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when did they stop using knob and tube wiring in canada | Knob - and - tube wiring - wikipedia
Knob - and - tube wiring (sometimes abbreviated K&T) is an early standardized method of electrical wiring in buildings, in common use in North America from about 1880 to the 1930s. It consisted of single - insulated copper conductors run within wall or ceiling cavities, passing through joist and stud drill - holes via protective porcelain insulating tubes, and supported along their length on nailed - down porcelain knob insulators. Where conductors entered a wiring device such as a lamp or switch, or were pulled into a wall, they were protected by flexible cloth insulating sleeving called loom. The first insulation was asphalt - saturated cotton cloth, then rubber became common. Wire splices in such installations were twisted together for good mechanical strength, then soldered and wrapped with rubber insulating tape and friction tape (asphalt saturated cloth), or made inside metal junction boxes.
Knob and tube wiring was eventually displaced from interior wiring systems because of the high cost of installation compared with use of power cables, which combined both power conductors of a circuit in one run (and which later included grounding conductors).
At present, new knob and tube installations are permitted in the US only in a few very specific situations listed in the National Electrical Code, such as certain industrial and agricultural environments.
Ceramic knobs were cylindrical and generally nailed directly into the wall studs or floor joists. Most had a circular groove running around their circumference, although some were constructed in two pieces with pass - through grooves on each side of the nail in the middle. A leather washer often cushioned the ceramic, to reduce breakage during installation.
By wrapping electrical wires around the knob, and securing them with tie wires, the knob could be used to securely and permanently anchor the wire. The knobs separated the wire from potentially combustible framework, facilitated changes in direction, and ensured that wires were not subject to excessive tension. Because the wires were suspended in air, they could dissipate heat well.
Ceramic tubes were inserted into holes bored in wall studs or floor joists, and the wires were directed through them. This kept the wires from coming into contact with the wood framing members and from being compressed by the wood as the house settled. Ceramic tubes were sometimes also used when wires crossed over each other, for protection in case the upper wire were to break and fall on the lower conductor.
Ceramic cleats, which were block - shaped pieces, served a purpose similar to that of the knobs. Not all knob and tube installations utilized cleats.
Ceramic bushings protected each wire entering a metal device box, when such an enclosure was used.
Loom, a woven flexible insulating sleeve, was slipped over insulated wire to provide additional protection whenever a wire passed over or under another wire, when a wire entered a metal device enclosure, and in other situations prescribed by code.
Other ceramic pieces would typically be used as a junction point between the wiring system proper, and the more flexible cloth - clad wiring found in light fixtures or other permanent, hard - wired devices. When a generic power outlet was desired, the wiring could run directly into the junction box through a tube of protective loom and a ceramic bushing.
Wiring devices such as light switches, receptacle outlets, and lamp sockets were either surface - mounted, suspended, or flush - mounted within walls and ceilings. Only in the last case were metal boxes always used to enclose the wiring and device.
Knob supporting a wire change in direction.
Knob supporting a splice
Knobs supporting long runs of wire
Knobs serving multiple functions
Ceramic tubes protecting wires passing through ceiling joists.
Ceramic junction for suspended light socket. Note deteriorated cloth insulation.
Splice with more modern power outlet, a probable code violation as seen here.
Wiring running through tubes, and turning a corner supported by a knob. Notice the direct splice with more modern (1950s - era) non-metallic sheathed cable. This type of connection is forbidden by the National Electrical Code, and a junction box should have been used.
In many older K&T installations, the supply and return wires were routed separately from each other, rather than being located parallel to and near each other. This direct routing method has the advantage of reduced cost by allowing use of the shortest possible lengths of wire, but the major disadvantage is that a detailed building wiring diagram is needed for other electricians to understand multiple interwoven circuits, especially if the wiring is not fully visible throughout its length. By contrast, modern electrical codes now require that all residential wiring connections be made only inside protective enclosures, such as junction boxes, and that all connections must remain accessible for inspection, troubleshooting, repair, or modification.
For example, consider the installation of a light, controlled by two switches in different locations. In modern practice, the supply and return wires both arrive at the first switch, where the supply is connected to one of the two switching wires (hot / red); the return wire is carried inside the same multi-conductor cable to the distant second switch. From there, a supply wire carries power to the light, and a return wire goes back to location of the second switch, and then retraces the path back to the fusebox.
For older K&T installations, the supply and return wires were not necessarily installed as a pair, and did not necessarily have to be near each other at all. From the fusebox, a single supply wire would go to the first switch. From there, it would divide into two switching wires. At the second, remote switch the two wires would come together to be a single supply wire again. Finally this supply wire would be routed from the second switch to the light fixture, and then a single return wire would take the shortest path through the building back to the fusebox. The foregoing is an example of the so - called Carter system wire layout.
In the case of modern North American split - phase power, the supply wires from two opposite single - phase circuit breakers are used to supply 240 V AC for high power devices. In modern circuits, these two wires are grouped together, and for each 240 V device a dedicated circuit is installed, usually with the two circuit breakers ganged together to operate simultaneously.
But with old K&T, a past electrician might have reasoned as follows: "I have a 20 amp circuit on one phase over here, and another 20 amp circuit on an opposite phase over there. Rather than run an entirely new set of wires for this one device, I will just tap off the supply wires of those two circuits and bring them together for this one device. '' This method of wiring does work and it reduces the amount of wire used, but it makes electrical problems very hard to find and fix, with (possibly undocumented) wires going all over the place within the walls and ceilings, to whatever was the most expedient supply or return wire at the time of installation.
Under the US electrical code, Carter system wiring layouts have now been banned, even for permissible new installations of K&T wiring. However, electricians must be aware of this older system, which is still present in many existing older electrical installations.
Another practice that was common (or even required) in some older K&T designs was the installation of separate fuses in both the hot wire and the neutral (return) wire of an electrical circuit. The failure of a neutral fuse would cut off power flow through the affected circuit, but the hot conductor could still remain hot relative to ground, an unexpected and potentially hazardous situation. Because of the presence of a neutral fuse, the neutral conductor could not be relied on to remain near ground potential, and could in fact be at full line potential instead (via transmission of voltage through a switched - on light bulb, for example).
Modern electrical codes generally do not require a neutral fuse. Instead, they explicitly forbid configurations that might break continuity of the neutral conductor, unless all associated hot conductors are also simultaneously disconnected (for example, with ganged or "tied '' circuit breakers).
In the early 1900s, K&T wiring was less expensive to install than other wiring methods. For several decades, electricians could choose between K&T wiring, conduit, armored cable, and metal junction boxes. The conduit methods were known to be of better quality, but cost significantly more than K&T. In 1909, flexible armored cable cost about twice as much as K&T, and conduit cost about three times the price of K&T. Knob and tube wiring persisted since it allowed owners to wire a building for electricity at lower cost.
Modern wiring methods assume two or more load - carrying conductors will lie very near each other, as for instance in standard NM - 2 cable. Since the load - carrying wires are in proximity, when they heat up, the heating is shared across the wires, limiting the overall current load they can support. Since the load - carrying wires in K&T wiring are widely spaced, the wires can carry higher currents than the same conductors in proximity. When installed correctly, the K&T wires are held away from the structural materials by ceramic insulators.
K&T wiring was commonly insulated with cotton cloth and soft rubber, in addition to the porcelain standoffs. Although the actual wire covering may have degraded over the decades, the porcelain standoffs have a nearly unlimited lifespan and will keep any bare wires safely insulated. Today, porcelain standoffs are still commonly used with bare - wire electric fencing for livestock, and such porcelain standoffs carry far higher voltage surges without risk of shorting to ground.
In short, K&T wiring that was installed correctly, and not damaged or incorrectly modified since then, is fairly safe when used within the original current - carrying limits.
Historically, wiring installation requirements were less demanding in the age of knob - and - tube wiring than today. Compared to modern electrical wiring standards, these are the main technical shortcomings of knob - and - tube wiring methods:
Over time, the price of electrician labor grew faster than the cost of materials. This removed the price advantage of K&T methods, especially since they required time - consuming skillful soldering of in - line splices and junctions, and careful hand - wrapping of connections in layers of insulating tape.
Knob - and - tube wiring can be made with high current carrying capacity. However, most existing residential knob - and - tube installations, dating to before 1940, have fewer branch circuits than is desired today. While these installations were adequate for the electrical loads at the time of installation, modern households use a range and intensity of electrical equipment unforeseen at the time. Household power use increased dramatically following World War II, due to the wide availability of new electrical appliances and devices.
Modern home buyers often find that existing K&T systems lack the capacity for today 's levels of power use. First - generation wiring systems became susceptible to abuse by homeowners who would replace blown fuses with fuses rated for higher current. This overfusing of the circuits subjects wiring to higher levels of current and risks heat damage or fire.
Knob - and - tube wiring may also be damaged by building renovations. Its cloth and rubber insulation can dry out and turn brittle. It may also be damaged by rodents and careless activities such as hanging objects from wiring running in accessible areas like basements.
Currently, the United States National Electrical Code forbids the use of loose, blown - in, or expanding foam insulation over K&T wiring. This is because K&T is designed to let heat dissipate to the surrounding air. As a result, energy efficiency upgrades that involve insulating previously uninsulated walls usually also require replacement of the wiring in affected homes. However, California, Washington, Nebraska, and Oregon have modified the NEC to conditionally allow insulation around K&T. They did not find a single fire that was attributed to K&T, and permit insulation provided the home first passes inspection by an electrician.
As existing K&T wiring gets older, insurance companies may deny coverage due to a perception of increased risk. Several companies will not write new homeowners policies at all unless all K&T wiring is replaced, or an electrician certifies that the wiring is in good condition. Also, many institutional lenders are unwilling to finance a home with the relatively low - capacity service typical of K&T wiring, unless the electrical service is upgraded. Partial upgrades, where low demand lighting circuits are left intact, may be acceptable to some insurers.
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who did undertaker lose to in wrestlemania 2017 | The Streak (Wrestling) - wikipedia
The Streak was a series of 21 straight victories for professional wrestler The Undertaker (Mark Calaway) at WWE 's premier annual event, WrestleMania. It began at WrestleMania VII in 1991 when he beat Jimmy Snuka, with the final win coming against CM Punk at WrestleMania 29 in 2013; The Undertaker was absent from WrestleMania X (1994) and WrestleMania 2000, owing to injury. Overall, he defeated 18 men during The Streak, which included three bouts with Triple H and two each opposite Kane and Shawn Michaels, as well as a handicap match against A-Train and Big Show at WrestleMania XIX. Although part of professional wrestling storyline, this run of victories was described by sports news publication The 42 as the "greatest winning streak in sport '', while Sky Sports likened it to that of boxer Floyd Mayweather.
The Streak became the cornerstone of WrestleMania, with a potential win over The Undertaker at the event being described as a greater honor than winning the WWE Championship. For years, debate had revolved around who, if anybody, should break The Streak, with prominent wrestlers giving comment. At WrestleMania XXX in 2014, The Undertaker lost to Brock Lesnar.
WrestleMania is the premier annual event of the largest professional wrestling promotion in the United States, WWE. Formed as a counter to Jim Crockett Promotions ' successful Starrcade event, WrestleMania I was broadcast to one million nationwide via closed - circuit television and pay - per - view. WrestleMania 's widespread success helped transform the sport of professional wrestling and made WWE the most successful wrestling promotion in the world, prompting WWE to promote the event as the "Super Bowl of sports entertainment ''.
Born Mark William Calaway on March 24, 1965 in Houston, Texas, The Undertaker is an American professional wrestler. He is currently signed to WWE, where he has worked since 1990, making him the company 's longest - tenured in - ring performer. Calaway began his wrestling career with World Class Championship Wrestling (WCCW) in 1984. After wrestling for World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as "Mean '' Mark Callous from 1989 to 1990, he signed with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, later WWE) in 1990. In WWE, The Undertaker is a seven - time world champion, having won the WWF / E Championship four times and the World Heavyweight Championship three times, as well as the winner of the 2007 Royal Rumble. He is recognized as the fourth youngest WWF / E Champion in history, having won the title aged 26 years, 8 months, and 3 days.
-- Jimmy Snuka in 2013
Early into Undertaker 's career, he would smash various jobbers and other established stars in squash matches. This led to a feud with Jimmy "Superfly '' Snuka.
The match ended when Snuka 's attempted springboard maneuver was countered as The Undertaker caught him, and he then hit the Tombstone Piledriver before pinning Snuka.
In mid-1991, Taker would be allying himself with Jake "The Snake '' Roberts in his feud with the Ultimate Warrior. During the 1992 Royal Rumble, however, Taker turned face and defended Randy Savage 's manager and wife, Miss Elizabeth, from Roberts 's attack. When berated by Roberts on whose side he was on, Taker retorted "Not yours ''. The feud would culminate in a match at Wrestlemania.
After delivering his finishing move, the DDT, to The Undertaker for the second time, Jake Roberts went to the outside to attack Undertaker 's manager Paul Bearer. The Undertaker then delivered a Tombstone Piledriver to Roberts, before rolling him inside the ring and pinning him.
During the Royal Rumble 1993, Undertaker, who had now been feuding with Harvey Wippleman, began engaging in matches with the wrestlers managed by Wippleman. During the Royal Rumble, Wippleman introduced the Giant Gonzales, who would illegally enter the match to eliminate the Undertaker. This would set up a match against the two at Wrestlemania.
Giant González was disqualified when he covered The Undertaker 's face with a cloth covered in chloroform. This was the only DQ victory in the Undertaker 's streak, as all other wins were obtained by pinfall, submission, or casket.
Throughout 1994, Undertaker would be sidelined through injury, and during this time, Million Dollar Man, Ted DiBiase Sr., would introduce his own Undertaker, prompting a feud between the two. King Kong Bundy, who was being managed by DiBiase, would step up to face the Undertaker at Wrestlemania in 1995.
The match, refereed by baseball umpire Larry Young, finished when The Undertaker first bodyslammed and then delivered a flying clothesline to King Kong Bundy before pinning him.
On the Royal Rumble of 1996, Undertaker faced then - WWF champion, Bret Hart for the title, but an interference by Diesel costs him the match. As revenge, Taker would then cost Diesel his opportunity for the title at In Your House: Rage in the Cage. The two would settle their feud at Wrestlemania, which would be Diesel 's final match in the WWF before leaving to WCW.
Diesel lost to The Undertaker via Tombstone Piledriver.
In 1997, Shawn Michaels vacated the WWF Championship, leaving the new holder to be decided in a four - way elimination match between Undertaker, Bret Hart, Vader and "Stone Cold '' Steve Austin. Bret won the match and the title but then lost it to Sid in a match the next night on Monday Night Raw. While Hart and Austin would continue their feud, Undertaker was left free to challenge Sid for the title at Wrestlemania.
In a match for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship, the finish came when Bret Hart distracted Sid long enough for The Undertaker to take advantage and deliver a Tombstone Piledriver.
-- Kane in 2010
At Summerslam 1997, Undertaker dropped the WWF title to Hart after an accidental attack by Shawn Michaels, setting up a Hell in a Cell match between the two. During the match, Kane was brought by Paul Bearer to cost Taker the match. After being defeated by Michaels at the Royal Rumble 1998 in a casket match thanks to Kane, Undertaker would challenge his brother to a match at Wrestlemania.
After Kane had kicked out of two Tombstone Piledrivers, The Undertaker delivered a third to pick up the win over his (storyline) brother.
Mid-1998 would see the creation of Undertaker 's Ministry of Darkness, as it would reignite his pursuit for the WWF title. In his way, however, he opted to switch targets, and aimed to take control of the entire WWF corporation instead. Feuding with The Corporation, Undertaker faced the stable 's enforcer, Big Boss Man.
The first WrestleMania match to take place inside a Hell in a Cell ended when Undertaker delivered a Tombstone Piledriver to Big Boss man, who was then hanged from a noose by The Brood. This bout was during the "Ministry of Darkness '' era.
Returning with his "American Badass '' character in 2000 after an injury the previous year, Undertaker reignited his feud with Vince McMahon, who now allied themselves with Triple H to form the McMahon - Helmsley Faction. Undertaker would find Hunter 's statement of having "already beaten everyone in the business '' as arrogant as the two never met in a one - on - one match before. Following various brawls between their respective allies, Undertaker would have Kane hold Stephanie McMahon hostage unless then - commissioner, William Regal, give them matches against Triple H and the Big Show respectively.
Following a match involving a brawl through the crowd, The Undertaker finally pinned Triple H after using the Last Ride. This bout marked The Undertaker 's first WrestleMania appearance under his "American Badass '' biker persona.
During No Way Out 2002, Undertaker would face The Rock after the two had been feuding, but he would lose the match thanks to Ric Flair 's interference, sparking a feud between the two which led to a match at Wrestlamania.
Fought under No Disqualification rules, The Undertaker beat Ric Flair after delivering a Tombstone Piledriver, despite interference from Arn Anderson.
In late - 2002, Big Show kayfabe injured Taker, but Taker would make his return at the 2003 Royal Rumble to engage Show. Though Taker came out victorious at No Way Out in their submissions match, A-Train would attack Taker, while Nathan Jones would aid Taker. Just prior to their match, however, Jones would be attacked by their opponents at Wrestlemania, turning the tag team match into a handicap match instead.
Jones helped Undertaker win by delivering kicks to both Big Show and A-Train, and allowing The Undertaker to hit a Tombstone Piledriver on A-Train to get the pinfall win. This bout at WrestleMania XIX would be the last match Undertaker would have under the "American Badass '' persona.
Survivor Series 2003 spelled the end of Undertaker 's Big Evil persona, as he would lose his Buried Alive Match against Vince McMahon due to interference from Kane. Reverting to his Deadman persona, The Undertaker would haunt Kane throughout various matches in vignettes, resulting in his eventual return at Wrestlemania.
The Undertaker later defeated Kane for the second time at WrestleMania by executing a Tombstone Piledriver.
As part of his "Legend Killer '' gimmick, Randy Orton began seeking out the Undertaker, hoping to be the one to finally end the deadman 's legendary streak. Orton would go as far as attacking his on - screen girlfriend, Stacy Keibler, and WWE Legend, Jake "The Snake '' Roberts and was able to eventually get Undertaker to accept the challenge.
The finish to the match came when Randy Orton attempted to execute a Tombstone Piledriver, only for it to be reversed by The Undertaker into one of his own.
This match marked the first time an opponent of the Undertaker 's wanted to face him at WrestleMania explicitly to end his undefeated streak, as opposed to having a primary grudge with him.
During 2006, Undertaker began his pursuit for the World Heavyweight Championship, held by Kurt Angle at the time. In No Way Out, Mark Henry would cost Undertaker the match. As a result, the Undertaker then challenged Henry to a Casket Match.
The Undertaker won the casket match when he put Mark Henry inside the casket.
-- Batista in 2007
Having won the 2007 Royal Rumble, The Undertaker earned the opportunity to select his opponent for WrestleMania 23. With the option to wrestle WWE Champion John Cena, ECW Champion Bobby Lashley, or World Heavyweight Champion Batista, The Undertaker chose Batista.
Undertaker used his signature moves Snake Eyes, Old School, and a flying clothesline early on, before executing a suicide dive to Batista, who then retaliated by performing a running powerslam through the ECW broadcast table. Batista put Undertaker back in the ring and attempted a pin to no avail as Undertaker kicked out, who then did the Last Ride and a chokeslam, but was unable to score a pin from either move. Batista then hit a spear and his finishing move the Batista Bomb, but Undertaker stunned everybody by kicking out. Batista tried another, but was countered and Undertaker hit a Tombstone Piledriver on Batista to win the World Heavyweight Championship.
Though he successfully defended his title against Batista in a Steel Cage Match at Smackdown, the Undertaker would fall victim to a returning Mark Henry 's attack. Edge would then cash in his Money in the Bank briefcase to win the title from the beaten champion. Though Batista would defeat Edge for the title, the trio would have a Triple Threat match at Armageddon for the title, which Edge won. Undertaker would then prevail at Smackdown 's Elimination Chamber at No Way Out 2008 to become the number one contender for Edge 's title at Wrestlemania.
Although The Undertaker entered the event undefeated to much acclaim, Edge had also never lost a singles match at WrestleMania. Edge described the match as "the biggest match of my career, bar none. The main event, against Undertaker for the world title, it does n't get any better ''.
The match was full of reversals by Edge, who was defending his World Heavyweight Championship, including Undertaker 's signature moves Old School, the big boot, the Last Ride, and the Tombstone Piledriver, while hitting big moves of his own such as the ' Impaler DDT and the Edge - o - matic. The end of the match came when, despite Edge using a camera as a weapon, and interference from La Familia members The Edgeheads (Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder), Undertaker locked in the Hell 's Gate after being hit with Edge 's finisher, the spear. Edge would submit, and for the second year in a row, The Undertaker won the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania.
Edge later revealed in a podcast, that the original plan for the match was to be "Streak vs Streak '', as he was originally slated to win Wrestlemania 23 's Money in the Bank Ladder Match, but booking eventually shifted the win to Mr. Kennedy instead.
-- Jim Ross at WrestleMania XXV
After defeating Vladimir Kozlov on March 2, 2009, Shawn Michaels earned the right to challenge The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXV.
During the match, Undertaker attempted his signature suicide dive, but Michaels pulled a cameraman in the way, leaving Undertaker to land awkwardly on his neck; the spot was said to have "added more drama and emotion to the match, and gave it an element of realism ''. The finish, described as "emotionally charged '', involved Undertaker using all four of his recognized finishers (Tombstone Piledriver, Last Ride, chokeslam, Hell 's Gate) without managing to finish the match on any occasion; Undertaker 's "wide eyed look of sadness and desperation on his face '' after Michaels kicked out of the Tombstone Piledriver was described as a "snapshot of the heart and passion that was on display at the spectacle ''. Michaels made a comeback, and eventually hit Sweet Chin Music, but Undertaker kicked out. Soon after, Michaels attempted a top - rope moonsault, but was caught by Undertaker, who executed a second Tombstone Piledriver and finally won the match.
The match was described as "show - stealing '' and an "instant classic '', and was eventually hailed by many as the greatest bout in WrestleMania history.
The Undertaker initially rejected a rematch with Shawn Michaels, saying "a rematch at this year 's WrestleMania will only result in more bitter disappointment for yourself. Shawn, I 've got nothing to prove to you. My answer is ' No ' '', before Michaels retaliated by saying "I 'll see you at WrestleMania. Your streak, your title, your soul will be mine ''. At Elimination Chamber, Michaels cost Undertaker his World Heavyweight Championship, coming out from under the ring and connecting with Sweet Chin Music and allowing Chris Jericho to pin him.
Towards the end, Michaels hit Sweet Chin Music on the outside, leaving Undertaker lay on the broadcast table, before performing a top - rope moonsault, breaking the table. At the end of a 24 - minute match, after kicking out of a Tombstone Piledriver, Michaels slapped The Undertaker, leading to Undertaker executing a jumping Tombstone Piledriver on Michaels. As a result of the loss per the pre-match stipulations, Michaels retired from professional wrestling, a moment described as "the end of an era ''.
In the lead - up to WrestleMania XXVII, Triple H vowed to do what his best friend, Shawn Michaels, could not: end The Streak. After a near - 30 minute bout, in a match contested under No Holds Barred rules, and after both men kicked out of each other 's finishing move, The Undertaker was triumphant when he locked in the Hell 's Gate on Triple H; Triple H attempted to use a sledgehammer while in the hold, but was unable to do so before tapping out. Although victorious, it was the first time that The Undertaker legitimately could not walk out of the arena, and had to be stretchered to the back by paramedics.
The Undertaker made the challenge, as he wanted to redeem himself against Triple H from the previous year 's WrestleMania, where he had to be stretchered out of the arena. Triple H initially rejected before accepting. Contested inside a Hell in a Cell, and refereed by Shawn Michaels, the match, billed as the "End of an Era '' began with both men brawling in and around the ring. Shortly afterwards, with the steel steps inside the ring, Triple H hit a spinebuster on Undertaker, who then managed to lock in the Hell 's Gate, which was countered when Triple H lifted him up and slammed him on the steel steps. The match was littered with weapon shots, including 16 consecutive chair shots by Triple H, followed by a sledgehammer shot to the skull, all the while Undertaker instructed Michaels not to stop the match. When being checked on by Michaels, Undertaker locked him in the Hell 's Gate, leaving him out cold. Replacement referee Charles Robinson ran down to the ring after Undertaker hit a chokeslam on Triple H, but could only make a two - count, and was then on the receiving end of a chokeslam himself. Michaels recovered and hit Undertaker with Sweet Chin Music followed by a Triple H Pedigree, but this was n't enough for the three count. Both men traded finishing moves for near - falls, before Undertaker delivered his own series of chair shots for another two count. Undertaker won shortly afterwards with a Tombstone Piledriver. It was praised as one of the greatest Hell in a Cell matches of all time, while Triple H thought it was one of his favorite matches of his career.
In a controversial angle the week before WrestleMania 29, CM Punk 's manager Paul Heyman, dressed as, and using the mannerisms of, the recently deceased Paul Bearer, came out to confront The Undertaker whilst flanked by Undertaker 's signature druids. As Undertaker attempted to assault them, Punk, in disguise as a druid, assaulted Undertaker before pouring the ashes of an urn, purporting to be those of Bearer 's, over Undertaker.
During the 22 minute match Punk delivered a Macho Man elbow drop from the top rope onto The Undertaker, who was draped on the Spanish broadcast table. Undertaker survived this, and, after Punk hit The Undertaker with the urn containing the alleged ashes of Paul Bearer, Undertaker reversed CM Punk 's GTS finishing move and hit a Tombstone Piledriver on Punk to mark the final victory in The Streak.
On October 23, 2010, after losing his UFC Heavyweight Championship to Cain Velasquez at UFC 121, Brock Lesnar was confronted by The Undertaker, who asked, "you wan na do it? '' The incident led to speculation about a WrestleMania match between the two, and marked the genesis of their feud.
On the February 24, 2014 episode of Raw, Undertaker appeared for the first time since The Shield performed a powerbomb on him through a broadcast table ten months earlier, to challenge Lesnar to a match at WrestleMania XXX, scheduled for April 6 at the Mercedes - Benz Superdome in New Orleans. Undertaker went into the match as the massive odds - on favorite, but after one kimura lock and three F - 5s, Lesnar pinned The Undertaker in 25 minutes and 12 seconds to end the undefeated WrestleMania streak, silencing and shocking the entire crowd in the process. Undertaker was legitimately hospitalized afterwards with a severe concussion suffered early in the match. Lesnar 's music was not played for a few minutes while WWE cameramen continued to highlight the reaction of a stunned crowd, while his manager Paul Heyman thereafter began using the victory to further promote his client and referred to himself as "the one behind the one in 21 and 1 '' (and later "22 and 1 '' and "23 and 1 '' after Undertaker 's subsequent WrestleMania victories). The result was described by Sports Illustrated as being "the most shocking result since the Montreal Screwjob ''. A great number of fans objected to the outcome, with Justin Henry of WrestleCrap giving an impassioned defence of the decision, arguing that it elicited an emotional response that reduced him and other viewers "to the most base - ishness of our fanhood ''. Quizzed by Stone Cold Steve Austin about his decision to terminate The Streak, Vince McMahon said it was done to make a big deal of Lesnar and that there were no other viable candidates for the role, adding that The Undertaker was shocked by the decision, but willingly participated since he wanted to give back to the business.
Taking exception to Lesnar 's boasting about ending The Streak, The Undertaker cost him a WWE World Heavyweight Championship victory at Battleground in July 2015, instigating a rematch between the two at the next month 's SummerSlam. At that event on August 23, after a distraction and a low blow, Undertaker gained his first televised singles victory over Lesnar when the latter passed out to Hell 's Gate. A Hell in a Cell match between the pair at October 's Hell in a Cell, billed as their final meeting, was won by Lesnar after a low blow and an F - 5.
Bray Wyatt, referring to himself as "The New Face of Fear '', wanted to claim the soul of The Undertaker, stating that he did not fear The Undertaker anymore due to Lesnar ending The Streak. Wyatt challenged The Undertaker to a match at WrestleMania 31, to which Undertaker accepted and was victorious over Wyatt at the event on March 29 after two Tombstone Piledrivers making it 22 - 1.
In February 2016, Shane McMahon returned to the WWE, but was disappointed in how things were being run and wanted control of Raw, so Vince McMahon gave Shane the ultimatum that if Shane could defeat an opponent in a match of Vince 's choosing at WrestleMania 32, Shane would gain control of Raw, which Shane accepted. Vince named The Undertaker as Shane 's opponent in a Hell in a Cell match and later gave The Undertaker the stipulation that if he were to lose, his could no longer appear at WrestleMania. During the match, Shane attempted an elbow drop from the top of the cell onto Undertaker, who was laid out on a broadcast table, but Undertaker moved, causing Shane to crash through the table. The Undertaker defeated Shane, making his record 23 - 1, retaining the right to continue appearing at WrestleMania while ostensibly preventing Shane from gaining control of Raw (although he temporarily did by other means).
At the 2017 Royal Rumble on January 29, Roman Reigns eliminated The Undertaker from the Royal Rumble match, claiming that the ring was his yard, which The Undertaker had claimed for years. On the March 6 episode of Raw, Braun Strowman (who lost to Reigns the night before at Fastlane) called out Reigns, but Undertaker came out instead and the two had a staredown until Strowman left, immediately after which Reigns came out and got in Undertaker 's face and again claimed that the ring was his yard now, resulting in Undertaker performing a chokeslam on Reigns. A match (made a No Holds Barred match at the event) between the two at WrestleMania 33 was made official the following week and Reigns told Shawn Michaels that he would retire The Undertaker just as Undertaker had retired Michaels. At the event on April 2, Reigns gave Undertaker his second WrestleMania loss after performing his finisher move, the spear, five times, making Undertaker 's record 23 - 2. Post-match, The Undertaker symbolically left his gloves, coat, and hat in the center of the ring. At the center of the entrance ramp, he did his signature arm raise taunt as he was lowered below the stage. There was much speculation that this was Undertaker 's final match.
After failing to get a match at WrestleMania 34, John Cena issued a challenge to The Undertaker as the two had never faced each other at WrestleMania. However, Undertaker did not respond, leading to Cena taunting him over the following weeks to try and lure him out. While facing Undertaker 's brother Kane in a no - disqualification match, Cena continued to taunt Undertaker by performing his sit - up and throat slash gestures. At WrestleMania 34 after Cena was confronted by Elias, The Undertaker finally appeared and accepted Cena 's challenge. Undertaker then defeated Cena in a squash match to bring his WrestleMania record to 24 - 2.
WWE has released various DVDs covering The Streak, including a four - disc set to mark the 20 -- 0 milestone in 2012. An updated version including the final victory over CM Punk, as well as the loss to Brock Lesnar, was issued in 2015.
Video game WWE 2K14 features The Streak mode, in which players can attempt to defend The Streak as The Undertaker. Alternatively, they can try to break it as any other wrestler in the game.
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thomas nagel what it's like to be a bat summary | What is it like to be a bat? - Wikipedia
"What is it like to be a bat? '' is a paper by American philosopher Thomas Nagel, first published in The Philosophical Review in October 1974, and later in Nagel 's Mortal Questions (1979). In it, Nagel argues that materialist theories of mind omit the essential component of consciousness, namely that there is something that it is (or feels) like to be a particular, conscious thing. He argues that an organism has conscious mental states, "if and only if there is something that it is like to be that organism -- something it is like for the organism to be itself. '' Daniel Dennett, a critic of Nagel 's argument, nevertheless called this paper "the most widely cited and influential thought experiment about consciousness. ''
The thesis attempts to refute reductionism (the philosophical position that a complex system is nothing more than the sum of its parts). For example, a physicalist reductionist 's approach to the mind -- body problem holds that the mental process humans experience as consciousness can be fully described via physical processes in the brain and body.
Nagel begins by arguing that the conscious experience is widespread, present in many animals (particularly mammals), and that for an organism to have a conscious experience it must be special, in the sense that its qualia or "subjective character of experience '' are unique. Nagel stated, "An organism has conscious mental states if and only if there is something that it is like to be that organism -- something that it is like for the organism to be itself. ''
The paper argues that the subjective nature of consciousness undermines any attempt to explain consciousness via objective, reductionist means. A subjective character of experience can not be explained by a system of functional or intentional states. Consciousness can not be explained without the subjective character of experience, and the subjective character of experience can not be explained by a reductionist being; it is a mental phenomenon that can not be reduced to materialism. Thus for consciousness to be explained from a reductionist stance, the idea of the subjective character of experience would have to be discarded, which is absurd. Neither can a physicalist view, because in such a world each phenomenal experience had by a conscious being would have to have a physical property attributed to it, which is impossible to prove due to the subjectivity of conscious experience. Nagel argues that each and every subjective experience is connected with a "single point of view, '' making it unfeasible to consider any conscious experience as "objective ''.
Nagel uses the metaphor of bats to clarify the distinction between subjective and objective concepts. Bats are mammals, so they are assumed to have conscious experience. Nagel used bats for his argument because of their highly evolved and active use of a biological sensory apparatus that is significantly different from that of many other organisms. Bats use echolocation to navigate and perceive objects. This method of perception is similar to the human sense of vision. Both sonar and vision are regarded as perceptional experiences. While it is possible to imagine what it would be like to fly, navigate by sonar, hang upside down and eat insects like a bat, that is not the same as a bat 's perspective. Nagel claims that even if humans were able to metamorphose gradually into bats, their brains would not have been wired as a bat 's from birth; therefore, they would only be able to experience the life and behaviors of a bat, rather than the mindset.
Such is the difference between subjective and objective points of view. According to Nagel, "our own mental activity is the only unquestionable fact of our experience '', meaning that each individual only knows what it is like to be them (Subjectivism). Objectivity, requires an unbiased, non-subjective state of perception. For Nagel, the objective perspective is not feasible, because humans are limited to subjective experience.
Nagel concludes with the contention that it would be wrong to assume that physicalism is incorrect, since that position is also imperfectly understood. Physicalism claims that states and events are physical, but those physical states and events are only imperfectly characterized. Nevertheless, he holds that physicalism can not be understood without characterizing objective and subjective experience. That is a necessary precondition for understanding the mind - body problem.
Dennett denies Nagel 's claim that the bat 's consciousness is inaccessible, contending that any "interesting or theoretically important '' features of a bat 's consciousness would be amenable to third - person observation. For instance, it is clear that bats can not detect objects more than a few meters away because echolocation has a limited range. He holds that any similar aspects of its experiences could be gleaned by further scientific experiments.
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in both england and france the hundred years' war caused a rise in | Hundred Years ' war - wikipedia
House of Valois Kingdom of France
Duchy of Brittany Kingdom of Scotland Kingdom of Bohemia Duchy of Lorraine Republic of Genoa Crown of Castile Crown of Aragon Kingdom of Majorca
House of Plantagenet Kingdom of England
Duchy of Brittany Duchy of Burgundy County of Flanders County of Hainaut Kingdom of Portugal Kingdom of Navarre
The Hundred Years ' War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Plantagenet, rulers of the Kingdom of England, against the House of Valois, rulers of the Kingdom of France, over the succession to the French throne. Each side drew many allies into the war. It was one of the most notable conflicts of the Middle Ages, in which five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of the largest kingdom in Western Europe. The war marked both the height of chivalry and its subsequent decline, and the development of strong national identities in both countries.
Ever since the Norman conquest of 1066, the King of England held lands in France, which made him a vassal of the King of France. Tensions over the status of the English monarch 's French fiefs led to conflicts between the crowns of France and England, and the extent of these lands varied throughout the medieval period. The French kings had endeavored, over the centuries, to reduce these possessions, to the effect that only Gascony was left to the English. The confiscation or threat of confiscating this duchy had been part of French policy to check the growth of English power, particularly whenever the English were at war with the Kingdom of Scotland, an ally of France.
In 1316, a principle was established denying women succession to the French throne. When Charles IV of France died without sons or brothers in 1328, his closest male relative was his nephew Edward III of England. Edward 's mother, Isabella of France, sister of Charles IV, claimed the French throne for her son, but the French rejected it, maintaining that Isabella could not transmit a right that she did not possess. A French count, Philip of Valois, first cousin of Charles IV in the male line, succeeded to the throne as Philip VI of France. For about nine years (1328 -- 1337), the English had accepted the Valois succession to the French throne, but several disagreements between both monarchs prompted Philip VI to confiscate Edward III 's lands in France, which in turn convinced Edward III to reassert his claim to the French throne. Several overwhelming English victories in the war -- especially at Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt -- raised the prospects of an ultimate English triumph, and convinced the English to continue pouring money and manpower into the war over many decades. However, the greater resources of the French monarchy precluded a complete conquest. Starting in 1429, decisive French victories at Orléans, Patay, Formigny, and Castillon concluded the war in favour of France, with England permanently losing most of its possessions on the continent.
Historians commonly divide the war into three phases separated by truces: the Edwardian War (1337 -- 1360); the Caroline War (1369 -- 1389); and the Lancastrian War (1415 -- 1453). Local conflicts in neighbouring areas, which were contemporarily related to the war, including the War of the Breton Succession (1341 -- 1365), the Castilian Civil War (1366 -- 1369), the War of the Two Peters (1356 -- 1369) in Aragon, and the 1383 -- 1385 succession crisis in Portugal, were availed by the parties to advance their agendas. Later historians adopted the term "Hundred Years ' War '' as a historiography periodization to encompass all of these events, thus constructing the longest military conflict in European history.
The war owes its historical significance to multiple factors. By its end, feudal armies had been largely replaced by professional troops, and aristocratic dominance had yielded to a democratisation of the manpower and weapons of armies. Although primarily a dynastic conflict, the war gave impetus to ideas of French and English nationalism. The wider introduction of weapons and tactics supplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had dominated, and artillery became important. The war precipitated the creation of the first standing armies in Western Europe since the time of the Western Roman Empire and thus helping to change their role in warfare. With respect to the belligerents, in France, civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines, and bandit free - companies of mercenaries reduced the population drastically. English political forces over time came to oppose the costly venture. The dissatisfaction of English nobles, resulting from the loss of their continental landholdings, became a factor leading to the civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses (1455 -- 1487).
The root causes of the conflict can be found in the demographic, economic and political crises of 14th century Europe. The outbreak of war was motivated by a gradual rise in tension between the kings of France and England about Gascony, Flanders and Scotland. The dynastic question, which arose due to an interruption of the direct male line of the Capetians, was the official pretext.
The question of female succession to the French throne was raised after the death of Louis X in 1316. Louis X left only a daughter, and his posthumous son John I lived only a few days. Philip, Count of Poitiers, brother of Louis X, asserted that women were ineligible to succeed to the French throne. Through his political sagacity he won over his adversaries and succeeded to the French throne as Philip V. By the same law that he procured, his daughters were denied the succession, which passed to his younger brother, Charles IV, in 1322.
Charles IV died in 1328, leaving a daughter and a pregnant wife. If the unborn child was male, he would become king; if not, Charles left the choice of his successor to the nobles. A girl ended up being born, therefore rendering the main male line of the House of Capet extinct.
By proximity of blood, the nearest male relative of Charles IV was his nephew Edward III of England. Edward was the son of Isabella, the sister of the dead Charles IV, but the question arose whether she should be able to transmit a right to inherit that she did not herself possess. The French nobility, moreover, balked at the prospect of being ruled by Isabelle and her lover Roger Mortimer, who were widely suspected of having murdered the previous English king, Edward II. The assemblies of the French barons and prelates and the University of Paris decided that males who derive their right to inheritance through their mother should be excluded. Thus the nearest heir through male ancestry was Charles IV 's first cousin, Philip, Count of Valois, and it was decided that he should be crowned Philip VI. In 1340 the Avignon papacy confirmed that under Salic law males should not be able to inherit through their mothers.
Eventually, Edward III reluctantly recognized Philip VI and paid him homage for his French fiefs. He made concessions in Guyenne, but reserved the right to reclaim territories arbitrarily confiscated. After that, he expected to be left undisturbed while he made war on Scotland.
Tensions between the French and English monarchies can be traced back to the 1066 Norman conquest of England, in which the English throne was seized by the Duke of Normandy, a vassal of the King of France. As a result, the crown of England was held by a succession of nobles who already owned lands in France, which put them among the most powerful subjects of the French king, as they could now draw upon the economic power of England to enforce their interests in the mainland. To the kings of France, this dangerously threatened their royal authority, and so they would constantly try to undermine English rule in France, while the English monarchs would struggle to protect and expand their lands. This clash of interests was the root cause of much of the conflict between the French and English monarchies throughout the medieval era.
The Anglo - Norman dynasty that had ruled England since the Norman conquest of 1066 was brought to an end when Henry, the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Empress Matilda and great - grandson of William the Conqueror, became the first of the Angevin kings of England in 1154 as Henry II. The Angevin kings directly ruled over more French territory than the kings of France. However, they still owed homage for these territories to the French king. From the 11th century onward, the Angevins had autonomy within their French domains, effectively neutralising the issue.
King John of England inherited the Angevin domains from his brother Richard I. However, Philip II of France acted decisively to exploit the weaknesses of John, both legally and militarily, and by 1204 had succeeded in taking control of much of the Angevin continental possessions. Following John 's reign, the Battle of Bouvines (1214), the Saintonge War (1242), and finally the War of Saint - Sardos (1324), the English king 's holdings on the continent, as Duke of Aquitaine (Guyenne), were limited roughly to provinces in Gascony.
The dispute over Guyenne is even more important than the dynastic question in explaining the outbreak of the war. Guyenne posed a significant problem to the kings of France and England: Edward III was a vassal of Philip VI of France because of his French possessions and was required to recognize the suzerainty of the King of France over them. In practical terms, a judgment in Guyenne might be subject to an appeal to the French royal court. The King of France had the power to revoke all legal decisions made by the King of England in Aquitaine, which was unacceptable to the English. Therefore, sovereignty over Guyenne was a latent conflict between the two monarchies for several generations.
During the War of Saint - Sardos, Charles of Valois, father of Philip VI, invaded Aquitaine on behalf of Charles IV and conquered the duchy after a local insurrection, which the French believed had been incited by Edward II of England. Charles IV grudgingly agreed to return this territory in 1325. To recover his duchy, Edward II had to compromise: he sent his son, the future Edward III, to pay homage.
The King of France agreed to restore Guyenne, minus Agen. But the French delayed the return of the lands, which helped Philip VI. On 6 June 1329, Edward III finally paid homage to the King of France. However, at the ceremony, Philip VI had it recorded that the homage was not due to the fiefs detached from the duchy of Guyenne by Charles IV (especially Agen). For Edward, the homage did not imply the renunciation of his claim to the extorted lands.
In the 11th century, Gascony in southwest France had been incorporated into Aquitaine (also known as Guyenne or Guienne) and formed with it the province of Guyenne and Gascony (French: Guyenne - et - Gascogne). The Angevin kings of England became Dukes of Aquitaine after Henry II married the former Queen of France, Eleanor of Aquitaine, in 1152, from which point the lands were held in vassalage to the French crown. By the 13th century the terms Aquitaine, Guyenne and Gascony were virtually synonymous. At the beginning of Edward III 's reign on 1 February 1327, the only part of Aquitaine that remained in his hands was the Duchy of Gascony. The term Gascony came to be used for the territory held by the Angevin (Plantagenet) Kings of England in southwest France, although they still used the title Duke of Aquitaine.
For the first 10 years of Edward III 's reign, Gascony had been a major point of friction. The English argued that, as Charles IV had not acted in a proper way towards his tenant, Edward should be able to hold the duchy free of any French suzerainty. This argument was rejected by the French so in 1329 the 17 - year - old Edward III paid homage to Philip VI. Tradition demanded that vassals approach their liege unarmed with heads bare. Edward protested by attending the ceremony wearing his crown and sword. Even after this pledge of homage the French continued to pressure the English administration.
Gascony was not the only sore point. One of Edward 's influential advisers was Robert III of Artois. Robert was an exile from the French court, having fallen out with Philip VI over an inheritance claim. He urged Edward to start a war to reclaim France and was able to provide extensive intelligence on the French court.
France was an ally of the Kingdom of Scotland as English kings had for some time tried to subjugate the area. In 1295, a treaty was signed between France and Scotland during the reign of Philip the Fair. Charles IV formally renewed the treaty in 1326, promising Scotland that France would support the Scots if England invaded their country. Similarly, France would have Scotland 's support if its own kingdom was attacked. Edward could not succeed in his plans for Scotland if the Scots could count on French support.
Philip VI had assembled a large naval fleet off Marseilles as part of an ambitious plan for a crusade to the Holy Land. However, the plan was abandoned and the fleet, including elements of the Scottish Navy, moved to the English Channel off Normandy in 1336, threatening England. To deal with this crisis, Edward proposed that the English raise two armies, one to deal with the Scots "at a suitable time '', the other to proceed at once to Gascony. At the same time, ambassadors were to be sent to France with a proposed treaty for the French king.
At the end of April 1337, Philip of France was invited to meet the delegation from England but refused. The arrière - ban, literally a call to arms, was proclaimed throughout France starting on 30 April 1337. Philip then met with his Great Council in Paris. On 24 May 1337, it was agreed that the Duchy of Aquitaine, effectively Gascony, should be taken back into the king 's hands on the grounds that Edward III was in breach of his obligations as vassal and had sheltered the king 's ' mortal enemy ' Robert d'Artois. Edward responded to the confiscation of Aquitaine by challenging Philip 's right to the French throne. When Charles IV died, Edward had made a claim for the succession of the French throne, through the right of his mother Isabella (Charles IV 's sister), daughter of Philip IV. Any claim was considered invalidated by Edward 's homage to Philip VI in 1329. Edward revived his claim and in 1340 formally assumed the title ' King of France and the French Royal Arms '.
On 26 January 1340, Edward III formally received homage from Guy, half - brother of the Count of Flanders. The civic authorities of Ghent, Ypres and Bruges proclaimed Edward King of France. Edward 's purpose was to strengthen his alliances with the Low Countries. His supporters would be able to claim that they were loyal to the "true '' King of France and were not rebels against Philip. In February 1340, Edward returned to England to try to raise more funds and also deal with political difficulties.
Relations with Flanders were also tied to the English wool trade, since Flanders ' principal cities relied heavily on textile production and England supplied much of the raw material they needed. Edward III had commanded that his chancellor sit on the woolsack in council as a symbol of the pre-eminence of the wool trade. At the time there were about 110,000 sheep in Sussex alone. The great medieval English monasteries produced large surpluses of wool that were sold to mainland Europe. Successive governments were able to make large amounts of money by taxing it. France 's sea power led to economic disruptions for England, shrinking the wool trade to Flanders and the wine trade from Gascony.
On 22 June 1340, Edward and his fleet sailed from England and arrived off the Zwin estuary the next day. The French fleet assumed a defensive formation off the port of Sluis. The English fleet deceived the French into believing they were withdrawing. When the wind turned in the late afternoon, the English attacked with the wind and sun behind them. The French fleet was almost completely destroyed in what became known as the Battle of Sluys. England dominated the English Channel for the rest of the war, preventing French invasions. At this point, Edward 's funds ran out and the war probably would have ended were it not for the death of the Duke of Brittany precipitating a succession dispute between the duke 's half brother John of Montfort and Charles of Blois, nephew of Philip VI.
In 1341, conflict over the succession to the Duchy of Brittany began the War of the Breton Succession, in which Edward backed John of Montfort and Philip backed Charles of Blois. Action for the next few years focused around a back and forth struggle in Brittany. The city of Vannes in Brittany changed hands several times, while further campaigns in Gascony met with mixed success for both sides.
In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion across the channel, landing in Normandy 's Cotentin, at St. Vaast. The English army captured the completely unguarded Caen in just one day, surprising the French. Philip mustered a large army to oppose Edward, who chose to march northward toward the Low Countries, pillaging as he went. He reached the river Seine to find most of the crossings destroyed. He moved further and further south, worryingly close to Paris, until he found the crossing at Poissy. This had only been partially destroyed, so the carpenters within his army were able to fix it. He then continued on his way to Flanders until he reached the river Somme. The army crossed at a tidal ford at Blanchetaque, leaving Philip 's army stranded. Edward, assisted by this head start, continued on his way to Flanders once more, until, finding himself unable to outmanoeuvre Philip, Edward positioned his forces for battle and Philip 's army attacked.
The Battle of Crécy was a complete disaster for the French, largely credited to the longbowmen and the French king, who allowed his army to attack before it was ready. Philip appealed to his Scottish allies to help with a diversionary attack on England. King David II of Scotland responded by invading northern England, but his army was defeated and he was captured at the Battle of Neville 's Cross, on 17 October 1346. This greatly reduced the threat from Scotland. In France, Edward proceeded north unopposed and besieged the city of Calais on the English Channel, capturing it in 1347. This became an important strategic asset for the English, allowing them to safely keep troops in northern France. Calais would remain under English control, even after the end of the Hundred Years ' War, until the successful French siege in 1558.
In 1348, the Black Death, which had just arrived in Paris, began to ravage Europe. In 1355, after the plague had passed and England was able to recover financially, King Edward 's son and namesake, the Prince of Wales, later known as the Black Prince, led a Chevauchée from Gascony into France, during which he pillaged Avignonet and Castelnaudary, sacked Carcassonne, and plundered Narbonne. The next year during another Chevauchée he ravaged Auvergne, Limousin, and Berry but failed to take Bourges. He offered terms of peace to King John II of France (known as John the Good), who had outflanked him near Poitiers, but refused to surrender himself as the price of their acceptance. This led to the Battle of Poitiers (19 September 1356) where his army routed the French. During the battle, the Gascon noble Jean de Grailly, captal de Buch led a mounted unit that was concealed in a forest. The French advance was contained, at which point de Grailly led a flanking movement with his horsemen cutting off the French retreat and succeeding in capturing King John and many of his nobles. With John held hostage, his son the Dauphin (later to become Charles V) assumed the powers of the king as regent.
