now in the New Testament. Additionally, a letter to the church at Corinth in the name of Clement of Rome in 95 quotes from 10 of the 27 books of the New Testament, and a letter to the church at Philippi in the name of Polycarp in 120 quotes from 16 books. Therefore, some of the books of the New Testament must have been in circulation by the end of the first century.
Scholars hold a wide spectrum of views on exactly when the books of the new testament were written, with non-fundamentalist scholars tending to argue for later dates, and more conservative scholars arguing for an earlier one. Most contemporary scholars regard Mark as a source used by Luke (see Marcan priority). If it is true that Mark was written around the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, around 70, they theorize that Luke would not have been written before 70. Some who take this view believe that Luke 's prediction of the destruction of the temple could not be a result of Jesus predicting the future but with the benefit of hindsight regarding specific details. They believe that the Olivet Discourse in Luke 21: 5 -- 30 is specific enough (more specific than Mark 's or Matthew 's) that a date after 70 seems likely. These scholars have suggested dates for Luke from 75 to 100.
Support for a later date comes from a number of reasons. Differences of chronology, "style '', and theology suggest that the author of Luke - Acts was not familiar with Paul 's distinctive theology but instead was writing a decade or more after his death, by which point significant harmonization between different traditions within Early Christianity had occurred. Furthermore, Luke - Acts has views on Jesus ' divine nature, the end times, and salvation that are similar to those found in Pastoral epistles, which are often seen as pseudonymous and of a later date than the undisputed Pauline Epistles.
Most conservative scholars however, argue that both internal and external evidence strongly points to dates prior to 70 AD for the Synoptic Gospels, Acts, and the Pauline Epistles. They note that there is no mention of the deaths of Paul, Peter, and James, all of which happened between 60 - 65 AD, in any book of the New Testament. These were all extremely important figures in the early church, writers would have mentioned their deaths if the New Testament had been written later. Furthermore, the Gospels contain numerous attacks on the Sadducees, a sect of Judaism that was wiped out with the destruction of the temple. Why, they ask, would later writers devote so much narrative space to attacking a group that no longer existed?
John Robinson also notes that each book of the New Testament had to be written prior to the destruction of The Temple. Robinson notes that most scholars interpret the Olivet Discourse as a post 70 AD account of the destruction of The Temple, couched in language to make it appear to be a prophecy, culminating in the Second Coming of Jesus to end the world. Robinson notes that the Second Coming did not occur after the destruction of The Temple, leading him to ask, why would a writer in the 80s or 90s forge a prophecy of an event that that is proven not to have occurred 20 years earlier?
The major languages spoken by both Jews and Greeks in the Holy Land at the time of Jesus were Aramaic and Koine Greek, and also a colloquial dialect of Mishnaic Hebrew. It is generally agreed by most scholars that the historical Jesus primarily spoke Aramaic, perhaps also some Hebrew and Koine Greek. The majority view is that all of the books that would eventually form the New Testament were written in the Koine Greek language.
As Christianity spread, these books were later translated into other languages, most notably, Latin, Syriac, and Egyptian Coptic. However, some of the Church Fathers imply or claim that Matthew was originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and then soon after was written in Koine Greek. Nevertheless, the Gospel of Matthew known today was composed in Greek and is neither directly dependent upon nor a translation of a text in a Semitic language.
The process of canonization of the New Testament was complex and lengthy. In the initial centuries of early Christianity, there were many books widely considered by the church to be inspired, but there was no single formally recognized New Testament canon. The process was characterized by a compilation of books that apostolic tradition considered authoritative in worship and teaching, relevant to the historical situations in which they lived, and consonant with the Old Testament. Writings attributed to the apostles circulated among the earliest Christian communities and the Pauline epistles were circulating, perhaps in collected forms, by the end of the 1st century AD.
One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by Marcion, circa 140 AD, who accepted only a modified version of Luke (the Gospel of Marcion) and ten of Paul 's letters, while rejecting the Old Testament entirely. His canon was increasingly rejected by other groups of Christians, notably the proto - orthodox Christians, as was his theology, Marcionism. Adolf Harnack in Origin of the New Testament (1914) observed that the church gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion.
Justin Martyr, Irenaeus and Tertullian held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired, yet others rejected him. Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of New Testament apocrypha. Justin Martyr, in the mid 2nd century, mentions "memoirs of the apostles '' as being read on Sunday alongside the "writings of the prophets ''.
The Muratorian fragment, dated at between 170 and as late as the end of the 4th century (according to the Anchor Bible Dictionary), may be the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream Christianity. It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon.
The oldest clear endorsement of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written circa 180 AD. A four gospel canon (the Tetramorph) was asserted by Irenaeus, who refers to it directly in his polemic Against the Heresies, "It is not possible that the gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are. For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the church is scattered throughout all the world, and the "pillar and ground '' of the church is the gospel and the spirit of life; it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing out immortality on every side, and vivifying men afresh. '' The books considered to be authoritative by Irenaeus included the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul, although, based on the arguments Irenaeus made in support of only four authentic gospels, some interpreters deduce that the fourfold Gospel must have still been a novelty in Irenaeus 's time.
By the early 200s, Origen may have been using the same twenty - seven books as in the Catholic New Testament canon, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of the Letter to the Hebrews, Epistle of James, II Peter, II John and III John and the Book of Revelation, known as the Antilegomena. Likewise, the Muratorian fragment is evidence that, perhaps as early as 200, there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to the twenty - seven book NT canon, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them. Thus, while there was a good measure of debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the major writings are claimed to have been accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the 3rd century.
Origen was largely responsible for the collection of usage information regarding the texts that became the New Testament. The information used to create the late - 4th - century Easter Letter, which declared accepted Christian writings, was probably based on the Ecclesiastical History (HE) of Eusebius of Caesarea, wherein he uses the information passed on to him by Origen to create both his list at HE 3: 25 and Origen 's list at HE 6: 25. Eusebius got his information about what texts were then accepted and what were then disputed, by the third - century churches throughout the known world, a great deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his extensive travels, from the library and writings of Origen.
In fact, Origen would have possibly included in his list of "inspired writings '' other texts kept out by the likes of Eusebius -- including the Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas, and 1 Clement. Notwithstanding these facts, "Origen is not the originator of the idea of biblical canon, but he certainly gives the philosophical and literary - interpretative underpinnings for the whole notion. ''
Eusebius, circa 300, gave a detailed list of New Testament writings in his Ecclesiastical History Book 3, Chapter XXV:
The Book of Revelation is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp Lake translation: "Recognized '') and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. From other writings of the church fathers, it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity. EH 3.3. 5 adds further detail on Paul: "Paul 's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul. '' EH 4.29. 6 mentions the Diatessaron: "But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle Paul, in order to improve their style. ''
In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of the books that would become the twenty - seven - book NT canon, and he used the word "canonized '' (kanonizomena) in regards to them. The first council that accepted the present canon of the New Testament may have been the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa (393 AD); the acts of this council, however, are lost. A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419). These councils were under the authority of St. Augustine, who regarded the canon as already closed.
Pope Damasus I 's Council of Rome in 382, if the Decretum Gelasianum is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above, or, if not, the list is at least a 6th - century compilation. Likewise, Damasus ' commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible, c. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West. In c. 405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop, Exsuperius of Toulouse. Christian scholars assert that, when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, however, they were not defining something new but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church. ''
The New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt, Festal Letter 39. Also cited is the Council of Rome, but not without controversy. That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the Third Council of Carthage in 397 and 419.
Even this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books, referred to as Antilegomena, continued to be questioned, especially James and Revelation. Even as late as the 16th century, the Reformer Martin Luther questioned (but in the end did not reject) the Epistle of James, the Epistle of Jude, the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation. To this day, German - language Luther Bibles are printed with these four books at the end of the canon, rather than in their traditional order as in other editions of the Bible.
In light of this questioning of the canon of Scripture by Protestants in the 16th century, the (Roman Catholic) Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional western canon (i.e., the canon accepted at the 4th - century Council of Rome and Council of Carthage), thus making the Canon of Trent and the Vulgate Bible dogma in the Catholic Church. Later, Pope Pius XI on 2 June 1927 decreed the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute and Pope Pius XII on 3 September 1943 issued the encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu, which allowed translations based on other versions than just the Latin Vulgate, notably in English the New American Bible.
Thus, some claim that, from the 4th century, there existed unanimity in the West concerning the New Testament canon (as it is today), and that, by the 5th century, the Eastern Church, with a few exceptions, had come to accept the Book of Revelation and thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon. Nonetheless, full dogmatic articulations of the canon were not made until the Canon of Trent of 1546 for Roman Catholicism, the Thirty - Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for the Greek Orthodox.
On the question of NT Canon formation generally, New Testament scholar Lee Martin McDonald has written that:
Although a number of Christians have thought that church councils determined what books were to be included in the biblical canons, a more accurate reflection of the matter is that the councils recognized or acknowledged those books that had already obtained prominence from usage among the various early Christian communities.
Christian scholars assert that when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, they were not defining something new, but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church ''.
Some synods of the 4th century published lists of canonical books (e.g. Hippo and Carthage). The existing 27 - book canon of the New Testament was reconfirmed (for Roman Catholicism) in the 16th century with the Council of Trent (also called the Tridentine Council) of 1546, the Thirty - Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for Eastern Orthodoxy. Although these councils did include statements about the canon, when it came to the New Testament they were only reaffirming the existing canon, including the Antilegomena.
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article on the Canon of the New Testament: "The idea of a complete and clear - cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the Tridentine Council. ''
In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus may be examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. There is no evidence among the canons of the First Council of Nicaea of any determination on the canon.
Like other literature from antiquity, the text of the New Testament was (prior to the advent of the printing press) preserved and transmitted in manuscripts. Manuscripts containing at least a part of the New Testament number in the thousands. The earliest of these (like manuscripts containing other literature) are often very fragmentarily preserved. Some of these fragments have even been thought to date as early as the 2nd century (i.e., Papyrus 90, Papyrus 98, Papyrus 104, and famously Rylands Library Papyrus P52, though the early date of the latter has recently been called into question).
For each subsequent century, more and more manuscripts survive that contain a portion or all of the books that were held to be part of the New Testament at that time (for example, the New Testament of the 4th - century Codex Sinaiticus, once a complete Bible, contains the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas), though occasionally these manuscripts contain other works as well (e.g., Papyrus 72 and the Crosby - Schøyen Codex). The date when a manuscript was written, however, does not necessarily reflect the date of the form of text it contains. That is, later manuscripts can, and occasionally do, contain older forms of text or older readings.
Some of the more important manuscripts containing an early text of books of the New Testament are:
Textual criticism deals with the identification and removal of transcription errors in the texts of manuscripts. Ancient scribes made errors or alterations (such as including non-authentic additions). The New Testament has been preserved in more than 5,800 Greek manuscripts, 10,000 Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including Syriac, Slavic, Ethiopic and Armenian. Even if the original Greek versions were lost, the entire New Testament could still be assembled from the translations.
In addition, there are so many quotes from the New Testament in early church documents and commentaries that the entire New Testament could also be assembled from these alone. Not all biblical manuscripts come from orthodox Christian writers. For example, the Gnostic writings of Valentinus come from the 2nd century AD, and these Christians were regarded as heretics by the mainstream church. The sheer number of witnesses presents unique difficulties, but it also gives scholars a better idea of how close modern Bibles are to the original versions.
On noting the large number of surviving ancient manuscripts, Bruce Metzger sums up the view on the issue by saying "The more often you have copies that agree with each other, especially if they emerge from different geographical areas, the more you can cross-check them to figure out what the original document was like. The only way they 'd agree would be where they went back genealogically in a family tree that represents the descent of the manuscripts.
A similar type of textual criticism is applied to other ancient texts. There are far fewer witnesses to classical texts than to the Bible, and unlike the New Testament where the earliest witnesses are often within a couple decades of the original, the earliest existing manuscripts of most classical texts were written about a millennium after their composition. For example, the earliest surviving copies of parts of the Roman historian Tacitus ' main work, the Annals of Imperial Rome (written in 116 AD), come from a single manuscript written in 850 AD, although for other parts of his work, the earliest copies come from the 11th century, while other parts of his work have been lost.
The earliest copies of The Jewish War by Josephus (originally composed in the 1st century AD), in contrast, come from nine manuscripts written in the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries. After the Bible, the next best preserved ancient work is Homer 's Iliad, with 650 copies originating about 1,000 years after the original copy. Caesar 's Commentaries on the Gallic War (written in the 50s BC) survives in nine copies written in the 8th century. Thucydides ' history of the Peloponesian War and Herodotus ' history of the Persian War (both written in the 5th century BC) survives in about eight early copies, the oldest ones dating from the 10th century AD.
Biblical scholar F.F. Bruce has said "the evidence for our New Testament writings is ever so much greater than the evidence for many writings of classical authors, the authenticity of which no one dreams of questioning... It is a curious fact that historians have often been much readier to trust the New Testament records than have many theologians. ''
In attempting to determine the original text of the New Testament books, some modern textual critics have identified sections as additions of material, centuries after the gospel was written. These are called interpolations. In modern translations of the Bible, the results of textual criticism have led to certain verses, words and phrases being left out or marked as not original. According to Bart D. Ehrman, "These scribal additions are often found in late medieval manuscripts of the New Testament, but not in the manuscripts of the earlier centuries. ''
Most modern Bibles have footnotes to indicate passages that have disputed source documents. Bible Commentaries also discuss these, sometimes in great detail. While many variations have been discovered between early copies of biblical texts, almost all have no importance, as they are variations in spelling, punctuation, or grammar. Also, many of these variants are so particular to the Greek language that they would not appear in translations into other languages. For example, order of words (i.e. "man bites dog '' versus "dog bites man '') often does not matter in Greek, so textual variants that flip the order of words often have no consequences.
Outside of these unimportant variants, there are a couple variants of some importance, although even these are minor and can be left out of modern Bibles without affecting any matter of theology or interpretation. The two most commonly cited examples are the last verses of the Gospel of Mark and the story of the adulterous woman in the Gospel of John. Many scholars and critics also believe that the Comma Johanneum reference supporting the Trinity doctrine in 1 John to have been a later addition. According to Norman Geisler and William Nix, "The New Testament, then, has not only survived in more manuscripts than any other book from antiquity, but it has survived in a purer form than any other great book -- a form that is 99.5 % pure ''
The often referred to Interpreter 's Dictionary of the Bible, a book written to prove the validity of the New Testament, says: "A study of 150 Greek (manuscripts) of the Gospel of Luke has revealed more than 30,000 different readings... It is safe to say that there is not one sentence in the New Testament in which the (manuscript) is wholly uniform. '' Most of the variation took place within the first three Christian centuries.
By the 4th century, textual "families '' or types of text become discernible among New Testament manuscripts. A "text - type '' is the name given to a family of texts with similar readings due to common ancestors and mutual correction. Many early manuscripts, however, contain individual readings from several different earlier forms of text. Modern texual critics have identified the following text - types among textual witnesses to the New Testament: The Alexandrian text - type is usually considered to generally preserve many early readings. It is represented, e.g., by Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and the Bodmer Papyri.
The Western text - type is generally longer and can be paraphrastic, but can also preserve early readings. The Western version of the Acts of the Apostles is, notably, 8.5 % longer than the Alexandrian form of the text. Examples of the Western text are found in Codex Bezae, Codex Claromontanus, Codex Washingtonianus, the Old Latin (i.e., Latin translations made prior to the Vulgate), as well as in quotations by Marcion, Tatian, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Cyprian.
A text - type referred to as the "Caesarean text - type '' and thought to have included witnesses such as Codex Koridethi and minuscule 565, can today be described neither as "Caesarean '' nor as a text - type as was previously thought. However, the Gospel of Mark in Papyrus 45, Codex Washingtonianus and in Family 13 does indeed reflect a distinct type of text.
Increasing standardization of distinct (and once local) text - types eventually gave rise to the Byzantine text - type. Since most manuscripts of the New Testament do not derive from the first several centuries, that is, they were copied after the rise of the Byzantine text - type, this form of text is found the majority of extant manuscripts and is therefore often called the "Majority Text. '' As with all of the other (earlier) text - types, the Byzantine can also occasionally preserve early readings.
Biblical criticism is the scholarly "study and investigation of biblical writings that seeks to make discerning judgments about these writings. '' Viewing biblical texts as having human rather than supernatural origins, it asks when and where a particular text originated; how, why, by whom, for whom, and in what circumstances it was produced; what influences were at work in its production; what sources were used in its composition; and what message it was intended to convey.
It will vary slightly depending on whether the focus is on the Old Testament, the letters of the New Testament, or the Canonical Gospels. It also plays an important role in the quest for the historical Jesus. It also addresses the physical text, including the meaning of the words and the way in which they are used, its preservation, history, and integrity. Biblical criticism draws upon a wide range of scholarly disciplines including archaeology, anthropology, folklore, linguistics, Oral Tradition studies, history, and religious studies.
The textual variation among manuscript copies of books in the New Testament prompted attempts to discern the earliest form of text already in antiquity (e.g., by the 3rd - century Christian author Origen). The efforts began in earnest again during the Renaissance, which saw a revival of the study of ancient Greek texts. During this period, modern textual criticism was born. In this context, Christian humanists such as Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus promoted a return to the original Greek of the New Testament. This was the beginning of modern New Testament textual criticism, which over subsequent centuries would increasingly incorporate more and more manuscripts, in more languages (i.e., versions of the New Testament), as well as citations of the New Testament by ancient authors and the New Testament text in lectionaries in order to reconstruct the earliest recoverable form of the New Testament text and the history of changes to it.
Books that later formed the New Testament, like other Christian literature of the period, originated in a literary context that reveals relationships not only to other Christian writings, but also to Graeco - Roman and Jewish works. Of singular importance is the extensive use of and interaction with the Jewish Bible and what would become the Christian Old Testament. Both implicit and explicit citations, as well as countless allusions, appear throughout the books of the New Testament, from the Gospels and Acts, to the Epistles, to the Apocalypse.
The first translations (usually called "versions '') of the New Testament were made beginning already at the end of 2nd century. The earliest versions of the New Testament are the translations into the Syriac, Latin, and Coptic languages. These three versions were made directly from the Greek, and are frequently cited in the apparatuses of modern critical editions.
Syriac was spoken in Syria, and Mesopotamia, and with dialect in Roman and Byzantine Palestine where it was known as Jewish Palestinian Aramaic. Several Syriac translations were made and have come to us. Most of the Old Syriac, however, as well as the Philoxonian version have been lost.
Tatian, the Assyrian, created the Diatessaron, a gospel harmony written in Syriac around 170 AD and the earliest form of the gospel not only in Syriac but probably also in Armenian.
In the 19th century, manuscript evidence was discovered for an "Old Syriac '' version of the four distinct (i.e., not harmonized) gospels. These "separated '' (Syriac: da - Mepharreshe) gospels, though old, have been shown to be later than the Diatessaron. The Old Syriac gospels are fragmentarily preserved in two manuscripts: the 5th - century Curetonian Syriac and the Sinaitic Syriac from the 4th or 5th century.
No Old Syriac manuscripts of other portions of the New Testament survive, though Old Syriac readings, e.g. from the Pauline Epistles, can be discerned in citations made by Eastern fathers and in later Syriac versions. The Old Syriac version is a representative of the Western text - type. The Peshitta version was prepared in the beginning of the 5th century. It contains only 22 books (neither the Minor Catholic Epistles of 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude, nor the Book of Revelation were part of this translation).
The Philoxenian probably was produced in 508 for Philoxenus, Bishop of Mabung.
The Gospels were likely translated into Latin as early as the last quarter of the 2nd century in North Africa (Afra). Not much later, there were also European Latin translations (Itala). There are about 80 Old Latin mansucripts. The Vetus Latina ("Old Latin '') versions often contain readings with a Western type of text. (For the avoidance of confusion, these texts were written in Late Latin, not the early version of the Latin language known as Old Latin, pre 75 BC.)
The bewildering diversity of the Old Latin versions prompted Jerome to prepare another translation into Latin -- the Vulgate. In many respects it was merely a revision of the Old Latin. There are currently around 8,000 manuscripts of the Vulgate.
There are several dialects of the Coptic language: Bohairic (northern dialect), Fayyumic, Sahidic (southern dialect), Akhmimic, and others. The first translation was made by at least the 3rd century into the Sahidic dialect (cop). This translation represents a mixed text, mostly Alexandrian, though also with Western readings.
A Bohairic translation was made later, but existed already in the 4th century. Though the translation makes less use of Greek words than the Sahidic, it does employ some Greek grammar (e.g., in word - order and the use of particles such as the syntactic construction μεν -- δε). For this reason, the Bohairic translation can be helpful in the reconstruction of the early Greek text of the New Testament.
The continued spread of Christianity, and the foundation of national churches, led to the translation of the Bible -- often beginning with books from the New Testament -- into a variety of other languages at a relatively early date: Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Persian, Soghdian, and eventually Gothic, Old Church Slavonic, Arabic, and Nubian.
Modern Literal Version is the most recent literal translation of the books of the new testament, with the largest number of translation experts being involved in the final translation.
Historically, throughout the Christian world and in the context of Christian missionary activity, the New Testament (or portions thereof) has been that part of the Christian Bible first translated into the vernacular. The production of such translations grew out of the insertion of vernacular glosses in biblical texts, as well as out of the production of biblical paraphrases and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ (e.g., the Heliand).
The 16th century saw the rise of Protestantism and an explosion of translations of the New (and Old) Testament into the vernacular. Notable are those of Martin Luther (1522), Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples (1523), the Froschau Bible (1525 -- 1529, revised in 1574), William Tyndale (1526, revised in 1534, 1535 and 1536), the Brest Bible (1563), and the Authorized Version (also called the "King James Version '') (1611).
Most of these translations relied (though not always exclusively) upon one of the printed editions of the Greek New Testament edited by Erasmus, a form of this Greek text emerged as the standard and is known as the Textus Receptus. This text, based on the majority of manuscripts is also used in the majority of translations that were made in the years 100 to 400 AD.
Translations of the New Testament made since the appearance of critical editions of the Greek text (notably those of Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort, and von Soden) have largely used them as their base text. Unlike the Textus Receptus, these have a pronounced Alexandrian character. Standard critical editions are those of Souter, Vogels, Bover, Merk, and Nestlé - Aland (the text, though not the full critical apparatus of which is reproduced in the United Bible Societies ' "Greek New Testament '').
Notable translations of the New Testament based on these most recent critical editions include the Revised Standard Version (1946, revised in 1971), La Bible de Jérusalem (1961, revised in 1973 and 2000), the Einheitsübersetzung (1970, final edition 1979), the New American Bible (1970, revised in 1986), the Traduction Oecuménique de la Bible (1988, revised in 2004), and the New Revised Standard Version (1989).
Though all Christian churches accept the New Testament as Scripture, they differ in their understanding of the nature, extent, and relevance of its authority. Views of the authoritativeness of the New Testament often depend on the concept of inspiration, which relates to the role of God in the formation of the New Testament. Generally, the greater the role of God in one 's doctrine of inspiration, the more one accepts the doctrine of biblical inerrancy and / or authoritativeness of the Bible. One possible source of confusion is that these terms are difficult to define, because many people use them interchangeably or with very different meanings. This article will use the terms in the following manner:
The self - witness of the Bible to its inspiration demands a commitment to its unity. The ultimate basis for unity is contained in the claim of divine inspiration in 2 Timothy 3: 16 that "all Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness '' (KJV). The term "inspiration '' renders the Greek word theopneustos. This term only occurs here in the New Testament and literally means "God - breathed '' (the chosen translation of the NIV).
All of these concepts depend for their meaning on the supposition that the text of Bible has been properly interpreted, with consideration for the intention of the text, whether literal history, allegory or poetry, etc. Especially the doctrine of inerrancy is variously understood according to the weight given by the interpreter to scientific investigations of the world.
The notion of unity in diversity of Scripture claims that the Bible presents a noncontradictory and consistent message concerning God and redemptive history. The fact of diversity is observed in comparing the diversity of time, culture, authors ' perspectives, literary genre, and the theological themes.
Studies from many theologians considering the "unity in diversity '' to be found in the New Testament (and the Bible as a whole) have been collected and summarized by New Testament theologian Frank Stagg. He describes them as some basic presuppositions, tenets, and concerns common among the New Testament writers, giving to the New Testament its "unity in diversity '':
For the Roman Catholic Church, there are two modes of Revelation: Scripture and Tradition. Both of them are interpreted by the teachings of the Church. The Roman Catholic view is expressed clearly in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1997):
§ 82: As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence. § 107: The inspired books teach the truth. Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.
In Catholic terminology the teaching office is called the Magisterium. The Catholic view should not be confused with the two - source theory. As the Catechism states in § § 80 and 81, Revelation has "one common source... two distinct modes of transmission. ''
While many Eastern Orthodox writers distinguish between Scripture and Tradition, Bishop Kallistos Ware says that for the Orthodox there is only one source of the Christian faith, Holy Tradition, within which Scripture exists.
Traditional Anglicans believe that "Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation '', (Article VI), but also that the Catholic Creeds "ought thoroughly to be received and believed '' (Article VIII), and that the Church "hath authority in Controversies of Faith '' and is "a witness and keeper of Holy Writ '' (Article XX). Classical Anglicanism, therefore, like Orthodoxy, holds that Holy Tradition is the only safe guardian against perversion and innovation in the interpretation of Scripture.
In the famous words of Thomas Ken, Bishop of Bath and Wells: "As for my religion, I dye in the holy catholic and apostolic faith professed by the whole Church before the disunion of East and West, more particularly in the communion of the Church of England, as it stands distinguished from all Papal and Puritan innovations, and as it adheres to the doctrine of the Cross. ''
Following the doctrine of sola scriptura, Protestants believe that their traditions of faith, practice and interpretations carry forward what the scriptures teach, and so tradition is not a source of authority in itself. Their traditions derive authority from the Bible, and are therefore always open to reëvaluation. This openness to doctrinal revision has extended in Liberal Protestant traditions even to the reevaluation of the doctrine of Scripture upon which the Reformation was founded, and members of these traditions may even question whether the Bible is infallible in doctrine, inerrant in historical and other factual statements, and whether it has uniquely divine authority. However, the adjustments made by modern Protestants to their doctrine of scripture vary widely.
Within the US, the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978) is a statement, articulating evangelical views on this issue. Paragraph four of its summary states: "Being wholly and verbally God - given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God 's acts in creation, about the events of world history, and about its own literary origins under God, than in its witness to God 's saving grace in individual lives. ''
Mainline American Protestant denominations, including the United Methodist Church, Presbyterian Church USA, The Episcopal Church, and Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, do not teach the doctrine of inerrancy as set forth in the Chicago Statement. All of these churches have more ancient doctrinal statements asserting the authority of scripture, but may interpret these statements in such a way as to allow for a very broad range of teaching -- from evangelicalism to skepticism. It is not an impediment to ordination in these denominations to teach that the scriptures contain errors, or that the authors follow a more or less unenlightened ethics that, however appropriate it may have seemed in the authors ' time, moderns would be very wrong to follow blindly.
For example, ordination of women is universally accepted in the mainline churches, abortion is condemned as a grievous social tragedy but not always a personal sin or a crime against an unborn person, and homosexuality is sometimes recognized as a genetic propensity or morally neutral preference that should be neither encouraged nor condemned. In North America, the most contentious of these issues among these churches at the present time is how far the ordination of gay men and lesbians should be accepted.
Officials of the Presbyterian Church USA report: "We acknowledge the role of scriptural authority in the Presbyterian Church, but Presbyterians generally do not believe in biblical inerrancy. Presbyterians do not insist that every detail of chronology or sequence or prescientific description in scripture be true in literal form. Our confessions do teach biblical infallibility. Infallibility affirms the entire truthfulness of scripture without depending on every exact detail. ''
Those who hold a more liberal view of the Bible as a human witness to the glory of God, the work of fallible humans who wrote from a limited experience unusual only for the insight they have gained through their inspired struggle to know God in the midst of a troubled world. Therefore, they tend not to accept such doctrines as inerrancy. These churches also tend to retain the social activism of their evangelical forebears of the 19th century, placing particular emphasis on those teachings of scripture that teach compassion for the poor and concern for social justice.
The message of personal salvation is, generally speaking, of the good that comes to oneself and the world through following the New Testament 's Golden Rule admonition to love others without hypocrisy or prejudice. Toward these ends, the "spirit '' of the New Testament, more than the letter, is infallible and authoritative.
There are some movements that believe the Bible contains the teachings of Jesus but who reject the churches that were formed following its publication. These people believe all individuals can communicate directly with God and therefore do not need guidance or doctrines from a church. These people are known as Christian anarchists.
Messianic Judaism generally holds the same view of New Testament authority as evangelical Protestants. According to the view of some Messianic Jewish congregations, Jesus did not annul the Torah, but that its interpretation is revised and ultimately explained through the Apostolic Scriptures.
The Christian Congregation of Jehovah 's Witnesses accepts the New Testament as divinely inspired Scripture, and as infallible in every detail, with equal authority as the Hebrew Scriptures. They view it as the written revelation and good news of the Messiah, the ransom sacrifice of Jesus, and the Kingdom of God, explaining and expounding the Hebrew Bible, not replacing but vitally supplementing it. They also view the New Testament as the primary instruction guide for Christian living, and church discipline. They generally call the New Testament the "Christian Greek Scriptures '', and see only the "covenants '' as "old '' or "new '', but not any part of the actual Scriptures themselves.
Oneness Pentecostalism subscribes to the common Protestant doctrine of sola scriptura. They view the Bible as the inspired Word of God, and as absolutely inerrant in its contents (though not necessarily in every translation). They regard the New Testament as perfect and inerrant in every way, revealing the Lord Jesus Christ in the Flesh, and his Atonement, and which also explains and illuminates the Old Testament perfectly, and is part of the Bible canon, not because church councils or decrees claimed it so, but by witness of the Holy Spirit.
The Seventh - day Adventist Church holds the New Testament as the inspired Word of God, with God influencing the "thoughts '' of the Apostles in the writing, not necessarily every word though. The first fundamental belief of the Seventh - Day Adventist church stated that "The Holy Scriptures are the infallible revelation of (God 's) will. '' Adventist theologians generally reject the "verbal inspiration '' position on Scripture held by many conservative evangelical Christians. They believe instead that God inspired the thoughts of the biblical authors and apostles, and that the writers then expressed these thoughts in their own words. This view is popularly known as "thought inspiration '', and most Adventist members hold to that view. According to Ed Christian, former JATS editor, "few if any ATS members believe in verbal inerrancy ''.
Regarding the teachings of the New Testament compared to the Old, and the application in the New Covenant, Adventists have traditionally taught that the Decalogue is part of the moral law of God, which was not abrogated by the ministry and death of Jesus Christ. Therefore, the fourth commandment concerning the Sabbath is as applicable to Christian believers as the other nine. Adventists have often taught a distinction between "moral law '' and "ceremonial law ''. According to Adventist beliefs, the moral law continues into the "New Testament era '', but the ceremonial law was done away with by Jesus.
How the Mosaic law should be applied came up at Adventist conferences in the past, and Adventist theologians such as A.T. Jones and E.J. Waggoner looked at the problem addressed by Paul in Galatians as not the ceremonial law, but rather the wrong use of the law (legalism). They were opposed by Uriah Smith and George Butler at the 1888 Conference. Smith in particular thought the Galatians issue had been settled by Ellen White already, yet in 1890 she claimed justification by faith is "the third angel 's message in verity. ''
Ellen White interpreted Colossians 2: 14 as saying that the ceremonial law was nailed to the cross.
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) believe that the New Testament, as part of the Christian biblical canon, is accurate "as far as it is translated correctly ''. They believe the Bible as originally revealed is the word of God, but that the processes of transcription and translation have introduced errors into the texts as currently available, and therefore they can not be regarded as completely inerrant. In addition to the Old and New Testaments, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price are considered part of their scriptural canon.
Despite the wide variety among Christian liturgies, texts from the New Testament play a role in almost all forms of Christian worship. In addition to some language derived from the New Testament in the liturgy itself (e.g., the Trisagion may be based on Apocalypse 4: 8, and the beginning of the "Hymn of Praise '' draws upon Luke 2: 14), the reading of extended passages from the New Testament is a practice common to almost all Christian worship, liturgical or not.
These readings are most often part of an established lectionary (i.e., selected texts to be read at church services on specific days), and (together with an Old Testament reading and a Psalm) include a non-gospel reading from the New Testament and culminate with a Gospel reading. No readings from the Book of Revelation, however, are included in the standard lectionary of the Eastern Orthodox churches.
Central to the Christian liturgy is the celebration of the Eucharist or "Holy Communion ''. The Words of Institution that begin this rite are drawn directly from 1 Corinthians 11: 23 -- 26. In addition, the communal recitation of the Lord 's Prayer (in the form found in the Gospel of Matthew 6: 9 -- 13) is also a standard feature of Christian worship.
Most of the influence of the New Testament upon the arts has come from the Gospels and the Book of Revelation. Literary expansion of the Nativity of Jesus found in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke began already in the 2nd century, and the portrayal of the Nativity has continued in various art forms to this day. The earliest Christian art would often depict scenes from the New Testament such as the raising of Lazarus, the baptism of Jesus or the motif of the Good Shepherd.
Biblical paraphrases and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ (e.g., the Heliand) became popular in the Middle Ages, as did the portrayal of the arrest, trial and execution of Jesus in Passion plays. Indeed, the Passion became a central theme in Christian art and music. The ministry and Passion of Jesus, as portrayed in one or more of the New Testament Gospels, has also been a theme in film, almost since the inception of the medium (e.g., "La Passion '', France, 1903).
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what is the purpose of the bios setup utility | BIOS - wikipedia
BIOS (/ ˈbaɪɒs / BY - oss; an acronym for Basic Input / Output System and also known as the System BIOS, ROM BIOS or PC BIOS) is non-volatile firmware used to perform hardware initialization during the booting process (power - on startup), and to provide runtime services for operating systems and programs. The BIOS firmware comes pre-installed on a personal computer 's system board, and it is the first software to run when powered on. The name originates from the Basic Input / Output System used in the CP / M operating system in 1975. Originally proprietary to the IBM PC, the BIOS has been reverse engineered by companies looking to create compatible systems. The interface of that original system serves as a de facto standard.
The BIOS in modern PCs initializes and tests the system hardware components, and loads a boot loader from a mass memory device which then initializes an operating system. In the era of MS - DOS, the BIOS provided a hardware abstraction layer for the keyboard, display, and other input / output (I / O) devices that standardized an interface to application programs and the operating system. More recent operating systems do not use the BIOS after loading, instead accessing the hardware components directly.
Most BIOS implementations are specifically designed to work with a particular computer or motherboard model, by interfacing with various devices that make up the complementary system chipset. Originally, BIOS firmware was stored in a ROM chip on the PC motherboard. In modern computer systems, the BIOS contents are stored on flash memory so it can be rewritten without removing the chip from the motherboard. This allows easy, end - user updates to the BIOS firmware so new features can be added or bugs can be fixed, but it also creates a possibility for the computer to become infected with BIOS rootkits. Furthermore, a BIOS upgrade that fails can brick the motherboard permanently, unless the system includes some form of backup for this case.
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) is a successor to BIOS, aiming to address its technical shortcomings.
The term BIOS (Basic Input / Output System) was created by Gary Kildall and first appeared in the CP / M operating system in 1975, describing the machine - specific part of CP / M loaded during boot time that interfaces directly with the hardware. (A CP / M machine usually has only a simple boot loader in its ROM.)
Versions of MS - DOS, PC DOS or DR - DOS contain a file called variously "IO. SYS '', "IBMBIO.COM '', "IBMBIO. SYS '', or "DRBIOS. SYS ''; this file is known as the "DOS BIOS '' (also known as the "DOS I / O System '') and contains the lower - level hardware - specific part of the operating system. Together with the underlying hardware - specific but operating system - independent "System BIOS '', which resides in ROM, it represents the analogue to the "CP / M BIOS ''.
With the introduction of PS / 2 machines, IBM divided the System BIOS into real - and protected - mode portions. The real - mode portion was meant to provide backward compatibility with existing operating systems such as DOS, and therefore was named "CBIOS '' (for "Compatibility BIOS ''), whereas the "ABIOS '' (for "Advanced BIOS '') provided new interfaces specifically suited for multitasking operating systems such as OS / 2.
Starting: - The first commercial licensing of CP / M took place in 1975 with contracts between Digital Systems and Omron of America for use in their intelligent terminal, and with Lawrence Livermore Laboratories where CP / M was used to monitor programs in the Octopus network. Little attention was paid to CP / M for about a year. In my spare time, I worked to improve overall facilities... By this time, CP / M had been adapted for four different controllers... In 1976, Glenn Ewing approached me with a problem: Imsai, Incorporated, for whom Glenn consulted, had shipped a large number of disk subsystems with a promise that an operating system would follow. I was somewhat reluctant to adapt CP / M to yet another controller, and thus the notion of a separated Basic I / O System (BIOS) evolved. In principle, the hardware dependent portions of CP / M were concentrated in the BIOS, thus allowing Glenn, or anyone else, to adapt CP / M to the Imsai equipment. Imsai was subsequently licensed to distribute CP / M version 1.3 which eventually evolved into an operating system called IMDOS.
The BIOS of the original IBM PC XT had no interactive user interface. Error codes or messages were displayed on the screen, or coded series of sounds were generated to signal errors when the power - on self - test (POST) had not proceeded to the point of successfully initializing a video display adapter. Options on the IBM PC and XT were set by switches and jumpers on the main board and on peripheral cards. Starting around the mid-1990s, it became typical for the BIOS ROM to include a "BIOS configuration utility '' (BCU) or "BIOS setup utility '', accessed at system power - up by a particular key sequence. This program allowed the user to set system configuration options, of the type formerly set using DIP switches, through an interactive menu system controlled through the keyboard. In the interim period, IBM - compatible PCs -- including the IBM AT -- held configuration settings in battery - backed RAM and used a bootable configuration program on disk, not in the ROM, to set the configuration options contained in this memory. The disk was supplied with the computer, and if it was lost the system settings could not be changed. The same applied in general to computers with an EISA bus, for which the configuration program was called an EISA Configuration Utility (ECU).
A modern Wintel - compatible computer provides a setup routine essentially unchanged in nature from the ROM - resident BIOS setup utilities of the late 1990s; the user can configure hardware options using the keyboard and video display. Also, when errors occur at boot time, a modern BIOS usually displays user - friendly error messages, often presented as pop - up boxes in a TUI style, and offers to enter the BIOS setup utility or to ignore the error and proceed if possible. Instead of battery - backed RAM, the modern Wintel machine may store the BIOS configuration settings in flash ROM, perhaps the same flash ROM that holds the BIOS itself.
When we failed to produce an operating system in a timely manner, Glenn started talking with Gary about CPM... It took several months of twisting Gary 's arm to get Gary to port it to the 8080. The final success came when Glenn talked Gary into just separating the I / O from the rest of it, with Glenn promising to re-write the I / O module for the IMSAI 8080 (which he did). So CPM on the IMSAI was a joint effort between Glenn and Gary.
Glenn... would be talking with Gary, and he started twisting Gary 's arm. He said, "Hey Gary, why ca n't we run this in this IMSAI? '' "The I / O 's all different, wo n't run. '' But Glenn persists and finally makes a deal with Gary. He says, "Okay Gary, if you split out the I / O, I 'll write the BIOS, basic I / O 's system, '' and Glenn named it then. "We 'll split it out separately. I 'll write that part, as long as you can make a division in the program there. '' And he got Gary to do that and Glenn put those two pieces together and was running Gary 's CP / M on an IMSAI. Glenn let us know that, and it was n't too much later than Bill was down there making arrangements with Gary Kildall to license CP / M... Now that the BIOS is separated out, anybody could write a BIOS for their machine, if it was 8080 - based, and run this, so he started selling that separately under the company Digital Research that he formed and did quite well. ''
Early Intel processors started at physical address 000FFFF0h. When a modern x86 microprocessor is reset, it starts in pseudo 16 - bit real mode, initializing most registers to zero. The code segment register is initialized with selector F000h, base FFFF0000h, and limit FFFFh, so that execution starts at 4 GB minus 16 bytes (FFFFFFF0h). The platform logic maps this address into the system ROM, mirroring address 000FFFF0h.
If the system has just been powered up or the reset button was pressed ("cold boot ''), the full power - on self - test (POST) is run. If Ctrl + Alt + Delete was pressed ("warm boot ''), a special flag value is stored in nonvolatile BIOS memory ("CMOS '') before the processor is reset, and after the reset the BIOS startup code detects this flag and does not run the POST. This saves the time otherwise used to detect and test all memory.
The POST checks, identifies, and initializes system devices such as the CPU, RAM, interrupt and DMA controllers and other parts of the chipset, video display card, keyboard, hard disk drive, optical disc drive and other basic hardware.
Early IBM PCs had a little - known routine in the POST that would attempt to download a maintenance program into RAM through the keyboard port before performing any other elements of the boot process, such as before scanning for option ROMs or executing a boot loader. (No serial or parallel ports were standard on early IBM PCs, but a keyboard port of either the XT or AT / PS / 2 type has been standard on practically every PC and clone.) If the download was apparently successful, the BIOS would verify a checksum on it and then run it. This feature was intended for factory test or diagnostic purposes; while it was of limited utility outside of factory or repair facilities, it could be used in a proprietary way to boot the PC as a satellite system to a host machine (as it was used in the manufacturing environment).
After the option ROM scan is completed and all detected ROM modules with valid checksums have been called, or immediately after POST in a BIOS version that does not scan for option ROMs, the BIOS calls INT 19h to start boot processing. Post-boot, programs loaded can also call INT 19h to reboot the system, but they must be careful to disable interrupts and other asynchronous hardware processes that may interfere with the BIOS rebooting process, or else the system may hang or crash while it is rebooting.
When INT 19h is called, the BIOS attempts to locate boot loader software held on a storage device designated as a "boot device '', such as a hard disk, a floppy disk, CD, or DVD. It loads and executes the first boot software it finds, giving it control of the PC. This is the process that is known as booting (sometimes informally called "booting up ''), which is short for "bootstrapping ''.
The BIOS selects candidate boot devices using information collected by POST and configuration information from EEPROM, CMOS RAM or, in the earliest PCs, DIP switches. Following the boot priority sequence in effect, BIOS checks each device in order to see if it is bootable. For a disk drive or a device that logically emulates a disk drive, such as a USB flash drive or perhaps a tape drive, to perform this check the BIOS attempts to load the first sector (boot sector) from the disk into RAM at memory address 0x0000: 0x7C00. If the sector can not be read (due to a missing or unformatted disk, or due to a hardware failure), the BIOS considers the device unbootable and proceeds to check the next device. If the sector is read successfully, some BIOSes will also check for the boot sector signature 0x55 0xAA in the last two bytes of the sector (which is 512 bytes long), before accepting a boot sector and considering the device bootable.
The BIOS proceeds to test each device sequentially until a bootable device is found, at which time the BIOS transfers control to the loaded sector with a jump instruction to its first byte at address 0x0000: 0x7C00 (exactly 1 KiB below the 32 KiB mark); see MBR invocation and VBR invocation. (This location is one reason that an IBM PC requires at least 32 KiB of RAM in order to be equipped with a disk system; with 31 KiB or less, it would be impossible to boot from any disk, removable or fixed, using the BIOS boot protocol.) Most, but not all, BIOSes load the drive number (as used by INT 13h) of the boot drive into CPU register DL before jumping to the first byte of the loaded boot sector.
Note well that the BIOS does not interpret or process the contents of the boot sector other than to possibly check for the boot sector signature in the last two bytes; all interpretation of data structures like MBR partition tables and so - called BIOS Parameter Blocks is done by the boot program in the boot sector itself or by other programs loaded through the boot process and is beyond the scope of BIOS. Nothing about BIOS predicates these data structures or impedes their replacement or improvement.
A non-disk device such as a network adapter attempts booting by a procedure that is defined by its option ROM or the equivalent integrated into the motherboard BIOS ROM. As such, option ROMs may also influence or supplant the boot process defined by the motherboard BIOS ROM.
The user can control the boot process, to cause one medium to be booted instead of another when two or more bootable media are present, by taking advantage of the boot priority implemented by the BIOS. For example, most computers have a hard disk that is bootable, but usually there is a removable - media drive that has higher boot priority, so the user can cause a removable disk to be booted, simply by inserting it, without removing the hard disk drive or altering its contents to make it unbootable.
In most modern BIOSes, the boot priority order of all potentially bootable devices can be freely configured by the user through the BIOS configuration utility. In older BIOSes, limited boot priority options are selectable; in the earliest BIOSes, a fixed priority scheme was implemented, with floppy disk drives first, fixed disks (i.e. hard disks) second, and typically no other boot devices supported, subject to modification of these rules by installed option ROMs. The BIOS in an early PC also usually would only boot from the first floppy disk drive or the first hard disk drive, even if there were two drives of either type installed. All more advanced boot priority sequences evolved as incremental improvements on this basic system.
Historically the BIOS would try to boot from a floppy drive first and a hard disk second. The default for CD or DVD booting is an extension of this. With the El Torito optical media boot standard, the optical drive actually emulates a 3.5 '' high - density floppy disk to the BIOS for boot purposes. Optical disks are a special case, because their lowest level of data organization is typically a fairly high - level file system (e.g. ISO 9660 for CD - ROM).
Reading the "first sector '' of a CD - ROM or DVD - ROM is not a simply defined operation like it is on a floppy disk or a hard disk. Furthermore, the complexity of the medium makes it difficult to write a useful boot program in one sector, even though optical media sectors are typically 2048 bytes each, four times the standard 512 - byte size of floppy and legacy hard disk sectors. Therefore, optical media booting uses the El Torito standard, which specifies a way for an optical disk to contain an image of a high - density (1.44 MB) floppy disk and for the drive to provide access to this disk image in a simple manner that emulates floppy disk drive operations. Therefore, CD - ROM drives boot as emulated floppy disk drives; the bootable virtual floppy disk can contain software that provides access to the optical medium in its native format.
The behavior if the BIOS does not find a bootable device has varied as personal computers developed. The original IBM PC and XT had Microsoft Cassette BASIC in ROM, and if no bootable device was found, ROM BASIC was started by calling INT 18h. Therefore, barring a hardware failure, an original IBM PC or XT would never fail to boot, either into BASIC or from disk (or through an option ROM). One model of the original IBM PC was available with no disk drive; a cassette recorder could be attached via the cassette port on the rear, for loading and saving BASIC programs to tape. Since few programs used BASIC in ROM, clone PC makers left it out; then a computer that failed to boot from a disk would display "No ROM BASIC '' and halt (in response to INT 18h).
Later computers would display a message like "No bootable disk found ''; some would prompt for a disk to be inserted and a key to be pressed, and when a key was pressed they would restart the boot process. A modern BIOS may display nothing or may automatically enter the BIOS configuration utility when the boot process fails. Unlike earlier BIOSes, modern versions are often written with the assumption that if the computer can not be booted from a hard disk, the user will not have software that they want to boot from removable media instead. (Lately, typically it will only be a specialist computer technician who does that, only to get the computer back into a condition where it can be booted from the hard disk.)
The environment for the boot program is very simple: the CPU is in real mode and the general - purpose and segment registers are undefined, except CS, SS, SP, and DL. CS is always zero and IP is initially 0x7C00. Because boot programs are always loaded at this fixed address, there is no need or motivation for a boot program to be relocatable. DL contains the drive number, as used with INT 13h, of the boot device, unless the BIOS is one that does not set the drive number in DL -- and then DL is undefined. SS: SP points to a valid stack that is presumably large enough to support hardware interrupts, but otherwise SS and SP are undefined. (A stack must be already set up in order for interrupts to be serviced, and interrupts must be enabled in order for the system timer - tick interrupt, which BIOS always uses at least to maintain the time - of - day count and which it initializes during POST, to be active and for the keyboard to work. The keyboard works even if the BIOS keyboard service is not called; keystrokes are received and placed in the 15 - character type - ahead buffer maintained by BIOS.) The boot program must set up its own stack (or at least MS - DOS 6 acts like it must), because the size of the stack set up by BIOS is unknown and its location is likewise variable; although the boot program can investigate the default stack by examining SS: SP, it is easier and shorter to just unconditionally set up a new stack.
At boot time, all BIOS services are available, and the memory below address 0x00400 contains the interrupt vector table. BIOS POST has initialized the system timers ⟨ ⟩ 8253 or 8254 IC), interrupt controller (s), DMA controller (s), and other motherboard / chipset hardware as necessary to bring all BIOS services to ready status. DRAM refresh for all system DRAM in conventional memory and extended memory, but not necessarily expanded memory, has been set up and is running. The interrupt vectors corresponding to the BIOS interrupts have been set to point at the appropriate entry points in the BIOS, hardware interrupt vectors for devices initialized by the BIOS have been set to point to the BIOS - provided ISRs, and some other interrupts, including ones that BIOS generates for programs to hook, have been set to a default dummy ISR that immediately returns. The BIOS maintains a reserved block of system RAM at addresses 0x00400 -- 0x004FF with various parameters initialized during the POST. All memory at and above address 0x00500 can be used by the boot program; it may even overwrite itself.
Peripheral cards such as some hard disk drive controllers and some video display adapters have their own BIOS extension option ROMs, which provide additional functionality to BIOS. Code in these extensions runs before the BIOS boots the system from mass storage. These ROMs typically test and initialize hardware, add new BIOS services, and augment or replace existing BIOS services with their own versions of those services. For example, a SCSI controller usually has a BIOS extension ROM that adds support for hard drives connected through that controller. Some video cards have extension ROMs that replace the video services of the motherboard BIOS with their own video services. BIOS extension ROMs gain total control of the machine, so they can in fact do anything, and they may never return control to the BIOS that invoked them. An extension ROM could in principle contain an entire operating system or an application program, or it could implement an entirely different boot process such as booting from a network. Operation of an IBM - compatible computer system can be completely changed by removing or inserting an adapter card (or a ROM chip) that contains a BIOS extension ROM.
The motherboard BIOS typically contains code to access hardware components necessary for bootstrapping the system, such as the keyboard, display, and storage. In addition, plug - in adapter cards such as SCSI, RAID, network interface cards, and video boards often include their own BIOS (e.g. Video BIOS), complementing or replacing the system BIOS code for the given component. Even devices built into the motherboard can behave in this way; their option ROMs can be stored as separate code on the main BIOS flash chip, and upgraded either in tandem with, or separately from, the main BIOS.