After the Battle of Poitiers, many French nobles and mercenaries rampaged, and chaos ruled. A contemporary report recounted:
... all went ill with the kingdom and the State was undone. Thieves and robbers rose up everywhere in the land. The Nobles despised and hated all others and took no thought for usefulness and profit of lord and men. They subjected and despoiled the peasants and the men of the villages. In no wise did they defend their country from its enemies; rather did they trample it underfoot, robbing and pillaging the peasants ' goods... From the Chronicles of Jean de Venette
Edward invaded France, for the third and last time, hoping to capitalise on the discontent and seize the throne. The Dauphin 's strategy was that of non-engagement with the English army in the field. However, Edward wanted the crown and chose the cathedral city of Reims for his coronation (Reims was the traditional coronation city). However, the citizens of Reims built and reinforced the city 's defences before Edward and his army arrived. Edward besieged the city for five weeks, but the defences held and there was no coronation. Edward moved on to Paris, but retreated after a few skirmishes in the suburbs. Next was the town of Chartres. Disaster struck in a freak hailstorm on the encamped army, causing over 1,000 English deaths -- the so - called Black Monday on Easter 1360. This devastated Edward 's army and forced him to negotiate when approached by the French. A conference was held at Brétigny that resulted in the Treaty of Brétigny (8 May 1360). The treaty was ratified at Calais in October. In return for increased lands in Aquitaine, Edward renounced Normandy, Touraine, Anjou and Maine and consented to reduce King John 's ransom by a million crowns. Edward also abandoned his claim to the crown of France.
The French king, John II, had been held captive in England. The Treaty of Brétigny set his ransom at 3 million crowns and allowed for hostages to be held in lieu of John. The hostages included two of his sons, several princes and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens from each of the nineteen principal towns of France. While these hostages were held, John returned to France to try and raise funds to pay the ransom. In 1362 John 's son Louis of Anjou, a hostage in English - held Calais, escaped captivity. So, with his stand - in hostage gone, John felt honor - bound to return to captivity in England.
The French crown had been at odds with Navarre (near southern Gascony) since 1354, and in 1363 the Navarrese used the captivity of John II in London and the political weakness of the Dauphin to try to seize power. Although there was no formal treaty, Edward III supported the Navarrese moves, particularly as there was a prospect that he might gain control over the northern and western provinces as a consequence. With this in mind, Edward deliberately slowed the peace negotiations. In 1364, John II died in London, while still in honourable captivity. Charles V succeeded him as king of France. On 7 May 1364, one month after the dauphin 's accession and three days before his coronation as Charles V, the Navarrese suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Cocherel.
In 1366 there was a civil war of succession in Castile (part of modern Spain). The forces of the ruler Peter of Castile were pitched against those of his half - brother Henry of Trastámara. The English crown supported Peter and the French, Henry. French forces were led by Bertrand du Guesclin, a Breton, who rose from relatively humble beginnings to prominence as one of France 's war leaders. Charles V provided a force of 12,000, with du Guesclin at their head, to support Trastámara in his invasion of Castile.
Peter appealed to England and Aquitaine 's Black Prince for help, but none was forthcoming, forcing Peter into exile in Aquitaine. The Black Prince had previously agreed to support Peter 's claims but concerns over the terms of the treaty of Brétigny led him to assist Peter as a representative of Aquitaine, rather than England. He then led an Anglo - Gascon army into Castille. Peter was restored to power after Trastámara 's army was defeated at the Battle of Nájera.
Although the Castilians had agreed to fund the Black Prince, they failed to do so. The Prince was suffering from ill health and returned with his army to Aquitaine. To pay off debts incurred during the Castille campaign, the prince instituted a hearth tax. Arnaud - Amanieu VIII, Lord of Albret had fought on the Black Prince 's side during the war. Albret, who already had become discontented by the influx of English administrators into the enlarged Aquitaine, refused to allow the tax to be collected in his fief. He then joined a group of Gascon lords who appealed to Charles V for support in their refusal to pay the tax. Charles V summoned one Gascon lord and the Black Prince to hear the case in his High Court in Paris. The Black Prince answered that he would go to Paris with sixty thousand men behind him. War broke out again and Edward III resumed the title of King of France. Charles V declared that all the English possessions in France were forfeited, and before the end of 1369 all of Aquitaine was in full revolt.
With the Black Prince gone from Castile, Henry de Trastámara led a second invasion that ended with Peter 's death at the Battle of Montiel in March 1369. The new Castilian regime provided naval support to French campaigns against Aquitaine and England.
In August 1373, John of Gaunt, accompanied by John de Montfort, Duke of Brittany led a force of 9,000 men out from Calais on a major chevauchée. While initially successful as French forces were insufficiently concentrated to oppose them, the English began to meet further resistance as they moved south. French forces began to concentrate around the English force but, under specific orders from King Charles V, the French avoided a set battle. Instead, they fell on forces detached from the main body to raid or forage. The French shadowed the English and in October, the English found themselves being trapped against the River Allier by four separate French forces. With some difficulty, the English crossed at the bridge at Moulins but lost all their baggage and loot. The English carried on south across the Limousin plateau but the weather was turning severe. Men and horses died in great numbers and many soldiers, forced to march on foot, discarded their armour. At the beginning of December, the army finally entered friendly territory in Gascony. By the end of December they were in Bordeaux, starving, ill - equipped and having lost over half of the 30,000 horses with which they had left Calais. Although the march across France had been a remarkable feat, it was a military failure.
With his health continuing to deteriorate, the Black Prince returned to England in January 1371, where by now his father Edward III was elderly and also in poor health. The prince 's illness was debilitating, and he died on 8 June 1376. Edward III died the following year on 21 June 1377; he was succeeded by the Black Prince 's second son Richard II (the first son had died some time earlier), who was still a child. The treaty at Brétigny left Edward III and England with enlarged holdings in France; however, a small professional French army under the leadership of du Guesclin pushed the English back and, by the time of Charles V 's death in 1380, the English only held Calais and a few other coastal cities.
It was usual to appoint a regent in the case of a child monarch, but no regent was appointed for Richard II, who nominally exercised the power of kingship from the date of his accession in 1377. However, between 1377 and 1380, actual power was in the hands of a series of councils. The political community preferred this to a regency led by the king 's uncle, John of Gaunt, although Gaunt remained highly influential.
Richard faced many challenges during his reign, including the Peasants ' Revolt led by Wat Tyler in 1381 and an Anglo - Scottish war in 1384 -- 1385. His attempts to raise taxes to pay for his Scottish adventure and for the protection of Calais against the French made him increasingly unpopular.
In July 1380, the Earl of Buckingham commanded an expedition to France to aid England 's ally, the Duke of Brittany. The French refused battle before the walls of Troyes on 25 August, so Buckingham 's forces continued their chevauchée and in November laid siege to Nantes. However, expected support from the Duke of Brittany did not appear and, in the face of heavy losses in both men and horses, was forced to abandon the siege in January 1381. In February 1381, now reconciled to the regime of the new French king Charles VI, Brittany paid 50,000 francs to Buckingham for him to abandon the siege and the campaign.
After the deaths of Charles V and du Guesclin in 1380, France lost its main leadership and overall momentum in the war. Charles VI succeeded his father as king of France at the age of 11, and he was thus put under a regency led by his uncles, who managed to maintain an effective grip on government affairs until about 1388, well after Charles had achieved royal majority.
With France facing widespread destruction, plague, and economic recession, high taxation put a heavy burden on the French peasantry and urban communities. The war effort against England largely depended on royal taxation, but the population was increasingly unwilling to pay for it, as would be demonstrated at the Harelle and Maillotin revolts in 1382. Charles V had abolished many of these taxes on his deathbed, but subsequent attempts to reinstate them stirred up hostility between the French government and populace.
Difficulties in raising taxes and revenue hampered the ability of the French to fight the English. At this point, the war 's pace had largely slowed down, and both nations found themselves fighting mainly through proxy wars, such as during the 1383 -- 1385 Portuguese interregnum. The independence party in the Kingdom of Portugal, which was supported by the English, won against the supporters of the King of Castile 's claim to the Portuguese throne, who in turn was backed by the French.
The war became increasingly unpopular with the English public largely due to the high taxes needed to sustain it. These taxes were seen as one of the reasons for the Peasants ' revolt. Richard 's increasing disinterest in the war together with his preferential treatment of a select few close friends and advisors angered an alliance of lords that included one of his uncles. This group, known as Lords Appellant, managed to successfully press charges of treason against five of Richard 's advisors and friends in the Merciless Parliament. The Lords Appellant were able to gain control of the council in 1388 and tried, unsuccessfully, to reignite the war in France. Although the will was there, the funds to pay the troops was lacking, so in the autumn of 1388 the Council agreed to resume negotiations with the French crown, beginning on 18 June 1389 with the signing of a three - year truce at Leulinghen.
In 1389, Richard 's uncle and supporter, John of Gaunt, returned from Spain and Richard was able to rebuild his power gradually until 1397, when he reasserted his authority and destroyed the principal three among the Lords Appellant. In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, Richard II disinherited Gaunt 's son, the exiled Henry of Bolingbroke. Bolingbroke returned to England with his supporters and deposed Richard and had himself crowned Henry IV.
In Scotland, the problems brought in by the English regime change prompted border raids that were countered by an invasion in 1402 and the defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Homildon Hill. A dispute over the spoils between Henry and Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland, resulted in a long and bloody struggle between the two for control of northern England, resolved only with the almost complete destruction of the Percy family by 1408.
In Wales, Owain Glyndŵr was declared Prince of Wales on 16 September 1400. He was the leader of the most serious and widespread rebellion against English authority in Wales since the conquest of 1282 -- 1283. The rebellion was finally put down only in 1415 and resulted in Welsh semi-independence for a number of years.
In 1392, Charles VI suddenly descended into madness, forcing France into a regency dominated by his uncles and his brother. An open conflict for control over the regency began between his uncle Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and his brother, Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans. After Philip 's death, his son and heir John the Fearless continued the struggle against Louis, but with the disadvantage of having no close personal relation to the king. Finding himself outmaneuvered politically, John ordered the assassination of Louis in retaliation. His involvement in the murder was quickly revealed, and the Armagnac family took political power in opposition to John. By 1410, both sides were bidding for the help of English forces in a civil war. In 1418 Paris was taken by the Burgundians, who were unable to stop the massacre of Count of Armagnac and about 2,500 of his followers by a Parisian mob.
Throughout this period, England confronted repeated raids by pirates that heavily damaged trade and the navy. There is some evidence that Henry IV used state - legalised piracy as a form of warfare in the English Channel. He used such privateering campaigns to pressure enemies without risking open war. The French responded in kind and French pirates, under Scottish protection, raided many English coastal towns.
The domestic and dynastic difficulties faced by England and France in this period quieted the war for a decade.
Henry IV of England died in 1413 and was replaced by his eldest son Henry V. The mental illness of Charles VI of France allowed his power to be exercised by royal princes whose rivalries caused deep divisions in France. Henry V was well aware of these divisions and hoped to exploit them. In 1414 while he held court at Leicester, he received ambassadors from Burgundy. Henry accredited envoys to the French king to make clear his territorial claims in France; he also demanded the hand of Charles VI 's youngest daughter Catherine of Valois. The French rejected his demands, leading Henry to prepare for war.
In August 1415, Henry V sailed from England with a force of about 10,500 and laid siege to Harfleur. The city resisted for longer than expected, but finally surrendered on 22 September 1415. Because of the unexpected delay, most of the campaign season was gone. Rather than march on Paris directly, Henry elected to make a raiding expedition across France toward English - occupied Calais. In a campaign reminiscent of Crécy, he found himself outmaneuvered and low on supplies and had to fight a much larger French army at the Battle of Agincourt, north of the Somme. Despite the problems and having a smaller force, his victory was near - total; the French defeat was catastrophic, costing the lives of many of the Armagnac leaders. About 40 % of the French nobility was killed. Henry was apparently concerned that the large number of prisoners taken were a security risk (there were more French prisoners than there were soldiers in the entire English army) and he ordered their deaths.
Henry retook much of Normandy, including Caen in 1417, and Rouen on 19 January 1419, turning Normandy English for the first time in two centuries. A formal alliance was made with the Duchy of Burgundy, which had taken Paris after the assassination of Duke John the Fearless in 1419. In 1420, Henry met with King Charles VI. They signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry finally married Charles ' daughter Catherine of Valois and Henry 's heirs would inherit the throne of France. The Dauphin, Charles VII, was declared illegitimate. Henry formally entered Paris later that year and the agreement was ratified by the Estates - General.
On 22 March 1421 Henry V 's progress in his French campaign experienced an unexpected reverse. Henry had left his brother and presumptive heir Thomas, Duke of Clarence in charge while he returned to England. Clarence engaged a Franco - Scottish force of 5000 men, led by Gilbert Motier de La Fayette and John Stewart, Earl of Buchan at the Battle of Baugé. Clarence, against the advice of his lieutenants, before his army had been fully assembled, attacked with a force of no more than 1500 men - at - arms. He then, during the course of the battle, led a charge of a few hundred men into the main body of the Franco - Scottish army, who quickly enveloped the English. In the ensuing melée, the Scot, John Carmichael of Douglasdale, broke his lance unhorsing the Duke of Clarence. Once on the ground, the duke was slain by Alexander Buchanan. The body of the Duke of Clarence was recovered from the field by Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, who conducted the English retreat.
Henry V returned to France and went to Paris, then visiting Chartres and Gâtinais before returning to Paris. From there, he decided to attack the Dauphin - held town of Meaux. It turned out to be more difficult to overcome than first thought. The siege began about 6 October 1421, and the town held for seven months before finally falling on 11 May 1422.
At the end of May, Henry was joined by his queen and together with the French court, they went to rest at Senlis. While there, it became apparent that he was ill (possibly dysentery), and when he set out to the Upper Loire, he diverted to the royal castle at Vincennes, near Paris, where he died on 31 August 1422. The elderly and insane Charles VI of France died two months later on 21 October 1422. Henry left an only child, his nine - month - old son, Henry, later to become Henry VI.
On his deathbed, Henry V had given the Duke of Bedford responsibility for English France (as Henry VI was only an infant). The war in France continued under Bedford 's generalship and several battles were won. The English won an emphatic victory at the Battle of Verneuil (17 August 1424). At the Battle of Baugé, Clarence had rushed into battle without the support of his archers. At Verneuil, the archers fought to devastating effect against the Franco - Scottish army. The effect of the battle was to virtually destroy the Dauphin 's field army and to eliminate the Scots as a significant military force for the rest of the war.
The appearance of Joan of Arc at the siege of Orléans sparked a revival of French spirit, and the tide began to turn against the English. The English laid siege to Orléans in 1428, but their force was insufficient to fully invest the city. In 1429 Joan convinced the Dauphin to send her to the siege, saying she had received visions from God telling her to drive out the English. She raised the morale of the troops, and they attacked the English redoubts, forcing the English to lift the siege. Inspired by Joan, the French took several English strongholds on the Loire.
The English retreated from the Loire Valley, pursued by a French army. Near the village of Patay, French cavalry broke through a unit of English longbowmen that had been sent to block the road, then swept through the retreating English army. The English lost 2,200 men, and the commander, John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, was taken prisoner. This victory opened the way for the Dauphin to march to Reims for his coronation as Charles VII, on 16 July 1429.
After the coronation, Charles VII 's army fared less well. An attempted French siege of Paris was defeated on 8 September 1429, and Charles VII withdrew to the Loire Valley.
Henry VI was crowned king of England at Westminster Abbey on 5 November 1429 and king of France at Notre - Dame, in Paris, on 16 December 1431.
Joan of Arc was captured by the Burgundians at the siege of Compiègne on 23 May 1430. The Burgundians transferred her to the English, who organised a trial headed by Pierre Cauchon, Bishop of Beauvais and member of the English Council at Rouen. Joan was convicted and burned at the stake on 30 May 1431. (She was rehabilitated 25 years later by Pope Callixtus III.)
After the death of Joan of Arc, the fortunes of war turned dramatically against the English. Most of Henry 's royal advisers were against making peace. Among the factions, the Duke of Bedford wanted to defend Normandy, the Duke of Gloucester was committed to just Calais, whereas Cardinal Beaufort was inclined to peace. Negotiations stalled. It seems that at the congress of Arras, in the summer of 1435, where the duke of Beaufort was mediator, the English were unrealistic in their demands. A few days after the congress ended in September, Philip III, duke of Burgundy, deserted to Charles VII, signing the Treaty of Arras that returned Paris to the King of France. This was a major blow to English sovereignty in France. The Duke of Bedford died on 14 September 1435 and was later replaced by Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York.
The allegiance of Burgundy remained fickle, but the English focus on expanding their domains in the Low Countries left them little energy to intervene in the rest of France. The long truces that marked the war gave Charles time to centralise the French state and reorganise his army and government, replacing his feudal levies with a more modern professional army that could put its superior numbers to good use. A castle that once could only be captured after a prolonged siege would now fall after a few days from cannon bombardment. The French artillery developed a reputation as the best in the world.
By 1449, the French had retaken Rouen. In 1450 the Count of Clermont and Arthur de Richemont, Earl of Richmond, of the Montfort family (the future Arthur III, Duke of Brittany), caught an English army attempting to relieve Caen and defeated it at the Battle of Formigny. Richemont 's force attacked the English army from the flank and rear just as they were on the verge of beating Clermont 's army.
After Charles VII 's successful Normandy campaign in 1450, he concentrated his efforts on Gascony, the last province held by the English. Bordeaux, Gascony 's capital, was besieged and surrendered to the French on 30 June 1451. Largely due to the English sympathies of the Gascon people, this was reversed when John Talbot and his army retook the city on 23 October 1452. However, the English were decisively defeated at the Battle of Castillon on 17 July 1453. Talbot had been persuaded to engage the French army at Castillon near Bordeaux. During the battle the French appeared to retreat towards their camp. The French camp at Castillon had been laid out by Charles VII 's ordnance officer Jean Bureau and this was instrumental in the French success as when the French cannon opened fire, from their positions in the camp, the English took severe casualties losing both Talbot and his son.
Although the Battle of Castillon is considered the last battle of the Hundred Years ' War, England and France remained formally at war for another 20 years, but the English were in no position to carry on the war as they faced unrest at home. Following defeat in the Hundred Years ' War, English landowners complained vociferously about the financial losses resulting from the loss of their continental holdings; this is often considered a major cause of the Wars of the Roses, that started in 1455.
The Hundred Years ' War almost resumed in 1474, when the duke Charles of Burgundy, counting on English support, took up arms against Louis XI. Louis managed to isolate the Burgundians by buying Edward IV of England off with a large cash sum and an annual pension, in an agreement signed at the Treaty of Picquigny (1475). The treaty formally ended the Hundred Years ' War with Edward renouncing his claim to the throne of France. However, future Kings of England (and later of Great Britain) continued to claim the title until 1803, when they were dropped in deference to the exiled Count of Provence, titular King Louis XVIII, who was living in England after the French Revolution.
Charles the Bold, the last duke of Burgundy, was killed at the Battle of Nancy in 1477, leaving a daughter, Mary, who lost the provinces of Artois, Flanders, Picardy and Burgundy to Louis XI 's armies.
The French victory marked the end of a long period of instability that had started with the Norman Conquest (1066), when William the Conqueror added "King of England '' to his titles, becoming both the vassal to (as Duke of Normandy) and the equal of (as king of England) the king of France.
When the war ended, England was bereft of its Continental possessions, leaving it with only Calais on the continent. The war destroyed the English dream of a joint monarchy and led to the rejection in England of all things French, but the French language in England, which had served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce there from the time of the Norman conquest, left many vestiges in English vocabulary. English became the official language in 1362 and French was no longer used for teaching from 1385.
National feeling that emerged from the war unified both France and England further. Despite the devastation on its soil, the Hundred Years ' War accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralised state. In England the political and financial troubles which emerged from the defeat was one major cause of the War of the Roses (1455 -- 1487).
Lowe (1997) argued that opposition to the war helped to shape England 's early modern political culture. Although anti-war and pro-peace spokesmen generally failed to influence outcomes at the time, they had a long - term impact. England showed decreasing enthusiasm for conflict deemed not in the national interest, yielding only losses in return for high economic burdens. In comparing this English cost - benefit analysis with French attitudes, given that both countries suffered from weak leaders and undisciplined soldiers, Lowe noted that the French understood that warfare was necessary to expel the foreigners occupying their homeland. Furthermore, French kings found alternative ways to finance the war -- sales taxes, debasing the coinage -- and were less dependent than the English on tax levies passed by national legislatures. English anti-war critics thus had more to work with than the French.
Bubonic plague and warfare reduced population numbers throughout Europe during this period. France lost half its population during the Hundred Years ' War. Normandy lost three - quarters of its population, and Paris two - thirds. The population of England was reduced by 20 to 33 percent due to plague in the same period.
In 1445 the first regular standing army in Western Europe since Roman times was organised in France partly as a solution to marauding free companies. The mercenary companies were given a choice of either joining the Royal army as compagnies d'ordonnance on a permanent basis, or being hunted down and destroyed if they refused. France gained a total standing army of around 6,000 men, which was sent out to gradually eliminate the remaining mercenaries who insisted on operating on their own. The new standing army had a more disciplined and professional approach to warfare than its predecessors.
The Hundred Years ' War was a time of rapid military evolution. Weapons, tactics, army structure and the social meaning of war all changed, partly in response to the war 's costs, partly through advancement in technology and partly through lessons that warfare taught. The feudal system was slowly disintegrating throughout the hundred years war.
By the war 's end, although the heavy cavalry was still considered the most powerful unit in an army, the heavily armored horse had to deal with several tactics developed to deny or mitigate its effective use on a battlefield. The English began using lightly armoured mounted troops, known as hobelars. Hobelars tactics had been developed against the Scots, in the Anglo - Scottish wars of the 14th century. Hobelars rode smaller unarmoured horses, enabling them to move through difficult or boggy terrain where heavier cavalry would struggle. Rather than fight while seated on the horse, they would dismount to engage the enemy.
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where do the orensteins live after the war | Henry Orenstein - wikipedia
Henry Orenstein (born Henryk Orenstein; c. 1923) is a toymaker, poker player and entrepreneur who resides in Verona, New Jersey.
Henryk (Henry) Orenstein was born c. 1923 in Hrubieszów, Poland. Raised in the Jewish faith, he spent much of the end of World War II in five concentration camps. After the war, he emigrated to the United States.
Orenstein, along with his brothers and father, had initially fled to Olyka after the German army entered Hrubieszów in September 1939. The Orensteins lived in Olyka for two years before returning to the mother and sister in Hrubieszów. Orenstein has explained during interviews how his family had built secret hiding spots between double walls in which to hide when the authorities came looked for them, but after a while and having exhausted food and water supplies, they eventually turned themselves in. After his parents were loaded onto trucks and taken to a cemetery to be shot, killed and buried, he was taken with his siblings to the Budzyń Prison Camp in southeastern Poland, which was eventually incorporated into the Majdanek concentration camp as a sub-camp. Orenstein and his brothers were held at Płaszów under the infamous Amon Goeth, who was portrayed in Schindler 's List. Orenstein, along with his brothers, were later moved to Ravensbrück concentration camp in Germany. While at Budzyń, Orenstein heard a call over the loudspeaker one day that any scientists should register with the office, and figuring this would be their best chance at survival, Orenstein signed himself and his brother up, even though they were not trained as scientists. By personal account, Orenstein explained that the Nazi German commanders figured out that a segment of those who had registered were not actual scientists, but went along with the ruse to allow them to remain in so called "research positions '' rather than being drafted themselves into the Nazi German infantry.
Orenstein survived the Holocaust with two brothers, Fred and Sam, losing his parents in 1942, a brother, Felix, and sister, Hanka, during their final days of captivity in separate concentration camps. He reached the United States aboard the USS Fletcher (DD - 445), a destroyer being used to transport refugees. He joined their uncle on the Upper West Side of Manhattan. Initially finding work with the Libby 's canned food company, he came upon a bride doll in a department store window display for $29.95 (which he claimed would be equivalent to $200 in the early 21st century, and figured that he could make a similar doll much more affordable. He became a toymaker, and after seeing much success with these initial dolls, he earned his first million dollars and founded Topper Toys, which produced such famous toys as the Suzy Cute line of miniature dolls and the Johnny Lightning line of model cars.
He convinced Hasbro to start producing Transformers. He holds over 100 other patents, and aside from Transformers, the best - known of these inventions is U.S. Patent 5,451,054 which gave Orenstein the exclusive right in the United States to detect and display hole cards in poker games.
In a bid to make televised poker championships more interesting for the audience, he devised a way in which the players ' face - down cards could be seen by the audience: by cutting a window into the tables at each player and having a piece of glass with a camera under it, the audience would be able to better appreciate the game play while not disturbing the setting for the actual players. NBC Sports President of Programming Jon Miller stated that Orenstein is "single handedly responsible for the success of poker today. ''
Orenstein is the creator and an executive producer of the Poker Superstars Invitational Tournament on FSN. He produced the popular TV Show High Stakes Poker, which ran from 2006 - 2007 and 2009 - 2011, and can be seen in the United States on GSN.
As of 2009, Orenstein 's live poker tournament winnings exceed $200,000. He was a 2008 inductee into the Poker Hall of Fame. Orenstein was also inducted to the New Jersey Inventors Hall of Fame.
He won the $5,000 Seven - card stud tournament at the 1996 World Series of Poker (WSOP), earning $130,000 by defeating fourth - place T.J. Cloutier, third - place Cyndy Violette and runner - up Humberto Brenes. Orenstein twice had finished in the money in the $10,000 WSOP no limit Texas hold ' em main event: 12th in 1993 and eighth in 1995.
He came in seventh in the $2,500 Seven Card Stud event at the 2005 United States Poker Championship, and despite being the oldest competitor (at age 80), won his first round of NBC 's National Heads - Up Poker Championship against one of the best cash - game players in the world, Chip Reese. Orenstein lost in the second round to John Hennigan.
Orenstein is a noted philanthropist. In 1984, the American government built an eleven - story building for low income families, known as the Lejb and Golda Orenstein Building, in honor of Orenstein 's parents, who were murdered by the Nazis. Orenstein helped pay for the apartments. There is also a Lejb and Golda Orenstein Building in Kiryat Ono, Israel which consists of housing units and recreational facilities. Orenstein contributed most of the money towards this project. Orenstein has his own chapter at Metropolitan Council on Jewish Poverty in New York. Over the past thirty years, Orenstein has assisted thousands of poor New Yorkers to pay their rent and medical bills.
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where did linkin park get their name from | Linkin Park - wikipedia
Linkin Park is an American rock band from Agoura Hills, California. Formed in 1996, the band rose to international fame with their debut album Hybrid Theory (2000), which was certified Diamond by the RIAA in 2005 and multi-Platinum in several other countries. Their following studio album Meteora continued the band 's success, topping the Billboard 200 album chart in 2003, and was followed by extensive touring and charity work.
Having adapted nu metal and rap metal to a radio - friendly yet densely layered style in Hybrid Theory and Meteora, the band explored other genres on their next studio album, Minutes to Midnight (2007). The album topped the Billboard charts and had the third - best debut week of any album that year. The band continued to explore a wider variation of musical types in their fourth album, A Thousand Suns (2010), layering their music with more electronic sounds and beats. Their fifth album, Living Things (2012), combines musical elements from all of their previous records. Their sixth album, The Hunting Party (2014), returned to a heavier rock sound. Their seventh album One More Light, a more electronic and pop - oriented record, was released on May 19, 2017.
In 2003, MTV2 named Linkin Park the sixth - greatest band of the music video era and the third - best of the new millennium. Billboard ranked Linkin Park No. 19 on the Best Artists of the Decade chart. In 2012, the band was voted as the greatest artist of the 2000s in a Bracket Madness poll on VH1. In 2014, the band was declared as the Biggest Rock Band in the World Right Now by Kerrang!. As the best - selling band of the 21st century and one of the world 's best - selling music artists overall, Linkin Park has sold more than 68 million records worldwide and has won two Grammy Awards.
Linkin Park was founded by three high school friends: Mike Shinoda, Rob Bourdon, and Brad Delson. The three attended Agoura High School in Agoura Hills, California, a suburb of Los Angeles. After graduating from high school, the three began to take their musical interests more seriously, recruiting Joe Hahn, Dave "Phoenix '' Farrell, and Mark Wakefield to perform in their band, then called Xero. Though limited in resources, the band began recording and producing songs within Shinoda 's makeshift bedroom studio in 1996, resulting in a four - track demo tape, entitled Xero. Tensions and frustration within the band grew however after they failed to land a record deal. The lack of success and stalemate in progress prompted Wakefield, at that time the band 's vocalist, to leave the band in search of other projects. Farrell also left to tour with Tasty Snax, a Christian punk and ska band.
After spending a considerable time searching for Wakefield 's replacement, Xero recruited Arizona vocalist Chester Bennington, who was recommended by Jeff Blue, the vice president of Zomba Music in March 1999. Bennington, formerly of a post-grunge band by the name of Grey Daze, became a standout among applicants because of the dynamic in his singing style. The band then agreed on changing its name from Xero to Hybrid Theory; the newborn vocal chemistry between Shinoda and Bennington helped revive the band, inciting them to work on new material. In 1999 the band released a self - titled extended play, which they circulated across internet chat - rooms and forums with the help of an online ' street team '. The band 's renaissance culminated with another change in name, this time to Linkin Park, a play on and homage to Santa Monica 's Lincoln Park (now called Christine Emerson Reed Park). The band initially wanted to use the name "Lincoln Park '', however they changed it to "Linkin '' to acquire the internet domain "linkinpark.com ''. The band still struggled to sign a record deal. Linkin Park turned to Jeff Blue for additional help after facing numerous rejections from several major record labels. After failing to catch Warner Bros. Records on three previous reviews, Jeff Blue, who had negotiated his employment contract with Warner Brothers to include signing Linkin Park, and was now the vice president of Warner Bros. Records, helped the band sign a deal with the company in 1999. The band released its breakthrough album, Hybrid Theory, the following year.
Linkin Park released Hybrid Theory on October 24, 2000. The album, which represented half a decade 's worth of the band 's work, was edited by Don Gilmore. Hybrid Theory was a massive commercial success; it sold more than 4.8 million copies during its debut year, earning it the status of best - selling album of 2001, while singles such as "Crawling '' and "One Step Closer '' established themselves as staples among alternative rock radio play lists during the year. Additionally, other singles from the album were featured in films such as Dracula 2000, Little Nicky, and Valentine. Hybrid Theory won a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance for the song "Crawling '' and was nominated for two other Grammy Awards: Best New Artist and Best Rock Album. MTV awarded the band their Best Rock Video and Best Direction awards for "In the End ''. Through the winning of the Grammy for Best Hard Rock Performance, Hybrid Theory 's overall success had catapulted the band into mainstream success.
During this time, Linkin Park received many invitations to perform on many high - profile tours and concerts including Ozzfest, Family Values Tour, and KROQ Almost Acoustic Christmas. The band worked with Jessica Sklar to found their official fan club and street team, "Linkin Park Underground '', in November 2001. Linkin Park also formed its own tour, Projekt Revolution, which featured other notable artists such as Cypress Hill, Adema, and Snoop Dogg. Within a year 's stretch, Linkin Park had performed at over 320 concerts. The experiences and performances of the precocious band were documented in its first DVD, Frat Party at the Pankake Festival, which debuted in November 2001. Now reunited with former bassist Phoenix, the band began work on a remix album, dubbed Reanimation, which would include works from Hybrid Theory and non-album tracks. Reanimation debuted on July 30, 2002, featuring the likes of Black Thought, Jonathan Davis, Aaron Lewis, and many others. Reanimation claimed the second spot on the Billboard 200, and sold nearly 270,000 copies during its debut week. Hybrid Theory is also in the RIAA 's Top 100 Albums.
Following the success of Hybrid Theory and Reanimation, Linkin Park spent a significant amount of time touring around the United States. The band members began to work on new material amidst its saturated schedule, spending a sliver of their free time in their tour bus ' studio. The band officially announced the production of a new studio album in December 2002, revealing its new work was inspired by the rocky region of Meteora in Greece, where numerous monasteries have been built on top of the rocks. Meteora features a mixture of the band 's nu metal and rap metal style with newer innovative effects, including the induction of a shakuhachi (a Japanese flute made of bamboo) and other instruments. Linkin Park 's second album debuted on March 25, 2003 and instantly earned worldwide recognition, going to No. 1 in the US and UK, and No. 2 in Australia.
Meteora sold more than 800,000 copies during its first week, and it ranked as the best selling album on the Billboard charts at the time. The album 's singles, including "Somewhere I Belong '', "Breaking the Habit '', "Faint '', and "Numb '', received significant radio attention. By October 2003, Meteora sold nearly three million copies. The album 's success allowed Linkin Park to form another Projekt Revolution, which featured other bands and artists including Mudvayne, Blindside, and Xzibit. Additionally, Metallica invited Linkin Park to play at the Summer Sanitarium Tour 2003, which included well - known acts such as Limp Bizkit, Mudvayne and Deftones. The band released an album and DVD, titled Live in Texas, which featured some audio and video tracks from the band 's performances in Texas during the tour. In early 2004, Linkin Park started a world tour titled the Meteora World Tour. Supporting bands on the tour included Hoobastank, P.O.D., Story of the Year and Pia.
Meteora earned the band multiple awards and honors. The band won the MTV awards for Best Rock Video for "Somewhere I Belong '' and the Viewer 's Choice Award for "Breaking the Habit ''. Linkin Park also received significant recognition during the 2004 Radio Music Awards, winning the Artist of the Year and Song of the Year ("Numb '') awards. Although Meteora was not nearly as successful as Hybrid Theory, it was the third best selling album in the United States during 2003. The band spent the first few months of 2004 touring around the world, first with the third Projekt Revolution tour, and later several European concerts. At the same time, the band 's relationship with Warner Bros. Records was deteriorating rapidly on account of several trust and financial issues. After months of feuding, the band finally negotiated a deal in December 2005.
Following Meteora 's success, the band worked on many side projects. Bennington appeared on DJ Lethal 's "State of the Art '' and other work with Dead by Sunrise, while Shinoda did work with Depeche Mode. In 2004, the band began to work with Jay - Z to produce another remix album, titled Collision Course. The album, which featured intermixed lyrics and background tracks from both artists ' previous albums, debuted in November 2004. Shinoda also formed Fort Minor as a side project. With the aid of Jay - Z, Fort Minor released its debut album, The Rising Tied, to critical acclaim.
Linkin Park also participated in numerous charitable events, most notably raised money to benefit victims of Hurricane Charley in 2004 and later Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The band donated $75,000 to the Special Operations Warrior Foundation in March 2004. They also helped relief efforts for the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami victims by staging several charity concerts and setting up an additional fund called Music for Relief. Most notably, however, the band participated at Live 8, a series of charitable benefit concerts set up to raise global awareness. Alongside Jay - Z, the band performed on Live 8 's stage in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to a global audience. The band would later be reunited with Jay - Z at the Grammy Award Ceremony 2006, during which they performed "Numb / Encore '', en route to winning a Grammy for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration. They were joined on stage by Paul McCartney who added verses from the song "Yesterday ''. They would later go on to play at the 2006 Summer Sonic music festival, which was hosted by Metallica in Japan.
Linkin Park returned to the recording studios in 2006 to work on new material. To produce the album, the band chose producer Rick Rubin. Despite initially stating the album would debut sometime in 2006, the album was delayed until 2007. The band had recorded thirty to fifty songs in August 2006, when Shinoda stated the album was halfway completed. Bennington later added that the new album would stray away from its previous nu metal sound. Warner Bros. Records officially announced that the band 's third studio album, titled Minutes to Midnight, would be released on May 15, 2007 in the United States. After spending fourteen months working on the album, the band members opted to further refine their album by removing five of the original seventeen tracks. The album 's title, a reference to the Doomsday Clock, foreshadowed the band 's new lyrical themes. Minutes to Midnight sold over 625,000 copies in its first week, making it one of the most successful debut week albums in recent years. The album also took the top spot on the Billboard Charts.
The album 's first single, "What I 've Done '', was released on April 2, and premiered on MTV and Fuse within the same week. The single was acclaimed by listeners, becoming the top - ranked song on the Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks and Mainstream Rock Tracks charts. The song is also used in soundtrack for the 2007 action film, Transformers. Mike Shinoda was also featured on the Styles of Beyond song "Second to None '', which was also included in the film. Later in the year, the band won the "Favorite Alternative Artist '' in the American Music Awards. The band also saw success with the rest of the album 's singles, "Bleed It Out '', "Shadow of the Day '', "Given Up '', and "Leave Out All the Rest '', which were released throughout 2007 and early 2008. The band also collaborated with Busta Rhymes on his single "We Made It '', which was released on April 29.
Linkin Park embarked on a large world tour titled "Minutes to Midnight World Tour ''. The band promoted the album 's release by forming their fourth Projekt Revolution tour in the United States which included many musical acts like My Chemical Romance, Taking Back Sunday, HIM, Placebo, and many others. They also played numerous shows in Europe, Asia, and Australia which included a performance at Live Earth Japan on July 7, 2007. and headlining Download Festival in Donington Park, England and Edgefest in Downsview Park, Toronto, Canada. The band completed touring on its fourth Projekt Revolution tour before taking up an Arena tour around the United Kingdom, visiting Nottingham, Sheffield and Manchester, before finishing on a double night at the O2 arena in London. Bennington stated that Linkin Park plans to release a follow - up album to Minutes to Midnight. However, he stated the band will first embark on a United States tour to gather inspiration for the album. Linkin Park embarked on another Projekt Revolution tour in 2008. This was the first time a Projekt Revolution tour was held in Europe with three shows in Germany and one in the United Kingdom. A Projekt Revolution tour was also held in the United States which featured Chris Cornell, The Bravery, Ashes Divide, Street Drum Corps and many others. Linkin Park finished the tour with a final show in Texas. Mike Shinoda announced a live CD / DVD titled Road to Revolution: Live at Milton Keynes, which is a live video recording from the Projekt Revolution gig at the Milton Keynes Bowl on June 29, 2008, which was officially released on November 24, 2008.
In May 2009, Linkin Park announced they were working on a fourth studio album, which was planned to be released in 2010. Shinoda told IGN that the new album would be ' genre - busting, ' while building off of elements in Minutes to Midnight. He also mentioned that the album would be more experimental and "hopefully more cutting - edge ''. Bennington also addressed the media to confirm that Rick Rubin would return to produce the new album. The band later revealed the album would be called A Thousand Suns. While working on the new album, Linkin Park worked with successful film composer Hans Zimmer to produce the score for Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. The band released a single for the movie, titled "New Divide ''. Joe Hahn created a music video for the song, which featured clips from the film. On June 22, Linkin Park played a short set in Westwood Village after the premier of the movie. After completing work for Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, the band returned to the studio to finalize their album.
On April 26, the band released an app for the iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad, a game called 8 - Bit Rebellion! It featured the band as playable characters, and a new song called "Blackbirds '' which was unlockable by beating the game. The song was also later released as an iTunes bonus track on A Thousand Suns.
A Thousand Suns was released on September 14. The album 's first single, "The Catalyst '', was released on August 2. The band promoted their new album by launching a concert tour, which started in Los Angeles on September 7. Linkin Park also relied on MySpace to promote their album, releasing two additional songs, "Waiting for the End '' and "Blackout '' on September 8. Furthermore, a documentary about the album 's production, titled Meeting of A Thousand Suns, was available for streaming on the band 's MySpace page. On August 31, 2010, it was announced that the band would perform the single live for the first time at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12, 2010. The venue of the debut live performance of the single was Griffith Observatory, an iconic location used in Hollywood movies. "Waiting for the End '' was released as the second single of A Thousand Suns.
Linkin Park reached No. 8 in Billboard Social 50, a chart of the most active artists on the world 's leading social networking sites. In other Billboard Year - End charts, the band reached No. 92 in the "Top Artists '' chart, as well as A Thousand Suns reaching No. 53 in the Year - End chart of the Billboard Top 200 albums and No. 7 in the 2010 Year - End Rock Albums, and "The Catalyst '' reaching No. 40 in the Year - End Rock Songs chart.
The band was nominated for six Billboard Awards in 2011 for Top Duo or Group, Best Rock Album for A Thousand Suns, Top Rock Artist, Top Alternative Artist, Top Alternative Song for "Waiting for the End '' and Top Alternative Album for A Thousand Suns, but did not win any award. The band charted in numerous Billboard Year - End charts in 2011. The band was No. 39 in the Top Artists Chart, No. 84 in the Billboard 200 Artists chart, No. 11 in the Social 50 Chart, No. 6 in the Top Rock Artists Chart, No. 9 in the Rock Songs Artists Chart, No. 16 in the Rock Albums Chart, No. 4 in the Hard Rock Albums Chart, and No. 7 in the Alternative Songs Chart.
In July 2011, Bennington told Rolling Stone that Linkin Park aims to produce a new album every eighteen months, and that he would be shocked if a new album did not come out in 2012. He later revealed in another interview in September 2011 that the band was still in the beginning phases of the next album, saying "We just kind of began. We like to keep the creative juices flowing, so we try to keep that going all the time... we like the direction that we 're going in ''. Later, on March 28, 2012, Shinoda confirmed that the band is filming a music video for "Burn It Down ''. Joe Hahn directed the video. Shinoda spoke to Co. Create about the album 's art, saying that it will "blow them (the fans) away... the average person is not going to be able to look at it and go, I understand that that 's completely new, like not just the image but the way they made the image is totally new. So there 's going to be that ''.
On April 15, 2012, Shinoda announced that Living Things would be the title of Linkin Park 's fifth album. Shinoda stated that they chose the title Living Things because the album is more about people, personal interactions, and it is far more personal than their previous albums. The band promoted the album on the 2012 edition of the Honda Civic Tour, with co-headliners Incubus. The band performed "Burn It Down '' at 2012 Billboard Music Awards. On May 24, the band released the music video for "Burn It Down '' and debuted "Lies Greed Misery '', another song from Living Things, on BBC Radio 1. "Powerless '', the twelfth and closing track of the album, was featured in the closing credits of the film Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter.
Living Things sold over 223,000 copies during its debut week, ranking No. 1 on the US Albums Charts. Linkin Park 's single, "Castle of Glass '', was nominated for ' Best Song in a Game ' at the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards. The band also performed at the award ceremony on December 7, but lost the award to "Cities '' by Beck. Linkin Park also played at the Soundwave music festival in Australia, where they shared the stage with Metallica, Paramore, Slayer and Sum 41.
On August 10, 2013, the band collaborated with American musician Steve Aoki to record the song "A Light That Never Comes '' for Linkin Park 's online puzzle - action game LP Recharge (short for Linkin Park Recharge), which was launched on Facebook and the official LP Recharge website on September 12, 2013. On the day of the game 's release, Linkin Park made a post on their Facebook explaining that the song used to promote the game would be included on a new remix album, entitled Recharged, which was released on October 29, 2013 on CD, vinyl, and digital download. Similar to Reanimation, the album features remixes of ten of the songs from Living Things, with contributions from other artists, such as Ryu of Styles of Beyond, Pusha T, Datsik, KillSonik, Bun B, Money Mark, and Rick Rubin. The band also worked on the soundtrack for the film Mall, which was directed by Joe Hahn.
In an interview with Fuse, Shinoda confirmed that Linkin Park had begun recording their sixth studio album in May 2013. The band released the first single from their upcoming album, titled, "Guilty All the Same '' on March 6, 2014 through Shazam. The single was later released on the following day by Warner Bros. Records and debut at No. 28 on the US Billboard Rock Airplay charts before peaking at No. 1 on the Mainstream Rock charts in the following weeks. Shortly after the single 's release, the band revealed their sixth album would be titled The Hunting Party. The album was produced by Shinoda and Delson, who wanted to explore musical elements from Hybrid Theory and the band 's earlier material. Shinoda commented the album is a "90s style of rock record ''. He elaborated, "It 's a rock record. It 's loud and it 's rock, but not in the sense of what you 've heard before, which is more like ' 90s hardcore - punk - thrash. ' The album includes musical contributions from rapper Rakim, Page Hamilton of Helmet, Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine, and Daron Malakian of System of a Down. The Hunting Party was released on June 13, 2014, in most countries, and later released in the United States on June 17.
Linkin Park performed at Download Festival on June 14, 2014, where they played their debut album, Hybrid Theory, in its entirety. Linkin Park headlined Rock am Ring and Rock im Park in 2014, along with Metallica, Kings of Leon, and Iron Maiden. They also headlined with Iron Maiden again at the Greenfield Festival in July. On June 22, Linkin Park made an unscheduled headline appearance at the Vans Warped Tour, where they played with members of Issues, The Devil Wears Prada, A Day To Remember, Yellowcard, Breathe Carolina, Finch, and Machine Gun Kelly. In January 2015, the band embarked on a tour to promote the release of The Hunting Party, consisting of 17 concerts across the United States and Canada. The tour was canceled after only three concerts when Bennington injured his ankle. On May 9, Linkin Park performed at the first edition of Rock in Rio USA, in direct support for Metallica.
On November 9, 2014, MTV Europe named Linkin Park the "Best Rock '' act of 2014 at their annual music awards ceremony. The band won the ' Best Rock Band ' and ' Best Live Act ' titles of 2014 on Loudwire 's Music Awards. Revolver ranked The Hunting Party as the fourth best album of 2014. In an interview with AltWire on May 4, Shinoda reflected on The Hunting Party and commented on Linkin Park 's future, stating; "I 'm really happy with the reaction from The Hunting Party, and I think we 're ready to move somewhere new on the next album, which will be coming (in 2016) ''.
Linkin Park collaborated with Steve Aoki on the song "Darker Than Blood '' for Aoki 's album Neon Future II, which was released in May 2015. The first preview of the song came during Aoki 's performance on February 28, 2015 at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago, Illinois. The song was debuted on Twitch.tv on April 13 and released on April 14.
Linkin Park performed at the closing ceremony of Blizzcon 2015, Blizzard 's video game convention.
Linkin Park began working on new material for a seventh studio album in November 2015. Chester Bennington commented on the album 's direction by stating, "We 've got a lot of great material that I hope challenges our fanbase as well as inspires them as much as it has us. '' In February 2017, Linkin Park released promotional videos on their social network accounts, which featured Shinoda and Bennington preparing new material for the album. Mike Shinoda stated the band was following a new process when producing the album. Brad Delson elaborated: "We 've made so many records and we clearly know how to make a record and we definitely did n't take the easy way out this time. ''
The first single from the new album was revealed to be titled "Heavy '' and features pop singer Kiiara, the first time the band has featured a female vocalist on an original song for a studio album. The lyrics for the song were co-written by Linkin Park with Julia Michaels and Justin Tranter. The single was released for download on February 16. As they have done in the past, Linkin Park had cryptic messages online in relation to the new album. The album cover was revealed through digital puzzles across social media; The cover features six kids playing in the ocean. The band 's seventh album, One More Light, was released on May 19, 2017.
Bennington died on July 20, 2017; his death was ruled a suicide by hanging. Shinoda confirmed Bennington 's death on Twitter, writing "Shocked and heartbroken, but it 's true. An official statement will come out as soon as we have one ''. The band had released a music video for their single "Talking to Myself '' earlier that day. One day after Bennington 's death, the band canceled the North American leg of their One More Light World Tour. On the morning of July 24, Linkin Park released an official statement on their website as a tribute to Bennington. On July 28, Shinoda announced that donations made to the band 's Music for Relief charity would be redirected to the One More Light Fund, which had been set up in Bennington 's memory. On August 4, when the band was initially scheduled to play on Good Morning America, Chris Cornell 's twelve - year - old daughter Toni (who was also Bennington 's goddaughter) appeared with OneRepublic to perform "Hallelujah '' as a tribute to Bennington and her father. Bennington had previously performed the song at the funeral for Cornell, who had also died from a suicide by hanging two months earlier.
On August 22, Linkin Park announced plans to host a tribute concert in Los Angeles to honor Bennington. The band thanked fans for their support, stating, "The five of us are so grateful for all of your support as we heal and build the future of Linkin Park ''. The band later confirmed that the concert, titled Linkin Park and Friends - Celebrate Life In Honor of Chester Bennington, would take place on October 27 at the Hollywood Bowl. The event included Linkin Park 's first performance following Bennington 's death. The event featured multiple guests performing Linkin Park songs along with the band. The event was over three hours long and was streamed live via YouTube.
On January 19, 2010, Linkin Park released a new song titled "Not Alone '' as part of a compilation from Music for Relief called Download to Donate for Haiti in support of the Haiti Earthquake crisis. On February 10, 2010, Linkin Park released the official music video for the song on their homepage. The single itself was released on October 21, 2011.
On January 11, 2011, an updated version of Download to Donate for Haiti was launched, called Download to Donate for Haiti V2. 0, with more songs to download. For the updated compilation, the band released Keaton Hashimoto 's remix of "The Catalyst '' from the "Linkin Park featuring YOU '' contest.
Shinoda designed two T - shirts, in which the proceeds will go to Music for Relief to help the victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami disasters. Music for Relief released Download to Donate: Tsunami Relief Japan, another compilation of songs, in which the proceeds will go to Save the Children. The band released the song titled as "Issho Ni '', meaning "we 're in this together '', on March 22, 2011 via Download to Donate: Tsunami Relief Japan.
In the wake of Typhoon Haiyan, Linkin Park played at Club Nokia during the "Music for Relief: Concert for the Philippines '' in Los Angeles, and raised donations for victims. The show was broadcast on AXS TV on February 15. Other artists during the show included The Offspring, Bad Religion, Heart, and The Filharmonic.
Linkin Park combines elements of rock music, hip hop and electronica, and have been categorized as alternative metal and rap rock by AllMusic. They are also tagged as rap rock by About.com. Despite also being characterized as nu metal, the band never considered themselves as such. Their MusicMight biography lists them as alternative rock, nu metal and rap metal. WatchMojo.com identifies them as alternative rock, electronic rock and industrial rock, while Billboard characterizes them as alternative metal and electronic rock.
Both Hybrid Theory and Meteora combine the alternative metal, nu metal, and rap rock sound with influences and elements from hip hop, alternative rock, and electronica, utilizing programming and synthesizers. William Ruhlmann from AllMusic regarded it as "a Johnny - come - lately to an already overdone musical style, '' whereas Rolling Stone described their song "Breaking the Habit '' as "risky, beautiful art ''.
In Minutes to Midnight the band experimented with their established sound and drew influences from a wider and more varied range of genres and styles, a process Los Angeles Times compares to a stage in U2 's work. In it, only two of the songs feature rapping, and the majority of the album can be considered alternative rock. NME magazine 's Dan Silver criticized the band 's approach, calling it the "sound of a band trying and failing to forge a new identity '', and referring to the song "Hands Held High '', a song about terrorist attacks and war, as "far and away the funniest thing you will hear all year ''.
The vocal interplay between Chester Bennington and Mike Shinoda plays as a major part within Linkin Park 's music, with Bennington being the lead vocalist and Shinoda as the rapping vocalist. On Linkin Park 's third album, Minutes to Midnight, Shinoda sings lead vocals on "In Between '', "Hands Held High '', and on the B - side "No Roads Left ''. On numerous songs from band 's fourth album, A Thousand Suns, such as the album 's four singles ("The Catalyst '', "Waiting for the End '', "Burning in the Skies '', "Iridescent ''), both Shinoda and Bennington sing. On most of the record 's tracks, the band notably used electronic drumbeats along with outro drumbeats. The album has been regarded as a turning point in the band 's musical career, having a stronger emphasis on electronica. James Montgomery, of MTV, compared the record to Radiohead 's Kid A, while Jordy Kasko of Review, Rinse, Repeat likened the album to both Kid A and Pink Floyd 's landmark album The Dark Side of the Moon. Shinoda stated that he and the other band members were deeply influenced by Chuck D and Public Enemy. He elaborated: "Public Enemy were very three - dimensional with their records because although they seemed political, there was a whole lot of other stuff going on in there too. It made me think how three - dimensional I wanted our record to be without imitating them of course, and show where we were at creatively ''. One of the record 's political elements is its samples of notable speeches by American political figures.
Their fifth album, Living Things, is also an electronic - heavy album, but includes other influences, resulting in a harder sound by comparison. The band returned to a heavier sound compared to their last three albums on The Hunting Party, which was described as an alternative metal and hard rock album. Their seventh album, One More Light, was described as pop, pop rock and electropop.
Linkin Park 's influences include Nine Inch Nails, Deftones, The Roots and Aphex Twin.
Linkin Park has sold more than 70 million records. The group 's first studio album Hybrid Theory is one of the best - selling albums in the US (10 million copies shipped) and worldwide (27 million copies sold). Billboard estimates that Linkin Park earned US $5 million between May 2011 and May 2012, making them the 40th - highest - paid musical artist. 11 of the band 's singles have reached the number one position on Billboard 's Alternative Songs chart, the second-most for any artist.
In 2003, MTV2 named Linkin Park the sixth - greatest band of the music video era and the third - best of the new millennium. Billboard ranked Linkin Park No. 19 on the Best Artists of the Decade chart. The band was recently voted as the greatest artist of the 2000s in a Bracket Madness poll on VH1. In 2014, the band was declared as the Biggest Rock Band in the World Right Now by Kerrang!. In 2015, Kerrang! gave "In the End '' and "Final Masquerade '' the top two positions on Kerrang! 's Rock 100 list.
Linkin Park became the first rock band to achieve more than one billion YouTube hits. Linkin Park also became the fifteenth most liked page on Facebook, tenth most liked artist, and most liked group followed by the Black Eyed Peas. Linkin Park 's "Numb '' is the third and "In the End '' is the sixth "timeless song '' on Spotify. The two songs making Linkin Park the only artist to have two timeless songs in top ten.
Hybrid Theory by the group is listed in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die, It was also ranked at # 11 on Billboard 's Hot 200 Albums of the Decade. In addition the album was included in Best of 2001 by Record Collector, The top 150 Albums of the Generation by Rock Sound and 50 Best Rock Albums of the 2000 's by Kerrang!. The album Meteora was included in Top 200 Albums of the Decade by Billboard at # 36. The album sold 20 million copies worldwide. The collaborated EP Collision Course with Jay - Z, became the second ever EP to top the Billboard 200, going on to sell over 300,000 copies in its first week after Alice in Chains ' Jar of Flies in 1994. The album Minutes to Midnight in the United States, the album had the biggest first week sales of 2007 at the time, with 625,000 albums sold. In Canada, the album sold over 50,000 copies in its first week and debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart. Worldwide, the album shipped over 3.3 million copies in its first four weeks of release.
The New York Times ' Jon Caramanica commented Linkin Park "brought the collision of hard rock and hip - hop to its commercial and aesthetic peak '' at the beginning of the 2000s. Several rock and non-rock artists have cited Linkin Park as an influence, including Of Mice & Men, One Ok Rock, Bishop Nehru, Misono, Evanescence, From Ashes to New, Bring Me the Horizon, Red, Girl on Fire, Manafest, Silentó, 3OH! 3, The Prom Kings, AJ Tracey, Kiiara, The Chainsmokers, Kevin Rudolf, blackbear, Tokio Hotel, and Stormzy.
Current members
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main actors in guardians of the galaxy 2 | Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 - wikipedia
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 is a 2017 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team Guardians of the Galaxy, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to 2014 's Guardians of the Galaxy and the fifteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The film is written and directed by James Gunn and stars an ensemble cast featuring Chris Pratt, Zoe Saldana, Dave Bautista, Vin Diesel, Bradley Cooper, Michael Rooker, Karen Gillan, Pom Klementieff, Elizabeth Debicki, Chris Sullivan, Sean Gunn, Sylvester Stallone, and Kurt Russell. In Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, the Guardians travel throughout the cosmos as they help Peter Quill learn more about his mysterious parentage.
The film was officially announced at the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con International before the theatrical release of the first film, along with Gunn 's return from the first film, with the title of the sequel revealed a year later in June 2015. The film began principal photography in February 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, with many crew changes from the first film due to other commitments. Filming concluded in June 2016. Gunn chose to set the sequel shortly after the first film to explore the characters ' new roles as the Guardians, and to follow the storyline of Quill 's father established throughout the first film -- Russell was confirmed in that role in July 2016, portraying Ego, a departure from Quill 's comic father.
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 premiered in Tokyo on April 10, 2017 and was released in the United States on May 5, 2017, in 3D and IMAX 3D. It has grossed $863 million worldwide, making it the fifth highest - grossing film of 2017, while also outgrossing its predecessor which had grossed $773 million. The film received generally positive reviews, particularly for its visuals, soundtrack and cast, though critics deemed it not as "fresh '' as the original. A sequel, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3, is being developed, with Gunn returning to write and direct, and is scheduled to be released in 2020.
In 2014, Peter Quill, Gamora, Drax, Rocket, and Baby Groot are renowned as the Guardians of the Galaxy. Ayesha, leader of the Sovereign race, has the Guardians protect valuable batteries from an inter-dimensional monster in exchange for Gamora 's estranged sister Nebula, who was caught attempting to steal the batteries. After Rocket steals some for himself, the Sovereign attacks the Guardians ' ship with a fleet of drones. The drones are destroyed by a mysterious figure, but the Guardians crash - land on a nearby planet. The figure reveals himself as Quill 's father, Ego. He invites Quill, Gamora, and Drax to his home planet, while Rocket and Groot remain behind to repair the ship and guard Nebula.
Ayesha hires Yondu Udonta and his crew, who have been exiled from the greater Ravager community for child trafficking, to recapture the Guardians. They capture Rocket, but when Yondu hesitates to turn over Quill, whom he raised, his lieutenant Taserface leads a mutiny with help from Nebula. Taserface imprisons Rocket and Yondu aboard Yondu 's ship and executes Yondu 's loyalists while Nebula leaves to track down and kill Gamora, whom she blames for all the torture inflicted on her by their father, Thanos. While imprisoned, Rocket and Yondu bond. Groot and Kraglin, a remaining Yondu loyalist, free Rocket and Yondu, and they destroy the ship and its crew as they escape, though not before Taserface warns the Sovereign.
Ego, a god - like Celestial who manipulated the matter around its consciousness to form his "home '' planet, explains that he projected a humanoid guise to travel the universe and discover a purpose, eventually falling in love with Quill 's mother Meredith. Ego hired Yondu to collect the young Quill after Meredith 's death, but the boy was never delivered and Ego has been searching for his son ever since. He teaches Quill to manipulate his Celestial power. Nebula arrives at Ego 's planet and tries to kill Gamora, but the pair reach an uneasy alliance when they discover caverns filled with skeletal remains. Ego reveals to Quill that in his travels he planted seedlings on thousands of worlds which can terraform them into new extensions of himself, but they can only be activated by the combined power of two Celestials. To that end, he impregnated countless women and hired Yondu to collect the children, but killed them all when they failed to access the Celestial power. Under the influence of Ego 's power, Quill helps him activate the seedlings, which begin to consume every world, but Quill fights back when Ego reveals that he killed Meredith due to the distraction she posed.
Mantis, Ego 's naive empath servant, grows close to Drax and warns him of Ego 's plan. Gamora and Nebula also learn of the plan just as Rocket, Yondu, Groot and Kraglin arrive. The reunited Guardians reach Ego 's brain at the planet 's core, and fight the Sovereign 's arriving drones. Rocket makes a bomb using the stolen batteries, which Groot plants on Ego 's brain. Quill fights Ego with his newfound Celestial powers in order to distract him long enough to allow the other Guardians and Mantis to escape. The bomb then explodes, killing Ego and disintegrating the planet. Yondu sacrifices himself to save Quill, who realizes that the reason Yondu kept him was to spare him from the fate of Ego 's other progeny, and that Yondu was Quill 's true "daddy ''. Having reconciled with Gamora, Nebula still chooses to leave and attempt to kill Thanos by herself. The Guardians hold a funeral for Yondu, which is attended by dozens of Ravager ships, acknowledging Yondu 's sacrifice and accepting him again as a Ravager.
In a series of mid - and post-credit scenes, Kraglin takes up Yondu 's telekinetic arrow and control - fin; Ravager leader Stakar Ogord reunites with his ex-teammates; Groot starts growing back to normal size, exhibiting typical teenage behavior in the process; Ayesha creates a new artificial being with whom she plans to destroy the Guardians, naming him Adam; and a group of uninterested Watchers listen to their informant discussing several experiences on Earth as they walk away.
Additionally, reprising their roles from the first film are Laura Haddock as Meredith Quill, Gregg Henry as her father, Seth Green as the voice of Howard the Duck, and canine actor Fred as Cosmo. Members of Yondu 's Ravager crew appearing in the film include Evan Jones as Retch, Jimmy Urine as Half - Nut, Stephen Blackehart as Brahl, Steve Agee as Gef, Mike Escamilla as Scrote, Joe Fria as Oblo, Terence Rosemore as Narblik, and Tommy Flanagan as Tullk, as well as Charred Walls of the Damned drummer and Howard Stern Show personality Richard Christy in a cameo appearance. Many of these actors are close friends with Gunn. The other members of Stakar and Yondu 's old team, based on the comic 's original incarnation of the Guardians of the Galaxy, include Michael Rosenbaum as Martinex, Ving Rhames as Charlie - 27, and Michelle Yeoh as Stakar 's female counterpart Aleta Ogord. Also included in the team are the CG characters Krugarr and Mainframe, with the latter voiced, in an uncredited cameo, by Miley Cyrus. Rosenbaum had previously auditioned to play Peter Quill in Vol. 1. Gunn cast Yeoh because of his love of 1990s Hong Kong films, and Cyrus after admiring "the tone of her voice '' while watching her as a judge on The Voice. He added that the team would return in future MCU films alongside Stallone 's Stakar.
Stan Lee appears as an informant to the Watchers, discussing previous adventures that include Lee 's cameos in other MCU films; he specifically mentions his time as a FedEx delivery man, referring to Lee 's cameo in Captain America: Civil War. This acknowledged the fan theory that Lee may be portraying the same character in all his cameos, with Gunn noting that "people thought Stan Lee is (Uatu the Watcher) and that all of these cameos are part of him being a Watcher. So, Stan Lee as a guy who is working for the Watchers was something that I thought was fun for the MCU. '' Feige added that Lee "clearly exists, you know, above and apart from the reality of all the films. So the notion that he could be sitting there on a cosmic pit stop during the jump gate sequence in Guardians... really says, so wait a minute, he 's this same character who 's popped up in all these films? '' Lee filmed several different versions of the scene, including an alternative where he references his role in Deadpool, which would have been the first acknowledgment of the X-Men film series by an MCU film. Gunn later admitted that the Civil War reference is a continuity error, given Vol. 2 is set before the events of Civil War, saying, "I screwed up; I was n't thinking. But I 'm going to say that probably Stan Lee used the guise of a Fed Ex guy more than one time. ''
David Hasselhoff makes a cameo appearance as himself, when Ego shape - shifts to his likeness, while Rob Zombie once again has a Ravager voice cameo. Footage of Jeff Goldblum dancing as the Grandmaster from the set of Thor: Ragnarok appears briefly during the end credits, with Feige explaining that Marvel "thought it would be fun to put it in there '' and hint at the connection between that character and the Collector, who appeared in the first film. Ben Browder, the star of the series Farscape which Gunn is a big fan of, cameos as a Sovereign Admiral. Jim Gunn Sr. and Leota Gunn, parents of James and Sean Gunn, also make cameo appearances in the film.
In May 2014, Disney CEO Bob Iger talked about the future of Guardians of the Galaxy, saying, "We 're looking forward to introducing the world to more fantastic Marvel storytelling, with a great cast of new characters in Guardians of the Galaxy... We believe it has strong franchise potential. '' He added that their goal was to create "another Avengers ''. James Gunn, director and co-screenwriter of Guardians of the Galaxy, revealed that, should a sequel film be made, he would like to return, in addition to being contractually obligated to if asked. The next month, producer Kevin Feige added, "should (Guardians of the Galaxy) work, should the audience come out for this one, there are definitely places we can take (the franchise) and we have ideas of where we 'd like to go with it, '' due to the wide array of characters, worlds and story lines from the Guardians comics.
In July 2014, Guardians of the Galaxy co-screenwriter Nicole Perlman confirmed a sequel, saying it was "going to happen '' due to the positive internal response to the first film at Disney, and confirmed that Gunn would write and direct. At San Diego Comic - Con International 2014, the sequel was given a release date of July 28, 2017. A month later, Gunn revealed that he had begun work on the sequel, and that "there should be at least one more Guardian from the comics '' appearing in the film. In October, Gunn confirmed that all five original Guardians would return, along with other characters from the original film, and the release date was moved up to May 5, 2017. In the following months, Michael Rooker said he would return for the sequel as Yondu, and was looking forward to exploring new areas of the character; Chris Pratt, who played Peter Quill / Star - Lord in the first film, confirmed the sequel would be one of his next projects; and Bradley Cooper expressed interest and excitement when asked if he would return as Rocket for the sequel.
In March 2015, Gunn revealed that filming would take place in Atlanta, Georgia with "major crew changes '' from the first film, and that his brother, Sean Gunn, would return as Kraglin alongside Karen Gillan as Nebula. He also explained his working relationship with Marvel, saying, "We have a really great relationship where they let me go and do my thing, and I truly listen to their notes and ideas. I 've never been told to put in any character or plot element at all... When (Marvel) trust (s) you -- and I think I 've earned their trust over the past few years -- they give you a wide berth... we just fit. '' Vin Diesel confirmed he would return as Groot, and a month later Gunn confirmed the film would be released in 3D.
In May, Gunn said the sequel would feature fewer characters than the first film, and that he had planned to introduce two major new characters in the script -- Mantis and Adam Warlock. Talks had begun with an actor Gunn had in mind to portray Mantis, while he had decided to remove Warlock due to the film "getting too busy '', explaining, "one of the main things with Guardians of the Galaxy is not to add a bunch of characters, not to make it bigger in that way but to go deeper with the characters... and getting to know them more emotionally... everything is just getting too sprawling and too crazy for me in these superhero comic book movies. And also in superhero comics in general. There 's just too many characters so you ca n't concentrate on one and really get to know that character, and I really want to get to know the characters that we know better. '' Gunn added, "I adored what we had done with him. I think we did something really creative and unique with Adam Warlock. But it was one character too many and I did n't want to lose Mantis and Mantis was more organically part of the movie anyway. '' He noted that Warlock could appear in future Guardians films, and is considered "a pretty important part '' of the cosmic side of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The character 's future introduction is hinted at in one of the film 's mid-credits scenes. Gunn noted that Marvel gave him "some blowback '' for including the Warlock teaser because they felt fans would believe the character would be appearing in Avengers: Infinity War and its sequel, which was not the case. By including the scene, Gunn promised Marvel he would use his social media presence to clarify for fans that the character would not be seen in either Avengers film.
After the film 's announcement, Gunn said he knew "a lot of where I want to go (in the sequel) '', having written the backstory of Peter Quill, his father, and his history with Yondu during the making of the first film with the intention of exploring them in a future film. Gunn said he "probably wo n't structure the (sequel) in the exact same way (as the first one). One of the reasons people like Guardians is because it 's fresh and different, so the second one will be fresh and different from the first one. '' Before starting on the script, Gunn also hoped to further explore Drax the Destroyer, Nebula, Kraglin, and the Collector, and expand on Xandarian, Kree, Krylorian, and Ravager culture. He also hoped to introduce more female characters in the sequel, though wanted to avoid including "earthlings '' such as Carol Danvers in order to keep Quill the main focus from Earth. Likewise, Gunn also chose not to feature Novas Richard Rider or Sam Alexander in the film, saying, "I do n't want Nova right now because I think Quill being the only earthling is important. That serves the entire movie going audience and not just the handful of Nova (and Carol Danvers) fans. ''
Feige said exploring Quill 's father "would certainly be part of a next Guardians adventure... I think there 's a reason we seeded it at the very end of the (first) film like that. '' Gunn also stated that he wanted to make sure "Yondu 's place in everything made sense '' in regards to his relationship to Quill and his father, and also revealed Quill 's father would not be J'son as in the comics. Gunn also stated he "was less confident (Marvel) was going to buy in on Baby Groot than '' including Ego the Living Planet, since "adult Groot was the most popular character from the first film and I did n't think they 'd want to risk a good thing. '' However, by changing Groot, Gunn felt it "opened the film up '' creatively, allowing Gunn to bring out "new aspects of our other characters. '' Gunn stated that Thanos would only appear in the sequel "if he helps our story and he will not show up at all if not. Thanos is not the most important thing in Guardians 2, that 's for damn sure. There 's the Guardians themselves and other threats the Guardians are going to be facing that are not Thanos. '' Feige later confirmed that Thanos would not appear in the sequel, as he was being saved for a "grander '' return. When asked about how the film would connect with the other Phase Three films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Gunn said, "I do n't feel beholden to that stuff at all. I think it 's really about the Guardians and what they are doing. ''
Gunn set the film two - to - three months after the first film, "because he felt the group are just such fragile egos and he did n't think this story could start years later. '' Major planets visited in the film include Sovereign, Berhart and Contraxia. Feige also stated two or three other worlds would be seen, as well as "a little bit of Earth in this film, but it 's not these characters going to Earth. '' In December 2014, Gunn revealed the story for the film was written, saying, "It 's (still) constantly shifting, but I feel like it 's pretty strong. I 'm excited about it. '' By early February 2015, Gunn said that when he first presented his idea for the sequel to Marvel they thought it was "risky '', and that he would be submitting a full story treatment to the company "in a few short weeks ''. He described it as "not really based on anything '' from the comics, being mainly an original story. Gunn later referred to this treatment as a "scriptment '', "a 70 - page combination of a script and a treatment and it goes through every beat of the movie ''. By April, he was preparing to write the screenplay, and in May he was hoping to complete the script before he began work on The Belko Experiment in June 2015.
On June 2, 2015, Gunn announced on social media that he completed the first draft of the screenplay, and that the film 's title would not simply be Guardians of the Galaxy 2. The same week, he confirmed the return of Zoe Saldana, Dave Bautista, and Cooper as Gamora, Drax, and Rocket, respectively. At the end of the month, Gunn announced the film 's title as Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, on which he said that he "came up with a LOT of titles for Vol. 2. But because ' Guardians of the Galaxy ' is already so wordy, it seemed strange to add another bunch of words after it. I liked Vol. 2 the best, so that 's what I stuck on the cover of the screenplay -- and, fortunately, (Marvel) liked it. ''
In September 2015, Gunn said in a Facebook post that he wanted to use Sneepers, an alien race that first appeared in Marvel Comics in 1964, as background characters in the film but was advised against it by Marvel 's legal department because the name was too similar to snípur, the Icelandic word for clitoris. The Marvel legal department later cleared the use of Sneepers in the film, in part because of all the media coverage Gunn 's initial post received. At the end of the month, Feige stated casting announcements would be made "over the next few months before the end of the year '', and by the end of October Pom Klementieff was cast as Mantis. Also, Matthew McConaughey was offered the role of the film 's antagonist, but had passed on it in favor of The Dark Tower. McConaughey felt he would have been "an amendment '' in Vol. 2 in "a colorful part (made) for another big - name actor. '' In December, Gunn said that he was corresponding with John C. Reilly about him reprising his role as Nova Corpsman Rhomann Dey, while Kurt Russell entered early talks to play Quill 's father. After the death of David Bowie, Gunn said that there were discussions for Bowie to appear in the film as a member of Yondu 's original crew. Gunn also stated that he had completed the final draft of the script. Benicio del Toro, who portrayed the Collector in the first film, expressed interest in portraying the character again, despite Marvel not contacting him about the sequel; Gunn explained that the Collector "just did n't fit '' into Vol. 2. In early February, comedian Steve Agee was revealed to be in the film.
Prop master Russell Bobbitt had difficulty finding the cassette decks that had been used in the first film, and all of the Sony Walkman headsets they sourced for the sequel were broken. Sony also did not have any headsets available for filming, while three pairs Bobbitt found on eBay cost around $1,800 and were not the exact model. Bobbitt eventually created six from scratch for Vol. 2. Other props he created for the film included two sets of blasters for Quill, with removable blaster cartridges, and "steampunk - looking weapons and belts '' for the Ravagers; Bobbitt explained that four different weapons were designed for the latter group, and then 15 - 20 versions of those were produced to be used by the various Ravager actors (there could be up to 85 - 95 Ravagers per scene). For their belts, the props team cut the leather themselves rather than buying existing belts, and then parts from different electronic devices such as radios and cell phones were glued together to make each belt "a unique piece of art ''. The prop department also made edible props for certain scenes: a prop of a stinkbug - inspired insect was made from chocolate and injected with black honey so it could be eaten on screen and "when he bit down the honey poured out of his mouth ''; similarly, a "yarrow root '' was designed based on enlarged images of pollen, and then created with non-dairy white chocolate to be eaten onscreen.
Pre-shooting began on February 11, 2016, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, under the working title Level Up, with Henry Braham serving as cinematographer and Scott Chambliss as production designer. Gunn noted that many of the crew from the first film, such as cinematographer Ben Davis and production designer Charles Wood, signed on to work on Doctor Strange, and due to a late change in production schedule to a November 2015 start, were unable to work on Vol. 2. Vol. 2 was the first film to be shot with an 8K resolution camera, the Red Weapon 8K. Additional scenes were also shot in IMAX and its aspect ratio.
Principal photography began on February 17, with Marvel confirming that Russell had joined the cast, and revealing that Elizabeth Debicki and Chris Sullivan had also been cast, all in undisclosed roles. The production used all 18 stages at Pinewood Atlanta, an increase in stage space from what was used for the first film. Gunn said the sequel required more sets than the first and "our sets are very large, even though a lot of the film is CGI. I like to have as many practical sets as we can and make the environments as real as possible so it balances out the CGI elements. '' Despite this, Gunn noted that there were less locations featured in the sequel, with the focus instead on being more specific and detailed with the fewer places shown. Sets constructed for the film included: several for the Sovereign planet, for which Chambliss used a "1950s pulp fiction variation on 1930s art deco design aesthetic ''; the Ravager 's main ship in the film, the Eclector, which was constructed in sections to provide a complete 360 - degree view of the ship as well as the ability to move sections around and portray different areas of the ship; and the Iron Lotus establishment on the "pleasure planet '' of Contraxia, which Chambliss wanted to feel like it had been put together from "a whole yard of repurposed junk where old spaceships are cast away and industrial materials that are n't of use anymore are just left to rot '', creating a "kind of neon jungle in its own way and covered in ice and snow. '' Interiors for other ships were also constructed, to limit the amount of blue screen the actors had to interact with.
In April, Gunn stated that Reilly would not be part of the film, and that Glenn Close would be filming scenes to reprise her role of Nova Prime Irani Rael from the first film, though it was unclear whether she would make it to the final cut of the sequel. He added that there were many other characters he could not include in the film due to rights issues, saying that 20th Century Fox "owns so many awesome cosmic villains and minor characters that I 'd love to play around with, '' such as Annihilus and Kang the Conqueror. When filming Stan Lee 's cameo, Gunn also filmed two other cameos with Lee to limit the amount of travel he had to do. One cameo was used in Doctor Strange, while the other Gunn could not reveal. Additional filming for Vol. 2 took place in Cartersville, Georgia, while the Georgia International Convention Center served as additional soundstage space for the film after pre-production work for Spider - Man: Homecoming began occupying several soundstages at Pinewood Atlanta. Principal photography wrapped on June 16, 2016. Additional filming took place in a state park north of Portland, Oregon.
At San Diego Comic - Con 2016, Russell and Debicki were revealed to be playing Ego, Quill 's father, and Ayesha, respectively. Sylvester Stallone was also revealed to be in the film, with his role later revealed as Stakar Ogord. Gunn also introduced multiple actors who were playing Ravager characters, since the Ravagers have a larger presence in the film. On the decision to reveal Russell as Ego and Quill 's father when he did, Gunn felt that since "people were going to figure it out eventually... it was better that we took the reins in our own hands '' and make the reveal. Gunn also felt that by making the reveal, "it sends a real important message (that) this movie is n't about, ' Oh my god, you 've got ta go and find out who Peter Quill 's dad is! ' It really is about the story and the relationship that these characters have... and the emotions that transpire between Peter Quill, his adoptive father Yondu, and his real father Ego ''. In August 2016, Gunn confirmed the film would feature a post-credits scene, later stating there would be five in total, with four mid-credits scenes and one post-credits, all written and directed by himself. Gunn also planned a sixth scene, seeing Gamora and Mantis come across the "mortally wounded '' Ravager Gef -- who had been hiding since being shot by Yondu earlier in the film -- but ultimately did not include it because "it ended up being a little confusing. ''
In November, Gillan revealed that the film was undergoing reshoots. That February, it was reported that the film had scored a perfect 100 in test screenings, the highest for any Marvel Studios film. The Hollywood Reporter noted, however, that although all film studios conduct test screening, generally from a random pool of people, Marvel selects its audience "from a more select pool of recruits, what it terms ' friends and families screenings '... (And) because the Marvel testing process is not as random as other studio procedures, the 100 score for Guardians 2 is not necessarily able to be compared to other non-Marvel movies. '' Producers and studio executives also "caution at putting too much meaning into test scores, pointing out the scores are best at gauging where audiences engage or disengage, '' and may not reflect the ultimate reception from critics ' reviews and a wider audience, and its box office gross. In March 2017, Gunn revealed that Michael Rosenbaum would appear in the film, and that he would once again provide the dancing for Baby Groot as in the first film "in a much bigger way. I actually had to do like a full day 's worth of dancing to get Groot 's dance down this time. Last time it was me in front of an iPhone, and this time it 's me dancing on a huge soundstage and shooting it from five different angles. ''
Fred Raskin and Craig Wood returned from the first film to serve as editors. Discussing scenes that were cut from the film, Gunn said Nathan Fillion, who had had a voice cameo in the first film, was going to cameo as Simon Williams in the sequel, in a sequence that would have shown several movie posters for films starring Williams, including films in which he portrays Arkon and Tony Stark. Gunn chose Williams for Fillion 's cameo because he "wanted to bring (Fillion) more fully into the MCU at some point, so I did n't want to make him Arkon Guard # 2, narrowing his chance of a more substantial role in the future '' and could clearly see Fillion in the role of Williams. Gunn also considered Fillion 's cameo canon to the MCU, despite it being cut from the final version of the film. He also confirmed that Close would not appear in the sequel, as "I was trying to cram Nova Prime into the second movie as opposed to having it happen organically. ''
As with the first film, Sarofsky created the typography for the opening, using the same style from Guardians of the Galaxy for consistency, "this time in rusty gold and glowing blue neon ''. Executive Creative Director Erin Sarofsky called it a challenge placing each of the necessary credits, since the sequence was continually being refined by vendor Framestore, altering available space in the frame for the credits. She added that the company focused on three areas in creating options for the typeface: "one was doing three - dimensional type that was integrated throughout the whole title sequence in the space... Then we explored doing some 2D type options on top and then we looked at some flat type brought on by dimensional things. So like creating a little hovering character that projected a hologram up on the screen, something completely out of the box. '' Gunn liked the "hovering character '' option, but realized it would be another character in the sequence to deal with. Aside from the title reveal, Sarofsky went with a 2D option, while the "Vol. 2 '' part of the title card was created to be like a neon tube "and the lighting of that interacts with the environment and Baby Groot ''. The end credits of the film were also created by Sarofsky, the first time for the company. They "went through the process of choosing a typeface, choosing the size and speed, and the technical process of strobing and all that stuff '' while the company Exceptional Minds set all the type of the credits to give to Sarofsky to incorporate into their design before delivering it to Marvel. Erin noted that they were inspired by old album art for the end credits, taking albums and scanning them for their old textures and scratches.
Visual effects for the film were created by Framestore, Weta Digital, Trixter, Method Studios, Animal Logic, Scanline VFX, Lola VFX, Luma, and Cantina Creative. Previsualization was done by The Third Floor. Framestore created 620 shots for the film, Weta Digital created 530, Method Studios more than 500, and Animal Logic created 147. Framestore once again created Rocket and Groot (Baby and adolescent), as in the first film, with Method Studios, Weta Digital and Trixter also working on Rocket. Framestore rebuilt Rocket "from the ground up '' for Vol. 2, giving him an updated fur simulation, new facial shapes and phonemes, as well as a new eye rig, which came from a rig used for the character Gnarlack from Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. Additional work from Framestore included creatures, spaceships, the film 's opening sequence, Ayesha 's lair, the space chase, the Eclector scenes, and the adolescent Groot post-credit scene. Despite appearing as a single shot, the film 's opening sequence ultimately was composed of 11 different visual effect shots. Gunn provided reference video for Baby Groot 's dancing in the sequence. Framestore animation supervisor Arsland Elver noted that the majority of the opening sequence includes CGI and digital doubles, with three moments (Quill falling on the ground near Baby Groot, Gamora talking to Baby Groot, and Drax rolling behind Baby Groot) actually photography. Trixter 's work on Rocket included when he sets off a trap for the Ravagers, additionally working on the sequence when Rocket, Yondu and Kraglin jump across space.
Lola VFX worked on de-aging Russell, having previously done similar work in other MCU films; they also added to various characters, including Nebula. To achieve the younger Ego, Lola referenced Russell 's performance in Used Cars, as "he had a lot of the (facial) action '' the visual effects artists were looking for. They also used a younger stand in, Aaron Schwartz, since he had "big broad jaw, chin, and most importantly the way the laugh lines move (d) and crease (d) as he talk (ed) '', similar to Russell 's. Luma worked on the Sovereign people and their world, and Adam Warlock 's cocoon.
The destruction of the Ravager ship the Eclector was handled by Weta Digital. Weta Digital also handled Ego during his fight with Quill, utilizing a digital double of Russell for many of their shots. Weta also needed to create a digital double for David Hasselhoff for the moment when Ego shifts into Hasselhoff 's guise. Guy Williams, Weta 's visual effects supervisor, said, "We tried morphing to a live action Hoff - but it did not hold up as well. The Kurt version looked better than the Hoff version,... and while we had built a very detailed Kurt digi - double, - we did n't want to go to the same level on the Hoff for just two shots. But in the end we did have to do a partial build digi - double of the Hoff. The reason we did the Kurt digi - double in the first place was to make sure all the effects stuck correctly to the body... so we went with the approach of a full digi - double, the hair, the side of the face everything on Kurt. For the Hoff, we got pretty close, but it is not quite as detailed as for Kurt. '' Additional work by Weta included the inside of Ego 's planet, known as the Planet Hollow, which was inspired by the fractal art of Hal Tenny, who Gunn hired to help design Ego 's environment. Gunn added that there are "over a trillion polygons on Ego 's planet, '' calling it "the biggest visual effect of all time. There 's nothing even close to it. ''
Animal Logic and Method Studios also worked on the various parts of Ego 's planet, with Animal Logic focusing on Ego 's cathedral, and Method on the arrival sequence and Baby Groot 's "not that button '' sequence in the Planet Hollow. Animal Logic 's work for Ego 's cathedral was also based on fractal art. The team at Animal Logic were initially brought on to the film to work on the story vignettes that were used to explain the backstory, which started as oil paintings before evolving to falling sand, and eventually the final plastic sculptures that were used. Method also created the film 's final sequence for Yondu 's funeral. To make Rocket shedding a tear convincing, Method used in - house footage of Animation Supervisor Keith Roberts "performing the scene for reference, studying the macro facial movements like minor eye darts or blinks, in addition to what was filmed on set and in the sound booth by '' Cooper. Additional work included the scenes on the planet Berhart.
By August 2014, Gunn had "some ideas listed, but nothing for sure '' in terms of songs to include in Quill 's Awesome Mix Vol. 2 mixtape, for which he felt "a little pressure for the soundtrack because so many people loved (the first film 's soundtrack) and we went platinum and all that other stuff. But I feel like the soundtrack in the second one is better. '' By June 2015, Gunn had chosen all of the songs for Awesome Mix Vol. 2, and built them into the script. Gunn called the Awesome Mix Vol. 2 "more diverse '' than the first one, with "some really incredibly famous songs and then some songs that people have never heard. '' Tyler Bates had returned to score the film by August 2015. As with Guardians of the Galaxy, Bates wrote some of the score first so that Gunn could film to the music, as opposed to Bates scoring to the film. Recording for the score began in January 2017 at Abbey Road Studios. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2: Awesome Mix Volume 2, along with the film score album composed by Bates, were released on April 21, 2017. A cassette version of Awesome Mix Volume 2 was released on June 23, 2017, while a deluxe edition vinyl LP featuring both Awesome Mix Volume 2 and Bates ' score, was released on August 11, 2017.
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 made its world premiere in Tokyo on April 10, 2017, and its Hollywood premiere took place on April 19, at the Dolby Theatre. The film began its international release on April 25, in Australia, New Zealand and Italy, alongside a total of 37 markets in its first weekend, with 176 IMAX screens in 35 of those markets. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 's North American release on May 5 took place in 4,347 theaters, of which over 3,800 were in 3D, 388 in IMAX and IMAX 3D, 588 premium large - format, and 194 D - Box locations. The film 's opening in China was in 400 IMAX theaters, the largest ever for the country. It was originally intended to be released on July 28, 2017. On May 4, 2017, 550 theaters in the United States had a special RealD Guardians of the Galaxy double feature event before preview screenings of Vol. 2. Guests who attended received an exclusive mini poster and a set of souvenir collectible buttons.
In June 2016, Marvel announced plans for an expanded merchandising program for the film from the original, with Groot playing a central role. Paul Gitter, senior VP of licensing for Marvel at Disney Consumer Products, said they intended to build Guardians of the Galaxy into a tentpole franchise -- "As affinity and awareness for the Guardians of the Galaxy franchise and its characters continues to grow by leaps and bounds, we are building out a much larger merchandising program to meet the increasing demand from fans. '' Partners in the campaign included Hasbro, Lego, Funko, LB Kids, GEICO, Ford Motor Company, Go - Gurt, Hanes, Synchrony Bank, Dairy Queen, M&M 's, Screenvision, Sprint Corporation and Wrigley Company. Additionally, Marvel partnered with Doritos for their Rock Out Loud campaign to create "a custom - designed, limited - edition series of Doritos bags featuring a built - in cassette tape deck - inspired player that plays '' Awesome Mix Vol. 2 and can be recharged. The custom bags were available to purchase on April 28, 2017 on Amazon.com. On May 5, Doritos hosted Rock Out Loud pop - up recording booths in New York and Los Angeles, where fans could sing the songs from Awesome Mix Vol. 2 and "have the opportunity to win various prizes, including the custom cassette player replica Doritos bags, concert and other event tickets, and free bags of Doritos. '' Gunn ensured the film 's female characters received more representation in the merchandise than in the first.
In July 2016, Gunn, Pratt and other members of the cast attended San Diego Comic - Con to promote the film, including showing footage and revealing additional character information. On October 19, 2016, a "sneak peek '' teaser was released ahead of the first full teaser trailer. Ethan Anderton of / Film felt the teaser was strong, despite not showing any of the new characters or relying on Baby Groot, while The A.V. Club 's Esther Zuckerman called it "an immediate crowd - pleaser ''. According to media - measurement firm comScore and its PreAct service, the teaser was the top trailer for the week it released, generating 108,000 new social media conversations. In early December, before Gunn revealed the first teaser trailer at Comic Con Experience 2016, he said that finding scenes and moments to showcase in the trailer without revealing too much of the film resulted in hard choices, since "people really go through every single little shot and try to figure out what the movie 's about. And there 's a lot of mysteries in Guardians 2. '' Describing the teaser trailer, Jacob Hall of / Film felt, "It 's telling that this trailer can get away without actually selling the plot of the movie. Audiences did n't fall in love with the first Guardians of the Galaxy because they were entranced by yet another Marvel Studios movie built around a villain who gets his hands on an Infinity Stone... the bulk of this trailer is dedicated to this group bouncing off one another, which is the real star attraction. Whatever villainous plot they have to face is secondary to Drax laughing himself silly at the expense of Star - Lord having an unfortunate psychic encounter. '' The teaser trailer had 81 million views in 24 hours, becoming the second-most viewed teaser behind Beauty and the Beast and largest Marvel Studios teaser ever. Additionally, Sweet 's "Fox on the Run '', which is played throughout the trailer, reached number one on the iTunes Rock Chart.
A second trailer aired during Super Bowl LI. Germain Lussier for io9 called it "hilarious '', while Anderton said it was "one hell of a... Super Bowl spot, one that probably overshadows the game itself for people like me... There 's plenty of badass cosmic action, the humor we all love, a stellar soundtrack, and some great new footage from the sequel. '' The spot generated the most Twitter conversation volume during the game with 47,800 conversations, according to comScore and its PreAct service. The service which "measures data from Twitter volume using official hashtags from a pic 's trailer as well as other keywords intended to isolate the conversation about the film, '' measured the volume of trailers that aired during the game from the time it aired through the end of the game, and was limited to conversations in the United States and Canada. The film also topped a Fandango survey as fans ' favorite film trailer during the Super Bowl. An additional trailer debuted on February 28, 2017, on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. Haleigh Foutch at Collider.com felt the trailer added "hype '' to the film, and was "just an all - around wonderful trailer, lit up with the wacky humor and irreverent charm that made the first film such a hit, with an extra dose of visual splendor. '' Pratt and Saldana appeared at the 2017 Kids ' Choice Awards, where they also debuted an exclusive clip from the film. In mid-July 2017, Marvel created a 1980s - inspired infomercial and an 800 number to promote the home media release of the film.
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 was released on digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on August 8, 2017, and on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D, Ultra HD Blu - ray and DVD on August 22, 2017. The Ultra HD Blu - ray version is the first Disney home media release in 4K resolution. The digital and Blu - ray releases include behind - the - scenes featurettes; audio commentary; deleted scenes; a blooper reel; and a music video for the song "Guardians Inferno ''. The digital release also exclusively features the breakdown of three scenes, from their initial ideas to their completed versions, and a behind - the - scenes look at the Disney California Adventure ride Guardians of the Galaxy -- Mission: Breakout! The 1970s - style music video for "Guardians Inferno '' was directed by David Yarovesky, and features Hasselhoff alongside James Gunn, Pratt, Saldana, Bautista, Klementieff, Gillan, Rooker and Sean Gunn. Stan Lee and Guillermo Rodriguez also make cameo appearances in the video.
The digital release of the film had the most digital downloads and largest opening week of any Marvel Studios film. The physical releases in its first week of sale, were the top home media release, selling "nearly three times as many discs as the rest of the top 10 sellers combined '', according to NPD VideoScan data. The Blu - ray version accounted for 83 % of the sales, with 10 % of total sales coming from the Ultra HD Blu - ray version. In its second week, the film was once again the top home media release. As well, in the United Kingdom where it was also the top film, total sales of Vol. 2 were more than the other films in the top 40 combined.
As of September 6, 2017, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 has grossed $389.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $473.6 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $863.3 million. By Memorial Day weekend, the film had grossed $783.3 million worldwide, which surpassed the lifetime gross of the first film ($773 million). A week later, it became the fifth - highest grossing MCU film.
Since tickets went on sale on April 24, 2017, the film was the number one seller on Fandango, and surpassed the advance sales of Avengers: Age of Ultron in the similar time frame. Additionally, over 80 % of sales on MovieTickets.com were for the film ahead of its release. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 earned $146.5 million in its opening weekend, with IMAX contributing $13 million. The $17 million that came from Thursday night previews was the highest preview amount of 2017. The film had been projected to earn upwards of $160 million in its opening weekend, with Deadline.com noting in April 2017 that the film had the potential to reach the $179 million debut of Captain America: Civil War. The film remained at number one in its second weekend, and fell to second in its third, narrowly coming in behind Alien: Covenant. Vol. 2 remained at number two in its fourth weekend, this time behind Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales, and crossed $337.6 million, surpassing the domestic gross of the first film. By its fifth weekend, the film fell to fourth, and in its next, fell to fifth. Vol. 2 continued to remain in the top 10 for two more weeks, placing ninth in its seventh weekend, and tenth in its eighth weekend.
Outside of the United States and Canada, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 earned $106 million in its first weekend from 37 markets, becoming the top film in all markets except Portugal, Turkey and Vietnam. IMAX contributed $5 million to the opening weekend gross. The film also outperformed the first film 's opening weekend in all markets except Belgium. In its second weekend, it opened as the top film in South Korea, China, and Russia. It was the highest opening for an MCU film in Austria, the second - highest MCU opening in Australia ($11.8 million), the Netherlands ($500,000), Germany ($9.3 million), and the United Kingdom ($16.9 million), and was the third - highest in New Zealand ($400,000), Italy ($1.4 million), and Russia ($11.6 million). The New Zealand and Netherlands openings were also the highest of 2017 for the countries, while Germany and the United Kingdom 's were the second - highest for 2017. South Korea had the biggest opening day of 2017 ($3.3 million), the biggest May opening day, the third - highest opening day for a MCU film, and the second best opening weekend of 2017 ($13.3 million). The opening weekend gross surpassed the entire earnings from the first film in the country. Ukraine had the second largest opening ever, while in Puerto Rico, the film was the largest IMAX opening. By its third weekend, multiple markets saw their gross for Vol. 2 surpass the total gross from the first film, followed a week later with China joining them. Its fifth weekend saw Vol. 2 's gross in other markets ($451.1 million) surpass the international gross of the first film ($440 million). As of June 4, 2017, the film 's largest markets were China ($99.3 million), the United Kingdom ($51.3 million), and Germany ($28 million).
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 82 %, based on 310 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 's action - packed plot, dazzling visuals, and irreverent humor add up to a sequel that 's almost as fun -- if not quite as thrillingly fresh -- as its predecessor. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 67 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Owen Gleiberman of Variety called the film "an extravagant and witty follow - up, made with the same friendly virtuosic dazzle... and just obligatory enough to be too much of a good thing. '' He cautioned that "this time you can sense just how hard (Gunn) is working to entertain you. Maybe a little too hard. '' Mike Ryan at Uproxx noted the continued sense of humor and tone from the first film, and appreciated Gunn 's difference in overall structure in the sequel (which he compared to The Empire Strikes Back). Ryan was positive of the whole cast, and particularly Rooker in his expanded role as "the heart '' of the film. Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers called the film a "blast '' and gave it three stars out of four, praising the film for its tone and fun, soundtrack, and characters. He did note that "Vol. 2 ca n't match the sneak - attack surprise of its predecessor... (but) the followup, while taking on some CGI bloat and sequel slickness, has n't lost its love for inspired lunacy. Chicago Sun - Times 's Richard Roeper also gave the film three stars, writing, "Like many a sequel to a slam - bang, much - liked mega-hit, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 is n't quite as much fun, not quite as clever, not quite as fresh as the original -- but it still packs a bright and shiny and sweet punch. '' Roeper continued that "even with all the silliness and all the snarkiness, the Guardians can put a lump in your throat when someone suffers a serious setback '', and praised the cast, especially Rooker, with "one of the best roles in the movie ''.
At The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy said "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 plays like a second ride on a roller - coaster that was a real kick the first time around but feels very been - there / done - that now. '' Mara Reinstein of Us Weekly gave the film two - and - a-half stars out of four, stating, "not to say excited audiences desperate for escapism wo n't lap up the film 's inherent joyfulness '', but "Gunn has doubled down on all his once - nifty novelties. Strip them away and what remains is a bloated semi-mess. '' Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times was positive of the film 's soundtrack and cast, especially Russell, but felt that Gunn was trying too hard to re-capture the magic of the first film, and that the increased scope of effects and action becomes weary. Turan concluded, "Though there are enough reminders of the first Guardians to make the sequel an acceptable experience, it 's ended up less like itself and more like a standard Marvel production. '' Manohla Dargis at The New York Times said the film "certainly has its attractions, but most of them are visual rather than narrative. '' Dargis also felt that Gunn was trying too hard to "fall into the audience 's embrace '', and found many elements of the sequel to be too serious in relation to the first film, though she thought Russell helped balance this by bringing a much - needed "unforced looseness '' as Ego.
In November 2014, Gunn stated that, in addition to having the "basic story '' for Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 while working on the first film, he also had ideas for a potential third film. Despite this, Gunn stated in June 2015 that he was unsure if he would be involved with a third Guardians film, saying that it would depend on how he felt after making Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. In April 2016, Feige said on future MCU films, "it is still a big chess board for 2020 and beyond, but certainly I would say Guardians 3 is (one film that 's) up there. I do n't know what exactly the order will be. '' In March 2017, Gunn stated there would be a third film "for sure. We 're trying to figure it out, '' also adding, "There are no specific plans for Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. But we know unless something goes horribly -- which is always possible, you never know -- I think that Marvel would want to make another movie. '' He also reiterated he was still unsure if he would be involved with the film, and that he would figure out his involvement and his next project "over the next couple of weeks. '' The following month, Gunn announced he would return to write and direct Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. Klementieff is expected to reprise her role as Mantis. Vol. 3 is scheduled to be released in 2020.
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who were the leaders of the soviet union during the cuban missile crisis | Cuban Missile Crisis - wikipedia
The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis of 1962 (Spanish: Crisis de Octubre), the Caribbean Crisis (Russian: Карибский кризис, tr. Karibsky krizis, IPA: (kɐˈrjipskjɪj ˈkrjizjɪs)), or the Missile Scare, was a 13 - day (October 16 -- 28, 1962) confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union concerning American ballistic missile deployment in Italy and Turkey with consequent Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba. The confrontation is often considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full - scale nuclear war.
In response to the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961 and the presence of American Jupiter ballistic missiles in Italy and Turkey, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev decided to agree to Cuba 's request to place nuclear missiles on the island to deter a future invasion. An agreement was reached during a secret meeting between Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in July 1962 and construction of a number of missile launch facilities started later that summer.
The 1962 United States elections were under way, and the White House had for months denied charges that it was ignoring dangerous Soviet missiles 90 miles (140 km) from Florida. The missile preparations were confirmed when an Air Force U-2 spy plane produced clear photographic evidence of medium - range (SS - 4) and intermediate - range (R - 14) ballistic missile facilities. The U.S. established a naval blockade on October 22 to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba; Oval Office tapes during the crisis revealed that Kennedy had also put the blockade in place as an attempt to provoke Soviet - backed forces in Berlin as well. It announced that they would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba and demanded that the weapons already in Cuba be dismantled and returned to the Soviet Union.
After a long period of tense negotiations, an agreement was reached between U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a U.S. public declaration and agreement to avoid invading Cuba again. Secretly, the United States also agreed that it would dismantle all U.S. - built Jupiter MRBMs, which had been deployed in Turkey against the Soviet Union; there has been debate on whether or not Italy was included in the agreement as well.
When all offensive missiles and Ilyushin Il - 28 light bombers had been withdrawn from Cuba, the blockade was formally ended on November 21, 1962. The negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union pointed out the necessity of a quick, clear, and direct communication line between Washington and Moscow. As a result, the Moscow -- Washington hotline was established. A series of agreements reduced U.S. -- Soviet tensions for several years until the United States and Russia began to build their nuclear arsenal even further.
The U.S. was concerned about an expansion of communism, and a Latin American country openly allying with the Soviet Union was regarded by the U.S. as unacceptable since the end of World War II, and the start of the Cold War. Such an involvement would also directly defy the Monroe Doctrine, a U.S. policy limiting U.S. involvement in European colonies and European affairs but holding that the Western Hemisphere was in the U.S. sphere of influence.
The Kennedy administration had been publicly embarrassed by the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in May 1961, which had been launched under President John F. Kennedy by CIA - trained forces of Cuban exiles. Afterward, former President Dwight Eisenhower told Kennedy that "the failure of the Bay of Pigs will embolden the Soviets to do something that they would otherwise not do. '' The half - hearted invasion left Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev and his advisers with the impression that Kennedy was indecisive and, as one Soviet adviser wrote, "too young, intellectual, not prepared well for decision making in crisis situations... too intelligent and too weak. '' U.S. covert operations against Cuba continued in 1961 with the unsuccessful Operation Mongoose.
In addition, Khrushchev 's impression of Kennedy 's weaknesses was confirmed by the President 's response during the Berlin Crisis of 1961, particularly to the building of the Berlin Wall. Speaking to Soviet officials in the aftermath of the crisis, Khrushchev asserted, "I know for certain that Kennedy does n't have a strong background, nor, generally speaking, does he have the courage to stand up to a serious challenge. '' He also told his son Sergei that on Cuba, Kennedy "would make a fuss, make more of a fuss, and then agree. ''
In January 1962, U.S. Army General Edward Lansdale described plans to overthrow the Cuban government in a top - secret report (partially declassified 1989), addressed to Kennedy and officials involved with Operation Mongoose. CIA agents or "pathfinders '' from the Special Activities Division were to be infiltrated into Cuba to carry out sabotage and organization, including radio broadcasts. In February 1962, the US launched an embargo against Cuba, and Lansdale presented a 26 - page, top - secret timetable for implementation of the overthrow of the Cuban government, mandating guerrilla operations to begin in August and September. "Open revolt and overthrow of the Communist regime '' would occur in the first two weeks of October.