An add - in card requires an option ROM if the card is not supported by the main BIOS and the card needs to be initialized or made accessible through BIOS services before the operating system can be loaded (usually this means it is required in the bootstrapping process). Even when it is not required, an option ROM can allow an adapter card to be used without loading driver software from a storage device after booting begins -- with an option ROM, no time is taken to load the driver, the driver does not take up space in RAM nor on hard disk, and the driver software on the ROM always stays with the device so the two can not be accidentally separated. Also, if the ROM is on the card, both the peripheral hardware and the driver software provided by the ROM are installed together with no extra effort to install the software. An additional advantage of ROM on some early PC systems (notably including the IBM PCjr) was that ROM was faster than main system RAM. (On modern systems, the case is very much the reverse of this, and BIOS ROM code is usually copied ("shadowed '') into RAM so it will run faster.)
There are many methods and utilities for examining the contents of various motherboard BIOS and expansion ROMs, such as Microsoft DEBUG or the Unix dd.
If an expansion ROM wishes to change the way the system boots (such as from a network device or a SCSI adapter for which the BIOS has no driver code) in a cooperative way, it can use the BIOS Boot Specification (BBS) API to register its ability to do so. Once the expansion ROMs have registered using the BBS APIs, the user can select among the available boot options from within the BIOS 's user interface. This is why most BBS compliant PC BIOS implementations will not allow the user to enter the BIOS 's user interface until the expansion ROMs have finished executing and registering themselves with the BBS API. The specification can be downloaded from the ACPICA website. The official title is BIOS Boot Specification (Version 1.01, 11 January 1996).
Also, if an expansion ROM wishes to change the way the system boots unilaterally, it can simply hook INT 19h or other interrupts normally called from interrupt 19h, such as INT 13h, the BIOS disk service, to intercept the BIOS boot process. Then it can replace the BIOS boot process with one of its own, or it can merely modify the boot sequence by inserting its own boot actions into it, by preventing the BIOS from detecting certain devices as bootable, or both. Before the BIOS Boot Specification was promulgated, this was the only way for expansion ROMs to implement boot capability for devices not supported for booting by the native BIOS of the motherboard.
After the motherboard BIOS completes its POST, most BIOS versions search for option ROM modules, also called BIOS extension ROMs, and execute them. The motherboard BIOS scans for extension ROMs in a portion of the "upper memory area '' (the part of the x86 real - mode address space at and above address 0xA0000) and runs each ROM found, in order. To discover memory - mapped ISA option ROMs, a BIOS implementation scans the real - mode address space from 0x0C0000 to 0x0F0000 on 2 KiB boundaries, looking for a two - byte ROM signature: 0x55 followed by 0xAA. In a valid expansion ROM, this signature is followed by a single byte indicating the number of 512 - byte blocks the expansion ROM occupies in real memory, and the next byte is the option ROM 's entry point (also known as its "entry offset ''). A checksum of the specified number of 512 - byte blocks is calculated, and if the ROM has a valid checksum, the BIOS transfers control to the entry address, which in a normal BIOS extension ROM should be the beginning of the extension 's initialization routine.
At this point, the extension ROM code takes over, typically testing and initializing the hardware it controls and registering interrupt vectors for use by post-boot applications. It may use BIOS services (including those provided by previously initialized option ROMs) to provide a user configuration interface, to display diagnostic information, or to do anything else that it requires. While the actions mentioned are typical behaviors of BIOS extension ROMs, each option ROM receives total control of the computer and may do anything at all, as noted with more detail in the Extensions section below; it is possible that an option ROM will not return to BIOS, pre-empting the BIOS 's boot sequence altogether.
An option ROM should normally return to the BIOS after completing its initialization process. Once (and if) an option ROM returns, the BIOS continues searching for more option ROMs, calling each as it is found, until the entire option ROM area in the memory space has been scanned.
Option ROMs normally reside on adapter cards. However, the original PC, and perhaps also the PC XT, have a spare ROM socket on the motherboard (the "system board '' in IBM 's terms) into which an option ROM can be inserted, and the four ROMs that contain the BASIC interpreter can also be removed and replaced with custom ROMs which can be option ROMs. The IBM PCjr is unique among PCs in having two ROM cartridge slots on the front. Cartridges in these slots map into the same region of the upper memory area used for option ROMs, and the cartridges can contain option ROM modules that the BIOS would recognize. The cartridges can also contain other types of ROM modules, such as BASIC programs, that are handled differently. One PCjr cartridge can contain several ROM modules of different types, possibly stored together in one ROM chip.
The BIOS ROM is customized to the particular manufacturer 's hardware, allowing low - level services (such as reading a keystroke or writing a sector of data to diskette) to be provided in a standardized way to programs, including operating systems. For example, an IBM PC might have either a monochrome or a color display adapter (using different display memory addresses and hardware), but a single, standard, BIOS system call may be invoked to display a character at a specified position on the screen in text mode or graphics mode.
The BIOS provides a small library of basic input / output functions to operate peripherals (such as the keyboard, rudimentary text and graphics display functions and so forth). When using MS - DOS, BIOS services could be accessed by an application program (or by MS - DOS) by executing an INT 13h interrupt instruction to access disk functions, or by executing one of a number of other documented BIOS interrupt calls to access video display, keyboard, cassette, and other device functions.
Operating systems and executive software that are designed to supersede this basic firmware functionality provide replacement software interfaces to application software. Applications can also provide these services to themselves. This began even in the 1980s under MS - DOS, when programmers observed that using the BIOS video services for graphics display was very slow. To increase the speed of screen output, many programs bypassed the BIOS and programmed the video display hardware directly. Other graphics programmers, particularly but not exclusively in the demoscene, observed that there were technical capabilities of the PC display adapters that were not supported by the IBM BIOS and could not be taken advantage of without circumventing it. Since the AT - compatible BIOS ran in Intel real mode, operating systems that ran in protected mode on 286 and later processors required hardware device drivers compatible with protected mode operation to replace BIOS services.
In modern personal computers running modern operating systems the BIOS is used only during booting and initial loading of system software. Before the operating system 's first graphical screen is displayed, input and output are typically handled through BIOS. A boot menu such as the textual menu of Windows, which allows users to choose an operating system to boot, to boot into the safe mode, or to use the last known good configuration, is displayed through BIOS and receives keyboard input through BIOS.
Most modern PCs can still boot and run legacy operating systems such as MS - DOS or DR - DOS that rely heavily on BIOS for their console and disk I / O, providing that the system has a BIOS or BIOS - compatible firmware, which is not necessarily the case with UEFI - based PCs.
Intel processors have reprogrammable microcode since the P6 microarchitecture. The BIOS may contain patches to the processor microcode that fix errors in the initial processor microcode; reprogramming is not persistent, thus loading of microcode updates is performed each time the system is powered up. Without reprogrammable microcode, an expensive processor swap would be required; for example, the Pentium FDIV bug became an expensive fiasco for Intel as it required a product recall because the original Pentium processor 's defective microcode could not be reprogrammed.
Some BIOSes contain a software licensing description table (SLIC), a digital signature placed inside the BIOS by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM), for example Dell. The SLIC is inserted into the ACPI table and contains no active code.
Computer manufacturers that distribute OEM versions of Microsoft Windows and Microsoft application software can use the SLIC to authenticate licensing to the OEM Windows Installation disk and system recovery disc containing Windows software. Systems with an SLIC can be preactivated with an OEM product key, and they verify an XML formatted OEM certificate against the SLIC in the BIOS as a means of self - activating (see System Locked Preinstallation, SLP). If a user performs a fresh install of Windows, they will need to have possession of both the OEM key (either SLP or COA) and the digital certificate for their SLIC in order to bypass activation. This can be achieved if the user performs a restore using a pre-customised image provided by the OEM. Power users can copy the necessary certificate files from the OEM image, decode the SLP product key, then perform SLP activation manually. Cracks for non-genuine Windows distributions usually edit the SLIC or emulate it in order to bypass Windows activation.
Some BIOS implementations allow overclocking, an action in which the CPU is adjusted to a higher clock rate than its manufacturer rating for guaranteed capability. Overclocking may, however, seriously compromise system reliability in insufficiently cooled computers and generally shorten component lifespan. Overclocking, when incorrectly performed, may also cause components to overheat so quickly that they mechanically destroy themselves.
Some operating systems, for example MS - DOS, rely on the BIOS to carry out most input / output tasks within the PC.
Because the BIOS still runs in 16 - bit real mode, calling BIOS services directly is inefficient for protected - mode operating systems. BIOS services are not used by modern multitasking operating systems after they initially load, so the importance of the primary part of BIOS is greatly reduced from what it was initially.
Later BIOS implementations took on more complex functions, by including interfaces such as Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI); these functions include power management, hot swapping, and thermal management. At the same time, since 2010, BIOS technology is in a transitional process toward UEFI.
Historically, the BIOS in the IBM PC and XT had no built - in user interface. The BIOS versions in earlier PCs (XT - class) were not software configurable; instead, users set the options via DIP switches on the motherboard. Later computers, including all IBM - compatibles with 80286 CPUs, had a battery - backed nonvolatile BIOS memory (CMOS RAM chip) that held BIOS settings. These settings, such as video - adapter type, memory size, and hard - disk parameters, could only be configured by running a configuration program from a disk, not built into the ROM. A special "reference diskette '' was inserted in an IBM AT to configure settings such as memory size.
Early BIOS versions did not have passwords or boot - device selection options. The BIOS was hard - coded to boot from the first floppy drive, or, if that failed, the first hard disk. Access control in early AT - class machines was by a physical keylock switch (which was not hard to defeat if the computer case could be opened). Anyone who could switch on the computer could boot it.
Later, 386 - class computers started integrating the BIOS setup utility in the ROM itself, alongside the BIOS code; these computers usually boot into the BIOS setup utility if a certain key or key combination is pressed, otherwise the BIOS POST and boot process are executed.
A modern BIOS setup utility has a menu - based user interface (UI) accessed by pressing a certain key on the keyboard when the PC starts. Usually the key is advertised for short time during the early startup, for example "Press F1 to enter CMOS setup ''. The actual key depends on specific hardware. Features present in the BIOS setup utility typically include:
In modern PCs the BIOS is stored in rewritable memory, allowing the contents to be replaced and modified. This rewriting of the contents is sometimes termed flashing, based on the common use of a kind of EEPROM known technically as "flash EEPROM '' and colloquially as "flash memory ''. It can be done by a special program, usually provided by the system 's manufacturer, or at POST, with a BIOS image in a hard drive or USB flash drive. A file containing such contents is sometimes termed "a BIOS image ''. A BIOS might be reflashed in order to upgrade to a newer version to fix bugs or provide improved performance or to support newer hardware, or a reflashing operation might be needed to fix a damaged BIOS.
The original IBM PC BIOS (and cassette BASIC) was stored on mask - programmed read - only memory (ROM) chips in sockets on the motherboard. ROMs could be replaced, but not altered, by users. To allow for updates, many compatible computers used re-programmable memory devices such as EPROM and later flash memory devices. According to Robert Braver, the president of the BIOS manufacturer Micro Firmware, Flash BIOS chips became common around 1995 because the electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM) chips are cheaper and easier to program than standard ultraviolet erasable PROM (EPROM) chips. Flash chips are programmed (and re-programmed) in - circuit, while EPROM chips need to be removed from the motherboard for re-programming. BIOS versions are upgraded to take advantage of newer versions of hardware and to correct bugs in previous revisions of BIOSes.
Beginning with the IBM AT, PCs supported a hardware clock settable through BIOS. It had a century bit which allowed for manually changing the century when the year 2000 happened. Most BIOS revisions created in 1995 and nearly all BIOS revisions in 1997 supported the year 2000 by setting the century bit automatically when the clock rolled past midnight, December 31, 1999.
The first flash chips were attached to the ISA bus. Starting in 1997, the BIOS flash moved to the LPC bus, a functional replacement for ISA, following a new standard implementation known as "firmware hub '' (FWH). In 2006, the first systems supporting a Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) appeared, and the BIOS flash memory moved again.
The size of the BIOS, and the capacity of the ROM, EEPROM, or other media it may be stored on, has increased over time as new features have been added to the code; BIOS versions now exist with sizes up to 16 megabytes. For contrast, the original IBM PC BIOS was contained in an 8 KiB mask ROM. Some modern motherboards are including even bigger NAND flash memory ICs on board which are capable of storing whole compact operating systems, such as some Linux distributions. For example, some ASUS motherboards included Splashtop OS embedded into their NAND flash memory ICs. However, the idea of including an operating system along with BIOS in the ROM of a PC is not new; in the 1980s, Microsoft offered a ROM option for MS - DOS, and it was included in the ROMs of some PC clones such as the Tandy 1000 HX.
Another type of firmware chip was found on the IBM PC AT and early compatibles. In the AT, the keyboard interface was controlled by a microcontroller with its own programmable memory. On the IBM AT, that was a 40 - pin socketed device, while some manufacturers used an EPROM version of this chip which resembled an EPROM. This controller was also assigned the A20 gate function to manage memory above the one - megabyte range; occasionally an upgrade of this "keyboard BIOS '' was necessary to take advantage of software that could use upper memory.
The BIOS may contain components such as the Memory Reference Code (MRC), which is responsible for handling memory timings and related hardware settings.
IBM published the entire listings of the BIOS for its original PC, PC XT, PC AT, and other contemporary PC models, in an appendix of the IBM PC Technical Reference Manual for each machine type. The effect of the publication of the BIOS listings is that anyone can see exactly what a definitive BIOS does and how it does it.
In May 1984 Phoenix Software Associates released its first ROM - BIOS which enabled OEMs to build essentially 100 % - compatible clones without having to reverse - engineer the IBM PC BIOS themselves, as Compaq had done for the Portable, helping fuel the growth in the PC compatibles industry and sales of non-IBM versions of DOS. And the first American Megatrends (AMI) BIOS was released on 1986.
New standards grafted onto the BIOS are usually without complete public documentation or any BIOS listings. As a result, it is not as easy to learn the intimate details about the many non-IBM additions to BIOS as about the core BIOS services.
Most PC motherboard suppliers license a BIOS "core '' and toolkit from a commercial third - party, known as an "independent BIOS vendor '' or IBV. The motherboard manufacturer then customizes this BIOS to suit its own hardware. For this reason, updated BIOSes are normally obtained directly from the motherboard manufacturer. Major BIOS vendors include American Megatrends (AMI), Insyde Software, Phoenix Technologies and Byosoft. Former vendors include Award Software and Microid Research that were acquired by Phoenix Technologies in 1998; Phoenix later phased out the Award Brand name. General Software, which was also acquired by Phoenix in 2007, sold BIOS for Intel processor based embedded systems.
The open source community increased their effort to develop a replacement for proprietary BIOSes and their future incarnations with an open sourced counterpart through the libreboot, coreboot and OpenBIOS / Open Firmware projects. AMD provided product specifications for some chipsets, and Google is sponsoring the project. Motherboard manufacturer Tyan offers coreboot next to the standard BIOS with their Opteron line of motherboards. MSI and Gigabyte Technology have followed suit with the MSI K9ND MS - 9282 and MSI K9SD MS - 9185 resp. the M57SLI - S4 models.
EEPROM chips are advantageous because they can be easily updated by the user; it is customary for hardware manufacturers to issue BIOS updates to upgrade their products, improve compatibility and remove bugs. However, this advantage had the risk that an improperly executed or aborted BIOS update could render the computer or device unusable. To avoid these situations, more recent BIOSes use a "boot block ''; a portion of the BIOS which runs first and must be updated separately. This code verifies if the rest of the BIOS is intact (using hash checksums or other methods) before transferring control to it. If the boot block detects any corruption in the main BIOS, it will typically warn the user that a recovery process must be initiated by booting from removable media (floppy, CD or USB flash drive) so the user can try flashing the BIOS again. Some motherboards have a backup BIOS (sometimes referred to as DualBIOS boards) to recover from BIOS corruptions.
There are at least four known BIOS attack viruses, two of which were for demonstration purposes. The first one found in the wild was Mebromi, targeting Chinese users.
The first BIOS virus was CIH, whose name matches the initials of its creator, Chen Ing Hau. CIH was also called the "Chernobyl Virus '', because its payload date was 1999 - 04 - 26, the 13th anniversary of the Chernobyl accident. CIH appeared in mid-1998 and became active in April 1999. It was able to erase flash ROM BIOS content. Often, infected computers could no longer boot, and people had to remove the flash ROM IC from the motherboard and reprogram it. CIH targeted the then - widespread Intel i430TX motherboard chipset and took advantage of the fact that the Windows 9x operating systems, also widespread at the time, allowed direct hardware access to all programs.
Modern systems are not vulnerable to CIH because of a variety of chipsets being used which are incompatible with the Intel i430TX chipset, and also other flash ROM IC types. There is also extra protection from accidental BIOS rewrites in the form of boot blocks which are protected from accidental overwrite or dual and quad BIOS equipped systems which may, in the event of a crash, use a backup BIOS. Also, all modern operating systems such as FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, Windows NT - based Windows OS like Windows 2000, Windows XP and newer, do not allow user - mode programs to have direct hardware access.
As a result, as of 2008, CIH has become essentially harmless, at worst causing annoyance by infecting executable files and triggering antivirus software. Other BIOS viruses remain possible, however; since most Windows home users without Windows Vista / 7 's UAC run all applications with administrative privileges, a modern CIH - like virus could in principle still gain access to hardware without first using an exploit. The operating system OpenBSD prevents all users from having this access and the grsecurity patch for the Linux kernel also prevents this direct hardware access by default, the difference being an attacker requiring a much more difficult kernel level exploit or reboot of the machine.
The second BIOS virus was a technique presented by John Heasman, principal security consultant for UK - based Next - Generation Security Software. In 2006, at the Black Hat Security Conference, he showed how to elevate privileges and read physical memory, using malicious procedures that replaced normal ACPI functions stored in flash memory.
The third BIOS virus was a technique called "Persistent BIOS infection. '' It appeared in 2009 at the CanSecWest Security Conference in Vancouver, and at the SyScan Security Conference in Singapore. Researchers Anibal Sacco and Alfredo Ortega, from Core Security Technologies, demonstrated how to insert malicious code into the decompression routines in the BIOS, allowing for nearly full control of the PC at start - up, even before the operating system is booted. The proof - of - concept does not exploit a flaw in the BIOS implementation, but only involves the normal BIOS flashing procedures. Thus, it requires physical access to the machine, or for the user to be root. Despite these requirements, Ortega underlined the profound implications of his and Sacco 's discovery: "We can patch a driver to drop a fully working rootkit. We even have a little code that can remove or disable antivirus. ''
Mebromi is a trojan which targets computers with AwardBIOS, Microsoft Windows, and antivirus software from two Chinese companies: Rising Antivirus and Jiangmin KV Antivirus. Mebromi installs a rootkit which infects the master boot record.
In a December 2013 interview with 60 Minutes, Deborah Plunkett, Information Assurance Director for the US National Security Agency claimed that NSA analysts had uncovered and thwarted a possible BIOS attack by a foreign nation state. The attack on the world 's computers could have allegedly "literally taken down the US economy. '' The segment further cites anonymous cyber security experts briefed on the operation as alleging the plot was conceived in China. A later article in The Guardian cast doubt on the likelihood of such a threat, quoting Berkeley computer - science researcher Nicholas Weaver, Matt Blaze, a computer and information sciences professor at the University of Pennsylvania, and cybersecurity expert Robert David Graham in an analysis of the NSA 's claims.
As of 2011, the BIOS is being replaced by the more complex Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) in many new machines. EFI is a specification which replaces the runtime interface of the legacy BIOS. Initially written for the Intel Itanium architecture, EFI is now available for x86 and x86 - 64 platforms; the specification development is driven by The Unified EFI Forum, an industry Special Interest Group. EFI booting has been supported in only Microsoft Windows versions supporting GPT, the Linux kernel 2.6. 1 and later, and macOS on Intel - based Macs. As of 2014, new PC hardware predominantly ships with UEFI firmware. The architecture of the rootkit safeguard can also prevent the system from running the user 's own software changes, which makes UEFI controversial as a BIOS replacement in the open hardware community.
Other alternatives to the functionality of the "Legacy BIOS '' in the x86 world include coreboot and libreboot.
Some servers and workstations use a platform - independent Open Firmware (IEEE - 1275) based on the Forth programming language; it is included with Sun 's SPARC computers, IBM 's RS / 6000 line, and other PowerPC systems such as the CHRP motherboards, along with the x86 - based OLPC XO - 1.
As of at least 2015, Apple has removed legacy BIOS support from MacBook Pro computers. As such the bless utility no longer supports the -- legacy switch, and prints "Legacy mode not supported on this system ''. These Macs also can not boot from CD - ROM or USB flash drives.
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what is the most visited place in america | Tourist attractions in the United States - wikipedia
This is a list of the most popular individual tourist attractions in the United States, lists of tourist attractions organized by subject region, and a selection of other notable tourist attractions and destinations.
In 2011, the most visited tourist attractions in the U.S. were:
As of 2007, there are 2,462 registered National Historic Landmarks (NHL) recognized by the United States government. Each major US city has thousands of landmarks. For example, New York City has 23,000 landmarks designated by the Landmarks Preservation Commission. These landmarks include various individual buildings, interiors, historic districts, and scenic sites which help define the culture and character of New York City.
There are many natural monuments in the United States and they are a large tourist venue.
Sporting events and their associated venues make up a significant percentage of tourist dollars in the US. Estimates of the US sports industry 's size vary from $213 billion to $410 billion. In 1997, 25 % of tourism receipts in the United States were related to sports tourism; this would have valued the market at approximately $350 billion annually. Many US sporting events routinely attract international visitors. The 1997 New York City Marathon attracted 12,000 participants from outside the US, out of 28,000 participants.
Hotels can be both housing for tourists visiting a particular region or city, and destinations themselves, with many hotels having historic and cultural status.
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what is the meaning of google doodle today | Google Doodle - wikipedia
A Google Doodle is a special, temporary alteration of the logo on Google 's homepages that commemorates holidays, events, achievements, and people. The first Google Doodle honored the Burning Man festival in 1998, and was designed by Larry Page and Sergey Brin to notify users of their absence in case the servers crashed. Subsequent Google Doodles were designed by an outside contractor until 2000, when Page and Brin asked public relations officer Dennis Hwang to design a logo for Bastille Day. Since then, a team of employees called Doodlers have organized and published the Doodles.
Initially, Doodles were neither animated nor hyperlinked -- they were simply images with hovertext describing the subject or expressing a holiday greeting. Doodles increased in both frequency and complexity by the beginning of the 2010s. In January 2010 the first animated Doodle honored Sir Isaac Newton. The first interactive Doodle appeared shortly thereafter celebrating Pac - Man, and hyperlinks also began to be added to Doodles, usually linking to a search results page for the subject of the Doodle. By 2014, Google had published over 2,000 regional and international Doodles throughout its homepages, often featuring guest artists, musicians, and personalities.
As well as celebrating many well - known events and holidays, Google Doodles are known for celebrating several noted artists and scientists on their birthdays, including Andy Warhol, Albert Einstein, Leonardo da Vinci, Rabindranath Tagore, Louis Braille, Ella Fitzgerald, Percival Lowell, Edvard Munch, Nikola Tesla, Béla Bartók, René Magritte, Norman Hetherington, John Lennon, Michael Jackson, Vladimir Dakhno, Robert Moog, Akira Kurosawa, Satyajit Ray, H.G. Wells, Freddie Mercury, Samuel Morse, Hans Christian Ørsted, Mahatma Gandhi, Dennis Gabor, Édith Piaf, Constantin Brâncuși, Antonio Vivaldi, Abdel Halim Hafez, Jules Verne, Leonhard Euler, and James Welch, among over 9,000 others. The featuring of Lowell 's logo design coincided with the launch of another Google product, Google Maps. Google Doodles are also used to depict major events at Google, such as the company 's own anniversary. The celebration of historical events is another common topic of Google Doodles including a Lego brick design in celebration of the interlocking Lego block 's 50th anniversary. Some Google Doodles are limited to Google 's country - specific home pages while others appear globally.
The illustrators, engineers, and artists who design Google Doodles are called "Doodlers. '' These doodlers have included artists like Ekua Holmes, Jennifer Hom, Sophia Foster - Dimino, Ranganath Krishnamani, and Dennis Hwang.
In May 2010, on the 30th anniversary of the arcade game Pac - Man, Google unveiled worldwide their first interactive logo, created in association with Namco. Anyone who visited Google could play Pac - Man on the logo, which featured the letters of the word "Google '' on the Pac - Man maze. The logo also mimicked the sounds the original arcade game made. The "I 'm Feeling Lucky '' button was replaced with an "Insert Coin '' button. Pressing this once enabled you to play the Pac - Man logo. Pressing it once more added a second player, Ms. Pac - Man, enabling two players to play at once, controlled using the W, A, S, D keys, instead of the arrows as used by Player 1. Pressing it for a third time performed an "I 'm Feeling Lucky '' search. It was then removed on May 23, 2010, initially replacing Pac - Man with the normal logo. Later on that day, Google released a permanent Google Pac - Man site, due to the popular user demand for the playable logo.
Since that time, Google has continued to post occasional interactive and video doodles, including but not limited to the following (note the increased frequency in 2016 / 17):
Since Google first celebrated the Thanksgiving holiday with a Doodle in 1998, many Doodles for holidays, events, and other celebrations have recurred on an annual basis, including the following:
Google holds competitions for school students to create their own Google doodles, referred to as "Doodle 4 Google ''. Winning doodles go onto the Doodle 4 Google website, where the public can vote for the winner, who wins a trip to the Googleplex and the hosting of the winning doodle for 24 hours on the Google website.
The competition originated in the United Kingdom, and has since expanded to the United States and other countries. The competition was also held in Ireland in 2008. Google announced a Doodle 4 Google competition for India in 2009 and the winning doodle was displayed on the Google India homepage on November 14. A similar competition held in Singapore based on the theme "Our Singapore '' was launched in January 2010 and the winning entry was chosen from over 30,000 entries received. The winning design will be shown on Singapore 's National Day on Google Singapore 's homepage. It was held again in 2015 in Singapore and was themed ' Singapore: The next 50 years '.
On September 13, 2007, Google posted a doodle honoring author Roald Dahl on the anniversary of his birth. This date also happened to coincide with the first day of the Jewish holiday of Rosh Hashanah, and Google was immediately criticized by some groups for this decision due to the fact that Dahl was anti-Israel. Google removed the Doodle by 2: 00 p.m. that day, and there remains no evidence of its existence in Google 's official Doodle archive to this date. Google was also criticized for not featuring versions of the Google logo for American patriotic holidays such as Memorial Day and Veterans Day. That year, Google featured a logo commemorating Veterans Day.
In 2014, Google received some criticism for failing to honor the 70th anniversary of the D - Day invasion with a Doodle and instead honoring a Japanese Go player. In response to the criticism, Google deleted the logo and added a series of links to images of the invasion of Normandy. Google was also criticized following a study indicating that the majority of doodle subjects were white men, and that not enough women or people of other races were celebrated. The company responded that the issue was being addressed.
On May 19, 2016, Google honored Yuri Kochiyama, an Asian American activist and member of the Maoist - based black nationalist group Revolutionary Action Movement, with a Doodle on its main U.S. homepage. This choice was criticized due to some of Kochiyama 's controversial opinions, such as an admiration for Osama bin Laden and Mao Zedong. U.S. Senator Pat Toomey called for a public apology from Google. Google did not respond to any criticism, nor did they alter the presentation of the Doodle on their homepage or on the Doodle 's dedicated page.
Google typically abstains from referencing or celebrating religious holidays specifically in Doodles, or in cases when they do, religious themes and iconography are avoided. Google has acknowledged this as an official policy, stating in April 2018 that they "do n't have Doodles for religious holidays '', as per "current Doodle guidelines. '' Google further explained that Doodles may appear for some "non-religious celebrations that have grown out of religious holidays '', citing Valentine 's Day (Catholicism), Holi (Hinduism), and Tu B'Av (Judaism) as examples, but that the company does not include "religious imagery or symbolism '' as part of those Doodles.
Google has been criticized for its inconsistency regarding this implementation, notably its lack of Doodles for major Christian holidays. Critics point to its yearly recognition of the Jewish and Hindu festivals of Tu B'av and Holi, while Easter only received a Doodle once in 2000, and Christmas is not specifically celebrated. In March 2013, Google was notably criticized for celebrating American activist Cesar Chavez on Easter Sunday with a Doodle instead of Easter.
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what drinks are in long island iced tea | Long Island Iced Tea - wikipedia
A Long Island Iced Tea is a type of alcoholic mixed drink typically made with vodka, tequila, light rum, triple sec, gin, and a splash of cola, which gives the drink the same amber hue as its namesake. A popular version mixes equal parts vodka, gin, rum, triple sec, with 1 ⁄ parts sour mix and a splash of cola. Lastly, it is decorated with the lemon and straw, after stirring with bar spoon smoothly.
Most variants use equal parts of the main liquors, but include a smaller amount of triple sec (or other orange - flavored liqueur). Close variants often replace the sour mix with lemon juice, replace the cola with diet cola or actual iced tea, or add white crème de menthe. Most variants do not include any tea.
The drink has a much higher alcohol concentration (approximately 22 percent) than most highball drinks due to the relatively small amount of mixer.
Robert "Rosebud '' Butt claims to have invented the Long Island Iced Tea as an entry in a contest to create a new mixed drink with triple sec in 1972 while he worked at the Oak Beach Inn on Long Island, New York.
A slightly different drink is claimed to have been invented in the 1920s during Prohibition in the United States by an "Old Man Bishop '' in a local community named Long Island in Kingsport, Tennessee. The drink was then perfected by Ransom Bishop, Old Man Bishop 's son. This drink included whiskey and maple syrup, and varied quantities of the five liquors, rather than the modern one with cola and five equal portions of the five liquors.
The popularity of the Long Island has spawned its own family of highballs. Many drinks remain popular in their own right in numerous locales throughout the United States, while owing their existence to the success of the original Long Island Iced Tea. An example of a variation to the Long Island is the Purple Rain, which uses the same mix as a Long Island but the Triple Sec is replaced with a shot of Chambord Liqueur and the cola replaced with lemonlime soda. The Adios Mother is consider a variation of the Long Island Ice Tea or a Blue Hawaiian.
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what disney movie is somewhere out there from | Somewhere Out There (James Horner song) - wikipedia
"Somewhere Out There '' is a 1986 song released by MCA Records and recorded by American singers Linda Ronstadt and James Ingram for the soundtrack of the animated film An American Tail (1986). The song was written by James Horner, Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil, and produced by Peter Asher and Steve Tyrell. It reached number 8 in the UK, and number 2 on the US Billboard Hot 100.
Steven Spielberg, the film 's producer, invited songwriters Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil to collaborate with James Horner on four songs for its soundtrack, to be completed in a four - week timeframe. The composers "felt no pressure to come up with a radio - friendly hit '' and were surprised when Spielberg felt the song had Top 40 hit potential and recruited world - renowned recording artists, Linda Ronstadt and James Ingram, to record a pop version of it for the film 's closing credits. In the main body of the film, the song was performed by Phillip Glasser and Betsy Cathcart in the characters of the anthropomorphic mice Fievel and Tanya Mousekewitz.
Produced by Ronstadt 's regular producer Peter Asher, the single release of the Ronstadt / Ingram track made its debut at number 31 on the Adult Contemporary chart in Billboard dated 15 November 1986, crossing over to the Billboard Hot 100 dated 20 December 1986 with a number 83 debut. In January 1987 the song returned Ronstadt to the Top 40 after a four - year absence to eventually peak at number 2 that March. The number 1 song at the time was "Jacob 's Ladder '' by Huey Lewis and the News.
The music video for the song was directed, produced and edited by Jeffrey Abelson. It was filmed in New York City and features Ronstadt and Ingram, in two separate rooms, sitting at their desks, drawing and coloring scenes from the film. They both look out the windows, in the same manner as Fievel and Tanya in it. Clips from it appear throughout the video.
The lyrics convey the love felt by two people separated by vast distances, but cheered by the belief that their love will eventually reunite them to be with each other once again. In the main body of the film, the fictional characters singing the song, Fievel and Tanya Mousekewitz, are brother and sister, and the love they share is described as general. However, in the end title pop version of it, the love is described as more romantic.
At the 30th Grammy Awards, the song won two awards, one for Song of the Year and the other for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television. It also garnered Ronstadt and Ingram a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal.
It earned nominations for Best Original Song at the 44th Golden Globe Awards and the 59th Academy Awards, but lost both to "Take My Breath Away '' from Top Gun. At the Academy Awards ceremony, Natalie Cole performed the song live with Ingram.
The Jets included a version on Christmas With The Jets, also released in 1986 shortly after the original soundtrack.
In the spring of 1987, singer Liza Minnelli performed, in the words of music critic Stephen Holden of The New York Times, "a stunning rendition '' of the song at Carnegie Hall for her three - week concert engagement at the historic music venue. The concert was recorded by Telarc Records and released in late 1987.
Barry Mann covered the song in his album Soul & Inspiration, released September 21, 1999, through Atlantic Record Corp.
Danny Pudi and Donald Glover sang the song during the first season of Community. Their cover appears on the official soundtrack release for the show.
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describe how transpiration helps in transport of water in a plant | Transpiration stream - wikipedia
In plants, the transpiration stream is the uninterrupted stream of water and solutes which is taken up by the roots and transported via the xylem to the leaves where it evaporates into the air / apoplast - interface of the substomatal cavity. It is driven by capillary action and in some plants by root pressure. The main driving factor is the difference in water potential between the soil and the substomatal cavity caused by transpiration.
Transpiration can be regulated through stomatal closure or opening. It allows for plants to efficiently transport water up to their highest body organs, regulate the temperature of stem and leaves and it allows for upstream signaling such as the dispersal of an apoplastic alkalinization during local oxidative stress.
Summary of water movement:
The water passes from the soil to the root by osmosis. The long and thin shape of root hairs maximizes surface area so that more water can enter. There is greater water potential in the soil than in the cytoplasm of the root hair cells. As the cells surface membrane of the root hair cell is semi-permeable, osmosis can take place; and water passes from the soil to the root hairs. The next stage in the transpiration stream is water passing into the xylem vessels. The water either goes through the cortex cells (between the root cells and the xylem vessels) or it bypasses them -- going through their cell walls. After this, the water moves up the xylem vessels to the leaves through diffusion: A pressure change between the top and bottom of the vessel. Diffusion takes place because there is a water potential gradient between water in the xylem vessel and the leaf (as water is transpiring out of the leaf). This means that water diffuses up the leaf. There is also a pressure change between the top and bottom of the xylem vessels, due to water loss from the leaves. This reduces the pressure of water at the top of the vessels. This means water moves up the vessels. The last stage in the transpiration stream is the water moving into the leaves, and then the actual transpiration. First, the water moves into the mesophyll cells from the top of the xylem vessels. Then the water evaporates out of the cells into the spaces between the cells in the leaf. After this, the water leaves the leaf (and the whole plant) by diffusion through stomata.
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is a do as qualified as an md | Comparison of MD and DO in the United States - wikipedia
In the United States, physicians may hold either the Doctor of Medicine degree (MD) or the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree (DO). MD and DO physicians complete similar residency programs in hospitals, can be licensed in all 50 states, and have rights and responsibilities common to physicians.
Historically, MDs and DOs significantly differed in their approach to medical treatment. Allopathic medicine was primarily based on scientific practices. In contrast, osteopathic medicine was founded in the mid-nineteenth century on the premise of healing the body through osteopathic musculoskeletal manipulation. MD and DO schools can also be distinguished by a relative lack of scientific and clinical research at DO schools. The coursework at MD and DO schools is similar, with the most notable exception being that DO students are taught osteopathic manipulative medicine.
While allopathic medicine has followed the development of society, osteopathic medicine is a more recent development. The first MD school in the United States opened in 1807 in New York. In 1845, the American Medical Association was formed, and standards were put into place, with a three year program including lectures, dissection, and hospital experience. In 1892, frontier physician Andrew Taylor Still founded the American School of Osteopathy in Kirksville, MO as a protest against the present medical system. A.T. Still believed that the conventional medical system lacked credible efficacy, was morally corrupt, and treated effects rather than causes of disease. Throughout the 1900s, DOs fought to gain practice rights and government recognition. The first state to pass such regulations allowing DOs medical practice rights was California in 1901, the last was Nebraska in 1989. Up through the 1960s, osteopathic medicine was labeled a cult by the American Medical Association, and collaboration by physicians with osteopathic practitioners was considered to be unethical.
The American Medical Association 's current definition of a physician is "an individual who has received a ' Doctor of Medicine ' or a ' Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine ' degree or an equivalent degree following successful completion of a prescribed course of study from a school of medicine or osteopathic medicine. ''
In a 2005 editorial about mitigating the impending shortage of physicians in the United States, Jordan Cohen, MD, then - president of the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) stated:
After more than a century of often bitterly contentious relationships between the osteopathic and allopathic medical professions, we now find ourselves living at a time when osteopathic and allopathic graduates are both sought after by many of the same residency programs; are in most instances both licensed by the same licensing boards; are both privileged by many of the same hospitals; and are found in appreciable numbers on the faculties of each other 's medical schools.
In the United States, MDs and DOs are fully licensed medical doctors and have full medical practice rights throughout the United States. An MD is accepted worldwide, while the DO degree is accepted in 44 countries abroad. Currently, less than 10 % of US physicians have a DO degree. A Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO) is different than an osteopath: a DO is a physician, while an osteopath is not.
Of the 860,917 physicians actively practicing in the United States in 2015, 67.1 % hold an MD degree granted in the U.S., 24.3 % are international medical graduates, and 7.6 % hold a DO degree. The percentage of physicians that hold a DO degree varies by specialty, with the greatest representation in Family Medicine / General Practice (16.5 % of general practitioners), Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation (13.8 %), and Emergency Medicine (11.2 %).
As of 2015, 9.0 % of residents and fellows in medical training programs accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME), which accredits all MD residency programs, hold a DO degree. 65.1 % of the 19,302 DO graduates enrolled in post-doctoral training are in ACGME - accredited programs, with the remainder in AOA programs. In 2020, the ACGME will take over the accreditation of all residency programs in the United States for both MDs and DOs.
There are significantly more MDs than DOs, though the number of DOs is increasing, due to the relative ease of obtaining admission to a DO school relative to an MD school, and a number of new DO schools opening at a rate faster than MD schools, and an increase in applicants for medical schools as a whole. A 2012 survey of students applying to both U.S. MD and DO schools found that 9 % of applicants were admitted only to an MD school, 46 % were admitted only to a DO school, 26 % were admitted to both, and 19 % were not admitted to any medical schools. Geographic location was the top reason given by both DO and MD students for choosing the school in which they enrolled. Of first - year medical students matriculating in 2016, 25.9 % (7,369 students) entered DO medical programs and 74.1 % (21,030 students) entered MD programs. The Association of American Medical Colleges projects that from 2016 to 2021, first - year DO student enrollment will increase by 19.4 % versus a 5.7 % increase in MD students. Between 1980 and 2005, the annual number of new MDs remained stable at around 16,000. During the same period, the number of new DOs increased by more than 200 % (from about 1,150 to about 2,800). The number of new MDs per 100,000 people fell from 7.5 to 5.6, while the number of new DOs per 100,000 rose from 0.4 to 0.8.
The geographic distribution of MD and DO physicians is not uniform. As of 2012, the states with the greatest ratio of active physicians holding a DO degree versus active physicians holding an MD degree were Oklahoma (20.7 % of physicians), Iowa, Michigan, Maine, and West Virginia. During that same year, the states with the greatest ratio of active physicians holding an MD degree versus a DO degree were Louisiana, Washington, D.C., Massachusetts, Maryland, and Connecticut. The states with the greatest per capita number of DO physicians are Maine, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, and Iowa. The states with the greatest per capita number of MD physicians are Washington, D.C., Massachusetts, Maryland, New York, and Connecticut. Doctors holding a DO degree are more likely to practice in rural areas.
The sex and racial distribution of DOs and MDs are similar.
In comparison to allopathic medicine, osteopathic medicine has been criticized for the relative lack of research and lesser emphasis on scientific inquiry at D.O. schools in comparison with M.D. schools. According to the Journal of the American Osteopathic Association, the "inability to institutionalize research, particularly clinical research, at osteopathic institutions has, over the years, weakened the acculturation, socialization, and distinctive beliefs and practices of osteopathic students and graduates. ''
Allopathic medical schools have applied for and received 800 times more funding for scientific and clinical research from the National Institutes of Health than osteopathic schools have. Osteopathic schools ranked last out of 17 types of educational institutions, including veterinary medicine, optometry, social work, and dentistry. In 2014, the Journal of the American Osteopathic Association stated that research from osteopathic schools amounted to "fewer than 15 publications per year per school, and more than a quarter of these publications had never been cited. Clearly, scholarly contributions from osteopathic medical schools are unacceptably low in both quantity and quality. ''
Several studies have investigated whether there is a difference in the approach to patients by MDs and DOs. A study of patient visits to general and family medicine physicians in the U.S., including 277 million visits to MDs and 65 million visits to DOs, found that there was no significant difference between DOs and MDs with regard to time spent with patients and preventive medicine services.
The study of approximately 341 million healthcare visits founds that there was no difference on the rate that doctors provided to patients diet or nutrition counseling, weight reduction counseling, exercise counseling, tobacco use or exposure counseling, and mental health or stress reduction counseling. Some authors describe subjective distinctions in patient interactions, but Avery Hurt writes, "In actual practice, the variations between the two types of physicians are often so slight as to be unnoticeable to patients, and a day in the life of each can appear indistinguishable. But the differences are there, subtle but deep. ''
A study conducted during 1993 - 94 found significant differences in the attitudes of DOs and MDs. The study found that 40.1 % of MD students and physicians described themselves as "socioemotionally '' oriented over "technoscientific '' orientation. 63.8 % of their DO counterparts self - identified as socioemotional.
One study of DOs attempted to investigate their perceptions of differences in philosophy and practice between themselves and their MD counterparts. 88 % of the respondents had a self - identification as osteopathic medical physicians, while less than half felt their patients identified them as such.
As the training of DOs and MDs becomes less distinct, some have expressed concern that the unique characteristics of osteopathic medicine will be lost. Others welcome the rapprochement and already consider modern medicine to be the type of medicine practiced by both "MD and DO type doctors. '' One persistent difference is the respective acceptance of the terms "allopathic '' and "osteopathic. '' DO medical schools and organizations all include the word osteopathic in their names, and such groups actively promote an "osteopathic approach '' to medicine. While "osteopathy '' was a term used by its founder AT Still in the 19th century to describe his new philosophy of medicine, "allopathic medicine '' was originally a derogatory term coined by Samuel Hahnemann to contrast the conventional medicine of his day with his alternative system of homeopathic medicine. Today, the term "allopathic physician '' is used infrequently, usually in discussions relating to comparisons with osteopathic medicine or alternative medicine. Some authors argue that the terms "osteopathic '' and "allopathic '' should be dropped altogether, since their original meanings bear little relevance to the current practice of modern medicine
The Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME) accredits the 144 U.S. medical schools that award the MD degree, while the American Osteopathic Association (AOA) 's Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation (COCA) accredits the 34 osteopathic medical schools that award the DO degree. Osteopathic schools tend to be affiliated with smaller, less prestigious universities.
Michigan State University, Rowan University, and Nova Southeastern University offer both MD and DO accredited programs. In 2009, Kansas City University proposed starting a dual MD / DO program in addition to the existing DO program, and the University of North Texas explored the possibility of starting an MD program that would be offered alongside the DO program. Both proposals were met with controversy. Proponents argued that adding an MD program would lead to the creation of more local residency programs and improve the university 's ability to acquire research funding and state funding, while opponents wanted to protect the discipline of osteopathy.
61 % of graduating seniors at osteopathic medical schools evaluated that over half of their required in - hospital training was delivered by MD physicians. Overall, osteopathic medical schools have more modest research programs compared to MD schools, and fewer DO schools are part of universities that own a hospital. Osteopathic medical schools tend to have a stronger focus on primary care medicine than MD schools. DO schools have developed various strategies to encourage their graduates to pursue primary care, such as offering accelerated 3 - year programs for primary care, focusing clinical education in community health centers, and selecting rural or under - served urban areas for the location of new campuses.
Many authors note the most obvious difference between the curricula of DO and MD schools is osteopathic manipulative medicine (OMM), a form of hands - on care used to diagnose, treat and prevent illness or injury and is taught only at DO schools. As of 2006, the average osteopathic medical student spent almost 8 weeks on clerkships for OMM during their third and fourth years. The National Institute of Health 's National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health states that overall, studies have shown that spinal manipulation can provide mild - to - moderate relief from low - back pain and appears to be as effective as conventional medical treatments. In 2007 guidelines, the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society include spinal manipulation as one of several treatment options for practitioners to consider using when pain does not improve with self - care. Spinal manipulation is generally a safe treatment for low - back pain. Serious complications are very rare. A 2001 survey of DOs found that more than 50 % of the respondents used OMT (osteopathic manipulative treatment) on less than 5 % of their patients. The survey was the latest indication that DOs have become more like MD physicians in all respects: fewer perform OMT, more prescribe drugs, and many perform surgery as a first option. One area which has been implicated, but not been formally studied regarding the decline in OMT usage among DOs in practice, is the role of reimbursement changes. Only in the last several years could a DO charge for both an office visit (Evaluation & Management services) and use a procedure (CPT) code when performing OMT; previously, it was bundled.
There is a statistical difference in average GPA and MCAT scores of those who matriculate at DO schools versus those who matriculate at MD schools. In 2016, the average MCAT and GPA for students entering U.S. - based MD programs were 508.7 and 3.70, respectively, and 502.2 and 3.54 for DO matriculants. DO medical schools are more likely to accept non-traditional students, who are older, coming to medicine as a second career, etc.
MD students take United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) 's series of three licensing exams during and after medical school.
DO students are required to take the Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensure Examination (COMLEX - USA) that is administered by the National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners (NBOME). This exam is a prerequisite for DO - associated residency programs, which are available in almost every specialty of medicine and surgery. DO medical students may also choose to sit for the USMLE if they wish to take an MD residency and about 48 % take USMLE Step 1. However, if they have taken COMLEX, it may or may not be needed, depending on the individual institution 's program requirements.
Currently, the ACGME accredits all MD residency programs, while the American Osteopathic Association (AOA) accredits all DO residency programs. DO students may choose to apply to ACGME - accredited residency programs through the National Resident Matching Program (NRMP) rather than completing a DO residency. As of 2014, 54 % of DOs in post-doctoral training are enrolled in an ACGME - accredited residency program and 46 % are enrolled in an AOA - accredited residency program.
Since 1985, a single residency training program can be dual - accredited by both the ACGME and the AOA. The number of dually accredited programs increased from 11 % of all AOA approved residencies in 2006 to 14 % in 2008, and then to 22 % in 2010. In 2001, the AOA adopted a provision making it possible for a DO resident in any MD program to apply for osteopathic approval of their training. The topic of dual - accreditation is controversial. Opponents claim that by merging DO students into the "MD world, '' the unique quality of osteopathic philosophy will be lost. Supporters claim the programs are popular because of the higher prestige and higher resident reimbursement salaries associated with MD programs.
Over 5 years starting in July 2015, the AOA, AACOM, and the ACGME will create a single, unified accreditation system for graduate medical education programs in the United States. This will ensure that all physicians trained in the U.S. will have the same graduate medical education accreditation, and as of June 30, 2020, the AOA will cease its accreditation functions.
There are notable differences in the specialty choices of DOs and MDs. 60 % of DOs work in primary care specialties, compared to 35 % of MDs.
To maintain a professional license to practice medicine, U.S. physicians are required to complete ongoing additional training, known as continuing medical education (CME). CME requirements differ from state to state and between the American Osteopathic Medical Association (DO) and the American Medical Association (MD) governing bodies.
An MD is accepted worldwide, while the DO degree is accepted in 44 countries abroad. Accredited DO and MD medical schools are both included in the World Health Organization 's World Directory of Medical Schools. MDs and DOs are both accepted by international medical organizations such as Doctors Without Borders.
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who played the monster on law & order suv | Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (season 19) - wikipedia
The nineteenth season of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit premiered on September 27, 2017.
Michael Chernuchin, who had previously worked on Law & Order, Law & Order: Criminal Intent and Chicago Justice took over from Rick Eid as showrunner. This is also the first season since season twelve in 2010 -- 2011, where another Law & Order series -- Law & Order True Crime: The Menendez Murders -- aired alongside SVU on NBC.
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit was renewed for a nineteenth season on May 12, 2017. Michael S. Chernuchin, who had previously worked on Law & Order, Law & Order: Criminal Intent and Chicago Justice took over from Rick Eid as showrunner, after Eid left to be showrunner for the fifth season of Chicago P.D. after only one season as showrunner. Production on the season started on July 20, 2017. On January 9, 2018, NBC ordered an extra two episodes for season nineteen, as confirmed in a tweet by Robert Brooks Cohen.
Showrunner / executive producer Michael Chernuchin told The Hollywood Reporter that this season of SVU would be ' ripping the headlines ' of more current and political events such as the Charlottesville riots. Chernuchin noting, "Conflict. It 's just the state of the world today with everybody. Everybody 's political now and everything is political now and we want to deal with that. '' Kate Stanhope at THR also mentioned to Chernuchin about the pulled episode ("Unstoppable '') from last season, asking him if he was hesitant about diving into politics this season. Chernuchin replied, "I 'm not going to choose a side. I wo n't choose a side. I 'm going to present both political views and let the audience decide which one is right. My goal, and I told the writers on this on the first day of our writers ' room, is at the end of every episode, I want half the audience to throw their shoes at the television and the other half to stand up and cheer. ''
Another episode Chernuchin told THR would be based on the Charlie Gard case, an infant in England who was born with a rare genetic disorder that causes progressive brain damage and muscle failure. "That 's a life and death story, '' Chernuchin explained. "Cat - fishing, '' cyberbullying -- which he described to THR as "(SVU 's) answer to 13 Reasons Why -- and an airplane episode covering "all the turmoil on airplanes these days. '' Chernuchin concluded, "We are ripping things from the headlines. Some of them are big, famous headlines and some of them are smaller headlines. ''
On September 8, 2017, Chernuchin gave an overview of the season premiere and outlook on the season as a whole to TV Line; noting that A.D.A. Barba (Raúl Esparza) would start having other problems than court battles when Peter Stone (Philip Winchester) shows up, Stone pushing Barba into "a huge moral decision. '' Chernuchin also teased that Lieutenant Benson 's life would be getting worse before it gets any better, "What I told Mariska (Hargitay) when I came aboard is, ' You 're a broken woman, because of your past, and I 'm going to drag you through the woods and you 're gon na come out the other side a better person, '' he previewed. "So we 're gon na throw the kitchen sink at her (Benson). '' He also mentioned there 's a possibility of romance for Benson: "There might be, she 's not looking for it, but it might happen. '' In an interview with E! News, Kelli Giddish (Det. Amanda Rollins) says a change in Benson and Rollins ' relationship dynamic is coming. "I 'm so looking forward to developing a friendship with Benson, the Rollins and Benson relationship, because they have so much in common. '' Benson and Rollins ' relationship was rocky, most notably between seasons fifteen and eighteen as the former began moving up the ranks to Sergeant and then Lieutenant. "They have been at odds, it 's just nice to come into that office and know that we 're not going to fight but kind of support each other as I think these two characters would in real life, '' Giddish continued.