When Kennedy ran for president in 1960, one of his key election issues was an alleged "missile gap '' with the Soviets leading. In fact, the US led the Soviets by a wide margin that would only increase. In 1961, the Soviets had only four intercontinental ballistic missiles (R - 7 Semyorka). By October 1962, they may have had a few dozen, with some intelligence estimates as high as 75.
The U.S., on the other hand, had 170 ICBMs and was quickly building more. It also had eight George Washington - and Ethan Allen - class ballistic missile submarines, with the capability to launch 16 Polaris missiles, each with a range of 2,500 nautical miles (4,600 km).
Khrushchev increased the perception of a missile gap when he loudly boasted to the world that the Soviets were building missiles "like sausages '' but Soviet missiles ' numbers and capabilities actually were nowhere close to his assertions. The Soviet Union had medium - range ballistic missiles in quantity, about 700 of them, but they were very unreliable and inaccurate. The US had a considerable advantage in total number of nuclear warheads (27,000 against 3,600) and in the technology required for their accurate delivery.
The US also led in missile defensive capabilities, naval and air power; but the Soviets had a 2 -- 1 advantage in conventional ground forces, more pronounced in field guns and tanks, particularly in the European theater.
In May 1961, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev was persuaded by the idea of countering the US 's growing lead in developing and deploying strategic missiles by placing Soviet intermediate - range nuclear missiles in Cuba, despite the misgivings of the Soviet Ambassador in Havana, Alexandr Ivanovich Alexeyev, who argued that Castro would not accept the deployment of the missiles. Khrushchev faced a strategic situation in which the US was perceived to have a "splendid first strike '' capability that put the Soviet Union at a huge disadvantage. In 1962, the Soviets had only 20 ICBMs capable of delivering nuclear warheads to the US from inside the Soviet Union. The poor accuracy and reliability of the missiles raised serious doubts about their effectiveness. A newer, more reliable generation of ICBMs would become operational only after 1965.
Therefore, Soviet nuclear capability in 1962 placed less emphasis on ICBMs than on medium and intermediate - range ballistic missiles (MRBMs and IRBMs). The missiles could hit American allies and most of Alaska from Soviet territory but not the Contiguous United States. Graham Allison, the director of Harvard University 's Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, points out, "The Soviet Union could not right the nuclear imbalance by deploying new ICBMs on its own soil. In order to meet the threat it faced in 1962, 1963, and 1964, it had very few options. Moving existing nuclear weapons to locations from which they could reach American targets was one. ''
A second reason that Soviet missiles were deployed to Cuba was because Khrushchev wanted to bring West Berlin, controlled by the American, British and French within Communist East Germany, into the Soviet orbit. The East Germans and Soviets considered western control over a portion of Berlin a grave threat to East Germany. Khrushchev made West Berlin the central battlefield of the Cold War. Khrushchev believed that if the U.S. did nothing over the missile deployments in Cuba, he could muscle the West out of Berlin using said missiles as a deterrent to western countermeasures in Berlin. If the U.S. tried to bargain with the Soviets after it became aware of the missiles, Khrushchev could demand trading the missiles for West Berlin. Since Berlin was strategically more important than Cuba, the trade would be a win for Khrushchev, as Kennedy recognized: "The advantage is, from Khrushchev 's point of view, he takes a great chance but there are quite some rewards to it. ''
Thirdly, from the perspective of the Soviet Union and of Cuba, it seemed that the United States wanted to increase its presence in Cuba. With actions like attempting to expel Cuba from the Organization of American States, placing economic sanctions on the nation and conducting secret operations on containing communism and Cuba, it was assumed that America was trying to invade Cuba. As a result, to try and prevent this, the USSR would place missiles in Cuba and neutralize the threat.
Khrushchev was also reacting in part to the nuclear threat of obsolescent Jupiter intermediate - range ballistic missiles that had been installed by the US in Turkey in April 1962. Additionally, placing nuclear missiles on Cuba was a way for Khrushchev to display and assert his strict political dominance; this was a much - needed display after numerous individuals within the Soviet Union began to doubt Khrushchev 's power as they believed that he was appeasing the Americans.
Another major reason why Khrushchev placed missiles on Cuba was to level the playing field. Before this event, America had the upper hand as they could launch from Turkey and destroy USSR before they would have a chance to react. After the transmission of nuclear missiles, Khrushchev had finally established mutually assured destruction. Mutually assured destruction means that if America decided to launch a nuclear strike against the USSR, the latter would react by launching a nuclear strike against America.
Additionally, placing nuclear missiles on Cuba was a way for the USSR to show their support for Cuba and support the people in Cuba whose rights were taken away by the United States, as the latter had become their ally after the Cuban Revolution of 1959. According to Khrushchev, the Soviet Union 's motives were "aimed at allowing Cuba to live peacefully and develop as its people desire ''.
An indirect reason why Khrushchev placed missiles on Cuba would be to try and draw the line to how far the Soviet Union can go regarding threatening the United States. Prior to this, there was no clear barrier to how the United States was willing to react, and with new president John F. Kennedy, it was unknown to the Soviet Union to what they can do to manipulate the United States. By placing missiles on Cuba, next to the doorstep of the United States, it would be clear to the extent of which the United States would react.
In early 1962, a group of Soviet military and missile construction specialists accompanied an agricultural delegation to Havana. They obtained a meeting with Cuban leader Fidel Castro. The Cuban leadership had a strong expectation that the U.S. would invade Cuba again and enthusiastically approved the idea of installing nuclear missiles in Cuba. However, according to another source, Castro objected to the missiles deployment that would have made him look like a Soviet puppet, but he was persuaded that missiles in Cuba would be an irritant to the U.S. and help the interests of the entire socialist camp. Also, the deployment would include short - range tactical weapons (with a range of 40 km, usable only against naval vessels) that would provide a "nuclear umbrella '' for attacks upon the island.
By May, Khrushchev and Castro agreed to place strategic nuclear missiles secretly in Cuba. Like Castro, Khrushchev felt that a U.S. invasion of Cuba was imminent and that to lose Cuba would do great harm to the communists, especially in Latin America. He said he wanted to confront the Americans "with more than words... the logical answer was missiles. '' The Soviets maintained their tight secrecy, writing their plans longhand, which were approved by Rodion Malinovsky on July 4 and Khrushchev on July 7.
From the very beginning, the Soviets ' operation entailed elaborate denial and deception, known as "maskirovka ''. All the planning and preparation for transporting and deploying the missiles were carried out in the utmost secrecy, with only a very few told the exact nature of the mission. Even the troops detailed for the mission were given misdirection by being told that they were headed for a cold region and being outfitted with ski boots, fleece - lined parkas, and other winter equipment. The Soviet codename was Operation Anadyr. The Anadyr River flows into the Bering Sea, and Anadyr is also the capital of Chukotsky District and a bomber base in the far eastern region. All the measures were meant to conceal the program from both internal and external audiences.
Specialists in missile construction under the guise of "machine operators, '' "irrigation specialists, '' and "agricultural specialists '' arrived in July. A total of 43,000 foreign troops would ultimately be brought in. Marshal Sergei Biryuzov, chief of the Soviet Rocket Forces, led a survey team that visited Cuba. He told Khrushchev that the missiles would be concealed and camouflaged by palm trees.
The Cuban leadership was further upset when in September, the U.S. Congress approved Joint Resolution 230, which expressed Congress 's resolve to prevent the creation of an externally - supported military establishment. On the same day, the US announced a major military exercise in the Caribbean, PHIBRIGLEX - 62, which Cuba denounced as a deliberate provocation and proof that the US planned to invade Cuba.
The Soviet leadership believed, based on its perception of Kennedy 's lack of confidence during the Bay of Pigs Invasion, that he would avoid confrontation and accept the missiles as a fait accompli. On September 11, the Soviet Union publicly warned that a US attack on Cuba or on Soviet ships that were carrying supplies to the island would mean war. The Soviets continued the Maskirovka program to conceal their actions in Cuba. They repeatedly denied that the weapons being brought into Cuba were offensive in nature. On September 7, Soviet Ambassador to the United States Anatoly Dobrynin assured United States Ambassador to the United Nations Adlai Stevenson that the Soviet Union was supplying only defensive weapons to Cuba. On September 11, the Telegrafnoe Agentstvo Sovetskogo Soyuza (Soviet News Agency TASS) announced that the Soviet Union had no need or intention to introduce offensive nuclear missiles into Cuba. On October 13, Dobrynin was questioned by former Undersecretary of State Chester Bowles about whether the Soviets planned to put offensive weapons in Cuba. He denied any such plans. On October 17, Soviet embassy official Georgy Bolshakov brought President Kennedy a personal message from Khrushchev reassuring him that "under no circumstances would surface - to - surface missiles be sent to Cuba. ''
As early as August 1962, the U.S. suspected the Soviets of building missile facilities in Cuba. During that month, its intelligence services gathered information about sightings by ground observers of Russian - built MiG - 21 fighters and Il - 28 light bombers. U-2 spyplanes found S - 75 Dvina (NATO designation SA - 2) surface - to - air missile sites at eight different locations. CIA director John A. McCone was suspicious. Sending antiaircraft missiles into Cuba, he reasoned, "made sense only if Moscow intended to use them to shield a base for ballistic missiles aimed at the United States. '' On August 10, he wrote a memo to Kennedy in which he guessed that the Soviets were preparing to introduce ballistic missiles into Cuba.
With important Congressional elections scheduled for November, the crisis became enmeshed in American politics. On August 31, Senator Kenneth Keating (R - New York), who received his information from Cuban exiles in Florida, warned on the Senate floor that the Soviet Union may be constructing a missile base in Cuba. He charged the Kennedy administration of covering up a major threat to the US. Air Force General Curtis LeMay presented a pre-invasion bombing plan to Kennedy in September, and spy flights and minor military harassment from U.S. forces at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base were the subject of continual Cuban diplomatic complaints to the US government.
The first consignment of R - 12 missiles arrived on the night of September 8, followed by a second on September 16. The R - 12 was a medium - range ballistic missile, capable of carrying a thermonuclear warhead. It was a single - stage, road - transportable, surface - launched, storable liquid propellant fueled missile that could deliver a megaton - class nuclear weapon. The Soviets were building nine sites -- six for R - 12 medium - range missiles (NATO designation SS - 4 Sandal) with an effective range of 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) and three for R - 14 intermediate - range ballistic missiles (NATO designation SS - 5 Skean) with a maximum range of 4,500 kilometres (2,800 mi).
On October 7, Cuban President Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado spoke at the UN General Assembly: "If... we are attacked, we will defend ourselves. I repeat, we have sufficient means with which to defend ourselves; we have indeed our inevitable weapons, the weapons, which we would have preferred not to acquire, and which we do not wish to employ. ''
The missiles in Cuba allowed the Soviets to target effectively most of the Continental U.S. The planned arsenal was forty launchers. The Cuban populace readily noticed the arrival and deployment of the missiles and hundreds of reports reached Miami. U.S. intelligence received countless reports, many of dubious quality or even laughable, most of which could be dismissed as describing defensive missiles.
Only five reports bothered the analysts. They described large trucks passing through towns at night that were carrying very long canvas - covered cylindrical objects that could not make turns through towns without backing up and maneuvering. Defensive missiles could turn. The reports could not be satisfactorily dismissed.
The United States had been sending U-2 surveillance over Cuba since the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. The first issue that led to a pause in reconnaissance flights took place on August 30, when a U-2 operated by the U.S. Air Force 's Strategic Air Command flew over Sakhalin Island in the Soviet Far East by mistake. The Soviets lodged a protest and the US apologized. Nine days later, a Taiwanese - operated U-2 was lost over western China to an SA - 2 surface - to - air missile. US officials were worried that one of the Cuban or Soviet SAMs in Cuba might shoot down a CIA U-2, initiating another international incident. In a meeting with members of the Committee on Overhead Reconnaissance (COMOR) on September 10, Secretary of State Dean Rusk and National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy heavily restricted further U-2 flights over Cuban airspace. The resulting lack of coverage over the island for the next five weeks became known to historians as the "Photo Gap. '' No significant U-2 coverage was achieved over the interior of the island. US officials attempted to use a Corona photoreconnaissance satellite to obtain coverage over reported Soviet military deployments, but imagery acquired over western Cuba by a Corona KH - 4 mission on October 1 was heavily covered by clouds and haze and failed to provide any usable intelligence. At the end of September, Navy reconnaissance aircraft photographed the Soviet ship Kasimov, with large crates on its deck the size and shape of Il - 28 light bomber fuselages.
In September 1962, analysts from the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) noticed that Cuban surface - to - air missile sites were arranged in a pattern similar to those used by the Soviet Union to protect its ICBM bases, leading DIA to lobby for the resumption of U-2 flights over the island. Although in the past the flights had been conducted by the CIA, pressure from the Defense Department made the authority be transferred to the Air Force. Following the loss of a CIA U-2 over the Soviet Union in May 1960, it was thought that if another U-2 were shot down, an Air Force aircraft arguably being used for a legitimate military purpose would be easier to explain than a CIA flight.
When the reconnaissance missions were reauthorized on October 9, poor weather kept the planes from flying. The U.S. first obtained U-2 photographic evidence of the missiles on October 14, when a U-2 flight piloted by Major Richard Heyser took 928 pictures on a path selected by DIA analysts, capturing images of what turned out to be an SS - 4 construction site at San Cristóbal, Pinar del Río Province (now in Artemisa Province), in western Cuba.
On October 15, the CIA 's National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC) reviewed the U-2 photographs and identified objects that they interpreted as medium range ballistic missiles. This identification was made, in part, on the strength of reporting provided by Oleg Penkovsky, a double agent in the GRU working for CIA and MI6. Although he provided no direct reports of the Soviet missile deployments to Cuba, technical and doctrinal details of Soviet missile regiments that had been provided by Penkovsky in the months and years prior to the Crisis helped NPIC analysts correctly identify the missiles on U-2 imagery.
That evening, the CIA notified the Department of State and at 8: 30 pm EDT, Bundy chose to wait until the next morning to tell the President. McNamara was briefed at midnight. The next morning, Bundy met with Kennedy and showed him the U-2 photographs and briefed him on the CIA 's analysis of the images. At 6: 30 pm EDT, Kennedy convened a meeting of the nine members of the National Security Council and five other key advisors, in a group he formally named the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EXCOMM) after the fact on October 22 by the National Security Action Memorandum 196. Without informing the members of EXCOMM, President Kennedy tape recorded all of their proceedings, and Sheldon M. Stern, head of the Kennedy library transcribed some of them.
The US had no plan in place because its intelligence had been convinced that the Soviets would never install nuclear missiles in Cuba. The EXCOMM quickly discussed several possible courses of action:
The Joint Chiefs of Staff unanimously agreed that a full - scale attack and invasion was the only solution. They believed that the Soviets would not attempt to stop the US from conquering Cuba. Kennedy was skeptical:
They, no more than we, can let these things go by without doing something. They ca n't, after all their statements, permit us to take out their missiles, kill a lot of Russians, and then do nothing. If they do n't take action in Cuba, they certainly will in Berlin.
Kennedy concluded that attacking Cuba by air would signal the Soviets to presume "a clear line '' to conquer Berlin. Kennedy also believed that US allies would think of the country as "trigger - happy cowboys '' who lost Berlin because they could not peacefully resolve the Cuban situation.
The EXCOMM then discussed the effect on the strategic balance of power, both political and military. The Joint Chiefs of Staff believed that the missiles would seriously alter the military balance, but McNamara disagreed. An extra 40, he reasoned, would make little difference to the overall strategic balance. The US already had approximately 5,000 strategic warheads, but the Soviet Union had only 300. McNamara concluded that the Soviets having 340 would not therefore substantially alter the strategic balance. In 1990, he reiterated that "it made no difference... The military balance was n't changed. I did n't believe it then, and I do n't believe it now. ''
The EXCOMM agreed that the missiles would affect the political balance. Kennedy had explicitly promised the American people less than a month before the crisis that "if Cuba should possess a capacity to carry out offensive actions against the United States... the United States would act. '' Also, credibility among US allies and people would be damaged if the Soviet Union appeared to redress the strategic balance by placing missiles in Cuba. Kennedy explained after the crisis that "it would have politically changed the balance of power. It would have appeared to, and appearances contribute to reality. ''
On October 18, Kennedy met with Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs, Andrei Gromyko, who claimed the weapons were for defensive purposes only. Not wanting to expose what he already knew and to avoid panicking the American public, Kennedy did not reveal that he was already aware of the missile buildup.
By October 19, frequent U-2 spy flights showed four operational sites. On the night of October 19 at 23: 56 a helicopter from USS Essex CVS - 9 squadron HSS - 2 crashed into the Gulf of Mexico. Lt. Cmdr. James Robert Hughes and AM - 3 George Blythe perished. Their bodies were never recovered. On October 22, 1962 a second helicopter crashed into the Gulf, that also was from HSS - 2 stationed on the Essex. Lost that night were Lt. Cmdr. Witkowski and Enlisted Serviceman 50 AZ Murphy. The details of the deaths of October 19, 1962 have never been provided to the families affected. There are numerous rumors that exist from bad storms, Soviet interference with the flight, or a one - way suicide recon mission. However, the most consistently repeated accounts from on deck witnesses indicate that the helicopter on October 19 was "shot down. ''
Two Operational Plans (OPLAN) were considered. OPLAN 316 envisioned a full invasion of Cuba by Army and Marine units, supported by the Navy following Air Force and naval airstrikes. However, Army units in the US would have had trouble fielding mechanized and logistical assets, and the US Navy could not supply enough amphibious shipping to transport even a modest armored contingent from the Army.
OPLAN 312, primarily an Air Force and Navy carrier operation, was designed with enough flexibility to do anything from engaging individual missile sites to providing air support for OPLAN 316 's ground forces.
Kennedy met with members of EXCOMM and other top advisers throughout October 21, considering two remaining options: an air strike primarily against the Cuban missile bases or a naval blockade of Cuba. A full - scale invasion was not the administration 's first option. McNamara supported the naval blockade as a strong but limited military action that left the US in control. However, the term "blockade '' was problematic. According to international law, a blockade is an act of war, but the Kennedy administration did not think that the Soviets would be provoked to attack by a mere blockade. Additionally, legal experts at the State Department and Justice Department concluded that a declaration of war could be avoided if another legal justification, based on the Rio Treaty for defense of the Western Hemisphere, was obtained from a resolution by a two - thirds vote from the members or the Organization of American States (OAS).
Admiral Anderson, Chief of Naval Operations wrote a position paper that helped Kennedy to differentiate between what they termed a "quarantine '' of offensive weapons and a blockade of all materials, claiming that a classic blockade was not the original intention. Since it would take place in international waters, Kennedy obtained the approval of the OAS for military action under the hemispheric defense provisions of the Rio Treaty:
Latin American participation in the quarantine now involved two Argentine destroyers which were to report to the U.S. Commander South Atlantic (COMSOLANT) at Trinidad on November 9. An Argentine submarine and a Marine battalion with lift were available if required. In addition, two Venezuelan destroyers (Destroyers ARV D - 11 Nueva Esparta '' and "ARV D - 21 Zulia '') and one submarine (Caribe) had reported to COMSOLANT, ready for sea by November 2. The Government of Trinidad and Tobago offered the use of Chaguaramas Naval Base to warships of any OAS nation for the duration of the "quarantine. '' The Dominican Republic had made available one escort ship. Colombia was reported ready to furnish units and had sent military officers to the U.S. to discuss this assistance. The Argentine Air Force informally offered three SA - 16 aircraft in addition to forces already committed to the "quarantine '' operation.
This initially was to involve a naval blockade against offensive weapons within the framework of the Organization of American States and the Rio Treaty. Such a blockade might be expanded to cover all types of goods and air transport. The action was to be backed up by surveillance of Cuba. The CNO 's scenario was followed closely in later implementing the "quarantine. ''
On October 19, the EXCOMM formed separate working groups to examine the air strike and blockade options, and by the afternoon most support in the EXCOMM shifted to the blockade option. However, reservations about the plan continued to be voiced as late as the October 21, the paramount concern being that once the blockade was put into effect, the Soviets would rush to complete some of the missiles. Consequently, the US could find itself bombing operational missiles if blockade failed to force Khrushchev to remove the missiles already on the island.
At 3: 00 pm EDT on October 22, President Kennedy formally established the Executive Committee (EXCOMM) with National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) 196. At 5: 00 pm, he met with Congressional leaders who contentiously opposed a blockade and demanded a stronger response. In Moscow, Ambassador Foy D. Kohler briefed Khrushchev on the pending blockade and Kennedy 's speech to the nation. Ambassadors around the world gave notice to non-Eastern Bloc leaders. Before the speech, U.S. delegations met with Canadian Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, and French President Charles de Gaulle to brief them on the US intelligence and their proposed response. All were supportive of the U.S. position.
Shortly before his speech, Kennedy called former President Dwight Eisenhower. Kennedy 's conversation with the former President also revealed that the two were conspiring during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The two also anticipated that Khruschev would respond to the Western world in a matter that was similar to his response during the Suez Crisis and would possibly wind up trading off Berlin.
On October 22 at 7: 00 pm EDT, Kennedy delivered a nationwide televised address on all of the major networks announcing the discovery of the missiles. He noted:
It shall be the policy of this nation to regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack by the Soviet Union on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union.
Kennedy described the administration 's plan:
To halt this offensive buildup, a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba is being initiated. All ships of any kind bound for Cuba, from whatever nation or port, will, if found to contain cargoes of offensive weapons, be turned back. This quarantine will be extended, if needed, to other types of cargo and carriers. We are not at this time, however, denying the necessities of life as the Soviets attempted to do in their Berlin blockade of 1948.
During the speech, a directive went out to all U.S. forces worldwide, placing them on DEFCON 3. The heavy cruiser USS Newport News was designated flagship for the blockade, with USS Leary as Newport News 's destroyer escort.
On October 23, at 11: 24 am EDT, a cable, drafted by George Wildman Ball to the U.S. Ambassador in Turkey and NATO, notified them that they were considering making an offer to withdraw what the US knew to be nearly - obsolete missiles from Italy and Turkey, in exchange for the Soviet withdrawal from Cuba. Turkish officials replied that they would "deeply resent '' any trade involving the U.S. 's missile presence in their country. Two days later, on the morning of October 25, American journalist Walter Lippmann proposed the same thing in his syndicated column. Castro reaffirmed Cuba 's right to self - defense and said that all of its weapons were defensive and Cuba would not allow an inspection.
Three days after Kennedy 's speech, the Chinese People 's Daily announced that "650,000,000 Chinese men and women were standing by the Cuban people. '' In West Germany, newspapers supported the U.S. 's response by contrasting it with the weak American actions in the region during the preceding months. They also expressed some fear that the Soviets might retaliate in Berlin. In France on October 23, the crisis made the front page of all the daily newspapers. The next day, an editorial in Le Monde expressed doubt about the authenticity of the CIA 's photographic evidence. Two days later, after a visit by a high - ranking CIA agent, the newspaper accepted the validity of the photographs. Also in France, in the October 29 issue of Le Figaro, Raymond Aron wrote in support of the American response. On October 24, Pope John XXIII sent a message to the Soviet embassy in Rome to be transmitted to the Kremlin in which he voiced his concern for peace. In this message he stated, "We beg all governments not to remain deaf to this cry of humanity. That they do all that is in their power to save peace. ''
The crisis was continuing unabated, and in the evening of October 24, the Soviet news agency TASS broadcast a telegram from Khrushchev to Kennedy in which Khrushchev warned that the United States 's "outright piracy '' would lead to war. However, that was followed at 9: 24 pm by a telegram from Khrushchev to Kennedy, which was received at 10: 52 pm EDT. Khrushchev stated, "if you weigh the present situation with a cool head without giving way to passion, you will understand that the Soviet Union can not afford not to decline the despotic demands of the USA '' and that the Soviet Union views the blockade as "an act of aggression '' and their ships will be instructed to ignore it.
The US requested an emergency meeting of the United Nations Security Council on October 25. US Ambassador to the United Nations Adlai Stevenson confronted Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin in an emergency meeting of the Security Council, challenging him to admit the existence of the missiles. Ambassador Zorin refused to answer. The next day at 10: 00 pm EDT, the US raised the readiness level of SAC forces to DEFCON 2. For the only confirmed time in US history, B - 52 bombers went on continuous airborne alert, and B - 47 medium bombers were dispersed to various military and civilian airfields and made ready to take off, fully equipped, on 15 minutes ' notice. One eighth of SAC 's 1,436 bombers were on airborne alert, and some 145 intercontinental ballistic missiles stood on ready alert, some of which targeted Cuba, and Air Defense Command (ADC) redeployed 161 nuclear - armed interceptors to 16 dispersal fields within nine hours, with one third maintaining 15 - minute alert status. Twenty - three nuclear - armed B - 52s were sent to orbit points within striking distance of the Soviet Union so that it would believe that the US was serious. Jack J. Catton later estimated that about 80 percent of SAC 's planes were ready for launch during the crisis; David A. Burchinal recalled that, by contrast:
the Russians were so thoroughly stood down, and we knew it. They did n't make any move. They did not increase their alert; they did not increase any flights, or their air defense posture. They did n't do a thing, they froze in place. We were never further from nuclear war than at the time of Cuba, never further.
By October 22, Tactical Air Command (TAC) had 511 fighters plus supporting tankers and reconnaissance aircraft deployed to face Cuba on one - hour alert status. However, TAC and the Military Air Transport Service had problems. The concentration of aircraft in Florida strained command and support echelons, which faced critical undermanning in security, armaments, and communications; the absence of initial authorization for war - reserve stocks of conventional munitions forced TAC to scrounge; and the lack of airlift assets to support a major airborne drop necessitated the call - up of 24 Reserve squadrons.
On October 25 at 1: 45 am EDT, Kennedy responded to Khrushchev 's telegram by stating that the US was forced into action after receiving repeated assurances that no offensive missiles were being placed in Cuba, and when the assurances proved to be false, the deployment "required the responses I have announced... I hope that your government will take necessary action to permit a restoration of the earlier situation. ''
At 7: 15 am EDT on October 25, USS Essex and USS Gearing attempted to intercept Bucharest but failed to do so. Fairly certain that the tanker did not contain any military material, the US allowed it through the blockade. Later that day, at 5: 43 pm, the commander of the blockade effort ordered the destroyer USS Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. to intercept and board the Lebanese freighter Marucla. That took place the next day, and Marucla was cleared through the blockade after its cargo was checked.
At 5: 00 pm EDT on October 25, William Clements announced that the missiles in Cuba were still actively being worked on. That report was later verified by a CIA report that suggested there had been no slowdown at all. In response, Kennedy issued Security Action Memorandum 199, authorizing the loading of nuclear weapons onto aircraft under the command of SACEUR, which had the duty of carrying out first air strikes on the Soviet Union. During the day, the Soviets responded to the blockade by turning back 14 ships that were presumably carrying offensive weapons.
The next morning, October 26, Kennedy informed the EXCOMM that he believed only an invasion would remove the missiles from Cuba. However, he was persuaded to give the matter time and continue with both military and diplomatic pressure. He agreed and ordered the low - level flights over the island to be increased from two per day to once every two hours. He also ordered a crash program to institute a new civil government in Cuba if an invasion went ahead.
At this point, the crisis was ostensibly at a stalemate. The Soviets had shown no indication that they would back down and had made several comments to the contrary. The US had no reason to believe otherwise and was in the early stages of preparing for an invasion, along with a nuclear strike on the Soviet Union if it responded militarily, which was assumed.
At 1: 00 pm EDT on October 26, John A. Scali of ABC News had lunch with Aleksandr Fomin, the cover name of Alexander Feklisov, the KGB station chief in Washington, at Fomin 's request. Following the instructions of the Politburo of the CPSU, Fomin noted, "War seems about to break out. '' He asked Scali to use his contacts to talk to his "high - level friends '' at the State Department to see if the US would be interested in a diplomatic solution. He suggested that the language of the deal would contain an assurance from the Soviet Union to remove the weapons under UN supervision and that Castro would publicly announce that he would not accept such weapons again in exchange for a public statement by the US that it would avoid invading Cuba. The US responded by asking the Brazilian government to pass a message to Castro that the US would be "unlikely to invade '' if the missiles were removed.
-- Letter From Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy, October 26, 1962
On October 26 at 6: 00 pm EDT, the State Department started receiving a message that appeared to be written personally by Khrushchev. It was Saturday at 2: 00 am in Moscow. The long letter took several minutes to arrive, and it took translators additional time to translate and transcribe it.
Robert F. Kennedy described the letter as "very long and emotional. '' Khrushchev reiterated the basic outline that had been stated to Scali earlier in the day: "I propose: we, for our part, will declare that our ships bound for Cuba are not carrying any armaments. You will declare that the United States will not invade Cuba with its troops and will not support any other forces which might intend to invade Cuba. Then the necessity of the presence of our military specialists in Cuba will disappear. '' At 6: 45 pm EDT, news of Fomin 's offer to Scali was finally heard and was interpreted as a "set up '' for the arrival of Khrushchev 's letter. The letter was then considered official and accurate although it was later learned that Fomin was almost certainly operating of his own accord without official backing. Additional study of the letter was ordered and continued into the night.
Direct aggression against Cuba would mean nuclear war. The Americans speak about such aggression as if they did not know or did not want to accept this fact. I have no doubt they would lose such a war.
Castro, on the other hand, was convinced that an invasion of Cuba was soon at hand, and on October 26, he sent a telegram to Khrushchev that appeared to call for a pre-emptive nuclear strike on the US in case of attack. However, in a 2010 interview, Castro expressed regret about his earlier stance on first use: "After I 've seen what I 've seen, and knowing what I know now, it was n't worth it at all. '' Castro also ordered all anti-aircraft weapons in Cuba to fire on any US aircraft: the orders had been to fire only on groups of two or more. At 6: 00 am EDT on October 27, the CIA delivered a memo reporting that three of the four missile sites at San Cristobal and the two sites at Sagua la Grande appeared to be fully operational. It also noted that the Cuban military continued to organize for action but was under order not to initiate action unless attacked.
At 9: 00 am EDT on October 27, Radio Moscow began broadcasting a message from Khrushchev. Contrary to the letter of the night before, the message offered a new trade: the missiles on Cuba would be removed in exchange for the removal of the Jupiter missiles from Italy and Turkey. At 10: 00 am EDT, the executive committee met again to discuss the situation and came to the conclusion that the change in the message was because of internal debate between Khrushchev and other party officials in the Kremlin. Kennedy realized that he would be in an "insupportable position if this becomes Khrushchev 's proposal '' because the missiles in Turkey were not militarily useful and were being removed anyway and "It 's gon na -- to any man at the United Nations or any other rational man, it will look like a very fair trade. '' Bundy explained why Khrushchev 's public acquiescence could not be considered: "The current threat to peace is not in Turkey, it is in Cuba. ''
McNamara noted that another tanker, the Grozny, was about 600 miles (970 km) out and should be intercepted. He also noted that they had not made the Soviets aware of the blockade line and suggested relaying that information to them via U Thant at the United Nations.
While the meeting progressed, at 11: 03 am EDT a new message began to arrive from Khrushchev. The message stated, in part:
"You are disturbed over Cuba. You say that this disturbs you because it is ninety - nine miles by sea from the coast of the United States of America. But... you have placed destructive missile weapons, which you call offensive, in Italy and Turkey, literally next to us... I therefore make this proposal: We are willing to remove from Cuba the means which you regard as offensive... Your representatives will make a declaration to the effect that the United States... will remove its analogous means from Turkey... and after that, persons entrusted by the United Nations Security Council could inspect on the spot the fulfillment of the pledges made. ''
The executive committee continued to meet through the day.
Throughout the crisis, Turkey had repeatedly stated that it would be upset if the Jupiter missiles were removed. Italy 's Prime Minister Amintore Fanfani, who was also Foreign Minister ad interim, offered to allow withdrawal of the missiles deployed in Apulia as a bargaining chip. He gave the message to one of his most trusted friends, Ettore Bernabei, the general manager of RAI - TV, to convey to Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Bernabei was in New York to attend an international conference on satellite TV broadcasting. Unknown to the Soviets, the US regarded the Jupiter missiles as obsolescent and already supplanted by the Polaris nuclear ballistic submarine missiles.
On the morning of October 27, a U-2F (the third CIA U-2A, modified for air - to - air refueling) piloted by USAF Major Rudolf Anderson, departed its forward operating location at McCoy AFB, Florida. At approximately 12: 00 pm EDT, the aircraft was struck by a S - 75 Dvina (NATO designation SA - 2 Guideline) surface - to - air missile launched from Cuba. The aircraft was shot down, and Anderson was killed. The stress in negotiations between the Soviets and the US intensified; it was only later believed that the decision to fire the missile was made locally by an undetermined Soviet commander, acting on his own authority. Later that day, at about 3: 41 pm EDT, several US Navy RF - 8A Crusader aircraft, on low - level photoreconnaissance missions, were fired upon.
On October 28, 1962, Khrushchev told his son Sergei that the shooting down of Anderson 's U-2 was by the "Cuban military at the direction of Raul Castro. ''
At 4: 00 pm EDT, Kennedy recalled members of EXCOMM to the White House and ordered that a message should immediately be sent to U Thant asking the Soviets to suspend work on the missiles while negotiations were carried out. During the meeting, General Maxwell Taylor delivered the news that the U-2 had been shot down. Kennedy had earlier claimed he would order an attack on such sites if fired upon, but he decided to not act unless another attack was made. Forty years later, McNamara said:
We had to send a U-2 over to gain reconnaissance information on whether the Soviet missiles were becoming operational. We believed that if the U-2 was shot down that -- the Cubans did n't have capabilities to shoot it down, the Soviets did -- we believed if it was shot down, it would be shot down by a Soviet surface - to - air - missile unit, and that it would represent a decision by the Soviets to escalate the conflict. And therefore, before we sent the U-2 out, we agreed that if it was shot down we would n't meet, we 'd simply attack. It was shot down on Friday... Fortunately, we changed our mind, we thought "Well, it might have been an accident, we wo n't attack. '' Later we learned that Khrushchev had reasoned just as we did: we send over the U-2, if it was shot down, he reasoned we would believe it was an intentional escalation. And therefore, he issued orders to Pliyev, the Soviet commander in Cuba, to instruct all of his batteries not to shoot down the U-2.
Ellsberg said that Robert Kennedy (RFK) told him in 1964 that after the U-2 was shot down and the pilot killed, he (RFK) told Soviet ambassador Dobrynin, "You have drawn first blood... (T) he president had decided against advice... not to respond militarily to that attack, but he (Dobrynin) should know that if another plane was shot at,... we would take out all the SAMs and antiaircraft... And that would almost surely be followed by an invasion. ''
Emissaries sent by both Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to meet at the Yenching Palace Chinese restaurant in the Cleveland Park neighborhood of Washington, DC, on Saturday evening, October 27. Kennedy suggested to take Khrushchev 's offer to trade away the missiles. Unknown to most members of the EXCOMM, Robert Kennedy had been meeting with the Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin in Washington to discover whether the intentions were genuine. The EXCOMM was generally against the proposal because it would undermine NATO 's authority, and the Turkish government had repeatedly stated it was against any such trade.
As the meeting progressed, a new plan emerged, and Kennedy was slowly persuaded. The new plan called for him to ignore the latest message and instead to return to Khrushchev 's earlier one. Kennedy was initially hesitant, feeling that Khrushchev would no longer accept the deal because a new one had been offered, but Llewellyn Thompson argued that it was still possible. White House Special Counsel and Adviser Ted Sorensen and Robert Kennedy left the meeting and returned 45 minutes later, with a draft letter to that effect. The President made several changes, had it typed, and sent it.
After the EXCOMM meeting, a smaller meeting continued in the Oval Office. The group argued that the letter should be underscored with an oral message to Dobrynin that stated that if the missiles were not withdrawn, military action would be used to remove them. Rusk added one proviso that no part of the language of the deal would mention Turkey, but there would be an understanding that the missiles would be removed "voluntarily '' in the immediate aftermath. The President agreed, and the message was sent.
At Rusk 's request, Fomin and Scali met again. Scali asked why the two letters from Khrushchev were so different, and Fomin claimed it was because of "poor communications. '' Scali replied that the claim was not credible and shouted that he thought it was a "stinking double cross. '' He went on to claim that an invasion was only hours away, and Fomin stated that a response to the US message was expected from Khrushchev shortly and urged Scali to tell the State Department that no treachery was intended. Scali said that he did not think anyone would believe him, but he agreed to deliver the message. The two went their separate ways, and Scali immediately typed out a memo for the EXCOMM.
Within the US establishment, it was well understood that ignoring the second offer and returning to the first put Khrushchev in a terrible position. Military preparations continued, and all active duty Air Force personnel were recalled to their bases for possible action. Robert Kennedy later recalled the mood: "We had not abandoned all hope, but what hope there was now rested with Khrushchev 's revising his course within the next few hours. It was a hope, not an expectation. The expectation was military confrontation by Tuesday (October 30), and possibly tomorrow (October 29)... ''
At 8: 05 pm EDT, the letter drafted earlier in the day was delivered. The message read, "As I read your letter, the key elements of your proposals -- which seem generally acceptable as I understand them -- are as follows: 1) You would agree to remove these weapons systems from Cuba under appropriate United Nations observation and supervision; and undertake, with suitable safe - guards, to halt the further introduction of such weapon systems into Cuba. 2) We, on our part, would agree -- upon the establishment of adequate arrangements through the United Nations, to ensure the carrying out and continuation of these commitments (a) to remove promptly the quarantine measures now in effect and (b) to give assurances against the invasion of Cuba. '' The letter was also released directly to the press to ensure it could not be "delayed. '' With the letter delivered, a deal was on the table. However, as Robert Kennedy noted, there was little expectation it would be accepted. At 9: 00 pm EDT, the EXCOMM met again to review the actions for the following day. Plans were drawn up for air strikes on the missile sites as well as other economic targets, notably petroleum storage. McNamara stated that they had to "have two things ready: a government for Cuba, because we 're going to need one; and secondly, plans for how to respond to the Soviet Union in Europe, because sure as hell they 're going to do something there. ''
At 12: 12 am EDT, on October 27, the US informed its NATO allies that "the situation is growing shorter... the United States may find it necessary within a very short time in its interest and that of its fellow nations in the Western Hemisphere to take whatever military action may be necessary. '' To add to the concern, at 6: 00 am, the CIA reported that all missiles in Cuba were ready for action.
On October 27, Khrushchev also received a letter from Castro, what is now known as the Armageddon Letter (dated the day before), which was interpreted as urging the use of nuclear force in the event of an attack on Cuba: "I believe the imperialists ' aggressiveness is extremely dangerous and if they actually carry out the brutal act of invading Cuba in violation of international law and morality, that would be the moment to eliminate such danger forever through an act of clear legitimate defense, however harsh and terrible the solution would be, '' Castro wrote.
Later that same day, what the White House later called "Black Saturday, '' the US Navy dropped a series of "signaling depth charges '' (practice depth charges the size of hand grenades) on a Soviet submarine (B - 59) at the blockade line, unaware that it was armed with a nuclear - tipped torpedo with orders that allowed it to be used if the submarine was "hulled '' (a hole in the hull from depth charges or surface fire). The decision to launch these required agreement from all three officers on board, but one of them, Vasili Arkhipov, objected and so the launch was narrowly averted.
On the same day a U-2 spy plane made an accidental, unauthorized ninety - minute overflight of the Soviet Union 's far eastern coast. The Soviets responded by scrambling MiG fighters from Wrangel Island; in turn, the Americans launched F - 102 fighters armed with nuclear air - to - air missiles over the Bering Sea.
On Saturday, October 27, after much deliberation between the Soviet Union and Kennedy 's cabinet, Kennedy secretly agreed to remove all missiles set in Turkey and possibly southern Italy, the former on the border of the Soviet Union, in exchange for Khrushchev removing all missiles in Cuba. There is some dispute as to whether removing the missiles from Italy was part of the secret agreement. Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that it was, and when the crisis had ended McNamara gave the order to dismantle the missiles in both Italy and Turkey.
At this point, Khrushchev knew things the US did not: First, that the shooting down of the U-2 by a Soviet missile violated direct orders from Moscow, and Cuban antiaircraft fire against other US reconnaissance aircraft also violated direct orders from Khrushchev to Castro. Second, the Soviets already had 162 nuclear warheads on Cuba that the US did not then believe were there. Third, the Soviets and Cubans on the island would almost certainly have responded to an invasion by using those nuclear weapons, even though Castro believed that every human in Cuba would likely die as a result. Khrushchev also knew but may not have considered the fact that he had submarines armed with nuclear weapons that the US Navy may not have known about. (See the section above on "Depth charges against a Soviet submarine armed with nuclear weapons ''.)
Khrushchev knew he was losing control. President Kennedy had been told in early 1961 that a nuclear war would likely kill a third of humanity, with most or all of those deaths concentrated in the US, the USSR, Europe and China; Khrushchev may well have received similar reports from his military.
With this background, when Khrushchev heard Kennedy 's threats relayed by Robert Kennedy to Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin, he immediately drafted his acceptance of Kennedy 's latest terms from his dacha without involving the Politburo, as he had previously, and had them immediately broadcasts over Radio Moscow, which he believed the US would hear. In that broadcast at 9: 00 am EST, on October 28, Khrushchev stated that "the Soviet government, in addition to previously issued instructions on the cessation of further work at the building sites for the weapons, has issued a new order on the dismantling of the weapons which you describe as ' offensive ' and their crating and return to the Soviet Union. ''
At 10: 00 am, October 28, Kennedy first learned of Khrushchev 's solution to the crisis with the US removing the 15 Jupiters in Turkey and the Soviets would remove the rockets from Cuba. Khrushchev had made the offer in a public statement for the world to hear. Despite almost solid opposition from his senior advisers, Kennedy quickly embraced the Soviet offer. "This is a pretty good play of his, '' Kennedy said, according to a tape recording that he made secretly of the Cabinet Room meeting. Kennedy had deployed the Jupiters in March of the year, causing a stream of angry outbursts from Khrushchev. "Most people will think this is a rather even trade and we ought to take advantage of it, '' Kennedy said. Vice President Lyndon Johnson was the first to endorse the missile swap but others continued to oppose the offer. Finally, Kennedy ended the debate. "We ca n't very well invade Cuba with all its toil and blood, '' Kennedy said, "when we could have gotten them out by making a deal on the same missiles on Turkey. If that 's part of the record, then you do n't have a very good war. ''
Kennedy immediately responded, issuing a statement calling the letter "an important and constructive contribution to peace. '' He continued this with a formal letter:
I consider my letter to you of October twenty - seventh and your reply of today as firm undertakings on the part of both our governments which should be promptly carried out... The US will make a statement in the framework of the Security Council in reference to Cuba as follows: it will declare that the United States of America will respect the inviolability of Cuban borders, its sovereignty, that it take the pledge not to interfere in internal affairs, not to intrude themselves and not to permit our territory to be used as a bridgehead for the invasion of Cuba, and will restrain those who would plan to carry an aggression against Cuba, either from US territory or from the territory of other countries neighboring to Cuba.
Kennedy 's planned statement would also contain suggestions he had received from his adviser Schlesinger Jr. in a "Memorandum for the President '' describing the "Post Mortem on Cuba. ''
Kennedy 's Oval Office telephone conversation with Eisenhower soon after Khrushchev 's message arrived revealed that the President was planning to use the Cuban Missile Crisis to escalate tensions with Khrushchev and in the long run, Cuba as well. The President also claimed that he thought the crisis would result in direct military confrontations in Berlin by the end of the next month. He also claimed in his conversation with Eisenhower that the Soviet leader had offered to withdraw from Cuba in exchange for the withdrawal of missiles from Turkey and that while the Kennedy Administration had agreed not to invade Cuba, they were only in process of determining Khrushchev 's offer to withdraw from Turkey.
When former US President Harry Truman called President Kennedy the day of Khrushchev 's offer, the President informed him that his Administration had rejected the Soviet leader 's offer to withdraw missiles from Turkey and was planning on using the Soviet setback in Cuba to escalate tensions in Berlin.
The US continued the blockade; in the following days, aerial reconnaissance proved that the Soviets were making progress in removing the missile systems. The 42 missiles and their support equipment were loaded onto eight Soviet ships. On November 2, 1962, Kennedy addressed the US via radio and television broadcasts regarding the dismantlement process of the Soviet R - 12 missile bases located in the Caribbean region. The ships left Cuba on November 5 to 9. The US made a final visual check as each of the ships passed the blockade line. Further diplomatic efforts were required to remove the Soviet IL - 28 bombers, and they were loaded on three Soviet ships on December 5 and 6. Concurrent with the Soviet commitment on the IL - 28s, the US government announced the end of the blockade from 6: 45 pm EST on November 20, 1962.
At the time when the Kennedy administration thought that the Cuban Missile Crisis was resolved, nuclear tactical rockets stayed in Cuba since they were not part of the Kennedy - Khrushchev understandings and the Americans did not know about them. However, the Soviets changed their minds, fearing possible future Cuban militant steps, and on November 22, 1962, Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union Anastas Mikoyan told Castro that the rockets with the nuclear warheads were being removed as well.
In his negotiations with the Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin, Robert Kennedy informally proposed that the Jupiter missiles in Turkey would be removed "within a short time after this crisis was over. '' The last U.S. missiles were disassembled by April 24, 1963 and were flown out of Turkey soon afterward.
The practical effect of the Kennedy - Khrushchev Pact was that the US would not invade Cuba. It is possible that Khrushchev placed the missiles in Cuba only to get Kennedy to remove the missiles from Italy and Turkey and that the Soviets had no intention of resorting to nuclear war if they were out - gunned by the U.S. Because the withdrawal of the Jupiter missiles from NATO bases in Italy and Turkey was not made public at the time, Khrushchev appeared to have lost the conflict and become weakened. The perception was that Kennedy had won the contest between the superpowers and that Khrushchev had been humiliated. However, both Kennedy and Khrushchev took every step to avoid full conflict despite pressures from their respective governments. Khrushchev held power for another two years.
The enormity of how close the world came to thermonuclear war impelled Krushchev to propose a far - reaching easing of tensions with the US. In a letter to President Kennedy dated October 30, 1962, Krushchev outlined a range of bold initiatives to forestall the possibility of a further nuclear crisis, including proposing a non-aggression treaty between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact or even the disbanding these military blocs, a treaty to cease all nuclear weapons testing and even the elimination of all nuclear weapons, resolution of the hot - button issue of Germany by both East and West formally accepting the existence of West Germany and East Germany, and US recognition of the government of mainland China. The letter invited counter-proposals and further exploration of these and other issues through peaceful negotiations. Krushschev invited Norman Cousins, the editor of a major US periodical and an anti-nuclear weapons activist, to serve as liaison with President Kennedy, and Cousins met with Krushchev for four hours in December 1962.
Kennedy 's response to Krushchev 's proposals was lukewarm but Kennedy expressed to Cousins that he felt constrained in exploring these issues due to pressure from hardliners in the US national security apparatus. The US and the USSR did shortly thereafter agree on a treaty banning atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, known as the "Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty ''.
Further after the crisis, the U.S. and the Soviet Union created the Moscow -- Washington hotline, a direct communications link between Moscow and Washington. The purpose was to have a way that the leaders of the two Cold War countries could communicate directly to solve such a crisis.
The compromise embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey was a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Khrushchev went to Kennedy as he thought that the crisis was getting out of hand, but the Soviets were seen as retreating from circumstances that they had started.
Khrushchev 's fall from power two years later was in part because of the Soviet Politburo 's embarrassment at both Khrushchev 's eventual concessions to the US and this ineptitude in precipitating the crisis in the first place. According to Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation. ''
Cuba perceived the outcome as a betrayal by the Soviets, as decisions on how to resolve the crisis had been made exclusively by Kennedy and Khrushchev. Castro was especially upset that certain issues of interest to Cuba, such as the status of the US Naval Base in Guantánamo, were not addressed. That caused Cuban -- Soviet relations to deteriorate for years to come. On the other hand, Cuba continued to be protected from invasion.
The worldwide U.S. Forces DEFCON 3 status was returned to DEFCON 4 on November 20, 1962. General Curtis LeMay told the President that the resolution of the crisis was the "greatest defeat in our history '', however his was a minority position. He had pressed for an immediate invasion of Cuba as soon as the crisis began and still favored invading Cuba even after the Soviets had withdrawn their missiles. Twenty - five years later, LeMay still believed that "We could have gotten not only the missiles out of Cuba, we could have gotten the Communists out of Cuba at that time. ''
Critics, including Seymour Melman, and Seymour Hersh suggested that the Cuban Missile Crisis encouraged the United States ' use of military means, such as the case in the later Vietnam War.
U-2 pilot Anderson 's body was returned to the US and was buried with full military honors in South Carolina. He was the first recipient of the newly created Air Force Cross, which was awarded posthumously. Although Anderson was the only combatant fatality during the crisis, 11 crew members of three reconnaissance Boeing RB - 47 Stratojets of the 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing were also killed in crashes during the period between September 27 and November 11, 1962. Seven crew died when a Military Air Transport Service Boeing C - 135B Stratolifter delivering ammunition to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base stalled and crashed on approach on October 23.
Schlesinger, a historian and adviser to Kennedy, told National Public Radio in an interview on October 16, 2002 that Castro did not want the missiles, but Khrushchev pressured Castro to accept them. Castro was not completely happy with the idea, but the Cuban National Directorate of the Revolution accepted them, both to protect Cuba against US attack and to aid the Soviet Union. Schlesinger believed that when the missiles were withdrawn, Castro was more angry with Khrushchev than with Kennedy because Khrushchev had not consulted Castro before deciding to remove them. Although Castro was infuriated by Khrushchev, he planned on striking the US with remaining missiles if an invasion of the island occurred.
In early 1992, it was confirmed that Soviet forces in Cuba had, when the crisis broke, already received tactical nuclear warheads for their artillery rockets and Il - 28 bombers. Castro stated that he would have recommended their use if the US invaded despite Cuba being destroyed.
Arguably, the most dangerous moment in the crisis was not recognized until the Cuban Missile Crisis Havana conference, in October 2002. Attended by many of the veterans of the crisis, they all learned that on October 27, 1962, USS Beale had tracked and dropped signaling depth charges (the size of hand grenades) on B - 59, a Soviet Project 641 (NATO designation Foxtrot) submarine. Unknown to the US, it was armed with a 15 - kiloton nuclear torpedo. Running out of air, the Soviet submarine was surrounded by American warships and desperately needed to surface. An argument broke out among three officers aboard B - 59, including submarine captain Valentin Savitsky, political officer Ivan Semonovich Maslennikov, and Deputy brigade commander Captain 2nd rank (U.S. Navy Commander rank equivalent) Vasili Arkhipov. An exhausted Savitsky became furious and ordered that the nuclear torpedo on board be made combat ready. Accounts differ about whether Arkhipov convinced Savitsky not to make the attack or whether Savitsky himself finally concluded that the only reasonable choice left open to him was to come to the surface. During the conference, McNamara stated that nuclear war had come much closer than people had thought. Thomas Blanton, director of the National Security Archive, said, "A guy called Vasili Arkhipov saved the world. ''
Fifty years after the crisis, Graham T. Allison wrote:
Fifty years ago, the Cuban missile crisis brought the world to the brink of nuclear disaster. During the standoff, US President John F. Kennedy thought the chance of escalation to war was "between 1 in 3 and even, '' and what we have learned in later decades has done nothing to lengthen those odds. We now know, for example, that in addition to nuclear - armed ballistic missiles, the Soviet Union had deployed 100 tactical nuclear weapons to Cuba, and the local Soviet commander there could have launched these weapons without additional codes or commands from Moscow. The US air strike and invasion that were scheduled for the third week of the confrontation would likely have triggered a nuclear response against American ships and troops, and perhaps even Miami. The resulting war might have led to the deaths of over 100 million Americans and over 100 million Russians.
BBC journalist Joe Matthews published the story, on October 13, 2012, behind the 100 tactical nuclear warheads mentioned by Graham Allison in the excerpt above. Khrushchev feared that Castro 's hurt pride and widespread Cuban indignation over the concessions he had made to Kennedy might lead to a breakdown of the agreement between the Soviet Union and the US. To prevent that, Khrushchev decided to offer to give Cuba more than 100 tactical nuclear weapons that had been shipped to Cuba along with the long - range missiles but, crucially, had escaped the notice of U.S. intelligence. Khrushchev determined that because the Americans had not listed the missiles on their list of demands, keeping them in Cuba would be in the Soviet Union 's interests.
Anastas Mikoyan was tasked with the negotiations with Castro over the missile transfer deal that was designed to prevent a breakdown in the relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union. While in Havana, Mikoyan witnessed the mood swings and paranoia of Castro, who was convinced that Moscow had made the agreement with the US at the expense of Cuba 's defense. Mikoyan, on his own initiative, decided that Castro and his military not be given control of weapons with an explosive force equal to 100 Hiroshima - sized bombs under any circumstances. He defused the seemingly intractable situation, which risked re-escalating the crisis, on November 22, 1962. During a tense, four - hour meeting, Mikoyan convinced Castro that despite Moscow 's desire to help, it would be in breach of an unpublished Soviet law, which did not actually exist, to transfer the missiles permanently into Cuban hands and provide them with an independent nuclear deterrent. Castro was forced to give way and, much to the relief of Khrushchev and the rest of the Soviet government, the tactical nuclear weapons were crated and returned by sea to the Soviet Union during December 1962.
The American popular media, especially television, made frequent use of the events of the missile crisis and both fictional and documentary forms. Jim Willis includes the Crisis as one of the 100 "media moments that changed America. '' Sheldon Stern finds that a half century later there are still many "misconceptions, half - truths, and outright lies '' that have shaped media versions of what happened in the White House during those harrowing two weeks.
Historian William Cohn argued in a 1976 article that television programs are typically the main source used by the American public to know about and interpret the past. According to Cold War historian Andrei Kozovoi, the Soviet media proved somewhat disorganized as it was unable to generate a coherent popular history. Khrushchev lost power and was airbrushed out of the story. Cuba was no longer portrayed as a heroic David against the American Goliath. One contradiction that pervaded the Soviet media campaign was between the pacifistic rhetoric of the peace movement that emphasizes the horrors of nuclear war and the militancy of the need to prepare Soviets for war against American aggression.
(Listed chronologically)
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how many inner core electrons does copper have | Electron shell - wikipedia
In chemistry and atomic physics, an electron shell, or a principal energy level, may be thought of as an orbit followed by electrons around an atom 's nucleus. The closest shell to the nucleus is called the "1 shell '' (also called "K shell ''), followed by the "2 shell '' (or "L shell ''), then the "3 shell '' (or "M shell ''), and so on farther and farther from the nucleus. The shells correspond with the principal quantum numbers (n = 1, 2, 3, 4...) or are labeled alphabetically with letters used in the X-ray notation (K, L, M,...).
Each shell can contain only a fixed number of electrons: The first shell can hold up to two electrons, the second shell can hold up to eight (2 + 6) electrons, the third shell can hold up to 18 (2 + 6 + 10) and so on. The general formula is that the nth shell can in principle hold up to 2 (n) electrons. Since electrons are electrically attracted to the nucleus, an atom 's electrons will generally occupy outer shells only if the more inner shells have already been completely filled by other electrons. However, this is not a strict requirement: atoms may have two or even three incomplete outer shells. (See Madelung rule for more details.) For an explanation of why electrons exist in these shells see electron configuration.
The electrons in the outermost occupied shell (or shells) determine the chemical properties of the atom; it is called the valence shell.
Each shell consists of one or more subshells, and each subshell consists of one or more atomic orbitals.
The shell terminology comes from Arnold Sommerfeld 's modification of the Bohr model. Sommerfeld retained Bohr 's planetary model, but added mildly elliptical orbits (characterized by additional quantum numbers l and m) to explain the fine spectroscopic structure of some elements. The multiple electrons with the same principal quantum number (n) had close orbits that formed a "shell '' of positive thickness instead of the infinitely thin circular orbit of Bohr 's model.
The existence of electron shells was first observed experimentally in Charles Barkla 's and Henry Moseley 's X-ray absorption studies. Barkla labeled them with the letters K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q. The origin of this terminology was alphabetic. A "J '' series was also suspected, though later experiments indicated that the K absorption lines are produced by the innermost electrons. These letters were later found to correspond to the n values 1, 2, 3, etc. They are used in the spectroscopic Siegbahn notation.
The physical chemist Gilbert Lewis was responsible for much of the early development of the theory of the participation of valence shell electrons in chemical bonding. Linus Pauling later generalized and extended the theory while applying insights from quantum mechanics.
The electron shells are labeled K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q; or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7; going from innermost shell outwards. Electrons in outer shells have higher average energy and travel farther from the nucleus than those in inner shells. This makes them more important in determining how the atom reacts chemically and behaves as a conductor, because the pull of the atom 's nucleus upon them is weaker and more easily broken. In this way, a given element 's reactivity is highly dependent upon its electronic configuration.
Each shell is composed of one or more subshells, which are themselves composed of atomic orbitals. For example, the first (K) shell has one subshell, called 1s; the second (L) shell has two subshells, called 2s and 2p; the third shell has 3s, 3p, and 3d; the fourth shell has 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f; the fifth shell has 5s, 5p, 5d, and 5f and can theoretically hold more but the 5f subshell, although partially occupied in actinides, is not filled in any element occurring naturally. The various possible subshells are shown in the following table:
Although it is commonly stated that all the electrons in a shell have the same energy, this is an approximation. However, the electrons in one subshell do have exactly the same level of energy, with later subshells having more energy per electron than earlier ones. This effect is great enough that the energy ranges associated with shells can overlap (see valence shells and Aufbau principle).
Each subshell is constrained to hold 4l + 2 electrons at most, namely:
Therefore, the K shell, which contains only an s subshell, can hold up to 2 electrons; the L shell, which contains an s and a p, can hold up to 2 + 6 = 8 electrons, and so forth; in general, the nth shell can hold up to 2n electrons.
Although that formula gives the maximum in principle, in fact that maximum is only achieved (by known elements) for the first four shells (K, L, M, N). No known element has more than 32 electrons in any one shell. This is because the subshells are filled according to the Aufbau principle. The first elements to have more than 32 electrons in one shell would belong to the g - block of period 8 of the periodic table. These elements would have some electrons in their 5g subshell and thus have more than 32 electrons in the O shell (fifth principal shell).
The valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom. Valence electrons in non-transition metal elements reside in this shell. Such elements with complete valence shells (noble gases) are the most chemically non-reactive, while those with only one electron in their valence shells (alkali metals) or just missing one electron from having a complete shell (halogens) are the most reactive.
However, this terminology is somewhat misleading in the case of transition metals. In these elements, a valence electron can also be in an inner shell. Thus, the electrons that determine how an atom reacts chemically are those that travel farthest from the nucleus, that is, those with the highest energy, and not necessarily in the valence shell.
The list below gives the elements arranged by increasing atomic number and shows the number of electrons per shell. At a glance, one can see that subsets of the list show obvious patterns. In particular, the seven elements (in electric blue) before a noble gas (group 18, in yellow) higher than helium have the number of electrons in the valence shell in arithmetic progression. (However, this pattern may break down in the seventh period due to relativistic effects.)
Sorting the table by chemical group shows additional patterns, especially with respect to the last two outermost shells. (Elements 57 to 71 belong to the lanthanides, while 89 to 103 are the actinides.)
The list below is primarily consistent with the Aufbau principle. However, there are a number of exceptions to the rule; for example palladium (atomic number 46) has no electrons in the fifth shell, unlike other atoms with lower atomic number. Some entries in the table are uncertain, when experimental data is unavailable. (For example, the elements past 108 have such short half - lives that their electron configurations have not yet been measured.)
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where is fear of the walking dead filmed at | Fear the Walking Dead - wikipedia
Fear the Walking Dead is an American post-apocalyptic horror drama television series created by Robert Kirkman and Dave Erickson, that premiered on AMC on August 23, 2015. It is a companion series and prequel to The Walking Dead, which is based on the comic book series of the same name by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard. The first season consists of six episodes. The second season, comprising 15 episodes, premiered on April 10, 2016. On April 15, 2016, AMC announced the series had been renewed for a 16 - episode third season, which premiered on June 4, 2017. In April 2017, AMC renewed the series for a fourth season and announced that Andrew Chambliss and Ian Goldberg would replace the departing Dave Erickson as showrunners.
Set initially in Los Angeles, California and then later in Mexico, the series follows a dysfunctional, blended family composed of high school guidance counselor Madison Clark, her English teacher boyfriend Travis Manawa, her daughter Alicia, her drug addict son Nick, Travis ' son from a previous marriage, Chris, Chris ' mother Liza Ortiz, and others who join their group at the onset of the apocalypse. They must reinvent themselves, learning new skills and adopting new attitudes in order to survive as civilization collapses around them.
In September 2013, AMC announced they were developing a companion series to The Walking Dead, which follows a different set of characters created by Robert Kirkman. In September 2014, AMC ordered a pilot, which was written by Kirkman and Dave Erickson, and directed by Adam Davidson, and is executive produced by Kirkman, Erickson, Gale Anne Hurd, and David Alpert, with Erickson serving as showrunner. The project was originally known as Cobalt; Kirkman confirmed, in March 2015, that the series would be titled Fear the Walking Dead. On March 9, 2015, AMC announced it had ordered FTWD to series, with a two - season commitment: the first season, comprising six episodes, premiered on August 23, 2015; the second season, comprising 15 episodes, premiered on April 10, 2016. AMC announced in April 2016 that they had renewed the series for a third season of 16 episodes to premiere in 2017. In March 2017, it was announced that co-creator Dave Erickson would be stepping down as showrunner after the conclusion of the third season. On April 14, 2017, AMC announced that they had renewed the show for a fourth season with new showrunners, Andrew Chambliss and Ian B. Goldberg, and that Scott M. Gimple, executive producer and showrunner of The Walking Dead will become an executive producer.
In December 2014, the first four starring roles were cast: Kim Dickens as Madison, the female lead; Cliff Curtis as Travis Manawa, the male lead; Frank Dillane as Nick; and Alycia Debnam - Carey as Alicia. In April and May 2015, Elizabeth Rodriguez and Mercedes Mason were announced as series regulars, both in unknown roles.
Production of the pilot episode began in early 2015 and ended on February 6, 2015. The pilot episode was filmed in Los Angeles; the remaining first - season episodes were filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Production on the remaining five first - season episodes began on May 11, 2015. Adam Davidson, who directed the pilot, also directed the series ' second and third episodes.
Filming for the second season began in December 2015, with production moving to Baja California, Mexico. Locations included Rosarito (sea scenes and hotel) and Valle de Guadalupe (Abigail 's vineyard). The sea scenes were filmed using a horizon tank at Baja Film Studios. Filming for the third season began on January 6, 2017, in Baja California, Mexico, with some of the same location sites used for the second half of season two. Additional locations in Tijuana Municipality included Avenida Revolución, Abelardo L. Rodríguez Dam and the hills that hosted the Otto 's ranch.
On August 23, 2015, the series debuted simultaneously worldwide on: AMC in the U.S.; AMC Global in major regional markets in Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East; and FX in Australia. Hulu holds the show 's video on demand rights in the U.S., while Amazon Instant Video owns the streaming rights in Austria and Germany, and will make episodes available online one day after their original airing. Streaming in the United Kingdom became available to Amazon Prime members in 2016.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 77 %, based on 57 reviews, whose average rating is 6.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Fear the Walking Dead recycles elements of its predecessor, but it 's still moody and engrossing enough to compete with the original. '' On Metacritic, the season has a score of 66 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Elisabeth Vincentelli of the New York Post rated the first two episodes three out of four stars, stating that "(They) are creepily suspenseful -- they 're great examples of how effective a slow pace and a moody atmosphere can be. '' Another positive review of the first episode came from Ken Tucker of Yahoo TV, who wrote, "Fear the Walking Dead is a mood piece, more artful than the original series '' and that the cast is "terrific ''. Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter gave an average review, writing, "The 90 - minute first episode and the hour - long second episode are, while not actually boring, certainly less magnetic than the original. ''
One of the harshest negative reviews came from HitFix, on Daniel Fienberg and Alan Sepinwall 's podcast, where Fienberg called the premiere episode "awful, just horrible... as bad as The Walking Dead has ever gotten at its very worst. This is that bad. I 've been kind of stunned to see people being generous to it... I thought this was almost unwatchably bad. '' Sepinwall called his B − review "slightly generous ''.
The second season received mostly mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 71 %, based on 26 reviews, whose average rating is 6.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Fear the Walking Dead sets sail in its sophomore season with an intriguing backdrop that does n't always disguise its deficiencies in comparison to its predecessor. '' On Metacritic, the season has a score of 54 out of 100, based on 12 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the third season has an approval rating of 84 % based on 58 reviews, with an average rating of 7.3 / 10.
The U.S. series premiere attracted 10.1 million total viewers, with 6.3 million in the advertiser - coveted 18 - to - 49 - year - old demographic, both cable television records for a series premiere. Numerous international debuts of the pilot also set ratings records. The first season averaged 11.2 million viewers in "live plus - 3 '' ratings (includes VOD and DVR viewing within three days after initial telecast) to become the highest - rated first season of any series in cable history.
Fear the Walking Dead: Flight 462, a 16 - part web series, premiered on October 4, 2015, on AMC.com; it also aired as promos during The Walking Dead season 6. Two of the web series ' characters, Alex (previously known as Charlie) and Jake, are introduced in Fear the Walking Dead season 2, episode 3 ("Ouroboros '').
A second 16 - part web series debuted on October 17, 2016, and episodes were made available online weekly and aired as promos during the seventh season of The Walking Dead. The web series follows Sierra, a capable survivor, who helps an injured woman named Gabi as they try to find sanctuary. The series was written by Lauren Signorino and Mike Zunic, and directed by Andrew Bernstein.
The first season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on December 1, 2015. A special edition version of the first season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on March 22, 2016, with new bonus features, including deleted scenes, seven featurettes, and audio commentaries by cast and crew, on all six episodes. The second season, featuring audio commentaries, deleted scenes, and various behind - the - scene featurettes, was released on Blu - ray and DVD on December 13, 2016.
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where will the 2018 world cup final be played | 2018 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2018 FIFA World Cup was the 21st FIFA World Cup, an international football tournament contested by the men 's national teams of the member associations of FIFA once every four years. It took place in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018. It was the first World Cup to be held in Eastern Europe, and the 11th time that it had been held in Europe. At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion, it was the most expensive World Cup. It was also the first World Cup to use the video assistant referee (VAR) system.
The finals involved 32 teams, of which 31 came through qualifying competitions, while the host nation qualified automatically. Of the 32 teams, 20 had also appeared in the previous tournament in 2014, while both Iceland and Panama made their first appearances at a FIFA World Cup. A total of 64 matches were played in 12 venues across 11 cities.
The final took place on 15 July at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, between France and Croatia. France won the match 4 -- 2 to claim their second World Cup title, marking the fourth consecutive title won by a European team.
The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cup tournaments began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest. Initially, nine countries placed bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings, and Indonesia 's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian government failed to submit a letter to support the bid. During the bidding process, the three remaining non-UEFA nations (Australia, Japan, and the United States) gradually withdrew from the 2018 bids, and the UEFA nations were thus ruled out of the 2022 bid. As such, there were eventually four bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, two of which were joint bids: England, Russia, Netherlands / Belgium, and Portugal / Spain.
The 22 - member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments. Russia won the right to be the 2018 host in the second round of voting. The Portugal / Spain bid came second, and that from Belgium / Netherlands third. England, which was bidding to host its second tournament, was eliminated in the first round.
The voting results were as follows:
The English Football Association and others raised concerns of bribery on the part of the Russian team and corruption from FIFA members. They claimed that four members of the executive committee had requested bribes to vote for England, and Sepp Blatter had said that it had already been arranged before the vote that Russia would win. The 2014 Garcia Report, an internal investigation led by Michael J. Garcia, was withheld from public release by Hans - Joachim Eckert, FIFA 's head of adjudication on ethical matters. Eckert instead released a shorter revised summary, and his (and therefore FIFA 's) reluctance to publish the full report caused Garcia to resign in protest. Because of the controversy, the FA refused to accept Eckert 's absolving of Russia from blame, with Greg Dyke calling for a re-examination of the affair and David Bernstein calling for a boycott of the World Cup.
For the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup, all eligible nations -- the 209 FIFA member associations minus automatically qualified hosts Russia -- applied to enter the qualifying process. Zimbabwe and Indonesia were later disqualified before playing their first matches, while Gibraltar and Kosovo, who joined FIFA on 13 May 2016 after the qualifying draw but before European qualifying had begun, also entered the competition. Places in the tournament were allocated to continental confederations, with the allocation unchanged from the 2014 World Cup. The first qualification game, between Timor - Leste and Mongolia, began in Dili on 12 March 2015 as part of the AFC 's qualification, and the main qualifying draw took place at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, on 25 July 2015.
Of the 32 nations qualified to play at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, 20 countries competed at the previous tournament in 2014. Both Iceland and Panama qualified for the first time, with the former becoming the smallest country in terms of population to reach the World Cup. Other teams returning after absences of at least three tournaments include: Egypt, returning to the finals after their last appearance in 1990; Morocco, who last competed in 1998; Peru, returning after 1982; and Senegal, competing for the second time after reaching the quarter - finals in 2002. It is the first time three Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland and Sweden) and four Arab nations (Egypt, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia) have qualified for the World Cup.
Notable countries that failed to qualify include four - time champions Italy (for the first time since 1958), three - time runners - up and third placed in 2014 the Netherlands (for the first time since 2002), and four reigning continental champions: 2017 Africa Cup of Nations winners Cameroon, two - time Copa América champions and 2017 Confederations Cup runners - up Chile, 2016 OFC Nations Cup winners New Zealand, and 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup champions United States (for the first time since 1986). The other notable qualifying streaks broken were for Ghana and Ivory Coast, who had both made the previous three tournaments.
Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate positions in the FIFA World Rankings at the time of the tournament.
The draw was held on 1 December 2017 at 18: 00 MSK at the State Kremlin Palace in Moscow. The 32 teams were drawn into 8 groups of 4, by selecting one team from each of the 4 ranked pots.
For the draw, the teams were allocated to four pots based on the FIFA World Rankings of October 2017. Pot 1 contained the hosts Russia (who were automatically assigned to position A1) and the best seven teams, pot 2 contained the next best eight teams, and so on for pots 3 and 4. This was different from previous draws, when only pot 1 was based on FIFA rankings while the remaining pots were based on geographical considerations. However, teams from the same confederation still were not drawn against each other for the group stage, except that two UEFA teams could be in each group.
Russia (65) (hosts) Germany (1) Brazil (2) Portugal (3) Argentina (4) Belgium (5) Poland (6) France (7)
Spain (8) Peru (10) Switzerland (11) England (12) Colombia (13) Mexico (16) Uruguay (17) Croatia (18)
Denmark (19) Iceland (21) Costa Rica (22) Sweden (25) Tunisia (28) Egypt (30) Senegal (32) Iran (34)
Serbia (38) Nigeria (41) Australia (43) Japan (44) Morocco (48) Panama (49) South Korea (62) Saudi Arabia (63)
Initially, each team had to name a preliminary squad of 30 players but, in February 2018, this was increased to 35. From the preliminary squad, the team had to name a final squad of 23 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers) by 4 June. Players in the final squad may be replaced for serious injury up to 24 hours prior to kickoff of the team 's first match and such replacements do not need to have been named in the preliminary squad.
For players named in the 35 - player preliminary squad, there was a mandatory rest period between 21 and 27 May 2018, except for those involved in the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final played on 26 May.
On 29 March 2018, FIFA released the list of 36 referees and 63 assistant referees selected to oversee matches. On 30 April 2018, FIFA released the list of 13 video assistant referees, who solely acted in this capacity in the tournament.
Referee Fahad Al - Mirdasi of Saudi Arabia was removed in 30 May 2018 over a match - fixing attempt, along with his two assistant referees, compatriots Mohammed Al - Abakry and Abdulah Al - Shalwai. A new referee was not appointed, but two assistant referees, Hasan Al Mahri of the United Arab Emirates and Hiroshi Yamauchi of Japan, were added to the list. Assistant referee Marwa Range of Kenya also withdrew after the BBC released an investigation conducted by a Ghanaian journalist which implicated Marwa in a bribery scandal.
Shortly after the International Football Association Board 's decision to incorporate video assistant referees (VARs) into the Laws of the Game, on 16 March 2018, the FIFA Council took the much - anticipated step of approving the use of VAR for the first time in a FIFA World Cup tournament.
VAR operations for all games are operating from a single headquarters in Moscow, which receives live video of the games and are in radio contact with the on - field referees. Systems are in place for communicating VAR - related information to broadcasters and visuals on stadiums ' large screens are used for the fans in attendance.
VAR had a significant impact in several games. On 15 June 2018, Diego Costa 's goal against Portugal became the first World Cup goal based on a VAR decision; the first penalty as a result of a VAR decision was awarded to France in their match against Australia on 16 June and resulted in a goal by Antoine Griezmann. A record number of penalties were awarded in the tournament, with this phenomenon being partially attributed to VAR. Overall, the new technology has been both praised and criticised by commentators. FIFA declared the implementation of VAR a success after the first week of competition.
Russia proposed the following host cities: Kaliningrad, Kazan, Krasnodar, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov - on - Don, Saint Petersburg, Samara, Saransk, Sochi, Volgograd, Yaroslavl, and Yekaterinburg. Most cities are in European Russia, while Sochi and Yekaterinburg are very close to the Europe - Asia border, to reduce travel time for the teams in the huge country. The bid evaluation report stated: "The Russian bid proposes 13 host cities and 16 stadiums, thus exceeding FIFA 's minimum requirement. Three of the 16 stadiums would be renovated, and 13 would be newly constructed. ''
In October 2011, Russia decreased the number of stadiums from 16 to 14. Construction of the proposed Podolsk stadium in the Moscow region was cancelled by the regional government, and also in the capital, Otkrytiye Arena was competing with Dynamo Stadium over which would be constructed first.
The final choice of host cities was announced on 29 September 2012. The number of cities was further reduced to 11 and number of stadiums to 12 as Krasnodar and Yaroslavl were dropped from the final list. Of the 12 stadiums used for the tournament, 3 (Luzhniki, Yekaterinburg and Sochi) have been extensively renovated and the other 9 stadiums to be used are brand new; $11.8 billion has been spent on hosting the tournament.
Sepp Blatter stated in July 2014 that, given the concerns over the completion of venues in Russia, the number of venues for the tournament may be reduced from 12 to 10. He also said, "We are not going to be in a situation, as is the case of one, two or even three stadiums in South Africa, where it is a problem of what you do with these stadiums ''.
In October 2014, on their first official visit to Russia, FIFA 's inspection committee and its head Chris Unger visited St Petersburg, Sochi, Kazan and both Moscow venues. They were satisfied with the progress.
On 8 October 2015, FIFA and the Local Organising Committee agreed on the official names of the stadiums used during the tournament.
Of the twelve venues used, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow and the Saint Petersburg Stadium -- the two largest stadiums in Russia -- were used most, both hosting seven matches. Sochi, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara all hosted six matches, including one quarter - final match each, while the Otkrytiye Stadium in Moscow and Rostov - on - Don hosted five matches, including one round - of - 16 match each. Volgograd, Kaliningrad, Yekaterinburg and Saransk all hosted four matches, but did not host any knockout stage games.
A total of twelve stadiums in eleven Russian cities were built and renovated for the FIFA World Cup.
Base camps were used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. On 9 February 2018, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team.
At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion as of June 2018, it is the most expensive World Cup in history, surpassing the cost of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil.
The Russian government had originally earmarked a budget of around $20 billion which was later slashed to $10 billion for the preparations of the World Cup, of which half is spent on transport infrastructure. As part of the program for preparation to the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a federal sub-program "Construction and Renovation of Transport Infrastructure '' was implemented with a total budget of 352.5 billion rubles, with 170.3 billion coming from the federal budget, 35.1 billion from regional budgets, and 147.1 billion from investors. The biggest item of federal spending was the aviation infrastructure (117.8 billion rubles). Construction of new hotels was a crucial area of infrastructure development in the World Cup host cities. Costs continued to balloon as preparations were underway.
Platov International Airport in Rostov - on - Don was upgraded with automated air traffic control systems, modern surveillance, navigation, communication, control, and meteorological support systems. Koltsovo Airport in Yekaterinburg was upgraded with radio - engineering tools for flight operation and received its second runway strip. Saransk Airport received a new navigation system; the city also got two new hotels, Mercure Saransk Centre (Accor Hotels) and Four Points by Sheraton Saransk (Starwood Hotels) as well as few other smaller accommodation facilities. In Samara, new tram lines were laid. Khrabrovo Airport in Kaliningrad was upgraded with radio navigation and weather equipment. Renovation and upgrade of radio - engineering tools for flight operation was completed in the airports of Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Volgograd, Samara, Yekaterinburg, Kazan and Sochi. On 27 March, the Ministry of Construction Industry, Housing and Utilities Sector of Russia reported that all communications within its area of responsibility have been commissioned. The last facility commissioned was a waste treatment station in Volgograd. In Yekaterinburg, where four matches are hosted, hosting costs increased to over 7.4 billion rubles, over-running the 5.6 billion rubles originally allocated from the state and regional budget.
Volunteer applications to the Russia 2018 Local Organising Committee opened on 1 June 2016. The 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia Volunteer Program received about 177,000 applications, and engaged a total of 35,000 volunteers. They received training at 15 Volunteer Centres of the Local Organising Committee based in 15 universities, and in Volunteer Centres in the host cities. Preference, especially in the key areas, was given to those with knowledge of foreign languages and volunteering experience, but not necessarily to Russian nationals.
Free public transport services were offered for ticketholders during the World Cup, including additional trains linking between host cities, as well as services such as bus service within them.
The full schedule was announced by FIFA on 24 July 2015 (without kick - off times, which were confirmed later). On 1 December 2017, following the final draw, six kick - off times were adjusted by FIFA.
Russia was placed in position A1 in the group stage and played in the opening match at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow on 14 June against Saudi Arabia, the two lowest - ranked teams of the tournament at the time of the final draw. The Luzhniki Stadium also hosted the second semi-final on 11 July and the final on 15 July. The Krestovsky Stadium in Saint Petersburg hosted the first semi-final on 10 July and the third place play - off on 14 July.
The opening ceremony took place on Thursday, 14 June 2018, at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, preceding the opening match of the tournament between hosts Russia and Saudi Arabia.
Former Brazilian World Cup - winning striker Ronaldo walked out with a child wearing a Russia 2018 shirt. English pop singer Robbie Williams then performed two songs before he and Russian soprano Aida Garifullina performed a duet while other performers emerged, dressed in the flags of all 32 teams and carrying a sign bearing the name of each nation. Dancers were also present. Ronaldo returned with the official match ball of the 2018 World Cup which was sent into space with the International Space Station crew in March and came back to Earth in early June.
Competing countries were divided into eight groups of four teams (groups A to H). Teams in each group played one another in a round - robin basis, with the top two teams of each group advancing to the knockout stage. Ten European teams and four South American teams progressed to the knockout stage, together with Japan and Mexico.
For the first time since 1938, Germany (reigning champions) did not advance past the first round. For the first time since 1982, no African team progressed to the second round. For the first time, the fair play criteria came into use, when Japan qualified over Senegal due to having received fewer yellow cards. Only one match, France v Denmark, was goalless. Until then there were a record 36 straight games in which at least one goal was scored.
All times listed below are local time.
The ranking of teams in the group stage was determined as follows:
In the knockout stages, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, extra time is played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winners.
If a match went into extra time, each team was allowed to make a fourth substitution, the first time this had been allowed in a FIFA World Cup tournament.
There were 169 goals scored in 64 matches, for an average of 2.64 goals per match.
Twelve own goals were scored during the tournament, doubling the record of six set in 1998.
6 goals
4 goals
3 goals
2 goals
1 goal
1 own goal
Source: FIFA
In total, only four players were sent off in the entire tournament, the fewest since 1978. International Football Association Board technical director David Elleray stated a belief that this was due to the introduction of VAR, since players would know that they would not be able to get away with anything under the new system.
A player is automatically suspended for the next match for the following offences:
The following suspensions were served during the tournament:
The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament. The Golden Boot (top scorer), Golden Ball (best overall player) and Golden Glove (best goalkeeper) awards were all sponsored by Adidas.
Additionally, FIFA.com shortlisted 18 goals for users to vote on as the tournaments ' best. The poll closed on 23 July. The award was sponsored by Hyundai.
As was the case during the 2010 and 2014 editions, FIFA did not release an official All - Star Team, but instead invited users of FIFA.com to elect their Fan Dream Team.
FIFA also published an alternate team of the tournament based on player performances evaluated through statistical data.
Prize money amounts were announced in October 2017.
The tournament logo was unveiled on 28 October 2014 by cosmonauts at the International Space Station and then projected onto Moscow 's Bolshoi Theatre during an evening television programme. Russian Sports Minister Vitaly Mutko said that the logo was inspired by "Russia 's rich artistic tradition and its history of bold achievement and innovation '', and FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that it reflected the "heart and soul '' of the country. For the branding, Portuguese design agency Brandia Central created materials in 2014, with a typeface called Dusha (from душа, Russian for soul) designed by Brandia Central and edited by Adotbelow of DSType Foundry in Portugal.
The official mascot for the tournament was unveiled 21 October 2016, and selected through a design competition among university students. A public vote was used to select from three finalists -- a cat, a tiger, and a wolf. The winner, with 53 % of approximately 1 million votes, was Zabivaka -- an anthropomorphic wolf dressed in the colours of the Russian national team. Zabivaka 's name is a portmanteau of the Russian words забияка ("hothead '') and забивать ("to score ''), and his official backstory states that he is an aspiring football player who is "charming, confident and social ''.
The first phase of ticket sales started on 14 September 2017, 12: 00 Moscow Time, and lasted until 12 October 2017.
The general visa policy of Russia did not apply to participants and spectators, who were able to visit Russia without a visa right before and during the competition regardless of their citizenship. Spectators were nonetheless required to register for a "Fan - ID '', a special photo identification pass. A Fan - ID was required to enter the country visa - free, while a ticket, Fan - ID and a valid passport were required to enter stadiums for matches. Fan - IDs also granted World Cup attendees free access to public transport services, including buses, and train service between host cities. Fan - ID was administered by the Ministry of Digital Development, Communications and Mass Media, who could revoke these accreditations at any time to "ensure the defence capability or security of the state or public order ''.
The official match ball of the 2018 World Cup group stage was "Telstar 18 '', based on the name and design of the first Adidas World Cup ball from 1970. It was introduced on 9 November 2017.
After the group stage, "Telstar Mechta '' was used for the knockout stage. The word mechta (Russian: мечта) means dream or ambition. The difference between Telstar 18 and Mechta is the red details on the design.
On 30 April 2018, EA announced a free expansion for FIFA 18 based on the 2018 FIFA World Cup, featuring all 32 participating teams and all 12 stadiums used at the 2018 FIFA World Cup.
The official song of the tournament was "Live It Up '', with vocals from Will Smith, Nicky Jam and Era Istrefi, released on 25 May 2018. Its music video was released on 8 June 2018.
Thirty - three footballers who are alleged to be part of the steroid program are listed in the McLaren Report. On 22 December 2017, it was reported that FIFA fired a doctor who had been investigating doping in Russian football. On 22 May 2018 FIFA confirmed that the investigations concerning all Russian players named for the provisional squad of the FIFA World Cup in Russia had been completed, with the result that insufficient evidence was found to assert an anti-doping rule violation. FIFA 's medical committee also decided that Russian personnel would not be involved in performing drug testing procedures at the tournament; the action was taken to reassure teams that the samples would remain untampered.
The choice of Russia as host has been challenged. Controversial issues have included the level of racism in Russian football, and discrimination against LGBT people in wider Russian society. Russia 's involvement in the ongoing conflict in Ukraine has also caused calls for the tournament to be moved, particularly following the annexation of Crimea. In 2014, FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that "the World Cup has been given and voted to Russia and we are going forward with our work ''.
Allegations of corruption in the bidding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups caused threats from England 's FA to boycott the tournament. FIFA appointed Michael J. Garcia, a US attorney, to investigate and produce a report on the corruption allegations. Although the report was never published, FIFA released a 42 - page summary of its findings as determined by German judge Hans - Joachim Eckert. Eckert 's summary cleared Russia and Qatar of any wrongdoing, but was denounced by critics as a whitewash. Garcia criticised the summary as being "materially incomplete '' with "erroneous representations of the facts and conclusions '', and appealed to FIFA 's Appeal Committee. The committee declined to hear his appeal, so Garcia resigned in protest of FIFA 's conduct, citing a "lack of leadership '' and lack of confidence in the independence of Eckert.
On 3 June 2015, the FBI confirmed that the federal authorities were investigating the bidding and awarding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. In an interview published on 7 June 2015, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA 's Audit And Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled ''. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and former British Prime Minister David Cameron attended a meeting with FIFA vice-president Chung Mong - joon in which a vote - trading deal for the right to host the 2018 World Cup in England was discussed.
In response to the March 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, British Prime Minister Theresa May announced that no British ministers or members of the royal family would attend the World Cup, and issued a warning to any travelling England fans. Iceland diplomatically boycotted the World Cup. Russia responded to the comments from the UK Parliament claiming that "the west are trying to deny Russia the World Cup ''. The Russian Foreign Ministry denounced Boris Johnson 's statements that compared the event to the 1936 Olympics held in Nazi Germany as "poisoned with venom of hate, unprofessionalism and boorishness '' and "unacceptable and unworthy '' parallel towards Russia, a "nation that lost millions of lives in fighting Nazism ''.
The British Foreign Office and MPs had repeatedly warned English football fans and "people of Asian or Afro - Caribbean descent '' travelling to Russia of "racist or homophobic intimidation, hooligan violence and anti-British hostility ''. English football fans who have travelled have said they have received a warm welcome from ordinary citizens after arriving in Russia.
At the close of the World Cup Russia was widely praised for its success in hosting the tournament, with Steve Rosenberg of the BBC deeming it "a resounding public relations success '' for Putin, adding, "The stunning new stadiums, free train travel to venues and the absence of crowd violence has impressed visiting supporters. Russia has come across as friendly and hospitable: a stark contrast with the country 's authoritarian image. All the foreign fans I have spoken to are pleasantly surprised. ''
FIFA President Gianni Infantino stated, "Everyone discovered a beautiful country, a welcoming country, that is keen to show the world that everything that has been said before might not be true. A lot of preconceived ideas have been changed because people have seen the true nature of Russia. '' Infantino has proclaimed Russia 2018 to be "the best World Cup ever '', as 98 % of the stadiums were sold out, there were three billion viewers on TV all around the world and 7 million fans visited the fan fests.
FIFA, through several companies, sold the broadcasting rights for the 2018 FIFA World Cup to various local broadcasters.
In the United States, the 2018 World Cup was the first men 's World Cup whose English rights were held by Fox Sports, and Spanish rights held by Telemundo. The elimination of the US national team in qualifying led to concerns that US interest and viewership of this World Cup would be reduced (especially among "casual '' viewers interested in the US team), especially noting how much Fox paid for the rights, and that US games at the 2014 World Cup peaked at 16.5 million viewers. During a launch event prior to the elimination, Fox stated that it had planned to place a secondary focus on the Mexican team in its coverage to take advantage of their popularity among US viewers (factoring Hispanic and Latino Americans). Fox stated that it was still committed to broadcasting a significant amount of coverage for the tournament.
In February 2018, Ukrainian rightsholder UA: PBC stated that it would not broadcast the World Cup. This came in the wake of growing boycotts of the tournament among the Football Federation of Ukraine and sports minister Ihor Zhdanov. Additionally, the Football Federation of Ukraine refused to accredit journalists for the World Cup and waived their quota of tickets. However, the Ukrainian state TV still broadcast the World Cup, and more than 4 million Ukrainians watched the opening match.
Broadcast rights to the tournament in the Middle East were hampered by an ongoing diplomatic crisis in Qatar over alleged support of extremist groups. Qatar is the home country of the region 's rightsholder, beIN Sports. Bahrain, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates cut diplomatic ties with Qatar over the matter. On 2 June 2018, beIN pulled its channels from Du and Etisalat, but with service to the latter restored later that day. Etisalat subsequently announced that it would air the World Cup in the UAE, and continue to offer beIN normally and without interruptions. In Saudi Arabia, beIN 's channels have been widely and illegally repackaged by a broadcaster identifying itself as beoutQ; while FIFA attempted to indirectly negotiate the sale of a package consisting of Saudi matches, as well as the opening and final games, they were unable to do so. On 12 July 2018, FIFA stated that it "has engaged counsel to take legal action in Saudi Arabia and is working alongside other sports rights owners that have also been affected to protect its interests. ''
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what are the three sub regions of south america what is significant about the atacama desert | Andes - wikipedia
The Andes or Andean Mountains (Spanish: Cordillera de los Andes) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000 km (4,300 mi) long, about 200 to 700 km (120 to 430 mi) wide (widest between 18 ° south and 20 ° south latitude), and of an average height of about 4,000 m (13,000 ft). The Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina.
Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, separated by intermediate depressions. The Andes are the location of several high plateaus -- some of which host major cities such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the world 's second - highest after the Tibetan plateau. These ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate: the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes.
The Andes are the world 's highest mountain range outside Asia. The highest mountain outside Asia, Argentina 's Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m (22,838 ft) above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorian Andes is farther from the Earth 's center than any other location on the Earth 's surface, due to the equatorial bulge resulting from the Earth 's rotation. The world 's highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile - Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m (22,615 ft).
The Andes are also part of the American Cordillera, a chain of mountain ranges (cordillera) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone '' of North America, Central America, South America and Antarctica.
The etymology of the word Andes has been debated. The majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means "east '' as in Antisuyu (Quechua for "east region ''), one of the four regions of the Inca Empire.
The Andes can be divided into three sections:
In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is often considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word "cordel '', meaning "rope ''. The Andes range is about 200 km (124 mi) wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres (398 mi) wide. The Leeward Antilles islands Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, were thought to represent the submerged peaks of the extreme northern edge of the Andes range, but ongoing geological studies indicate that such a simplification does not do justice to the complex tectonic boundary between the South American and Caribbean plates.
Central Andean Patagonian
Antarctic Plate Carnegie Ridge Chile Rise Farallon Plate (formerly) Juan Fernández Ridge Nazca Plate Nazca Ridge
Gastre Liquiñe - Ofqui Magallanes - Fagnano
Northern Zone Peruvian flat - slab Central Zone Pampean flat - slab Southern Zone Patagonian Gap Austral Zone
Arequipa - Antofalla Chilenia Chiloé Block Cuyania Iapetus Ocean Madre de Dios Terrane Mejillonia Pampia
The Andes are a Mesozoic -- Tertiary orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a zone of volcanic activity that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the Asia - Pacific region. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American Plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate. To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several sedimentary basins, such as Orinoco, Amazon Basin, Madre de Dios and Gran Chaco, that separate the Andes from the ancient cratons in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, although the Peru - Chile trench can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in many mountains within the range.
The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines. The Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18 ° S. At this point, the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile and Argentina. The Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15 ° to 20 ° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau and according to Isacks (1988) the orocline is related to crustal shortening. The specific point at 18 ° S where the coastline bends is known as the "Arica Elbow ''. Further south lies the Maipo Orocline or Maipo Transition Zone located between 30 ° S and 38 ° S with a break in trend at 33 ° S. Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian orocline.
The western rim of the South American Plate has been the place of several pre-Andean orogenies since at least the late Proterozoic and early Paleozoic, when several terranes and microcontinents collided and amalgamated with the ancient cratons of eastern South America, by then the South American part of Gondwana.
The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic when Pangaea began the break up that resulted in developing several rifts. The development continued through the Jurassic Period. It was during the Cretaceous Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant, as different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and erosion.
Tectonic forces above the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the Nazca Plate and a part of the Antarctic Plate are sliding beneath the South American Plate continue to produce an ongoing orogenic event resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. In the extreme south, a major transform fault separates Tierra del Fuego from the small Scotia Plate. Across the 1,000 km (620 mi) wide Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain.
The regions immediately east of the Andes experience a series of changes resulting from the Andean orogeny. Parts of the Sunsás Orogen in Amazonian craton disappeared from the surface of earth being overridden by the Andes. The Sierras de Córdoba, where the effects of the ancient Pampean orogeny can be observed, owe their modern uplift and relief to the Andean orogeny in the Tertiary. Further south in southern Patagonia the onset of the Andean orogeny caused the Magallanes Basin to evolve from being an extensional back - arc basin in the Mesozoic to being a compressional foreland basin in the Cenozoic.
The Andes range has many active volcanoes distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism is a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps. The volcanoes of the belt are diverse in terms of activity style, products and morphology. While some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighbouring volcanoes. Despite being a type location for calc - alkalic and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano - tectonic settings, such as rift systems and extensional zones, transpressional faults, subduction of mid-ocean ridges and seamount chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and magma ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations.
The Andes Mountains host large ore and salt deposits and some of their eastern fold and thrust belt acts as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of hydrocarbons. In the forelands of the Atacama desert some of the largest porphyry copper mineralizations occurs making Chile and Peru the first and second largest exporters of copper in the world. Porphyry copper in the western slopes of the Andes has been generated by hydrothermal fluids (mostly water) during the cooling of plutons or volcanic systems. The porphyry mineralization further benefited from the dry climate that let them largely out of the disturbing actions of meteoric water. The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive saltpeter deposits which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic nitrates. Yet another result of the dry climate are the salars of Atacama and Uyuni, the first one being the largest source of lithium today and the second the world 's largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and Neogene plutonism in Bolivia 's Cordillera Central created the Bolivian tin belt as well as the famous, now depleted, deposits of Cerro Rico de Potosí.
The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea. Temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity decrease in higher elevations. The southern section is rainy and cool, the central section is dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18 ° C (64 ° F) in Colombia. The climate is known to change drastically in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just miles away from the snow - covered peak Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is at between 4,500 and 4,800 m (14,800 and 15,700 ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to 4,800 -- 5,200 m (15,700 -- 17,100 ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30 ° S, then descending to 4,500 m (14,760 ft) on Aconcagua at 32 ° S, 2,000 m (6,600 ft) at 40 ° S, 500 m (1,640 ft) at 50 ° S, and only 300 m (980 ft) in Tierra del Fuego at 55 ° S; from 50 ° S, several of the larger glaciers descend to sea level.
The Andes of Chile and Argentina can be divided in two climatic and glaciological zones: the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes. Since the Dry Andes extend from the latitudes of Atacama Desert to the area of Maule River, precipitation is more sporadic and there are strong temperature oscillations. The line of equilibrium may shift drastically over short periods of time, leaving a whole glacier in the ablation area or in the accumulation area.
In the high Andes of central Chile and Mendoza Province, rock glaciers are larger and more common than glaciers; this is due to the high exposure to solar radiation.
Though precipitation increases with the height, there are semiarid conditions in the nearly 7000 m towering highest mountains of the Andes. This dry steppe climate is considered to be typical of the subtropical position at 32 -- 34 ° S. The valley bottoms have no woods, just dwarf scrub. The largest glaciers, as e.g. the Plomo glacier and the Horcones glaciers, do not even reach 10 km in length and have an only insignificant ice thickness. At glacial times, however, c. 20 000 years ago, the glaciers were over ten times longer. On the east side of this section of the Mendozina Andes, they flowed down to 2060 m and on the west side to c. 1220 m asl. The massifs of Cerro Aconcagua (6,961 m), Cerro Tupungato (6,550 m) and Nevado Juncal (6,110 m) are tens of kilometres away from each other and were connected by a joint ice stream network. The Andes ' dendritic glacier arms, i.e. components of valley glaciers, were up to 112.5 km long, over 1020, i.e. 1250 m thick and overspanned a vertical distance of 5150 altitude metres. The climatic glacier snowline (ELA) was lowered from currently 4600 m to 3200 m at glacial times.
The Andean region cuts across several natural and floristic regions due to its extension from Caribbean Venezuela to cold, windy and wet Cape Horn passing through the hyperarid Atacama Desert. Rainforests and tropical dry forests used to encircle much of the northern Andes but are now greatly diminished, especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. As a direct opposite of the humid Andean slopes are the relatively dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile and Argentina. Along with several Interandean Valles, they are typically dominated by deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, reaching the extreme in the slopes near the virtually lifeless Atacama Desert.
About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes, with roughly half being endemic to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other hotspot. The small tree Cinchona pubescens, a source of quinine which is used to treat malaria, is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that originated from the Andes are tobacco and potatoes. The high - altitude Polylepis forests and woodlands are found in the Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile. These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua, Yagual and other names, can be found at altitudes of 4,500 m (14,760 ft) above sea level. It remains unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan period. Regardless, in modern times the clearance has accelerated, and the trees are now considered to be highly endangered, with some believing that as little as 10 % of the original woodland remains.
The Andes are rich in fauna: With almost 3,500 species, of which roughly 2 / 3 are endemic to the region, the Andes are the most important region in the world for amphibians. The diversity of animals in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13 % endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (about 1 / 3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptile (about 45 % endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (about 1 / 3 endemic).
The vicuña and guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano, while the closely related domesticated llama and alpaca are widely kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool. The crepuscular (active during dawn and dusk) chinchillas, two threatened members of the rodent order, inhabit the Andes ' alpine regions. The Andean condor, the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere, occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities. Other animals found in the relatively open habitats of the high Andes include the huemul, cougar, foxes in the genus Pseudalopex, and, for birds, certain species of tinamous (notably members of the genus Nothoprocta), Andean goose, giant coot, flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes), lesser rhea, Andean flicker, diademed sandpiper - plover, miners, sierra - finches and diuca - finches.
Lake Titicaca hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered Titicaca flightless grebe and Titicaca water frog. A few species of hummingbirds, notably some hillstars, can be seen at altitudes above 4,000 m (13,100 ft), but far higher diversities can be found at lower altitudes, especially in the humid Andean forests ("cloud forests '') growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and far northwestern Argentina. These forest - types, which includes the Yungas and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exist, exceptions being the threatened mountain tapir, spectacled bear and yellow - tailed woolly monkey.
Birds of humid Andean forests include mountain - toucans, quetzals and the Andean cock - of - the - rock, while mixed species flocks dominated by tanagers and furnariids commonly are seen -- in contrast to several vocal but typically cryptic species of wrens, tapaculos and antpittas.
A number of species such as the royal cinclodes and white - browed tit - spinetail are associated with Polylepis, and consequently also threatened.
The Andes Mountains form a north - south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the Inca civilization and Inca Empire in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through imperialistic militarism as well as careful and meticulous governmental management. The government sponsored the construction of aqueducts and roads in addition to preexisting installations. Some of these constructions are still in existence today.
Devastated by European diseases to which they had no immunity and civil wars, in 1532 the Incas were defeated by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. Huancas, Chachapoyas, Cañaris) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro. One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was Machu Picchu, which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of the Andean peoples are those of the Quechua and Aymara language families. Woodbine Parish and Joseph Barclay Pentland surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827.
In modern times, the largest cities in the Andes are Bogotá, Colombia, with a population of about eight million, Santiago, Chile, and Medellin, Colombia. Lima is a coastal city adjacent to the Andes and is the largest city of all Andean countries. It is the seat of the Andean Community of Nations.
La Paz, Bolivia 's seat of government, is the highest capital city in the world, at an elevation of approximately 3,650 m (11,975 ft). Parts of the La Paz conurbation, including the city of El Alto, extend up to 4,200 m (13,780 ft).
Other cities in or near the Andes include Arequipa, Cusco, Huancayo, Cajamarca, Juliaca, Huánuco, Huaraz, and Puno in Peru; Quito, Cuenca, Ambato, Loja, Riobamba, and Ibarra in Ecuador; Cochabamba, Oruro, Sucre, and Tarija in Bolivia; Mendoza, Tucumán, Salta, and San Juan in Argentina; Calama and Rancagua in Chile; Cali, Cúcuta, Bucaramanga, Ibagué, Pereira, Pasto, Palmira, Popayán, Tunja, Villavicencio, and Manizales in Colombia; and Barquisimeto, San Cristóbal, Mérida, and Valera in Venezuela. The cities of Caracas, Valencia, and Maracay are in the Venezuelan Coastal Range, which is a debatable extension of the Andes at the northern extreme of South America.
Cities and large towns are connected with asphalt - paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a four - wheel - drive vehicle.
The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building highways and railroads that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern civil engineering practices. For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the Paso Internacional Los Libertadores. Only recently the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west have been connected. Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft.