An episode based on the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse allegations aired on January 17, 2018. "We are hitting Harvey Weinstein head - on, but it 's not in the realm of the entertainment business, '' Michael Chernuchin said in an interview with Entertainment Weekly. "It 's a real important episode about the rape culture in an industry, and we wanted to try (to) stretch the law to criminalize that sort of environment. ''
The entire main cast from the previous season returned. In August 2017, it was announced that Philip Winchester would reprise his role as Assistant State 's Attorney Peter Stone from Chicago Justice, appearing around the midpoint of the season. New show runner / executive producer Michael Chernuchin told Entertainment Weekly that Stone 's character would be coming in as an antagonist and that he will be a foil for A.D.A. Barba (Raúl Esparza) this season; Stone 's character is n't necessarily taking his (Barba 's) job. "There 's more than one A.D.A. in New York (...) Philip will come in and he wo n't be the nicest person our characters have ever met. What he 's going to be doing, too, is basically bringing all of the franchises into one. He 's connecting Law & Order, the Chicago franchises and now SVU. '' His character debuted in the thirteenth episode of the season. In the thirteenth episode, Raúl Esparza departed the cast after six seasons on the show. He told Natalie Abrams of Entertainment Weekly that it was his decision to leave, adding "I 've done six seasons, I felt like it was time to go. I had explored a lot of what I thought Barba was about. I just felt it was time to move on. '' Philip Winchester took his place as the show 's permanent A.D.A, guest starring in Esparza 's final episode before joining the main cast in the fourteenth episode.
It was announced on August 11, 2017 by The Hollywood Reporter that actress Brooke Shields would play a ' major ' recurring role throughout the course of the season. "I play a very different character from any I have ever played, '' Shields commented. "I 'm excited to stir the SVU pot a bit. '' THR noted that details of her role are being kept under wraps, although it 's been teased that Shields ' role will "shake up Benson 's (Mariska Hargitay) world. '' At the New York Fashion Week event on September 7, 2017, Shields talked about her "complicated '' character; "We 're discovering the character, '' she said of her at the time, mysterious recurring role, "it 's pretty complicated and it 's gut wrenching. What 's so amazing about the show is that the characters are so rich and layered, and they 're just filtering me through it. '' Shields also noted that her character was set to begin appearing in the third episode ("Contrapasso '') of the season. In that episode 's last scene, Shields ' character was revealed to be Noah 's previously unknown grandmother, Sheila Porter, who challenged Benson for custody before becoming friends. Her story arc finished in 2018 when Sheila abducted Noah in a cliffhanger episode, before being caught by Benson and the squad and arrested.
On August 18, Entertainment Weekly released a sneak - peak of the script of SVU 's season 19 premiere episode and announced that Will Chase would be guest starring as Byron Marks, an accused rapist who turned fugitive when he fled to Cuba six years prior, he is caught by Fin (Ice T) in the premiere 's opening scenes. Amy Smart guest starred as one of Marks ' victims, and Peter Jacobson -- who previously guest starred in the thirteenth - season finale and recurred in season fourteen as a pimp named Bart Ganzel -- guest starred in the premiere as his recurring mothership Law & Order character, Defense Attorney Randy Dworkin, a character created by Michael Chernuchin during his tenure on L&O. Annabeth Gish guest starred in the third episode of the season. She portrayed a defense attorney in a case where a man is castrated and left for dead; leading the SVU squad to three female suspects with possible motives. Cleveland Cavaliers point guard Isaiah Thomas, made a cameo appearance as himself in an October episode ("Complicated '') of SVU. Thomas ' cameo appearance occurs in the midst of a missing persons investigation.
Mike Faist, a Tony Award - nominated actor starring as Connor Murphy in Broadway musical Dear Evan Hansen, guest starred as a young man struggling with the long - ago disappearance of his sister in "Complicated ''. The Walking Dead alum, Brighton Sharbino guest starred as a teenager who disappears when her classmates make her the subject of a cyberbullying attack. Madison Pettis also guest starred in the episode, titled "No Good Reason '', which aired on NBC, October 18th 2017. Another Broadway star, Christiane Noll, guest starred in the episode "Unintended Consquences '' as Sarah Curtis "After 19 years on the air, I will finally be appearing as a guest star on episode # 19006 of Law & Order: SVU! I am really excited because this is my first big guest starring role, '' Noll told Playbill. Peter Scolari guest starred along with Noll in "Unintended Consequences '' as Dr. Dennis Barkley. In October 2017, THR announced Melora Walters and Joanna Going would guest star in a special episode of SVU ("Something Happened ''). Walters played the rape victim, Laurel Linwood, who knows she was raped but ca n't remember what happened. Going played Laurel 's sister, Leah, who is brought in to help fill in the blanks.
On September 20, 2017, it was announced Sam Waterston would guest star in an upcoming episode of SVU as his Law & Order character, Jack McCoy. Waterston was re-united with show runner / EP Michael S. Chernuchin, who also held the same position at the time Waterston joined the original series in 1994; Chernuchin is credited as the creator of the McCoy character. This also marked Waterston 's fourth guest appearance on SVU. In the episode "Pathological '', Tamara Tunie (M.E. Melinda Warner), Carolyn McCormick (Dr. Elizabeth Olivet), and Jenna Stern (Judge Elana Barth) returned as their respective characters. The episode aired on January 10, 2018.
On December 14, 2017, Martin Donovan and Yasmine Al Massri were confirmed to guest star in an episode titled "Flight Risk '' based on the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse allegations. The episode was about sexual harassment in the airline industry and aired on January 17, 2018.
On January 31, 2018, Rhea Seehorn guest starred in an episode titled "Info Wars '', inspired by the Charlottesville riots and the website Info Wars, Rhea 's character inspired by Info Wars reporter, Millie Weaver.
On March 5, 2018, it was revealed that Stephanie March will reprise her role as ADA Alexandra Cabot in an upcoming episode due to be aired on April 18, 2018. This will mark March 's first appearance on the show since season thirteen.
The Special Victims Unit is called in to investigate the sudden disappearance of a high school student (Brighton Sharbino). They soon discover that she was the victim of a nasty cyberbullying attack from her fellow peers and best friend (Madison Pettis). When she is finally found, she claims that she was raped by three boys from her school at a party, one being one of her best friends. The case goes well, until the victim becomes reluctant to testify, due to hatred and bullying from her peers, and Benson must convince her to testify. Meanwhile, Sheila Porter attempts to challenge Benson 's parenting skills as a mother, which infuriates Benson.
A young woman (Ili Ray) who has been missing for ten years is suddenly found and the cold case into her disappearance is reopened by the Special Victims Unit. However, the detectives become suspicious of her story when several things do n't match up and the detectives soon discover a disturbing cold secret kept in the family. Meanwhile, Benson and Sheila both fight against each other for custody of Noah, with Sheila claiming she fears for Noah 's safety due to Benson 's recent allegations, infuriating Benson and putting them both in an intense and conflicted relationship.
The Special Victims Unit are called to investigate a sexual assault case involving two disabled children (Conor Tague & Erin Wilhelmi) who attend a special needs school. Through further investigation, the case takes a surprising twist after Rollins discovers a shocking truth when one of the students ' medical exam shows that the child 's medical disability stems from a surprising source and the case soon turns into one of child abuse in the hands of her mother (Dendrie Taylor). The case soon goes from bad to worse when the abuse case soon turns to murder. Meanwhile, Benson tries to help Noah cope with nightmares after the previous traumatizing events involving himself, Benson and Sheila Porter.
When a Muslim female pilot (Yasmine Al Massri) locks herself in the cockpit and attempts to return the plane to JFK Airport (nearly causing a crash), she finds herself arrested on suspicion of terrorism. However, when she makes a claim that the captain of the plane (Martin Donovan) was sexually assaulting her and she diverted the plane to avoid contact with him, the Special Victims Unit is called to investigate. Barba eventually convenes with a grand jury to determine the suspected rapists complicity in the crime. Meanwhile, Tutuola takes several steps to ensure that Benson is safe at work, after the previous incident with Sheila Porter.
The Special Victims Unit are called to a brutal crime scene after a violent protest in the city results in a controversial, right - wing female pundit (Rhea Seehorn) getting viciously sexually assaulted. However, with many people in the crowd during the protest, the squad has a hard time catching the victim 's assailants. When the case is taken to trial, Barba and Benson both fight with each other after struggling to keep their political opinions about the case quiet and both disagreeing with each other, which leaves the squad clashing over sides in the controversial, violent case and sets tensions rising between the detectives and Barba.
The Special Victims Unit are called in to investigate after a father (Joe Tapper) kidnaps his mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome - affected infant. When the father is found, he says he wants his son alive, whereas his wife (Abigail Hawk) wants him put out of his misery, which sends the SVU detectives taking sides in the family 's right - to - die case. Barba 's interference in the case leads to the entire DA 's office being in jeopardy, which results in DA Jack McCoy getting involved and sending Barba to trial for murder. However, Barba is found not guilty. Traumatized by the case, Barba quits his job as an ADA and is replaced by former Chicago ASA Peter Stone, who has recently lost his father Benjamin Stone, a former ADA previously assigned to the NYPD 's Homicide Unit.
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where does the land before time take place | The Land Before Time - Wikipedia
The Land Before Time is a 1988 American - Irish animated adventure drama film directed and produced by Don Bluth and executive produced by Steven Spielberg, George Lucas, Kathleen Kennedy, and Frank Marshall.
Produced by Sullivan Bluth Studios, Amblin Entertainment and Lucasfilm, it features dinosaurs living in the prehistoric times. The plot concerns a young Longneck named Littlefoot who is orphaned when his mother is killed by a Sharptooth. Littlefoot flees famine and upheaval to search for the Great Valley, an area spared from devastation. On his journey, he meets four young companions: Cera the Threehorn, Ducky the Bigmouth, Petrie the Flyer, and Spike the Spiketail.
The film explores issues of prejudice between the different species and the hardships they endure in their journey as they are guided by the spirit of Littlefoot 's mother and forced to deal with the Sharptooth. This is the only Don Bluth film of the 1980s in which Dom DeLuise did not participate (instead, he starred in Disney 's Oliver & Company that same year), and the only film in The Land Before Time series that is not a musical, as well as the only one to be released theatrically worldwide.
Released by Universal Pictures on November 18, 1988, the film spawned a franchise with thirteen direct - to - video sequels and a television series as well as merchandise.
During the age of the dinosaurs, a massive drought forces several herds of dinosaurs to seek an oasis known as the Great Valley. Among these, a mother in a diminished "Longneck '' herd gives birth to a single baby, named Littlefoot. Years later, Littlefoot plays with Cera, a "Three - horn '', until her father intervenes; whereupon Littlefoot 's mother describes the different kinds of dinosaurs: "Three - horns '', "Spiketails '', "Swimmers '', and "Flyers ''. That night, as Littlefoot follows a "Hopper '', he encounters Cera again, and they play together briefly until a large "Sharptooth '' attacks them. Littlefoot 's mother comes to their rescue, receiving fatal injuries in the process. An earthquake swallows up the Sharptooth and divides Littlefoot and Cera from their herds. Littlefoot receives advice from his dying mother. Depressed and confused, Littlefoot meets an old "Clubtail '' named Rooter, who consoles him. He is then guided by his mother 's voice telling him to follow the sun to the Great Valley.
Later, Littlefoot meets a Bigmouth named Ducky and a Flyer named Petrie, who accompany him on his journey. Cera, who is attempting to find her own kind, finds the unconscious Sharptooth inside a ravine and mistakenly wakes him up. She escapes and bumps into Littlefoot, Ducky, and Petrie; she tells them that Sharptooth is alive, but Littlefoot does not believe her. As Cera describes her encounter, she accidentally flings Ducky to the direction of a hatching Spiketail, whom she names Spike and inducts into the group. Seeking the Great Valley, they discover a cluster of trees, which is abruptly depleted by a herd of Longnecks. Searching for remaining growth, they discover a single leaf - bearing tree, and obtain food by stacking up atop each other and pulling it down. Cera remains aloof, but at nightfall, everyone including herself gravitates to Littlefoot 's side for warmth and companionship.
The next morning, they are attacked by Sharptooth, but they escape through a tunnel too small for him. Beyond this, they discover landmarks mentioned by Littlefoot 's mother. Cera decides to go another way, but Littlefoot refuses and a schism divides him from the others. However, when Ducky and Spike become endangered by lava and Petrie gets stuck in a tar pit, he returns to rescue them. They then rescue Cera as she is being harassed by a pack of "domeheads ''. Ashamed of her fear and reluctant to admit her mistake, Cera leaves them in tears. Later, while crossing a pond, Petrie overhears Sharptooth nearby. The group devises a scheme to lure him to the pond and drown him in the deep side using a nearby boulder. During the ensuing struggle, a draft from Sharptooth 's nostrils enables Petrie to fly for the first time.
The plan nearly fails when Sharptooth begins attacking the boulder while the group attempts to push it onto him. However, Cera reunites with the group, allowing the others to push both Sharptooth and the boulder into the water below. Sharptooth momentarily takes Petrie down with him, but he later emerges unharmed. Littlefoot, alone, follows a cloud resembling his mother, which guides him to the Great Valley. He is then joined by the others. Upon arrival, the five are reunited with their families: Petrie impresses his family with his newfound flight; Ducky introduces Spike to her family, who adopt him; Cera reunites with her father; and Littlefoot rejoins with his grandparents. The group then rejoins at the top of a hill and embrace each other.
During production of An American Tail, talk began of the next feature with Steven Spielberg. Spielberg wanted to do a film similar to Bambi, but only with dinosaurs, and George Lucas also brought in on the project. An early working title for the film was The Land Before Time Began. Steven Spielberg and George Lucas originally wanted the film to have no dialogue, like The Rite of Spring sequence in Fantasia, but the idea was abandoned in favor of using voice actors in order to make it appealing to children. The film was originally planned for release in fall of 1987, but the production and the release date were delayed by a year due to the relocation of Sullivan Bluth Studios to Dublin, Ireland.
The production was preceded by extensive research, wherein researchers visited natural history museums in New York City and Los Angeles and the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. The artists had to create a credible landscape and animals. Animators made more than 600 background images for the film. Littlefoot was originally going to be called "Thunderfoot '', until it was found out that a Triceratops in a children 's book already had that name. It was Lucas 's idea to make Cera a female Triceratops, when she was in mid-animation as a male named Bambo. After voicing Digit in An American Tail, Will Ryan performed the voice of Petrie. The idea was brought up by Spielberg 's son, Max. The character of Spike was inspired by Don Bluth 's pet Chow Chow, Cubby.
Throughout production, The Land Before Time underwent a severe cutting and editing of footage. Spielberg and Lucas thought that some scenes in the movie would appear too dark and intense for young children. Spielberg told Bluth while looking at the scenes from the film, "It 's too scary. We 'll have kids crying in the lobby, and a lot of angry parents. You do n't want that. '' About 10 minutes of footage, comprising a total of 19 fully animated scenes, were cut from the final film, to attain a G rating instead of a PG rating. Much of the cut footage consisted of the Tyrannosaurus attack sequence and sequences of the five young dinosaurs in grave danger and distress. Examples can be seen in the storyboards of the chase sequence in the briar patch. POV shots of Sharptooth 's snapping jaws were deleted, and shots were rearranged to shorten the sequence. This results in continuity errors, depicting the Tyrannosaur with his right eye still open after it had been blinded. Some screams were re-voiced using milder exclamations.
The music for The Land Before Time was composed by James Horner, who had previously provided the soundtrack for An American Tail, and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra and the Choir of King 's College. An official soundtrack was released on audio cassette and vinyl record on November 21, 1988, and later on CD by MCA Records, and features seven tracks from the movie. The film 's theme song "If We Hold on Together '' was sung by Diana Ross and was released as a single on January 21, 1989, peaking at number 23 on the US adult contemporary charts, and was later included on her 1991 album The Force Behind the Power. A digital version of the soundtrack was released on a number of services on January 22, 2013 by Geffen Records.
The Land Before Time was released on VHS on September 14, 1989, as well as LaserDisc in regular pan and scan and "Special Collector 's Edition '' CAV - play editions by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment in North America and internationally, and CIC Video in the UK. According to the book The Animated Films of Don Bluth, the original release did "very successful business '' on the home video market, and included a promotional tie - in with Pizza Hut in North America, which was offering rubber hand puppets based on the film at the time. Pizza Hut also ran its partnership with the film 's VHS release in Australia. The VHS version was made available once more on February 20, 1996, under the Universal Family Features label, and was later packaged with following three films in the series as part of the Land Before Time Collection on December 4, 2001.
The film was released on DVD for the first time on April 30, 1997, and re-released in December 2, 2003, as the "Anniversary Edition '' for the movie 's 15th anniversary, which included games and sing - along songs. The Anniversary Edition was later included with An American Tail and Balto as a three - movie pack in November 2007. A widescreen Blu - ray version was available for the first time on October 13, 2015, which included digital HD and UltraViolet copies, which was accompanied by a new widescreen DVD release on the same day.
The Land Before Time holds a 70 % "fresh '' approval rating from review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes from 30 critics with the consensus "Beautifully animated and genuinely endearing, The Land Before Time is sure to please dino - obsessed tykes, even if it 's a little too cutesy for older viewers. Metacritic assigned a score of 66, based on reviews by 15 critics, signifying "Generally favorable reviews ''.
Critics Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert gave the film "two thumbs up '' on a 1988 episode of their television program At the Movies. Siskel found it to be "sweet more than it was scary '' and "quite beautiful '', also praising its straightforward story and remarked that he would recommend it to children over Disney 's Oliver and Company, released the same day. In his own review for the Chicago Sun - Times, Ebert gave the film three out of four stars, writing "I guess I sort of liked the film, although I wonder why it could n't have spent more time on natural history and the sense of discovery, and less time on tragedy. '' Peter Travers of People magazine felt the movie had an unclear audience, stating "The animation is fine. But the Stu Krieger screenplay contains violence that might be hard on the younger ones, (...) and a never - let - up cuteness that can turn minds of all ages to mush. '' Los Angeles Times writer Sheila Benson also stated that the movie 's enjoyment was limited to younger viewers, remarking "do dinosaurs really lend themselves to ootsie - cutesiness? ''
Many reviewers compared The Land Before Time to films from Disney 's Golden Age. Steven Rea of the Philadelphia Inquirer said that the movie "looks and sounds as if it came out of the Disney Studios of the ' 40s or ' 50s. Which is n't necessarily a bad thing, '' calling it "meticulously crafted '' but was also "mildly disappoint (ed) '' that the dialog was n't as sophisticated. In her review for the Sun - Sentinel, Candice Russel similarly remarked, "The Land Before Time works by evoking the simple virtues of this art aimed at children, as it was in the beginning when Disney animated Mickey Mouse. '' A review from the Motion Picture Guide 1989 Annual notes that the film "has been called a sort of prehistoric Bambi ''. David Kehr from the Chicago Tribune similarly felt that the film 's title "also refers to the Disney past, but it goes for all the marbles. Its model is nothing less than the life - cycle saga of Bambi, and that Bluth gets even half the way there is proof of a major talent. '' Kehr gave the movie three - and - a-half out of four stars, calling it "as handsome and honest an animated feature as any produced since Walt Disney 's death; it may even be the best. ''
The Land Before Time grossed $48 million at the US box office, as well as beating the Disney film, Oliver & Company, which was released on the same day, for the # 1 spot during its opening weekend. It brought in a box office total of nearly $50 million during its US release, slightly more than Don Bluth 's previous film, An American Tail. While Oliver & Company had grossed over its US earnings, The Land Before Time grossed nearly $84 million worldwide, which the Disney film did not surpass. However, Oliver & Company beat out The Land Before Time at the US box office by about $5 million. Attached to the film, Universal and Amblin issued Brad Bird 's Family Dog short from their television anthology Amazing Stories.
The Land Before Time was nominated for "Best Family Animation or Fantasy Motion Picture '' at the 10th annual Youth in Film Awards, losing out to Tim Burton 's Beetlejuice. It also received a nomination for "Best Fantasy Film '' at the 16th Saturn Awards ceremony in 1990, beaten by Who Framed Roger Rabbit.
The film generated many direct - to - video sequels, which differ from the original by adding "sing - a-long '' musical numbers. Bluth and his animation studio have no affiliation with any of the film 's sequels. The sequels have generally been met with mixed reception with several fans of the original disregarding the sequels, while others have embraced the sequels into the canon of the story.
In 2007 a television series was released in North America. It follows the style of the sequels in terms of the morality and the musical numbers (with some of the songs being shortened, and reworked).
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where does the optic nerve send most of its information | Optic nerve - wikipedia
The optic nerve, also known as cranial nerve II, is a paired nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. In humans, the optic nerve is derived from optic stalks during the seventh week of development and is composed of retinal ganglion cell axons and glial cells; it extends from the optic disc to the optic chiasma and continues as the optic tract to the lateral geniculate nucleus, pretectal nuclei, and superior colliculus.
The optic nerve is the second of twelve paired cranial nerves and is technically part of the central nervous system, rather than the peripheral nervous system because it is derived from an out - pouching of the diencephalon (optic stalks) during embryonic development. As a consequence, the fibers of the optic nerve are covered with myelin produced by oligodendrocytes, rather than Schwann cells of the peripheral nervous system, and are encased within the meninges. Peripheral neuropathies like Guillain -- Barré syndrome do not affect the optic nerve. However, most typically the optic nerve is grouped with the other eleven cranial nerves and considered to be part of the peripheral nervous system.
The optic nerve is ensheathed in all three meningeal layers (dura, arachnoid, and pia mater) rather than the epineurium, perineurium, and endoneurium found in peripheral nerves. Fiber tracts of the mammalian central nervous system (as opposed to the peripheral nervous system) are incapable of regeneration, and, hence, optic nerve damage produces irreversible blindness. The fibres from the retina run along the optic nerve to nine primary visual nuclei in the brain, from which a major relay inputs into the primary visual cortex.
The optic nerve is composed of retinal ganglion cell axons and glial cells. Each human optic nerve contains between 770,000 and 1.7 million nerve fibers, which are axons of the retinal ganglion cells of one retina. In the fovea, which has high acuity, these ganglion cells connect to as few as 5 photoreceptor cells; in other areas of retina, they connect to many thousand photoreceptors.
The optic nerve leaves the orbit (eye socket) via the optic canal, running postero - medially towards the optic chiasm, where there is a partial decussation (crossing) of fibres from the temporal visual fields (the nasal hemi - retina) of both eyes. The proportion of decussating fibers varies between species, and is correlated with the degree of binocular vision enjoyed by a species. Most of the axons of the optic nerve terminate in the lateral geniculate nucleus from where information is relayed to the visual cortex, while other axons terminate in the pretectal nucleus and are involved in reflexive eye movements. Other axons terminate in the suprachiasmatic nucleus and are involved in regulating the sleep - wake cycle. Its diameter increases from about 1.6 mm within the eye to 3.5 mm in the orbit to 4.5 mm within the cranial space. The optic nerve component lengths are 1 mm in the globe, 24 mm in the orbit, 9 mm in the optic canal, and 16 mm in the cranial space before joining the optic chiasm. There, partial decussation occurs, and about 53 % of the fibers cross to form the optic tracts. Most of these fibres terminate in the lateral geniculate body.
Based on this anatomy, the optic nerve may be divided in the four parts as indicated in the image at the top of this section (this view is from above as if you were looking into the orbit after the top of the skull had been removed): 1. the optic head (which is where it begins in the eyeball (globe) with fibers from the retina; 2. orbital part (which is the part within the orbit). 3. intracanicular part (which is the part within a bony canal known as the optic canal); and, 4. cranial part (the part within the cranial cavity, which ends at the optic chiasm).
From the lateral geniculate body, fibers of the optic radiation pass to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the brain. In more specific terms, fibers carrying information from the contralateral superior visual field traverse Meyer 's loop to terminate in the lingual gyrus below the calcarine fissure in the occipital lobe, and fibers carrying information from the contralateral inferior visual field terminate more superiorly, to the cuneus.
The optic nerve transmits all visual information including brightness perception, color perception and contrast (visual acuity). It also conducts the visual impulses that are responsible for two important neurological reflexes: the light reflex and the accommodation reflex. The light reflex refers to the constriction of both pupils that occurs when light is shone into either eye; the accommodation reflex refers to the swelling of the lens of eye that occurs when one looks at a near object as in reading (lens adjusts to near vision).
The eye 's blind spot is a result of the absence of photoreceptors in the area of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye.
Damage to the optic nerve typically causes permanent and potentially severe loss of vision, as well as an abnormal pupillary reflex, which is diagnostically important. The type of visual field loss will depend on which portions of the optic nerve were damaged. In general:
Injury to the optic nerve can be the result of congenital or inheritable problems like Leber 's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy, glaucoma, trauma, toxicity, inflammation, ischemia, infection (very rarely), or compression from tumors or aneurysms. By far, the three most common injuries to the optic nerve are from glaucoma, optic neuritis (especially in those younger than 50 years of age), and anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (usually in those older than 50).
Glaucoma is a group of diseases involving loss of retinal ganglion cells causing optic neuropathy in a pattern of peripheral vision loss, initially sparing central vision. Glaucoma is associated with increased intraocular pressure that damages the optic nerve as it exits the eyeball. Although glaucoma does eventually damage the optic nerve, it is primarily a disease of eye not of the nerve.
Optic neuritis is inflammation of the optic nerve. It is associated with a number of diseases, the most notable one being multiple sclerosis. The patient will likely experience varying vision loss and eye pain. The condition tends to be episodic.
Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy is commonly known as "stroke of the optic nerve '' and affects the optic nerve head. There is usually a sudden loss of blood supply and nutrients to the optic nerve head (where the nerve exits the eyeball). Vision loss is typically sudden and most commonly occurs upon waking up in the morning. This condition is most common in diabetic patients 40 -- 70 years old.
Optic nerve hypoplasia is the underdevelopment of the optic nerve resulting in little to no vision in the affected eye.
Tumors, especially those of the pituitary gland, can put pressure on the optic nerve causing various forms of visual loss. Similarly, cerebral aneurysms (swelling of blood vessels) can also affect the nerve.
Trauma can cause serious injury to the nerve. Direct optic nerve injury can occur from a penetrating injury to the orbit, but the nerve can also be injured by indirect trauma in which severe head impact or movement stretches or even tears the nerve
Ophthalmologists and optometrists can detect and diagnose some optic nerve diseases but neuro - ophthalmologists are often best suited to diagnose and treat diseases of the optic nerve.
The International Foundation for Optic Nerve Diseases (IFOND) sponsors research and provides information on a variety of optic nerve disorders.
Similar to other CNS tracts, the optic has very limited regenerative potential after injury. However, some new techniques are being developed to increase this potential.
MRI scan of human eye showing optic nerve.
The ophthalmic artery and its branches. (optic nerve is yellow)
Superficial dissection of brain - stem. Lateral view.
Dissection of brain - stem. Lateral view.
Scheme showing central connections of the optic nerves and optic tracts.
Nerves of the orbit. Seen from above.
Nerves of the orbit, and the ciliary ganglion. Side view.
The terminal portion of the optic nerve and its entrance into the eyeball, in horizontal section.
Structures of the eye labeled
This image shows another labeled view of the structures of the eye
Optic nerve. Deep dissection. Inferior view.
Optic nerve. Deep dissection. Inferior view.
Optic nerve
Optic nerve
Human brain dura mater (reflections)
Optic nerve
Optic nerve
Optic nerve
Cerebrum. Inferior view. Deep dissection
Cerebral peduncle, optic chasm, cerebral aqueduct. Inferior view. Deep dissection.
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what was the number one song in america in 1979 | List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one Singles of 1979 - wikipedia
These are the Billboard Hot 100 number one hits of 1979.
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during which phase of the cell life cycle does dna replication occur | Cell cycle - wikipedia
The cell cycle or cell - division cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) to produce two daughter cells. In bacteria, which lack a cell nucleus, the cell cycle is divided into the B, C, and D periods. The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication. DNA replication occurs during the C period. The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter cells. In cells with a nucleus, as in eukaryotes, the cell cycle is also divided into three periods: interphase, the mitotic (M) phase, and cytokinesis. During interphase, the cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis, preparing it for cell division and duplicating its DNA. During the mitotic phase, the chromosomes separate. During the final stage, cytokinesis, the chromosomes and cytoplasm separate into two new daughter cells. To ensure the proper division of the cell, there are control mechanisms known as cell cycle checkpoints.
The cell - division cycle is a vital process by which a single - celled fertilized egg develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin, blood cells, and some internal organs are renewed. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell divisions.
The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G phase, S phase (synthesis), G phase (collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis). M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes: karyokinesis, in which the cell 's chromosomes are divided, and cytokinesis, in which the cell 's cytoplasm divides forming two daughter cells. Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one. Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence called G phase.
After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell division.
G is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing. The cell cycle starts with this phase. The word "post-mitotic '' is sometimes used to refer to both quiescent and senescent cells. Non-proliferative (non-dividing) cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally enter the quiescent G state from G and may remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is often the case for neurons). This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated. Cellular senescence occurs in response to DNA damage and external stress and usually constitutes an arrest in G. Some cells enter the G phase semi-permanently and are considered post-mitotic, e.g., some liver, kidney, and stomach cells. Many cells do not enter G and continue to divide throughout an organism 's life, e.g., epithelial cells.
Cellular senescence is also a state that occurs in response to DNA damage or degradation that would make a cell 's progeny nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self - destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis.
Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to take in nutrients. All of the preparations are done during interphase. Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus, before it becomes capable of division again. It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis. Previously it was called resting stage because there is no apparent activity related to cell division. Typically interphase lasts for at least 90 % of the total time required for the cell cycle.
Interphase proceeds in three stages, G, S, and G, followed by the cycle of mitosis and cytokinesis. The cell 's nuclear DNA contents are duplicated during S phase.
The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis, is called G (G indicating gap). It is also called the growth phase. During this phase, the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which are considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate. The duration of G is highly variable, even among different cells of the same species. In this phase, the cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of organelles (such as mitochondria, ribosomes), and grows in size. In G phase, a cell has three options. (1) To continue cell cycle and enter S phase (2) Stop cell cycle and enter G phase for undergoing differentiation. (3) Get arrested in G phase hence it may enter G phase or re-enter cell cycle. The deciding factor is availability of nitrogens and storage of energy rich compounds at the deciding point called check point. This check point is called G cyclin or C. It causes transition of G to S phase. Once the check point of G phase is crossed, cell cycle will go uninterrupted till it is completed.
The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences; when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome has two (sister) chromatids. Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has effectively doubled, though the ploidy of the cell remains the same. Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very low during this phase. An exception to this is histone production, most of which occurs during the S phase.
G2 phase occurs after DNA replication and is a period of protein synthesis and rapid cell growth to prepare the cell for mitosis. During this phase microtubules begin to reorganize to form a spindle.
The relatively brief M phase consists of nuclear division (karyokinesis). It is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. M phase is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These phases are sequentially known as:
Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell.
Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animals undergo an "open '' mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as Aspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) undergo a "closed '' mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a process called binary fission.
Mitosis is immediately followed by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. This accounts for approximately 10 % of the cell cycle.
Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, "mitosis '' is often used interchangeably with "M phase ''. However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei in a process called endoreplication. This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime moulds, but is found in various groups. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development. Errors in mitosis can either kill a cell through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer.
The process of mitosis is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. The cell then divides in cytokinesis, to produce two identical daughter cells.
Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell, including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division. The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional; that is, each process occurs in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to "reverse '' the cycle.
Two key classes of regulatory molecules, cyclins and cyclin - dependent kinases (CDKs), determine a cell 's progress through the cell cycle. Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, and Paul M. Nurse won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of these central molecules. Many of the genes encoding cyclins and CDKs are conserved among all eukaryotes, but in general more complex organisms have more elaborate cell cycle control systems that incorporate more individual components. Many of the relevant genes were first identified by studying yeast, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae; genetic nomenclature in yeast dubs many of these genes cdc (for "cell division cycle '') followed by an identifying number, e.g. cdc25 or cdc20.
Cyclins form the regulatory subunits and CDKs the catalytic subunits of an activated heterodimer; cyclins have no catalytic activity and CDKs are inactive in the absence of a partner cyclin. When activated by a bound cyclin, CDKs perform a common biochemical reaction called phosphorylation that activates or inactivates target proteins to orchestrate coordinated entry into the next phase of the cell cycle. Different cyclin - CDK combinations determine the downstream proteins targeted. CDKs are constitutively expressed in cells whereas cyclins are synthesised at specific stages of the cell cycle, in response to various molecular signals.
Upon receiving a pro-mitotic extracellular signal, G cyclin - CDK complexes become active to prepare the cell for S phase, promoting the expression of transcription factors that in turn promote the expression of S cyclins and of enzymes required for DNA replication. The G cyclin - CDK complexes also promote the degradation of molecules that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them for ubiquitination. Once a protein has been ubiquitinated, it is targeted for proteolytic degradation by the proteasome. However, results from a recent study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single - cell level argue that the role of G1 cyclin - CDK activities, in particular cyclin D - CDK4 / 6, is to tune the timing rather than the commitment of cell cycle entry.
Active S cyclin - CDK complexes phosphorylate proteins that make up the pre-replication complexes assembled during G phase on DNA replication origins. The phosphorylation serves two purposes: to activate each already - assembled pre-replication complex, and to prevent new complexes from forming. This ensures that every portion of the cell 's genome will be replicated once and only once. The reason for prevention of gaps in replication is fairly clear, because daughter cells that are missing all or part of crucial genes will die. However, for reasons related to gene copy number effects, possession of extra copies of certain genes is also deleterious to the daughter cells.
Mitotic cyclin - CDK complexes, which are synthesized but inactivated during S and G phases, promote the initiation of mitosis by stimulating downstream proteins involved in chromosome condensation and mitotic spindle assembly. A critical complex activated during this process is a ubiquitin ligase known as the anaphase - promoting complex (APC), which promotes degradation of structural proteins associated with the chromosomal kinetochore. APC also targets the mitotic cyclins for degradation, ensuring that telophase and cytokinesis can proceed.
Cyclin D is the first cyclin produced in the cell cycle, in response to extracellular signals (e.g. growth factors). Cyclin D binds to existing CDK4, forming the active cyclin D - CDK4 complex. Cyclin D - CDK4 complex in turn phosphorylates the retinoblastoma susceptibility protein (Rb). The hyperphosphorylated Rb dissociates from the E2F / DP1 / Rb complex (which was bound to the E2F responsive genes, effectively "blocking '' them from transcription), activating E2F. Activation of E2F results in transcription of various genes like cyclin E, cyclin A, DNA polymerase, thymidine kinase, etc. Cyclin E thus produced binds to CDK2, forming the cyclin E-CDK2 complex, which pushes the cell from G to S phase (G / S, which initiates the G / M transition). Cyclin B - cdk1 complex activation causes breakdown of nuclear envelope and initiation of prophase, and subsequently, its deactivation causes the cell to exit mitosis. A quantitative study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single - cell level by using engineered fluorescent reporter cells provided a quantitative framework for understanding the control logic of cell cycle entry, challenging the canonical textbook model. Genes that regulate the amplitude of E2F accumulation, such as Myc, determine the commitment into cell cycle and S phase entry. G1 cyclin - CDK activities are not the driver of cell cycle entry. Instead, they primarily tune the timing of E2F increase, thereby modulating the pace of cell cycle progression.
Two families of genes, the cip / kip (CDK interacting protein / Kinase inhibitory protein) family and the INK4a / ARF (Inhibitor of Kinase 4 / Alternative Reading Frame) family, prevent the progression of the cell cycle. Because these genes are instrumental in prevention of tumor formation, they are known as tumor suppressors.
The cip / kip family includes the genes p21, p27 and p57. They halt cell cycle in G phase, by binding to, and inactivating, cyclin - CDK complexes. p21 is activated by p53 (which, in turn, is triggered by DNA damage e.g. due to radiation). p27 is activated by Transforming Growth Factor of β (TGF β), a growth inhibitor.
The INK4a / ARF family includes p16, which binds to CDK4 and arrests the cell cycle in G phase, and p14 which prevents p53 degradation.
Synthetic inhibitors of Cdc25 could also be useful for the arrest of cell cycle and therefore be useful as antineoplastic and anticancer agents.
Current evidence suggests that a semi-autonomous transcriptional network acts in concert with the CDK - cyclin machinery to regulate the cell cycle. Several gene expression studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae have identified 800 -- 1200 genes that change expression over the course of the cell cycle. They are transcribed at high levels at specific points in the cell cycle, and remain at lower levels throughout the rest of the cycle. While the set of identified genes differs between studies due to the computational methods and criteria used to identify them, each study indicates that a large portion of yeast genes are temporally regulated.
Many periodically expressed genes are driven by transcription factors that are also periodically expressed. One screen of single - gene knockouts identified 48 transcription factors (about 20 % of all non-essential transcription factors) that show cell cycle progression defects. Genome - wide studies using high throughput technologies have identified the transcription factors that bind to the promoters of yeast genes, and correlating these findings with temporal expression patterns have allowed the identification of transcription factors that drive phase - specific gene expression. The expression profiles of these transcription factors are driven by the transcription factors that peak in the prior phase, and computational models have shown that a CDK - autonomous network of these transcription factors is sufficient to produce steady - state oscillations in gene expression).
Experimental evidence also suggests that gene expression can oscillate with the period seen in dividing wild - type cells independently of the CDK machinery. Orlando et al. used microarrays to measure the expression of a set of 1,271 genes that they identified as periodic in both wild type cells and cells lacking all S - phase and mitotic cyclins (clb1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). Of the 1,271 genes assayed, 882 continued to be expressed in the cyclin - deficient cells at the same time as in the wild type cells, despite the fact that the cyclin - deficient cells arrest at the border between G and S phase. However, 833 of the genes assayed changed behavior between the wild type and mutant cells, indicating that these genes are likely directly or indirectly regulated by the CDK - cyclin machinery. Some genes that continued to be expressed on time in the mutant cells were also expressed at different levels in the mutant and wild type cells. These findings suggest that while the transcriptional network may oscillate independently of the CDK - cyclin oscillator, they are coupled in a manner that requires both to ensure the proper timing of cell cycle events. Other work indicates that phosphorylation, a post-translational modification, of cell cycle transcription factors by Cdk1 may alter the localization or activity of the transcription factors in order to tightly control timing of target genes.
While oscillatory transcription plays a key role in the progression of the yeast cell cycle, the CDK - cyclin machinery operates independently in the early embryonic cell cycle. Before the midblastula transition, zygotic transcription does not occur and all needed proteins, such as the B - type cyclins, are translated from maternally loaded mRNA.
Analyses of synchronized cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae under conditions that prevent DNA replication initiation without delaying cell cycle progression showed that origin licensing decreases the expression of genes with origins near their 3 ' ends, revealing that downstream origins can regulate the expression of upstream genes. This confirms previous predictions from mathematical modeling of a global causal coordination between DNA replication origin activity and mRNA expression, and shows that mathematical modeling of DNA microarray data can be used to correctly predict previously unknown biological modes of regulation.
Cell cycle checkpoints are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle. Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage. The cell can not proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met. Checkpoints typically consist of a network of regulatory proteins that monitor and dictate the progression of the cell through the different stages of the cell cycle.
There are several checkpoints to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells. Three main checkpoints exist: the G / S checkpoint, the G / M checkpoint and the metaphase (mitotic) checkpoint.
G / S transition is a rate - limiting step in the cell cycle and is also known as restriction point. This is where the cell checks whether it has enough raw materials to fully replicate its DNA (nucleotide bases, DNA synthase, chromatin, etc.). An unhealthy or malnourished cell will get stuck at this checkpoint.
The G / M checkpoint is where the cell ensures that it has enough cytoplasm and phospholipids for two daughter cells. But sometimes more importantly, it checks to see if it is the right time to replicate. There are some situations where many cells need to all replicate simultaneously (for example, a growing embryo should have a symmetric cell distribution until it reaches the mid-blastula transition). This is done by controlling the G / M checkpoint.
The metaphase checkpoint is a fairly minor checkpoint, in that once a cell is in metaphase, it has committed to undergoing mitosis. However that 's not to say it is n't important. In this checkpoint, the cell checks to ensure that the spindle has formed and that all of the chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator before anaphase begins.
While these are the three "main '' checkpoints, not all cells have to pass through each of these checkpoints in this order to replicate. Many types of cancer are caused by mutations that allow the cells to speed through the various checkpoints or even skip them altogether. Going from S to M to S phase almost consecutively. Because these cells have lost their checkpoints, any DNA mutations that may have occurred are disregarded and passed on to the daughter cells. This is one reason why cancer cells have a tendency to exponentially accrue mutations. Aside from cancer cells, many fully differentiated cell types no longer replicate so they leave the cell cycle and stay in G until their death. Thus removing the need for cellular checkpoints. An alternative model of the cell cycle response to DNA damage has also been proposed, known as the postreplication checkpoint.
Checkpoint regulation plays an important role in an organism 's development. In sexual reproduction, when egg fertilization occurs, when the sperm binds to the egg, it releases signalling factors that notify the egg that it has been fertilized. Among other things, this induces the now fertilized oocyte to return from its previously dormant, G, state back into the cell cycle and on to mitotic replication and division.
p53 plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G / S and G / M checkpoints. In addition to p53, checkpoint regulators are being heavily researched for their roles in cancer growth and proliferation.
Pioneering work by Atsushi Miyawaki and coworkers developed the fluorescent ubiquitination - based cell cycle indicator (FUCCI), which enables fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle. Originally, a green fluorescent protein, mAG, was fused to hGem (1 / 110) and an orange fluorescent protein (mKO) was fused to hCdt1 (30 / 120). Note, these fusions are fragments that contain a nuclear localization signal and ubiquitination sites for degradation, but are not functional proteins. The green fluorescent protein is made during the S, G, or M phase and degraded during the G or G phase, while the orange fluorescent protein is made during the G or G phase and destroyed during the S, G, or M phase. A far - red and near - infrared FUCCI was developed using a cyanobacteria - derived fluorescent protein (smURFP) and a bacteriophytochrome - derived fluorescent protein (movie found at this link).
A disregulation of the cell cycle components may lead to tumor formation. As mentioned above, when some genes like the cell cycle inhibitors, RB, p53 etc. mutate, they may cause the cell to multiply uncontrollably, forming a tumor. Although the duration of cell cycle in tumor cells is equal to or longer than that of normal cell cycle, the proportion of cells that are in active cell division (versus quiescent cells in G phase) in tumors is much higher than that in normal tissue. Thus there is a net increase in cell number as the number of cells that die by apoptosis or senescence remains the same.
The cells which are actively undergoing cell cycle are targeted in cancer therapy as the DNA is relatively exposed during cell division and hence susceptible to damage by drugs or radiation. This fact is made use of in cancer treatment; by a process known as debulking, a significant mass of the tumor is removed which pushes a significant number of the remaining tumor cells from G to G phase (due to increased availability of nutrients, oxygen, growth factors etc.). Radiation or chemotherapy following the debulking procedure kills these cells which have newly entered the cell cycle.
The fastest cycling mammalian cells in culture, crypt cells in the intestinal epithelium, have a cycle time as short as 9 to 10 hours. Stem cells in resting mouse skin may have a cycle time of more than 200 hours. Most of this difference is due to the varying length of G, the most variable phase of the cycle. M and S do not vary much.
In general, cells are most radiosensitive in late M and G phases and most resistant in late S phase.
For cells with a longer cell cycle time and a significantly long G phase, there is a second peak of resistance late in G.
The pattern of resistance and sensitivity correlates with the level of sulfhydryl compounds in the cell. Sulfhydryls are natural substances that protect cells from radiation damage and tend to be at their highest levels in S and at their lowest near mitosis.
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a huge cloud of dust and gas from which stars form | Star formation - wikipedia
Star formation is the process by which dense regions within molecular clouds in interstellar space, sometimes referred to as "stellar nurseries '' or "star - forming regions '', fuse to form stars. As a branch of astronomy, star formation includes the study of the interstellar medium (ISM) and giant molecular clouds (GMC) as precursors to the star formation process, and the study of protostars and young stellar objects as its immediate products. It is closely related to planet formation, another branch of astronomy. Star formation theory, as well as accounting for the formation of a single star, must also account for the statistics of binary stars and the initial mass function.
A spiral galaxy like the Milky Way contains stars, stellar remnants, and a diffuse interstellar medium (ISM) of gas and dust. The interstellar medium consists of 10 to 10 particles per cm and is typically composed of roughly 70 % hydrogen by mass, with most of the remaining gas consisting of helium. This medium has been chemically enriched by trace amounts of heavier elements that were ejected from stars as they passed beyond the end of their main sequence lifetime. Higher density regions of the interstellar medium form clouds, or diffuse nebulae, where star formation takes place. In contrast to spirals, an elliptical galaxy loses the cold component of its interstellar medium within roughly a billion years, which hinders the galaxy from forming diffuse nebulae except through mergers with other galaxies.
In the dense nebulae where stars are produced, much of the hydrogen is in the molecular (H) form, so these nebulae are called molecular clouds. Observations indicate that the coldest clouds tend to form low - mass stars, observed first in the infrared inside the clouds, then in visible light at their surface when the clouds dissipate, while giant molecular clouds, which are generally warmer, produce stars of all masses. These giant molecular clouds have typical densities of 100 particles per cm, diameters of 100 light - years (9.5 × 10 km), masses of up to 6 million solar masses (M), and an average interior temperature of 10 K. About half the total mass of the galactic ISM is found in molecular clouds and in the Milky Way there are an estimated 6,000 molecular clouds, each with more than 100,000 M. The nearest nebula to the Sun where massive stars are being formed is the Orion nebula, 1,300 ly (1.2 × 10 km) away. However, lower mass star formation is occurring about 400 -- 450 light years distant in the ρ Ophiuchi cloud complex.
A more compact site of star formation is the opaque clouds of dense gas and dust known as Bok globules; so named after the astronomer Bart Bok. These can form in association with collapsing molecular clouds or possibly independently. The Bok globules are typically up to a light year across and contain a few solar masses. They can be observed as dark clouds silhouetted against bright emission nebulae or background stars. Over half the known Bok globules have been found to contain newly forming stars.
An interstellar cloud of gas will remain in hydrostatic equilibrium as long as the kinetic energy of the gas pressure is in balance with the potential energy of the internal gravitational force. Mathematically this is expressed using the virial theorem, which states that, to maintain equilibrium, the gravitational potential energy must equal twice the internal thermal energy. If a cloud is massive enough that the gas pressure is insufficient to support it, the cloud will undergo gravitational collapse. The mass above which a cloud will undergo such collapse is called the Jeans mass. The Jeans mass depends on the temperature and density of the cloud, but is typically thousands to tens of thousands of solar masses. This coincides with the typical mass of an open cluster of stars, which is the end product of a collapsing cloud.
In triggered star formation, one of several events might occur to compress a molecular cloud and initiate its gravitational collapse. Molecular clouds may collide with each other, or a nearby supernova explosion can be a trigger, sending shocked matter into the cloud at very high speeds. Alternatively, galactic collisions can trigger massive starbursts of star formation as the gas clouds in each galaxy are compressed and agitated by tidal forces. The latter mechanism may be responsible for the formation of globular clusters.
A supermassive black hole at the core of a galaxy may serve to regulate the rate of star formation in a galactic nucleus. A black hole that is accreting infalling matter can become active, emitting a strong wind through a collimated relativistic jet. This can limit further star formation. Massive black holes ejecting radio - frequency - emitting particles at near - light speed can also block the formation of new stars in aging galaxies. However, the radio emissions around the jets may also trigger star formation. Likewise, a weaker jet may trigger star formation when it collides with a cloud.
As it collapses, a molecular cloud breaks into smaller and smaller pieces in a hierarchical manner, until the fragments reach stellar mass. In each of these fragments, the collapsing gas radiates away the energy gained by the release of gravitational potential energy. As the density increases, the fragments become opaque and are thus less efficient at radiating away their energy. This raises the temperature of the cloud and inhibits further fragmentation. The fragments now condense into rotating spheres of gas that serve as stellar embryos.
Complicating this picture of a collapsing cloud are the effects of turbulence, macroscopic flows, rotation, magnetic fields and the cloud geometry. Both rotation and magnetic fields can hinder the collapse of a cloud. Turbulence is instrumental in causing fragmentation of the cloud, and on the smallest scales it promotes collapse.
A protostellar cloud will continue to collapse as long as the gravitational binding energy can be eliminated. This excess energy is primarily lost through radiation. However, the collapsing cloud will eventually become opaque to its own radiation, and the energy must be removed through some other means. The dust within the cloud becomes heated to temperatures of 60 -- 100 K, and these particles radiate at wavelengths in the far infrared where the cloud is transparent. Thus the dust mediates the further collapse of the cloud.
During the collapse, the density of the cloud increases towards the center and thus the middle region becomes optically opaque first. This occurs when the density is about 10 g / cm. A core region, called the First Hydrostatic Core, forms where the collapse is essentially halted. It continues to increase in temperature as determined by the virial theorem. The gas falling toward this opaque region collides with it and creates shock waves that further heat the core.