However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Argentina via the Andes, and there are others that make the same connection via southern Bolivia. See railroad maps of that region.
There is one or more highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a period of war between Bolivia and Paraguay, in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay.
For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the War of the Pacific between Chile, the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Argentina out of the war. The Chilean Army and Chilean Navy defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia 's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been a completely landlocked country ever since. It mostly uses seaports in eastern Argentina and Uruguay for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978.
Because of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains -- to which travel via motorized vehicles is of little use -- are still located in the high Andes of Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. Locally, the relatives of the camel, the llama, and the alpaca continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. Donkeys, mules, and horses are also useful.
The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The potato holds a very important role as an internally consumed staple crop. Maize was also an important crop for these people, and was used for the production of chicha, important to Andean native people. Currently, tobacco, cotton and coffee are the main export crops. Coca, despite eradication programmes in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating herbal tea, and, both controversially and illegally, for the production of cocaine.
In unirrigated land, pasture is the most common type of land use. In the rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans and wheat).
Irrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops which guarantees an early yield in the period of food shortage. Also, by early sowing, maize can be cultivated higher up in the mountains (till 3800 m). In addition it makes cropping in the dry season (winter) possible and allows the cultivation of frost resistant vegetable crops like onion and carrot.
The Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the Spanish conquest of South America. Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals the mineralizations of the Andes were first mined in large scale after the Spanish arrival. Potosí in present - day Bolivia and Cerro de Pasco in Peru were one of the principal mines of the Spanish Empire in the New World. Río de la Plata and Argentina derive their names from the silver of Potosí.
Currently, mining in the Andes of Chile and Peru places these countries as the first and third major producers of copper in the world. Peru also contains the 4th largest goldmine in the world: the Yanacocha. The Bolivian Andes produce principally tin although historically silver mining had a huge impact on the economy of 17th century Europe.
There is a long history of mining in the Andes, from the Spanish silver mines in Potosí in the 16th century to the vast current porphyry copper deposits of Chuquicamata and Escondida in Chile and Toquepala in Peru. Other metals including iron, gold and tin in addition to non-metallic resources are important.
Chilean huasos, 19th century
The mountain Huayna Picchu overlooks the Inca estate (land) of Machu Picchu.
This list contains some of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range. The highest peak is Aconcagua of Argentina (see below).
Llao Llao Hotel with the Andes in the background, in the city of Bariloche, Argentina
The Aconcagua, Argentina, the highest mountain in the Americas and in the entire world outside the Himalayas
El Chaltén, Argentina / Chile
Mount Fitz Roy Argentina / Chile
Illampu, Bolivia
Illimani, Bolivia
Sajama, Bolivia
Wayna Potosí, Bolivia
Licancabur, Bolivia / Chile
Parinacota, Bolivia / Chile
Santiago de Chile on the western slopes of a snowcapped Andes
View of Cuernos del Paine in Torres del Paine National Park
Ritacuba Blanco, the highest peak of Cordillera Oriental, Colombia.
Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia
Chimborazo near Riobamba, Ecuador
Tungurahua, Ecuador
Cayambe, Ecuador
El Altar, Ecuador
Cotopaxi, Ecuador
Andes near Otavalo, Ecuador
Pichincha Volcano, an active stratovolcano in the Ecuadorian Andes, photographed from the Historic Center of Quito
Imbabura Volcano, Ecuador, an inactive stratovolcano
Alpamayo, Peru
Chachani and El Misti, Peru
Huandoy, Peru
Yerupaja, Peru
Pico Bolívar, Venezuela
Pico Humboldt, Venezuela
Pico El León, Venezuela
Snow in the Pico Humboldt, Venezuela
Pico Pan de Azúcar, Venezuela
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what is the largest earthquake to hit the united states | Lists of Earthquakes - wikipedia
The following is a list of earthquake lists, and of top earthquakes by magnitude and fatalities.
These are the largest or most notable earthquakes per year since the start of the 21st century.
Listed below are all the 36 known earthquakes with an estimated magnitude of 8.5 or higher since the year 1500. Limited to a timeframe with enough data, this gives a rough estimate of its frequency per century. (The timeframe does not include outlying events like the earlier 1361 Shōhei earthquake and 869 Sanriku earthquake, both estimated to have magnitude ≥ 8.5.)
Prior to the development and deployment of seismographs -- starting around 1900 -- magnitudes can only be estimated, based on historical reports of the extent and severity of damage.
Statistics are,
Note that historical records are known to be incomplete. Earthquakes that occurred in remote areas prior to the advent of modern instrumentation in the early to mid 1900 's were not well - reported, and exact locations and magnitudes of such events are often unknown. Therefore, the apparent increase in large earthquake frequency over the last few centuries is unlikely to be real.
This is a list or major earthquakes by the dollar value of property (public and private) losses directly attributable to the earthquake. Rank values are assigned based on inflation - adjusted comparison of property damage in US dollars. Wherever possible, indirect and socioeconomic losses are excluded. Please note that damage estimates for particular earthquakes may vary through time as more data becomes available.
The following is a summary list of earthquakes with over approximately 100,000 deaths:
The 50 most studied earthquakes according to the International Seismological Centre (ISC), based on a count of scientific papers (mostly in English) that discuss that earthquake; subsequent additions are not included in the counts. The "Event # '' is linked to the ISC Event Bibliography for that event.
Transcribed from figure 2, "The most studied events '', at the ISC 's Overview of the ISC Event Bibliography.
International Seismological Centre. Event Bibliography. Thatcham, United Kingdom, http://www.isc.ac.uk/. 2018.
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i am chairman of chrysler corporation of america | Lee Iacocca - wikipedia
Lido Anthony "Lee '' Iacocca (/ ˌaɪ. əˈkoʊkə / EYE - ə - KOH - kə; born October 15, 1924) is an American automobile executive best known for spearheading the development of Ford Mustang and Pinto cars, while at the Ford Motor Company in the 1960s, and then later for reviving the Chrysler Corporation as its CEO during the 1980s. He served as President and CEO of Chrysler from 1978 and additionally as chairman from 1979, until his retirement at the end of 1992.
Iacocca was a passionate advocate of U.S. business exports during the 1980s. He has authored or co-authored several books, including Iacocca: An Autobiography (with William Novak), and Where Have All the Leaders Gone?
Portfolio named Iacocca the 18th - greatest American CEO of all time.
Iacocca was born in Allentown, Pennsylvania, to Nicola Iacocca and Antonietta Perrotta, Italian immigrants (from San Marco dei Cavoti, Benevento) who had settled in Pennsylvania 's steel - production belt. They operated a restaurant, Yocco 's Hot Dogs. He was said to have been christened with the unusual name "Lido '' because he was conceived during his parents ' honeymoon in the Lido district in Venice. However, he refutes this rumor in his autobiography, saying that is romantic but not true; his father went to Lido long before his marriage and was traveling with his future wife 's brother.
Iacocca graduated from Allentown High School in 1942, and Lehigh University in neighboring Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, with a degree in industrial engineering. He is a member of Tau Beta Pi, the engineering honor society, and an alumnus of Theta Chi Fraternity.
After graduating from Lehigh, he won the Wallace Memorial Fellowship and went to Princeton University, where he took his electives in politics and plastics. He then began a career at the Ford Motor Company as an engineer.
Iacocca joined Ford Motor Company in August 1946. After a brief stint in engineering, he asked to be moved to sales and marketing, where his career flourished. While working in the Philadelphia district as assistant sales manager, Iacocca gained national recognition with his "56 for ' 56 '' campaign, offering loans on 1956 model year cars with a 20 % down payment and $56 in monthly payments for three years. His campaign went national, and Iacocca was called to Dearborn, where he quickly moved up through the ranks. On November 10, 1960 Iacocca was named vice-president and general manager of the Ford Division; in January 1965 Ford 's vice-president, car and truck group; in 1967, executive vice-president; and president on December 10, 1970.
Iacocca participated in the design of several successful Ford automobiles, most notably the Ford Mustang, the Lincoln Continental Mark III, the Ford Escort and the revival of the Mercury brand in the late 1960s, including the introduction of the Mercury Cougar and Mercury Marquis. He promoted other ideas which did not reach the marketplace as Ford products. These included cars ultimately introduced by Chrysler -- the K car and the minivan. Eventually, he became the president of the Ford Motor Company, but he clashed with Henry Ford II. He was fired on July 13, 1978, despite the fact that the company posted a $2 billion profit for the year.
In 1968, Iacocca foresaw the need for domestically produced, small, fuel - efficient vehicles, and proposed a vehicle that weighed less than 2,000 pounds and would be priced at less than $2,000. Although Ford 's European subsidiary was already selling such a model (the Ford Escort), a team of Ford designers was assigned to create the exterior and interior of an entirely new car, which would be named Pinto. The Pinto entered production beginning with the 1971 model year. Iacocca was described as the "moving force '' behind the Ford Pinto.
In 1977, there were allegations that the Pinto 's structural design allowed its fuel - tank filler neck to break off and the fuel tank to be punctured in a rear - end collision, resulting in deadly fires. This case is a staple of engineering ethics courses as an example of a bad cost -- benefit analysis. In 1978, all 1971 - 1976 Pintos were recalled and had safety shielding and reinforcements installed to protect the fuel tank.
Iacocca was strongly courted by the Chrysler Corporation, at a time when the company appeared to be on the verge of going out of business and had just sold its loss - making Chrysler Europe division to Peugeot in an effort to generate cash because the company was losing millions already in North America. This was largely due to recalls of its Dodge Aspen and Plymouth Volare, both of which Iacocca later said should never have been built. Iacocca joined Chrysler and began rebuilding the entire company from the ground up, laying off many workers, and bringing in many former associates from his former company.
Also from Ford, Iacocca brought to Chrysler the "Mini-Max '' project, which, in 1983, bore fruit in the highly successful Dodge Caravan and Plymouth Voyager. Henry Ford II had wanted nothing to do with the Mini-Max, a restyled version of the minivan, which Toyota was selling in huge numbers in Asia and Latin America, and his opinion doomed the project at Ford. Hal Sperlich, the driving force behind the Mini-Max at Ford, had been fired a few months before Iacocca. He had been hired by Chrysler, where the two would make automotive history.
Iacocca arrived shortly after Chrysler 's introduction of the subcompact Dodge Omni and Plymouth Horizon. Bearing a strong resemblance to the Volkswagen Rabbit, the front - wheel drive Omni and Horizon became instant hits, selling over 300,000 units each in their debut year, showing what was to come for Chrysler. The Omni had been designed alongside the Chrysler Horizon with much input from the Chrysler Europe division of the company (evidenced by many examples having VW / Audi engines), which Iacocca axed in 1978.
Realizing that the company would go out of business if it did not receive a large infusion of cash, Iacocca approached the United States Congress in 1979 and successfully requested a loan guarantee. In order to obtain the guarantee, Chrysler was required to reduce costs and abandon some longstanding projects, such as the turbine engine, which had been ready for consumer production in 1979 after nearly 20 years of development.
Chrysler released the first of the K - Car line, the Dodge Aries and Plymouth Reliant, in 1981. Similar to the later minivan, these compact automobiles were based on design proposals that Ford had rejected during Iacocca 's (and Sperlich 's) tenure. Released in the middle of the major 1980 - 1982 recession, the small, efficient, and inexpensive front - wheel drive cars sold rapidly. In addition, Iacocca re-introduced the big Imperial as the company 's flagship. The new model had all of the newest technologies of the time, including fully electronic fuel injection and all - digital dashboard.
Chrysler introduced the minivan, chiefly Sperlich 's "baby '', in late 1983. It led the automobile industry in sales for 25 years. Because of the K - cars and minivans, along with the reforms Iacocca implemented, the company turned around quickly and was able to repay the government - backed loans seven years earlier than expected.
Iacocca led Chrysler 's acquisition of AMC in 1987, which brought the profitable Jeep division under the corporate umbrella. It created the short - lived Eagle division, formed from the remnants of AMC. By this time, AMC had already finished most of the work on the Jeep Grand Cherokee, which Iacocca wanted. The Grand Cherokee would not be released until 1992 for the 1993 model year, the same year that Iacocca retired.
Throughout the 1980s, Iacocca appeared in a series of commercials for the company 's vehicles, employing the ad campaign, "The pride is back, '' to denote the turnaround of the corporation. He also voiced what was to become his trademark phrase: "If you can find a better car, buy it. ''
Iacocca retired as president, CEO and chairman of Chrysler at the end of 1992.
In 1995, Iacocca assisted in billionaire Kirk Kerkorian 's hostile takeover of Chrysler, which was ultimately unsuccessful. The next year, Kerkorian and Chrysler made a five - year agreement which included a gag order preventing Iacocca from speaking publicly about Chrysler.
In July 2005, Iacocca returned to the airwaves as Chrysler 's pitchman, along with celebrities such as Jason Alexander and Snoop Dogg, to promote Chrysler 's "Employee Pricing Plus '' program; the ads reprise the "If you can find a better car, buy it '' line, Iacocca 's trademark of the 1980s. In return for his services, Iacocca and DaimlerChrysler agreed that his fees, plus a $1 donation per vehicle sold from July 1 through December 31, 2005, would be donated to the Iacocca Foundation for diabetes research.
In an April 2009 Newsweek interview, Iacocca reflected on his time spent at Chrysler and the company 's current situation. He said:
This is a sad day for me. It pains me to see my old company, which has meant so much to America, on the ropes. But Chrysler has been in trouble before, and we got through it, and I believe they can do it again. If they 're smart, they 'll bring together a consortium of workers, plant managers and dealers to come up with real solutions. These are the folks on the front lines, and they 're the key to survival. Let 's face it, if your car breaks down, you 're not going to take it to the White House to get fixed. But, if your company breaks down, you 've got to go to the experts on the ground, not the bureaucrats. Every day I talk to dealers and managers, who are passionate and full of ideas. No one wants Chrysler to survive more than they do. So I 'd say to the Obama administration, do n't leave them out. Put their passion and ideas to work.
Because of the Chrysler bankruptcy, Iacocca may lose part of his pension from a supplemental executive retirement plan, and a guaranteed company car during his lifetime. The losses were due to take place once the bankruptcy court approves the sale of Chrysler to Chrysler Group LLC, with ownership of the new company by the United Auto Workers, the Italian carmaker Fiat and the governments of the United States and Canada.
In 1984, Iacocca co-authored (with William Novak) an autobiography, titled Iacocca: An Autobiography. It was the best selling non-fiction hardback book of 1984 and 1985. He donated the proceeds of the book 's sales to diabetes research.
In 1988, Iacocca co-authored (with Sonny Kleinfeld) Talking Straight, a book meant as a counterbalance to Akio Morita 's Made in Japan, a non-fiction book praising Japan 's post-war hard - working culture. Talking Straight praised the innovation and creativity of Americans.
On May 17, 2007, Simon & Schuster published Iacocca 's book, Where Have All the Leaders Gone?, co-written with Catherine Whitney. In the book, Iacocca writes:
Am I the only guy in this country who 's fed up with what 's happening? Where the hell is our outrage? We should be screaming bloody murder. We 've got a gang of clueless bozos steering our ship of state right over a cliff, we 've got corporate gangsters stealing us blind, and we ca n't even clean up after a hurricane much less build a hybrid car. But instead of getting mad, everyone sits around and nods their heads when the politicians say, "Stay the course. '' Stay the course? You 've got to be kidding. This is America, not the damned Titanic. I 'll give you a sound bite: Throw the bums out!
Iacocca partnered with producer Pierre Cossette to bring a production of The Will Rogers Follies to Branson, Missouri in 1994. He also invested in Branson Hills, a 1,400 - acre housing development.
In 1993, he had joined the board of MGM Grand, led by his friend Kirk Kerkorian. He started a merchant bank to fund ventures in the gaming industry, which he called "the fastest - growing business in the world ''. In 1995, he sold his interests in several Indian gaming projects to Full House Resorts, a casino operator led by his friend Allen Paulson, becoming a major shareholder and later a member of the board of directors.
Iacocca joined the board of restaurant chain Koo Koo Roo in 1995. In 1998, he stepped up to serve as acting chairman of the troubled company, and led it through a merger with Family Restaurants (owner of Chi - Chi 's and El Torito). He sat on the board of the merged company until stepping down in 1999.
In 1999, Iacocca became the head of EV Global Motors, a company formed to develop and market electric bikes with a top speed of 15 mph and a range of 20 miles between recharging at wall outlets.
In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan appointed Iacocca to head the Statue of Liberty - Ellis Island Foundation, which was created to raise funds for the renovation and preservation of the Statue of Liberty. He continues to serve on the board of the foundation.
Following the death of Iacocca 's wife Mary from diabetes, he became an active supporter of research for the disease. He has been one of the main patrons of the research of Denise Faustman at Massachusetts General Hospital. In 2000, Iacocca founded Olivio Premium Products, which manufactures the Olivio line of food products made from olive oil. He donates all profits from the company to diabetes research. In 2004, Iacocca launched Join Lee Now, a national grassroots campaign, to bring Faustman 's research to human clinical trials in 2006.
Iacocca has been an advocate of "Nourish the Children '', an initiative of Nu Skin Enterprises, since its inception in 2002. He is currently its chairman. He helped donate a generator for the Malawi VitaMeal plant.
Iacocca led the fundraising campaign to enable Lehigh University to adapt and use vacant buildings formerly owned by Bethlehem Steel. Iacocca Hall on the Mountaintop Campus of Lehigh University houses the College of Education, the biology and chemical engineering departments, and The Iacocca Institute, which is focused on global competitiveness.
Iacocca played Park Commissioner Lido in "Sons and Lovers '', the 44th episode of Miami Vice, which premiered on May 9, 1986. The name of the character is his birth name, which was not used in the public sphere due to the trouble of mispronunciation or misspelling.
Iacocca was married to Mary McCleary on September 29, 1956. They had two daughters: Kathryn and Lia. Mary Iacocca died on May 15, 1983 from diabetes. Both before and after her death, Iacocca became a strong advocate for better medical treatment of diabetes patients, who frequently faced debilitating and fatal complications.
Iacocca 's second marriage was to Peggy Johnson. They married on April 17, 1986 but in 1987, after nineteen months, Iacocca had the marriage annulled. He married for the third time in 1991 to Darrien Earle. They were divorced three years later.
He resides in Bel Air, Los Angeles, California.
In his 2007 book Where Have All the Leaders Gone, Iacocca described how he considered running for president in 1988 and was in the planning stages of a campaign with the slogan "I Like I '', before ultimately being talked out of it by his friend Tip O'Neill.
Pennsylvania Governor Robert P. Casey discussed with Iacocca an appointment to the U.S. Senate in 1991 after the death of Senator H. John Heinz III, but Iacocca declined.
Politically, Iacocca supported the Republican candidate George W. Bush in the 2000 presidential election. In the 2004 presidential election, however, he endorsed Bush 's opponent, Democrat John Kerry. In Michigan 's 2006 gubernatorial race, Iacocca appeared in televised political ads endorsing Republican candidate Dick DeVos, who lost. Iacocca endorsed New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson for President in the 2008 presidential election. In 2012, he endorsed Mitt Romney for President.
On December 3, 2007, Iacocca launched a website to encourage open dialogue about the challenges of contemporary society. He has introduced topics such as health care costs, and the United States ' lag in developing alternative energy sources and hybrid vehicles. The site also promotes his book Where Have All the Leaders Gone. It provides an interactive means for users to rate presidential candidates by the qualities Iacocca believes they should possess: curiosity, creativity, communication, character, courage, conviction, charisma, competence and common sense.
In 1985, Iacocca received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards.
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which crop was not brought to the americas by european conquerors | Columbian Exchange - wikipedia
The Columbian exchange, also known as the Columbian interchange, named for Christopher Columbus, was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas, West Africa, and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries. It also relates to European colonization and trade following Christopher Columbus 's 1492 voyage. Invasive species, including communicable diseases, were a byproduct of the Exchange. The changes in agriculture significantly altered and changed global populations. The most significant immediate impact of the Columbian exchange was the cultural exchanges and the transfer of people (both free and enslaved) between continents.
The new contact between the global population circulated a wide variety of crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres, although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Traders returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century.
The term was first used in 1972 by American historian Alfred W. Crosby in his environmental history book The Columbian Exchange. It was rapidly adopted by other historians and journalists and has become widely known.
In 1972 Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian Exchange. He published subsequent volumes within the same decade. His primary focus was mapping the biological and cultural transfers that occurred between the Old and New World. He studied the effects of Columbus ' voyages between the two. Specifically, the global diffusion of crops, seeds, and plants from the New World back into the Old. His research made a lasting contribution to the way scholars understand the variety of contemporary ecosystems that arose due to these transfers.
The term has become popular among historians and journalists, such as Charles C. Mann, whose book 1493 expands and updates Crosby 's original research.
Several plants native to the Americas have spread around the world, including potato, maize, tomato, and tobacco. Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that the proximate cause of the Great Famine was a potato disease. Potatoes eventually became an important staple of the diet in much of Europe, contributing to about 25 % of the population growth in Afro - Eurasia between 1700 and 1900. Many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the potato.
Maize and cassava, introduced by the Portuguese from South America in the 16th century, have replaced sorghum and millet as Africa 's most important food crops. 16th - century Spanish colonizers introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia. On a larger scale, the coming of potatoes and maize to the old world "resulted in caloric and nutritional improvements over previously existing staples '' throughout the Eurasian landmass as they created more varied and abundant food production.
Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New World via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value (see below). From the 19th century tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general. Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Middle East and sugarcane (introduced from South Asia) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America have become an integral part of Indian cuisine.
Rice was another crop that became widely cultivated during the Columbian exchange. As the demand in the New World grew, so did the knowledge on how to cultivate it. The two primary species used were oryza glaberrima and oryza sativa; originating from West Africa and Southeast Asia respectively. Slave holders in the New World relied upon the skills of enslaved Africans to further cultivate both species.. North and South Carolina were key places where rice was grown during the slave trade. Enslaved Africans brought their knowledge of water control, milling, winnowing, and other general agrarian practices to the fields. This widespread knowledge amongst enslaved Africans eventually led to rice becoming a staple dietary item in the New World.
Citrus fruits, grapes, and oats were also brought to the Americas from Europe, specifically from the Mediterranean. At first, these crops struggled to adapt to the climate in the new world. However, by the late 19th century they began to grow more consistently.
It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become widely accepted. Of all the New World plants introduced to Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due to 16th - century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of "melancholic humours ''. In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548, the tomato was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo I de ' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De ' Medici 's private secretary that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely ''. At this time, the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.
In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty '' and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain, wrote, "it is said (tomatoes) are good for sauces ''. Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (12,950 ha) of tomatoes are cultivated in Italy, although there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.
Initially, at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went through one route, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses. One of the first European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes. The mountain tribes shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, as opposed to agriculture, based on hunting bison on horseback and moved down to the Great Plains. The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.
Still, the effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were not always positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals had large effects on native fauna and undergrowth and damaged conucos, plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence.
European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle - cell disease. In fact, the resistance of sub-Saharan Africans to malaria in the Southern United States contributed to the development of slavery in those regions.
Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres, the varieties of domesticated animals and infectious diseases that jumped to humans, such as smallpox, were substantially more numerous in the Old World than in the New due to more extensive long - distance trade networks. Many had migrated west across Eurasia with animals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases of two continents were suffered by all occupants. While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases, their endemic status in those continents over centuries resulted in many people gaining acquired immunity.
By contrast, "Old World '' diseases had a devastating effect when introduced to Native American populations via European carriers, as the people in the Americas had no natural immunity to the new diseases. Measles caused many deaths. The smallpox epidemics are believed to have caused the largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars and far exceeding the comparative loss of life in Europe due to the Black Death. It is estimated that upwards of 80 -- 95 percent of the Native American population died in these epidemics within the first 100 -- 150 years following 1492. Many regions in the Americas lost 100 %. The beginning of demographic collapse on the North American continent has typically been attributed to the spread of a well - documented smallpox epidemic from Hispaniola in December 1518. At that point in time, approximately only 10,000 indigenous people were still alive in Hispaniola.
Similarly, yellow fever is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade. Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African - descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century. The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave - based sugar plantation. The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area by reducing the number of potential natural mosquito predators. The means of yellow fever transmission was unknown until 1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.
The history of syphilis has been well - studied, but the exact origin of the disease is unknown and remains a subject of debate. There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized. These are referred to as the "Columbian '' and "pre-Columbian '' hypotheses. The first written descriptions of the disease in the Old World came in 1493. The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494 / 1495 in Naples, Italy, among the army of Charles VIII, during their invasion of Naples.
One of the influences related to the migration of people were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500 -- 1800 '' Pieter Emmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a ' clash of cultures ' had begun in the Atlantic ''. This clash of culture transferred European values to indigenous cultures. For example, the emergence of private property in regions where there were little to no rights to lands, the concepts of monogamy and the nuclear family, the role of women and children in the family system, and the "superiority of free labor ''. An example of this type of cultural exchange occurred during the 1500s in North America. When these early European colonizers first entered North America, they encountered fence-less lands which indicated to them that this land was unimproved. For these Europeans, they were seeking economic opportunities, therefore, land and resources were important for the success of the mission. When these colonizers entered North America they encountered a fully established culture of people called the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for naturally growing and useful plants. As the Europeans viewed fences as "hallmarks of civilization '' they set about transforming "the land into something more suitable for themselves ''. In implementing their practices, the Europeans enslaved, murdered, and exploited indigenous populations. Furthermore, in cases of enslaved peoples (and in particular, enslaved Africans) the Europeans simultaneously implemented their value system while at the same time justifying enslaving people through a philosophy which reduced the enslaved people to property. Thus, the slave traders and some of the plantation owners used the concept of family to exploit and control the enslaved people. In other subtle ways, which had a large impact the cultural exchanges involved sharing practices and traditions. An example of this can be found in the tobacco industry.
Tobacco was one of the luxury goods which was spread as a direct result of the Columbian exchange. As is discussed in regard to the trans - Atlantic slave trade, the tobacco trade increased demand for free labor and spread tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493 -- 1588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, have taken up the same manner and use of tobacco that the Indians have ''. As the European colonizers and enslaved Africans traveled the globe and came into contact with indigenous peoples, they took with them the cultural practices related to tobacco, and spread them to additional regions. Therefore, demand for tobacco grew in the course of the cultural exchanges and increased contacts among peoples.
The Trans Atlantic Slave Trade was the transfer of Africans from primarily West Africa to parts of the Americas between the 16th and 19th century. About 10 million slaves arrived in the Americas from Africa. The journey that enslaved Africans took from parts of Africa to America is commonly known as the middle passage.
Enslaved Africans had a significant influence on the emerging African American culture in the New World. The presence of Enslaved Africans not only represented skilled labor but it also gave way to a new population which represented a hybrid of the two cultures. The Birth of African American Culture: An Anthropological Perspective is a book written by Sidney Mintz and Richard Price further detailing the cultural impact of Enslaved Africans in America. Mintz and Price 's book helped to publicize how integral the socialization aspects of plantation life were to the structures of black culture.
The treatment of Enslaved Africans during the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade became one of the most controversial topics in the history of the New World. Since its abolishment in 1865, it has remained a key subject in politics, pop culture and media.
Plants that arrived by land, sea, or air in the times before 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are called neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the United States to help control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment.
Fungi have also been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm disease, killing American elms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species have become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments. A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer now thought to have originated in Patagonia.
In addition to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world either accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships. Escaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, often negatively impacting or displacing native species. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are common, and the Burmese python and green iguana are considered problematic in Florida. In the Old World, Eastern gray squirrel have been particularly successful in colonising Great Britain and populations of raccoons can now be found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American mink have extensive populations.
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when do the dog days of summer begin | Dog days - wikipedia
The dog days or dog days of summer are the hot, sultry days of summer. They were historically the period following the heliacal rising of the star Sirius, which Greek and Roman astrology connected with heat, drought, sudden thunderstorms, lethargy, fever, mad dogs, and bad luck. They are now taken to be the hottest, most uncomfortable part of summer in the Northern Hemisphere.
The English name is a calque of the Latin dies caniculares (lit. "the puppy days ''), itself a calque of the Greek kynádes hēmérai (κυνάδες ἡμέραι, "dog days ''). The Greeks knew the star α Canis Majoris by several names, including Sirius (Σείριος, Seírios, "Scorcher ''), Sothis (Σῶθις, Sôthis, a transcription of Egyptian Spdt), and the Dog Star (Κῠ́ων, Kúōn). The last name reflects the way Sirius follows the constellation Orion into the night sky.
Sirius is by far the brightest proper star in the night sky, which caused ancient astronomers to take note of it around the world. In Egypt, its return to the night sky became known as a precursor to the annual flooding of the Nile and was worshipped as the goddess Sopdet. In Greece, it became known as the precursor of the unpleasantly hot phase of the summer. Greek poets even recorded the belief that the return of the bright star was responsible for bringing heat and fever with it; it was also associated with sudden thunderstorms. In Homer 's Iliad, probably composed in the 8th century BC but representing an earlier tradition, Achilles ' approach towards Troy, where he will slay Hector, is illustrated through an extended metaphor about the baleful effects attending the return of Sirius:
τὸν δ _̓ ὃ γέρων Πρίαμος πρῶτος ἴδεν ὀφθαλμοῖσι παμφαίνονθ _̓ ὥς τ _̓ ἀστέρ _̓ ἐπεσσύμενον πεδίοιο, ὅς ῥά τ _̓ ὀπώρης εἶσιν, ἀρίζηλοι δέ οἱ αὐγαὶ φαίνονται πολλοῖσι μετ _̓ ἀστράσι νυκτὸς ἀμολγῷ, ὅν τε κύν _̓ Ὠρίωνος ἐπίκλησιν καλέουσι. λαμπρότατος μὲν ὅ γ _̓ ἐστί, κακὸν δέ τε σῆμα τέτυκται, καί τε φέρει πολλὸν πυρετὸν δειλοῖσι βροτοῖσιν: ὣς τοῦ χαλκὸς ἔλαμπε περὶ στήθεσσι θέοντος.
Priam saw him first, with his old man 's eyes, A single point of light on Troy 's dusty plain. Sirius rises late in the dark, liquid sky On summer nights, star of stars, Orion 's Dog they call it, brightest Of all, but an evil portent, bringing heat And fevers to suffering humanity. Achilles ' bronze gleamed like this as he ran.
The rising of Sirius during this period has been calculated as 19 July (Julian). Writing about the same time, Hesiod, however, considered the worst and hottest part of the summer to be the days before Sirius returned to the night sky. During this period, Sirius was invisible from the earth but it was apparently understood to still be in the sky, augmenting the power of the sun:
ἦμος δὴ λήγει μένος ὀξέος ἠελίοιο καύματος ἰδαλίμου, μετοπωρινὸν ὀμβρήσαντος Ζηνὸς ἐρισθενέος, μετὰ δὲ τρέπεται βρότεος χρὼς πολλὸν ἐλαφρότερος: δὴ γὰρ τότε Σείριος ἀστὴρ βαιὸν ὑπὲρ κεφαλῆς κηριτρεφέων ἀνθρώπων ἔρχεται ἠμάτιος, πλεῖον δέ τε νυκτὸς ἐπαυρεῖ: τῆμος ἀδηκτοτάτη πέλεται τμηθεῖσα σιδήρῳ ὕλη, φύλλα δ _̓ ἔραζε χέει, πτόρθοιό τε λήγει: τῆμος ἄρ _̓ ὑλοτομεῖν μεμνημένος ὥρια ἔργα.
This effect of the combination of Sirius ' light with the Sun 's was understood to have an effect on plants, animals, and women, as well as men:
ἦμος δὲ σκόλυμός τ _̓ ἀνθεῖ καὶ ἠχέτα τέττιξ δενδρέῳ ἐφεζόμενος λιγυρὴν καταχεύετ _̓ ἀοιδὴν πυκνὸν ὑπὸ πτερύγων, θέρεος καματώδεος ὥρῃ, τῆμος πιόταταί τ _̓ αἶγες καὶ οἶνος ἄριστος, μαχλόταται δὲ γυναῖκες, ἀφαυρότατοι δέ τοι ἄνδρες εἰσίν, ἐπεὶ κεφαλὴν καὶ γούνατα Σείριος ἄζει, αὐαλέος δέ τε χρὼς ὑπὸ καύματος...
About a century later, Alcaeus repeated the theme, advising his listeners to "steep your lungs in wine '' before the arrival of the star since "women are at their foulest but men are weak since they are parched in head and knees ''. In the 3rd century, Aratus ' Phenomena describes the time as Sirius blighting the bark of trees with its heat during the time it rises and sets with the sun.
The Kean priests of Zeus as Rainmaker and Lord of Moisture observed annual sacrifices before the rise of Sirius to prevent scorching drought. This practice was credited to the culture hero Aristaeus. Aristotle mentions the proverbial heat of the dog days as part of his argument against an early formulation of evolution in his Physics.
The Romans continued to blame Sirius for the heat of the season and attendant lethargy and diseases. In his Georgics, Vergil notes vintners ' efforts to protect their work during the time "when the Dog - star cleaves the thirsty Ground ''. Seneca 's Oedipus complains of "the scorching dog - star 's fires ''. Pliny 's Natural History notes an increase in attacks by dogs during July and August, and advises feeding them chicken manure to curb the tendency. In the early 20th century, historians still noted the "discouraging heat '' and "oppression '' of the dog days of the Roman summer.
The period has long featured in western medicine. The 1564 English Hope of Health counseled that purging (bloodletting and induced vomiting) should be avoided during the "Dogge daies '' of summer because "the Sunne is in Leo '' and "then is nature burnt vp & made weake ''. The 1729 British Husbandman 's Practice claimed that "The Heat of the Sun is so violent that Men 's bodies at Midnight sweat as at Midday: and if they be hurt, they be more sick than at any other time, yea very near Dead ''. It therefore advised men to "abstain all this time from women '' and to "take heed of feeding violently ''. In the 1813 Clavis Calendria, the dog days are a time wherein "the Sea boiled, the Wine turned sour, Dogs grew mad, Quinto raged with anger, and all other creatures became languid; causing to man, among other diseases, burning fevers, hysterics, and phrensies ''.
Even after astrology and its influence on health and agriculture waned in importance, the "dog days '' continues to be vaguely applied to the hottest days of the summer, with its attendant effects on nature and society. In North America, it became proverbial among farmers that a dry growing season through the dog days was preferable to the trouble of a wet one:
Dog days bright and clear Indicate a good year; But when accompanied by rain, We hope for better times in vain.
Because "July is typically one of the quietest months of the year for stock trading '', the term is sometimes used for the lethargic summer markets.
Various computations of the dog days have placed their start anywhere from 3 July to 15 August and lasting for anywhere from 30 to 61 days. They may begin or end with the cosmical or heliacal rising of either Sirius in Canis Major or Procyon (the "Little Dog Star '') in Canis Minor and vary by latitude, not even being visible throughout much of the Southern Hemisphere. Sirius observes a period of almost exactly 3651⁄4 days between risings, keeping it largely consistent with the Julian but not the Gregorian calendar; nonetheless, its dates occur somewhat later in the year over a span of millennia.
In antiquity, the dog days were usually reckoned from the appearance of Sirius around 19 July (Julian) to relieving rains and cool winds, although Hesiod seems to have counted the worst of summer as the days leading up to Sirius 's reappearance.
In Anglo - Saxon England, the dog days ran from various dates in mid-July to early or mid-September. Canonical "dog daies '' were observed from July 7 to September 5 in the 16th - century English liturgies. They were removed from the prayer books at the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and their term shortened to the time between July 19 and August 20. During the British adoption of the Gregorian calendar in 1752, they were shifted to July 30 to September 7.
Many modern sources in the English - speaking world move this still earlier, from July 3 to August 11, ending rather than beginning with or centering on the reappearance of Sirius to the night sky.
Although Sirius is the brightest proper star in the night sky, it is 8.7 light - years (8.23 × 10 km) away from Earth and it has no effect whatsoever on the weather or temperature. Although the star continues to return to the night sky in the late summer, its position continues to slowly shift relative to the sun and will rise in the middle of winter in about 10,000 years.
The effects of summer heat and rainfall patterns are real, but vary by latitude and location according to many factors. For example, London in the UK is farther north than Calgary, Canada, but has a milder climate from the presence of the sea and the warm Gulf Stream current. A medical institution has reported a connection between Finland 's dog days and increased risk of infection in deep surgery wounds, although that research remains unverified.
It is possible that the Roch, the legendary medieval patron saint of dogs celebrated by the Catholic Church on 16 August, owes some of his legacy to the dog days. From the period of his self - proclaimed protectorate over the island, the Danish adventurer Jørgen Jürgensen is remembered in Iceland as Jorgen the Dog - Day King (Icelandic: Jörundur hundadagakonungur).
In western literature, apart from the Greek and Roman works mentioned above, the dog days appear in John Webster 's 1613 play The Duchess of Malfi, Charles Dickens ' 1843 novella A Christmas Carol, R.H. Davis ' 1903 short story "The Bar Sinister '', J.M. Synge 's 1909 poem "Queens '', and Richard Adams 's 1972 novel Watership Down. They feature in the children 's novels Tuck Everlasting (1973). and Dog Days (2009).
In film, the titles of Dog Day Afternoon (1975) and Hundstage (German for "Dog Days ''; 2001) evoke their oppressive seasonal settings.
In music, there are Head of David 's "Dog Day Sunrise '', covered by Fear Factory in 1995; Florence and the Machine 's 2009 "Dog Days Are Over ''; and Within Temptation 's 2013 "Dog Days ''.
"Dog - day '' promotions are also a common feature in baseball, used by American ballparks to boost ticket sales during mid-afternoon games.
Seven dog - days we let pass Naming Queens in Glenmacnass...
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when did messi score his first hat trick | Lionel Messi - wikipedia
Argentine professional footballer
Films
Lionel Andrés Messi Cuccittini (Spanish pronunciation: (ljoˈnel anˈdɾez ˈmesi) (listen); born 24 June 1987) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a forward for Spanish club Barcelona and the Argentina national team. Often considered the best player in the world and regarded by many as the greatest of all time, Messi has a record - tying five Ballon d'Or awards, four of which he won consecutively, and a record - tying four European Golden Shoes. He has spent his entire professional career with Barcelona, where he has won 30 trophies, including eight La Liga titles, four UEFA Champions League titles, and five Copas del Rey. Both a prolific goalscorer and a creative playmaker, Messi holds the records for most official goals scored in La Liga (374), a La Liga season (50), a club football season in Europe (73), a calendar year (91), El Clásico (25), as well as those for most assists made in La Liga (149) and the Copa América (11). He has scored over 600 senior career goals for club and country.
Born and raised in central Argentina, Messi was diagnosed with a growth hormone deficiency as a child. At age 13, he relocated to Spain to join Barcelona, who agreed to pay for his medical treatment. After a fast progression through Barcelona 's youth academy, Messi made his competitive debut aged 17 in October 2004. Despite being injury - prone during his early career, he established himself as an integral player for the club within the next three years, finishing 2007 as a finalist for both the Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year award, a feat he repeated the following year. His first uninterrupted campaign came in the 2008 -- 09 season, during which he helped Barcelona achieve the first treble in Spanish football. At 22 years old, Messi won the Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year award by record voting margins.
Three successful seasons followed, with Messi winning three consecutive FIFA Ballon d'Ors, including an unprecedented fourth. His personal best campaign statistically to date was the 2011 -- 12 season, in which he set the La Liga and European records for most goals scored in a single season, while establishing himself as Barcelona 's all - time top scorer in official competitions in March 2012. The following two seasons, Messi finished twice second for the Ballon d'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo, his perceived career rival. Messi regained his best form during the 2014 -- 15 campaign, breaking the all - time goalscoring records in both La Liga and the Champions League in November 2014, and led Barcelona to a historic second treble.
An Argentine international, Messi is his country 's all - time leading goalscorer. At youth level, he won the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship, finishing the tournament with both the Golden Ball and Golden Shoe, and an Olympic gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics. His style of play as a diminutive, left - footed dribbler drew comparisons with compatriot Diego Maradona, who declared the teenager his successor. After making his senior debut in August 2005, Messi became the youngest Argentine to play and score in a FIFA World Cup during the 2006 edition, and reached the final of the 2007 Copa América, where he was named young player of the tournament. As the squad 's captain from August 2011, he led Argentina to three consecutive finals: the 2014 World Cup, for which he won the Golden Ball, and the 2015 and 2016 Copas América. After announcing his international retirement in 2016, he reversed his decision and led his country to qualification for the 2018 World Cup.
-- Newell 's Old Boys youth coach Adrián Coria shares his first impression of the 12 - year - old Messi.
Lionel Andrés Messi was born on 24 June 1987 in Rosario, the third of four children of Jorge Messi, a steel factory manager, and his wife Celia Cuccittini, who worked in a magnet manufacturing workshop. On his father 's side, he is of Italian and Spanish descent, the great - grandson of immigrants from the northcentral Adriatic Marche region of Italy and Catalonia, and on his mother 's side, he has primarily Italian ancestry. Growing up in a tight - knit, football - loving family, "Leo '' developed a passion for the sport from an early age, playing constantly with his older brothers, Rodrigo and Matías, and his cousins, Maximiliano and Emanuel Biancucchi, both of whom became professional footballers. At the age of four he joined local club Grandoli, where he was coached by his father, though his earliest influence as a player came from his maternal grandmother, Celia, who accompanied him to training and matches. He was greatly affected by her death, shortly before his eleventh birthday; since then, as a devout Catholic, he has celebrated his goals by looking up and pointing to the sky in tribute of his grandmother.
A lifelong supporter of Newell 's Old Boys, Messi joined the Rosario club when he was six years old. During the six years he played for Newell 's, he scored almost 500 goals as a member of "The Machine of ' 87 '', the near - unbeatable youth side named for the year of their birth, and regularly entertained crowds by performing ball tricks during half - time of the first team 's home games. However, his future as a professional player was threatened when, at age 10, he was diagnosed with a growth hormone deficiency. As his father 's health insurance covered only two years of growth hormone treatment, which cost at least $ 1,000 per month, Newell 's agreed to contribute, but later reneged on their promise. He was scouted by Buenos Aires club River Plate, whose playmaker, Pablo Aimar, he idolised, but they were also unable to pay for his treatment due to the country 's economic collapse.
As the Messi family had relatives in Catalonia, they sought to arrange a trial with Barcelona in September 2000. First team director Charly Rexach immediately wanted to sign him, but the board of directors hesitated; at the time it was highly unusual for European clubs to sign foreign players of such a young age. On 14 December, an ultimatum was issued for Barcelona to prove their commitment, and Rexach, with no other paper at hand, offered a contract on a paper napkin. In February 2001, the family relocated to Barcelona, where they moved into an apartment near the club 's stadium, Camp Nou. During his first year in Spain, Messi rarely played with the Infantiles due to a transfer conflict with Newell 's; as a foreigner, he could only be fielded in friendlies and the Catalan league. Without football, he struggled to integrate into the team; already reserved by nature, he was so quiet that his teammates initially believed he was mute. At home, he suffered from homesickness after his mother moved back to Rosario with his brothers and little sister, María Sol, while he stayed in Barcelona with his father.
After a year at Barcelona 's youth academy, La Masia, Messi was finally enrolled in the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF) in February 2002. Now playing in all competitions, he befriended his teammates, among whom were Cesc Fàbregas and Gerard Piqué. After completing his growth hormone treatment aged 14, Messi became an integral part of the "Baby Dream Team '', Barcelona 's greatest - ever youth side. During his first full season (2002 -- 03), he was top scorer with 36 goals in 30 games for the Cadetes A, who won an unprecedented treble of the league and both the Spanish and Catalan cups. The Copa Catalunya final, a 4 -- 1 victory over Espanyol, became known in club lore as the partido de la máscara, the final of the mask. A week after suffering a broken cheekbone during a league match, Messi was allowed to start the game on the condition that he wear a plastic protector; soon hindered by the mask, he took it off and scored two goals in 10 minutes before his substitution. At the close of the season, he received an offer to join Arsenal, his first from a foreign club, but while Fàbregas and Piqué soon left for England, he chose to remain in Barcelona.
-- Barcelona 's then assistant coach Henk Ten Cate on Messi 's first - team debut.
During the 2003 -- 04 season, his fourth with Barcelona, Messi rapidly progressed through the club 's ranks, debuting for a record five teams in a single campaign. After being named player of the tournament in four international pre-season competitions with the Juveniles B, he played only one official match with the team before being promoted to the Juveniles A, where he scored 18 goals in 11 league games. Messi was then one of several youth players called up to strengthen a depleted first team during the international break. French Winger Ludovic Giuly explained how a teenage Leo caught the eye in a training session with Frank Rijkaard 's first team: "He destroyed us all... They were kicking him all over the place to avoid being ridiculed by this kid, he just got up and kept on playing. He would dribble past four players and score a goal. Even the team 's starting centre - backs were nervous. He was an alien. '' At 16 years, four months, and 23 days old, he made his first team debut when he came on in the 75th minute during a friendly against José Mourinho 's Porto on 16 November 2003. His performance, creating two chances and a shot on goal, impressed the technical staff, and he subsequently began training daily with the club 's reserve side, Barcelona B, as well as weekly with the first team. After his first training session with the senior squad, Barça 's new star player, Ronaldinho, told his teammates that he believed the 16 - year - old would become an even better player than himself. Ronaldinho soon befriended Messi, whom he called "little brother '', which greatly eased his transition into the first team.
To gain further match experience, Messi joined Barcelona C in addition to the Juveniles A, playing his first game for the third team on 29 November. He helped save them from the relegation zone of the Tercera División, scoring five goals in ten games, including a hat - trick in eight minutes during a Copa del Rey match while man - marked by Sevilla 's Sergio Ramos. His progress was reflected in his first professional contract, signed on 4 February 2004, which lasted until 2012 and contained an initial buyout clause of € 30 million. A month later, on 6 March, he made his debut for Barcelona B in the Segunda División B, and his buyout clause automatically increased to € 80 million. He played five games with the B team that season but did not score. Physically he was weaker than his opponents, who were often much older and taller, and in training he worked on increasing his muscle mass and overall strength in order to be able to shake off defenders. Towards the end of the season, he returned to both youth teams, helping the Juveniles B win the league. He finished the campaign having scored for four of his five teams with a total of 36 goals in all official competitions.
During the 2004 -- 05 season, Messi was a guaranteed starter for the B team, playing 17 games throughout the campaign and scoring on six occasions. Since his debut the previous November, he had not been called up to the first team again, but in October 2004, the senior players asked manager Frank Rijkaard to promote him. Since Ronaldinho already played on the left wing, Rijkaard moved Messi from his usual position onto the right flank (though initially against the player 's wishes), allowing him to cut into the centre of the pitch and shoot with his dominant left foot. Messi made his league debut during the next match on 16 October, against Espanyol, coming on in the 82nd minute. At 17 years, three months, and 22 days old, he was at the time the youngest player to represent Barcelona in an official competition. As a substitute player, he played only 77 minutes in nine matches for the first team that season, including his debut in the UEFA Champions League against Shakhtar Donetsk. He scored his first senior goal on 1 May 2005, against Albacete, from an assist by Ronaldinho, becoming -- at that time -- the youngest - ever scorer for the club. Barcelona, in their second season under Rijkaard, won the league for the first time in six years.
-- Fabio Capello praises the 18 - year - old Messi following the Joan Gamper trophy in August 2005.
On 24 June 2005, his 18th birthday, Messi signed his first contract as a senior team player. It made him a Barcelona player until 2010, two years less than his previous contract, but his buyout clause increased to € 150 million. His breakthrough came two months later, on 24 August, during the Joan Gamper Trophy, Barcelona 's pre-season competition. A starter for the first time, he gave a well - received performance against Fabio Capello 's Juventus, receiving an ovation from the Camp Nou. While Capello requested to loan Messi, a bid to buy him came from Inter Milan, who were willing to pay his € 150 million buyout clause and triple his wages. According to then - president Joan Laporta, it was the only time the club faced a real risk of losing Messi, but he ultimately decided to stay. On 16 September, his contract was updated for the second time in three months and extended to 2014.
Due to issues regarding his legal status in the Royal Spanish Football Federation, Messi missed the start of La Liga, but on 26 September, he acquired Spanish citizenship and became eligible to play. Wearing the number 19 shirt, he gradually established himself as the first - choice right winger, forming an attacking trio with Ronaldinho and striker Samuel Eto'o. He was in the starting line - up in major matches like his first Clásico against rivals Real Madrid on 19 November, as well as Barcelona 's away victory over Chelsea in the last 16 round of the Champions League, where he played his best match to that point. After he had scored 8 goals in 25 games, including his first in the Champions League, his season ended prematurely during the return leg against Chelsea on 7 March 2006, when he suffered a torn hamstring. Messi worked to regain fitness in time for the Champions League final, but on 17 May, the day of the final, he was eventually ruled out. He was so disappointed that he did not celebrate his team 's victory over Arsenal in Paris, something he later came to regret.
While Barcelona began a gradual decline, the 19 - year - old Messi established himself as one of the best players in the world during the 2006 -- 07 campaign. Already an idol to the culés, the club 's supporters, he scored 17 goals in 36 games across all competitions. However, he continued to be plagued by major injuries; a metatarsal fracture sustained on 12 November 2006 kept him out of action for three months. He recovered in time for the last 16 round of the Champions League against Liverpool, but was effectively marked out of the game; Barcelona, the reigning champions, were out of the competition. In the league, his goal contribution increased towards the end of the season; 11 of his 14 goals came from the last 13 games. On 10 March 2007, he scored his first hat - trick in a Clásico, the first player to do so in 12 years, equalising after each goal by Real Madrid to end the match in a 3 -- 3 draw in extra time. His growing importance to the club was reflected in a new contract, signed that month, which greatly increased his wages.
Already frequently compared to compatriot Diego Maradona, Messi proved their similarity when he nearly replicated Maradona 's two most famous goals in the span of three weeks. During a Copa del Rey semi-final against Getafe on 18 April, he scored a goal remarkably similar to Maradona 's goal in the quarter - finals of the 1986 FIFA World Cup, known as the Goal of the Century. Messi collected the ball on the right side near the halfway line, ran 60 metres (200 ft), and beat five defenders before scoring with an angled finish, just as Maradona had done. A league match against Espanyol on 9 June saw him score by launching himself at the ball and guiding it past the goalkeeper with his hand in similar fashion to Maradona 's Hand of God goal in the same World Cup match. As Messi continued his individual rise, Barcelona faltered; the team failed to reach the Copa del Rey final after Messi was rested during the second leg against Getafe and lost the league to Real Madrid on head - to - head results.
After Ronaldinho lost form, Messi became Barça 's new star player at only 20 years old, receiving the nickname "Messiah '' from the Spanish media. His efforts in 2007 also earned him award recognition; journalists voted him the third - best player of the year for the Ballon d'Or, behind Kaká and runner - up Cristiano Ronaldo, while international managers and national team captains voted him second for the FIFA World Player of the Year award, again behind Kaká. Although he managed to score 16 goals during the 2007 -- 08 campaign, the second half of his season was again marred by injuries after he suffered a torn hamstring on 15 December. He returned to score twice in their away victory against Celtic in the last 16 round of the Champions League, becoming the competition 's top scorer at that point with six goals, but reinjured himself during the return leg on 4 March 2008. Rijkaard had fielded him despite warning from the medical staff, leading captain Carles Puyol to criticise the Spanish media for pressuring Messi to play every match. Barcelona finished the season without trophies, eliminated in the Champions League semi-finals by the eventual champions, Manchester United, and placed third in the league.
After two unsuccessful seasons, Barcelona were in need of an overhaul, leading to the departure of Rijkaard and Ronaldinho. Upon the latter 's departure, Messi was given the number 10 shirt. He signed a new contract in July 2008 on an annual salary of € 7.8 million, becoming the club 's highest - paid player. Ahead of the new season, a major concern remained his frequent muscular injuries, which had left him side - lined for a total of eight months between 2006 and 2008. To combat the problem, the club implemented new training, nutrition, and lifestyle regimens, and assigned him a personal physiotherapist, who would travel with him during call - ups for the Argentina national team. As a result, Messi remained virtually injury - free during the next four years, allowing him to reach his full potential. Despite his injuries early in the year, his performances in 2008 saw him again voted runner - up for the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, both times behind Cristiano Ronaldo.
In his first uninterrupted campaign, the 2008 -- 09 season, he scored 38 goals in 51 games, contributing alongside Eto'o and winger Thierry Henry to a total of 100 goals in all competitions, a record at the time for the club.
During his first season under Barcelona 's new manager, former captain Pep Guardiola, Messi played mainly on the right wing, like he had under Rijkaard, though this time as a false winger with the freedom to cut inside and roam the centre. During the Clásico on 2 May 2009, however, he played for the first time as a false nine, positioned as a centre - forward but dropping deep into midfield to link up with Xavi and Andrés Iniesta. He assisted with a chip his side 's first goal and scored twice to end the match in an emphatic 6 -- 2 victory, the team 's greatest - ever score at Real Madrid 's Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. Returning to the wing, he played his first final since breaking into the first team on 13 May, scoring once and assisting a second goal as Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 4 -- 1 to win the Copa del Rey. With 23 league goals from Messi that season, Barcelona became La Liga champions three days later and achieved its fifth double.
As the season 's Champions League top scorer with nine goals, the youngest in the tournament 's history, Messi scored two goals and assisted two more to ensure a 4 -- 0 quarter - final victory over Bayern Munich. He returned as a false nine during the final on 27 May in Rome against Manchester United. Barcelona were crowned champions of Europe by winning the match 2 -- 0, the second goal coming from a Messi header over goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar. Barcelona thus achieved the first treble in the history of Spanish football. This success was reflected in a new contract, signed on 18 September, which committed Messi to the club through 2016 with a new buyout clause of € 250 million, while his salary increased to € 12 million. His team 's prosperity continued into the second half of 2009, as Barcelona became the first club to achieve the sextuple, winning six top - tier trophies in a single year. After victories in the Supercopa de España and UEFA Super Cup in August, Barcelona won the FIFA Club World Cup against Estudiantes de La Plata on 19 December, with Messi scoring the winning 2 -- 1 goal with his chest. At 22 years old, Messi won the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, both times by the greatest voting margin in each trophy 's history.
-- Arsène Wenger commends Messi for his four -- goal display against Arsenal in April 2010.
Unsatisfied with his position on the right wing, Messi resumed playing as a false nine in early 2010, beginning with a Champions League last 16 - round match against VfB Stuttgart. After a first - leg draw, Barcelona won the second leg 4 -- 0 with two goals and an assist from Messi. At that point, he effectively became the tactical focal point of Guardiola 's team, and his goalscoring rate increased. Messi scored a total of 47 goals in all competitions that season, equaling Ronaldo 's club record from the 1996 -- 97 campaign. He notably scored all of his side 's four goals in the Champions League quarter - final against Arsène Wenger 's Arsenal on 6 April while becoming Barcelona 's all - time top scorer in the competition. Although Barcelona were eliminated in the Champions League semi-finals by the eventual champions, Inter Milan, Messi finished the season as top scorer (with 8 goals) for the second consecutive year. As the league 's top scorer with 34 goals (again tying Ronaldo 's record), he helped Barcelona win a second consecutive La Liga trophy with only a single defeat.
Messi secured Barcelona 's first trophy of the 2010 -- 11 campaign, the Supercopa de España, by scoring a hat - trick in his side 's second - leg 4 -- 0 victory over Sevilla, after a first - leg defeat. Assuming a playmaking role, he was again instrumental in a Clásico on 29 November 2010, the first with José Mourinho in charge of Real Madrid, as Barcelona defeated their rivals 5 -- 0. Messi helped the team achieve 16 consecutive league victories, a record in Spanish football, concluding with another hat - trick against Atlético Madrid on 5 February 2011. His club performances in 2010 earned him the inaugural FIFA Ballon d'Or, an amalgamation of the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, though his win was met with some criticism due to his lack of success with Argentina at the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Under the award 's old format, he would have placed just outside the top three, owing his win to the votes from the international coaches and captains.
Towards the end of the season, Barcelona played four Clásicos in the span of 18 days. A league match on 16 April ended in a draw after a penalty from Messi. After Barcelona lost the Copa del Rey final four days later, Messi scored both goals in his side 's 2 -- 0 win in the first leg of the Champions League semi-finals, the second of which -- a dribble past three players -- was acclaimed as one of the best ever in the competition. Although he did not score, he was again important in the second - leg draw that sent Barcelona through to the Champions League final, where they faced Manchester United in a repeat of the final two years earlier. As the competition 's top scorer for the third consecutive year, with 12 goals, Messi gave a man - of - the - match performance at Wembley on 28 May, scoring the match - winning goal of Barça 's 3 -- 1 victory. Barcelona won a third consecutive La Liga title. In addition to his 31 goals, Messi was also the league 's top assist provider with 18. He finished the season with 53 goals and 24 assists in all competitions, becoming Barcelona 's all - time single - season top scorer and the first player in Spanish football to reach the 50 - goal benchmark.
As Messi developed into a combination of a number 8 (a creator), a 9 (scorer), and a 10 (assistant), he scored an unprecedented 73 goals and provided 29 assists in all club competitions during the 2011 -- 12 season, producing a hat - trick or more on 10 occasions. He began the campaign by helping Barcelona win both the Spanish and European Super Cups; in the Supercopa de España, he scored three times to achieve a 5 -- 4 aggregate victory over Real Madrid, overtaking Raúl as the competition 's all - time top scorer with eight goals. At the close of the year, on 18 December, he scored twice in the FIFA Club World Cup final, a 4 -- 0 victory over Santos, earning the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament, as he had done two years previously. For his efforts in 2011, he again received the FIFA Ballon d'Or, becoming only the fourth player in history to win the Ballon d'Or three times, after Johan Cruyff, Michel Platini, and Marco van Basten. Additionally, he won the inaugural UEFA Best Player in Europe Award, a revival of the old - style Ballon d'Or. By then, Messi was already widely considered one of the best footballers in history, alongside players like Diego Maradona and Pelé.
-- Pep Guardiola after Messi became Barcelona 's all - time top scorer at age 24 in March 2012
As Messi maintained his goalscoring form into the second half of the season, the year 2012 saw him break several longstanding records. On 7 March, two weeks after scoring four goals in a league fixture against Valencia, he scored five times in a Champions League last 16 - round match against Bayer Leverkusen, an unprecedented achievement in the history of the competition. In addition to being the joint top assist provider with five assists, this feat made him top scorer with 14 goals, tying José Altafini 's record from the 1962 -- 63 season, as well as becoming only the second player after Gerd Müller to be top scorer in four campaigns. Two weeks later, on 20 March, Messi became the top goalscorer in Barcelona 's history at 24 years old, overtaking the 57 - year record of César Rodríguez 's 232 goals with a hat - trick against Granada.
Despite Messi 's individual form, Barcelona 's four - year cycle of success under Guardiola -- one of the greatest eras in the club 's history -- drew to an end. Although Barcelona won the Copa del Rey against Athletic Bilbao on 25 May, its 14th title of that period, the team had lost the league to Real Madrid and was eliminated in the Champions League semi-finals by the eventual champions, Chelsea, with Messi sending a crucial second - leg penalty kick against the crossbar. In Barça 's last home league match on 5 May, against Espanyol, Messi scored all four goals before approaching the bench to embrace Guardiola, who had announced his resignation as manager. He finished the season as league top scorer in Spain and Europe for a second time, with 50 goals, an all - time La Liga record, while his 73 goals in all competitions surpassed Gerd Müller 's 67 goals in the 1972 -- 73 Bundesliga season, making him the single - season top scorer in the history of European club football.
Under manager Tito Vilanova, who had first coached him aged 14 at La Masia, Messi helped the club achieve its best - ever start to a La Liga season during the second half of 2012, amassing 55 points by the competition 's midway point, a record in Spanish football. A double scored on 9 December against Real Betis saw Messi break two longstanding records: he surpassed César Rodríguez 's record of 190 league goals, becoming Barcelona 's all - time top scorer in La Liga, and Gerd Müller 's record of most goals scored in a calendar year, overtaking his 85 goals scored in 1972 for Bayern Munich and Germany. Messi sent Müller a number 10 Barcelona shirt, signed "with respect and admiration '', after breaking his 40 - year record. At the close of the year, Messi had scored a record 91 goals in all competitions for Barcelona and Argentina. Although FIFA did not acknowledge the achievement, citing verifiability issues, he received the Guinness World Records title for most goals scored in a calendar year. As the odds - on favourite, Messi again won the FIFA Ballon d'Or, becoming the only player in history to win the Ballon d'Or four times.
Barcelona had virtually secured their La Liga title by the start of 2013, eventually equalling Real Madrid 's 100 - point record of the previous season. However, their performances deteriorated in the second half of the 2012 -- 13 campaign, concurrently with Vilanova 's absence due to ill health. After losing successive Clásicos, including the Copa del Rey semi-finals, they were nearly eliminated in the first knockout round of the Champions League by Milan, but a revival of form in the second leg led to a 4 -- 0 comeback, with two goals and an assist from Messi. Now in his ninth senior season with Barcelona, Messi signed a new contract on 7 February, committing himself to the club through 2018, while his fixed wage rose to € 13 million. He wore the captain 's armband for the first time a month later, on 17 March, in a league match against Rayo Vallecano; by then, he had become the team 's tactical focal point to a degree that was arguably rivalled only by former Barcelona players Josep Samitier, László Kubala and Johan Cruyff. Since his evolution into a false nine three years earlier, his input into the team 's attack had increased exponentially; from 24 % in their treble - winning campaign, his goal contribution rose to more than 40 % that season.
-- Defender Gerard Piqué explains Barcelona 's reliance on an unfit Messi against Paris Saint - Germain in April 2013.
After four largely injury - free seasons, the muscular injuries that had previously plagued Messi reoccurred. After he suffered a hamstring strain on 2 April, during the first quarter - final against Paris Saint - Germain, his appearances became sporadic. In the second leg against PSG, with an underperforming Barcelona down a goal, Messi came off the bench in the second half and within nine minutes helped create their game - tying goal, which allowed them to progress to the semi-finals. Still unfit, he proved ineffective during the first leg against Bayern Munich and was unable to play at all during the second, as Barcelona were defeated 7 -- 0 on aggregate by the eventual champions. These matches gave credence to the notion of Messidependencia, Barcelona 's perceived tactical and psychological dependence on their star player.
Messi continued to struggle with injury throughout 2013, eventually parting ways with his long - time personal physiotherapist. Further damage to his hamstring sustained on 12 May ended his goalscoring streak of 21 consecutive league games, a worldwide record; he had netted 33 goals during his run, including a four - goal display against Osasuna, while becoming the first player to score consecutively against all 19 opposition teams in La Liga. With 60 goals in all competitions, including 46 goals in La Liga, he finished the campaign as league top scorer in Spain and Europe for the second consecutive year, becoming the first player in history to win the European Golden Shoe three times. Following an irregular start to the new season under manager Gerardo Martino, formerly of his boyhood club Newell 's Old Boys, Messi suffered his fifth injury of 2013 when he tore his hamstring on 10 November, leaving him sidelined for two months. Despite his injuries, he was voted runner - up for the FIFA Ballon d'Or, relinquishing the award after a four - year monopoly to Cristiano Ronaldo.
During the second half of the 2013 -- 14 season, doubts persisted over Messi 's form, leading to a perception among the culés that he was reserving himself for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Statistically, his contribution of goals, shots, and passes had dropped significantly compared to previous seasons. He still managed to break two longstanding records in a span of seven days: a hat - trick on 16 March against Osasuna saw him overtake Paulino Alcántara 's 369 goals to become Barcelona 's top goalscorer in all competitions including friendlies, while another hat - trick against Real Madrid on 23 March made him the all - time top scorer in El Clásico, ahead of the 18 goals scored by former Real Madrid player Alfredo Di Stéfano. Messi finished the campaign with his worst output in five seasons, though he still managed to score 41 goals in all competitions. For the first time in five years, Barcelona ended the season without a major trophy; they were defeated in the Copa del Rey final by Real Madrid and lost the league in the last game to Atlético Madrid, causing Messi to be booed by sections of fans at the Camp Nou. After prolonged speculation over his future with the club, Messi signed a new contract on 19 May 2014, only a year after his last contractual update; his salary increased to € 20 million, or € 36 million before taxes, the highest wage ever in the sport.
-- Juventus captain Gianluigi Buffon ahead of their meeting in the Champions League final in June 2015
Under new manager and former captain Luis Enrique, Messi experienced a largely injury - free start to the 2014 -- 15 season, allowing him to break three more longstanding records towards the end of the year. A hat - trick scored against Sevilla on 22 November made him the all - time top scorer in La Liga, as he surpassed the 59 - year record of 251 league goals held by Telmo Zarra. Three days later, he scored another hat - trick against APOEL, overtaking Raúl 's 71 goals to become top scorer in the history of the Champions League. A third hat - trick, scored against city rivals Espanyol on 7 December, allowed him to surpass César Rodríguez as the all - time top scorer in the Derbi barceloní with 12 goals. Messi again placed second in the FIFA Ballon d'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo, largely owing to his second - place achievement with Argentina at the World Cup.
At the start of 2015, Barcelona were perceived to be headed for another disappointing end to the season, with renewed speculation in the media that Messi was leaving the club. A turning point came on 11 January during a 3 -- 1 victory over Atlético Madrid, the first time Barça 's attacking trident of Messi, Luis Suárez and Neymar, dubbed "MSN '', each scored in a match, marking the beginning of a highly successful run. After five years of playing in the centre of the pitch, Messi had returned to his old position on the right wing late the previous year, by his own suggestion according to Suárez, their striker. From there, he regained his best -- arguably his best - ever -- form, while Suárez and Neymar ended the team 's attacking dependency on their star player. With 58 goals from Messi, the trio scored a total of 122 goals in all competitions that season, a record in Spanish football.
Towards the end of the campaign, Messi scored in a 1 -- 0 away win over Atlético Madrid on 17 May, securing the La Liga title. Among his 43 league goals that season was a hat - trick scored in 11 minutes against Rayo Vallecano on 8 March, the fastest of his senior career; it was his 32nd hat - trick overall for Barcelona, allowing him to overtake Telmo Zarra as the player with the most hat - tricks ever in Spanish football. Additionally, as the season 's top assist provider with 18 assists, he surpassed Luís Figo as the player with the most assists in La Liga; he made his record 106th assist in a fixture against Levante on 15 February, in which he also scored a hat - trick. Messi then scored twice as Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 3 -- 1 in the Copa del Rey final on 30 May, achieving the sixth double in their history. His opening goal was hailed as one of the greatest in his career; he collected the ball near the halfway line and beat four opposing players, before feinting the goalkeeper to score in a tight space by the near post. The goal was later named one of the three final nominees for the 2015 FIFA Puskás Award.
In the Champions League, Messi scored twice and assisted on another in their 3 -- 0 semi-final victory over Bayern Munich, now under the stewardship of Guardiola. His second goal, which came only three minutes after his first, saw him chip the ball over goalkeeper Manuel Neuer after his dribble past Jérôme Boateng had made the defender drop to the ground; it went viral, becoming the year 's most tweeted about sporting moment, and was named the best goal of the season by UEFA. Despite a second - leg loss, Barcelona progressed to the final on 6 June in Berlin, where they defeated Juventus 3 -- 1 to win their second treble, becoming the first team in history to do so. Although Messi did not score, he participated in each of his side 's goals, particularly the second as he forced a parried save from goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon from which Suárez scored the match - winning goal on the rebound. In addition to being the top assist provider with six assists, Messi finished the competition as the joint top scorer with ten goals, which earned him the distinction of being the first player ever to achieve the top scoring mark in five Champions League seasons. For his efforts during the season, he received the UEFA Best Player in Europe award for a second time.
Messi opened the 2015 -- 16 season by scoring twice from free kicks in Barcelona 's 5 -- 4 victory (after extra time) over Sevilla in the UEFA Super Cup. A subsequent 5 -- 1 aggregate defeat against Athletic Bilbao in the Supercopa de España ended their expressed hopes of a second sextuple, with Messi scoring his side 's only goal. On 16 September, he became the youngest player to make 100 appearances in the UEFA Champions League in a 1 -- 1 away draw to Roma. On 26 September, Messi sustained an injury in Barcelona 's match against Las Palmas; tests later confirmed that he suffered a tear in the medial collateral ligament of his left knee, ruling him out for six to eight weeks. He finally returned to the pitch on 21 November, making a substitute appearance in Barcelona 's 4 -- 0 away win over rivals Real Madrid in El Clásico. Messi capped off the year by winning the 2015 FIFA Club World Cup Final on 20 December, collecting his fifth club trophy of 2015 as Barcelona went on to defeat River Plate 3 -- 0 in Yokohama. Messi also won the tournament 's Silver Ball, despite missing the semi-final. On 30 December, Messi scored on his 500th appearance for Barcelona, in a 4 -- 0 home win over Real Betis.
On 6 January 2016, recording Barcelona 's first goal of the new year, Messi scored two goals and assisted the other two in a 4 -- 1 derby win over Espanyol at the Camp Nou, in the first leg of the round of 16 of the 2015 -- 16 Copa del Rey. Five days later, Messi won the FIFA Ballon d'Or for a record fifth time in his career. On 3 February, he scored a hat - trick in Barcelona 's 7 -- 0 win against Valenciain the first leg of the Copa del Rey semi-final at the Camp Nou, also scoring his 500th career goal in the process, including youth competitions. With teammate Luis Suárez scoring the other four goals in the same match, this was the first time that two players had scored at least three goals each at Camp Nou, and the first time since Luis Suárez Miramontes and Justo Tejada in 1956. The feat had only occurred three times before in the club 's history, all at Camp de Les Corts. The next league match at Camp Nou, a 6 -- 1 win against Celta de Vigo, Messi assisted Suárez from a penalty kick. Some people saw it as "a touch of genius '', while others criticised it as being disrespectful to the opponent. The Celta players, however, never complained and their coach defended the penalty, stating, "Barca 's forwards are very respectful. '' The penalty routine has been compared to that of Barça icon Johan Cruyff in 1982, who was battling lung cancer, leading many fans to indicate that the penalty was a tribute to him. Cruyff himself was "very happy '' with the play, insisting "it was legal and entertaining ''.
On 17 February, Messi reached his 300th league goal in a 1 -- 3 away win against Sporting de Gijón. A few days later, he scored both goals in Barcelona 's 0 -- 2 win against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium, in the first leg of the 2015 -- 16 UEFA Champions League round of 16, with the second goal being Barcelona 's 10,000 th in official competitions. On 17 April, Messi ended a five - match scoring drought with his 500th senior career goal for club and country in Barcelona 's 2 -- 1 home loss to Valencia. Messi finished the 2015 -- 16 season by setting up both goals in Barcelona 's 2 -- 0 extra time win over Sevilla in the 2016 Copa del Rey Final, at the Vicente Calderón Stadium, on 22 May 2016, as the club celebrated winning the domestic double for the second consecutive season. In total, Messi scored 41 goals and provided 23 assists, as Barcelona 's attacking trio managed a Spanish record of 131 goals throughout the season, breaking the record they had set the previous season.
-- In an interview with Barcelona 's official magazine, Messi 's compatriot Javier Mascherano points out that Barcelona has continued to enjoy success despite the departures of its key figures.
Messi opened the 2016 -- 17 season by lifting the 2016 Supercopa de España as Barcelona 's captain in the absence of the injured Andrés Iniesta; he set - up Munir 's goal in a 2 -- 0 away win over Sevilla in the first leg on 14 August, and subsequently scored and assisted in a 3 -- 0 win in the return leg on 17 August. Three days later, he scored two goals and provided an assist to lead Barcelona to a 6 -- 2 victory against Real Betis in the opening game of the 2016 -- 17 La Liga season. On 13 September 2016, Messi scored his first hat - trick of the season in the opening game of the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Champions League campaign against Celtic in a 7 -- 0 victory; this was also Messi 's sixth hat - trick in the Champions League, the most by any player. A week later, Messi sustained a groin injury in a 1 -- 1 draw against Atlético Madrid and was ruled out with injury for three weeks. He marked his return with a goal, scoring three minutes after coming off the bench in a 4 -- 0 home win over Deportivo de La Coruña, on 16 October. Three days after this, he netted his thirty - seventh club hat - trick as Barcelona defeated Manchester City 4 -- 0. On 1 November, Messi scored his 54th Champions League group stage goal in Barcelona 's 3 -- 1 away return fixture loss to Manchester City, surpassing the previous record of 53 goals held by Raúl. On 12 November, Messi placed second in the 2016 Ballon d'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo, who claimed the award for the fourth time. He finished the year with 51 goals, making him Europe 's top scorer, one ahead of Zlatan Ibrahimović.
After placing second in the 2016 Ballon d'Or, on 9 January 2017 Messi also finished in second place -- behind Cristiano Ronaldo once again -- in the 2016 Best FIFA Men 's Player Award. On 11 January, Messi scored from a free - kick in Barcelona 's 3 -- 1 victory against Athletic Bilbao in the second leg of the round of 16 of the Copa del Rey, which enabled Barcelona to advance to the quarter - finals of the competition; with his 26th goal from a free - kick for Barcelona in all competitions, he equalled the club 's all - time record, which had previously been set by Ronald Koeman. In his next league match, on 14 January, Messi scored in a 5 -- 0 win against Las Palmas; with this goal, he equalled Raúl 's record for the most number of teams scored against in La Liga (35). On 4 February, Messi scored his 27th free - kick for Barcelona in a 3 -- 0 home win over Athletic Bilbao in the league, overtaking Koeman as the club 's all - time top - scorer from free - kicks. On 23 April, Messi scored twice in a 3 -- 2 away win over Real Madrid. His game - winning goal in stoppage time was his 500th for Barcelona. On 27 May, Messi scored a goal and set up another for Paco Alcácer in the 2017 Copa del Rey Final, helping Barcelona to a 3 -- 1 victory over Alavés, and was named Man of the Match. In total, Messi finished the 2016 -- 17 season with 54 goals and 16 assists, while his 37 goals in La Liga saw him claim both the Pichichi and European Golden Boot Awards for the fourth time in his career.
Messi opened the 2017 -- 18 season by converting a penalty in Barcelona 's 1 -- 3 first leg home defeat to Real Madrid in Supercopa de España. Thereby, Messi also extended his El Clásico goalscoring record with the goal being his 24th official and 25th overall. On 27 August, Messi scored his first two goals of the 2017 -- 18 La Liga season in a 2 -- 0 away win over Alavés. Messi 's first goal marked his 350th in the fixture, becoming the first player ever to achieve this milestone. On 9 September, Messi scored his first hat - trick of the 2017 -- 18 league campaign, against Espanyol in derbi barceloní, thus helping to secure a 5 -- 0 home victory for Blaugrana over local rivals. Messi netted twice against Gianluigi Buffon, on 12 September, as Barça defeated the last season 's Italian champions Juventus 3 -- 0 at home in the UEFA Champions League. On 19 September, Messi found the net four times in a 6 -- 1 trashing of Eibar at the Camp Nou in La Liga. Three weeks later, on 1 October, Messi surpassed his former teammate Carles Puyol to become the third highest appearance maker in the club 's history, as he helped Barça defeat Las Palmas 3 -- 0 by assisting Sergio Busquets ' opener and later adding two himself in his 594th official game for the club; the league game was played behind closed doors at the Camp Nou due to violence in Catalonia relating to an ongoing independence referendum.
On 18 October, in his 122nd European club appearance, Messi scored his 97th UEFA Champions League goal, and his 100th in all UEFA club competitions, in a 3 -- 1 home victory over Olympiakos; he also set up Lucas Digne 's goal during the same match. Messi became only the second player after Cristiano Ronaldo to reach this century milestone, but accomplished it in 21 fewer appearances than the Portuguese counterpart. On 23 October, Messi finished as the runner - up behind Cristiano Ronaldo in 2017 Best FIFA Men 's Player award for the second consecutive year. On 4 November, he made his 600th appearance for Barcelona in a 2 -- 1 home win over Sevilla in La Liga. Following the reception of his fourth Golden Boot, Messi signed a new deal with Barcelona on 25 November, keeping him with the club through the 2020 -- 21 season. His buyout clause was set at € 700 million. On 7 January 2018, Messi made his 400th La Liga appearance with Barcelona in a 3 -- 0 home win over Levante, marking the occasion with his 144th league assist and 365th league goal for the club, the latter of which saw him equal Gerd Müller 's record for the most league goals scored for the same club in one of Europe 's top five divisions. A week later, he broke the record, scoring his 366th La Liga goal from a free kick in a 4 -- 2 away win against Real Sociedad. On 4 March, he scored his 600th senior career goal from a free kick in a 1 -- 0 home win over Atlético Madrid, in La Liga. On 14 March, Messi scored his 99th and 100th Champions League goals in a 3 -- 0 home win over Chelsea, becoming only the second player after Cristiano Ronaldo to reach this landmark, and achieving it at a younger age, in fewer appearances, having played fewer minutes, and having taken fewer shots than his Portuguese counterpart; his opening goal, which came after only two minutes and eight seconds, was also the fastest of his career. During the same match, he also set up Ousmane Dembélé for his first Barcelona goal; the result saw Barcelona advance to the quarter - finals of the competition for the eleventh consecutive season.
As a dual Argentine - Spanish national, Messi was eligible to play for the national team of both countries. Selectors for Spain 's Under - 17 squad began pursuing him in 2003 after Barcelona 's director of football, Carles Rexach, alerted the Royal Spanish Football Federation to their young player. Messi declined the offer, having aspired to represent La Albiceleste since childhood. To further prevent Spain from taking him, the Argentine Football Association organised two under - 20 friendlies in June 2004, against Paraguay and Uruguay, with the purpose of finalising his status as an Argentina player in FIFA. Five days after his 17th birthday, on 29 June, he made his debut for his country against Paraguay, scoring once and providing two assists in their 8 -- 0 victory. He was subsequently included in the squad for the South American Youth Championship, held in Colombia in February 2005. As he lacked the stamina of his teammates, the result of his former growth hormone deficiency, he was used as a substitute in six of the nine games, proving more effective when coming on in the second half. After being named man of the match against Venezuela, he scored the winning 2 -- 1 goal in the crucial last match against Brazil, thereby securing their third - place qualification for the FIFA World Youth Championship.
Aware of his physical limitations, Messi employed a personal trainer to increase his muscle mass, returning to the squad in an improved condition in time for the World Youth Championship, hosted by the Netherlands in June 2005. After he was left out of the starting line - up in their first match against the United States, a 1 -- 0 defeat, the squad 's senior players asked manager Francisco Ferraro to let Messi start, as they considered him their best player. After helping the team defeat Egypt and Germany to progress past the group stage, Messi proved decisive in the knockout phase as he scored their equaliser against Colombia, provided a goal and an assist against title favourites Spain, and scored their opening goal against reigning champions Brazil. Ahead of the final, he was awarded the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament. He scored two penalties in their 2 -- 1 victory over Nigeria, clinching Argentina 's fifth championship and finishing the tournament as top scorer with 6 goals. His performances drew comparisons with compatriot Diego Maradona, who had led Argentina to the title in 1979.
In recognition of his achievements with the under - 20 side, senior manager José Pékerman gave Messi his first call - up for a friendly against Hungary on 17 August 2005. Aged 18, Messi made his senior debut for Argentina when he came on in the 63rd minute, only to be sent off after two minutes for a perceived foul against Vilmos Vanczák, who had grabbed his shirt; Messi had struck the defender with his arm while trying to shake him off, which the referee interpreted as an intentional elbowing, a contentious decision. Messi was reportedly found weeping in the dressing room after his sending - off. He returned to the team on 3 September in their World Cup qualifier defeat to Paraguay, which he had declared his "re-debut '' ahead of the match. Messi started his first game in the next qualifying match against Peru, in which he was able to win a crucial penalty that secured their victory. After the match, Pékerman described him as "a jewel ''. He subsequently made regular appearances for the team ahead of Argentina 's participation in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, scoring his first goal in a friendly against Croatia on 1 March 2006. A hamstring injury sustained a week later jeopardised his presence in the World Cup, but he was nevertheless selected for Pékerman 's squad and regained fitness in time for the start of the tournament.
During the World Cup in Germany, Messi witnessed their opening match victory against the Ivory Coast from the substitutes ' bench. In the next match, against Serbia and Montenegro, he became the youngest player to represent Argentina at a FIFA World Cup when he came on as a substitute in the 74th minute. He assisted their fourth strike within minutes and scored the final goal in their 6 -- 0 victory, making him the youngest scorer in the tournament and the sixth - youngest goalscorer in the history of the World Cup. As their progression to the knockout phase was secured, several starters were rested during the last group match. Messi consequently started the game against the Netherlands, a 0 -- 0 draw, as they won their group on goal differential. In the round of 16 match against Mexico, played on his 19th birthday, Messi came on in the 84th minute, with the score tied at 1 -- 1. He appeared to score a goal, but it was contentiously ruled offside, with the team needing a late goal in extra time to proceed. He did not play in the quarter - final against Germany, during which Argentina were eliminated 4 -- 2 in a penalty shootout. Back home, Pékerman 's decision to leave him on the bench against Germany led to widespread criticism from those who believed Messi could have changed the outcome of the match in Argentina 's favour.
As Messi evolved into one of the best players in the world, he secured a place in Alfio Basile 's starting line - up, as part of a team considered favourites to win the 2007 Copa América, held in Venezuela. He set up the game - winning goal of their 4 -- 1 victory over the United States in the opening match, before winning a penalty that led to the game - tying first strike of their 4 -- 2 win in the next match against Colombia. As they had secured their place in the knockout phase, Messi started the next game on the bench, coming on in the last 25 minutes with the score at 0 -- 0 to help his team defeat Paraguay by assisting their only goal. At the quarter - final stage, where the group winners faced Peru, he scored the second goal of a 4 -- 0 victory that saw them through to the semi-final, during which he chipped the ball over Mexico 's goalkeeper to ensure another 3 -- 0 win. In a surprise defeat, Argentina lost the final 3 -- 0 to a Brazil squad which lacked several of the nation 's best players. Their unexpected loss was followed by much criticism in Argentina, though Messi was mostly exempt due to his young age and secondary status to star player Juan Román Riquelme. He was named the best young player of the tournament by CONMEBOL.
Ahead of the 2008 Summer Olympics, Barcelona legally barred Messi from representing Argentina at the tournament as it coincided with their Champions League qualifying matches. After interference from newly appointed Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola, who had won the tournament in 1992, Messi was permitted to join Sergio Batista 's under - 23 squad in Beijing. During the first match, he scored the opening goal and assisted another in their 2 -- 1 victory over the Ivory Coast. Following a 1 -- 0 win in the next group match against Australia, ensuring their quarter - final qualification, Messi was rested during the game against Serbia, while his side won the match to finish first in their group. Against the Netherlands, he again scored the first goal and assisted a second strike to help his team to a 2 -- 1 win in extra time. After a 3 -- 0 semi-final victory over Brazil, Messi assisted the only goal in the final as Argentina defeated Nigeria to claim Olympic gold medals. Along with Riquelme, Messi was singled out by FIFA as the stand - out player from the tournament 's best team.
From late 2008, the national team experienced a three - year period marked by poor performances. Under manager Diego Maradona, who had led Argentina to World Cup victory as a player, the team struggled to qualify for the 2010 World Cup, securing their place in the tournament only after defeating Uruguay 1 -- 0 in their last qualifying match. Maradona was criticised for his strategic decisions as he played Messi out of position, positioned too deep for him to be able to contribute to the attack to his full ability. In eight qualifying matches under Maradona 's stewardship, Messi scored only one goal, netting the opening goal in the first such match, a 4 -- 0 victory over Venezuela. During that game, played on 28 March 2009, he wore Argentina 's number 10 shirt for the first time, following the international retirement of Riquelme. Overall, Messi scored four goals in 18 appearances during the qualifying process. Ahead of the tournament, Maradona visited Messi in Barcelona to request his tactical input; Messi then outlined a 4 -- 3 -- 1 -- 2 formation with himself playing behind the two strikers, a playmaking position known as the enganche in Argentine football, which had been his preferred position since childhood.
Despite their poor qualifying campaign, Argentina were considered title contenders at the World Cup in South Africa. At the start of the tournament, the new formation proved effective; Messi managed at least four attempts on goal during their opening match but was repeatedly denied by Nigeria 's goalkeeper, resulting in a 1 -- 0 win. During the next match, against South Korea, he excelled in his playmaking role, participating in all four goals of his side 's 4 -- 1 victory. As their place in the knockout phase was guaranteed, most of the starters were rested during the last group match, but Messi reportedly refused to be benched. He wore the captain 's armband for the first time in their 2 -- 0 win against Greece; as the focal point of their play, he helped create their second goal to see Argentina finish as group winners. In the round of 16, they defeated Mexico 3 -- 1, with Messi assisting their first goal, a controversial strike that stood despite being offside.
Argentina 's unstructured defence had proved a liability throughout the World Cup and finally led to their elimination in the quarter - final against Germany, at the same stage of the tournament and by the same opponent as four years earlier. Their 4 -- 0 loss was their worst margin of defeat since 1974. FIFA subsequently identified Messi as one of the tournament 's 10 best players, citing his "outstanding '' pace and creativity and "spectacular and efficient '' dribbling, shooting and passing. Back home, however, Messi was the subject of far harsher judgement. As the perceived best player in the world, he had been expected to lead an average team to the title, as Maradona arguably did in 1986, but he had failed to replicate his performances at Barcelona with the national team, leading to the accusation that he cared less about his country than his club.
Maradona was replaced by Sergio Batista, who had orchestrated Argentina 's Olympic victory. Batista publicly stated that he intended to build the team around Messi, employing him as a false nine within a 4 -- 3 -- 3 system, as used to much success by Barcelona. Although Messi scored a record 53 goals during the 2010 -- 11 club season, he had not scored for Argentina in an official match since March 2009. Despite the tactical change, his goal drought continued during the 2011 Copa América, hosted by Argentina. Their first two matches, against Bolivia and Colombia, ended in draws, with Messi underperforming by his standards. Media and fans noted that he did not combine well with striker Carlos Tevez, who enjoyed far greater popularity among the Argentine public; Messi was consequently booed by his own team 's supporters for the first time in his career. During the crucial next match, with Tevez on the bench, he gave a well - received performance, assisting two goals in their 3 -- 0 victory over Costa Rica. After the quarter - final against Uruguay ended in a 1 -- 1 draw following extra time, with Messi having assisted their equaliser, Argentina were eliminated 4 -- 5 in the penalty shootout by the eventual champions.
After Argentina 's unsuccessful performance in the Copa América, Batista was replaced by Alejandro Sabella. Upon his appointment in August 2011, Sabella awarded the 24 - year - old Messi the captaincy of the squad, in accord with then - captain Javier Mascherano. Reserved by nature, Messi went on to lead his squad by example as their best player, while Mascherano continued to fulfil the role of the team 's on - field leader and motivator. In a further redesign of the team, Sabella dismissed Tevez and brought in players with whom Messi had won the World Youth Championship and Olympic Games. Now playing in a free role in an improving team, Messi finally ended his goal drought by scoring during their first World Cup qualifying match against Chile on 7 October, his first official goal for Argentina in two - and - a-half years.
Under Sabella, Messi 's goalscoring rate drastically increased; where he had scored only 17 goals in 61 matches under his previous managers, he scored 25 times in 32 appearances during the following three years. He netted a total of 12 goals in 9 games for Argentina in 2012, equalling the record held by Gabriel Batistuta, Argentina 's all - time top scorer, for the most goals scored in a calendar year for their country. His first hat - trick with the Albicelestes came in a friendly against Switzerland on 29 February 2012, followed by two more hat - tricks over the next year - and - a-half in friendlies against Brazil and Guatemala. Messi then helped the team secure their place in the 2014 World Cup with a 5 -- 2 victory over Paraguay on 10 September 2013; in addition to providing an assist, he scored twice from a penalty kick, taking his international tally to 37 goals to become Argentina 's second - highest goalscorer behind only Batistuta. Overall, he had scored a total of 10 goals in 14 matches during the qualifying campaign. Concurrently with his bettered performances, his relationship with his compatriots improved, as he gradually began to be perceived more favourably in Argentina.
Ahead of the World Cup in Brazil, doubts persisted over Messi 's form, as he finished an unsuccessful and injury - plagued season with Barcelona. At the start of the tournament, however, he gave strong performances, being elected man of the match in their first four matches. In his first World Cup match as captain, he led them to a 2 -- 1 victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina; he helped create their early opening goal and scored their second strike after a dribble past three players, his first World Cup goal since his debut in the tournament eight years earlier. During the second match against Iran, he scored an injury - time goal from 23 metres out to end the game in a 1 -- 0 win, securing their qualification for the knockout phase. He scored twice in the last group match, a 3 -- 2 victory over Nigeria, his second goal from a free kick, as they finished first in their group. Messi assisted a late goal in extra time to ensure a 1 -- 0 win against Switzerland in the round of 16, before starting the play that led to their match - winning 1 -- 0 goal in the quarter - final against Belgium, helping Argentina progress to the semi-final of the World Cup for the first time since 1990. Following a 0 -- 0 draw in extra time, they eliminated the Netherlands 4 -- 2 in a penalty shootout to reach the final.
Billed as Messi versus Germany, the world 's best player against the best team, the final was a repeat of the 1990 final featuring Diego Maradona. Within the first half - hour, Messi had started the play that led to a goal, but it was ruled offside. He missed several opportunities to open the scoring throughout the match, in particular at the start of the second half when his breakaway effort went wide of the far post. Substitute Mario Götze finally scored in the 113th minute, followed in the last minute of extra time by a free kick that Messi sent over the net, as Germany won the match 1 -- 0 to claim the World Cup. At the conclusion of the final, Messi was awarded the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament. In addition to being the joint third - highest goalscorer, with four goals and an assist, he created the most chances, completed the most dribbling runs, made the most deliveries into the penalty area and produced the most throughballs in the competition. However, his selection drew criticism due to his lack of goals in the knockout round; FIFA President Sepp Blatter expressed his surprise, while Maradona suggested that Messi had undeservedly been chosen for marketing purposes.
Another final appearance, the third of Messi 's senior international career, followed in the 2015 Copa América, held in Chile. Under the stewardship of former Barcelona manager Gerardo Martino, Argentina entered the tournament as title contenders due to their second - place achievement at the World Cup. During the opening match against Paraguay, they were ahead two goals by half - time but lost their lead to end the match in a 2 -- 2 draw; Messi had scored from a penalty kick, netting his only goal in the tournament. Following a 1 -- 0 win against defending champions Uruguay, Messi earned his 100th cap for his country in the final group match, a 1 -- 0 win over Jamaica, becoming only the fifth Argentine to achieve this milestone. In his 100 appearances, he had scored a total of 46 goals for Argentina, 22 of which came in official competitive matches.
As Messi evolved from the team 's symbolic captain into a genuine leader, he led Argentina to the knockout stage as group winners. In the quarter - final, they created numerous chances, including a rebound header by Messi, but were repeatedly denied by Colombia 's goalkeeper, and ultimately ended the match scoreless, leading to a 5 -- 4 penalty shootout in their favour. At the semi-final stage, Messi excelled as playmaker as he provided three assists and helped create three more goals in his side 's 6 -- 1 victory over Paraguay, receiving applause from the initially hostile crowd. Argentina started the final as the odds - on title favourites, but were defeated by Chile 4 -- 1 in a penalty shootout after an 0 -- 0 extra-time draw. Faced with aggression from opposing players, including taking a boot to the midriff, Messi played below his standards, though he was the only Argentine to successfully convert his penalty. At the close of the tournament, he was reportedly selected to receive the Most Valuable Player award but rejected the honour. As Argentina continued a trophy drought that began in 1993, the World Cup and Copa América defeats again brought intense criticism for Messi from Argentine media and fans.
Messi 's place in Argentina 's Copa América Centenario squad was initially put in jeopardy when he sustained a back injury in a 1 -- 0 friendly win over Honduras in a pre-Copa América warm - up match on 27 May 2016. It was later reported that he had suffered a deep bruise in his lumbar region, but that he would remain in Martino 's squad for the tournament, although he was later left on the bench in Argentina 's 2 -- 1 opening win over defending champions Chile on 6 June due to concerns regarding his fitness. Although Messi was declared match - fit for his nation 's second group match against Panama on 10 June, Martino left him on the bench once again; he replaced Augusto Fernández in the 61st minute and subsequently scored a hat - trick in 19 minutes, also starting the play which led to Sergio Agüero 's goal, as the match ended in a 5 -- 0 victory, sealing Argentina 's place in the quarter - finals of the competition; he was elected man of the match for his performance.
On 18 June 2016, in the quarter - final of the Copa América against Venezuela, Messi produced another man of the match performance, assisting two goals and scoring another in a 4 -- 1 victory, which enabled him to equal Gabriel Batistuta 's national record of 54 goals in official international matches. This record was broken three days later when Messi scored in a 4 -- 0 win in the semi-final of the Copa América against hosts the United States; he also assisted two goals during the match as Argentina sealed a place in the final of the competition for a second consecutive year, and was named man of the match once again.
-- Messi announcing his retirement on 27 June 2016
During a repeat of the previous year 's final on 26 June, Argentina once again lost to Chile on penalties after a 0 -- 0 deadlock, resulting in Messi 's third consecutive defeat in a major tournament final with Argentina, and his fourth overall. After the match, Messi, who had missed his penalty in the shootout, announced his retirement from international football. Sources reported that other Argentine players -- Sergio Agüero, Javier Mascherano, Gonzalo Higuaín, Lucas Biglia, Éver Banega, Ezequiel Lavezzi and Ángel Di María -- could follow their captain in retiring from international football. Chile coach Juan Antonio Pizzi said after the match, "My generation ca n't compare him to Maradona that 's for my generation, because of what Maradona did for Argentine football. But I think the best player ever played today here in the United States. '' Messi finished the tournament as the second highest scorer, behind Eduardo Vargas, with five goals, and was the highest assist provider with four assists, also winning more Man of the Match awards than any other player in the tournament (3); he was named to the team of the tournament for his performances, but missed out on the Golden Ball Award for best player, which went to Alexis Sánchez.
Following his announcement, a campaign began in Argentina for Messi to change his mind about retiring. He was greeted by fans with signs like "Do n't go, Leo '' when the team landed in Buenos Aires. President of Argentina Mauricio Macri urged Messi not to quit, stating, "We are lucky, it is one of life 's pleasures, it is a gift from God to have the best player in the world in a footballing country like ours... Lionel Messi is the greatest thing we have in Argentina and we must take care of him. '' Mayor of Buenos Aires Horacio Rodríguez Larreta unveiled a statue of Messi in the capital to convince him reconsider retirement. On social networks, NoTeVayasLeo became a global trending topic, and even a playlist on Spotify. The campaign also continued in the streets and avenues of the Argentine capital, with about 50,000 supporters going to the Obelisco de Buenos Aires on 2 July, using the same slogan.
-- Messi reversing his decision from retiring on 12 August 2016
Just a week after Messi announced his international retirement, Argentine newspaper La Nación reported that he was reconsidering playing for Argentina at the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers in September. On 12 August, it was confirmed that Messi had reversed his decision to retire from international football, and he was included in the squad for the national team 's upcoming 2018 World Cup qualifiers. On 1 September 2016, in his first game back, he scored in a 1 -- 0 home win over Uruguay in a 2018 World Cup qualifier.
On 28 March 2017, Messi was suspended for four international games for insulting an assistant referee in a game against Chile on 23 March 2017. He was also fined CHF 10,000. On 5 May 2017, Messi 's four match ban as well as his 10,000 CHF fine was lifted by FIFA after Argentina Football Association appealed against his suspension, which meant he could now play Argentina 's remaining World Cup Qualifiers. Argentina 's place in the 2018 World Cup was in jeopardy going into their final qualifying match as they were sixth in their group, outside the five possible CONMEBOL World Cup qualifying spots, meaning they risked failing to qualify for the World Cup for the first time since 1970. On 10 October 2017, Messi led his country to World Cup qualification in scoring a hat - trick as Argentina came from behind to defeat Ecuador 3 -- 1 away; Argentina had not defeated Ecuador in Quito since 2001. Messi 's three goals saw him become the joint all - time leading scorer in CONMEBOL World Cup qualifiers with 21 goals, alongside Uruguay 's Luis Suárez, overtaking the previous record which was held by compatriot Hernán Crespo.
-- Messi explains his approach to the game in May 2011.
Due to his short stature, Messi has a lower centre of gravity than taller players, which gives him greater agility, allowing him to change direction more quickly and evade opposing tackles; this has led the Spanish media to dub him La Pulga Atómica ("The Atomic Flea ''). Despite being physically unimposing, he possesses significant upper - body strength, which, combined with his low centre of gravity and resulting balance, aids him in withstanding physical challenges from opponents; he has consequently been noted for his lack of diving in a sport rife with playacting. His short, strong legs allow him to excel in short bursts of acceleration while his quick feet enable him to retain control of the ball when dribbling at speed. His former Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola once stated, "Messi is the only player that runs faster with the ball than he does without it. '' Although he has improved his ability with his weaker foot since his mid-20s, Messi is predominantly a left - footed player; with the outside of his left foot, he usually begins dribbling runs, while he uses the inside of his foot to finish and provide passes and assists.
A prolific goalscorer, Messi is known for his finishing, positioning, quick reactions, and ability to make attacking runs to beat the defensive line. He also functions in a playmaking role, courtesy of his vision and precise passing, and is an accurate free kick and penalty kick taker, though his ability on penalties has somewhat deteriorated in recent seasons. His pace and technical ability enable him to undertake individual dribbling runs towards goal, in particular during counterattacks, usually starting from the halfway line or the right side of the pitch. Widely considered to be the best dribbler in the world, and one of the greatest of all time, with regard to this ability, his former Argentina manager Diego Maradona has said of him, "The ball stays glued to his foot; I 've seen great players in my career, but I 've never seen anyone with Messi 's ball control. '' Beyond his individual qualities, he is also a well - rounded, hard - working team player, known for his creative combinations, in particular with Barcelona midfielders Xavi and Andrés Iniesta.
Tactically, Messi plays in a free attacking role; a versatile player, he is capable of attacking on either wing or through the centre of the pitch. His favoured position in childhood was the playmaker behind two strikers, known as the enganche in Argentine football, but he began his career in Spain as a left - winger or left - sided forward. Upon his first - team debut, he was moved onto the right wing by manager Frank Rijkaard; from this position, he could more easily cut through the defence into the middle of the pitch and curl shots on goal with his left foot, rather than predominantly cross balls for teammates. Under Guardiola and subsequent managers, he most often played in a false nine role; positioned as a centre - forward or lone striker, he would roam the centre, often moving deep into midfield and drawing defenders with him, in order to create and exploit spaces for passes, dribbling runs or combinations with Xavi and Iniesta. Under the stewardship of Luis Enrique, Messi returned to playing in the right - sided position that characterised much of his early career, while also being deployed in a deeper, free role. With the Argentina national team, Messi has similarly played anywhere along the frontline; under various managers, he has been employed on the right wing, as a false nine, or in a deeper, creative role as a classic number 10 or attacking midfielder.
A prodigious talent as a teenager, Messi established himself among the world 's best players before age 20. Diego Maradona considered the 18 - year - old Messi the best player in the world alongside Ronaldinho, while the Brazilian himself, shortly after winning the Ballon d'Or, commented, "I 'm not even the best at Barça, '' in reference to his protégé. Four years later, after Messi had won his first Ballon d'Or by a record margin, the public debate regarding his qualities as a player moved beyond his status in contemporary football to the possibility that he was the greatest player in history. An early proponent was his then - manager Pep Guardiola, who, as early as August 2009, declared Messi to be the best player he had ever seen. In the following years, this opinion gained greater acceptance among pundits, managers, former and current players, and by the end of Barça 's second treble - winning season, Messi 's superiority, ahead of Maradona and Pelé, had become the predominant view among insiders in continental Europe. A frequent dismissal, however, has centred on the fact that Messi has not won the FIFA World Cup with Argentina, leading some in the sport to instead cite him as the best club player in history.
-- Diego Maradona hails the 18 - year - old Messi as his successor in February 2006.