When the core temperature reaches about 2000 K, the thermal energy dissociates the H molecules. This is followed by the ionization of the hydrogen and helium atoms. These processes absorb the energy of the contraction, allowing it to continue on timescales comparable to the period of collapse at free fall velocities. After the density of infalling material has reached about 10 g / cm, that material is sufficiently transparent to allow energy radiated by the protostar to escape. The combination of convection within the protostar and radiation from its exterior allow the star to contract further. This continues until the gas is hot enough for the internal pressure to support the protostar against further gravitational collapse -- a state called hydrostatic equilibrium. When this accretion phase is nearly complete, the resulting object is known as a protostar.
Accretion of material onto the protostar continues partially from the newly formed circumstellar disc. When the density and temperature are high enough, deuterium fusion begins, and the outward pressure of the resultant radiation slows (but does not stop) the collapse. Material comprising the cloud continues to "rain '' onto the protostar. In this stage bipolar jets are produced called Herbig - Haro objects. This is probably the means by which excess angular momentum of the infalling material is expelled, allowing the star to continue to form.
When the surrounding gas and dust envelope disperses and accretion process stops, the star is considered a pre -- main sequence star (PMS star). The energy source of these objects is gravitational contraction, as opposed to hydrogen burning in main sequence stars. The PMS star follows a Hayashi track on the Hertzsprung -- Russell (H -- R) diagram. The contraction will proceed until the Hayashi limit is reached, and thereafter contraction will continue on a Kelvin -- Helmholtz timescale with the temperature remaining stable. Stars with less than 0.5 M thereafter join the main sequence. For more massive PMS stars, at the end of the Hayashi track they will slowly collapse in near hydrostatic equilibrium, following the Henyey track.
Finally, hydrogen begins to fuse in the core of the star, and the rest of the enveloping material is cleared away. This ends the protostellar phase and begins the star 's main sequence phase on the H -- R diagram.
The stages of the process are well defined in stars with masses around 1 M or less. In high mass stars, the length of the star formation process is comparable to the other timescales of their evolution, much shorter, and the process is not so well defined. The later evolution of stars are studied in stellar evolution.
Key elements of star formation are only available by observing in wavelengths other than the optical. The protostellar stage of stellar existence is almost invariably hidden away deep inside dense clouds of gas and dust left over from the GMC. Often, these star - forming cocoons known as Bok globules, can be seen in silhouette against bright emission from surrounding gas. Early stages of a star 's life can be seen in infrared light, which penetrates the dust more easily than visible light. Observations from the Wide - field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) have thus been especially important for unveiling numerous Galactic protostars and their parent star clusters. Examples of such embedded star clusters are FSR 1184, FSR 1190, Camargo 14, Camargo 74, Majaess 64, and Majaess 98.
The structure of the molecular cloud and the effects of the protostar can be observed in near - IR extinction maps (where the number of stars are counted per unit area and compared to a nearby zero extinction area of sky), continuum dust emission and rotational transitions of CO and other molecules; these last two are observed in the millimeter and submillimeter range. The radiation from the protostar and early star has to be observed in infrared astronomy wavelengths, as the extinction caused by the rest of the cloud in which the star is forming is usually too big to allow us to observe it in the visual part of the spectrum. This presents considerable difficulties as the Earth 's atmosphere is almost entirely opaque from 20μm to 850μm, with narrow windows at 200μm and 450μm. Even outside this range, atmospheric subtraction techniques must be used.
X-ray observations have proven useful for studying young stars, since X-ray emission from these objects is 100 -- 100,000 times stronger than X-ray emission from main - sequence stars. The earliest detections of X-rays from T Tauri stars were made by the Einstein X-ray Observatory. For low - mass stars X-rays are generated by the heating of the stellar corona through magnetic reconnection, while for high - mass O and early B - type stars X-rays are generated through supersonic shocks in the stellar winds. Photons in the soft X-ray energy range covered by the Chandra X-ray Observatory and XMM Newton may penetrate the interstellar medium with only moderate absorption due to gas, making the X-ray a useful wavelength for seeing the stellar populations within molecular clouds. X-ray emission as evidence of stellar youth makes this band particularly useful for performing censuses of stars in star - forming regions, given that not all young stars have infrared excesses. X-ray observations have provided near - complete censuses of all stellar - mass objects in the Orion Nebula Cluster and Taurus Molecular Cloud.
The formation of individual stars can only be directly observed in the Milky Way Galaxy, but in distant galaxies star formation has been detected through its unique spectral signature.
The first observed newborn star - forming clump, aged less than 10 million years old, was found in a galaxy about a corresponding light travel distance of 10.4 billion light years away, at an age when the universe was about 3.3 billion years old. The clump is about 3,000 light - years wide, and has a mass more than 1 billion times the mass of the sun, creating 32 stars each year with the mass of the sun, and produced about 40 percent of the stars in the clump 's host galaxy.
Initial research indicates star - forming clumps start as giant, dense areas in turbulent gas - rich matter in young galaxies, live about 500 million years, and may migrate to the center of a galaxy, creating the central bulge of a galaxy.
On February 21, 2014, NASA announced a greatly upgraded database for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the universe. According to scientists, more than 20 % of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, possible starting materials for the formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.
Stars of different masses are thought to form by slightly different mechanisms. The theory of low - mass star formation, which is well - supported by a plethora of observations, suggests that low - mass stars form by the gravitational collapse of rotating density enhancements within molecular clouds. As described above, the collapse of a rotating cloud of gas and dust leads to the formation of an accretion disk through which matter is channeled onto a central protostar. For stars with masses higher than about 8 M, however, the mechanism of star formation is not well understood.
Massive stars emit copious quantities of radiation which pushes against infalling material. In the past, it was thought that this radiation pressure might be substantial enough to halt accretion onto the massive protostar and prevent the formation of stars with masses more than a few tens of solar masses. Recent theoretical work has shown that the production of a jet and outflow clears a cavity through which much of the radiation from a massive protostar can escape without hindering accretion through the disk and onto the protostar. Present thinking is that massive stars may therefore be able to form by a mechanism similar to that by which low mass stars form.
There is mounting evidence that at least some massive protostars are indeed surrounded by accretion disks. Several other theories of massive star formation remain to be tested observationally. Of these, perhaps the most prominent is the theory of competitive accretion, which suggests that massive protostars are "seeded '' by low - mass protostars which compete with other protostars to draw in matter from the entire parent molecular cloud, instead of simply from a small local region.
Another theory of massive star formation suggests that massive stars may form by the coalescence of two or more stars of lower mass.
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where did blue ribbon sports open its first two retail stores | Nike, Inc.. - Wikipedia
Nike, Inc. (/ ˈnaɪki /) is an American multinational corporation that is engaged in the design, development, manufacturing, and worldwide marketing and sales of footwear, apparel, equipment, accessories, and services. The company is headquartered near Beaverton, Oregon, in the Portland metropolitan area. It is the world 's largest supplier of athletic shoes and apparel and a major manufacturer of sports equipment, with revenue in excess of US $24.1 billion in its fiscal year 2012 (ending May 31, 2012). As of 2012, it employed more than 44,000 people worldwide. In 2014 the brand alone was valued at $19 billion, making it the most valuable brand among sports businesses. As of 2017, the Nike brand is valued at $29.6 billion.
The company was founded on January 25, 1964, as Blue Ribbon Sports, by Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight, and officially became Nike, Inc. on May 30, 1971. The company takes its name from Nike, the Greek goddess of victory. Nike markets its products under its own brand, as well as Nike Golf, Nike Pro, Nike+, Air Jordan, Nike Blazers, Air Force 1, Nike Dunk, Air Max, Foamposite, Nike Skateboarding, Nike CR7, and subsidiaries including Brand Jordan, Hurley International and Converse. Nike also owned Bauer Hockey (later renamed Nike Bauer) from 1995 and 2008, and previously owned Cole Haan and Umbro. In addition to manufacturing sportswear and equipment, the company operates retail stores under the Niketown name. Nike sponsors many high - profile athletes and sports teams around the world, with the highly recognized trademarks of "Just Do It '' and the Swoosh logo.
Nike, originally known as Blue Ribbon Sports (BRS), was founded by University of Oregon track athlete Phil Knight and his coach Bill Bowerman in January 1964. The company initially operated as a distributor for Japanese shoe maker Onitsuka Tiger (now ASICS), making most sales at track meets out of Knight 's automobile.
According to Otis Davis, a student athlete whom Bowerman coached at the University of Oregon, who later went on to win two gold medals at the 1960 Summer Olympics, Bowerman made the first pair of Nike shoes for him, contradicting a claim that they were made for Phil Knight. Says Davis, "I told Tom Brokaw that I was the first. I do n't care what all the billionaires say. Bill Bowerman made the first pair of shoes for me. People do n't believe me. In fact, I did n't like the way they felt on my feet. There was no support and they were too tight. But I saw Bowerman make them from the waffle iron, and they were mine ''.
In 1964, in its first year in business, BRS sold 1,300 pairs of Japanese running shoes grossing $8,000. By 1965 the fledgling company had acquired a full - time employee, and sales had reached $20,000. In 1966, BRS opened its first retail store, located at 3107 Pico Boulevard in Santa Monica, California next to a beauty salon, so its employees no longer needed to sell inventory from the back of their cars. In 1967, due to rapidly increasing sales, BRS expanded retail and distribution operations on the East Coast, in Wellesley, Massachusetts.
By 1971, the relationship between BRS and Onitsuka Tiger was nearing an end. BRS prepared to launch its own line of footwear, which would bear the Swoosh newly designed by Carolyn Davidson. The Swoosh was first used by Nike on June 18, 1971, and was registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office on January 22, 1974.
In 1976, the company hired John Brown and Partners, based in Seattle, as its first advertising agency. The following year, the agency created the first "brand ad '' for Nike, called "There is no finish line '', in which no Nike product was shown. By 1980, Nike had attained a 50 % market share in the U.S. athletic shoe market, and the company went public in December of that year.
Together, Nike and Wieden + Kennedy have created many print and television advertisements, and Wieden + Kennedy remains Nike 's primary ad agency. It was agency co-founder Dan Wieden who coined the now - famous slogan "Just Do It '' for a 1988 Nike ad campaign, which was chosen by Advertising Age as one of the top five ad slogans of the 20th century and enshrined in the Smithsonian Institution. Walt Stack was featured in Nike 's first "Just Do It '' advertisement, which debuted on July 1, 1988. Wieden credits the inspiration for the slogan to "Let 's do it '', the last words spoken by Gary Gilmore before he was executed.
Throughout the 1980s, Nike expanded its product line to encompass many sports and regions throughout the world. In 1990, Nike moved into its eight - building World Headquarters campus in Beaverton, Oregon. The first Nike retail store, dubbed Niketown, opened in downtown Portland in November of that year.
Phil Knight announced in mid-2015 that he would to step down as chairman of Nike in 2016. He officially stepped down from all duties with the company on June 30, 2016.
In a company public announcement on March 15, 2018, Parker said Trevor Edwards, a top Nike executive who was seen as a potential successor to the chief executive, was relinquishing his position as Nike 's brand president and would retire in August.
Nike has acquired several apparel and footwear companies over the course of its history, some of which have since been sold. Its first acquisition was the upscale footwear company Cole Haan in 1988, followed by the purchase of Bauer Hockey in 1994. In 2002, Nike bought surf apparel company Hurley International from founder Bob Hurley. In 2003, Nike paid US $309 million to acquire Converse, makers of the Chuck Taylor All - Stars line of sneakers. The company acquired Starter in 2004 and Umbro, known as the manufacturers of the England national football team 's kit, in 2008.
In order to refocus on its core business lines, Nike began divesting of some of its subsidiaries in the 2000s. It sold Starter in 2007 and Bauer Hockey in 2008. The company sold Umbro in 2012 and Cole Haan in 2013. As of 2017, Nike owns two key subsidiaries: Converse Inc. and Hurley International.
Nike will buy back $8 billion of Nike 's class B stock in four years after the current $5 billion buyback program is completed in second quarter of fiscal 2013. Up to September 2012, Nike Inc. has bought back $10 billion of stock.
Nike was made a member of the Dow Jones Industrial Average in 2013, when it replaced Alcoa.
On December 19, 2013, Nike 's quarterly profit rose due to a 13 percent increase in global orders for merchandise since April of that year. Future orders of shoes or clothes for delivery between December and April, rose to $10.4 billion. Nike shares (NKE) rose 0.6 percent to $78.75 in extended trading.
In November 2015, Nike announced it would initiate a $12 billion share buyback, as well as a two - for - one stock split, with shares to begin trading at the decreased price on December 24. The split will be the seventh in company history.
Nike produces a wide range of sports equipment. Their first products were track running shoes. They currently also make shoes, jerseys, shorts, cleats, baselayers, etc. for a wide range of sports, including track and field, baseball, ice hockey, tennis, association football (soccer), lacrosse, basketball, and cricket. Nike Air Max is a line of shoes first released by Nike, Inc. in 1987. Additional product lines were introduced later, such as Air Huarache, which debuted in 1992. The most recent additions to their line are the Nike 6.0, Nike NYX, and Nike SB shoes, designed for skateboarding. Nike has recently introduced cricket shoes called Air Zoom Yorker, designed to be 30 % lighter than their competitors '. In 2008, Nike introduced the Air Jordan XX3, a high - performance basketball shoe designed with the environment in mind.
Nike sells an assortment of products, including shoes and apparel for sports activities like association football, basketball, running, combat sports, tennis, American football, athletics, golf, and cross training for men, women, and children. Nike also sells shoes for outdoor activities such as tennis, golf, skateboarding, association football, baseball, American football, cycling, volleyball, wrestling, cheerleading, aquatic activities, auto racing, and other athletic and recreational uses. Nike recently teamed up with Apple Inc. to produce the Nike+ product that monitors a runner 's performance via a radio device in the shoe that links to the iPod nano. While the product generates useful statistics, it has been criticized by researchers who were able to identify users ' RFID devices from 60 feet (18 m) away using small, concealable intelligence motes in a wireless sensor network.
In 2004, Nike launched the SPARQ Training Program / Division. Some of Nike 's newest shoes contain Flywire and Lunarlite Foam to reduce weight. The Air Zoom Vomero running shoe, introduced in 2006 and currently in its 11th generation, featured a combination of groundbreaking innovations including a full - length air cushioned sole, an external heel counter, a crashpad in the heel for shock absorption, and Fit Frame technology for a stable fit.
The Nike brand, with its distinct V - shaped logo, quickly became regarded as a status symbol in modern urban fashion and hip - hop fashion due to its association with success in sport. Beginning in the 1980s, various items of Nike clothing became staples of mainstream American youth fashion, especially tracksuits, shell suits, baseball caps, Air Jordans, Air Force 1 's, and Air Max running shoes with thick, air cushioned rubber soles and contrasting blue, yellow, green, white, or red trim. Limited edition sneakers and prototypes with a regional early release were known as Quickstrikes, and became highly desirable items for teenage members of the sneakerhead subculture.
By the 1990s and 2000s, American and European teenagers associated with the preppy or popular clique began combining these sneakers, leggings, sweatpants, crop tops, and tracksuits with regular casual chic street clothes such as jeans, skirts, leg warmers, slouch socks, and bomber jackets. Particularly popular were the unisex spandex Nike Tempo compression shorts worn for cycling and running, which had a mesh lining, waterproofing, and, later in the 2000s, a zip pocket for a Walkman or MP3 player.
From the late 2000s into the 2010s, Nike Elite basketball socks began to be worn as everyday clothes by hip - hop fans and young children. Originally plain white or black, these socks had special shock absorbing cushioning in the sole plus a moisture wicking upper weave. Later, Nike Elite socks became available in bright colors inspired by throwback basketball uniforms, often with contrasting bold abstract designs, images of celebrities, and freehand digital print to capitalise upon the emerging nostalgia for 1990s fashion.
In 2015, a new self - lacing shoe was introduced. Called the Nike Mag, which are replicas of the shoes featured in Back to the Future Part II, it had a preliminary limited release, only available by auction with all proceeds going to the Michael J. Fox Foundation. This was done again in 2016.
Nike have introduced a premium line, focused more on streetwear than sports wear called NikeLab.
In March 2017, Nike announced its launch of a plus - size clothing line, which will feature new sizes 1X through 3X on more than 200 products. Another significant development at this time was the Chuck Taylor All - Star Modern, an update of the classic basketball sneaker that incorporated the circular knit upper and cushioned foam sole of Nike 's Air Jordans.
Nike 's world headquarters are surrounded by the city of Beaverton but are within unincorporated Washington County. The city attempted to forcibly annex Nike 's headquarters, which led to a lawsuit by Nike, and lobbying by the company that ultimately ended in Oregon Senate Bill 887 of 2005. Under that bill 's terms, Beaverton is specifically barred from forcibly annexing the land that Nike and Columbia Sportswear occupy in Washington County for 35 years, while Electro Scientific Industries and Tektronix receive the same protection for 30 years. Nike is planning to build a 3.2 million square foot expansion to its World Headquarters in Beaverton. The design will target LEED Platinum certification and will be highlighted by natural daylight, and a gray water treatment center.
Nike has contracted with more than 700 shops around the world and has offices located in 45 countries outside the United States. Most of the factories are located in Asia, including Indonesia, China, Taiwan, India, Thailand, Vietnam, Pakistan, Philippines, and Malaysia. Nike is hesitant to disclose information about the contract companies it works with. However, due to harsh criticism from some organizations like CorpWatch, Nike has disclosed information about its contract factories in its Corporate Governance Report.
Nike has been criticized for contracting with factories (known as Nike sweatshops) in countries such as China, Vietnam, Indonesia and Mexico. Vietnam Labor Watch, an activist group, has documented that factories contracted by Nike have violated minimum wage and overtime laws in Vietnam as late as 1996, although Nike claims that this practice has been stopped. The company has been subject to much critical coverage of the often poor working conditions and exploitation of cheap overseas labor employed in the free trade zones where their goods are typically manufactured. Sources for this criticism include Naomi Klein 's book No Logo and Michael Moore documentaries.
Campaigns have been taken up by many colleges and universities, especially anti-globalisation groups, as well as several anti-sweatshop groups such as the United Students Against Sweatshops.
As of July 2011, Nike stated that two - thirds of its factories producing Converse products still do not meet the company 's standards for worker treatment. A July 2011 Associated Press article stated that employees at the company 's plants in Indonesia reported constant abuse from supervisors.
During the 1990s, Nike faced criticism for the use of child labor in Cambodia and Pakistan in factories it contracted to manufacture soccer balls. Although Nike took action to curb or at least reduce the practice, they continue to contract their production to companies that operate in areas where inadequate regulation and monitoring make it hard to ensure that child labor is not being used.
In 2001, a BBC documentary uncovered occurrences of child labor and poor working conditions in a Cambodian factory used by Nike. The documentary focused on six girls, who all worked seven days a week, often 16 hours a day.
In April 2014, one of the biggest strikes in mainland China took place at the Yue Yuen Industrial Holdings Dongguan shoe factory, producing amongst others for Nike. Yue Yuen did underpay an employee by 250 yuan (40.82 US Dollars) per month. The average salary at Yue Yuen is 3000 yuan per month. The factory employs 70,000 people. This practice was in place for nearly 20 years.
In March 2015, Nike drew criticism after announcing a new sponsorship deal with American sprinter Justin Gatlin who had served two bans for doping. Nike had previously dropped Gatlin after his second failed drug test and resulting long term ban. Critics said that Nike was sending out a bad message by endorsing an athlete who has never been repentant for his actions and still causes widespread discontent within the sport. English sprinter Marlon Devonish described the deal as "a kick in the teeth to the 99 % of guys who are clean ''.
On 5 November 2017, the Paradise Papers, a set of confidential electronic documents relating to offshore investment, revealed that Nike is among the corporations that used offshore companies to avoid taxes.
Appleby documents detail how Nike boosted its after - tax profits by, among other maneuvers, transferring ownership of its Swoosh trademark to a Bermudan subsidiary, Nike International Ltd. This transfer allowed the subsidiary to charge royalties to its European headquarters in Hilversum, Netherlands, effectively converting taxable company profits to an account payable in tax - free Bermuda. Although the subsidiary was effectively run by executives at Nike 's main offices in Beaverton, Oregon -- to the point where a duplicate of the Bermudan company 's seal was needed -- for tax purposes the subsidiary was treated as Bermuda. Its profits were not declared in Europe and came to light only because of a mostly unrelated case in US Tax Court, where papers filed by Nike briefly mention royalties in 2010, 2011 and 2012 totaling $3.86 billion. Under an arrangement with Dutch authorities, the tax break was to expire in 2014, so another reorganization transferred the intellectual property from the Bermudan company to a Dutch commanditaire vennootschap or limited partnership, Nike Innovate CV. Dutch law treats income earned by a CV as if it had been earned by the principals, who owe no tax in the Netherlands if they do not reside there.
According to the New England - based environmental organization Clean Air - Cool Planet, Nike ranked among the top three companies (out of 56) in a survey of climate - friendly companies in 2007. Nike has also been praised for its Nike Grind program (which closes the product lifecycle) by groups like Climate Counts. One campaign that Nike began for Earth Day 2008 was a commercial that featured basketball star Steve Nash wearing Nike 's Trash Talk Shoe, which had been constructed in February 2008 from pieces of leather and synthetic leather waste from factory floors. The Trash Talk Shoe also featured a sole composed of ground - up rubber from a shoe recycling program. Nike claims this is the first performance basketball shoe that has been created from manufacturing waste, but it only produced 5,000 pairs for sale.
Another project Nike has begun is called Nike 's Reuse - A-Shoe program. This program, started in 1993, is Nike 's longest - running program that benefits both the environment and the community by collecting old athletic shoes of any type in order to process and recycle them. The material that is produced is then used to help create sports surfaces such as basketball courts, running tracks, and playgrounds.
A project through the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill found workers were exposed to toxic isocyanates and other chemicals in footwear factories in Thailand. In addition to inhalation, dermal exposure was the biggest problem found. This could result in allergic reactions including asthmatic reactions.
Nike promotes its products by sponsorship agreements with celebrity athletes, professional teams and college athletic teams.
In 1982, Nike aired its first three national television ads, created by newly formed ad agency Wieden + Kennedy (W + K), during the broadcast of the New York Marathon. The Cannes Advertising Festival has named Nike its Advertiser of the Year in 1994 and 2003, making it the first company to receive that honor twice.
Nike also has earned the Emmy Award for best commercial twice since the award was first created in the 1990s. The first was for "The Morning After, '' a satirical look at what a runner might face on the morning of January 1, 2000 if every dire prediction about the Y2K problem came to fruition. The second was for a 2002 spot called "Move, '' which featured a series of famous and everyday athletes in a variety of athletic pursuits.
Nike was criticized for its use of the Beatles song "Revolution '' in a 1987 commercial against the wishes of Apple Records, the Beatles ' recording company. Nike paid US $250,000 to Capitol Records Inc., which held the North American licensing rights to the recordings, for the right to use the Beatles ' rendition for a year.
Apple Records sued Nike Inc., Capitol Records Inc., EMI Records Inc. and Wieden + Kennedy for $15 million. Capitol - EMI countered by saying the lawsuit was "groundless '' because Capitol had licensed the use of "Revolution '' with the "active support and encouragement of Yoko Ono, a shareholder and director of Apple Records. ''
Nike discontinued airing ads featuring "Revolution '' in March 1988. Yoko Ono later gave permission to Nike to use John Lennon 's "Instant Karma '' in another advertisement.
Nike was an early adopter of internet marketing, email management technologies, and using broadcast and narrowcast communication technologies to create multimedia marketing campaigns.
In late June 2005, Nike received criticism from Ian MacKaye, owner of Dischord Records, guitarist / vocalist for Fugazi and The Evens, and front man of the defunct punk band Minor Threat, for appropriating imagery and text from Minor Threat 's 1981 self - titled album 's cover art in a flyer promoting Nike Skateboarding 's 2005 East Coast demo tour.
On June 27, Nike Skateboarding 's website issued an apology to Dischord, Minor Threat, and fans of both and announced that they have tried to remove and dispose of all flyers. They stated that the people who designed it were skateboarders and Minor Threat fans themselves who created the advertisement out of respect and appreciation for the band. The dispute was eventually settled out of court between Nike and Minor Threat.
As part of the 6.0 campaign, Nike introduced a new line of T - shirts that include phrases such as "Dope '', "Get High '' and "Ride Pipe '' -- sports lingo that is also a double entendre for drug use. Boston Mayor Thomas Menino expressed his objection to the shirts after seeing them in a window display at the city 's Niketown and asked the store to remove the display. "What we do n't need is a major corporation like Nike, which tries to appeal to the younger generation, out there giving credence to the drug issue, '' Menino told The Boston Herald. A company official stated the shirts were meant to pay homage to extreme sports, and that Nike does not condone the illegal use of drugs. Nike was forced to replace the shirt line.
In June 2015, Nike signed an 8 - year deal with the NBA to become the official apparel supplier for the league, beginning with the 2017 -- 18 season. The brand took over for Adidas, who provided the uniforms and apparel for the league since 2006. Unlike previous deals, Nike 's logo appeared on NBA game jerseys -- a first for the league. The only exception is the Charlotte Hornets, owned by longtime Nike endorser Michael Jordan, which instead uses the Jumpman logo associated with Jordan - related merchandise.
Nike pays top athletes in many sports to use their products and promote and advertise their technology and design. Nike 's first professional athlete endorser was Romanian tennis player Ilie Năstase. The first track endorser was distance runner Steve Prefontaine. Prefontaine was the prized pupil of the company 's co-founder, Bill Bowerman, while he coached at the University of Oregon. Today, the Steve Prefontaine Building is named in his honor at Nike 's corporate headquarters.
Nike has also sponsored many other successful track and field athletes over the years, such as Carl Lewis, Jackie Joyner - Kersee and Sebastian Coe. The signing of basketball player Michael Jordan in 1984, with his subsequent promotion of Nike over the course of his career, with Spike Lee as Mars Blackmon, proved to be one of the biggest boosts to Nike 's publicity and sales.
Nike is a major sponsor of the athletic programs at Penn State University and named its first child care facility after Joe Paterno when it opened in 1990 at the company 's headquarters. Nike originally announced it would not remove Paterno 's name from the building in the wake of the Penn State sex abuse scandal. After the Freeh Report was released on July 12, 2012, Nike CEO Mark Parker announced the name Joe Paterno would be removed immediately from the child development center. A new name has yet to be announced.
Nike also sponsored association football players such as Ronaldinho, Ronaldo, Neymar, Cristiano Ronaldo, Kylian Mbappé, Zlatan Ibrahimović, Thierry Henry, Wayne Rooney, Didier Drogba, Francesco Totti, Harry Kane, Andrés Iniesta and Eden Hazard among others.
In 2012, Nike carried a commercial partnership with the Asian Football Confederation. In December 2017, Nike advertised Philippe Coutinho 's image on the back of a Barcelona jersey despite still being a Liverpool player. In 2017, Kylian Mbappé had his own boots commissioned at age 18, the Kylian Mbappé Nike Hypervenom 3.
Nike has sponsored Tiger Woods for much of his career. In January 2013, Nike signed Rory McIlroy, the then No 1 golfer in the world to a 10 - year sponsorship deal worth $250 million. The deal includes using Nike 's range of golf clubs, a move Nick Faldo previously described as "dangerous '' for McIlroy 's game.
Nike has been the official kit sponsor for the Indian cricket team since 2005. On February 21, 2013, Nike announced it suspended its contract with South African athlete Oscar Pistorius, due to his being charged with premeditated murder.
In August 2014, Nike announced that they will not renew their kit supply deal with Manchester United after the 2014 -- 15 season, citing rising costs. Since the start of the 2015 -- 16 season, Adidas has manufactured Manchester United 's kit as part of a world - record 10 - year deal worth a minimum of £ 750 million.
Nike is currently sponsoring a group of long - distance runners in an attempt to run a sub-two hour full 26.2 mile marathon. The current world record is 2: 02: 57. Nike is putting together a team of "designers, scientists, coaches, and statisticians '' with the goal of having one or more runners break the record by 3 percent in the spring of 2017.
The company maintains strong ties, both directly and indirectly (through partnership with Phil Knight), with the University of Oregon. Nike designs the University of Oregon football program 's team attire. New unique combinations are issued before every game day. Tinker Hatfield, who also redesigned the university 's logo, leads this effort.
More recently, the corporation donated $13.5 million towards the renovation and expansion of Hayward Field.
Phil Knight has invested substantial personal funds towards developing and maintaining the university 's athletic apparatus. His university projects often involve input from Nike designers and executives, such as Tinker Hatfield.
In 2012, Nike is listed as a partner of the (PRODUCT) campaign together with other brands such as Girl, American Express and Converse. The campaign 's mission is to prevent the transmission of the HIV virus from mother to child by 2015 (the campaign 's byline is "Fighting For An AIDS Free Generation ''). The company 's goal is to raise and send funds, for education and medical assistance to those who live in areas heavily effected by AIDS.
The Nike Community Ambassador Program, allows Nike employees from around the world to go out and give to their community. Over 3,900 employees from various Nike stores have participated in teaching children to be active and healthy.
Coordinates: 45 ° 30 ′ 33 '' N 122 ° 49 ′ 48 '' W / 45.5093 ° N 122.8299 ° W / 45.5093; - 122.8299
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what was the number 1 song in august 2005 | List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one Singles of 2005 - wikipedia
The Billboard Hot 100 is a chart that ranks the best - performing singles of the United States. Published by Billboard magazine, the data are compiled by Nielsen SoundScan based collectively on each single 's weekly physical and digital sales, and airplay. In 2005, there were eight singles that topped the chart in fifty - three issues of the magazine, the lowest of any year.
During the year, five acts achieved their first US number - one single, either as a lead artist or featured guest: Chris Brown, Mario, Olivia, Gwen Stefani, and Carrie Underwood. Stefani earned her first number - one single in the United States this year, although she had been with band the No Doubt since 1986. Hip hop artist Kanye West gained his first number - one single, "Gold Digger '', as lead artist; West previously had a number - one single with "Slow Jamz '', a 2004 song by rapper Twista. Two acts, Underwood and Brown, scored a number - one debut single this year.
R&B singer Mariah Carey 's "We Belong Together '' is the longest - running single of 2005, topping the Billboard Hot 100 for 14 non-consecutive weeks. To date, it is tied for the longest - running number - one single of the decade, and second in the entire Hot 100 era behind Boyz II Men 's and Carey 's 1995 single "One Sweet Day '', which spent sixteen weeks at number one. West 's "Gold Digger '' is the second longest - running, having peaked the chart for 10 consecutive weeks. Other singles with extended chart runs include R&B singer Mario 's "Let Me Love You '', his best - performing song to date, and rapper 50 Cent 's "Candy Shop '', each spent nine straight weeks at number one.
Carey is the only artist to have earned two number - one singles in 2005 after "Do n't Forget About Us '' topped the chart in the final calendar issue of Billboard Hot 100. "Do n't Forget About Us '' is Carey 's 17th number - one single, placing her second in the list of acts with most number ones in the United States, tying with Elvis Presley. "We Belong Together '' is the best - performing single of the chart year, topping the Top Hot 100 Hits of 2005; this gave Carey her first number - one single in the year - end chart.
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where was the first stock exchange in the world | Euronext Amsterdam - wikipedia
Euronext Amsterdam is a stock exchange based in Amsterdam. Formerly known as the Amsterdam Stock Exchange, it merged on 22 September 2000 with the Brussels Stock Exchange and the Paris Stock Exchange to form Euronext.
The Amsterdam Stock Exchange was established in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or "VOC '') for dealings in its printed stocks and bonds. It was subsequently renamed the Amsterdam Bourse and was the first to formally begin trading in securities.
Although it is usually considered to be the first stock market, Fernand Braudel argues that this is not precisely true:
"It is not quite accurate to call (Amsterdam) the first stock market, as people often do. State loan stocks had been negotiable at a very early date in Venice, in Florence before 1328, and in Genoa, where there was an active market in the luoghi and paghe of Casa di San Giorgio, not to mention the Kuxen shares in the German mines which were quoted as early as the fifteenth century at the Leipzig fairs, the Spanish juros, the French rentes sur l'Hotel de Ville (municipal stocks) (1522) or the stock market in the Hanseatic towns from the fifteenth century. The statutes of Verona in 1318 confirm the existence of the settlement or forward market... In 1428, the jurist Bartolomeo de Bosco protested against the sale of forward loca in Genoa. All evidence points to the Mediterranean as the cradle of the stock market. But what was new in Amsterdam was the volume, the fluidity of the market and publicity it received, and the speculative freedom of transactions. ''
That said, it remains the first incarnation of what we could today recognize as a stock market.
The European Option Exchange (EOE) was founded in 1978 in Amsterdam as a futures and options exchange. In 1983 it started a stock market index, called the EOE index, consisting of the 25 largest companies that trade on the stock exchange. It should be noted that forward contracts, options, and other sophisticated instruments were traded on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange well before this.
In 1997 the Amsterdam Stock Exchange and the EOE merged, and its blue chip index was renamed AEX, for "Amsterdam EXchange ''. It is now managed by Euronext Amsterdam. On 3 October 2011, Princess Máxima opened the new trading floor of the Amsterdam Stock Exchange.
The former Stock Exchange building was the Beurs van Berlage.
The Amsterdam stock exchange is considered the oldest "modern '' securities market in the world. It was shortly after the establishment of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1602 when equities began trading on a regular basis as a secondary market to trade its shares. Prior to that, the market existed primarily for the exchange of commodities. In that year, the States General of the Netherlands granted the VOC a 21 - year charter over all Dutch trade in Asia and quasi-governmental powers. The monopolistic terms of the charter effectively granted the VOC complete authority over trade defenses, war armaments, and political endeavors in Asia. The first multi-national corporation with significant resource interests was thereby established. In addition, the high level of risk associated with trade in Asia gave the VOC its private ownership structure. Following in the footsteps of the English East India Company, stock in the corporation was sold to a large pool of interested investors, who in turn received a guarantee of some future share of profits. In the Amsterdam East India House alone, 1,143 investors subscribed for over ƒ3, 679,915 or € 100 million in today 's dollars.
The subscription terms of each stock purchase offered shareholders the option to transfer their shares to a third party. Quickly a secondary market arose in the East India House for resale of this stock through the official bookkeeper. After an agreement had been reached between the two parties, the shares were then transferred from seller to buyer in the "capital book. '' The official account, held by the East India House, encouraged investors to trade and gave rise to market confidence that the shares were n't just being transferred on paper. Thus, speculative trading immediately ensued and the Amsterdam securities market was born.
A big acceleration in the turnover rate came in 1623, after the 21 - year liquidation period for the VOC ended. The terms of the initial charter called for a full liquidation after 21 years to distribute profits to shareholders. However, at this time neither the VOC nor its shareholders saw a slowing down of Asian trade, so the States General of the Netherlands granted the corporation a second charter in the West Indies.
This new charter gave the VOC additional years to stay in business but, in contrast to the first charter, outlined no plans for immediate liquidation, meaning that the money invested remained invested, and dividends were paid to investors to incentivize shareholding. Investors took to the secondary market of the newly constructed Amsterdam Stock Exchange to sell their shares to third parties. These "fixed '' capital stock transactions amassed huge turnover rates, and made the stock exchange vastly more important. Thus the modern securities market arose out of this system of stock exchange.
The voyage to the precious resources in the West Indies was risky. Threats of pirates, disease, misfortune, shipwreck, and various macroeconomic factors heightened the risk factor and thus made the trip wildly expensive. So, the stock issuance made possible the spreading of risk and dividends across a vast pool of investors. Should something go wrong on the voyage, risk was mitigated and dispersed throughout the pool and investors all suffered just a fraction of the total expense of the voyage.
The system of privatizing national expeditions was not new to Europe, but the fixed stock structure of the East India Company made it one of a kind. In the decade preceding the formation of the VOC, adventurous Dutch merchants had used a similar method of "private partnership '' to finance expensive voyages to the East Indies for their personal gain. The ambitious merchants pooled money together to create shipping partnerships for exploration of the East Indies. They assumed a joint - share of the necessary preparations (i.e. shipbuilding, stocking, navigation) in return for a joint - share of the profits. These Voorcompagnieën took on extreme risk to reap some of the rewarding spice trade in the East Indies, but introduced a common form of the joint - stock venture into Dutch shipping.
Although some of these voyages predictably failed, the ones that were successful brought promise of wealth and an emerging new trade. Shortly after these expeditions began, in 1602, the many independent Voorcompagnieën merged to form the massive Dutch East India Trading Company. Shares were allocated appropriately by the Amsterdam Stock Exchange and the joint - stock merchants became the directors of the new VOC. Furthermore, this new mega-corporation was immediately recognized by the Dutch provinces to be equally important in governmental procedures. The VOC was granted significant war - time powers, the right to build forts, the right to maintain a standing army, and permission to conduct negotiations with Asian countries. The charter created a Dutch colonial province in Indonesia, with a monopoly on Euro - Asian trade.
The Amsterdam Bourse, an open - air venue, was created as a commodity exchange in 1530 and rebuilt in 1608. Rather than being a bazaar where goods were traded intermittently, exchanges had the advantage of being a regularly meeting market, which enabled traders to become more specialized and engage in more complicated transactions. As early as the middle of the sixteenth century, people in Amsterdam speculated in grain and, somewhat later, in herring, spices, whale - oil, and even tulips. The Amsterdam Bourse in particular was the place where this kind of business was carried on. This institution as an open - air market in Warmoestreet, later moved for a while to the ' New Bridge, ' which crosses the Damrak, then flourished in the ' church square ' near the Oude Kerk until the Amsterdam merchants built their own exchange building in 1611. Transactions had to be logged into the official accounts book in the East India house, indeed trading was highly sophisticated. Early trading in Amsterdam in the early 16th century (1560s - 1611) largely occurred by the Nieuwe Brug Bridge, near Amsterdam Harbor. Its proximity to the harbor and incoming mail made it a sensible location for traders to be the first to get the latest commercial news.
Shortly thereafter, the city of Amsterdam ordered the construction of an exchange in Dam Square. It opened in 1611 for business, and various sections of the building were marked for commodity trading and VOC securities. A bye - law on trade in the city dictated that trade could only take place in the exchange on weekdays from 11 a.m. to noon. While only a short amount of time for trading inside the building, the window created a flurry of investors that in turn made it easier for buyers to find sellers and vice versa. Thus, the building of the stock exchange led to a vast expansion of liquidity in the marketplace. In addition, trading was continued in other buildings, outside of the trading hours of the exchange, such as the trading clubs, and was not prohibited in hours outside of those outlined in the bye - law.
The location of exchange relative to the East India house was also strategic. Its proximity gave investors the luxury of walking a short distance to both register the transaction in the official books of the VOC, and complete the money transfer in the nearby Exchange Bank, also in Dam square.
The rapid development of the Amsterdam Stock exchange in the mid 17th century lead to the formation of trading clubs around the city. Traders met frequently, often in a local coffee shop or inns to discuss financial transactions. Thus, "Sub-markets '' emerged, in which traders had access to peer knowledge and a community of reputable traders.
These were particularly important during trading in the late 17th century, where short - term speculative trading dominated. The trading clubs allowed investors to attain valuable information from reputable traders about the future of the securities trade. Experienced traders on the inside circle of these trading clubs had a slight advantage over everyone else, and the prevalence of these clubs played a major role in the continued growth of the stock exchange itself.
Additionally, similarities can be drawn between modern day brokers and the experienced traders of the trading clubs. The network of traders allowed for organized movement of knowledge and quick execution of transactions. Thus, the secondary market for VOC shares became extremely efficient, and trading clubs played no small part. Brokers took a small fee in exchange for a guarantee that the paperwork would be appropriately filed and a "buyer '' or "seller '' would be found. Throughout the 17th century, investors increasingly sought experienced brokers to seek information about a potential counterparty.
Coordinates: 52 ° 22 ′ 08 '' N 4 ° 54 ′ 04 '' E / 52.369 ° N 4.901 ° E / 52.369; 4.901
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describe the importance of economics for technicians /engineers | Engineering economics - wikipedia
Engineering economics, previously known as engineering economy, is a subset of economics concerned with the use and "... application of economic principles '' in the analysis of engineering decisions. As a discipline, it is focused on the branch of economics known as microeconomics in that it studies the behavior of individuals and firms in making decisions regarding the allocation of limited resources. Thus, it focuses on the decision making process, its context and environment. It is pragmatic by nature, integrating economic theory with engineering practice. But, it is also a simplified application of micro-economic theory in that it avoids a number of micro-economic concepts such as price determination, competition and demand / supply. As a discipline though, it is closely related to others such as statistics, mathematics and cost accounting. It draws upon the logical framework of economics but adds to that the analytical power of mathematics and statistics. Engineers seek solutions to problems, and the economic viability of each potential solution is normally considered along with the technical aspects. Fundamentally, engineering economics involves formulating, estimating, and evaluating the economic outcomes when alternatives to accomplish a defined purpose are available.
In some U.S. undergraduate civil engineering curricula, engineering economics is a required course. It is a topic on the Fundamentals of Engineering examination, and questions might also be asked on the Principles and Practice of Engineering examination; both are part of the Professional Engineering registration process.
Considering the time value of money is central to most engineering economic analyses. Cash flows are discounted using an interest rate, except in the most basic economic studies.
For each problem, there are usually many possible alternatives. One option that must be considered in each analysis, and is often the choice, is the do nothing alternative. The opportunity cost of making one choice over another must also be considered. There are also non-economic factors to be considered, like color, style, public image, etc.; such factors are termed attributes.
Costs as well as revenues are considered, for each alternative, for an analysis period that is either a fixed number of years or the estimated life of the project. The salvage value is often forgotten, but is important, and is either the net cost or revenue for decommissioning the project.
Some other topics that may be addressed in engineering economics are inflation, uncertainty, replacements, depreciation, resource depletion, taxes, tax credits, accounting, cost estimations, or capital financing. All these topics are primary skills and knowledge areas in the field of cost engineering.
Since engineering is an important part of the manufacturing sector of the economy, engineering industrial economics is an important part of industrial or business economics. Major topics in engineering industrial economics are:
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whens season 2 of ball in the family | List of Impractical Jokers episodes - wikipedia
Impractical Jokers is an American hidden camera - practical joke reality television series that premiered on TruTV on December 15, 2011. It follows the 4 members including: Joe Gatto, James Murray, Brian Quinn, and Sal Vulcano of the comedy troupe The Tenderloins as they coerce one another into doing public pranks while being filmed by hidden cameras. The pranks vary in different levels of easy situations to uncomfortable situations with strangers. After the challenges, the losing Joker (s) will get punished. On May 12, 2017, TruTV renewed Impractical Jokers for a seventh season, expected to air in 2018.
The Jokers pretend to be eccentric White Castle cashiers, gather signatures in Union Square for causes the other Jokers have written for them, answer tourist questions in Times Square, and act as Costco store employees.
The group is challenged to apply the most lotion to beach - goers, grab as many groceries from other customers at a grocery store as they can, survey amusement park guests at Six Flags Great Adventure, and pay the least at a frozen yogurt shop.
The guys try off - color techniques of impressing women while speed - dating and act as fortune tellers at a boardwalk. Later, they talk to patrons through a bullhorn they ca n't control and ask surprising questions of people in a pharmacy.
The guys play a game of "Do n't I Know You? '', invades beach - goers ' towels, plays a humorous word game with customers at a grocery store, and acts as salesmen at a car dealership.
The Jokers act as reporters preparing an interview, caricature artists in a mall, and oddball apartment dwellers looking for roommates, and cut in line for Broadway show tickets.
The guys team up to teach karate classes, give interviews from Times Square, persuade shoppers at the pharmacy to not buy products, and give uncomfortable massages on the boardwalk.
The guys analyze handwriting at the mall, steal food from customers ' plates at a buffet, teach foreign languages that they do not speak to prospective students, and dance with strangers at the park.
The guys pose as bakery salesmen, focus group analysts, and shoe salesmen, and teach classes at a local gym.
The guys return to White Castle, where Q 's dad makes a cameo. Then they pose as bouncers at a nightclub, read horoscopes at a mall, and give interviews at a train station.
The Jokers pose as furniture salesmen, pretend to be very unwelcoming members of a boardwalk welcoming committee, pitch some wacky memoirs to potential readers, and sell jewelry to couples.
The lads play another round of "Do n't I Know You? '' with complete strangers, pose as driving school instructors and later shampoo boys at a women 's hair salon, and share embarrassing text messages in a waiting room.
The pranksters take jobs at a garden center, pose as deli employees, ask patrons questions about a drink, and try their luck as CPR instructors.
The guys pose as puppy dog salesmen, try to start a new baseball chant that has nothing to do with baseball, get donations for a Broadway play that does n't exist, hold the remote to a toy car they can not control, and teach golf.
The guys raise donations for bizarre charities, eat food off other people 's plates at a Chinese restaurant, provide unsolicited advice to shoppers at the Jersey Gardens Mall, and play another round of "Do n't I Know You? ''.
The Jokers eat food out of other people 's shopping carts, try to kiss strangers, play word games with people in a bookstore, pose as professional photographers, and invade people 's conversations for 30 seconds.
The guys utilize a variety of strange objects to mess with customers at a party supply store, nose strangers at a restaurant, try to get signatures for college clubs that do n't exist, and behave rudely at elevator etiquette.
The Jokers work in a dentist 's office, annoy patrons at a movie theater, participate in a crazy photography shoot at a public park for their blogs, and do a Joker vs. Joker challenge telling strangers their humiliating thoughts.
The guys try get strangers to hold their hands in a park, annoy the patrons at a comic book store, participate in a competitive race down an aisle at a grocery store, and try to get strangers to volunteer their time for an odd event.
The guys team up to offer inaccurate sensitivity training to strangers, observe surprise celebrities while on the street, and work as rude receptionists in an office.
The Jokers reveal confidential information in a park, work in a fast food drive - through, and attempt to persuade innocent bystanders to participate in a dance with them.
The guys reveal strange devices to focus groups, attempt to use people as pillows in a park, and try to persuade grocery shoppers not to purchase their wanted items.
The Jokers utilize mall shoppers to mediate their mindless conflicts, complete specialized tasks at an ice cream joint, and start protests for ridiculous causes at a park.
The guys shake hands with department store shoppers, spin "The Wheel of Doom '' at the park, and work at a hibachi restaurant.
The Jokers attempt to successfully find a house - sitter despite the other guys ' interventions, convince strangers of the existence of obscure places, get food shoppers to agree about a strange weird word, and play "Pick Your Poison '' in the park.
The guys try to work as optometrists, team up to provide incorrect financial advice, and attempt to secure numerous votes by campaigning on ridiculous political platforms.
The guys have debates at the mall, try to teach a dance class, attempt to sell fake tickets to Broadway shows, and get their fitness on at a local gym as personal trainers.
The guys host a taste test with uncomfortable survey questions afterward, negotiate for worthless items at a flea market, have conversations with strangers at the park for at least 30 seconds, and work as attendants at a gas station.
The jokers test themselves with the terrifying "Wheel of Doom '', team up to advertise terrible ideas to a bunch of agency professionals, work as custodians at the mall food court, and work at the dentist 's office again.
The guys engage in a round of Joker vs. Joker challenges which include giving palm readings, free medical checkups, manicures and pedicures, act as receptionists, pose as pizza restaurant employees, and patrol the beach.
The guys race to see who can slip the most pencils into the pockets of unsuspecting grocery shoppers, guide each other through the park wearing darkened sunglasses, and team up posing as vacation planners with unusual presentations.
The Jokers compete to enhance inventions made by the other guys, try to get hugs as apologies for things they have "done '', and ask strangers for help finding their missing wives at the mall.
The guys teach art classes and test fate with the Dartboard of Destiny at a bar.
The guys have a race down the aisles while making eye contact with customers at the grocery store, pretend to be podiatrists, and ask for help burying mystery items in the park.
The guys perform embarrassing tasks to the word "Now! '' in the park, team up for fire safety presentations, and have cafe patrons review and rate their dating profiles.
The guys go head - to - head trying to avoid laughing during slide show presentations, search for celebrity look - alikes again in the park, and vote for each other to do horrible challenges using paddles with their names on them.
The Jokers team up to hit the fast lanes as humiliating bowlers in teams, dump scoops of mashed potatoes onto the plates of restaurant patrons, and go cloud watching with strangers in the park.
The Jokers complete embarrassing tasks on the mall escalators, whisper "sweet nothings '' to strangers at the supermarket, and ask offbeat survey questions at the zoo.
The Jokers team up to take turns dipping fries into other peoples food at the food court, work at a beachside burger joint, and search for "Beth '' in the park.
The guys attach balloons to unsuspecting grocery store shoppers, work at the music store, and go head - to - head fishing for compliments about their unique outfit choices.
The guys blindly follow each other 's humiliating directions at a water park, compete head - to - head to sell their ridiculous book ideas, and try to convince unknowing strangers to save their seats in Times Square.
The Jokers work as grocery store cashiers and go head - to - head settling debates in the mall.
The jokers do and say what they are told at a department store, team up to lead a business luncheon, and try to sell running shoes.
The Jokers work as bellhops, serve up trouble as hot dog vendors, and go head - to - head presenting odd inventions to a focus group.
The guys teach music classes and participate in a focus group. Murr and Q ask the questions, while Joe and Sal go undercover as group members and provide them with embarrassing answers that Murr and Q wrote, to see if they can get through the whole survey without refusing to say an answer.
The guys must do dares in the park while attempting to guess the other Jokers ' voices on a voice changer, try to get applause while quitting their jobs, and team up for dinosaur presentations.
The Jokers cause mischief at the grocery store, try to give away items from the "mystery bag '', and search for "The Chosen One '' at a food court.
The guys work at the Carnegie Deli, and Joey Fatone makes a guest appearance, standing in for Q. Then, the guys settle ridiculous debates at another deli.
The Jokers attend a singles ' gathering and ask strangers in the park if they can borrow their phones.
While visiting the Lone Star State, the Jokers team up to teach classes at a dude ranch, sell cowboy boots, and wear blacked - out sunglasses.
The guys work at a liquor store, obey commands written for them on deli tickets, and try to get signatures for a made - up holiday.
The guys do what they are told at a ski lodge, and play the uninvited dinner guest at an Italian restaurant.
The guys conduct interviews while the others try to make them laugh from behind a window, and strike up a conversation with people using only a single word.
The guys team up to work at a sandwich shop, team up to have each other guess their specific secret tasks at a food court, and repeat a cycle of tasks at the park in a Joker vs. Joker challenge.
The guys must obey three specialized commands at a video game store, coax rock climbers into repeating a specific word, and do a Joker vs. Joker challenge, selling fake tickets.
The guys team up for presentations that have nothing to do with the topic, try to touch people at a mall with different body parts, and quit their jobs again.
The guys share secrets with grocery store shoppers, team up to help customers at an art store, and try to get pictures for a fake blog.
The Jokers team up to work at a beauty store, coerce strangers into translating text messages written in Spanish, and do another round of "Do n't I Know You? '' at the mall.
In the second episode shown to a live audience, the Jokers review clips of four Joker vs. Joker challenges. The challenges include participating in a focus group, competing to have their baseball team mascots approved, settling a dancing debate in the mall, and presenting their ridiculous book ideas.
The guys work as attendants in a bridal dress shop and present fragrance campaigns to focus groups.
The guys must do what they are told while getting massages, reveal some uncomfortable thoughts to strangers in the park, and obey tasks given to them on a slot machine.
The guys talk business with strangers at a networking event, team up to teach a photography class, and complete tasks in a certain amount of time.
The guys team up to present lousy telemarketing presentations, make odd wishes at a mall fountain, and try to analyze people 's dreams on the boardwalk.
The Jokers serve up some tips teaching indoor tennis and return to the park for another game of "Now! ''
The Jokers act as security guards at a drug store, and go head - to - head in a rematch clipping balloons onto grocery store shoppers.
The Jokers must do what they are told at a public pool, and try to convince strangers to give the thumbs - up to their absurd emails.
The guys work stadium security, team up to conduct a crime investigation class, and return to the park to test their memories again.
The guys work at the famous Katz 's Delicatessen and take turns running a popsicle cart in Union Square.
The guys pose as blackjack dealers at a Connecticut casino, team up to play another hint and guess game at the park, and go head - to - head acting as shoe shiners.
The guys must explain their off - color resumes while applying for a job at a mobile phone shop, and complete a series of bizarre gestures at the ferry.
The guys head to Miami for the season 4 premiere. They ride around in scooters that are controlled by the other Jokers, complete embarrassing tasks on the beach, and team up posing as nightclub bouncers.
The guys try to teach fencing, but Q unknowingly encounters an Olympic athlete at his own defense. Then, they do and say what they are told as hairstylists at a barber shop.
The guys team up to host a team building seminar, and head down to the shore to act as horrible caricature artists.
The guys go head to head playing hide - and - sneak at the grocery store, and draw straws at a BBQ joint causing trouble.
The guys serve up awkwardness at a burger joint, have no one to blame but themselves at a department store, and make up bizarre words with odd definitions at the park.
The jokers try to get convenience store shoppers to side with them after being soaked by an angry customer, and team up to showcase their event planning business at a wedding expo.
The guys act not so silent at a library, and hunt for their imaginary wives again at the mall.
The guys hit the ice rink to play a slippery balloon game and try to get support for ridiculous causes at the park.
The guys pucker up at the food court trying to find a selected stranger to kiss, and show focus group attendees their latest life stories, published as movies.
The jokers annoy art - loving patrons at a gallery opening, and pass bizarre judgements on shoppers at the grocery store.
The guys team up to work at a rink rental counter, tell strangers to mind their manners at the mall, and convince strangers to leave a cafe.
The guys ask and answer questions in a focus group again and have a toilet paper basketball shootout at the grocery store.
The guys set sail for a special cruise ship mid-season finale episode. They make the pool deck their own playground, and team up to give out misinformation as entertainment directors.
The guys work to do what they 're told while selling auto parts, and team up to try to reel in unsuspecting shoppers ' luggage using a fish hook at the mall.
The guys use their bad service skills as sporting goods salesmen, and compete head - to - head in a game called "Do It Better '' on the streets.
The guys lend an unhelpful hand as high - tech store employees, and search for bizarre perps on the loose in the mall.
The guys compete in another game of "Put - Pocket '' at the grocery store, and at the park the guys take over each other 's cell phones.
The guys get punchy while giving boxing lessons, and head to the mall where they share the gift of music with strangers.
The guys teach a crash course in sorry behavior, settle bizarre debates at a discount store, and spread good news at the mall.
The guys team up for security presentations, hold hands with others at the park, and stump each other with ridiculous facts at a florist.
This live one - hour special is hosted by Howie Mandel in New York City to commemorate the show 's 100th episode. The pre-taped challenges shown: The guys conduct interviews while the others try to make them laugh from behind a window, fake injuries at a grocery store, and cross off their "bucket list '' items.
The guys visit New Orleans and team up to steal sips from people 's drinks at a bar, work with the wheel of voo - doom, and crash a horse and buggy ride.
The guys ask people at the park if they agree or disagree with their bizarre points of view, team up to give lessons on real estate, and complete three assigned tasks at a greeting card store.
The guys do some babysitting and ask strangers to watch their kid while running an errand. They also conduct taste tests with shoppers while asking unrelated survey questions written by the other Jokers.
The guys work at a pizza parlor, and then ask strangers to translate text messages written in Spanish.
The jokers act as tailors, and ask strangers if they can borrow their phones on the streets.
The guys work as receptionists in a waiting room, and try to mingle with the stiff crowd at the world famous Madame Tussauds wax museum in New York.
The guys team up to work at Unique Copy Center, do bizarre interviews with moviegoers, and stand up for ridiculous protests on the streets.
The guys showcase their inventions to a focus group, and get off on the wrong foot at a shoe store.
The guys play copycat in the park while babysitting kids who are being told what to say and do, then head to the supermarket to play an epic game of catch and release.
The guys ask strangers to help them bury bizarre items in the park, go head - to - head to see who can cling to a car the longest, and play another game of "repeat after me ''.
The guys act as NYC cab drivers and try to solicit undeserved congratulations from park goers.
The guys team up acting as crummy cashiers at a grocery store, head to the mall to play a touching game with laser pointers, and confess to strangers at the park.
The guys act as inhospitable restaurant hosts and beg strangers to babysit their grandfathers.
The guys encourage strangers to fill out their questionnaires with a broken hand in a waiting room, and then head to the market where they solicit strangers for money they do n't deserve.
The guys make bizarre passes at supermarket shoppers and act as reporters asking ridiculous questions written by the other guys.
The guys go face to face hitting the bulls - eye at a clothing store, and go head to head in a focus group sabotaging each other with strange inventions.
The guys go head to head undermining each other in a focus group, spread much confusion while teaming up at a bagel shop, and pass ridiculous notes to strangers at the park.
The guys take name calling to new heights as receptionists and try to get donations for bogus charities at a pizza shop.
The guys show who 's boss while working the counter at a fast - food restaurant, and then whisper sweet nothings to strangers.
The guys team up to bark up the wrong tree at a pet store, team up to play a game of catch with groceries in the supermarket, and go head - to - head trying to get strangers ' signatures for ridiculous causes.
The guys are on the prowl for partners in crime at a supermarket, and then throw caution to the wind as helpless romantics in the park.
The guys head to the mall completing challenges while spinning the "Wheel of Faces '', play another round of "Did I Deserve That? '', and save strangers from being shot with a water gun while saying something very awful to the stranger.
The guys share sad stories in the park, hoping to get some sympathy back, then share new video game ideas in a focus group, then head to the floral shop to stump each other.
The guys ask strangers to hold a random object for them chosen by the other guys in a supermarket, then team - up and teach business seminars, controlled by the others.
The guys do and say whatever they are told, while barefoot at a department store, and start conversations with strangers using a single word.
The guys pose as waiters in a Hooters restaurant, try to get people in a mall to remember lyrics to a song, and go head - to - head invading people 's personal space in the park.
The guys are at a sunglasses store doing and saying whatever the guys tell them to do. Then they go to the store, posing as workers trying to get messages across through shoppers, and then get people on their side in a ridiculous protest.
The guys do and say whatever they are told while at a buffet restaurant, team - up for construction presentations, and play another game of "repeat after me ''.
The jokers team up to work at a pawn shop, try to give free hugs after incredibly bizarre apologies, and then complete designated tasks while riding the Roosevelt Island Tramway.
The guys interact with shoppers while wearing jingle vests, and play another game of "Do n't I Know You? ''
In this supersized 2 - hour episode, a Nitro Circus / X-Games inspired obstacle course was presented and aside from clips of regular challenges filmed prior to this live special, viewers were shown clips of the Jokers preparing to run the course; the Joker who then ran the course the fastest won $100,000 for a charity of their choice. As Q was injured during the guys ' training sessions with Travis Pastrana, he was not cleared by doctors to compete in the actual obstacle course and chose Joey Fatone to perform in his place again. Challenges included getting strangers to watch their apartment, a trip back to the Castle of White, and a spin on the Wheel of "Now! ''.
The guys act as receptionists in a waiting room and ask strangers for advice about their personal dilemmas.
The guys play a game of "try not to laugh '' using the infamous two - way mirror and compete with each other in a supermarket to see who can get a customer to try more samples.
The guys get stuck in a grocery post-it showdown, ask strangers for questionable quotes at the park, and give "sound '' financial tips to hopefuls as advisors.
The guys pose as trainees at an organic food shop and compete at a mall to untangle their phone cords before having their pants pulled down by a special actor.
The jokers work at an ice cream parlor, and get strangers to help them watch Joe 's dogs at the park.
The guys compete in a "try not to laugh '' challenge while calling out ridiculous names the other guys have written for them, and then compete to see whose online dating profile is better.
The guys compete in a waiting room trying to not to laugh in the first ever four - way challenge, ask park - goers if they agree or disagree on an odd topic, and try to lead a kid 's art class as the teachers.
The guys pose odd TV shows as execs to the public and team up to work the counter at a BBQ joint.
The guys try to get shoppers to repeat an odd catchphrase given by the other guys and do what they are told as psychoanalysts.
The guys team up to work in pairs giving presentations about living life to its fullest while one of them hypes the other up as a member of the audience and pose as janitors giving responses to questions and statements over walkie - talkies.
The guys act as not - so - handy - men assembling furniture, team up to drop underwear into shopper 's bags at the mall, and mistake strangers for someone they know at the supermarket.
The guys work as salesmen for Lids and team up to serve some confused customers at Joey Fatone 's hot dog joint.
In an hour - long special episode sponsored by Universal Orlando Resort, the guys do crazy challenges around the park. Their first challenge has them playing line employees for Transformers: The Ride. Except Sal, who brought in Harry Potter actor Matthew Lewis to fill in for him, the jokers awkwardly rode Jurassic Park: The Ride in the second challenge. Other challenges include misguiding park goers around the park and trying to find their missing relatives.
The guys attempt to get tips as fortune tellers, get strangers to pass along messages, ask strangers if their "proposal '' is ready, written by the other guys, team up to give presentations on Hawaiian culture, and invade stranger 's towel space at the beach.
The guys do and say what they are told while posing as meditation instructors, and attempt to get secrets from strangers.
The guys pose as photographers, and get strangers to fill out questionnaires with messed up hands.
The guys get strangers ' help to reply to messages, play each other 's "wingman '' at a mingling event, and attempt to get strangers ' encouragement in odd dilemmas.
The guys "encourage '' strangers to reply to their texts at the food court, and team up going head - to - head to play catch with other people 's groceries at the supermarket.
The guys try to justify a humiliating soaking at a mall retailer, play the "Laugh Man Standing '' game, and record stranger 's conversations at the park.
Murr, Sal, Joe and Q beg supermarket shoppers to hold on to a weird item for them, then make conversation in the park utilizing some outrageous words. Later, the guys volunteer to help teach tech to senior citizens.
The guys pose as toy inventors and must get strangers to approve emails written by the other guys.
The guys pose as employees at a botanical garden and team up to take turns dipping fries into other people 's food at the food court.
The guys completed assigned tasks at Universal Orlando Resort 's Volcano Bay waterpark, play a game of TP basketball shootout at the supermarket and play a game of hot potato with a strange item across a stranger in the park.
The guys dodge shakedowns at the park, go head - to - head to see who can cling to a car the longest, and play a game of attaching ribbons to strangers.
The guys survey employees about customer satisfaction, and go cloud watching with strangers in the park.
In this hour - long season finale that 's part salute - to - the - troops, part pre-recorded - challenges, the Jokers give phony presentations about aviation at the American Airpower Museum, plant American flags onto unsuspecting shoppers and try to get a handshake after showing off their dubious rewards. The episode also features three veterans who receive the same three tattoos Q, Murr and Sal got in "The Permanent Punishment '' and a visit to the Wounded Warrior Project.
The Jokers and their fathers show some classic scenes in a Father 's Day episode.
The Jokers count down the most memorable moments of the show, according to their fans.
Going head - to - head, the Jokers compete for the championship title in a Sweet Sixteen bracket from four divisions: Grocery Store, Mall, Park and Posing as Employees.
In this 1 - hour episode, the Jokers wreak havoc across the city of London. The guys serve up pints of awkwardness at a pub, try to sell ridiculous theatre tickets in the West End, team up to work at a fish and chips shop, and use their infamous bullhorns that are controlled by the other guys.
Losing Joker (s): Joe and Murr
Going head - to - head, the Jokers compete for the championship title in a Sweet 16 bracket, this time using punishments.
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who plays ben's dad in baby daddy | Baby Daddy - Wikipedia
Baby Daddy is an American sitcom created by Dan Berendsen that premiered on June 20, 2012 on ABC Family (later Freeform). The series follows Ben, a man in his twenties, who gets the surprise of his life when a one - night stand leaves his baby at his doorstep. Ben decides to raise his little girl with the help of his brother, Danny, his two close friends, Riley and Tucker, and his sometimes - overbearing mother, Bonnie. Six seasons were produced in total, with the 100th, and final episode airing on May 22, 2017.
Ben Wheeler, a twenty - something bachelor, suddently becomes a father when his baby daughter Emma is left at his doorstep. With the help of his overbearing mother Bonnie, his older brother Danny, and his two best friends Tucker and Riley, Ben works to turn his life around in order to provide for his daughter.
The series was given a green - light on February 2, 2012 and began production on March 28, 2012. On August 17, 2012, the series renewed for a second season, which premiered on May 29, 2013. On March 22, 2013, ABC Family announced that Baby Daddy was renewed for a third season, two months before the second season premiered. The third season premiered on January 15, 2014. Baby Daddy was renewed for a fourth season on March 17, 2014. It premiered on October 22, 2014, with the series ' first Halloween episode "Strip or Treat ''. On February 27, 2015, the series was renewed for a fifth season. It premiered on February 3, 2016. On June 27, 2016, Freeform renewed the show for a sixth season. It premiered on March 13, 2017.
On May 13, 2017, TVLine announced that the series would end at the conclusion of its sixth season.
The series premiered in the United States on June 20, 2012, on ABC Family.
In New Zealand, the show premiered on TVNZ 's TV2 beginning on December 14, 2013.
In Australia, the series airs on Fox8, with season 1 premiering 29 September 2013, with season 2 returning on 4 May 2014, and season 3 returning 24 August 2014.
In the United Kingdom, the series began airing on E4 on February 16, 2015. The second season started on March 2, 2015. Series 3 aired in April 2015. Series 4 aired in September 2015. Series 5 will premiere 5th September 2016.
In Israel, the series airs weeknights (two episodes each) since July 2016. In South Africa aired 5 September 2015.
In Italy, the series began airing on Joi Premium, pay channel on the DTT platform Mediaset Premium from 22 February 2013 to 22 March 2013. The second, third, fourth and fifth seasons were broadcast on the streaming platform Mediaset Infinity from 2015 to 2016. The sixth season were made entirely available on October 4, 2017 on the streaming platform Mediaset Infinity.
Baby Daddy received mixed reviews. On Metacritic, the first season of the show holds a 51 out of 100 Metascore based on 8 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds a 36 % approval rating based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 5.08 / 10. Audience score holds 84 % (Season 1), 86 % (Season 2), 90 % (Season 3), 93 % (Seasons 4 and 5), 100 % (Season 6).
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best friends burt reynolds goldie hawn full movie | Best Friends (1982 film) - wikipedia
Best Friends is a 1982 American romantic comedy film starring Burt Reynolds and Goldie Hawn. It is loosely based on the true story of the relationship between its writers, Barry Levinson and Valerie Curtin. The film is directed by Norman Jewison and is a drama as well as a romantic comedy.
Richard Babson and Paula McCullen are a couple of Hollywood screenwriters who have lived and worked together for a number of years. Richard would like to get married, but Paula does not feel the need.
Having just written a film script for producer Larry Weissman, the couple decides to get married without letting anyone else know. Paula can tell it is important to Richard, so she reluctantly agrees.
They are wed in a downtown Los Angeles marriage bureau by a man named Jorge Medina in barely understandable English. For a honeymoon trip, they travel cross-country by train to inform their parents back East about what they have just done.
The first stop is Buffalo, New York, where they are met in a winter snowstorm by Paula 's parents. Eleanor and Tim McCullen are old - fashioned, so Paula informs Richard that they will need to sleep in separate beds. Richard is n't happy about being treated like a child, or about the frigid climate and the constantly open window.
From there they go to Virginia to visit Richard 's parents, who reside in a giant high - rise condominium. No window is ever opened there, and Paula, feeling increasing panic attacks, is in dire need of some fresh air. She also accidentally overdoses on Valium and goes face - first into a salad at lunch.
The Babsons excitedly believe that Paula and Richard are engaged but devastated to learn that they are already married. They throw a party at a restaurant, where Paula is upset by the comments of guests.
She and Richard are barely on speaking terms when Larry Weissman shows up, desperate for pages of a script rewrite. Paula insists that they return home to California immediately, but once there, their personal and professional relationship has soured.
Larry locks them in a room, where the writers bicker and get no work done. Paula again demands fresh air until Richard breaks a window. When they finally talk it through, they are in agreement that getting married might not have been the best idea. They finish the rewrite and then walk off into the sunset, which turns out to be a Hollywood prop.
The film 's theme song, "How Do You Keep the Music Playing? '', was composed by Michel Legrand with lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman. In the film, the song (performed by Patti Austin and James Ingram) is first heard as Richard and Paula return to Los Angeles after their honeymoon and then subsequently heard during the closing credits. How Do You Keep the Music Playing? was nominated for an Academy Award and has enjoyed a life of its own beyond the film, becoming a popular standard and recorded by such luminaries and Tony Bennett, Frank Sinatra, Barbra Streisand, Celine Dion and Shirley Bassey. Another song by the same songwriters and performers, "Think About Love, '' is played during a montage of the train journey.
Aside from the song 's Oscar nomination, a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress Comedy or Musical went to Goldie Hawn.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
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india is a secondary centre of diversity for | Center of origin - wikipedia
A center of origin (or centre of diversity) is a geographical area where a group of organisms, either domesticated or wild, first developed its distinctive properties. Centers of origin are also considered centers of diversity. For crop plants, Nikolai Vavilov initially identified 8 of these, later subdividing them into 12 in 1935.
Locating the origin of crop plants is basic to plant breeding. This allows one to locate wild relatives, related species, and new genes (especially dominant genes, which may provide resistance to diseases). Knowledge of the origins of crop plants is important in order to avoid genetic erosion, the loss of germplasm due to the loss of ecotypes and landraces, loss of habitat (such as rainforests), and increased urbanization. Germplasm preservation is accomplished through gene banks (largely seed collections but now frozen stem sections) and preservation of natural habitats (especially in centers of origin).
A Vavilov Center (of Diversity) is a region of the world first indicated by Nikolai Vavilov to be an original center for the domestication of plants. Vavilov developed a theory on the centers of origin of cultivated plants. He stated that plants were not domesticated somewhere in the world at random but there are regions where the domestication started. The center of origin is also considered the center of diversity.
Vavilov centers are regions where a high diversity of crop wild relatives can be found, representing the natural relatives of domesticated crop plants. Later in 1935 Vavilov divided the centers into 12, giving the following list:
World centers of origin of cultivated plants
2) Peruvian, Ecuadorean, Bolivian Center:
2A) Chiloe Center (Island near the coast of southern Chile)
2B) Brazilian - Paraguayan Center
7) Indo - Burma: Main Center (India): Includes Assam, Bangladesh and Burma, but not Northwest India, Punjab, nor Northwest Frontier Provinces, 117 plants
7A) Siam - Malaya - Java: statt Indo - Malayan Center: Includes Indo - China and the Malay Archipelago, 55 plants
In 2016, researchers linked the origins and primary regions of diversity ("areas typically including the locations of the initial domestication of crops, encompassing the primary geographical zones of crop variation generated since that time, and containing relatively high species richness in crop wild relatives '') of food and agricultural crops with their current importance around the world in modern national food supplies and agricultural production. The results indicated that foreign crops were 68.7 % of national food supplies as a global mean, and their usage has greatly increased in the last fifty years.
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environmental status of plants based on iucn pdf | International Union for conservation of nature - Wikipedia
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, and education. IUCN 's mission is to "influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable ''.
Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to sustainable development in its projects. Unlike many other international environmental organisations, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation. It tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through building partnerships. The organization is best known to the wider public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, which assesses the conservation status of species worldwide.
IUCN has a membership of over 1400 governmental and non-governmental organizations. Some 16,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full - time staff in more than 50 countries. Its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland.
IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several international conventions on nature conservation and biodiversity. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. In the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its closer relations with the business sector have caused controversy.
IUCN was established in 1948. It was previously called the International Union for the Protection of Nature (1948 -- 1956) and the World Conservation Union (1990 -- 2008).
Establishment
IUCN was established on 5 October 1948, in Fontainebleau, France, when representatives of governments and conservation organizations signed a formal act constituting the International Union for the Protection of Nature (IUPN). The initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley.
The objectives of the new Union were to encourage international cooperation in the protection of nature, to promote national and international action and to compile, analyse and distribute information. At the time of its founding IUPN was the only international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation (an international organisation for the protection of birds, now BirdLife International, had been established in 1922.)
Early years: 1948 -- 1956 IUPN started out with 65 members. Its secretariat was located in Brussels. Its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid scientific base for conservation action was the heart of all activities; commissions were set up to involve experts and scientists.
IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated. They jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature (Lake Success, USA). In preparation for this conference a list of gravely endangered species was drawn up for the first time, a precursor of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. In the early years of its existence IUCN depended almost entirely on UNESCO funding and was forced to temporarily scale down activities when this ended unexpectedly in 1954.
IUPN was successful in engaging prominent scientists and identifying important issues such as the harmful effects of pesticides on wildlife but not many of the ideas it developed were turned into action. This was caused by unwillingness to act on the part of governments, uncertainty about the IUPN mandate and lack of resources. In 1956, IUPN changed its name to International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
Increased profile and recognition: 1956 -- 1965 In the 1950s and 1960s Europe entered a period of economic growth and formal colonies became independent. Both developments had impact on the work of IUCN. Through the voluntary (i.e. pro bono) involvement of experts in its Commissions IUCN was able to get a lot of work done while still operating on a low budget. It expanded its relations with UN-agencies and established links with the Council of Europe. In 1961, at the request of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the United Nations Economic and Social Council, IUCN published the first global list of national parks and protected areas which it has updated ever since. IUCN 's best known publication, the Red Data Book on the conservation status of species, was first published in 1964.
IUCN began to play a part in the development of international treaties and conventions, starting with the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Environmental law and policy making became a new area of expertise.
Africa was the focus of many of the early IUCN conservation field projects. IUCN supported the ' Yellowstone model ' of protected area management, which severely restricted human presence and activity in order to protect nature. IUCN and other conservation organisations were criticized for protecting nature against people rather than with people. This model was initially also applied in Africa and played a role in the decision to remove the Maasai people from Serengeti National Park and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area.
To establish a stable financial basis for its work, IUCN participated in setting up the World Wildlife Fund (1961) (now the World Wide Fund for Nature WWF). WWF would work on fundraising, public relations, and increasing public support. IUCN would continue to focus on providing sound science and data, and developing ties with international bodies. Funds raised by WWF would be used to cover part of the operational costs of IUCN. Also in 1961, the IUCN headquarters moved from Belgium to Morges in Switzerland.
Consolidating its position in the international environmental movement: 1966 -- 1975 Public concerns about the state of the environment in the sixties and seventies led to the establishment of new NGOs, some of which (e.g. Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth) also worked globally. Many of these new organisations were more activist and critical of government than IUCN which remained committed to providing science - based advice to governments. As a result, IUCN was criticized by some as being old - fashioned and irrelevant.
IUCN 's membership still grew (from 200 in 1961 to 350 in 1974) and its formal standing and influence increased. A grant from the Ford Foundation in 1969 enabled it to boost its secretariat and expand operations. During the 1960s, IUCN lobbied the UN General Assembly to create a new status for NGOs. Resolution 1296, adopted in 1968, granted ' consultative ' status to NGOs. IUCN itself was eventually accredited with six UN organizations. IUCN was one of the few environmental organisations formally involved in the preparations of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972). The Stockholm Conference eventually led to three new international conventions, with IUCN involved in their drafting and implementation:
IUCN entered into an agreement with the United Nations Environment Programme UNEP to provide regular reviews of world conservation. The income this generated, combined with growing revenue via WWF, put the organisation on relatively sound financial footing for the first time since 1948.
This period saw the beginning of a gradual change in IUCN 's approach to conservation. Ensuring the survival of habitats and species remained its key objective, but there was a growing awareness that economic and social demands had to be taken into account. IUCN started to publish guidelines on sustainable development. In 1975 the IUCN General Assembly passed a resolution to retain indigenous peoples and cater for their traditional rights in National Parks and protected areas. As a result, IUCN became more appealing to organisations and governments in the developing world.
The World Conservation Strategy 1975 -- 1985 In the late seventies, between its General Assemblies in Kinshasha (1975) and Ashkabad (1978), IUCN went through a phase of turbulence in governance and management. Its work program continued to grow, in part as a result of the partnership with WWF. In 1978, IUCN was running 137 projects, largely in the global south. The involvement of representatives from the developing world in the IUCN Council, Committees and staff increased.
In 1975 IUCN started work on the World Conservation Strategy.
The drafting process -- and the discussions with the UN agencies involved -- led to an evolution in thinking within IUCN and growing acceptance of the fact that conservation of nature by banning human presence no longer worked. (The debate about the balance between strict nature protection and conservation through sustainable development would, however, continue within IUCN well into the 1999
s.) The World Conservation Strategy was launched in 35 countries simultaneously on 5 March 1980. It set out fundamental principles and objectives for conservation worldwide, and identified priorities for national and international action. It is considered one of the most influential documents in 20th century nature conservation and one of the first official documents to introduce the concept of sustainable development. The Strategy was followed in 1982 by the World Charter for Nature, which was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, after preparation by IUCN.
In 1980, IUCN and WWF moved into shared new offices in Gland, Switzerland. This marked a phase of closer cooperation with WWF. It was the support of WWF that allowed IUCN to weather a financial crisis in 1980 -- 1982. The close ties between IUCN and WWF were severed in 1985 when WWF decided to take control of its own field projects, which so far had been run by IUCN. In 1989, IUCN moved into a separate building in Gland, close to the offices it had shared with WWF.
Sustainable development and regionalisation: 1985 to present day In 1982, IUCN set up a Conservation for Development Centre within its secretariat. The Centre undertook projects to ensure that nature conservation was integrated in development aid and in the economic policies of developing countries. Over the years, it supported the development of national conservation strategies in 30 countries. Several European countries began to channel considerable amounts of bilateral aid via IUCN 's projects. Management of these projects was primarily done by IUCN staff, often working from the new regional and country offices IUCN set up around the world. This marked a shift within the organisation. Previously the volunteer Commissions had been very influential, now the Secretariat and its staff began to play a more dominant role. Initially, the focus of power was still with the Headquarters in Gland but the regional offices and regional members ' groups gradually got a bigger say in operations.
In spite of the increased attention for sustainable development, the protection of habitats and species remained a core activity of IUCN. Special programs were developed for Antarctica, tropical forests and wetlands, and IUCN expanded its operations in Latin America.
In 1991, IUCN (together with UNEP and WWF) published Caring for the Earth, a successor to the World Conservation Strategy. It was published in the run - up to the Earth Summit, the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. The World Conservation Strategy, Caring for the Earth, and the Global Diversity Strategy (also published in 1992 by UNEP, IUCN, and WRI) are considered hugely influential in shaping the global environmental agenda. They lay the foundations for the Convention on Biological Diversity, a new global treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity developed by UNEP with support from IUCN, the Framework Convention on Climate Change and Agenda 21.
Social aspects of conservation were now integrated in IUCN 's work; projects began to take account of the role of women in natural resource management and to value the knowledge indigenous peoples have about their natural environment. At the General Assembly in 1994 the IUCN mission was redrafted to its current wording to include the equitable and ecologically use of natural resources.
IUCN 's current work makes direct contributions towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. In particular, IUCN 's Programme 2017 -- 2020 focusing on SDG 1 (No poverty), SDG 2 (Zero hunger), SDG 3 (Good health and well - being), SDG 5 (Gender equality), SDG 6 (Clean water and sanitation), SDG 10 (Reduced inequalities), SDG 11 (Sustainable cities and communities), SDG 13 (Climate action), SDG 14 (Life below water), SDG 15 (Life on land), SDG 16 (Peace, justice and strong institutions), SDG 17 (Partnerships for the goals).
Closer to business: 2000 to present day Since the creation of IUCN in 1948, IUCN Members have passed more than 300 resolutions that include or focus on business related activities. The range of topics covers in these resolutions varies greatly, including a focus on fisheries, tourism, agriculture, the extractive industries and the business sector in general.
The increased attention on sustainable development as a means to protect nature brought IUCN closer to the corporate sector. A discussion started about cooperation with business, including the question if commercial companies could become IUCN members. The members decided against this, but IUCN did forge a partnership with the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. IUCN renewed a multi-year MOU with them with WBCSD in December 2015.
In 1996, after decades of seeking to address specific business issues, IUCN 's Members asked for a comprehensive approach to engaging the business sector. Resolution 1.81 of the IUCN World Conservation Congress held that year "urged IUCN Members and the Director General, based on the need to influence private sector policies in support of the Mission of IUCN, to expand dialogue and productive relationships with the private sector and find new ways to interact with members of the business community ''.
The IUCN Global Business and Biodiversity Program (BBP) was established in 2003 to influence and support private partners in addressing environmental and social issues. The Program wants to engage with business sectors that have a significant impact on natural resources and livelihoods to promote sustainable use of natural resources. In 2004, the first IUCN Private Sector Engagement Strategy was developed (in response to Council Decision C / 58 / 41). Most prominent in the Business and Biodiversity Program is the five - year collaboration IUCN started with the energy company Shell International in 2007. The aim was to mitigate the environmental impact of Shell 's operations. The partnership almost immediately came under fire from IUCN 's members, especially the NGO - members who feared for IUCN 's reputation. At the World Conservation Congress (formerly the IUCN General Assembly) in Barcelona in 2008 NGO - members tabled a motion to terminate the Shell contract. The proposal was narrowly defeated.
In 2012, at the World Conservation Congress held in the Republic of South Korea, the Union adopted a more focused approach to enable IUCN to deliver both on ‐ the ‐ ground results and fit ‐ for ‐ purpose knowledge products, working with many agencies, including business. The Business Engagement Strategy (2012) calls on IUCN to prioritise engagement with business sectors that have a significant impact on natural resources and livelihoods. These include: large ' footprint ' industries, such as: mining and oil and gas; biodiversity - dependent industries including fishing, agriculture and forestry; and, financial services and "green '' enterprises such as organic farming, renewable energy and nature - based tourism.
Furthermore, the IUCN Operational Guidelines for Business Engagement offer critical support to the implementation of the IUCN Business Engagement Strategy. First developed in 2006, and then revised in 2009 and again in 2015, they provide a consistent approach to the management of risks associated with engaging business, as well as outline the opportunities between the different types of engagement.
Today, the Business and Biodiversity Programme continues to set the strategic direction, coordinate IUCN 's overall approach and provide institutional quality assurance in all business engagements. The Programme ensures that the Business Engagement Strategy is implemented through IUCN 's global thematic and regional programmes as well as helps guide the work of IUCN 's six Commissions.
Championing Nature - based Solutions: 2009 to present day
Nature - based Solutions (NbS) use ecosystems and the services they provide to address societal challenges such as climate change, food security or natural disasters.
The emergence of the NbS concept in environmental sciences and nature conservation contexts came as international organisations, such as IUCN and the World Bank, searched for solutions to work with ecosystems rather than relying on conventional engineering interventions (such as seawalls), to adapt to and mitigate climate change effects, while improving sustainable livelihoods and protecting natural ecosystems and biodiversity.
IUCN actively promoted the NbS concept in its 2009 position paper on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) COP 15, and in 2012 IUCN formally adopted NbS as one of the three areas of work within its 2013 -- 2016 Programme.
At the IUCN World Conservation Congress 2016, IUCN Members agreed on a definition of nature - based solutions. Nature - based Solutions are defined as "actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well - being and biodiversity benefits ''. Members also called for governments to include nature - based solutions in strategies to combat climate change. A report, Nature - based solutions to address global societal challenges, was launched at the Congress, and includes a set of general principles for any NbS intervention.
Implementing NbS at scale can help countries achieve the targets of Sustainable Development Goals. It can also help them achieve the land degradation neutrality goal of the UNCCD, the Aichi Biodiversity Targets of the CBD, and the Paris Agreement on climate change.
Timeline
Some key dates in the growth and development of IUCN:
According to its website, IUCN works on the following themes: business, climate change, economics, ecosystems, environmental law, forest conservation, gender, global policy, marine and polar, protected areas, science and knowledge, social policy, species, water and world heritage.
IUCN works on the basis of four - year programs, determined by the membership. In the IUCN Programme for 2017 -- 2020 conserving nature and biodiversity is inextricably linked to sustainable development and poverty reduction. IUCN states that it aims to have a solid factual base for its work and takes into account the knowledge held by indigenous groups and other traditional users of natural resources.
The IUCN Programme 2017 -- 2020 identifies three priority areas:
1. Valuing and conserving nature.
2. Promoting and supporting effective and equitable governance of natural resources
3. Deploying Nature Based Solutions to address societal challenges including climate change, food security and economic and social development.
Unlike other environmental organisations, IUCN does not itself aim to directly mobilize the general public. Education has been part of IUCN 's work program since the early days but the focus is on stakeholder involvement and strategic communication rather than mass - campaigns.
IUCN runs field projects for habitat and species conservation around the world. It produces the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems which in a similar way measures risks to ecosystems. The IUCN Red List of Ecosystems is a global standard to assess the conservation status of ecosystems. It is applicable at local, national, regional and global levels. It is based on a set of rules, or criteria, for performing evidence - based, scientific assessments of the risk of ecosystem collapse, as measured by reductions in geographical distribution or degradation of the key processes and components of ecosystems.
IUCN participates in efforts to restore critically endangered species. In 2012 it published a list of the world 's 100 most threatened species. It wants to expand the global network of national parks and other protected areas and promote good management of such areas, for example through the publication of the Green List of Protected and Conserved Areas. IUCN is the governing body responsible for the development of the Protected Area Management Categories into which each protected area is divided depending on its conservation requirements and management aims. It also developed a standard to identify Key Biodiversity Areas -- places of international importance for conservation. In particular, it focuses on greater protection of the oceans and marine habitats.
Mongolian Przewalski Horse
Arabian oryx
California Condor
Oceans
Antarctica
Mangrove forest
Examples of endangered species and threatened habitats that are the focus of IUCN programs
IUCN has a growing program of partnerships with the corporate sector to promote sustainable use of natural resources. Globally, IUCN collaborates with Black Mountain Mining, Nespresso, Rio Tinto, Sakhalin Energy Investment Company Ltd, Shell, Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria, Ltd., the International Olympic Committee, Natural Capital Coalition, Renova Foundation, Tiffany Foundation, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development and others.
At the national and regional level, IUCN also works with Marriott International in Thailand, the Zambezi Valley Development Agency (ADPP) in Mozambique, Minh Phu -- the largest shrimp exporter in Vietnam, Xingzhitianxia Media Company in China, the Secretariat of the Southern Agriculture Corridor of Tanzania (SAGCOT), Tata Steel in India, Engro Elengy Terminal (Pvt) Ltd in Pakistan, to name a few.
On the national level, IUCN helps governments prepare national biodiversity policies. Internationally, IUCN provides advice to environmental conventions such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES and the Framework Convention on Climate Change. It advises UNESCO on natural world heritage. It has a formally accredited permanent observer mission to the United Nations in New York. According to its own website, IUCN is the only international observer organization in the UN General Assembly with expertise in issues concerning the environment, specifically biodiversity, nature conservation and sustainable natural resource use. IUCN has official relations with the Council of Europe, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the Organization of American States (OAS), the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP - WCMC), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
As an organization, IUCN has three components: the member organizations, the six scientific commissions, and the secretariat.
IUCN Members are states (making IUCN a supranational GONGO), government agencies, international nongovernmental organizations, national nongovernmental organizations, and indigenous peoples ' organisations. In 2017, IUCN had 1400 members. The members can organize themselves in national or regional committees to promote cooperation. In 2016, there were 62 national committees and 7 regional committees.
The six IUCN Commissions involve 16,000 volunteer experts from a range of disciplines. They ' assess the state of the world 's natural resources and provide the Union with sound know - how and policy advice on conservation issues '.
The Secretariat is led by the Director General. For management of its operations IUCN distinguishes eight geographical regions; each is led by a director who reports to the Director General. The IUCN head office is in Gland, Switzerland. Eight regional offices implement IUCN 's program in their respective territories. Since 1980, IUCN has established offices in more than 50 countries. The total number of staff grew from 100 (1980) to around 1,000 (2014); nearly all this growth was in the national and regional offices. Approximately 150 staff are based in the head office.
The World Conservation Congress (Members ' Assembly) is IUCN 's highest decision - making body. The Congress convenes every four years, most recently in Hawaii (2016) and previously in Jeju, South Korea (2012). It elects the Council, including the President, and approves IUCN 's workprogram for the next four years, and budget.
The IUCN Council is the principal governing body of IUCN. The Council provides strategic direction for the activities of the Union, discusses specific policy issues and provides guidance on finance and the membership development of the Union. The Council is composed of the President, four Vice Presidents (elected by the Council from among its members), the Treasurer, the Chairs of IUCN 's six Commissions, three Regional Councillors from each of IUCN 's eight Statutory Regions and a Councillor from the State in which IUCN has its seat (Switzerland). IUCN 's current President is Zhang Xinsheng.
The Council appoints a Director General, who is responsible for the overall management of IUCN and the running of the Secretariat. Inger Andersen is IUCN Director General since January 2015. She succeeded Julia Marton - Lefèvre.
IUCN Presidents since 1948
IUCN Directors General since 1948
IUCN 's total income in 2013 was 114 million CHF, equaling approximately 95 million Euro or 116 million US dollar. IUCN 's funding mainly comes from Official Development Assistance budgets of bilateral and multilateral agencies. This represented 61 % of its income in 2013. Additional sources of income are the membership fees, as well as grants and project funding from foundations, institutions and corporations.
IUCN is considered one of the most influential conservation organisations in the world and, together with WWF and the World Resources Institute (WRI), is seen as a driving force behind the rise of the influence of environmental organisations at the UN and around the world. It has established a network covering all aspects of global conservation via its worldwide membership of governmental and non-governmental organisations, the participation of experts in the IUCN Commissions, formal involvement in international agreements, ties to intergovernmental organisations and increasingly partnerships with international business. The World Conservation Congress and the World Parks Congress events organised by IUCN are the largest gatherings of organisations and individuals involved in conservation worldwide. They involve governmental organisations, NGOs, media, academia and the corporate sector. According to some, IUCN is not only a major global player in conservation action, but also has considerable influence in defining what nature conservation actually is. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems determine which species and natural areas merit protection. Through the Green List of Protected and Conserved Areas and the system of IUCN protected area categories IUCN influences how protected areas are managed.
The relevance of the scientific insights and the data that IUCN produces are not often drawn into question, but IUCN has encountered criticism in other matters.
It has been claimed that IUCN put the needs of nature above those of humans, disregarding economic considerations and the interests of indigenous peoples and other traditional users of the land. Until the 1980s IUCN favored the "Yellowstone Model ' of conservation which called for the removal of humans from protected areas. The expulsion of the Maasai people from Serengeti National Park and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area is perhaps the best known example of this approach.
This is linked to another criticism that has been directed at IUCN, namely that throughout its history it has mainly been ' Northern focused ', i.e. had a West - European or North - American perspective on global conservation. Some critics point to the fact that many individuals involved in the establishment of IUCN had been leading figures in the British Society for the Preservation of the Wild Fauna of Empire, which wanted to protect species against the impact of ' native ' hunting pressure in order to safeguard hunting by Europeans. The fact that at least until the 1990s, most of IUCN staff, the chairs of the Commissions and the IUCN President came from western countries has also led to criticism. Over the past decade, IUCN has changed its approach. It now aims to work in close cooperation with indigenous groups. It has also become more regionalized in its operations and more truly global in its staffing. At the 2016 World Conservation Congress, IUCN introduced a new membership category for indigenous peoples ' organisations in recognition of their role in conserving the planet.
More recently, activist environmental groups have argued that IUCN is too closely associated with governmental organisations and with the commercial sector. IUCN 's cooperation with Shell came in for criticism, also from its own membership. IUCN 's close partnership with Coca Cola in Vietnam -- where they have together been launching Coca - Cola - focused community centers -- has also drawn some criticism and allegations of greenwashing. Its decision to hold the 2012 World Conservation Congress on Jeju Island, South Korea, where the local community and international environmental activists were protesting against the construction of a navy base also led to controversy. IUCN remains committed to its partnerships with the business sector, seeing sustainable development as the way to ensure long - term protection of natural areas and species.
IUCN has a wide range of publications, reports, guidelines and databases related to conservation and sustainable development. It publishes or co-authors more than 100 books and major assessments every year, along with hundreds of reports, documents and guidelines. In 2015, 76 IUCN articles were published in peer reviewed scientific journals.
A report, released at the IUCN World Parks Congress in Sydney on 13 November 2014 showed that the 209,000 conservation reserves around the world now cover 15.4 per cent of the total land area. The new figures are a step in the right direction of protecting 17 percent of land and 10 percent of ocean environments on Earth by 2020 since an agreement between the world 's nations at the Convention on Biological Diversity, held in Japan in 2010.
At its World Conservation Congress in Hawaii in 2016, the IUCN launched a report Explaining ocean warming: causes, scale, effects and consequences, one of the most comprehensive reviews to date on ocean warming.
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what are the four extinct language in the philippines | Languages of the Philippines - wikipedia
There are some 120 to 175 languages and dialects in the Philippines, depending on the method of classification. Four others are no longer spoken. Almost all are Malayo - Polynesian languages, whereas one, Chavacano, is a creole derived from Spanish, a Romance language. Two are official (English and Filipino), while (as of 2017) nineteen are official auxiliary languages. Including second - language speakers, there are more speakers of Filipino than English in the Philippines.
The Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino enumerated 130 Philippine languages present in the country through its Atlas Filipinas map published in 2016.
The indigenous scripts of the Philippines (such as the Kulitan, Tagbanwa and others) are used very little; instead, Filipino languages are today written in the Latin script because of the Spanish and American colonial experience. Baybayin however, one of the most well - known of the indigenous Filipino scripts, is used by the government in some applications such as on the Philippine Banknotes, where the word "Pilipino '' is inscribed using the writing system. As well, the Arabic script is used in Muslim areas in some areas in southern Philippines.
A bill known as the Baybayin Bill has been pushed in Congress by senator Loren Legarda for numerous times. The bill institutionalizes baybayin as the national writing system, along with the Latin script. It mandates schools to teach students how to read and write in baybayin. It also mandates all establishments, street signs, and other public wordings, public and private, to use baybayin in their logo and entity name to propagate the usage of the writing system. As of 8 August 2016, the legislative status of this senate bill was "Pending in the Committee ''.
The 1987 Constitution declares Filipino as the national language of the country. Filipino and English are the official languages, with the recognition of the regional languages as auxiliary official in their respective regions, including Aklanon, Bikol, Cebuano, Chavacano, Hiligaynon, Ibanag, Ilocano, Ivatan, Kapampangan, Kinaray - a, Maguindanao, Maranao, Pangasinan, Sambal, Surigaonon, Tagalog, Tausug, Waray, and Yakan. Spanish and Arabic are to be promoted on an optional and voluntary basis.
Spanish was the national and official language of the country for more than three centuries under Spanish colonial rule, and became the lingua franca of the Philippines in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1863, a Spanish decree introduced universal education, creating free public schooling in Spanish. It was also the language of the Philippine Revolution, and the 1899 Malolos Constitution effectively proclaimed it as the official language of the First Philippine Republic. National hero José Rizal wrote most of his works in Spanish. Luciano de la Rosa established that Spanish was spoken by a total of 60 % of the population in the early 20th century as a first, second or third language. Following the American occupation of the Philippines and the imposition of English, the use of Spanish declined gradually, especially after the 1940s.
Under the U.S. occupation and civil regime, English began to be taught in schools. By 1901, public education used English as the medium of instruction. Around 600 educators (called "Thomasites '') who arrived in that year aboard the USAT Thomas replaced the soldiers who also functioned as teachers. The 1935 Constitution added English as an official language alongside Spanish. A provision in this constitution also called for Congress to "take steps toward the development and adoption of a common national language based on one of the existing native languages. '' On November 12, 1937, the First National Assembly created the National Language Institute. President Manuel L. Quezón appointed native Waray speaker Jaime C. De Veyra to chair a committee of speakers of other regional languages. Their aim was to select a national language among the other regional languages. Ultimately, Tagalog was chosen as the base language December 30, 1937, on the basis that it was the most widely spoken and developed local language.
In 1939, President Manuel L. Quezón renamed the Tagalog language as Wikang Pambansa ("national language '' in English translation). The language was further renamed in 1959 as Pilipino by Secretary of Education Jose Romero. The 1973 constitution declared the Pilipino language to be co-official, along with English, and mandated the development of a national language, to be known as Filipino. In addition, Spanish regained its official status when President Marcos signed Presidential Decree No. 155, s. 1973.
The present constitution, ratified in 1987, designates Filipino and English as joint official languages. Filipino also had the distinction of being a national language that was to be "developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages. '' Although not explicitly stated in the constitution, Filipino is in practice almost completely composed of the Tagalog language as spoken in the capital, Manila; however, organizations such as the University of the Philippines began publishing dictionaries such as the UP Diksyonaryong Filipino in which words from various Philippine languages were also included. The constitution also made mention of Spanish and Arabic, both of which are to be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.
Filipino is an official language of education and also the major language of the broadcast media and cinema, but less important than English as a language of publication (except in some domains, like comic books) and less important for academic - scientific - technological discourse. Filipino is used as a lingua franca in all regions of the Philippines as well as within overseas Filipino communities, and is the dominant language of the armed forces (except perhaps for the small part of the commissioned officer corps from wealthy or upper - middle - class families) and of a large part of the civil service, most of whom are non-Tagalogs.
There are different forms of diglossia that exist in the case of regional languages. Locals may use their mother tongue or the regional lingua franca to communicate amongst themselves, but sometimes switch to foreign languages when addressing outsiders. Another is the prevalence of code - switching to English when speaking in both their first language and Tagalog.
The Constitution of the Philippines provides for the use of the vernacular languages as official auxiliary languages in provinces where Filipino is not the lingua franca. This is however not implemented as Filipinos at large are polyglots. In the case where the vernacular language is a regional language, Filipinos would speak in Filipino when speaking in formal situations while the regional languages are spoken in non-formal settings. This is evident in major urban areas outside Metro Manila like Camarines Norte in the Bikol - speaking area, and Davao in the Cebuano - speaking area. As of 2017, the case of Ilocano and Cebuano are becoming more of bilingualism than diglossia due to the publication of materials written in these languages.
The diglossia is more evident in the case of other languages such as Pangasinan, Kapampangan, Bikol, Waray, Hiligaynon, Sambal, and Maranao, where the written variant of the language is becoming less and less popular to give way to the use of Filipino. Although Philippine laws consider some of these languages as "major languages '' there is little, if any, support coming from the government to preserve these languages. This may be bound to change, however, given current policy trends.
There still exists another type of diglossia, which is between the regional languages and the minority languages. Here, we label the regional languages as acrolects while the minority languages as the basilect. In this case, the minority language is spoken only in very intimate circles, like the family or the tribe one belongs to. Outside this circle, one would speak in the prevalent regional language, while maintaining an adequate command of Filipino for formal situations. Unlike the case of the regional languages, these minority languages are always in danger of becoming extinct because of speakers favoring the more prevalent regional language. Moreover, most of the users of these languages are illiterate and as expected, there is a chance that these languages will no longer be revived due to lack of written records.
According to Ethnologue, a total of 182 native languages are spoken in the nation and four languages have been classified as extinct: Dicamay Agta, Katabaga, Tayabas Ayta and Villaviciosa Agta. Except for English, Spanish, Chavacano and varieties of Chinese (Hokkien, Cantonese and Mandarin), all of the languages belong to the Malayo - Polynesian language family of the Austronesian superfamily.
There are 13 indigenous languages with at least one million native speakers:
One or more of these is spoken natively by more than 90 % of the population.
A Philippine language sub-family identified by Robert Blust includes languages of north Sulawesi and the Yami language of Taiwan, but excludes the Sama -- Bajaw languages of the Tawi - Tawi islands, as well as a couple of North Bornean languages spoken in southern Palawan.
Eskayan is an artificial auxiliary language created as the embodiment of a Bohol nation in the aftermath of the Philippine -- American War. It is used by about 500 people.
Philippine languages are often referred to by Filipinos as dialects, partly as a relic of the inaccurate vocabulary used in literature during the American period (1898 -- 1946). While there are indeed many hundreds of dialects in the Philippines, they represent variations of no fewer than 120 distinct languages, and many of these languages maintain greater differences than those between established European languages like French and Spanish.
The vast differences between the languages can be seen in the following translations of the Philippine national proverb:
The amount of dialectal variation varies from language to language. Languages like Tagalog, Kapampangan and Pangasinan are known to have very moderate dialectal variation.
The languages of the Bicol Region, however, there is great dialectal variation. There are cities and towns which have their own dialects and varieties. Below is the sentence "Were you there at the market for a long time? '' translated into certain varieties of Bikol. The translation is followed by dialect and corresponding language, and a city / town in Bicol where they are spoken. The final translation is in Tagalog.
Below is a chart of Philippine languages. While there have been misunderstandings on which ones should be classified as language and which ones should be classified as dialect, the chart confirms that most have similarities, yet are not mutually comprehensible. These languages are arranged according to the regions they are natively spoken (from north to south, then east to west).
There is a language spoken by the Tao people (also known as Yami) of Orchid Island of Taiwan which is not included in the language of the Philippines. Their language, Tao (or Yami) is part of the Batanic languages which includes Ivatan, Babuyan, and Itbayat of the Batanes.
Below are population estimates from the 2000 Philippine census by the Philippine Statistics Authority on the number of Filipinos who speak the following 18 languages as a native language.
Endangered and extinct languages in the Philippines are based on the 3rd world volume released by UNESCO in 2010.
Degree of endangerment (UNESCO standard)
In a separate study by Thomas N. Headland, the Summer Institute of Linguistics in Dallas, and the University of North Dakota called Thirty Endangered Languages in the Philippines, the Philippines has 32 endangered languages, but 2 of the listed languages in the study are written with 0 speakers, noting that they are extinct or probably extinct. All of the listed languages are Negrito languages, the oldest languages in the Philippines.
Arabic is used by some Filipino Muslims in both a liturgical and instructional capacity since the arrival of Islam and establishment of several Sultanates in the 14th century. Along with Malay, Arabic was the lingua franca of the Malay Archipelago among Muslim traders and the Malay aristocracy.
The 1987 Constitution mandates that Arabic (along with Spanish) is to be promoted on an optional and voluntary basis. As of 2015 Arabic is taught for free and is promoted in some Islamic centres predominantly in the southernmost parts of Philippines. It is used primarily in religious activities and education (such as in a madrasa or Islamic school) and rarely for official events or daily conversation. In this respect, its function and use is somewhat like the traditional roles of Latin and Spanish in Filipino Catholicism vis - à - vis other currently spoken languages.
The first significant exposure of Filipinos to the English language occurred in 1762 when the British invaded Manila, but this was a brief episode that had no lasting influence. English later became more important and widespread during American rule between 1898 and 1946, and remains an official language of the Philippines.
English is used in official documents of business, government, the legal system, medicine, the sciences and as a medium of instruction. Filipinos prefer textbooks for subjects like calculus, physics, chemistry, biology, etc., written in English rather than Filipino. However, the topics are usually taught, even in colleges, in Tagalog or the local language. By way of contrast, native languages are often heard in colloquial and domestic settings, spoken mostly with family and friends. The use of English attempts to give an air of formality, given its use in school, government and various ceremonies. A percentage of the media such as cable television and newspapers are also in English; major television networks such as ABS - CBN and GMA and all AM radio stations broadcast primarily in Filipino. However, a 2009 article by a UNICEF worker reported that the level of spoken English language in the Philippines was poor. The article reported that aspiring Filipino teachers score the lowest in English out of all of the subjects on their licensing exams.
A large influx of English (American English) words has been assimilated into Tagalog and the other native languages called Taglish or Bislish. There is a debate, however, on whether there is diglossia or bilingualism, between Filipino and English. Filipino is also used both in formal and informal situations. Though the masses would prefer to speak in Filipino, government officials tend to speak in English when performing government functions. There is still resistance to the use of Filipino in courts and the drafting of national statutes.
On August 22, 2007, three Malolos City regional trial courts in Bulacan decided to use Filipino, instead of English, in order to promote the national language. Twelve stenographers from Branches 6, 80 and 81, as model courts, had undergone training at Marcelo H. del Pilar College of Law of Bulacan State University College of Law following a directive from the Supreme Court of the Philippines. De la Rama said it was the dream of former Chief Justice Reynato Puno to implement the program in other areas such as Laguna, Cavite, Quezón, Nueva Écija, Batangas, Rizal, and Metro Manila.
Diplomatic ties with the Ming dynasty among some established states or kingdoms in Luzon and direct interactions and trade overall within the archipelago as a whole may go as far back as the early 10th century. Mandarin Chinese is the medium of instruction in Chinese schools and the lingua franca of mainland and overseas Chinese. The Lan - nang variant of Hokkien Chinese is the language of the majority the Chinese in the Philippines, who immigrated from the Fujian (pronounced locally as Fukien or Hokkien) province in China. Other varieties of Chinese such as Hakka and Cantonese, are spoken among the Chinese in the Philippines who are descendants of people from Guangdong province in China.
As with Spanish, many native languages have co-opted numerous loanwords from Chinese, in particular words that refer to cuisine, household objects, and Philippine kinship terminology.
The Japanese first came to the Philippines around the 11th century CE, the first country they emigrated to, as well as in waves from the 15th century, 17th century, late 19th century, 1900s, 1930s, and the 1940s. There is a small Japanese community and a school for Japanese in Metro Manila due to the number of Japanese companies. Also there is a large community of Japanese and Japanese descendants in Laguna province, Baguio City, and in the Davao Region. Davao City is a home to a large population of Japanese descendants. Japanese laborers were hired by American companies like the National Fiber Company (NAFCO) in the first decades of the 20th century to work in abaca plantations. Japanese were known for their hard work and industry. During World War II, Japanese schools were present in Davao City.
Malay is spoken as a lingua franca in the southernmost parts of the Philippines, from Zamboanga down to Tawi - Tawi among a minority of the Tausug, Sama - Bajau, and Yakan peoples. It is also spoken as a daily language by Malays and Indonesians who have settled, or do business in the Philippines. It is also spoken in southern Palawan to some extent. It is not spoken among the Maranao and Maguindanao people. Malaysia, Indonesia, and the southern Philippines are largely Islamic and the liturgical language of Islam is Arabic, but the vast majority of Muslims in the Philippines have little practical knowledge of Arabic beyond limited religious terminology.
Old Malay and Indonesian cultures and civilizations in ancient Sumatra and Java influenced the history, lifestyles, and culture of Filipino peoples. The Malay language, along with Philippine languages belonging to the Malayo - Polynesian language family, has also had an immense influence on many if not most of the languages spoken in the Philippines. Roughly a third of all commonly used verbs and nouns used in the Philippines are of Old Malay origin. This is because Old Malay used to be the lingua franca throughout the archipelago, a good example of this is Magellan 's translator Enrique using Malay to converse with the native Sugbuanon (Cebuano) during this time period.
An example of Old Malay and Javanese languages spoken in Philippine history can be seen in the language of the 10th century Laguna Copperplate Inscription.
When the Spanish had first arrived in the Philippines in the 16th century, Old Malay was spoken among the aristocracy.
It is believed that Ferdinand Magellan 's Moluccan slave Enrique could converse with local leaders in Cebu island, confirming to Magellan his arrival in Southeast Asia.
Today, Indonesian is taught as a foreign language in the Department of Linguistics and Asian Languages in the University of the Philippines. Also, the Indonesian School in Davao City teaches the language to preserve the culture of Indonesian immigrants there. The Indonesian Embassy in Manila also offers occasional classes for Filipinos and foreigners.
Since 2013, the Indonesian Embassy in the Philippines has given basic Indonesian language training to members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines.
In an interview, Department of Education Secretary Armin Luistro said that the country 's government should promote Indonesian or Malay, which are related to Filipino. Thus, the possibility of offering it as an optional subject in public schools is being studied.
Since pre-Spanish times, there have been small Indian communities in the Philippines. Indians tend to be able to speak Tagalog and the other native languages, and are often fluent in English. Among themselves, Sindhi and Punjabi are used. Urdu is spoken among the Pakistani community. Only few South Asians, such as Pakistani, as well as the recent newcomers like speakers of Marathi, Nepali, and Tamil retain their own respective languages.
Spanish was introduced in the islands after 1565, when the Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi set sail from Mexico and founded the first Spanish settlement on Cebú. However, it is rarely spoken today.
In 1593, the first printing press in the Philippine islands was founded and it released the first (albeit polyglot) book, the Doctrina Christiana that same year. In the 17th century, Spanish religious orders founded the first universities in the Philippines, some of which are considered the oldest in Asia. During colonial rule through Mexico, Spanish was the language of education, trade, politics, and religion, and by the 19th century, became the colony 's lingua franca although it was mainly used by the educated Filipinos. In 1863, a Spanish decree introduced a system of public education, creating free public schooling in Spanish. In the 1890s, the Philippines had a prominent group of Spanish - speaking scholars called the Ilustrados, such as José Rizal. Some of these scholars participated in the Philippine Revolution and later in the struggle against American occupation. Both the Malolos Constitution and the Lupang Hinirang (national anthem) were written in Spanish.
Under U.S. rule, the English language began to be promoted instead of Spanish. The use of Spanish began to decline some years after Spain was forced to pass the islands to the United States as a result of the introduction of English into the public schools as a language of instruction. The 1950 census stated that Filipinos who spoke Spanish as a first or second language made up only 6 % of the population. In 1990, the census reported that the number had dwindled to just 2,500. A 2012 survey estimates that while around 3 million people can speak Spanish with varying degrees of competency, only around 439,000 people can speak the language at a native level.
Spanish briefly lost its status as an official language in the 1973 constitution but regained official status two months later when President Marcos signed Presidential Decree No. 155. With the promulgation of the 1987 constitution, Spanish lost its official status and it was dropped as a college requirement during Corazón Aquino 's administration. Former president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, a third - language Spanish speaker, introduced legislation to re-establish the instruction of Spanish in 2009 in the state education system. Today, the language is still spoken by Filipino - Spanish mestizos and Spanish families who are mainly concentrated in Metro Manila, Iloilo and Cebu. It remains a required subject in some academic institutions, such as the University of Santo Tomás in Manila and the University of San Carlos in Cebu. The 1987 Constitution mandates that Spanish (along with Arabic) is to be promoted on an optional and voluntary basis.
Many historical documents, land titles, and works of literature are written in Spanish and are still not translated into Filipino languages, despite the fact that some such as land titles have legal value. Spanish, through colonization has contributed the largest number of loanwords and expressions in Tagalog, Cebuano, and other Philippine languages.
There are several Spanish - based creole languages in the Philippines, collectively called Chavacano. These may be split into two major geographical groups:
Click on a coloured area to see an article about English in that country or region
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who was put in the lion's den | Daniel in the lions ' den - wikipedia
The story of Daniel in the lions ' den (chapter 6 in the Book of Daniel) tells how Daniel is raised to high office by his royal master Darius the Mede, but jealous rivals trick Darius into issuing a decree which condemns Daniel to death. Hoping for Daniel 's deliverance, but unable to save him, the king has him cast into the pit of lions. At daybreak he hurries back, asking if God had saved his friend. Daniel replies that God had sent an angel to close the jaws of the lions, "because I was found blameless before him. '' The king has those who had conspired against Daniel, and their wives and children, thrown to the lions in his place, and commands to all the people of the whole world to "tremble and fear before the God of Daniel ''.
Modern scholarship agrees that Daniel is a legendary figure. The book of which he is the hero comprises two parts, a set of tales in chapters 1 -- 6, and the series of visions in chapters 7 -- 12: the tales are no earlier than the Hellenistic period, and the visions date from the Maccabean era (the mid-2nd century BC). The stories were probably originally independent, but were collected in the mid-2nd century by the author of chapter 7 and expanded again shortly afterwards with the visions in chapters 8 - 12 to produce the modern book.
Chapter 6, the story of Daniel in the lions ' den, parallels chapter 3, the story of the "fiery furnace '': each begins with the jealousy of non-Jews towards successful Jews and an imperial edict requiring the Jews to compromise their religion, and concludes with divine deliverance and a king who confesses the greatness of the God of the Jews and issues an edict of royal protection.
Additions to Daniel
Daniel is raised to high office by his royal master Darius the Mede. Daniel 's jealous rivals trick Darius into issuing a decree that for thirty days no prayers should be addressed to any god or man but Darius himself; any who break this are to be thrown to the lions. Daniel continues to pray to the God of Israel, and the king, although deeply distressed, must condemn Daniel to death, for the edicts of the Medes and Persians can not be altered. Hoping for Daniel 's deliverance, he has him cast into the pit. At daybreak the king hurries to the place and cries out anxiously, asking if God had saved his friend. Daniel replies that his God had sent an angel to close the jaws of the lions, "because I was found blameless before him. '' The king commands that those who had conspired against Daniel should be thrown to the lions in his place, along with their wives and children, and writes to all the people of the whole world commanding that all should tremble and fear before the God of Daniel.
It is generally accepted that the Book of Daniel originated as a collection of folktales among the Babylonian diaspora, the Jewish community living in Babylon and Mesopotamia in the Persian and Hellenistic periods (5th to 2nd centuries BC). Chapters 4 -- 6, which includes the tale of Daniel in the lions ' den, may belong to the earliest stage, as these differ quite markedly in the oldest texts. Although the entire book is traditionally ascribed to Daniel the seer, the tales of chapters 1 - 6, including the story of the lion 's den, are the voice of an anonymous narrator (except for chapter 4 which is in the form of a letter from king Nebuchadnezzar). It is possible that the name of Daniel was chosen for the hero because of his reputation as a wise seer in Hebrew tradition.
Chapters 2 - 7 are in Aramaic, and are in the clear form of a chiasm (a poetic structure in which the main point or message of a passage is placed in the centre and framed by further repetitions on either side):
The story of Daniel in the lions ' den in chapter 6 is paired with the story of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego and the "fiery furnace '' in Daniel 3. The parallels include the jealousy of non-Jews, an imperial edict requiring Jews to compromise their religion on pain of death, and divine deliverance. Each story climaxes with the king confessing the greatness of the God of the Jews and issuing an edict of royal protection. In each case life is preserved through divine presence in the fire or the pit.
The structure of Daniel 6 itself is also in the form of a chiasm:
According to Josippon, "the beasts in the den received Daniel as faithful dogs might receive their returning master, wagging their tails and licking him. '' The Midrash Tehillim says that "the mouth of the den was closed with a huge stone, which had rolled of itself from Palestine to Babylon for that purpose '' and that "upon this stone sat an angel in the shape of a lion, so that Daniel 's enemies might not harass him. ''
Although Daniel is sometimes depicted as a young man in illustrations of the incident, James Montgomery Boice points out that he would have been over eighty years old at the time.
Painters who have depicted this incident include:
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is it bad luck to kiss on new years | Kissing traditions - wikipedia
Many societies have traditions which involve kissing. Kissing can indicate joy or be used as part of a greeting. Kissing involves the touching of one 's lips to the lips or other body part, such as the cheek, head, hand, of another person.
In the Western world, a kiss is a common gesture of greeting, and at times a kiss is expected. Throughout all cultures people greet one another as a sign of recognition, affection, friendship and reverence. Depending on the occasion and the culture, a greeting may take the form of a handshake, hug, bow, nod, nose rub, a kiss on the lips with the mouth closed or a kiss or kisses on the cheek. Cheek kissing is most common in Europe and Latin America and has become a standard greeting in Southern Europe.
While cheek kissing is a common greeting in many cultures, each country has a unique way of kissing. In Slovenia, Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Egypt it is customary to "kiss three times, on alternate cheeks. '' Italians and Hungarians usually kiss twice in a greeting and in Mexico and Belgium only one kiss is necessary. In Ecuador, women kiss on the right cheek only and in Oman it is not unusual for men to kiss one another on the nose after a handshake. French culture accepts a number of ways to greet depending on the region. Two kisses are most common throughout all of France but in Provence three kisses are given and in Nantes four are exchanged.
Kissing quickly on the lips with the mouth closed is a common greeting in some places of Western culture such as South Africa and Australia, especially in rural areas. Some say it started in Santa Rosa, Zacatecas, Mexico.
The Syracuse University senior class of 1912 left behind a stone bench. With this gesture the graduating class hoped "to begin a tradition of graduating classes leaving behind similar gifts that would add to the beauty of the campus. '' While the bench does enhance the beauty of the Syracuse University quad, the kissing bench has become much more than an ordinary seat. In the 1950s it was said that if a woman were kissed while sitting on the bench she would "avoid the risk of becoming a spinster. '' However, in 1970 the tradition was expanded to state that a woman must be kissed on the bench to graduate and marry. Currently the tradition stands that if two people kiss while sitting on the kissing bench they will eventually marry. Since this tradition began in the 1950s many couples have begun their lives together at the kissing bench.
The kissing post, supporting Ellis Island 's registry room, is a famous column at which millions of US immigrants reunited with family. At the registry room, final stages of the immigration process were completed. Then, as immigrants moved towards the pillar it marked a significant moment in their journey. Processed immigrants would search for family members who were to meet them at the kissing post. The once ordinary post was named the kissing post by staff members at Ellis Island in reaction to the "joyful reunions '' and kisses between relatives and loved ones. Not only did immigrants endure the long passage to the United States but upon arriving they underwent a lengthy inspection process. This emotional process included physical exams, medical detentions, Board hearings for unaccompanied women and children and separation from family members. Seeing the kissing post at the end of their journey to America was an emotional conclusion to their experience. The kissing post signifies freedom, reunion and a new beginning.
Kissing the Blarney Stone (also called the Stone of Eloquence) is a popular custom in the Castle of Blarney in Ireland. The stone is below the battlements on the parapet, making kissing the stone difficult. Originally, people would be hung by their feet over the parapet and be lowered to reach the stone. However, after a man died from falling, a new system was developed. The person now lies on their back with someone securing their feet, and they lower themselves downward while holding on to iron rails. Then, they can reach the stone that people have kissed for hundreds of years. How this tradition started is unknown, but people who succeed in kissing the stone are said to be given the gift of eloquence. One legend describes an old woman who was rescued from drowning by the king of Munster. She rewarded him by casting a spell on a stone that would give him magical speaking abilities whenever he kissed it. Another story tells of a past ruler of the castle, Dermont McCarthy, who was noted for never giving up his castle to Queen Elizabeth I. McCarthy was expected to give the castle to the Queen as a sign of his loyalty, however, he always seemed to have an excuse to put it off. He was said to have had convincing and eloquent reasons for postponing his gift, thus the Queen began to call it "Blarney talk. '' The word Blarney now means "the ability to influence and coax with fair words and soft speech without giving offense. '' This led to the belief that anyone who kissed the stone would receive McCarthy 's skill or the "gift of the gab, '' as locals call it. Many have traveled to become more eloquent including Sir Walter Scott, world leaders, American presidents, and international entertainers. They all come for this promise: kiss the Blarney Stone, and "you 'll never again be lost for words. '' (4)
It is a Christmas custom for a couple who meet under a mistletoe to kiss. Mistletoe is commonly used as a Christmas decoration, though such use was rarely alluded to until the 18th century. The tradition has spread throughout the English - speaking world but is largely unknown in the rest of Europe. It was described in 1820 by American author Washington Irving in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent.:
The mistletoe is still hung up in farm - houses and kitchens at Christmas, and the young men have the privilege of kissing the girls under it, plucking each time a berry from the bush. When the berries are all plucked the privilege ceases.
Some claim that the origin of the tradition of kissing under the mistletoe goes back to ancient Norse mythology. According to the myth, a goddess named Frigg had a son named Baldr. When he was born, she made all plants unable to hurt him. Yet she overlooked the mistletoe plant, and a god known for his mischief, Loki, tricked another god into killing Baldr with a spear made of mistletoe. The gods eventually brought Baldr back to life, and Frigg declared that mistletoe would bring love rather than death into the world. People then kissed under the mistletoe to obey the goddess, as well as to remember Baldr 's resurrection.
Another theory is that the tradition originated in the ancient Babylonian - Assyrian Empire. Single women apparently stood under mistletoe hung outside the temple for the goddess of beauty and love. They were expected to bond with the first man that approached them - but they did not kiss. Historically, mistletoe was seen as a supernatural, healing plant. It was believed to promote fertility, and its leaves were said to be an aphrodisiac. Mistletoe was once a part of marriage ceremonies for this reason, and was placed under couples ' beds for good luck. The tradition later was found in England, when young men would kiss women standing under the mistletoe, and would pluck a berry from the bush after each kiss. After all the berries were gone, it was bad luck to continue kissing under that bush. It is important to remember that during this period a kiss was taken very seriously - it was usually seen as a promise of marriage.
In some Western cultures, it is a custom for people to kiss at the stroke of midnight on New Year 's Eve. Some hold the superstition that failing to kiss someone ensures a year of loneliness.
When celebrating at a Scottish Hogmanay party, it is custom to try to give a kiss to everyone in the room after the stroke of midnight "the bells ''.
It is a Western custom for a newly married couple to exchange a kiss at the conclusion of their wedding ceremony. Some Christians hold the belief that the kiss symbolizes the exchange of souls between the bride and the groom, fulfilling the scripture that "the two shall become one flesh. '' However, some trace the tradition to an ancient Roman tradition, whereby the exchange of a kiss signified the completion of a contract. Although the kiss is not a formal requirement of the ceremony, most regard the gesture as a joyful start of the marriage. The most traditional way guests entice the new couple to kiss is by clinking their glasses. An ancient Christian tradition explains that the clinking sound scares the devil away and the couple kisses in his absence. Another tradition is to ring bells placed at the tables by the wedding party. A ring of the bell signals the bride and groom to kiss.
Child and teenage culture includes a number of simple songs about kissing, love and romance, with some revolving around heartbreak and others focussing on enduring love. One of the most famous songs is a children 's song often used to tease other children who are thought to feel affection toward each other:
(name) and (name) sitting in a tree K-I-S-S-I-N-G First comes love, then comes marriage Then comes a baby in a baby carriage
Kissing out of honor, respect, and even forgiveness is a tradition that is incorporated into many Christian denominations. The kissing of icons, painted images of Jesus and the saints, is the primary form of veneration in Orthodox Christianity. Veneration of the holy images is an ancient custom dating back to the 5th and 6th centuries, and is still practiced today in Orthodox Christian worship. Through veneration, Orthodox Christians show reverence for the people and the events depicted in the icon.
Another Christian kissing tradition is known as the "kiss of peace. '' This tradition is traced to Apostle Paul 's instruction for Christians to "greet each other with a holy kiss ''. (Romans 16: 16) However, today during the "kiss of peace '' ritual members will substitute a handshake, hug, or kiss on the cheek as a sign of mutual forgiveness.
Kissing of feet is an important Christian religious ritual. Feet washing, which precedes the kissing, is a sign of humility and is looked upon as an "act of lowly service, of loving service, and of self - giving service. '' This caring act "reflects the grace of God 's never - ending, unconditional love and, as such, its observance is surely a means of grace with exceedingly strong sacramental characteristics. '' Jesus washed the feet of his disciples and then commanded them to "wash one another 's feet '' (John 13: 12) with love and humbleness as a service through which one can express "the love of God and the saving, cleansing grace of our savior Jesus Christ to each other. '' After cleansing, a kiss would be bestowed on the feet as an act of servitude. By performing the actions of the lowliest servant, Jesus demonstrated what kind of servant - based leadership was expected from his disciples.
Judas was said to have betrayed Jesus with a kiss - condemning him to death.
Kissing the Ring of the Fisherman (in Italian, the pescatorio) is a centuries - old Roman Catholic tradition. Each newly elected Pope is given a gold ring with his name in raised lettering and the image of St. Peter in a fishing boat. The title Pope (Latin: papa; from Greek: πάππας pappas, a child 's word for father) is an informal name for the bishop of Rome, the first of whom was believed to be the apostle Peter, who was known as one of the "fishers of men '' (Mark 1: 17). Originally the ring was used to seal documents, historically called papal briefs. However, this custom ended in 1842 when the wax seal was replaced by a stamp. Today, Roman Catholics pay respect to the reigning Pope by kneeling before him and kissing his ring.
Kissing the hand or ring of a bishop (in Italian, the baciamano) is an ancient custom.
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polka in heaven there is no beer lyrics | In Heaven There is No beer - Wikipedia
"In Heaven There Is No Beer '' is a song about the existential pleasures of beer drinking. The title of the song is the reason for drinking beer while you are still alive. The song in German is "Im Himmel gibt 's kein Bier '', in Spanish, "En El Cielo No Hay Cerveza ''. It was originally composed as a movie score for the film Die Fischerin vom Bodensee, 1956, by Ernst Neubach and Ralph Maria Siegel. The English lyrics are credited to Art Walunas.
Atongo Zimba recorded a version as well as Dr. Demento. The song was the inspiration for the title of the 1984 film and 1985 Sundance Film Festival winner, In Heaven There Is No Beer?, which also featured the song "Who Stole the Kishka? ''. A version with different lyrics, titled "Es gibt kein Bier auf Hawaii '' ("There Is No Beer in Hawaii '') was performed by the German singer Paul Kuhn in 1963.
A version of the song by the Amherst, MA band Clean Living became a hit in 1972.
another version of the song is The Happs. A Jamaican ska band
In heaven there is no beer. That 's why we drink it here (Right Here!) and when we 're gone from here, our friends will be drinking all the beer! Im Himmel gibt 's kein Bier, Drum trinken wir es hier. Denn sind wir nicht mehr hier, Dann trinken die andern unser Bier.
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who did texas vote for in the 2016 election | United States presidential Election in Texas, 2016 - wikipedia
Trump
Clinton
Barack Obama Democratic
Donald Trump Republican
The 2016 United States presidential election in Texas was won by Republican Donald Trump and his running mate Mike Pence by an 8.99 % margin over Democrats Hillary Clinton and Tim Kaine, part of the November 8, 2016 General Election. Texas assigns its 38 Electoral College votes to the state 's popular vote winner, but two faithless electors chose other candidates, making Texas the only state in 2016 to give Trump less than the assigned electoral votes.
When the electoral college met on December 19, 2016, only 36 out of the 38 electors voted for Trump for President. Two electors defected, one to Ohio Governor John Kasich, and the other to Congressman Ron Paul. For Vice President, 37 electors voted for Pence, and one for Carly Fiorina.
The primary of March 1, 2016 included the Green Party, in addition to the two major parties.
Hillary Clinton lost Texas by a smaller margin than any Democrat since 1996 (though Barack Obama got a larger percentage of the vote in 2008), which analysts attributed to ongoing demographic changes. Trump also became the 10th Republican in a row to carry the state.
The Texas Democratic Party held their state 's primary in concurrence with the other Super Tuesday contests on March 1. Eight candidates appeared on the ballot, Hillary Clinton, Bernie Sanders, dropped - out candidate Martin O'Malley and five minor candidates (Rocky De La Fuente, Willie Wilson, Star Locke, Keith Russell Judd and Calvis Hawes.) The Texas Democratic primary had 251 delegates to the Democratic National Convention; 222 pledged delegates and 29 super delegates. 145 delegates were allocated proportionally based on the results in the state 's 31 senatorial districts. The other 77 pledged delegates were allocated proportionally based on the statewide popular vote.
February 24, 2016 -- Houston, Texas Megyn Kelly hosted a two - hour town hall event on The Kelly File with Kasich, Cruz, Rubio, and Carson in attendance. Trump did not participate in the forum.
February 25, 2016 -- Houston, Texas
After the caucus in Nevada, the tenth debate was held at the University of Houston in Houston and broadcast by CNN as its third of four debates, in conjunction with Telemundo. The debate aired five days before 14 states vote on Super Tuesday, March 1. While the debate was to be held in partnership with Telemundo 's English - language counterpart NBC, RNC Chairman Reince Priebus announced on October 30, 2015, that it had suspended the partnership in response to CNBC 's "bad faith '' in handling the October 28, 2015, debate. On January 18, 2016, the RNC announced that CNN would replace NBC News as the main host of the debate, in partnership with Telemundo and Salem Communications (CNN 's conservative media partner). The debate was shifted a day earlier at the same time. National Review was disinvited by the Republican National Committee from co-hosting the debate over its criticism of GOP front - runner Donald Trump. On February 19, the criteria for invitation to the debate was announced: in addition to having official statements of candidacy with the Federal Election Commission and accepting the rules of the debate, candidates must have received at least 5 % support in one of the first four election contests held in Iowa, New Hampshire, South Carolina, and Nevada. By these criteria, all five remaining candidates, Carson, Cruz, Kasich, Rubio, and Trump, qualified for invitation to the debate. The 155 delegates to the Republican National Convention were allocated in this way. 108 delegates are allocated by congressional district; 3 per district. If a candidate gets over 50 % of the vote in a congressional district; they would win all of the district 's 3 delegates. If no one had a majority and one candidate had at least 20 % of the vote, the candidate winning the plurality would get 2 delegates and the candidate in second place would get 1 delegate. If nobody receives at least 20 % of the vote, the top 3 vote - getters each get 1 delegate. There were another 47 at - large delegates. If someone received more than 50 % of the vote, they would get all of the at - large delegates. If no one got more than 50 % of the vote and there were at least 2 candidates that got over 20 % of the vote, the delegates would be allocated proportionally among the candidates receiving more than 20 % of the vote. If only one candidate got over 20 % of the vote and not a majority, the delegates would be allocated between the candidate that got over 20 % of the vote and the candidate who received the 2nd most amount of votes. If no candidate got 20 %, they would allocate all of the 47 at - large delegates proportionally.
The Texas Green Party held its elections at conventions at the precinct level on March 8, the county level on March 12, and the district level on March 19, leading up to the state nominating convention in Grey Forest, Texas on April 9 and 10.
On April 10 it was announced Jill Stein had won the convention.
The last time Texas voted for a Democratic candidate was the 1976 Presidential election when Jimmy Carter won 51.14 % of the popular vote. Hispanic participation can create a very interesting and unpredictable outcome, especially on the Democratic statewide tickets since they lean heavily Democratic. The Hispanic turnout has increased by approximately 200,000 for each and every presidential election since 2000.
The following are final 2016 predictions from various organizations for Texas as of Election Day.
Continuing the Republican 10 - cycle winning streak in Texas, Trump 's winning margin was down from Mitt Romney 's 16 % in 2012 to 8.99 %, a 7.01 % drop, making 2016 the closest Democrats had come to winning Texas since 1996. However, the Democrats also received a smaller percentage of the vote in Texas in this election than in the 2008 presidential election. This can partly be attributed to a growing population of Hispanics / Latinos, along with cities and their respective suburbs in the Texas Triangle region swinging more Democratic than in 2012. These were Clinton 's main voter sources. She had swept the Rio Grande region counties, such as El Paso, Webb. Hidalgo and Cameron in the state as they have sizable Hispanic populations. Clinton also took the highly liberal and fast growing Travis County (Austin), as well as the urban and minority - heavy counties of Bexar (San Antonio), Dallas, and in Harris County (Houston), where she turned the historically thin vote margins of previous cycles into a 12 - point lead. Places that had large amounts of young voters in the state were a stronghold for Clinton as well.
Hillary Clinton became the first Democratic presidential candidate to win the rapidly diversifying Fort Bend County since Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964, and flipped rural South Texas Kenedy County back into the Democratic column after narrowly voting for Mitt Romney in 2012. Donald Trump, meanwhile, very narrowly carried Jefferson County in East Texas for the first time since Richard Nixon in 1972.
In total, Clinton beat Trump in 27 counties by a total of 883,819 votes, and had the best percentage performance than any other Democrat running statewide. Conversely, Trump, who won 227 of the state 's 254 counties, got the smallest percentage of the vote than all other Republicans running in the state.
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what is pennys last name in big bang | Penny (the Big Bang Theory) - wikipedia
Penny is a fictional character on the American CBS sitcom The Big Bang Theory, portrayed by actress Kaley Cuoco. She is the primary female character in the series, befriending her across - the - hall neighbors Leonard Hofstadter (Johnny Galecki) and Sheldon Cooper (Jim Parsons), two physicists who work at the nearby California Institute of Technology (Caltech). Penny 's lack of advanced education, but outgoing personality and common sense drastically contrast with the personalities of the primary male characters in the series, even though she is considered part of their group. She is the love interest of Leonard, with whom she maintains a brief romantic relationship during the third season, which is later resumed in the fifth season and culminates in an engagement at the end of the seventh season and their wedding at the start of season 9. Penny is the only main character of the show whose last name has not been revealed, although she has been occasionally referred to or addressed with the last name Hofstadter since her wedding.
Originally from a small town outside of Omaha, Nebraska, Penny has aspirations of becoming an actress. Until season 7, she worked as a waitress at the local Cheesecake Factory. She is a Sagittarius, born on December 2. She has full confidence in horoscopes and psychics, which has led to arguments with Sheldon and Leonard about their accuracy.
In contrast to the rest of the group, Penny is not well educated nor savvy in a specific technical field, but she has great social skills and is more streetwise than her neighbors. She is very knowledgeable about popular culture. She is messy and disorganized but appears to like it that way. Having dropped out of community college prior to the start of the series, she is the only regular character with less education than Howard Wolowitz, who has a master 's degree. She initially feels insulted when Leonard shows her a list of community colleges to go to at the beginning of season 2, but in season 6, she does go back to college, taking a history class. By the middle of the season, she is also taking an acting class, and at the beginning of season 7, she is taking a psychology class as well. Despite her weak education, she is insightful. While Sheldon routinely disparages both Penny 's and Howard 's educations, he occasionally acknowledges her intelligence and potential, though he rarely treats Howard so. He has also asked for her advice more than once regarding various social situations.
Leonard has likened her to The Hulk when she gets angry, while Sheldon once said to recurring character Stuart Bloom that she would "maul (him) like a rabid wolverine '' if Stuart woke her up from a sound sleep.
A recurring theme is Penny 's poor driving. She fails to service her vehicle regularly, and ignores her check engine light, which has been mentioned in multiple episodes. She once left her car 's passenger side wing mirror in a parking lot. She once hit a Mercedes in a parking lot and left without leaving a note. She also inadvertently reveals that she knocked the mirror off Bernadette 's car and did not leave a note. When her car 's engine finally fails in Season 7, Leonard buys her a new one so she can go to auditions and pursue her dream of becoming an actress. In Season 8, after finding a job as a highly paid pharmaceutical sales representative at Bernadette 's company, she obtains a company car and sells the one Leonard bought for her, returning him the money.
In the fifth - season episode "The Speckerman Recurrence '', it is revealed that Penny was a bully during her time at school. However, she seems to be genuinely unaware of the hurt her actions caused, and upon her realization, she attempts to make amends with a classmate she tormented, with little success.
A recurring personality trait is her consumption of alcohol, specifically wine. In "The Flaming Spittoon Acquisition '', Penny, while spending the evening with Bernadette and Amy, observes that they have finished the bottle of wine, and when Bernadette and Amy point out that they consumed only half a glass and no wine at all, respectively, Penny snaps, "Okay, do n't judge me! So, what do you want to do, go to the movies, go dancing, lay down for a little bit? '' At the end of that episode, she passes out while the three of them play Twister, and when Bernadette initially fails to revive her, she says "Penny, we 're out of wine '', which manages to wake Penny. In "The Intimacy Acceleration '', Sheldon asks her, "If you could wake up tomorrow having gained any one quality or ability, what would it be? '' Penny replied, "Well, not to steal from the Bible, but turning water into wine sounds pretty good. ''. In "The Locomotive Manipulation '', Leonard declines Amy 's suggestion that the group spend a weekend in Napa Valley, leading to this exchange:
A staple of the series ' humor is Penny 's awkward interactions with Sheldon, which are fueled by the fact that they are almost polar opposites in terms of intellect and social aptitude.
In one episode, Sheldon tries to "improve '' Penny, rewarding her with chocolate for what he considers "correct behavior '', as in operant conditioning of lab rats. Leonard noticed it and accused Sheldon of modifying her like Pavlov 's dogs. Although the two characters sometimes clash, and Penny is frequently irritated by Sheldon 's obstinacy and lack of social awareness, she has developed an affection for him. She and Leonard occasionally talk and behave as if Sheldon were their child (once alluded to in season 11 's "The Collaboration Contamination '' when Penny actually uses a parenting book of Bernadette 's on Sheldon), and Penny is very pleased whenever Sheldon acts tenderly towards her. Penny often calls Sheldon "sweetie '', a term of endearment she frequently uses with other characters (a fact that Sheldon has himself pointed out), and Penny and Amy are the only principal characters who ever openly demonstrate their genuine fondness for Sheldon.
Evidence of Penny 's affection for Sheldon is apparent in various episodes. Penny takes care of Sheldon while he is ill and lets him stay at her apartment when he is locked out of his, or if he has a bad dream or is feeling unsafe; Sheldon lent her money when she needed it and takes care of her when she dislocates her shoulder. Despite not being as well versed as the men in geek culture, Penny has shown attention to what each of her friends likes, although she still remains dismissive of them: during a Christmas episode, Penny gives Sheldon a signed napkin autographed by Leonard Nimoy. In return, Sheldon gives Penny several baskets of bath products and then a long hug, to both her and Leonard 's surprise. When Sheldon 's World of Warcraft account is hacked and the four men all back down from the much larger hacker who also steals Sheldon 's Klingon Bat'leth, Penny kicks the hacker in the groin. Following her breakup with Leonard, Penny takes Sheldon along when she and some friends from work went to Disneyland, for which he is thankful. In the same episode, "The Spaghetti Catalyst '', she notes that she takes Sheldon shopping for his linens. (This episode also shows her and Leonard acting like a divorced couple and Sheldon is their "son '', a dynamic that recurs in successive seasons). She has also helped Sheldon resolve conflicts with Amy, as in "The Shiny Trinket Maneuver ''.
In "The Panty Pinata Polarization '' Penny has a fight with Sheldon as he banishes her from his apartment and using their Wi - Fi as she got "three strikes ''. She defends herself by refusing to take down his order at the restaurant and then ruins his weekly Saturday laundry night but then he puts Penny 's underwear on the telephone wire. After having a heated argument with his mother, Sheldon apologises to Penny and then they make amends with one another.
Sheldon has also acknowledged that he likes Penny, although he claims this was only because he was forced to because Leonard "made him '', and that Sheldon liking her was a "hard row to hoe '', although in "The Intimacy Acceleration '' Sheldon has admitted that he considers Penny a sisterly or motherly figure.
A number of episodes depict Penny 's assimilation of nerd culture through her relationship with the men, and has developed to quote some science fiction shows (like Star Trek), and movies (Star Wars). After Sheldon introduces her to the online role - playing game Age of Conan, Penny becomes addicted, to the point of ignoring her friends, her hygiene, her general appearance and her job, and pesters Sheldon incessantly for gaming advice. She finally overcomes her addiction when she realizes she has agreed to go on a virtual date within the game with Howard.
In episodes such as "The Apology Insufficiency '', "The Dead Hooker Juxtaposition '', "The Wheaton Recurrence '' and "The Love Car Displacement '', she makes casual references to Star Trek. In "The Bakersfield Expedition '', Penny, Amy and Bernadette read some of the men 's comics, believing there is nothing interesting in them, only to get into a huge heated argument about whether or not only Thor could wield his enchanted hammer Mjolnir. In season 7 's "The Proton Transmogrification '', she alarms herself when she realizes that she understands Raj and Howard 's corny Star Wars - related puns.
Penny sometimes references science and technology - related ideas. In "The Codpiece Topology '', Penny, having previously learned of Schrödinger 's cat in "The Tangerine Factor '', is seen explaining that concept to her date. In "The Beta Test Initiation '', Penny references beta testing when Leonard uses a software development analogy, to describe their attempt to start a romantic relationship again, although he points out he was technically talking about alpha testing. In "The Veracity Elasticity '' she demonstrates fluency in Ubbi Dubbi by having a secret conversation with Amy Farrah Fowler in front of Sheldon and Leonard, when the guys are having their own secret conversation in Klingon.
A recurring theme throughout the series is Penny 's ongoing financial problems. This is seen in "The Financial Permeability '', when she finds herself behind on her bills, and borrows money from Sheldon, only to later become paranoid that he is pestering her for repayment, even though he makes no such indications of this - he misinterprets Penny 's paranoia and even offers her more money, while Leonard points out that one of the few things about Sheldon that is n't insufferable is that he genuinely does n't care about how long it will take to repay the money. More subtle references are seen in the fact that she once attempted to pay for her electric bill using a Starbucks gift card, an apology note and pictures of her in underwear.
A subset of this trait is addressed by other characters is her freeloading. In the second - season episode "The Financial Permeability '', when Penny is short on money, Leonard pays for her share of a group dinner, which causes Raj and Howard to joke that they would get free food too if they wore skintight jeans and a tank top. A recurring gag in the fourth season is Sheldon 's frequent change of his and Leonard 's Wi - Fi password to address Penny 's use of their signal. In "The Thespian Catalyst '', he changes the password to "Penny is a freeloader '', in "The Roommate Transmogrification '' he has changed it to "Penny, get your own Wi - Fi '', and in the episode "The Speckerman Recurrence '', he has changed it into "Penny already eats our food, she can pay for Wi - Fi ''. In the seventh season "The Convention Conundrum '', when the women go out for drinks, and ponder their own maturity, and Penny questions the significance of that trait, Bernadette replies that it would mean that their check would be split three ways.
Penny 's financial situation takes a turn at the start of season eight, when she lands a job in "The Locomotion Interruption '' as a sales representative at the pharmaceutical company at which Bernadette works. By "The Expedition Approximation '', she is making enough money to be financially self - sufficient, able to sell the automobile Leonard previously gave her ("The Friendship Turbulence '') and gives him back the money for it -- changing their dynamic and leading to discussions on whether her future financial windfalls may prove difficult for him, given his insecurities. This situation was later exacerbated when it was revealed that Penny now actually earns significantly more than Leonard.
In the season nine episode "The Big Bear Precipitation '', Penny reveals she hates her job as a representative but sticks with it because she still has large debts and also does not want to go back to waitressing or acting.
In "The Maternal Capacitance '', Penny reveals that her father Wyatt (Keith Carradine) tried to raise her like a boy, which is a source of pain for her, leading her to have father issues. When she and Leonard begin dating, Wyatt comes to appreciate that she is dating an accomplished academic, rather than an uneducated hick, so much so that when he visits Penny in the fourth - season episode "The Boyfriend Complexity '' following her and Leonard 's breakup, it is revealed that she has not revealed the breakup to her father. When she later informs Wyatt of the breakup, Wyatt secretly encourages Leonard to not give up on her. In contrast to all other characters, Penny and her father 's last name have not been revealed. Co-creator Bill Prady stated that Penny 's last name will be revealed eventually. Executive producer Steve Molaro, however, has since stated her last name will remain a secret.
In an early episode, Penny talked to Raj about her sister having shot her brother - in - law. In another episode, Penny accompanied the men to the comic book store to shop for a gift for her 13 - year - old nephew. In "The Boyfriend Complexity '' (4 -- 9), Wyatt (Penny 's father) tells Leonard he wants grandchildren one day, "and I want them to grow up on a house without wheels ''. In "The Dumpling Paradox '', Penny has an unwanted guest, Christy, staying with her who had slept with her brother while being engaged to her cousin, saying, "she 's kind of family ''. Christy knows Penny from back in Omaha and, according to Penny, she slept with nearly every man in the city, earning her the nickname "Whore of Omaha ''. While staying with Penny, Christy sleeps with Howard.
In the Season 5 episode "The Pulled Groin Extrapolation '', after Penny quickly grabs and eats the last dumpling of a group dinner after a brief disagreement over who should get it, Sheldon makes the sarcastic comment, "I 've seen pictures of your mother. Keep eating '', a reference to Penny 's mother 's weight, that clearly unsettles her. In "The Flaming Spittoon Acquisition '', Penny confesses to Bernadette that her mother smoked pot while she was pregnant with her.
Penny has mentioned having a sister who appears to be the mother of her 13 - year - old nephew mentioned in Season 2. In "The Bachelor Party Corrosion '', Penny tells Bernadette, Amy and viewers that at her sister 's wedding she was heavily pregnant since she and their father started a father - daughter dance and then her water broke.
Penny has mentioned having a brother on parole, who she says is "kind of a chemist ''. In "The Rhinitis Revelation '' (5 -- 6), she is more explicit in revealing that he is in the practice of cooking crystal meth. She mentions that he is back in prison for 12 -- 18 months, depending on his behavior, in the seventh - season finale, "The Status Quo Combustion ''.
Penny 's mother Susan, who Penny has occasionally spoken with on the phone in prior episodes (usually about other family members), finally appears in the Season 10 premiere episode "The Conjugal Conjecture '', portrayed by Katey Sagal. She is shown to be very embarrassed by her family 's shortcomings: her son 's criminal record and jailing, Wyatt 's drinking, and their overall humble existence as a farming family. Although she has previously met Leonard and likes him, she is uncomfortable about meeting his academic parents, not wanting them to think of her family as "white trash ''. She goes to great lengths to present them in the best possible light, including buying dental implants for her son.
Until the seventh season, Penny 's main job was as a waitress at her local The Cheesecake Factory, although in the first - season episode "The Grasshopper Experiment '' she trained as a bartender. It seemed that she occasionally picked up the bartending shift in the restaurant. In 2010, when actress Kaley Cuoco broke her leg, Penny was shown working as a bartender in several season 4 episodes to hide the cast on her leg.
Her work at The Cheesecake Factory, was initially meant to be a temporary job for her desired profession as an actress, although her expectations are somewhat high and naive at the beginning. She admits in season two that her plan was to be a waitress for six months and then become a movie star, and her back - up plan was to become a TV star. She regularly goes to castings, but often ends up unsuccessful, or finding the role being auditioned to be quite different from what she expected, as was the case when she thought she was auditioning for a cat food commercial and it instead turned out to be a casting for a pornographic film. In the season one episode "The Loobenfeld Decay '', she is cast in a production of Rent, and in "The Terminator Decoupling '' she refers to another of her roles as "Anne Frank in a theater above a bowling alley ''. Frustrated with her acting career, in the season five premiere, she briefly considers returning to Nebraska until landing a part in a commercial for hemorrhoid cream. In "The Monster Isolation '', Penny is seen performing the role of Blanche DuBois in her acting class ' production of A Streetcar Named Desire. In this episode Sheldon, who attended the show along with Leonard and Amy, is impressed with Penny 's ability to memorize lines, but still could n't remember customers ' orders as a waitress. In the season seven premiere, she was revealed to have had a topless shower scene in a low budget horror film named "Serial Apeist '' when she first moved to California, which she did not realise had been uploaded to the internet until Sheldon revealed it was available online and the gang saw it on the day they met her.
In the season seven episode "The Hesitation Ramification '', Penny believes she has finally found stardom when she lands a brief role in NCIS. She is devastated when her scene is cut, but later decides it is time to focus solely on acting; she quits her job at The Cheesecake Factory to devote herself to become an actress.
Despite usually going to her neighbors for technical assistance when she has problems with her computer, Penny does have some mechanical skills of her own. When she was a child, she rebuilt a tractor engine on the farm where she grew up and competed in a junior rodeo.
During season eight, Penny gives up her acting career and gets a job as a salesperson at Bernadette 's pharmaceutical company. The next season has Penny admitting that she hates her job flirting with her customers for sales.
Unlike the rest of the main characters, Penny is very outgoing and assertive, and has many romantic relationships over the course of the series. She often dates, and in one way or another all the men have gone to her for dating advice. In the fourth season opener, Sheldon estimates that Penny has dated 193 men, and had sex with 31 of them. Penny strenuously denies it was ever that many. Amy asks Penny in the same conversation if, in light of her sex partners, she considers herself a "slut '', Penny responds uncertainly, "No. No... No? ''
In the series premiere, Penny moves in across the hall from Leonard and Sheldon because of her recent split from her boyfriend, Kurt, after living together for four years. She says she still loves him, even though he cheated on her. Kurt makes two more appearances in the series.
From the beginning, Leonard 's infatuation with Penny becomes a major force that drives the series. Howard also shows interest in her (primarily sexual), but he is always rejected abruptly due to his unsettling approaches. Although Penny occasionally teases Raj for his inability to speak to her, she is sympathetic and kind towards him, and as with Sheldon, she almost always overlooks his idiosyncrasies and appreciates that his intentions are good.
In the first - season episode "The Fuzzy Boots Corollary '', Penny describes her approach after a failed relationship: she picks up an attractive man to have rebound sex with over the course of a 36 - hour weekend, then leaves him.
In the first - season finale, Penny breaks up with her boyfriend after he posts intimate details about their private life on his blog. This gives Leonard the opportunity to ask her out on a first official date. Although the date is successful, Penny becomes worried after she lies to Leonard about graduating from community college (it is mentioned in a later episode, "The Cohabitation Formulation '', that she was enrolled in one, but dropped out). When Sheldon asks her why she lied, she indicates that she is self - conscious about her comparative level of education. Leonard eventually learns the truth, but makes matters worse when he tries to encourage Penny to enroll in Pasadena City College, as Penny interprets his suggestion as an insult to her intelligence, and rebuffs him.
In "The Maternal Capacitance '', Penny 's introduction to Leonard 's mother, Dr. Beverly Hofstadter, causes Penny and Leonard to seek comfort in each other. They nearly have sex, but when Leonard comments in bed that she was attracted to him because of a psychological need to be closer to her father, her revulsion at this causes her to rebuff him.
Afterwards, Penny dates Stuart, from the comic book store, but their dates do not lead to a relationship. The first time, Penny and Stuart are interrupted by Sheldon, who argues at length with Stuart over whether Dick Grayson or Jason Todd should be Batman 's successor, while Penny falls to sleep. Their dating ends in "The Classified Materials Turbulence '', when Penny and Stuart are kissing, and Penny mistakenly calls him "Leonard ''.
In the second - season finale Penny finally shows strong romantic feelings for Leonard. When she discovers that Leonard, Sheldon, Howard, and Raj will be spending three months at the magnetic North Pole for a scientific experiment, she becomes sad and gives Leonard a Snuggie and a long hug, that Leonard perceives as unusually long. Although Penny dismisses the meaning into which Leonard reads the gift and the hug, she later admits to herself that it meant that she did not want him to leave.
In the third - season premiere, after the men returned from the expedition, Penny kisses Leonard immediately upon his return, having missed him immensely. Initially, Leonard and Penny feel uncomfortable with their new relationship, and they agreed to remain only friends, but are unable to maintain this resolution and began a stable relationship. Their relationship sours, however, when Leonard tells Penny he loves her for the first time, and an unsure Penny simply replied, "Thank you. '' The resulting tension eventually led to Penny breaking up with Leonard during a bowling match. However, they remain friends and even sleep together once after breaking up after Penny gets drunk following a bad date with Zack Johnson, after she realizes Leonard ruined her ability to tolerate and date unintelligent men.
In the fourth season, Penny reveals to her friends Bernadette Rostenkowski and Amy Farrah Fowler during a "Truth or Dare? '' game that she has still not moved on from Leonard. This is further implied in "The Justice League Recombination '' when she indicates to Leonard that her reunion with Zack, and Zack 's decision to have the two of them join the men in dressing up as the Justice League for New Year 's Eve costume party at Stuart 's comic shop is made difficult by her history with Leonard. In "The Love Car Displacement '', Penny and the rest of the cast attend an academic conference in Big Sur. She and Leonard share the same hotel room for the night and they almost have sex until Raj walks in on them. The next day, bored with the conference, Penny accepts a ride back to Los Angeles from Professor Glenn, Bernadette 's tall and attractive ex-boyfriend. When Raj 's sister, Priya, returns in the episode "The Cohabitation Formulation '', Priya and Leonard begin a romantic relationship. Penny appears to be initially accepting of their relationship, but is later discovered by Amy to be heartbroken over it.
In the Season four finale, Penny reveals to Raj that she regrets breaking up with Leonard. However, even though she and Raj both agree to be friends, they get drunk and wake up in bed together, apparently both naked, the next morning. Leonard, Sheldon, and Howard discover Penny leaving the apartment, deducing that they just had sex. In the Season 5 premiere, Raj confides to her that they had not consummated their encounter, prompting Penny to refer to Raj as "Quickdraw '' because of that. She spends the rest of the episode with Amy, avoiding the men due to her embarrassment over her encounter with Raj
In "The Ornithophobia Diffusion '' Leonard and Penny go on a platonic date as friends, but after Leonard decides that he does not have to pay for everything or defer to her because they are not a couple, they end up bickering and sabotaging each other 's attempts to socialize with members of the opposite sex. Penny realizes that she finds Leonard 's more assertive demeanor attractive, but when he regresses to groveling in order to have sex with her, she rebuffs him.
On the spur of the moment in "The Recombination Hypothesis '', Leonard asks Penny out on a date after he imagines what getting back with her might be like. In "The Beta Test Initiation '', their date goes well until Leonard asks about the status of their relationship. This causes conflict, due to Penny 's subsequent admission that commitment frightens her, but they agree to take their relationship slowly. On a spur of the moment while having sex in "The Launch Acceleration '', however, Leonard proposes to her, causing Penny great distress. After discussing the matter, Penny declines his proposal, while affirming her feelings for him, and her desire to remain with him. In the season 6 episode "The Date Night Variable '', Leonard wants a reluctant Penny to define their relationship. In "The Decoupling Fluctuation '', she wonders if she is really in love with him, but can not bring herself to discuss it with Leonard. In "The Date Night Variable '', Raj shows up unannounced at a private dinner of Penny and Leonard 's, and inserts himself into their discussion of where their relationship is headed. When Leonard complains that Penny has yet to say "I love you '' to Leonard, Raj attempts to get her to say it, causing Penny to eject him from the apartment.
In "The 43 Peculiarity '', Leonard becomes jealous of Penny 's classmate, an attractive Englishman. At the end of the episode, Penny and Leonard discuss this, during which Penny casually mentions that she loves him, which Leonard notes is the first time she has said this to him. In "The Egg Salad Equivalency '' Penny learns that Sheldon 's attractive assistant Alex asked Leonard out to dinner and eventually admits to Leonard her own insecurity about their relationship. After a major argument with Sheldon, Leonard suggests moving in with Penny in "The Spoiler Alert Segmentation '', but she indicates that she is not ready for this. In "The Tangible Affection Proof '', Leonard again tries to propose to Penny on Valentine 's Day, but she expresses that she is not ready for this, and is unnerved by that level of commitment. They resolve that when she is ready to get married, she can propose to him. In "The Bon Voyage Reaction '', Penny deals with Leonard going off to Europe for a summer science assignment, resolving that they are more secure in their relationship.
In "The Hesitation Ramification '', Penny, inebriated and frustrated over the state of her acting career, proposes to Leonard, who is hesitant to answer, given the circumstances. Though this further frustrates Penny, she admits in the following episode, "The Occupation Recalibration '', that Leonard did the right thing.
By season 5, Penny has formed strong friendships with Doctors Amy Farrah Fowler and Bernadette Rostenkowski, and the three are often seen spending time together. However, Amy and Bernadette occasionally prefer to meet without Penny, and often tease her incessantly.
In the penultimate episode of season 7, "The Gorilla Dissolution '', she and Leonard become engaged, after Penny realizes that it is not fame she wants out of life, but happiness with Leonard. Throughout season 8, a running gag is their reluctance to decide upon a wedding date. In the season 8 finale, Penny asks Leonard to marry her that night in Las Vegas. Leonard happily accepts, but during the journey, after Penny expresses happiness that they will get married while knowing everything about each other, Leonard confesses to having shared a drunken kiss with another woman while on the boat in Europe, though he adds that the woman started it and he rejected her. Penny becomes hurt by the revelation, and even though she claims to forgive Leonard, there is clearly tension between them, leaving the season ending in a cliffhanger as to whether or not they will go through with the wedding.
At the beginning of season 9, Leonard and Penny marry, although not without some initial problems. They both reveal that they were subconsciously trying to sabotage their relationship, feeling unworthy of the other. After an aborted attempt for Leonard to move into Penny 's apartment and live with his wife, Sheldon forces them to spend most of the nights a week in Leonard 's old room. Although CBS now refers to the character with the married name Penny Hofstadter, it has not been explicitly indicated in series whether she took Leonard 's surname. In season 10, Sheldon moves into Penny 's old apartment with Amy allowing Penny and Leonard to live on their own as husband and wife.
In the original, unaired pilot of the series, the conception of the female lead was very different. She was called Katie, and was envisioned as "a street - hardened, tough - as - nails woman with a vulnerable interior ''. Sheldon and Leonard would "approach her with honesty, to draw the real, sensitive Katie out ''. The role was played by Amanda Walsh. However, the test audiences reacted to the character negatively, seeing her as too mean. Because of this, the character was changed, and the role was recast.
Tom Jicha of the South Florida Sun - Sentinel praised Cuoco 's portrayal of Penny, stating: "Her character had the potential to be a bimbo, but she (Cucco) has developed it into a fully fleshed - out woman, who is n't as book - smart as the other characters but is wiser in so many ways. She 's also a great straight person, who can get off zingers of her own ''.
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the principal american scholar and researcher behind reader response theory is | Reader - response criticism - wikipedia
Reader - response criticism is a school of literary theory that focuses on the reader (or "audience '') and their experience of a literary work, in contrast to other schools and theories that focus attention primarily on the author or the content and form of the work.
Although literary theory has long paid some attention to the reader 's role in creating the meaning and experience of a literary work, modern reader - response criticism began in the 1960s and ' 70s, particularly in the US and Germany, in work by Norman Holland, Stanley Fish, Wolfgang Iser, Hans - Robert Jauss, Roland Barthes, and others. Important predecessors were I.A. Richards, who in 1929 analyzed a group of Cambridge undergraduates ' misreadings; Louise Rosenblatt, who, in Literature as Exploration (1938), argued that it is important for the teacher to avoid imposing any "preconceived notions about the proper way to react to any work ''; and C.S. Lewis in An Experiment in Criticism (1961).
Reader - response theory recognizes the reader as an active agent who imparts "real existence '' to the work and completes its meaning through interpretation. Reader - response criticism argues that literature should be viewed as a performing art in which each reader creates their own, possibly unique, text - related performance. It stands in total opposition to the theories of formalism and the New Criticism, in which the reader 's role in re-creating literary works is ignored. New Criticism had emphasized that only that which is within a text is part of the meaning of a text. No appeal to the authority or intention of the author, nor to the psychology of the reader, was allowed in the discussions of orthodox New Critics.
There are multiple approaches within the theoretical branch of reader - response criticism, yet all are unified in their belief that the meaning of a text is derived from the reader through the reading process. Lois Tyson endeavors to define the variations into five recognized reader - response criticism approaches whilst warning that categorizing reader - response theorists explicitly invites difficultly due to their overlapping beliefs and practices. Transactional reader - response theory, led by Louise Rosenblatt and supported by Wolfgang Iser, involves a transaction between the text 's inferred meaning and the individual interpretation by the reader influenced by their personal emotions and knowledge. Affective stylistics, established by Fish, believe that a text can only come into existence as it is read; therefore, a text can not have meaning independent of the reader. Subjective reader - response theory, associated with David Bleich, looks entirely to the reader 's response for literary meaning as individual written responses to a text are then compared to other individual interpretations to find continuity of meaning. Psychological reader - response theory, employed by Norman Holland, believes that a reader 's motives heavily affect how they read, and subsequently use this reading to analyze the psychological response of the reader. Social reader - response theory is Stanley Fish 's extension of his earlier work, stating that any individual interpretation of a text is created in an interpretive community of minds consisting of participants who share a specific reading and interpretation strategy. In all interpretive communities, readers are predisposed to a particular form of interpretation as a consequence of strategies used at the time of reading.
An alternative way of organizing reader - response theorists is to separate them into three groups: those who focus upon the individual reader 's experience ("individualists ''); those who conduct psychological experiments on a defined set of readers ("experimenters ''); and those who assume a fairly uniform response by all readers ("uniformists ''). One can therefore draw a distinction between reader - response theorists who see the individual reader driving the whole experience and others who think of literary experience as largely text - driven and uniform (with individual variations that can be ignored). The former theorists, who think the reader controls, derive what is common in a literary experience from shared techniques for reading and interpreting which are, however, individually applied by different readers. The latter, who put the text in control, derive commonalities of response, obviously, from the literary work itself. The most fundamental difference among reader - response critics is probably, then, between those who regard individual differences among readers ' responses as important and those who try to get around them.
In the 1960s, David Bleich 's pedagogically inspired literary theory entailed that the text is the reader 's interpretation of it as it exists in their mind, and that an objective reading is not possible due to the symbolization and resymbolization process. The symbolization and resymbolization process consists of how an individual 's personal emotions, needs and life experiences affect how a reader engages with a text; marginally altering the meaning. Bleich supported his theory by conducting a study with his students in which they recorded their individual meaning of a text as they experienced it, then response to their own initial written response, before comparing it with other student 's responses to collectively establish literary significance according to the classes "generated '' knowledge of how particular persons recreate texts. He used this knowledge to theorize about the reading process and to refocus the classroom teaching of literature.
Michael Steig and Walter Slatoff have, like Bleich, shown that students ' highly personal responses can provide the basis for critical analyses in the classroom. Jeffrey Berman has encouraged students responding to texts to write anonymously and share with their classmates writings in response to literary works about sensitive subjects like drugs, suicidal thoughts, death in the family, parental abuse and the like. A kind of catharsis bordering on therapy results. In general, American reader - response critics have focused on individual readers ' responses. American magazines like Reading Research Quarterly and others publish articles applying reader - response theory to the teaching of literature.
In 1961, C.S. Lewis published An Experiment in Criticism, in which he analyzed readers ' role in selecting literature. He analyzed their selections in light of their goals in reading.
In 1967, Stanley Fish published Surprised by Sin, the first study of a large literary work (Paradise Lost) that focused on its readers ' experience. In an appendix, "Literature in the Reader '', Fish used "the '' reader to examine responses to complex sentences sequentially, word - by - word. Since 1976, however, he has turned to real differences among real readers. He explores the reading tactics endorsed by different critical schools, by the literary professoriate, and by the legal profession, introducing the idea of "interpretive communities '' that share particular modes of reading.
In 1968, Norman Holland drew on psychoanalytic psychology in The Dynamics of Literary Response to model the literary work. Each reader introjects a fantasy "in '' the text, then modifies it by defense mechanisms into an interpretation. In 1973, however, having recorded responses from real readers, Holland found variations too great to fit this model in which responses are mostly alike but show minor individual variations.
Holland then developed a second model based on his case studies 5 Readers Reading. An individual has (in the brain) a core identity theme (behaviors then becoming understandable as a theme and variations as in music). This core gives that individual a certain style of being -- and reading. Each reader uses the physical literary work plus invariable codes (such as the shapes of letters) plus variable canons (different "interpretive communities '', for example) plus an individual style of reading to build a response both like and unlike other readers ' responses. Holland worked with others at the State University of New York at Buffalo, Murray Schwartz, David Willbern, and Robert Rogers, to develop a particular teaching format, the "Delphi seminar, '' designed to get students to "know themselves ''.
Reuven Tsur in Israel has developed in great detail models for the expressivity of poetic rhythms, of metaphor, and of word - sound in poetry (including different actors ' readings of a single line of Shakespeare). Richard Gerrig in the U.S. has experimented with the reader 's state of mind during and after a literary experience. He has shown how readers put aside ordinary knowledge and values while they read, treating, for example, criminals as heroes. He has also investigated how readers accept, while reading, improbable or fantastic things (Coleridge 's "willing suspension of disbelief ''), but discard them after they have finished.
In Canada, David Miall, usually working with Donald Kuiken, has produced a large body of work exploring emotional or "affective '' responses to literature, drawing on such concepts from ordinary criticism as "defamiliarization '' or "foregrounding ''. They have used both experiments and new developments in neuropsychology, and have developed a questionnaire for measuring different aspects of a reader 's response.
There are many other experimental psychologists around the world exploring readers ' responses, conducting many detailed experiments. One can research their work through their professional organizations, the International Society for the Empirical Study of Literature and Media, and International Association of Empirical Aesthetics, and through such psychological indices as PSYCINFO.
Two notable researchers are Dolf Zillmann and Peter Vorderer, both working in the field of communications and media psychology. Both have theorized and tested ideas about what produces emotions such as suspense, curiosity, surprise in readers, the necessary factors involved, and the role the reader plays. Jenefer Robinson, a researcher in emotion, has recently blended her studies on emotion with its role in literature, music, and art.
Wolfgang Iser exemplifies the German tendency to theorize the reader and so posit a uniform response. For him, a literary work is not an object in itself but an effect to be explained. But he asserts this response is controlled by the text. For the "real '' reader, he substitutes an implied reader, who is the reader a given literary work requires. Within various polarities created by the text, this "implied '' reader makes expectations, meanings, and the unstated details of characters and settings through a "wandering viewpoint ''. In his model, the text controls. The reader 's activities are confined within limits set by the literary work.
Another important German reader - response critic was Hans - Robert Jauss, who defined literature as a dialectic process of production and reception (Rezeption -- the term common in Germany for "response ''). For Jauss, readers have a certain mental set, a "horizon '' of expectations (Erwartungshorizont), from which perspective each reader, at any given time in history, reads. Reader - response criticism establishes these horizons of expectation by reading literary works of the period in question.
Both Iser and Jauss, and the Constance School they exemplify, return reader - response criticism to a study of the text by defining readers in terms of the text. In the same way, Gerald Prince posits a "narratee '', Michael Riffaterre posits a "superreader '', and Stanley Fish an "informed reader. '' And many text - oriented critics simply speak of "the '' reader who typifies all readers...
Reader - response critics hold that in order to understand a text, one must look to the processes readers use to create meaning and experience. Traditional text - oriented schools, such as formalism, often think of reader - response criticism as an anarchic subjectivism, allowing readers to interpret a text any way they want. Text - oriented critics claim that one can understand a text while remaining immune to one 's own culture, status, personality, and so on, and hence "objectively. ''
To reader - response based theorists, however, reading is always both subjective and objective. Some reader - response critics (uniformists) assume a bi-active model of reading: the literary work controls part of the response and the reader controls part. Others, who see that position as internally contradictory, claim that the reader controls the whole transaction (individualists). In such a reader - active model, readers and audiences use amateur or professional procedures for reading (shared by many others) as well as their personal issues and values.
Another objection to reader - response criticism is that it fails to account for the text being able to expand the reader 's understanding. While readers can and do put their own ideas and experiences into a work, they are at the same time gaining new understanding through the text. This is something that is generally overlooked in reader - response criticism.
Reader - response criticism relates to psychology, both experimental psychology for those attempting to find principles of response, and psychoanalytic psychology for those studying individual responses. Post-behaviorist psychologists of reading and of perception support the idea that it is the reader who makes meaning. Increasingly, cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, neuroscience, and neuropsychoanalysis have given reader - response critics powerful and detailed models for the aesthetic process. In 2011 researchers found that during listening to emotionally intense parts of a story, readers respond with changes in heart rate variability, indicative of increased activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Intense parts of a story were also accompanied by increased brain activity in a network of regions known to be involved in the processing of fear, including amygdala.
Because it rests on psychological principles, a reader - response approach readily generalizes to other arts: cinema (David Bordwell), music, or visual art (E.H. Gombrich), and even to history (Hayden White). In stressing the activity of the reader, reader - response theory may be employed to justify upsettings of traditional interpretations like deconstruction or cultural criticism.
Since reader - response critics focus on the strategies readers are taught to use, they may address the teaching of reading and literature. Also, because reader - response criticism stresses the activity of the reader, reader - response critics may share the concerns of feminist critics, and critics of Gender and Queer Theory and Post-Colonialism.
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randy orton ric flair triple h and batista | Evolution (professional Wrestling) - wikipedia
Evolution was a villainous professional wrestling stable in WWE which was a part of WWE 's Raw brand between 2003 and 2005.
At the height of its original existence, the group consisted of Triple H, Ric Flair, Batista and Randy Orton. Evolution slowly began dissolving in 2004 and lost their respective titles (Intercontinental Championship, World Heavyweight Championship and World Tag Team Championship) against Booker T / Rob Van Dam then Chris Benoit and Edge. Evolution turned on Orton the night following SummerSlam, when he won the World Heavyweight Championship and kicked him out of the group. After winning the Royal Rumble in 2005 and teasing that he would chase the WWE Championship, Batista turned on Triple H and decided to pursue the World Heavyweight Championship himself. Although Batista 's departure was largely the end for the group, the final break up came when Triple H turned on and attacked Flair.
Evolution later reformed on April 14, 2014 after Batista joined forces with Triple H and Orton. Flair did not participate in the reunion, as he had retired from full participation in wrestling in 2012.
Each member of Evolution represented the best in: "the past '' (Ric Flair), "the present '' (Triple H), and "the future '' (Randy Orton and Batista) of professional wrestling. Triple H would reveal on his 2013 Triple H - Thy Kingdom Come DVD that Mark Jindrak was originally planned to be in the group in Batista 's role as the Arn Anderson - like enforcer, with Jindrak even shooting vignettes with the rest of the group, before it was decided to make Batista part of the group instead.
Flair 's character trademarks of coming out in suits and being a noted Playboy, along with his and Triple H 's trademark heel ruthlessness, were traits that carried over into the entire stable, both during and for a couple of years after Evolution.
At Unforgiven in 2002, Triple H defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Rob Van Dam. During the match Ric Flair came down to the ring and grabbed the sledgehammer from Triple H and teased hitting him before hitting Van Dam, allowing Triple H to get the win. From that point on, Flair accompanied Triple H to the ring as his manager. Shortly after, Batista moved from SmackDown! to Raw and Flair also began accompanying him to the ring while continuing to second Triple H. On January 20, 2003, Randy Orton joined Triple H, Flair, and Batista in attacking Scott Steiner to complete the group. Two weeks later the group got its name when Triple H, after the group jumped Tommy Dreamer, spoke about how the four men were examples of pro wrestling 's evolution from the past (Flair) to the present (himself) to the future (Batista and Orton). On the May 26 episode of Raw, Orton attacked both Shawn Michaels and Kevin Nash after a 2 - on - 1 handicap match with Michaels and Flair (who eventually turned on Michaels during the match) taking on Triple H. Batista was out for nearly eight months, because he retore his triceps while rehabilitating the injury.
In 2003, at Bad Blood, Flair was able to defeat Shawn Michaels after Orton struck Michaels with a chair. Later that night, Triple H retained his World Heavyweight Championship in a Hell in a Cell match against Kevin Nash. At Unforgiven, Orton (who began developing a "Legend Killer '' gimmick) defeated Michaels to prove that he was indeed a Legend Killer. Later that night, Triple H defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Goldberg, to whom he lost the title. On the September 29 episode of Raw, Triple H issued a $ 100,000 bounty to anybody who could take out Goldberg. Three weeks later, Batista made his return during a match between Goldberg and Michaels and attacked the champion, finishing by stomping on a steel chair with Goldberg 's ankle sandwiched in it to claim the bounty. At Survivor Series, Orton participated in a Team Bischoff versus Team Austin elimination tag team match in which Orton was the sole survivor. Later that night, Goldberg faced Triple H in a rematch from Unforgiven for the World Heavyweight Championship which Goldberg won despite repeated interference from Flair, Orton, and Batista. At the height of Evolution 's power, the group controlled all of the male - based championships of Raw after Armageddon. Batista teamed with Flair to win the World Tag Team Championship from the Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray Dudley and D - Von Dudley) in a Tag Team Turmoil match, Orton captured the Intercontinental Championship from Rob Van Dam, and Triple H regained the World Heavyweight Championship from Goldberg (in a Triple Threat match that also involved Kane), with the help of the other members. In June 2003, Evolution decided to try and recruit Kane. After unsuccessful attempts, Triple H would face Kane in a match with a Title vs. Mask stipulation. After defeating Kane he would finally be unmasked completely for the audience to see.
In January 2004 at the Royal Rumble, Flair and Batista successfully defended the World Tag Team Championship against the Dudley Boyz in a Tables match, and World Heavyweight Champion Triple H fought Shawn Michaels to no contest in a Last Man Standing match, thus retaining the championship. Flair and Batista exchanged the World Tag Team Championships with Booker T and Rob Van Dam. At WrestleMania XX, Evolution defeated the Rock ' n ' Sock Connection (The Rock and Mick Foley) in a 3 - on - 2 handicap match. Later that night, Triple H lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Chris Benoit (in a triple threat match that also involved Shawn Michaels) when he tapped out to the Crippler Crossface. At Backlash, Flair lost to Shelton Benjamin in one - on - one action. Later that night, Orton defended the Intercontinental Championship successfully against Cactus Jack (Mick Foley) in a Hardcore match, while Chris Benoit retained the World Heavyweight Championship in a triple threat match against Triple H and Shawn Michaels, this time forcing Michaels to submit with the Sharpshooter. Triple H and Shawn Michaels would later continue their feud at Bad Blood inside a Hell in a Cell, which was won by Triple H and thus ending their feud.
While still World Champion, Benoit teamed with Edge to take the World Tag Team Championship from Flair and Batista. In mid-2004, Eugene befriended Triple H. At Vengeance, it was revealed that Triple H used him. The angle concluded after Eugene accidentally caused Triple H 's loss to Chris Benoit at Vengeance. On the same night, Edge defeated Randy Orton to end his seven - month - long Intercontinental Championship reign.
Triple H received one final shot at the World Heavyweight Championship, on the July 26, 2004 episode of Raw in an Iron Man match. Earlier that night, Orton won a number - one contender battle royal for the World Heavyweight Championship so a title match between Triple H and Orton could have taken place at SummerSlam. However, Eugene interfered in the Iron Man match and helped Benoit take the lead and retain the title in the final seconds. As a result, the main event of SummerSlam was a title match between Benoit and Orton. At SummerSlam, Orton pinned Benoit to become the new World Heavyweight Champion and the youngest World Champion in WWE history to date. On the August 16, 2004 episode of Raw, Orton was kicked out of Evolution following a successful defense of the title against Chris Benoit. Batista hoisted Orton on to his shoulders in what appeared to be a celebration, but following the thumbs down from Triple H, the group proceeded to attack Orton. The next week on Raw, Triple H demanded that Randy Orton "make the right decision '' and give him the World Heavyweight Championship belt. In return he would forget Orton ever existed. Orton refused and then spat in Triple H 's face. Afterwards, backstage Triple H was livid and demanded Eric Bischoff resolve this. Bischoff said he would and promised Triple H a match against Orton at Unforgiven for the World Heavyweight Championship.
At Unforgiven, Triple H beat Orton to regain the World Heavyweight Championship, with help from Flair, Batista, and Jonathan Coachman. Orton 's feud with Evolution continued until Survivor Series where Triple H, Batista, Gene Snitsky, and Edge were defeated by Orton, Maven, Chris Jericho, and Chris Benoit in a Survivor Series match for control of Raw over the following month.
On the December 6 episode of Raw, the World Heavyweight Championship was vacated when a triple threat match with Triple H, Edge, and Benoit ended in a double pin (Edge tapped out to Benoit 's Crippler Crossface while he had Benoit pinned to the ground), and the title was to be decided in an Elimination Chamber match at New Year 's Revolution in early 2005.
In the Elimination Chamber match at New Year 's Revolution, Batista, Orton, and Triple H were the last three remaining in the match. Orton eliminated Batista with a RKO and Triple H pinned Orton with Batista 's help to win the title. On the following night 's Raw, a number - one contender 's match saw Orton pin Batista to gain a title shot at the Royal Rumble. Triple H suggested that Batista not enter the Royal Rumble match, wanting the group to focus on Triple H retaining the title. Batista declined, entered the Rumble at number 28 and won. As part of the match 's storyline, Orton was concussed and then pinned to have Triple H retain the title, finally ending their feud.
Triple H tried to persuade Batista to challenge the WWE Champion John "Bradshaw '' Layfield and John Cena of SmackDown! rather than for his World Heavyweight Championship. This involved Triple H plotting a feud between JBL and Batista, showing JBL badmouthing Batista in an interview and staging an attack on Batista with a limousine designed to look like Layfield 's. The scheme was unsuccessful and at the brand contract signing ceremony, Batista chose to remain on Raw, powerbombing Triple H through a table and thus quitting the faction. Batista defeated Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania 21, then defended and retained the title in rematches at Backlash, and Vengeance in a Hell in a Cell match. Triple H and Batista made peace backstage afterwards and ended their feud. Batista was drafted to Smackdown as the last pick in the June 2005 WWE Draft Lottery ending Triple H 's World Heavyweight Championship pursuits.
After Vengeance, Triple H took time off, Flair turned face before going on to win the Intercontinental Championship, and the group was dissolved. Triple H returned at the "WWE Homecoming '' episode of Raw on October 3 where he was to team with Flair in a tag team match against Carlito and Chris Masters. After winning that match, Triple H betrayed Flair and attacked him with a sledgehammer, marking the final end of Evolution. During the break up all members face each other at least once. Ric Flair would then go on to defeat Triple H in a Steel Cage match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship at Taboo Tuesday. Triple H then defeated Flair in a Last Man Standing match at Survivor Series.
On December 10, 2007, Evolution had an in - ring reunion as faces on the Raw 15th Anniversary special episode. After Batista, Flair, and Triple H, who turned face himself in summer 2006 when he reunited with Shawn Michaels to reform D - Generation X, made their way to the ring, Orton (who was still a heel) played footage of himself being attacked and kicked out of the group and said that he had n't forgiven them for turning on him in 2004 and did n't trust them, to which Triple H responded that they found him annoying, so he partnered with Rated RKO member Edge and Umaga. Evolution won the match.
Seven years later, in April 2014, Triple H, Batista, and Randy Orton, now heels again, reformed their alliance after Daniel Bryan defeated all three of them in the same night to win the WWE World Heavyweight Championship in the main event of WrestleMania XXX. The night after WrestleMania on Raw, Batista and Orton teamed together to face The Usos for the WWE Tag Team Championships, but the match ended in a no contest due to both teams being counted out. Later that night, Batista and Orton, along with Kane, attacked Bryan before he was set to defend his title against Triple H. Before Triple H could defeat Bryan, The Shield interrupted by spearing him and taking out Orton, Batista, and Kane, causing Bryan to retain his title via disqualification.
On the April 14 episode of Raw, Triple H, Randy Orton and Batista came down to the ring to attack The Shield after their 11 - on - 3 handicap match, using the name and the theme of Evolution. The Shield defeated Evolution in a six - man tag team match at Extreme Rules. and then The Shield defeated Evolution yet again in a six - man No Holds Barred elimination tag match at Payback with a victory in which none of The Shield were eliminated. On the June 2 Raw, Batista quit the WWE (kayfabe) after his title match request for the night was denied by Triple H due to Daniel Bryan 's neck injury at the time and unable to complete. This was done to write Batista off WWE television so he could promote Guardians of the Galaxy, however he never came back to WWE since. Later that night, Triple H declared that he had resorted to "Plan B '' in his quest to destroy The Shield, prompting Seth Rollins to attack Dean Ambrose and Roman Reigns. Although Triple H and Randy Orton were still together as part of The Authority, all references to Evolution were quietly dropped afterwards, effectively ending Evolution again.
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who won the all ireland gaelic football final 2017 | 2017 All - Ireland Senior football championship - Wikipedia
The 2017 All - Ireland Senior Football Championship was the 130th edition of the GAA 's premier inter-county Gaelic football tournament since its establishment in 1887.
Thirty - three teams took part -- thirty - one of the thirty - two Counties of Ireland (Kilkenny, as in previous years, do not enter), London and New York.
Dublin won their third championship in a row, defeating Mayo in the final on 17 September 2017 by 1 - 17 to 1 - 16.
Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster each organise a provincial championship. All teams who lose a match in their provincial championship (with the exception of New York) enter the All - Ireland qualifiers. All provincial matches are knock - out.
Twenty eight of the twenty nine teams beaten in the provincial championships enter the All - Ireland qualifiers, which are knockout. Sixteen of the seventeen teams (New York do not enter the qualifiers) eliminated before their provincial semi-finals play eight matches in round 1, with the winners of these games playing the eight beaten provincial semi-finalists in round 2. The eight winning teams from round 2 play - off against each other in round 3, with the four winning teams facing the four beaten provincial finalists in round 4 to complete the double - elimination format. Further details of the format are included with each qualifier round listed below.
The four provincial champions play the four winners of round 4 of the qualifiers in the quarter - finals. Two semi-finals and a final follow. All matches are knock - out. If a game ends in a draw it is replayed. If a replay ends in a draw, two ten minute periods of extra time are played each way.
On 1 January 2017 the ' mark ' was introduced. It is defined as -
When a player catches the ball cleanly from a kick - out without it touching the ground, on or past the 45m line nearest the kick out point, he shall be awarded a ' mark ' by the referee. The player awarded a ' mark ' shall have the options of (a) taking a free kick or (b) playing on immediately.
RTÉ, the national broadcaster in Ireland, provide the majority of the live television coverage of the football championship in the first year of a five - year deal running from 2017 until 2021. Sky Sports also broadcast a number of matches and have exclusive rights to some games including two All - Ireland football quarter - finals. BBC Northern Ireland broadcast all games from the Ulster Championship which are shown live on RTÉ, with full deferred coverage later in the evening of those games not shown live.
The two teams who won the semi-finals in the previous year are given byes to this year 's semi-finals.
The four teams who won the quarter - finals in the previous year are given byes to this year 's quarter - finals.
The two teams who won the semi-finals in the previous year are given byes to this year 's semi-finals.
The Munster championship differs from the other provincial championships with regard to which teams are designated A or B in the qualifiers -
An un-seeded draw determines the fixtures for all nine teams.
An A and B system for the qualifier draws was introduced in 2014 and has been retained. The teams are designated as A or B depending on which half of their provincial championships they play in. Although some teams receive byes in the early provincial rounds, their position in the round in which they enter the competition is usually determined by the provincial draw, resulting in most teams being designated as A or B randomly. For example, each of the four provinces has two semi-finals - one between two teams designated A and one between two teams designated B - and the beaten semi-finalists in each province will always be one A team and one B team.
In all qualifier rounds A teams play A teams and B teams play B teams. Usually the A teams play their provincial games before the B teams which allows the A qualifier games to be scheduled a week before the B qualifier games. The A and B system attempts to ensure that teams beaten in the provincial championships get a least two weeks before playing their subsequent qualifier match though this is not always possible.
In the first round of the qualifiers sixteen of the seventeen teams beaten in the preliminary rounds or quarter - finals of the provincial championships compete. New York does not enter the qualifiers. Four A teams play four A teams and four B teams play four B teams. The round 1 draw is unrestricted − if two teams have played each other in a provincial match they can be drawn to meet again with the winner of the provincial match receiving home advantage. The eight round 1 winners play the eight beaten provincial semi-finalists in round 2 of the qualifiers.
The following teams take part in round 1;
Sligo (A) London (B)
Laois (A) Longford (A) Louth (A) Wicklow (A) Carlow (B) Offaly (B) Wexford (B)
Waterford (A) Limerick (B)
Antrim (A) Derry (A) Armagh (B) Cavan (B) Fermanagh (B)
Waterford v Derry
Louth v Longford
Wicklow v Laois
Sligo v Antrim
Limerick v Wexford
London v Carlow
Offaly v Cavan
Armagh v Fermanagh
In the second round of the qualifiers the eight winning teams from Round 1A and Round 1B play the eight beaten provincial semi-finalists. The round 2 draw is unrestricted − if two teams have played each other in a provincial match they can be drawn to meet again with the winner of the provincial match receiving home advantage. The eight winners of these matches play each other in Round 3.
The following teams take part in round 2;
Derry
Laois
Longford
Sligo
Clare
Donegal
Mayo
Meath
Armagh
Carlow
Cavan
Wexford
Leitrim
Monaghan
Tipperary
Westmeath
Laois v Clare
Donegal v Longford
Meath v Sligo
Cavan v Tipperary
Carlow v Leitrim
Wexford v Monaghan
Westmeath v Armagh
In the third round of the qualifiers winning teams from round 2A play against winning teams from round 2A and winning teams from round 2B play against winning teams from round 2B. Round 3 draw rules do not allow two teams that have played each other in a provincial match to meet again if such a pairing can be avoided. The four winners of these matches play the four beaten provincial finalists in round 4.
The following teams take part in round 3;
Clare
Donegal
Mayo
Meath
Armagh
Carlow
Monaghan
Tipperary
Clare v Mayo
Meath v Donegal
Tipperary v Armagh
Carlow v Monaghan
In the fourth round of the qualifiers, the four winning teams from round 3 play the four beaten provincial finalists. Round 4 draw rules do not allow two teams that have played each other in a provincial match to meet again if such a pairing can be avoided. The matches are normally held in neutral venues. The four winners of these matches play the provincial champions in the All - Ireland quarter - finals.
The following teams take part in round 4;
Donegal
Mayo
Cork
Galway
Armagh
Monaghan
Down
Kildare
The four provincial champions play the four winners from round 4 of the qualifiers. Draw rules 1) Two teams who met in a provincial final can not meet again 2) If one of the provincial champions has already met one of the qualifiers in an earlier match then those two teams can not be drawn together if such a pairing can be avoided.
This was the final year of the knock - out quarter - finals which began with the introduction of the All - Ireland qualifiers in 2001. Following a vote at the GAA congress on Saturday 25 February 2017, the last eight teams in 2018 competed in two groups of four with the winners and runners - up in each group progressing to the semi-finals.
There is no draw for the semi-finals as the fixtures are pre-determined on a three yearly rotation. This rotation ensures that a provinces champions play the champions of the other three provinces once every three years in the semi-finals if they each win their quarter - finals and prevents the champions from the same two provinces meeting in the semi-finals in successive years. If a qualifier team beats a provincial winner in a quarter - final, the qualifier team takes that provincial winner 's place in the semi-final.
Matches will be broadcast live on television in Ireland on RTÉ and Sky Sports under a new five - year contract that was agreed in December 2016. In the United Kingdom, matches will be shown on Sky Sports and worldwide coverage will be provided on GAAGO. RTÉ Radio 1 will also have full radio rights to all championship games which were previously shared with Newstalk.
RTÉ coverage will be shown on RTÉ Two on The Sunday Game Live presented by Michael Lyster in high definition. Des Cahill will present The Sunday Game highlights and analysis show on Sunday evening.
The Sunday Game team of the year was picked on 17 September, the night of the final. Dublin 's James McCarthy was named as the Sunday Game player of the year.
Nominations were revealed on 21 September 2017. The football All Stars were revealed on 3 November 2017. Andy Moran was announced as player of the year and Con O'Callaghan as young player of the year.
(Mayo), Niall Morgan (Tyrone)
DEFENDERS
Jack McCaffrey, Cian O'Sullivan, Michael Fitzsimons, Philip McMahon, John Small, Jonny Cooper (Dublin), Keith Higgins, Lee Keegan, Chris Barrett, Colm Boyle, Brendan Harrison (Mayo), Pádraig Hampsey, Tiernan McCann (Tyrone), Paul Murphy, Tadhg Morley (Kerry), Conor Devanney (Roscommon), Caolan Mooney (Down), Fintan Kelly (Monaghan).
MIDFIELDERS
James McCarthy, Brian Fenton (Dublin), Tom Parsons (Mayo), Colm Cavanagh (Tyrone), Enda Smith (Roscommon), Kevin Feely (Kildare).
FORWARDS
Andy Moran, Kevin McLoughlin, Aidan O'Shea, Jason Doherty, Cillian O'Connor (Mayo), Ciarán Kilkenny, Con O'Callaghan, Paul Mannion, Dean Rock (Dublin), Paul Geaney, Kieran Donaghy, James O'Donoghue (Kerry), Peter Harte, Niall Sludden (Tyrone), Connaire Harrison (Down), Patrick McBrearty (Donegal), Jamie Clarke (Armagh), Daniel Fly
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farmer turned con man in 1960's sitcom | Brian Keith - wikipedia
Brian Keith (born Robert Alba Keith, November 14, 1921 -- June 24, 1997) was an American film, television and stage actor who in his six - decade - long career gained recognition for his work in movies such as the Disney family film The Parent Trap (1961), the comedy The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming (1966), and the adventure saga The Wind and the Lion (1975), in which he portrayed President Theodore Roosevelt.
On television two of his best - known roles were those of bachelor - uncle - turned - reluctant - parent Bill Davis in the 1960s sitcom Family Affair, and a tough retired judge in the 1980s light hearted crime drama, Hardcastle and McCormick. He also starred in The Brian Keith Show, which aired on NBC from 1972 - 74, where he portrayed a pediatrician who operated a free clinic on Oahu, and in the CBS comedy series Heartland.
Robert Alba Keith was born in Bayonne, New Jersey, on November 14, 1921, to actor Robert Keith and stage actress Helena Shipman, a native of Aberdeen, Washington. Some sources also list his full name as Brian Robert Keith. He was raised Roman Catholic.
Keith 's parents divorced, and he moved to Hollywood and started his acting career at the age of two. He made his acting debut in the silent film Pied Piper Malone (1924), at the age of three.
His mother continued to perform on stage and radio, while his grandmother Apker helped to raise him on Long Island, New York, just 37 miles east of where he was born. She taught young Keith to read books over his age level. Prior to learning to read, he spent a lot of time backstage while his parents performed, keeping quiet for hours. Helena fondly recalled keeping her little son in the dressing room in one of her dressing room drawers. He remained calm and quiet, and would sleep through the entire show.
From 1927 - 29, Keith 's stepmother was Peg Entwistle, a well - known Broadway actress who committed suicide by jumping from the "H '' of the famous Hollywood Sign in 1932. After graduating from East Rockaway High School in 1939, in East Rockaway, New York, Keith joined the United States Marine Corps (1942 -- 1945). He served during World War II as an air gunner (he was a radio - gunner in the rear cockpit of a two - man Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bomber in a U.S. Marine squadron) and received an Air Medal.
After the war, Keith became a stage actor, branching out into films and then television. In 1952, he made his debut on three episodes of Tales of Tomorrow, which led him to other roles in shows such as Police Story, a 1950s anthology show, Eye Witness, The United States Steel Hour, Robert Montgomery Presents, The Motorola Television Hour, Campbell Playhouse, The Pepsi - Cola Playhouse, The Elgin Hour, The Adventures of Ellery Queen, and Jane Wyman Presents: The Fireside Theatre. In 1955, Keith starred in his own series, Crusader, as the fictional journalist Matt Anders, who tries to free captive peoples from communist countries.
During the 1950s and 1960s, Keith also had guest roles on The Ford Television Theatre, Wire Service, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Climax!, Zane Grey Theater, Rawhide, Laramie, The Untouchables, The Americans, Outlaws, The Virginian, The Fugitive, two episodes of Wagon Train, and five episodes of 77 Sunset Strip, among many others.
In 1960, he won acclaim for his starring role in Sam Peckinpah 's extremely hard - bitten, adult, and short - lived series The Westerner (1960). The following year, Keith appeared as the father of twins in the film The Parent Trap (1961), costarring Hayley Mills and Maureen O'Hara. In 1966, Keith costarred with Steve McQueen as traveling gunsmith Jonas Cord in the western film Nevada Smith. In 1968, as widower Jake Iverson, he costarred with Doris Day in the comedy, With Six You Get Eggroll.
In 1966, Keith landed the role of Uncle Bill Davis on CBS 's popular television situation comedy Family Affair. This role earned him three Emmy Award nominations for Best Actor in a Comedy Series. The show made him a household name. It was in the vein of such successful 1960s and 1970s sitcoms that dealt with widowhood and / or many single - parent issues as: The Andy Griffith Show, My Three Sons, The Beverly Hillbillies, Petticoat Junction, Here 's Lucy, Julia, The Courtship of Eddie 's Father, The Brady Bunch, The Partridge Family, and Sanford And Son. During its first season in 1966, Family Affair was an immediate hit, ranking # 15 in the Nielsen ratings. By the end of its fifth season, in 1971, Family Affair still had high ratings but was canceled after 138 episodes.
Kathy Garver, who co-starred as Keith 's teenaged niece, Cissy, on Family Affair, indicated that Keith said: "I 'm a cultural Irishman, do n't you know, I 'm a cultural Irishman. '' Garver explained: "But he went through many manifestations and changes of character, during the five years that we shot. At first, he was up and then his second year, he was going through a divorce and then, the third year, he met somebody else; and he became more anecdotal and told stories that he loved kids, and he was very outspoken about those that he did not like. So, he was a very interesting character and it was Brian and Sebastian Cabot (who played Mr. French) had such a different style of acting and that 's another reason I think that Family Affair was so popular and stayed as it did. Both excellent actors, both coming from very different methods and styles of acting with Sebastian was more from the classical style and he would take home his script and he would dutifully look at every single word and have it to perfection, and then Brian would come in and say, ' Oh what do we have today? Let me see the scene, uh - huh, uh - huh, let 's go! ' So he was very improvisational, motion of the moment. And those two different styles really worked out each other, very well. ''
Keith went on to star as pediatrician Dr. Sean Jamison in the NBC sitcom The Brian Keith Show (also known as The Little People), filmed on an estate at the foot of Diamond Head, Hawaii. The series was cancelled in 1974 after two seasons.
Keith also starred in the role of Steven "The Fox '' Halliday in the six - part television miniseries, The Zoo Gang (1974), about a group of former underground French Resistance fighters from World War II. The show also starred Sir John Mills, Lilli Palmer, and Barry Morse.
In the film The Wind and the Lion (1975), Keith played President Theodore Roosevelt.
Keith spoke fluent Russian, which led to his casting as a Russian in two roles: as a Soviet scientist in the film Meteor (1979) with Natalie Wood, and as the Soviet Premier in the NBC miniseries World War III (1982) with Rock Hudson. Decades earlier, in the comedy film The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming (1966), he had played the unexcitable police chief of an island where a Soviet submarine runs aground. However, his character had to have Russian translated to him by Alan Arkin 's character.
Keith once again returned to series television in 1983, with Hardcastle and McCormick, in the role of a cranky retired judge named Milton C. Hardcastle. Daniel Hugh Kelly costarred as ex-con Mark McCormick in this ABC crime drama with elements of comedy. The chemistry of Keith and Kelly was a hit, and the series lasted three years until its cancellation in 1986.
Keith made a guest appearance in the Evening Shade, season 1 episode "Chip Off The Old Brick '' (1991), as the loud - mouthed father of Herman Stiles (played by actor Michael Jeter).
Keith performed the role of Mullibok on the "Star Trek: Deep Space Nine '', season 1 episode entitled "Progress '' (1993), in which an elderly farmer resists forceable relocation by Bajoran authorities.
Keith guest starred in an episode of the TV series "The Marshal '' titled "The Bounty Hunter '' (1995) in which he played then Wichita Kansas Police Chief Rick Stone under the stage name of "Chief Skoblow ''. The Wichita Police Department cooperated with the Canadian TV production company by providing details of Chief Stone 's actual police dress uniform for Keith to wear during the episode.
In his last film Keith played President William McKinley in the film Rough Riders (1997). Director John Milius dedicated the film to "Brian Keith, Actor, Marine, Raconteur. ''
Keith married three times, first to Frances Helm; then, in 1954, to actress Judy Landon (who made a guest appearance on Family Affair); and finally, in 1970, to Hawaiian actress Victoria Young (née Leialoha), who later appeared on The Brian Keith Show as Nurse Puni.
Keith fathered two children with Landon (Michael and Mimi), and together they adopted three others (Barbra, Betty, and Rory). He fathered two children with Young (David and Daisy). Daisy became an actress and appeared with her father in the short - lived series Heartland, in 1989.
During the latter part of his life, Keith suffered from emphysema and lung cancer, despite having quit smoking ten years earlier. He had appeared in an endorsement campaign for Camel cigarettes in 1955. On June 24, 1997, he was found dead of a self - inflicted gunshot wound in his home in Malibu, California, two months after his daughter Daisy committed suicide. It was also reported that he had financial problems and suffered from depression throughout his final days.
Maureen O'Hara stated in an interview not long after Keith died that she believed he did not commit suicide. She stated that he had a large gun collection, and enjoyed cleaning them and showing them to people. She believed he might have been cleaning the gun or looking at it when it went off, and that his death was an accident and definitely not a suicide. She had just visited him and said he was in good spirits. She also stated that he would not have committed suicide owing to his Catholic beliefs.
Keith 's family was joined by many mourners at a private funeral, including Family Affair co stars Kathy Garver and Johnny Whitaker, and Hardcastle and McCormick co star Daniel Hugh Kelly. Keith 's ashes were interred next to those of his daughter Daisy at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles, California.
On June 26, 2008, Brian Keith received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
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who played randy in how i met your mother | List of How I Met Your Mother characters - wikipedia
The American sitcom How I Met Your Mother premiered on CBS on September 19, 2005. Created by Craig Thomas and Carter Bays, the show is presented from the perspective of Ted Mosby in 2030 ("Future Ted '') as he tells his children how he met the titular mother. The show lasted for nine seasons and 208 episodes; the finale first aired on March 31, 2014.
The main characters are: Ted Mosby, a romantic searching for "The One ''; Barney Stinson, a womanizer; Robin Scherbatsky, a journalist who moved to New York in 2005; and Marshall Eriksen and Lily Aldrin, a long - term couple. Although the show is based around The Mother, her first appearance is not until the season eight finale.
Many of the main character 's relatives appear throughout the show, such as Lily 's father or Barney 's brother. They may also be seen in family gatherings, such as Barney and Robin 's wedding or Marshall 's father 's funeral. Ted 's children and Marvin W. Eriksen (son of Marshall and Lily) appear in the background of many episodes without being crucial to many plots.
Ranjit, Carl the Bartender, and several other characters often appear because they work in places the main cast frequent (such as MacLaren 's Pub). Characters in relationships with Ted, Barney, or Robin often appear in several episodes within a short period of time, such as Victoria, Nora, or Kevin. Minor characters such as the Slutty Pumpkin or Mary the Paralegal may only appear in one or two episodes, but still play a crucial role in the episodes in which they appear.
Notes:
Portrayed by Josh Radnor, Theodore Evelyn "Ted '' Mosby (born on April 25, 1978) is a romantic, originally searching for "The One '' and often discussing destiny and "The Universe '' controlling things. Ted grew up in Shaker Heights, Ohio with parents Virginia Mosby, Alfred Mosby, and sister Heather Mosby. He is an architect who graduated from Wesleyan University, where he met Marshall and Lily. Ted also serves as the show 's narrator from the future, voiced by Bob Saget, as he tells his children a detailed story, with the premise of explaining how he met their mother. A brief history of Ted includes being left at the altar, taking a job as an architecture professor and designing the new headquarters for Goliath National Bank.
Ted has dated many people and been in several long - term relationships. Ted has an on - again, off - again relationship with Robin. Ted also dated Victoria, Stella, Zoey and Jeanette. Ted finally gets to meet his wife - to - be, Tracy, on the day of Barney and Robin 's wedding, after accidentally teaching one of her college classes, owning her yellow umbrella for a short time, and dating her roommate. When he ran into Tracy 's roommate (Cindy), it led to Tracy 's band performing at Barney and Robin 's wedding.
In the finale, it is discovered his wife died six years earlier. His children claim his story was not about their mother but about Robin; they urge him to get back together with her and he does, bringing the iconic blue French horn with him.
Portrayed by Cobie Smulders, Robin Charles Scherbatsky Jr. works as a news reporter for various stations, ending up at World Wide News. She is originally from Vancouver, British Columbia and is a fan of the Vancouver Canucks. Robin was named after her father, who she has some issues with as he wanted a male child. She and Ted have an on - again, off - again relationship there was some sexual tension between them throughout the third season, most obviously when Robin brought home her boyfriend Gael from a trip to Argentina. The subject of four episodes, Robin was a teen pop singer named Robin Sparkles. Her first boyfriend was Simon, who starred in her second music video. In season 4, Robin moves in with Ted after leaving her short - lived job in Japan. During "The Leap '', she and Barney pursue a relationship, but it soon ends.
Robin is frequently made fun of for her tendency to laugh while lying, as well as her references to places and history exclusive to Canada, such as Mount Waddington or Danby 's. Though she has stated explicitly that she does not like children, Future Ted mentioned that she eventually grew to like them and even became close to Ted 's children. After being unemployed for a while, Robin found out that she would be deported from America if she did not get a job. Barney helped her land a job for an early morning show in "The Possimpible ''. Soon after she started she got a co-host named Don whom she originally disliked. However, she grew to like him and they dated for a while. In "False Positive '', Robin worked as a researcher for World Wide News and eventually moved up to co-anchor after hosting a New Year 's Eve show. It is revealed in the season 7 finale that Robin married Barney. They divorce after three years of marriage. In 2030, Robin is shown to be living with her dogs in New York when she gets asked out by Ted, a six - year widower by then.
Portrayed by Neil Patrick Harris, Barnabus "Barney '' Stinson is a former womanizer. He is known for wearing suits, playing laser tag, performing magic tricks, and overusing catchphrases such as "Suit up! '', "Legend - wait - for - it - dary '' and "Challenge accepted! ''. Barney is the writer of the Bro Code and the Playbook, documenting rules for best friends ("bros '') and his favorite moves to use on women.
Barney was raised by a single mother, Loretta, along with his older brother James. He spent very little time with his father as a child. In season 6, Barney 's father Jerome returns to his life hoping to make amends for abandoning him as a child. As a young adult, Barney was a long - haired hippie with plans to join the Peace Corps. Soon after his rejection, he saw a flier for a sale on suits, thus beginning his suit addiction. Shortly after, he met Ted Mosby at a urinal and announced that he would "teach (Ted) how to live '', thus beginning his life with Ted 's group of friends.
In season 4, Barney falls in love with Robin and spends the next season hiding it from her. The two get together in season 5, but the relationship is short - lived. After their breakup, Barney returns to one - night stands, but sometimes shows regret in ending his relationship with Robin. In "Desperation Day '', Robin introduces him to her friend Nora. Barney and Nora have a brief relationship, but it ends because Barney is unwilling to let himself be honest with her about his feelings. Later, they get back together but Barney cheats on Nora with Robin. In "Challenge Accepted '', it is revealed that Barney gets married at some point in the future; in "The Magician 's Code '', the bride is revealed to be Robin. However, Barney and Robin get divorced in 2016. Barney goes back to having one - night stands, and eventually impregnates a woman. The birth of his daughter, Ellie, effectively causes him to change his ways for good.
Portrayed by Alyson Hannigan, Lily Aldrin is a kindergarten teacher. She is married to Marshall and grew up in Brooklyn, New York. Like Ted and Marshall, she is a graduate of Wesleyan University and dreams of being an artist; she has painted naked paintings of Marshall and Barney. Lily has a huge debt problem because of her impulsive shopping; she is able to hide this from Marshall until they apply for a mortgage in "Dowisetrepla ''. She is very manipulative, having caused several of Ted 's relationships to end when she disliked his date. It has been shown many times that she can not keep a secret, with a few exceptions: she hides her second pregnancy and keeps Ted 's move to Chicago a secret from everyone but Marshall. Another ongoing joke in the show is her implied bisexuality.
Prior to college, Lily dated Scooter. At college, she met Ted and started dating Marshall. She and Marshall were together for 9 years and engaged for almost a year before Lily broke up with Marshall to move to San Francisco for a summer to concentrate on her art. Marshall was so hurt that they stayed separated for a few months after she returned to New York. They eventually get married at the end of season 2. They move into an apartment in "Dowisetrepla ''; previously, they had been living with Ted. They consider children for years before feeling "ready ''. Lily announces in the season 6 finale that she is pregnant and their first child was revealed to be male in "Mystery vs. History ''. In the episode "Good Crazy '', Lily goes into labor five weeks early and in the episode "The Magician 's Code -- Part 1 '', gives birth to Marvin. In season eight, Lily accepts a job as The Captain 's art consultant. The Captain later asks her to move to Italy to search for and purchase artwork for his collection; she and Marshall agree to move there. However, this is the cause of disagreement between the couple for most of the season when Marshall accepts an offer to be a judge without consulting Lily. Lily is revealed to be pregnant with a second child in "Daisy '', followed by third child a few years later in "Last Forever ''.
Portrayed by Jason Segel, Marshall Eriksen met Ted and Lily during their freshman year at Wesleyan University. He and Lily began dating during college and got married at the end of season 2. Marshall is a Columbia Law School graduate originally from Minnesota. Even though he stands at 6 ft 4 in (1.93 m), he is the shortest male member of his family. Marshall became a lawyer because he was interested in environmental protection laws. He accepts a job at a corporate law firm, before joining the legal team at Goliath National Bank, where Barney also works. Marshall is also very good at various games and believes in the paranormal, specifically Sasquatch and the Loch Ness Monster. It is revealed in "Last Cigarette Ever '' that in the future, he and Lily have a son. In early 2011, after being told Marshall and Lily are capable of having a baby, Marshall 's dad has a fatal heart attack and dies. For several months after this, he is upset and his friends make an effort to be nicer to him. His first son, born in the episode "The Magician 's Code -- Part 1 '' is named Marvin, after Marshall 's father. Marshall was able to arrive just in time to witness the birth.
Marshall eventually is accepted to his dream job, being a judge, after committing to move to Italy with Lily. This leads to constant strife between the couple through most of the final season. However, throughout the first half of the last season, Marshall is on a car ride from Minnesota to Long Island after missing his flight to Barney and Robin 's wedding. In this process, Marshall meets The Mother.
Portrayed by Cristin Milioti, the Mother is the title character of the series; Ted 's narration of the series is based around how he met her. While several clues about the Mother are revealed throughout the series (including the story of the yellow umbrella), she is not fully seen until the season eight finale, "Something New ''. Season 9 reveals more about the Mother through several flashforwards throughout the season and the 200th episode, "How Your Mother Met Me '', which shows the years 2005 through 2013 from her perspective. In that episode, it is revealed that her boyfriend Max died on her 21st birthday and that she refrained from dating in the years following; her first boyfriend after Max, Louis, proposed to her the night before Barney and Robin 's wedding, but she rejected, allowing herself to move on. It is the highest rated episode of the series on IMDb.
Ted is shown meeting The Mother in the series finale at the Farhampton train station following Barney and Robin 's wedding. They date, get engaged, and have two children called Luke and Penny. In the original ending of the show, The Mother is shown to have been deceased in 2024. Many fans of the show had become emotionally attached to The Mother. In many scenes throughout the show, it was shown how incredibly perfect Ted and Tracy were for each other and how nice she was to everyone. Her death in the series finale was met with considerable dissatisfaction by many viewers.
A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition received over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. In the video, future Ted is heard saying, "... When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I ca n't help but be amazed how easy it all really was... '', indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby.
Penny and Luke are Ted 's children, teenagers in 2030 as Ted narrates the story of how he met their mother. Penny is portrayed by Lyndsy Fonseca while Luke is portrayed by David Henrie. Georgina Bays, the daughter of Carter Bays, has portrayed Ted 's daughter as an infant. Penny and Luke as young children are portrayed by Katie Silverman and Dexter Cross in "Rally ''.
The names of Ted 's children were unknown until "Unpause ''. Before he had met their mother, Ted had repeatedly expressed the desire to name them Luke and Leia. The children initially appear only in the framing narrative, though Penny appears as an infant in "Trilogy Time '', "Lobster Crawl '' and "Unpause ''. Both Penny and Luke appear as young children in "Rally '', when they greet their parents on New Year 's Day in 2022.
Since the actors playing Ted 's children were going to age quickly, stock footage of them was shot in 2006, to be used in later episodes. Additionally, footage for the series finale was shot and the actors were made to sign non-disclosure agreements; Fonseca said in 2013 that she did not "remember what the secret was '', although Henrie thought he remembered. A season nine promotional video was filmed with the same actors, now adults, joking that they have been listening to Ted tell the story for eight years, and was first shown at the 2013 San Diego Comic - Con.
Marvin Wait - for - it Eriksen is the son of Lily and Marshall. In "Challenge Accepted '', Lily discovers she is pregnant after a long - running storyline of Marshall and Lily trying to have kids. Marvin is born in "The Magician 's Code -- Part 1 ''; Marshall arrives just in time for the birth. Barney helped Marshall arrive in the hospital, in return for choosing the middle name of the baby: "Wait - for - it ''. Marvin appears in many episodes after that, usually causing Marshall and Lily to become stressed and sleep deprived. In "Who Wants to Be a Godparent? '', Ted, Barney and Robin all become godparents of Marvin. "Bedtime Stories '' is based around Marvin going to sleep.
Marvin has been played by twins, and several actors have been credited as playing him; Jake Elliott, August Maturo and Spencer Ralston have played the part of Marvin during various flashforwards. Craig Thomas said that they were "tending to the fact that (Marshall and Lily) have a baby more than other shows have '', although Marvin "does n't take over the show. ''
Played by Marshall Manesh, Ranjit is a cab driver from Bangladesh. He drives the main characters around during several significant moments of their lives; for instance, he drives Marshall and Lily in a limo shortly after they are married and helps Ted with a "two - minute date '' in "Ten Sessions ''. In "The Sexless Innkeeper '', he and his wife Falguni go on a double date with Marshall and Lily, although they do not enjoy it. He also appears in episodes such as "The Limo '', "Rabbit or Duck '', "The Goat '' and "Three Days of Snow ''. In "Gary Blauman '', Future Ted reveals that Ranjit became rich through investments and bought a limo service.
Ranjit is the only recurring character to appear in all nine seasons.
Played by Joe Nieves, Carl is the bartender at MacLaren 's, which is frequented by the main characters. Carl 's last name is MacLaren and he owns the bar. Carl eventually has a son who helps him at MacLaren 's.
Joe Nieves received the part after the scene he was supposed to be in was cut from the pilot but no one had told him, and he turned up on set in a police officer costume. As no one wanted to tell him that they had cut his scene, they gave him the role of Carl. Carl is named after one of the assistants to the producers.
Played by Charlene Amoia, Wendy is a waitress from MacLaren 's bar. Characterized as sweet and somewhat naive, she is well liked by the main characters. Barney once had a brief relationship with her. It is also revealed in "Garbage Island '' that Wendy the Waitress falls in love and is later married to Marshall 's ex-co worker Meeker (Daniel G. O'Brien) who found out at the time they both hate Marshall after his "Go Green '' fiasco. She and Meeker have three kids.
Played by Ashley Williams. A baker at The Buttercup Bakery, Victoria meets Ted in "The Wedding '' at the wedding reception of Ted 's friends, for whom Victoria had baked the wedding cake. They agree to spend the evening together anonymously in order to preserve the memory of the night, despite their attraction to one another. However, Ted quickly finds her and they begin an intense romantic relationship. The relationship is complicated when Victoria is offered a cooking fellowship in Germany and they attempt to remain together in a long - distance relationship. However, Ted kisses Robin and they break up.
Victoria reappears in Ted 's life seven years later, when she is catering the Architect 's Ball that Ted is attending at the end of "The Naked Truth ''. During their reunion, Ted apologizes for cheating on her and she accepts his apology. However, he becomes upset when he learns that she began dating Klaus, whom she met not long after arriving in Germany, almost immediately after they broke up. During their ensuing argument, they begin to remember what they loved about their relationship together and end up kissing. Victoria responds to the kiss with the revelation that Klaus intends to propose to her soon and she and Ted part on amicable terms, though she also warns Ted that his existing relationships with Robin and Barney are stopping him from finding his true love.
In "The Magician 's Code '', Ted, having recently reconciled with Robin, follows her suggestion to contact Victoria in hopes of learning if she ever got married. When they meet, Ted is stunned to see that Victoria has secretly run away from her wedding to Klaus. Recalling his own experience at being left at the altar by Stella, Ted attempts to have Victoria return to her wedding to at least inform Klaus that she has run away, but they learn that Klaus has also run away from the wedding, as he has realized that he and Victoria are not meant to be together. Ted and Victoria 's renewed relationship is short - lived; when Ted proposes to her, she presents an ultimatum: he must end his friendship with Robin to be with her. Unwilling to give up his friendship with Robin, Victoria breaks up with him. She is later revealed to have returned to Germany and sends him Robin 's locket, which she had taken with her.
Bays and Thomas planned to have Victoria as a backup Mother in case CBS decided to cancel the series after season 2. Another possible storyline was Williams wearing a fat suit to portray Victoria having become, according to Bays, "enormously fat '' because of her baking career. Victoria was described as Ted 's best girlfriend by People magazine.
Played by Suzie Plakson, Judy Eriksen is the mother of Marshall. Married to the late Marvin Eriksen, she has three children: Marvin, Marcus and Marshall. She lives in St. Cloud, Minnesota and is known to have a tense, sometimes adversarial relationship with Lily, leaving Marshall torn as he loves Lily, but has trouble understanding how she could dislike his mother. In "The Over-Correction, '' she begins a sexual relationship with Lily 's father, Mickey.
Played by Wayne Brady, James is Barney 's gay African - American half - brother; they are very alike and act as each other 's "wingmen ''. This changes when James meets Tom, his future husband. Barney tries to stop his brother from marrying but changes his mind when he learns that they are adopting a baby. James marries Tom and they have a son named Eli. In the season 6 episode "Cleaning House, '' James finds out his father is Sam Gibbs after he and Barney discover an unsent letter that their mother Loretta addressed to him. At the end of "The Rebound Girl '', it is revealed that James and Tom have adopted an infant daughter named Sadie. In "Coming Back '', James announces that he is getting a divorce after Tom discovered him cheating. Robin wins James ' wedding ring in "The Poker Game '' and refuses to give it back because James has been saying that she and Barney should not get married. Barney initially stands by his brother, but then realizes that James ' selfishness is what caused his own marriage to fail. James reveals that Gary Blauman was one of the guys that he cheated on Tom with in "Gary Blauman ''. Future Ted explains to his children that James and Tom did eventually get back together, and raised Eli and Sadie as a happy family.
Played by Jennifer Morrison. One of Ted 's girlfriends. Ted first meets Zoey when she was an activist protesting the destruction of a historic New York building, in "Architect of Destruction ''. At first Ted is attracted to her, even though he is the architect responsible for the building 's demolition. However, when she discovers this fact, she turns on him, and the two develop a mutually antagonistic relationship. In "Natural History '', Ted meets her rich husband, who calls himself The Captain, at a black - tie event at a museum. Zoey spends Thanksgiving hanging out with the gang in "Blitzgiving '' because her husband is spending it with his daughter; surprisingly, it is Ted who convinces the group to let her do so, after deducing that she is hurting by her stepdaughter 's rejection of her. Zoey is (by marriage) a van Smoot, whose family is shown to have owned the mansion in which Marshall and Lily were married, and an apartment in the Alberta building. In "Oh Honey '', Zoey divorces the Captain and Zoey gets together with Ted. However, they break up in "Landmarks '' due to tensions caused by the Arcadian. She appears in "Challenge Accepted '', where she unsuccessfully tries reuniting with Ted. In "Gary Blauman '', Future Ted reveals that Zoey continued campaigning for various causes.
Played by Ellen D. Williams, Patrice is a World Wide News employee, often shouted down by Robin who is annoyed by her efforts to be best friends. In season 8, Patrice joins Barney 's "The Robin '' play by pretending to date him. In "Gary Blauman '', it is shown that Patrice later moves on to becoming a radio talk show host.
Played by Bill Fagerbakke, Marvin Eriksen is: Judy 's husband; the father of Marvin, Marcus and Marshall; father - in - law of Lily; grandfather of Marshall and Lily 's three children and Marcus and Sarah 's children, Marcus Jr. and Martin. He was very close to Marshall and the rest of his family prior to his passing in early 2011. After "Last Words '', set at Marvin 's funeral, Carter Bays stated that they intended to bring back Bill Fagerbakke as Marshall 's father in future episodes during flashbacks. He later appeared in five episodes as a "ghost '' imagined by Marshall.
Played by Nazanin Boniadi, Nora is an English co-worker of Robin 's who meets Barney the day before Valentine 's Day. Though he is interested in her, Barney is reluctant to admit it, despite Robin 's encouragement. During his first formal date with Nora, she reveals her wishes to eventually marry and settle down and invites him to meet her parents, both of which Barney accepts as things he wants. At the end of their date, however, he tells her that his words were a lie and criticizes Nora 's dreams, which seemingly ends the relationship. Though Barney is convinced that he was lying to her, he later realizes that he does want to marry and settle down. He gets a second chance with Nora, when he convinces her that he will be honest in their relationship. They start dating but break up in "Tick Tick Tick '' after Barney confesses to cheating on her with Robin.
Played by Chris Elliott, Mickey Aldrin is Lily 's father. Obsessed with attempting to launch Aldrin Games, his unsuccessful board game creator business, he was frequently absent, distant, and unreliable throughout her childhood. He and Lily did not have a close relationship during the first few seasons. As the series progressed he gradually redeems himself. He eventually moves in with Marshall and Lily at Lily 's grandparents ' home in Long Island. Once there he refuses to leave his childhood home, despite being unwelcome; he does eventually agree to leave at Lily and Marshall 's insistence, although they let him stay after he makes pancakes for them. From then on his hobbies make him an occasional nuisance in the household, eventually accidentally burning the house down after Marshall and Lily had returned to the apartment. This leads to him joining them in Manhattan and despite Lily 's expectations, he proves very helpful in looking after his grandson Marvin W. Eriksen. He reveals that he had taken much better care of Lily prior to her going to school; only when she started kindergarten and he found himself at loose ends did he go to the racetrack on a whim, where he developed a gambling addiction.
Played by Robert Belushi, Linus is a bartender at the Farhampton Inn. Lily pays him $100 to make sure she always has a drink in her hand during the weekend of Barney and Robin 's wedding. Throughout season 9, he is constantly seen handing her drinks followed by Lily saying "Thank you, Linus ''. It is revealed in "Daisy '' that these drinks are non-alcoholic as Lily is pregnant.
Played by Sarah Chalke, Stella is Ted 's dermatologist, who removes his ill - advised butterfly tattoo. He attempts to convince her to date him over the course of the episode "Ten Sessions ''. Stella initially refuses, wanting to focus on her daughter Lucy, but eventually agrees to go on a two - minute lunch date. They start dating soon after. In the last episode of season three, Ted proposes to Stella, and in the season four premiere, she accepts. In "Shelter Island '', after her sister 's wedding falls apart, Ted and she agree to take over the wedding. She ends up leaving Ted at the altar and getting back together with Tony, her ex-boyfriend and father of Lucy. She later appears in "Right Place Right Time '', where she is still with Tony.
Played by Kal Penn, Kevin is originally introduced as Robin 's therapist but later becomes her boyfriend. She cheats on him with Barney, although he never discovers this. He proposed to Robin before she told him of her infertility. He still wanted to marry her, suggesting they could adopt or use a surrogate but when Robin made it clear to him that she did not want to have any children, they broke up. In "Gary Blauman '', Future Ted says that Kevin ended up with Jeanette.
Played by Becki Newton, Quinn is a romantic interest for Barney in season 7, as she has a scheming personality similar to him. Barney becomes interested in her without realizing she is a stripper at the Lusty Leopard, despite being a frequent patron. Quinn initially scams Barney out of a large amount of money, but gives Barney a chance. Due to Barney 's insecurity, she quits her job as a stripper and accommodates most of his demands regarding his apartment when she moves in with him. Barney proposes to her in "The Magician 's Code ''. However, due to their inability to trust one another, they break up in "The Pre-Nup ''. Quinn makes a brief return in "The Bro Mitzvah '' as a stripper hired for Barney 's bachelor party, much to his chagrin.
Played by Alexis Denisof, Alyson Hannigan 's real life husband, Sandy is a narcissistic lecherous anchorman. He debuts as Robin 's colleague at Metro News One and spares no opportunity to ask her out. Ted and Marshall make fun of him during his segments. He resigns from the network to take up a job at CNN but recommends Robin to succeed him as lead anchor. Sandy and Robin cross paths again in season 6 as colleagues at World Wide News, where he is often seen hitting on young female interns. Sandy 's inappropriate behavior ruins his career in the US and he does not change his ways even as he anchors a news show in Russia.
Marcus Eriksen is one of Marshall 's brothers, known for pranking Marshall. He and the rest of his brothers often played roughly with each other. In "Who Wants to Be a Godparent? '', Marcus left his wife and two children for his dream job of being a bartender. Marcus is often seen at family events such as his father 's funeral.
Played by Frances Conroy, Loretta is Barney 's mother. Prior to her first proper appearance, she appeared from the neck down voiced by Megan Mullally in "Single Stamina '' and "Showdown ''. Loretta had a very promiscuous lifestyle and neither Barney nor James know who their real fathers are until they are adults. She also tends to tell ridiculous lies to her sons to cover up bad news, such as saying Barney 's father is Bob Barker. So that his mother would not worry about him, Barney hired actors to pretend to be his family; when he is forced to reveal the truth in "The Stinsons '', Loretta is not upset. She returns in "Cleaning House '': the gang go to her home as she is planning to move. Though she had hidden the identities of James and Barney 's fathers so that she could be both mother and father to them, she eventually discloses who both of their fathers are.
Played by Bob Odenkirk, Arthur is a boss at Goliath National Bank and was also Marshall 's boss at Nicholson, Hewitt & West. Due to his habit of screaming at his employees, he is nicknamed "Artillery Arthur. '' He has a dog named Tugboat.
Played by Cristine Rose. Virginia is Ted 's mother, married to Alfred for 30 years before they get divorced. She marries Clint in "Home Wreckers ''. Barney jokes on several occasions that he had sex with Virginia, although it is revealed in "Unpause '' that they only shared a kiss.
Played by Michael Gross. Alfred is Ted 's father, married to Virginia for 30 years before they get divorced. He shares similar views on romance to Ted, being described as a "head - in - the - clouds romantic '' by Virginia.
Played by Sherri Shepherd. When she, Marshall and Marvin get kicked off a plane, they spend the first half of season 9 travelling together. Marshall gets to know Daphne through the journey; she has a daughter and is worried that she is not a good mother.
Played by Joe Manganiello, Brad is a friend of Marshall from law school. Brad and Marshall begin to hang out after they both discover they are single, following breakups with their respective girlfriends, Kara and Lily. The bromance between Brad and Marshall becomes increasingly awkward after they go to brunch and a musical together. Eventually, Brad gets back together with his girlfriend. He attends Marshall 's bachelor party and wedding and gets punched in the face by Barney when he tries to kiss Robin, although he bears no hard feelings. He appears in "The Stamp Tramp '', claiming to be in need of help but later revealing that he is the opposition lawyer in a big court case, putting Marshall 's job at risk. The trial takes place in "Twelve Horny Women '' and Gruber Pharmaceuticals are found guilty but only have to pay $25,000, because the judge is biased due to his attraction to Brad; this leads to Marshall becoming a judge, as he realizes that is the position from which to effect the most change. His image appears in a flash forward in "Rally '' when a news report shows him leading in exit polls over Marshall for New York State Supreme Court Judge in 2020.
Played by Kyle MacLachlan, George van Smoot (known by his nickname "The Captain '') is introduced as Zoey Pierson 's husband at a gala at the Natural History Museum. He is obsessed with boats, an interest that Zoey does not share. Despite the Captain 's frightening demeanor, such as the murderous look he has in his eyes, he proves to be generous, if rather strange; he is also seen to be somewhat shy because of the apparent age gap between him and most of Zoey 's peers. While he comes to like Ted, Ted 's fear of the Captain is exacerbated by the fact that Ted and Zoey are attracted to one another. Zoey eventually divorces the Captain and leaves him for Ted. A year after Ted breaks up with Zoey, the Captain unexpectedly runs into Ted, Robin and Lily at a gallery show. He reveals that he holds no hard feelings for Ted regarding his divorce with Zoey. During the gallery show, Lily 's advice about artwork, while initially dismissed by the Captain, proves to be invaluable and the Captain ends up hiring Lily as his new art consultant in "The Ashtray ''. He announces his intention to move to Rome for a year and asks for Lily and her family to accompany him; following a fight between Marshall and Lily, they do live in Italy for a year. The Captain has three Olympic gold medals in fencing and ends up engaged to Becky.
Played by Michael Trucco, Nick is a love interest of Robin. They originally met in a clothes shop and later came face - to - face in a bar called "Hopeless ''. Each had a crush on the other. Although Nick was supposed to be a recurring character in season 7, Michael Trucco could not return as he was playing Justin Patrick in the second season of Fairly Legal. Instead, he began dating Robin in season 8. Nick is characterized as overly emotional and unintelligent, and in "Splitsville '', Robin begins to get annoyed by these traits (Nick 's groin injury prevents the two from having sex, so she begins to notice his personality more). They break up in the same episode, after Barney makes an impassioned speech about being in love with Robin; although he tells her that he was lying, it is later revealed he was telling the truth.
Played by Eric Braeden in "Happily Ever After '' and Ray Wise in all other appearances, Robin Charles Scherbatsky Sr. is an overbearing father who wanted a son. When the baby (Robin) turned out to be a girl, he raises her as a son, teaching her stereotypically male activities such as hunting. Robin Sr expresses his disappointment of his daughter over the years; he has very little contact with her, becoming married without telling her. The two eventually reconcile.
Played by Bryan Callen. He works for Goliath National Bank as Barney and Marshall 's co-worker and fires Ted when he designed an Employee Termination Room that was too "inspired ''.
Played by David Burtka, Neil Patrick Harris ' real life husband, Scooter is Lily 's old high - school boyfriend and is obsessed with her. They broke up during their high - school prom after being in a relationship for a long time. Scooter appears over several seasons, during which he fails to win back Lily at her wedding, works as a waiter in a fine - dining restaurant and as a cafeteria server at her school. A flashback shows that Lily intimidated Scooter into hanging out with her during her days as a bully in 1994. Scooter eventually marries Lily 's doppelganger, Jasmine the stripper.
Played by Taran Killam, Cobie Smulders ' real life husband, Gary was Barney and Marshall 's coworker until he quit. In "The Chain of Screaming '', Barney claims his life went downhill after being fired and that he eventually died. However, Blauman appears in later episodes; he inexplicably starts hanging out with Bilson when the two of them start working for Goliath National Bank. In "Gary Blauman '', it is revealed that he slept with Barney 's brother James, in an affair leading to Tom and James nearly getting divorced.
Played by Ben Koldyke, Don is Robin 's boyfriend and co-anchor in season 5, despite Robin originally disliking him. Robin decides to move into his apartment in "Twin Beds ''. She is offered a job in Chicago but decides to stay for him. When offered the same job, Don accepts. In "Unfinished '', a drunken Robin is shown calling him, leaving death threats as she never got over their breakup.
Played by Will Sasso, Doug is an angry, violent bartender who beats up three men for sitting in the gang 's booth. Although he appears in the background of several significant events, he is only pointed out by Future Ted in "The Fight ''.
Played by Abby Elliott, Jeanette is the last person Ted dates before The Mother. A New York Police Department officer who stalks Ted for roughly a year and a half after he was featured in a magazine, Jeanette is described by the gang as "crazy '' after she messes up Ted 's apartment, destroys Barney 's Playbook and throws Robin 's locket off a bridge. It is revealed in "Gary Blauman '' that she ended up with Kevin the psychiatrist.
Played by Laura Bell Bundy, Becky is Robin 's replacement co-anchor for Don Frank at the morning talk show Come On, Get Up New York!, and starts to eclipse Robin in the show. Her hyperactivity and cheerfulness wins over the production staff, but Robin dislikes her as she fails to remain professional on camera. In "Canning Randy '', she does a commercial about boats, giving her the nickname "Boats Boats Boats ''. She marries The Captain.
Played by Roger Bart. He is the front desk clerk at the Farhampton Inn, who works there until at least 2024. He is unintentionally condescending to Ted upon learning he is single. When The Mother shows up at the inn in the middle of the night, he gives her a key to Robin 's mother 's empty room.
Claudia and Stuart are played by Virginia Williams and Matt Boren. Claudia and Stuart are about to get married when they make their first appearance. While Stuart is an easy - going, sensitive, and plain - looking man, Claudia is an attractive, blunt and somewhat high - strung woman; despite their differences, they have a good relationship. As their wedding approaches, Claudia becomes increasingly stressed and refuses to allow Ted to bring Robin as a last - minute date to the wedding. Ted persuades Stuart, behind Claudia 's back, to allow him to bring Robin. Claudia and Stuart argue over this and break up before the wedding, although Marshall manages to convince them to get back together. However, as the show progresses, it is shown that Stuart and Claudia have a toxic and unstable relationship.
The couple make minor recurring appearances afterward. Stuart attends Marshall 's bachelor party in "Bachelor Party '', where it is suggested he regrets marrying Claudia. He also briefly appears in "Intervention ''. In "Baby Talk '', he and Claudia are seen to have a daughter named Esther. Stuart makes another appearance in "The Over-Correction '', where Ted blames him for failing to return Ted 's red cowboy boots. In "The Poker Game '', Stuart claims to have given Marshall and Lily a coffeemaker for their wedding, when it was really Ted 's present. In that episode it is also revealed that Stuart has been cheating on Claudia.
In "Double Date '', Ted mentions that the group has seen people who look exactly like them. This theme of five doppelgängers, one for each of the main characters (excluding The Mother), continues throughout several episodes.
The first three doppelgängers are seen in "Double Date ''. "Moustache Marshall '' appears on an advert on the side of a bus, and is spotted by Barney in MacLaren 's. "Lesbian Robin '' is seen in the streets of New York. "Stripper Lily '' (known by the name "Jasmine '') works at the Lusty Leopard and also appears in "46 Minutes '' and "Gary Blauman '', eventually marrying Scooter. "Mexican Wrestler Ted '' is discovered in "Robots Versus Wrestlers ''.
Barney 's doppelgänger is the most significant; Lily and Marshall want a sign from "the universe '' that they are ready to have children, and agree to start trying once they see Barney 's double. In "Doppelgangers '', Marshall meets a cab driver who he thinks is Barney 's doppelgänger, but who turns out to be Barney in disguise. Lily then sees a pretzel vendor and thinks he is the double; in reality, the vendor looks nothing like Barney but they begin to try to have children as Marshall claims it means that Lily is subconsciously ready to have kids. Barney 's real doppelgänger, Doctor John Stangel, is revealed in "Bad News ''. He is a fertility doctor, making Lily uncomfortable as she is convinced he is Barney in disguise.
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game of thrones season 1 episode 1 running time | Winter is Coming - Wikipedia
"Winter Is Coming '' is the first episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones. It was written by the show creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, in a faithful adaptation of the first chapters of George R.R. Martin 's book A Game of Thrones. The episode was directed by Tim Van Patten, redoing the work done by director Tom McCarthy in an unaired pilot.
As the first episode of the series, it introduces the setting and the main characters of the show. The episode centers on the Stark family, and how its lord, Eddard Stark, gets involved in the court politics after the king chooses Eddard to replace his recently deceased chief administrator ("Hand of the King ''). The episode received largely positive reviews, and was seen initially by 2.2 million viewers. A week before the episode first aired, HBO made the first 15 minutes available as an Internet preview.
The title of the episode is the motto of House Stark, which is spoken several times in the episode and in the series.
The episode begins the process of interweaving action happening in multiple separate locations within and around the fictional continent of Westeros. Most of the action takes place in and around Winterfell where Lord Eddard Stark is the feudal overlord of the northern reaches of the kingdom. Outside of Westeros is a land across the Narrow Sea where the two surviving members of House Targaryen, previous rulers of Westeros, live in exile.
The episode opens with three rangers of the Night 's Watch -- Ser Waymar Royce, Will and Gared -- scouting beyond the Wall, a massive barrier of ice at the north end of the kingdom. After finding the mutilated corpses of some wildlings (tribal humans who live north of the Wall), the rangers are confronted by White Walkers (demonic creatures) and undead wildlings. Two of the rangers are killed by the White Walkers, while the third, Will, is for some reason left alive. Fearing for his life, Will deserts the Night 's Watch, going South, without returning to the Wall.
Queen Cersei, and her twin brother, Jaime Lannister, are watching as the dead body of Jon Arryn, The Hand of The King is tended to by the Silent Sisters. They discuss whether he revealed any dangerous information regarding the two of them to anyone before his death. Jaime assures his sister that if Arryn had spoken to anyone, they would already have been executed.
After the opening sequence, the Starks of Winterfell are introduced, including Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark, his wife, Lady Catelyn "Cat '' Stark and his five children: their heir Robb, their elder daughter Sansa, younger daughter Arya, ten - year - old son Bran and youngest son, Rickon. Also introduced are Ned 's illegitimate son Jon Snow and hostage / ward Theon Greyjoy, who, like Robb, are older teenagers.
Ned is informed that a deserter of the Night 's Watch, Will, has been captured. Members of the Night 's Watch are sworn never to desert their posts, upon penalty of death. Ned takes his sons to witness Will 's execution. Will reports repeatedly that he saw White Walkers, but nobody believes him. The young man faces death bravely, admitting that he "should have gone back to the Wall and warned them ''. Ned himself passes sentence and beheads him. When Bran asks his father about the ranger 's talk of White Walkers, Ned dismisses it as a madman 's ravings, insisting that the Walkers have been considered extinct for thousands of years.
Upon their return, the Starks find a dead stag, sigil (seal) of House Baratheon. A bit farther they find a dead dire wolf and her surviving pups. Noting that the dire wolf is the sigil of the Stark family and there are as many pups as the Stark children (even an albino runt for Jon), they take the pups in as companions.
Back at Winterfell, Catelyn informs her husband of a letter announcing the death of Lord Arryn, Eddard 's old friend and Catelyn 's brother - in - law. An additional message reports that the king himself is coming to Winterfell. Winterfell receives the royal court, including King Robert Baratheon; his wife Queen Cersei; their three children: the heir Prince Joffrey, Princess Myrcella and the youngest Prince Tommen; as well as Cersei 's twin brother, Jaime Lannister, a member of the Kingsguard; and their younger brother, Tyrion Lannister, a dwarf known as "The Imp ''. As Robert pays his respects to Lyanna Stark, his late fiancée and Ned 's sister, Robert confides to his old friend that he does n't trust anyone around him. He decides to name Ned as the new Hand of the King, and to solidify the alliance between the two families, he suggests that Ned 's daughter, Sansa, be betrothed to his son, Joffrey.
At night, Catelyn receives a troubling message from her sister, Lord Arryn 's widow. She suspects her husband Jon was murdered by the king 's in - laws, the powerful Lannisters. Ned, who at first was reluctant to accept the position of Hand of the King, does so in order to protect his old friend. Bran, who enjoys climbing the walls of Winterfell, climbs an abandoned tower where he stumbles on Queen Cersei and Jaime having sex. To keep the incestuous relationship a secret, Jaime shoves Bran out of the high window.
Exiled prince Viserys Targaryen plots to overthrow King Robert and reclaim his father 's throne. To this end, he brokers a marriage between his sister Daenerys and a powerful warlord Khal Drogo, leader of a nomadic horde of Dothraki.
Daenerys voices her fear of the barbarian lord, but her brother tells her to marry him. During the wedding ceremony, Daenerys is given two wedding gifts. The first is a collection of books from the Seven Kingdoms, given by Ser Jorah Mormont, an exiled knight loyal to the Targaryens. The second gift is a chest containing three petrified dragon eggs, given by Magister Illyrio Mopatis, the man who helped arrange the marriage.
A number of Hollywood studios had contacted George R. R. Martin about possible adaptation of his book series A Song of Ice and Fire into a film, however Martin expressed the opinion the books could not be made into a film as too much would have to be cut from the books, but thought it could be made into a television series. In January 2006, David Benioff spoke to Martin 's literary agent about the books he represented for possible adaption, and the agent sent the first four books of A Song of Ice and Fire to David Benioff. Benioff read a few hundred pages of the first book in the series, A Game of Thrones, called D.B. Weiss and said: "Maybe I 'm crazy, but I have n't had this much fun reading anything in about 20 years. So take a look because I think it might make a great HBO series. '' Weiss, who then read the first book in two days, was very enthusiastic about a possible television project based on the books. They arranged a meeting with Martin, who asked them if they knew who Jon Snow 's real mother might be, and was satisfied with their answer.
In March 2006, a few weeks after meeting Martin, Benioff and Weiss pitched the show to Showtime and Carolyn Strauss of HBO, who accepted their proposal. HBO acquired the rights to the novels to turn them into a television series, with Benioff and Weiss as writers and executive producers of the series. The series went into development in January 2007. The series would begin with the 1996 first book of A Song of Ice and Fire, "A Game of Thrones '', with the intention that each novel in the series would form the basis for a season 's worth of episodes. However, Benioff and Weiss had to resubmit a proposal after Carolyn Strauss stepped down as president of HBO in 2008. The first and second drafts of the pilot script, written by Benioff and Weiss, were submitted in August 2007 and June 2008 respectively. While HBO found both drafts to their liking, a pilot was not ordered until November 2008.
Scripted by the show creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the first episode includes the plot of the book 's chapters 1 -- 9 and 12 (Prologue, Bran I, Catelyn I, Daenerys I, Eddard I, Jon I, Catelyn II, partial Arya I, Bran II, Daenerys II). Changes in the adaptation include the sequence of events in the prologue (in the books it is Gared and not Will who survives and is beheaded by Eddard afterwards, and Arya 's material is set before the arrival of the royal family), new scenes showing the Lannister twins ' perspective, and Daenerys 's wedding night showing Drogo not waiting for her to consent to sex.
Tom McCarthy was chosen to direct the pilot episode, shot between October 24 and November 19, 2009 on location in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Morocco. However, the pilot was deemed unsatisfactory and had to be reshot.
The new pilot episode was filmed in 2010 by new director Tim Van Patten, and several actors appearing in the original pilot did not return for the series. Tamzin Merchant was replaced as Daenerys Targaryen by Emilia Clarke, and Jennifer Ehle was replaced as Catelyn Stark by Michelle Fairley. Additionally, Ian McNeice was replaced as Magister Illyrio by Roger Allam, Richard Ridings as Gared by Dermot Keaney, and Jamie Campbell Bower as Ser Waymar Royce by Rob Ostlere.
Another difference is that the original pilot featured scenes shot in Scotland and scenes in Pentos were shot in Morocco, but in the aired series, Winterfell was filmed in a combination of locations in Northern Ireland, while scenes from Pentos were from Malta. The Doune Castle in Scotland was originally used to recreate Winterfell, and its great hall was used for some interior shots. Some scenes survived, but as it was not practical to return to Scotland for the reshoot, an exact replica of Doune 's Great Hall was recreated in the soundstage in Belfast for the series. Castle Ward in Northern Ireland was used in the reshoot to film King Robert 's entourage entry into Winterfell castle. A car park stood in for the Winterfell castle 's courtyard and a wine cellar for the Stark family crypt. The Tollymore Forest Park was used for the opening scene of the encounter with the White Walkers.
All the scenes shot in Morocco were reshot in Malta. The original pilot reused the sets of Kingdom of Heaven in Morocco to stand in for Pentos and the site of Drogo and Daenerys 's wedding. In Malta, the Verdala Palace, the 16th century summer palace of the president of Malta, was used for the exterior scenes at Illyrio 's mansion. The Azure Window was used as the backdrop for the wedding. Filming at the Azure Window, however, caused some controversy when a protected ecosystem was damaged by a subcontractor.
In the sex scene, the then - pregnant Lena Headey was substituted by a body double; the production hid her pregnancy for the rest of the season. In the scene in which the Starks encounter a stag killed by a dire wolf as they return from the execution, an actual animal was used rather than a prop. As the stag had been dead for two days, it stank so much that the actors had to take much care not to let it show on their faces. Some scenes filmed were never aired, for example a flashback to the death of Eddard Stark 's brother, and the death of Jon Arryn.
The original pilot from 2009 was poorly received in a private viewing with friends, one of whom, Craig Mazin, said to Benioff and Weiss, "You guys have a massive problem '', and said "change everything '' when asked for ideas. It was so disliked that Kit Harington joked that when he annoys Benioff and Weiss, they threaten to release the episode on YouTube. Weiss said of the viewing: "Watching them watch the pilot was a deeply humiliating, painful experience, because these are very smart individuals, and it just clearly was n't working for any of them on a very basic level. '' For example, it was never established that the two major characters, Jaime and Cersei Lannister were in fact brother and sister, a major plot point.
HBO did not make a decision for four months after the pilot was delivered. In March 2010, HBO 's decision to greenlight the series including the pilot was announced, with the production of the series scheduled to start June 2010. HBO however demanded extensive reshoot of the pilot, and wanted all the scenes from Morocco scrapped. A cameo appearance by George RR Martin as a Pentoshi nobleman at Daenerys 's wedding filmed in Morocco was therefore also cut. In all 90 percent of the pilot was re-shot in 2010, with some cast changes and a different director.
The original pilot remained unaired, although some footage from the original pilot was used in the first aired episode. This includes Sansa 's scenes with Catelyn (Michelle Fairley 's footage as Catelyn was inserted over Jennifer Ehle 's performance), Will 's ride through the woods (retained though also portrayed by a different actor), most of the feast at Winterfell, and Ned and Robert 's scene in the crypt. That scene is one of a few to be filmed on 35 mm film, and consequently slight film grain can be seen in the HD version of the episode.
On April 3, 2011, two weeks before the series premiere aired, the first 15 minutes of "Winter Is Coming '' were released as a preview on HBO 's website. Wired 's Dave Banks called the preview "much better than anticipated. (How 's that even possible?) '' Scott Stinson of Toronto 's National Post noted that "you know you are n't watching a network drama when there have been two beheadings in the first 15 minutes. ''
The first episode of Game of Thrones obtained 2.2 million viewers in its premiere airing, with an additional 2 million viewers in the reruns aired during the same night. The day after the premiere HBO aired the episode six additional times, adding another 1.2 million to the viewer 's figures. Reruns aired during the following week upped the total viewership to 6.8 million.
The show premiered on HBO Canada at the same time as its U.S. premiere. On April 18, 2011, the show premiered in United Kingdom and Ireland through Sky Atlantic, gathering 750,000 viewers, a ratings record for the network. The series was broadcast throughout Latin America beginning on May 8, 2011. New Zealand 's Dominion Post noted in an article on copyright laws that the popular series was downloaded via file sharing service regularly before its release to that market. In Australia, the July 17 premiere of the series was largely overshadowed by the release of A Dance with Dragons, but according to The Sydney Morning Herald was successful "especially with women, who are n't seen as a target market for sword - fighting sagas ''.
The critical response to the first episode of the series was positive. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes surveyed 10 reviews of the episode and judged 100 % of them to be positive with an average score of 8.5 out of 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "' Winter is Coming ' is an introduction to a wonderfully bleak journey that honors its source material with stellar execution and an impressive cast. '' James Poniewozik from Time considered it an "epic win '', and Jace Lacob from The Daily Beast deemed it "unforgettable ''. HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall wrote that while it was too early to say if Game of Thrones belonged to the HBO pantheon with shows like The Sopranos or The Wire, it had many things in common with those shows. IGN 's Matt Fowler wrote that the pilot "effortlessly takes us along, faithfully, through the book, but it also manages to capture the majestically morbid spirit of Martin 's pages and turn them into thrilling television ''.
Much praise was given to the production values and the acting: Scott Meslow from The Atlantic states that "the show 's immense cast is almost universally strong, and the fantasy land of Westeros feels lived - in, and looks terrific ''. Alan Sepinwall also qualifies the casting as "really exceptional '', and states that the show is "feast for the eyes '', with all the different locations having their own memorable looks. The opening sequence, with an aerial view of the world where the series takes place with the different settings emerging from it, was also acclaimed.
On April 19, less than two days after the initial airing, HBO announced that the series had been renewed for a second season. In a press teleconference, HBO executives announced their satisfaction with initial ratings, which they compared favorably to True Blood.
Tim Van Patten received a 2011 Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series, and the episode was also nominated for Outstanding Makeup for a Single - Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic).
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list of cities and towns in ontario by population | List of population centres in Ontario - wikipedia
Population centre, in Canadian census data, is a populated place, or a cluster of interrelated populated places, which meets the demographic characteristics of an urban area, having a population of at least 1,000 people and a population density of no fewer than 400 persons per square km.
The term was first introduced in the Canada 2011 Census; prior to that, Statistics Canada used the term urban area.
In the 2016 census, Statistics Canada listed 286 population centres in the province of Ontario.
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what are the members of lfo doing now | LFO (American band) - wikipedia
Lyte Funkie Ones (LFO) is an American pop band consisting of vocalists Devin Lima (born Harold Lima, March 18, 1977) and Brad Fischetti (born September 11, 1975). The band was formerly a trio that also featured lead singer and primary songwriter Rich Cronin, and initially disbanded after his death in 2010, but Lima and Fischetti reunited LFO as a duo in 2017. Before Lima joined the group in 1999, the third member was Brian Gillis (known as "Brizz ''), who was with the group from its start in 1995. The band is best known for their hit songs "Summer Girls '', "Girl on TV '', and "Every Other Time ''. The band have sold over 4 million records worldwide.
In 1995, in New Bedford, Massachusetts, Rich Cronin met Brian "Brizz '' Gillis. LFO had marginal success with the remake of the Yvonne Elliman song, "If I Ca n't Have You '', which missed the Top 40, reaching No. 54 on the UK Singles Chart. In 1997, they released a cover of New Kids on the Block 's 1990 hit "Step By Step '' as a single. In 1999, Gillis was frustrated with the lack of progress that the group had made so he left to pursue a solo career, which led him to multiple college tours and a job in the music industry, with a radio promotion position in Florida with BMG.
After Gillis left, Fischetti and Cronin still wanted to continue to pursue their dreams of making it big, so they headed back to the United States and had an open audition. Devin Lima, an employee of a hardware store at the time, was chosen in place of Gillis. Devin decided that the group should discontinue being called Lyte Funkie Ones and use the name LFO exclusively instead. In the UK, however, they were unable to use the abbreviated name of LFO due to an IDM act on the Warp Records label, who had been using the name since 1988.
Still signed with Trans Continental and now with Arista Records, LFO recorded some new material with Dow Brain, Brad Young and Danny Wood of New Kids on the Block, at Underground Studios second location, the basement of a 200 + year old house in Needham, Massachusetts. Wood had been a long - time friend of original member Brian Gillis. Among the songs LFO had recorded in an attempt to make a demo was a song called "Summer Girls ''. It was produced by Dow Brain and Brad Young of Underground Productions. This song gave LFO their path to success. "Summer Girls '' made its way to the Top 10, eventually reaching the number 3 position on the Billboard Hot 100, and the number 1 position on the Billboard single sales chart. New York City radio station Z100 (WHTZ 100.3 FM - MHZ), part of the Clear Channel network, also helped LFO 's popularity through frequent promotion and airings of the song "Summer Girls '' before the song 's national Top 10 status.
Their debut album, LFO, sold over 2.5 million copies worldwide, and it scored two Top 10 hits on the Billboard Hot 100: "Summer Girls '' and "Girl on TV ''. In 1999, "Summer Girls '' was nominated for a Billboard Music Award for Top Selling Single of the Year; the song sold over 1.5 million copies in the US. The song itself contained numerous non sequiturs, such as "You 're the best girl that I ever did see / The great Larry Bird, jersey 33 '' and "Fell deep in love, but now we ai n't speakin ' / Michael J. Fox was Alex P. Keaton ''. This album featured many vocals from original member Brian. The label loved the original versions of the records so much that they left all of the vocals from Brian, including leads on "Ca n't Have You ''. The group was a part of a show called LFO Live from Orlando (1999).
The year 2000 was a busy year for LFO, featuring nonstop tours, performing at over 230 concerts that year. They also served as opening act for Britney Spears, and co-headlined Nickelodeon 's All That Music & More summer tour. They also found success in the UK at the same time when second single, the Dow Brain and Brad Young co-written "Girl on TV '', entered the UK chart at # 6. In 2000, the band won the Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Award for Favorite Group of the Year. Play Along Toys made dolls of the group in 2001.
They appeared on The Amanda Show as guest stars, singing a song while Amanda danced in the background with the show 's signature ' dancing lobsters '. At the end, LFO described Amanda as ' the most beautiful girl in the world '. The episode has been repeated on Nickelodeon since its creation.
In the summer of 2001, the group released their sophomore and final album, Life Is Good, with the release of only two singles "Life Is Good '' and "Every Other Time '', which was the only commercial release from the album. After lackluster record sales of the album and the late - 1990s / early - 2000s boyband craze coming to an end, LFO officially decided to part ways in February 2002.
On June 3, 2009, LFO posted a blog entitled "LFO is Back '' on their unofficial MySpace page which announced that they had reunited and were going on the Malcolm Douglas Tribute tour beginning September 23, 2009, with Rookie of the Year, Go Crash Audio, and Kiernan McMullan. A new song titled "Summer of My Life '' was also announced in association with the reunion.
However, the reunion was short - lived. On September 28, 2009, LFO announced through their YouTube page LFOVIDEOS that they had permanently disbanded. They never had a chance to record a third studio album because of the death of Rich Cronin. However, the individual members of the band planned to continue making music with their various side projects. Rich Cronin died, at the Brigham and Women 's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts on September 8, 2010, after battling leukemia.
In an attempt to form a pop group without having it labeled as a boy band, Cronin founded Bad Mood Mike in 2003. The project failed, as it never produced an album, and ended after a few months. Cronin was later in a group called Loose Cannons with Toothpick (Doug Ray). He was also part of the TV show Mission: Man Band, which aired on VH1.
In March 2005, Cronin sought treatment for constant headaches, and was diagnosed with leukemia. He underwent chemotherapy in Boston, and by January 2006, his leukemia was in remission. In 2008, Cronin launched his first solo - studio album named Billion Dollar Sound.
Lima released his first solo track back in 2006. It is a cover of the Sly & the Family Stone song of the same name "If You Want Me to Stay '' for the tribute album Different Strokes by Different Folks. It led to him performing in a tribute to Sly Stone on the 2006 Grammy Awards, alongside Steven Tyler and Joe Perry of Aerosmith, Maroon 5, Joss Stone, John Legend and will.i.am.
Lima, along with his new band The Cadbury Diesel, has released their debut record Mozart Popart in July 2008. Lima is performing music under the alias Live From Orlando. The disc helped push Lima past the bubblegum tunes of his past, thanks to the rock and roll feel of songs like "Hangin ' With You '' and the soulful R&B tune "Me Veda. '' He and his band performed a song called Rocky Road for the film American Pie Presents Beta House back in 2007. In late 2013, Lima formed a group with electronic artists DJ Shakka and Ayj as The Mack Pack, releasing two singles in 2014, "Golden '' and "Out of Control '' (including a video), and are currently working on several singles.
Brad Fischetti has since become a pro-life activist. He tweets about it from time to time. In a statement to E! News, Fischetti, denies harassing any women outside the clinic, but he adamantly stands by his anti-abortion views and says he regrets not speaking out more when LFO was at the height of its fame. He is also a musical director for a church.
Fischetti and Lima collaborated on a new hip - hop project called The Xiles. They released the two - song Xiles X-mas EP on December 13, 2009 and revealed that they 'd already begun recording their debut album, American Genie: Volume 1.
In July 2017, LFO released their first new song after 15 years, titled "Perfect 10 ''. It features surviving members Devin Lima and Brad Fischetti, with Fischetti telling Entertainment Weekly that "We 're sincerely thankful and excited to have the opportunity to create new music and tour again. We miss the presence of our late great brother bandmate Rich Cronin. We will do our best to make him proud, carry on his legacy, and to usher LFO into the future. ''
In October 2017, Devin Lima was diagnosed with stage four adrenal cancer and he had one kidney removed. The news was confirmed by his fellow band member Brad Fischetti.
The group has been on numerous TV shows and episodes as performers. These include All That and The Amanda Show. They made a cameo in the 2001 film Longshot.
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