Throughout his career, Messi has been compared with his compatriot Diego Maradona, due to their similar playing styles as diminutive, left - footed dribblers. Initially, he was merely one of many young Argentine players, including his boyhood idol Pablo Aimar, to receive the "New Maradona '' moniker, but as his career progressed, Messi proved his similarity beyond all previous contenders, establishing himself as the greatest player Argentina had produced since Maradona. Jorge Valdano, who won the 1986 World Cup alongside Maradona, said in October 2013, "Messi is Maradona every day. For the last five years, Messi has been the Maradona of the World Cup in Mexico. '' César Menotti, who as manager orchestrated their 1978 World Cup victory, echoed this sentiment when he opined that Messi plays "at the level of the best Maradona ''. Other notable Argentines in the sport, such as Osvaldo Ardiles, Javier Zanetti, and Diego Simeone, have expressed their belief that Messi has overtaken Maradona as the best player in history.
In Argentine society, Messi is generally held in lesser esteem than Maradona, a consequence of not only his uneven performances with the national team, but also of differences in class, personality, and background. Messi is in some ways the antithesis of his predecessor: where Maradona was an extroverted, controversial character who rose to greatness from the slums, Messi is reserved and unassuming, an unremarkable man outside of football. An enduring mark against him is the fact that, although through no fault of his own, he never proved himself in the Argentine Primera División as an upcoming player, achieving stardom overseas from a young age, while his lack of outward passion for the Albiceleste shirt -- he does not sing the national anthem and is disinclined to emotional displays -- have in the past led to the false perception that he felt Catalan rather than truly Argentine. Despite having lived in Spain since age 13, Messi has said: "Argentina is my country, my family, my way of expressing myself. I would change all my records to make the people in my country happy. '' In November 2016, with the Argentine Football Association being run by a FIFA committee for emergency due to an economic crisis, it was reported that three of the national team 's security staff told Messi that they have n't been given their salaries for six months. He stepped in and paid the salaries of the three members.
Among his contemporary peers, Messi is most often compared and contrasted with Portuguese forward Cristiano Ronaldo, as part of an ongoing rivalry that has been compared to past sports rivalries like the Muhammad Ali -- Joe Frazier rivalry in boxing, the Björn Borg -- John McEnroe rivalry in tennis, and the Ayrton Senna -- Alain Prost rivalry from Formula One. Although Messi has at times denied any rivalry, they are widely believed to push one another in their aim to be the best player in the world: since 2008, both players have won five Ballons d'Or and four European Golden Shoes. Pundits and fans regularly argue the individual merits of both players; beyond their playing styles, the debate also revolves around their differing physiques -- Ronaldo is 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in) with a muscular build -- and contrasting public personalities, with Ronaldo 's self - confidence and theatrics a foil to Messi 's humility. Messi faces Ronaldo at least twice every season in El Clásico, which ranks among the world 's most viewed annual sports events. Off the pitch, Ronaldo is his direct competitor in terms of salary, sponsorships, and social media fanbase.
-- US president Barack Obama when given an honorary number 10 jersey at the White House.
According to France Football, Messi was the world 's highest - paid footballer for five years out of six between 2009 and 2014; he was the first player to exceed the € 40 million benchmark, with earnings of € 41 million in 2013, and the € 50 -- € 60 million points, with income of € 65 million in 2014. In 2016, Messi was second on Forbes list of the world 's highest - paid athletes (after Cristiano Ronaldo) with income of $81.4 million from his salary and endorsements in 2015 -- 16. Since 2008, he has been Barcelona 's highest - paid player, receiving a salary that increased incrementally from € 7.8 million to € 13 million over the next five years. Signing a new Barcelona contract in 2017, he earns $667,000 per week in wages, and Barcelona also paid him $59.6 million as a signing on bonus. His new buyout clause is set at $835 million (€ 700 million). In addition to his salary and multimillion - euro bonuses, much of his income derives from endorsements; SportsPro has consequently cited him as one of the world 's most marketable athletes every year since their research began in 2010. His main sponsor since 2006 is the sportswear company Adidas. As Barça 's leading youth prospect, he had been signed with Nike since age 14, but transferred to Adidas after they successfully challenged their rival 's claim to his image rights in court. Over time, Messi established himself as their leading brand endorser; from 2008, he had a long - running signature collection of Adidas F50 boots, and in 2015, he became the first footballer to receive his own sub-brand of Adidas boots, the Adidas Messi.
As a commercial entity, Messi 's marketing brand has been based exclusively on his talents and achievements as a player, in contrast to arguably more glamorous players like Cristiano Ronaldo and David Beckham. At the start of his career, he thus mainly held sponsorship contracts with companies that employ sports - oriented marketing, such as Adidas, Pepsi, and Konami. From 2010 onwards, concurrently with his increased achievements as a player, his marketing appeal widened, leading to long - term endorsement deals with luxury brands Dolce & Gabbana and Audemars Piguet. Messi is also a global brand ambassador for Gillette, Turkish Airlines, Ooredoo, and Tata Motors, among other companies. Additionally, Messi was the face of Konami 's video game series Pro Evolution Soccer, appearing on the covers of PES 2009, PES 2010 and PES 2011. He subsequently signed with rival company EA Sports to become the face of their series FIFA and has since appeared on four consecutive covers from FIFA 13 to FIFA 16.
Messi 's global popularity and influence are well documented. He was among the Time 100, an annual list of the world 's most influential people as published by Time, in 2011 and 2012. His fanbase on the social media website Facebook is among the largest of all public figures: within seven hours of its launch in April 2011, his Facebook page had nearly seven million followers, and by November 2013, he had become only the second sportsperson, after Cristiano Ronaldo, to amass over 50 million followers. According to a 2014 survey by sports research firm Repucom in 15 international markets, Messi was familiar to 87 % of respondents around the world, of whom 78 % perceived him favourably, making him the second-most recognised player globally, behind Ronaldo, and the most likable of all contemporary players.
Other events have illustrated Messi 's presence in popular culture. A solid gold replica of his left foot, weighing 25 kg (55 lb) and valued at $5.25 million, went on sale in Japan in March 2013 to raise funds for victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. A 2013 Turkish Airlines advertisement starring Messi, in which he engages in a selfie competition with then - Los Angeles Lakers star Kobe Bryant, was the most - watched ad on YouTube in the year of its release, receiving 137 million views, and was subsequently voted the best advertisement of the 2005 -- 15 decade to commemorate YouTube 's founding. World Press Photo selected "The Final Game '', a photograph of Messi facing the World Cup trophy after Argentina 's final defeat to Germany, as the best sports image of 2014. Messi, a documentary about his life by filmmaker Álex de la Iglesia, premiered at the Venice Film Festival in August 2014.
Since 2008, when he was 20, Messi has been in a relationship with Antonella Roccuzzo, a fellow native of Rosario. He has known Roccuzzo since he was five years old, as she is the cousin of his best friend since childhood, Lucas Scaglia, who is also a football player. After keeping their relationship private for a year, Messi first confirmed their romance in an interview in January 2009, before going public a month later during a carnival in Sitges after the Barcelona -- Espanyol derby.
-- Endocrinologist Dr. Diego Schwarzstein addressed Messi 's growth hormone deficiency from 1997 to 2001. According to Bleacher Report 's Richard Fitzpatrick, "Schwarzstein and Messi built up a close relationship during more than four years of treatment. ''
Messi and Roccuzzo have three sons: Thiago (born 2012), Mateo (born 2015) and Ciro (born 2018). To celebrate his partner 's first pregnancy, Messi placed the ball under his shirt after scoring in Argentina 's 4 -- 0 win against Ecuador on 2 June 2012, before confirming the pregnancy in an interview two weeks later. Thiago was born in Barcelona on 2 November 2012, with Messi attending the birth after being given permission by Barcelona to miss training. He announced his son 's arrival on his Facebook page, writing, "Today I am the happiest man in the world, my son was born and thanks to God for this gift! '' Thiago 's name and handprints are tattooed on his left calf. In April 2015, Messi confirmed on Facebook that they were expecting another child. He missed training ahead of a match against Atlético Madrid to attend the birth of his second son, Mateo, on 11 September 2015 in Barcelona. On 30 June 2017, he married Roccuzzo at a luxury hotel named Hotel City Center in Rosario with about 260 guests attending his wedding. On 15 October 2017, his wife announced they were expecting their third child in an Instagram post, with the words "Family of 5 ''. On 10 March 2018, Messi skipped the match against Málaga after Ciro was born.
Messi enjoys a close relationship with his immediate family members, particularly his mother, Celia, whose face he has tattooed on his left shoulder. His professional affairs are largely run as a family business: his father, Jorge, has been his agent since he was 14, and his oldest brother, Rodrigo, handles his daily schedule and publicity. His mother and other brother, Matías, manage his charitable organisation, the Leo Messi Foundation, and take care of personal and professional matters in Rosario.
Since leaving for Spain at age 13, Messi has maintained close ties to his hometown of Rosario, even preserving his distinct Rosarino accent. He has kept ownership of his family 's old house, although it has long stood empty; he maintains a penthouse apartment in an exclusive residential building for his mother, as well as a family compound just outside the city. Once when he was in training with the national team in Buenos Aires, he made a three - hour trip by car to Rosario immediately after practice to have dinner with his family, spent the night with them, and returned to Buenos Aires the next day in time for practice. Messi keeps in daily contact via phone and text with a small group of confidants in Rosario, most of whom were fellow members of "The Machine of ' 87 '' at Newell 's Old Boys. Although considered a one - club man, he has long planned to return to Rosario to end his playing career at Newell 's. He was on bad terms with the club after his transfer to Barcelona, but by 2012 their public feud had ended, with Newell 's embracing their ties with Messi, even issuing a club membership card to his newborn son.
Throughout his career, Messi has been involved in charitable efforts aimed at vulnerable children, a commitment that stems in part from the medical difficulties he faced in his own childhood. Since 2004, he has contributed his time and finances to the United Nations Children 's Fund (UNICEF), an organisation with which Barcelona also have a strong association. Messi has served as a UNICEF goodwill ambassador since his appointment in March 2010, completing his first field mission for the organisation four months later as he travelled to Haiti to bring public awareness to the plight of the country 's children in the wake of the recent earthquake. He has since participated in UNICEF campaigns targeting HIV prevention, education, and the social inclusion of disabled children. To celebrate his son 's first birthday, in November 2013, Messi and Thiago were part of a publicity campaign to raise awareness of mortality rates among disadvantaged children.
In addition to his work with UNICEF, Messi founded his own charitable organisation, the Leo Messi Foundation, which supports access to health care, education, and sport for children. It was established in 2007 following a visit Messi paid to a hospital for terminally ill children in Boston, an experience that resonated with him to the point that he decided to reinvest part of his earnings into society. Through his foundation, Messi has awarded research grants, financed medical training, and invested in the development of medical centres and projects in Argentina, Spain, and elsewhere in the world. In addition to his own fundraising activities, such as his global "Messi and Friends '' football matches, his foundation receives financial support from various companies to which he has assigned his name in endorsement agreements, with Adidas as their main sponsor.
Messi has also invested in youth football in Argentina: he financially supports Sarmiento, a football club based in the Rosario neighbourhood where he was born, committing in 2013 to the refurbishment of their facilities and the installation of all - weather pitches, and funds the management of several youth players at Newell 's Old Boys and rival club Rosario Central, as well as at River Plate and Boca Juniors in Buenos Aires. At Newell 's Old Boys, his boyhood club, he funded the 2012 construction of a new gymnasium and a dormitory inside the club 's stadium for their youth academy. His former youth coach at Newell 's, Ernesto Vecchio, is employed by the Leo Messi Foundation as a talent scout for young players. On 7 June 2016, Messi won a libel case against La Razón newspaper and was awarded € 65,000 in damages, which he donated to the charity Doctors without Borders.
Messi 's financial affairs came under investigation in 2013 for suspected tax evasion. Offshore companies in tax havens Uruguay and Belize were allegedly used to evade € 4.1 million in taxes related to sponsorship earnings between 2007 and 2009. An unrelated shell company in Panama, set up in 2012, was subsequently identified as belonging to the Messis in the Panama Papers data leak. Messi, who pleaded ignorance of the alleged scheme, voluntarily paid arrears of € 5.1 million in August 2013. He stood trial alongside his father on three counts of tax evasion in May 2016. On 6 July 2016, Messi and his father were both found guilty of tax fraud and were handed suspended 21 - month prison sentences and respectively ordered to pay € 1.7 million and € 1.4 million in fines.
While the District Attorney did not consider there to be motives to accuse Messi, the state lawyer 's office became the only party that requested a punishment for him, despite his declarations that he was not aware of any of the deals that were taking place with his money. Facing the judge, he said, "I just played football. ''
Notes
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where was the movie the killing fields filmed | The Killing Fields (film) - wikipedia
The Killing Fields is a 1984 British biographical drama film about the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia, which is based on the experiences of two journalists: Cambodian Dith Pran and American Sydney Schanberg. It was directed by Roland Joffé and produced by David Puttnam for his company Goldcrest Films. Sam Waterston stars as Schanberg, Haing S. Ngor as Pran, Julian Sands as Jon Swain, and John Malkovich as Al Rockoff. The adaptation for the screen was written by Bruce Robinson; the musical score was written by Mike Oldfield and orchestrated by David Bedford.
The film was a success at the box office as well as being an instant hit with critics. At the 57th Academy Awards it received seven Oscar nominations; including Best Picture; it won three, most notably Best Supporting Actor for Haing S. Ngor, who had had no previous acting experience. At the 38th British Academy Film Awards, it won eight BAFTAs, including Best Film and Best Actor in a Leading Role for Ngor.
In 1999 the British Film Institute voted The Killing Fields the 100th greatest British film of the 20th century. In 2016 British film magazine Empire ranked it number 86 in their list of the 100 best British films.
In the Cambodian capital, Phnom Penh, during May 1973, the Cambodian national army is fighting a civil war with the Khmer Rouge, a result of the Vietnam War overspilling that country 's borders. Dith Pran, a Cambodian journalist and interpreter for The New York Times, awaits the arrival of reporter Sydney Schanberg at the city 's airport but leaves suddenly. Schanberg takes a cab to his hotel where he meets up with Al Rockoff (John Malkovich). Pran meets Schanberg later and tells him that an incident has occurred in a town, Neak Leung; allegedly, an American B - 52 has bombed the town.
Schanberg and Pran go to Neak Leung where they find that the town has been bombed. Schanberg and Pran are arrested when they try to photograph the execution of two Khmer Rouge operatives. They are eventually released and Schanberg is furious when the international press corps arrives with the U.S. Army.
Two years later, in 1975, the Phnom Penh embassies are being evacuated in anticipation of the arrival of the Khmer Rouge. Schanberg secures evacuation for Pran, his wife and their four children. However, Pran insists that he would stay behind to help Schanberg.
The Khmer Rouge move into the capital, ostensibly in peace. During a parade through the city, Schanberg meets Rockoff. They are later met by a detachment of the Khmer Rouge, who immediately arrest them. The group is taken through the city to a back alley where prisoners are being held and executed. Pran, unharmed because he is a Cambodian civilian, negotiates to spare the lives of his friends. They do not leave Phnom Penh, but instead retreat to the French embassy.
Informed that the Khmer Rouge have ordered all Cambodian citizens in the embassy to be handed over and fearing the embassy will be overrun, the embassies comply. Knowing that Pran will be imprisoned or killed, Rockoff and fellow photographer Jon Swain (Julian Sands) of The Sunday Times try to forge a British passport for Pran; the deception fails when the image of Pran on the passport photo fades to nothing, as they lack adequate photographic developer. Pran is turned over to the Khmer Rouge and is forced to live under their totalitarian regime.
Several months after returning to New York City, Schanberg is in the midst of a personal campaign to locate Pran. In Cambodia, Pran has become a forced labourer under the Khmer Rouge 's "Year Zero '' policy, a return to the agrarian ways of the past. Pran is also forced to attend propagandist classes where many undergo re-education. As intellectuals are made to disappear, Pran feigns simple - mindedness. Eventually, he tries to escape, but is recaptured. Before he is found by members of the Khmer Rouge, he slips into a muddy cesspool filled with rotting human corpses; in doing so, he stumbles upon one of the infamous killing fields of the Pol Pot regime, where as many as 2 million Cambodian citizens were murdered.
In 1976 Sydney Schanberg is awarded a Pulitzer prize for his coverage of the Cambodian conflict. At the acceptance dinner he tells the audience that half the recognition for the award belongs to Pran. Later in the restroom, he is confronted by Rockoff, who harshly accuses him of not doing enough to locate Pran and for using his friend to win the award. Schanberg defends his efforts, saying that he has contacted every humanitarian relief agency possible in the time since Pran 's disappearance. Rockoff suggests that Schanberg subtly pressured Pran to remain in Cambodia because Pran was so vital to Schanberg 's work. This accusation hits close to home, and Schanberg begins to wonder whether he put his own self - interest ahead of Pran 's safety. He finally confesses that Pran "stayed because I wanted him to stay ''.
Pran is assigned to the leader of a different prison compound, a man named Phat, and charged mostly with tending to his little boy. Pran continues his self - imposed discipline of behaving as an uneducated peasant, despite several of Phat 's attempts to trick him into revealing his knowledge of both French and English. Phat begins to trust Pran and asks him to take ward of his son in the event that he is killed. The Khmer Rouge are now engaged in a border war with Vietnam. The conflict reaches Pran 's region and a battle ensues between the Khmer Rouge of the compound and two jets sent to destroy the camp. After the skirmish has ended, Pran discovers that Phat 's son has American money and a map leading to safety. When Phat tries to stop the younger Khmer Rouge officers from killing several of his comrades, he is ignominiously shot.
In the confusion, Pran escapes with four other prisoners and they begin a long trek through the jungle with Phat 's young son. The group later splits and three of them head in a different direction; Pran continues following the map with the fourth man. However, Pran 's companion activates a hidden land mine while holding the boy. As Pran pleads with the man to give him the boy, the mine goes off, killing the pair. Pran mourns for a time and continues on. One day he crests the escarpment of the Dângrêk Mountains and sees a Red Cross camp near the border of Thailand.
The scene shifts to Schanberg calling Pran 's family with the news that Pran is alive and safe. Soon after, Schanberg travels to the Red Cross camp and is reunited with Pran. He asks Pran to forgive him; Pran answers, with a smile, "Nothing to forgive, Sydney '', as the two embrace.
In an interview with The Guardian in November 2014, Joffe said:
In the same interview actor Julian Sands said:
The Killing Fields holds a 93 % rating at the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 40 reviews from notable publications. Critic Roger Ebert wrote in the Chicago Sun - Times: "The film is a masterful achievement on all the technical levels -- it does an especially good job of convincing us with its Asian locations -- but the best moments are the human ones, the conversations, the exchanges of trust, the waiting around, the sudden fear, the quick bursts of violence, the desperation. ''
Academy Awards
British Academy Film Awards
Golden Globe Awards
Other
Besides its place as 100th on the BFI Top 100 British films list, The Killing Fields is also 30th on Channel 4 's list of the 100 Greatest Tearjerkers, and 60th on the AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Cheers list.
The Killing Fields was released on DVD by Umbrella Entertainment in Australia in March 2010. The DVD includes special features such as the theatrical trailer, audio commentary with Roland Joffé, an interview with David Puttnam and a BBC documentary titled The Making of The Killing Fields. In April 2013 Umbrella Entertainment released the film on Blu - ray in Australia.
In the UK, the film was released on DVD and Blu - ray by Optimum Releasing and was released in North America on DVD by Warner Brothers, as part of their Warner Archive Collection.
Haing S. Ngor, who plays Pran, was himself a survivor of the Khmer Rouge regime and the labour camps. Prior to the Khmer Rouge 's ' Year Zero ' he was a doctor based in Phnom Penh. In 1975, Ngor was one of millions who were moved from the city to forced labour camps in the countryside. He spent four years there before fleeing to Thailand.
Haing S. Ngor had never acted before appearing in The Killing Fields. He was spotted by the film 's casting director, Pat Golden, at a Cambodian wedding in Los Angeles.
Of his role in the film, he told People magazine in 1985: "I wanted to show the world how deep starvation is in Cambodia, how many people die under Communist regime. My heart is satisfied. I have done something perfect. ''
The screenplay is adapted from a Sydney Schanberg story in The New York Times Magazine entitled "The Death and Life of Dith Pran: A Story of Cambodia ''.
In 1986, actor Spalding Gray, who had a small role in the film as the American consul, created Swimming to Cambodia, a monologue (later filmed by Jonathan Demme) based upon his experiences making The Killing Fields.
A book of the film was written by Christopher Hudson.
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chhotubhai gopalbhai patel institute of technology bardoli surat | Chhotubhai Gopalbhai Patel Institute of Technology - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 21 ° 4 ′ 1 '' N 73 ° 7 ′ 49 '' E / 21.06694 ° N 73.13028 ° E / 21.06694; 73.13028
Chhotubhai Gopalbhai Patel Institute of Technology (CGPIT), in Bardoli, Gujarat, India, is an institute of higher education run by BPKM (Bardoli Pradesh Kelavani Mandal) and affiliated with Gujarat Technological University. The director is Dr. N.C. Shah.
Chhotubhai Gopalbhai Patel Institute of Technology was established in 2009 with permission from the All India Council for Technical Education. It is affiliated with Uka Tarsadia University (UTU).
CGPIT has these primary departments:
To provide value - based technical education for mental, physical, moral and spiritual development of the students and to promote increased use of science & technology in the day - to - day life through training and R & D activities.
Social upliftment of the community in general and rural community in particular, through the spread of technical education, research, training and consultancy services.
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which of the following is not a component of the brainstem | Brainstem - wikipedia
The brainstem (or brain stem) is the posterior part of the brain, adjoining and structurally continuous with the spinal cord. In the human brain the brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. Sometimes the diencephalon, the caudal part of the forebrain, is included.
The brainstem provides the main motor and sensory innervation to the face and neck via the cranial nerves. Of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves, ten pairs come from the brainstem. Though small, this is an extremely important part of the brain as the nerve connections of the motor and sensory systems from the main part of the brain to the rest of the body pass through the brainstem. This includes the corticospinal tract (motor), the dorsal column - medial lemniscus pathway (fine touch, vibration sensation, and proprioception), and the spinothalamic tract (pain, temperature, itch, and crude touch).
The brainstem also plays an important role in the regulation of cardiac and respiratory function. It also regulates the central nervous system, and is pivotal in maintaining consciousness and regulating the sleep cycle. The brainstem has many basic functions including heart rate, breathing, sleeping, and eating.
The midbrain is divided into three parts: tectum, tegmentum, and the ventral tegmentum. The tectum (Latin: roof), which forms the ceiling. The tectum comprises the paired structure of the superior and inferior colliculi and is the dorsal covering of the cerebral aqueduct. The inferior colliculus, is the principal midbrain nucleus of the auditory pathway and receives input from several peripheral brainstem nuclei, as well as inputs from the auditory cortex. Its inferior brachium (arm - like process) reaches to the medial geniculate nucleus of the diencephalon. Superior to the inferior colliculus, the superior colliculus marks the rostral midbrain. It is involved in the special sense of vision and sends its superior brachium to the lateral geniculate body of the diencephalon. The tegmentum which forms the floor of the midbrain, and is ventral to the cerebral aqueduct. Several nuclei, tracts, and the reticular formation are contained here. The ventral tegmentum is composed of paired cerebral peduncles. These transmit axons of upper motor neurons.
The midbrain consists of:
The pons lies between the medulla oblongata and the midbrain. It contains tracts that carry signals from the cerebrum to the medulla and to the cerebellum and also tracts that carry sensory signals to the thalamus. The pons is connected to the cerebellum by the cerebellar peduncles. The pons houses the respiratory pneumotaxic center and apneustic center that make up the pontine respiratory group in the respiratory center. The pons co-ordinates activities of the cerebellar hemispheres.
The medulla oblongata often just referred to as the medulla, is the lower half of the brainstem continuous with the spinal cord. Its upper part is continuous with the pons. The medulla contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centres dealing with heart rate, breathing and blood pressure.
In the medial part of the medulla is the anterior median fissure. Moving laterally on each side are the medullary pyramids. The pyramids contain the fibers of the corticospinal tract (also called the pyramidal tract), or the upper motor neuronal axons as they head inferiorly to synapse on lower motor neuronal cell bodies within the anterior grey column of the spinal cord.
The anterolateral sulcus is lateral to the pyramids. Emerging from the anterolateral sulci are the CN XII (hypoglossal nerve) rootlets. Lateral to these rootlets and the anterolateral sulci are the olives. The olives are swellings in the medulla containing underlying inferior nucleary nuclei (containing various nuclei and afferent fibers). Lateral (and dorsal) to the olives are the rootlets for CN IX (glossopharyngeal), CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory nerve). The pyramids end at the pontine medulla junction, noted most obviously by the large basal pons. From this junction, CN VI (abducens nerve), CN VII (facial nerve) and CN VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve) emerge. At the level of the midpons, CN V (the trigeminal nerve) emerges. Cranial nerve III (the oculomotor nerve) emerges ventrally from the midbrain, while the CN IV (the trochlear nerve) emerges out from the dorsal aspect of midbrain.
Between the two pyramids can be seen a decussation of fibres which marks the transition from the medulla to the spinal cord. The medulla is above the decussation and the spinal cord below.
The most medial part of the medulla is the posterior median sulcus. Moving laterally on each side is the fasciculus gracilis, and lateral to that is the fasciculus cuneatus. Superior to each of these, and directly inferior to the obex, are the gracile and cuneate tubercles, respectively. Underlying these are their respective nuclei. The obex marks the end of the fourth ventricle and the beginning of the central canal. The posterior intermediate sulcus separates the fasciculus gracilis from the fasciculus cuneatus. Lateral to the fasciculus cuneatus is the lateral funiculus.
Superior to the obex is the floor of the fourth ventricle. In the floor of the fourth ventricle, various nuclei can be visualized by the small bumps that they make in the overlying tissue. In the midline and directly superior to the obex is the vagal trigone and superior to that it the hypoglossal trigone. Underlying each of these are motor nuclei for the respective cranial nerves. Superior to these trigones are fibers running laterally in both directions. These fibers are known collectively as the striae medullares. Continuing in a rostral direction, the large bumps are called the facial colliculi. Each facial colliculus, contrary to their names, do not contain the facial nerve nuclei. Instead, they have facial nerve axons traversing superficial to underlying abducens (CN VI) nuclei. Lateral to all these bumps previously discussed is an indented line, or sulcus that runs rostrally, and is known as the sulcus limitans. This separates the medial motor neurons from the lateral sensory neurons. Lateral to the sulcus limitans is the area of the vestibular system, which is involved in special sensation. Moving rostrally, the inferior, middle, and superior cerebellar peduncles are found connecting the midbrain to the cerebellum. Directly rostral to the superior cerebellar peduncle, there is the superior medullary velum and then the two trochlear nerves. This marks the end of the pons as the inferior colliculus is directly rostral and marks the caudal midbrain. Middle cerebellar peduncle is located inferior and lateral to the superior cerebellar peduncle, connecting pons to the cerebellum. Likewise, inferior cerebellar peduncle is found connecting the medulla oblongata to the cerebellum.
The adult human brainstem emerges from two of the three primary vesicles formed of the neural tube. The mesencephalon is the second of the three primary vesicles, and does not further differentiate into a secondary vesicle. This will become the midbrain. The third primary vesicle, the rhombencephalon (hindbrain) will further differentiate into two secondary vesicles, the metencephalon and the myelencephalon. The metencephalon will become the cerebellum and the pons. The more caudal myelencephalon will become the medulla.
The main supply of blood to the brainstem is provided by the basilar arteries and the vertebral arteries.
Ten of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves either target or are sourced from the brainstem. The nuclei of the oculomotor nerve (III) and trochlear nerve (IV) are located in the midbrain. The nuclei of the trigeminal nerve (V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII) and vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) are located in the pons. The nuclei of the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus nerve (X), accessory nerve (XI) and hypoglossal nerve (XII) are located in the medulla. The fibers of these cranial nerves exit the brainstem from these nuclei.
There are three main functions of the brainstem:
Diseases of the brainstem can result in abnormalities in the function of cranial nerves that may lead to visual disturbances, pupil abnormalities, changes in sensation, muscle weakness, hearing problems, vertigo, swallowing and speech difficulty, voice change, and co-ordination problems. Localizing neurological lesions in the brainstem may be very precise, although it relies on a clear understanding on the functions of brainstem anatomical structures and how to test them.
Brainstem stroke syndrome can cause a range of impairments including locked - in syndrome.
Duret haemorrhages are areas of bleeding in the midbrain and upper pons due to a downward traumatic displacement of the brainstem.
Cysts known as syrinxes can affect the brainstem, in a condition called syringobulbia. These fluid - filed cavities can be congenital, acquired or the result of a tumor.
Criteria for claiming brainstem death in the UK have developed in order to make the decision of when to stop ventilation of somebody who could not otherwise sustain life. These determining factors are that the patient is irreversibly unconscious and incapable of breathing unaided. All other possible causes must be ruled out that might otherwise indicate a temporary condition. The state of irreversible brain damage has to be unequivocal. There are brainstem reflexes that are checked for by two senior doctors so that imaging technology is unnecessary. The absence of the cough and gag reflexes, of the corneal reflex and the vestibulo - ocular reflex need to be established; the pupils of the eyes must be fixed and dilated; there must be an absence of motor response to stimulation and an absence of breathing marked by concentrations of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. All of these tests must be repeated after a certain time before death can be declared.
The midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata are labelled on this coronal section of the human brain.
Brainstem. Anterior face. Deep dissection
Brainstem. Posterior face. Deep dissection
Sagittal section of brainstem marking nuclei
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who played in the movie remember the titans | Remember the Titans - Wikipedia
Remember the Titans is a 2000 American biographical sports drama film produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and directed by Boaz Yakin. The screenplay, written by Gregory Allen Howard, is based on the true story of African - American coach Herman Boone, portrayed by Denzel Washington, and his attempt to integrate the T.C. Williams High School football team in Alexandria, Virginia, in 1971. Will Patton portrays Bill Yoast, Boone 's assistant coach. Real - life athletes Gerry Bertier and Julius Campbell are portrayed by Ryan Hurst and Wood Harris, respectively.
The film was co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Jerry Bruckheimer Films and released by Buena Vista Pictures. On September 29, 2000, the film 's soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records. It features songs by several recording artists including Creedence Clearwater Revival, The Hollies, Marvin Gaye, James Taylor, The Temptations, and Cat Stevens.
Remember the Titans had a budget of $30 million and premiered in theaters nationwide in the United States on September 29, 2000. It has grossed an estimated $115,654,751 in the U.S., and $136,706,683 worldwide.
In July 1971, at the desegregated T.C. Williams High School, a black head coach, Herman Boone, is hired to lead the school 's football team. Boone is assigned to the coaching team under current coach Bill Yoast, nominated for the Virginia High School Hall of Fame. In an attempt to placate rising racial tensions and the fact that all other high schools are "white '' only, Boone is assigned the head coach job. He refuses believing it is unfair to Yoast, but relents after seeing what it means to the black community. Yoast is then offered an assistant coach 's job by the school board and initially refuses, but reconsiders after the white players pledge to boycott the team if he does not participate. Dismayed at the prospect of the students losing their chances at scholarships, Yoast changes his mind and takes up the position of defensive coordinator under Boone.
The black students have a meeting in the gymnasium in auditioning to play for the team until Boone arrives, but the meeting turns into a fiasco when Yoast and white students interrupt. On August 15, 1971, the players gather and journey to Gettysburg College, where their training camp takes place. As their days of training camp progress, black and white football team members frequently clash in racially motivated conflicts, including some between captains Gerry Bertier and Julius Campbell. But after forceful coaching and rigorous athletic training by Boone, which includes an early morning run to the Gettysburg cemetery, and a motivational speech, the team achieves racial harmony and success. After returning from football camp, Boone is told by a member of the school board that if he loses even a single game, he will be dismissed. Subsequently, the Titans go through the season undefeated while battling racial prejudice, before slowly gaining support from the community. Gerry even has his best friend Ray removed from the team because of his racism, following a game where he intentionally missed a block which consequently led to the near - season - ending injury of starting quarterback Jerry "Rev '' Harris.
Just before the state semi-finals, Yoast is told by the chairman of the school board that he will be inducted into the Hall of Fame after the Titans lose one game, implying he wants Boone to be dismissed over his race. During the game, it becomes apparent that the referees are biased against the Titans. Upon seeing the chairman and other board members in the audience looking on with satisfaction, Yoast realizes they 've rigged the game and warns the head official that he will go to the press and expose the scandal unless the game is officiated fairly. The Titans nonetheless win and advance to the state championship, but Yoast is told by the chairman that his actions have resulted in his loss of candidacy for Hall of Fame induction.
While celebrating the victory, Bertier is severely injured in a car accident with a truck after driving through an intersection. Although Bertier is unable to play due to being paralyzed from the waist down, the team goes on to win the state championship. Bertier would remain a paraplegic for the rest of his life. Ten years later, Bertier dies in another automobile accident caused by a drunk driver, after winning the gold medal in shot put in the Paralympic Games. Coaches and other former teammates reunite to attend his funeral.
In the epilogue, descriptions show the players and coaches activities after the events in 1971.
Filming locations for the motion picture included the campus of Berry College in Rome, GA, as well as in Atlanta, Georgia, including Henry Grady High School and Druid Hills High School which both filled in for T.C. Williams High School.
As with any movie that is not a documentary film but is rather "based on a true story '', it has strayed from the actual events that had occurred on many occasions to add new elements of teamwork, commitment, and friendship to the film.
On September 19, 2000, the soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records. The film score was orchestrated by musician Trevor Rabin and features music composed by various artists. From the instrumental score, Rabin 's track "Titans Spirit '', was the only cue (of the 12 composed) added to the soundtrack. It is also the only piece of music on the soundtrack album not to have been previously released.
"Titans Spirit '' was a seven - minute instrumental. It has been used on numerous sports telecasts, particularly those on NBC, which utilized the score during its closing credits for the Salt Lake 2002, Athens 2004, Torino 2006, Beijing 2008, Vancouver 2010, London 2012, and the Rio 2016 Olympic Games as well in 2002 with the final closing credits montage ending their 12 - year run of NBA coverage. The song was also played as veteran New York Mets players crossed home plate during the closing ceremonies at Shea Stadium, and as the New York Yankees were awarded their rings from their 2009 World Series championship. The New Jersey Devils also used this song during the jersey number retirement ceremonies for Scott Stevens, Ken Daneyko, Scott Niedermayer, Martin Brodeur and Patrik Eliáš.
It was also used during the 2008 Democratic National Convention to accompany the celebration and fireworks at Invesco Field after future president Barack Obama gave his nomination acceptance speech, and was also used immediately following his victory speech upon winning the 2008 Presidential Election.
Following its release in theaters, the Region 1 widescreen and Pan and scan edition of the motion picture was released on DVD in the United States on March 20, 2001. A Special Edition widescreen format of the film was released on March 20, 2001, along with a widescreen Director 's cut on March 14, 2006.
A restored widescreen hi - definition Blu - ray version was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on September 4, 2007. Special features include backstage feature audio commentary with director Boaz Yakin, producer Jerry Bruckheimer and writer Gregory Allen Howard, feature audio commentary with real - life coaches Herman Boone and Bill Yoast, "Remember The Titans: An inspirational journey behind the scenes '' hosted by Lynn Swann, "Denzel Becomes Boone, '' "Beating The Odds ''; Deleted scenes; Movie Showcase and seamless menus.
Remember the Titans opened strongly at the U.S. box office, grossing $26,654,715 in its first weekend and staying within the top five for six weeks. It eventually went on to gross an estimated $115,654,751 in the U.S., and $136,706,684 worldwide.
Among mainstream critics in the U.S., Remember the Titans received generally positive reviews. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 73 % of 132 sampled critics gave the film a positive review, with an average score of 6.3 out of 10. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average out of 100 to critics ' reviews, the film received a score of 48 based on 32 reviews. CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare "A + '' grade.
Writing for The New York Times, A.O. Scott said that "aside from a handful of tense showdowns at the line of scrimmage, there 's not much else to see -- is washed in on the flood tide of a thousand violins. '' James Berardinelli writing for ReelViews, called the film "relentlessly manipulative and hopelessly predictable '' but noted that it was "a notch above the average entry in part because its social message (even if it is soft - peddled) creates a richer fabric than the usual cloth from which this kind of movie is cut. '' Describing some pitfalls, Robert Wilonsky of the Dallas Observer said that "beneath its rah - rah rhetoric and pigskin proselytizing, it 's no more provocative or thoughtful than a Hallmark Hall of Fame film or, for that matter, a Hallmark greeting card. Its heart is in the right place, but it has no soul. '' Wilonsky however was quick to admit "The film 's intentions are noble, but its delivery is ham - fisted and pretentious; you ca n't deny the message, but you can loathe the messenger without feeling too guilty about it. ''
-- Roger Ebert, writing in the Chicago Sun - Times
Todd McCarthy, writing in Variety, said, "As simplistic and drained of complexity as the picture is, it may well appeal to mainstream audiences as an ' if only it could be like this ' fantasy, as well as on the elemental level of a boot camp training film, albeit a PG - rated one with all the cuss words removed. '' Roger Ebert, in the Chicago Sun - Times, viewed the film as "a parable about racial harmony, yoked to the formula of a sports movie, '' adding, "Victories over racism and victories over opposing teams alternate so quickly that sometimes we 're not sure if we 're cheering for tolerance or touchdowns. Real life is never this simple, but then that 's what the movies are for ''.
In the San Francisco Chronicle, Mick LaSalle wrote that the film reminds the viewer that "it 's possible to make a sentimental drama that is n't sickening -- and a sports movie that transcends cliches. '' Columnist Bob Grimm of the Sacramento News & Review, somewhat praised the film, writing, "The film is quite lightweight for the subject matter, but Washington and company make it watchable. '' Some detractors like Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "Denzel Washington should have held out for a better script before he signed on to star in Remember the Titans, but you can see why he wanted to do the movie: He gets to play Martin Luther King Jr. and Vince Lombardi rolled into one nostalgically omnipotent tough - love saint. '' Jeff Vice of the Deseret News admitted that although the film contained dialogue that was "corny, clichéd, and downright cheesy at times, '' as well as how it relayed its message in one of the "most predictable, heavy - handed manners we 've seen in a movie in years '', the film "serves as a reminder of how much goodness there is inside people, just waiting for the right person to bring it out. '' He also viewed the casting as top - notch, saying that it helped to have a "rock - solid foundation in the form of leading - man Denzel Washington '' at the helm.
The film was nominated and won several awards in 2000 -- 2001.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
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how many bella italia restaurants are there in the uk | Bella Italia - Wikipedia
Bella Italia (formerly known as Bella Pasta) is a chain of over 90 restaurants offering dishes inspired by Italian cuisine in the United Kingdom. The chain is part of the Casual Dining Group, who also own Café Rouge and Las Iguanas.
Bella Italia started life as two small restaurant chains - Pastificio and Pizzaland - which were part of the Grand Metropolitan group.
In 1990, Michael Guthrie (former Chairman of Mecca Leisure Group) formed BrightReasons and bought the Pizzaland and Pastificio chains from Grand Metropolitan for £ 20m in February 1991, rebranding Pastificio to Bella Pasta in the process.
In February 1993, BrightReasons purchased 43 Pizza Piazza and Prima Pasta restaurants from Rank Organisation for £ 20.25 m, bringing their total number of restaurants to 165.
In May 1994, BrightReasons started preparing for a stock market flotation, and the group was expected to be valued at between £ 70m - £ 100m. This was subsequently announced in September, however, in November 1994, the planned flotation was postponed.
In November 1996, BrightReasons was put up for sale after suffering a particularly tough trading period in 1995.
In December 2002, the Bella Pasta chain was rebranded as Bella Italia and the first fully branded restaurant opened in Leeds.
In September 2012, Bella Italia joined the Nectar loyalty card reward scheme as a redemption partner.
In September 2013, Bella Italia began a partnership with the Gourmet Society, offering their members discounts on production of a Gourmet Society restaurant discount card.
The menu combines pizza and pasta, which is their main product, with a range of grill and speciality dishes. The food is complemented by some Italian wines - many from smaller producers - beers and soft drinks.
In 2009 the company was found to be threatening to dismiss waiting staff who do not get customers to pay tips on credit cards rather than in cash. Credit card tips were used by the company to subsidise wages (which are usually the legal minimum) whereas cash tips go directly to waiting staff. In line with changes to tipping legislation, which came into effect on 1 October 2009, Tragus Ltd reviewed and updated its policies to ensure that all tips, after a 10 % deduction for administrative and other costs paid by credit or debit card, are now distributed through the payroll system to restaurant staff. All restaurant employees are paid tips in addition to the National Minimum Wage.
In November 2015 the chain received the worst rating of all restaurants surveyed in an assessment of the sustainability of its seafood.
In June 2012, Bella Italia began officially supporting The Children 's Society by donating some of the profit from a selected dish on the menu to the charity.
In 2013, Bella Italia officially partnered with Comic Relief, the British charity founded in 1985 that aims to "bring about positive and lasting change in the lives of poor and disadvantaged people. ''
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how did the lend lease act help the allied war effort | Lend - Lease - wikipedia
The Lend - Lease policy, formally titled An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States, (Pub. L. 77 -- 11, H.R. 1776, 55 Stat. 31, enacted March 11, 1941) was an American program to defeat Germany, Japan and Italy by distributing food, oil, and materiel between 1941 and August 1945. The aid went to the United Kingdom, China, and later the Soviet Union, Free France, and other Allied nations. It included warships and warplanes, along with other weaponry. The policy was signed into law on March 11, 1941, and ended overnight without prior warning when the war against Japan ended. The aid was free for all countries, although goods in transit when the program ended were charged for. Some transport ships were returned to the US after the war, but practically all the items sent out were used up or worthless in peacetime. In Reverse Lend Lease, the U.S. was given no - cost leases on army and naval bases in Allied territory during the war, as well as local supplies.
The program was under the direct control of the White House, with Roosevelt paying close attention, assisted by Harry Hopkins, W. Averell Harriman, and Edward Stettinius Jr... Roosevelt often sent them on special missions to London and Moscow, where their control over Lend Lease gave them importance. The budget was hidden away in the overall military budget, and details were not released until after the war.
A total of $ 50.1 billion (equivalent to $681 billion presently) was involved, or 11 % of the total war expenditures of the U.S. In all, $31.4 billion (equivalent to $427 billion today) went to Britain and its Empire, $11.3 billion (equivalent to $154 billion today) to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion (equivalent to $43.5 billion today) to France, $1.6 billion (equivalent to $21.7 billion today) to China, and the remaining $2.6 billion to the other Allies. Reverse lend - lease policies comprised services such as rent on bases used by the U.S., and totaled $7.8 billion; of this, $6.8 billion came from the British and the Commonwealth, mostly Australia and India. The terms of the agreement provided that the materiel was to be used until returned or destroyed. In practice very little equipment was in usable shape for peacetime uses. Supplies that arrived after the termination date were sold to Britain at a large discount for £ 1.075 billion, using long - term loans from the United States. Canada was not part of Lend Lease. However it operated a similar program called Mutual Aid that sent a loan of $1 billion and $3.4 billion in supplies and services to Britain and other Allies.
This program effectively ended the United States ' pretense of neutrality and was a decisive change from non-interventionist policy, which had dominated United States foreign relations since 1931. (See Neutrality Acts of 1930s.)
After the defeat of France during June 1940, the British Commonwealth and Empire were the only forces engaged in war against Germany and Italy, until the Italian invasion of Greece. Britain had been paying for its material with gold as part of the "cash and carry '' program, as required by the US Neutrality Acts of the 1930s, but by 1941 it had liquidated so many assets that its cash was becoming depleted.
During this same period, the U.S. government began to mobilize for total war, instituting the first - ever peacetime draft and a fivefold increase in the defense budget (from $2 billion to $10 billion). In the meantime, as the British began becoming short of money, arms, and other supplies, Prime Minister Winston Churchill pressed President Franklin D. Roosevelt for American help. Sympathetic to the British plight but hampered by public opinion and the Neutrality Acts, which forbade arms sales on credit or the loaning of money to belligerent nations, Roosevelt eventually came up with the idea of "lend -- lease ''. As one Roosevelt biographer has characterized it: "If there was no practical alternative, there was certainly no moral one either. Britain and the Commonwealth were carrying the battle for all civilization, and the overwhelming majority of Americans, led in the late election by their president, wished to help them. '' As the President himself put it, "There can be no reasoning with incendiary bombs. ''
In September 1940, during the Battle of Britain the British government sent the Tizard Mission to the United States. The aim of the British Technical and Scientific Mission was to obtain the industrial resources to exploit the military potential of the research and development work completed by the UK up to the beginning of World War II, but that Britain itself could not exploit due to the immediate requirements of war - related production. The shared technology included the cavity magnetron (key technology at the time for highly effective radar; the American historian James Phinney Baxter III later called "the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores ''), the design for the VT fuze, details of Frank Whittle 's jet engine and the Frisch -- Peierls memorandum describing the feasibility of an atomic bomb. Though these may be considered the most significant, many other items were also transported, including designs for rockets, superchargers, gyroscopic gunsights, submarine detection devices, self - sealing fuel tanks and plastic explosives.
During December 1940, President Roosevelt proclaimed the U.S.A. would be the "Arsenal of Democracy '' and proposed selling munitions to Britain and Canada. Isolationists were strongly opposed, warning it would result in American involvement with what was considered by most Americans as an essentially European conflict. In time, opinion shifted as increasing numbers of Americans began to consider the advantage of funding the British war against Germany, while staying free of the hostilities themselves. Propaganda showing the devastation of British cities during The Blitz, as well as popular depictions of Germans as savage also rallied public opinion to the Allies, especially after the defeat of France.
After a decade of neutrality, Roosevelt knew that the change to Allied support must be gradual, especially since German Americans were the largest ethnicity in America at the time. Originally, the American policy was to help the British but not join the war. During early February 1941, a Gallup poll revealed that 54 percent of Americans were in favor of giving aid to the British without qualifications of Lend - Lease. A further 15 percent were in favor with qualifications such as: "If it does n't get us into war, '' or "If the British can give us some security for what we give them. '' Only 22 percent were unequivocally against the President 's proposal. When poll participants were asked their party affiliation, the poll revealed a political divide: 69 percent of Democrats were unequivocally in favor of Lend - Lease, whereas only 38 percent of Republicans favored the bill without qualification. At least one poll spokesperson also noted that, "approximately twice as many Republicans '' gave "qualified answers as... Democrats. ''
Opposition to the Lend - Lease bill was strongest among isolationist Republicans in Congress, who feared the measure would be "the longest single step this nation has yet taken toward direct involvement in the war abroad ''. When the House of Representatives finally took a roll call vote on February 9, 1941, the 260 to 165 vote was largely along party lines. Democrats voted 238 to 25 in favor and Republicans 24 in favor and 135 against.
The vote in the Senate, which occurred a month later, revealed a similar partisan difference. 49 Democrats (79 percent) voted "aye '' with only 13 Democrats (21 percent) voting "nay. '' In contrast, 17 Republicans (63 percent) voted "nay '' while 10 Senate Republicans (37 percent) sided with the Democrats to pass the bill.
President Roosevelt signed the Lend - Lease bill into law on 11 March 1941. It permitted him to "sell, transfer title to, exchange, lease, lend, or otherwise dispose of, to any such government (whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States) any defense article. '' In April, this policy was extended to China, and in October to the Soviet Union. Roosevelt approved US $1 billion in Lend - Lease aid to Britain at the end of October 1941.
This followed the 1940 Destroyers for Bases Agreement, whereby 50 US Navy destroyers were transferred to the Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Navy in exchange for basing rights in the Caribbean. Churchill also granted the US base rights in Bermuda and Newfoundland for free, allowing British military assets to be redeployed.
After the United States entered the war in December 1941, foreign policy was rarely discussed by Congress, and there was very little demand to cut Lend - Lease spending. In spring 1944, the House passed a bill to renew the Lend - Lease program by a vote of 334 to 21. The Senate passed it by a vote of 63 to 1.
President Roosevelt established the Office of Lend - Lease Administration during 1941, appointing steel executive Edward R. Stettinius as head. During September 1943, he was promoted to Undersecretary of State, and Leo Crowley became director of the Foreign Economic Administration which was given responsibility for Lend - Lease.
Lend - lease aid to the USSR was nominally managed by Stettinius. Roosevelt 's Soviet Protocol Committee was dominated by Harry Hopkins and General John York, who were totally sympathetic to the provision of "unconditional aid ''. Few Americans objected to Soviet aid until 1943.
The program began to be ended after VE Day. During April 1945, Congress voted that it should not be used for post-conflict purposes, and during August 1945, after Japanese surrender, the program was ended.
Value of materials supplied by the USA to other Allied nations
Lend - Lease helped the British and other Allied forces win the war. Even after the United States forces in Europe and the Pacific began to attain full strength during 1943 -- 1944, Lend - Lease continued. Most remaining Allies were largely self - sufficient in frontline equipment (such as tanks and fighter aircraft) by this time, but Lend - Lease provided a useful supplement in this category even so, and Lend - Lease logistical supplies (including motor vehicles and railroad equipment) were of enormous assistance.
Much of the aid can be better understood when considering the economic distortions caused by the war. Most belligerent powers decreased severely production of non-essentials, concentrating on producing weapons. This inevitably produced shortages of related products needed by the military or as part of the military - industrial complex. For example, the USSR was very dependent on rail transportation, but the war practically ended rail equipment production. Just 446 locomotives were produced during the war, with only 92 of those being built between 1942 and 1945. In total, 92.7 % of the wartime production of railroad equipment by the USSR was supplied by Lend - Lease, including 1,911 locomotives and 11,225 railcars which augmented the existing prewar stocks of at least 20,000 locomotives and half a million railcars.
Furthermore, much of the logistical assistance of the Soviet military was provided by hundreds of thousands of U.S. - made trucks. Indeed, by 1945, nearly a third of the truck strength of the Red Army was U.S. - built. Trucks such as the Dodge 3⁄4 ton and Studebaker 21⁄2 ton were easily the best trucks available in their class on either side on the Eastern Front. American shipments of telephone cable, aluminum, canned rations, and clothing were also critical.
Lend - Lease also supplied significant amounts of weapons and ammunition. The Soviet air force received 18,200 aircraft, which amounted to about 30 % of Soviet wartime aircraft production (mid 1941 - 45). And while most tank units were Soviet - built models, some 7,000 Lend - Lease tanks were deployed by the Red Army, or 8 % of war - time production.
According to the Russian historian Boris Vadimovich Sokolov, Lend - Lease had a crucial role in winning the war:
On the whole the following conclusion can be drawn: that without these Western shipments under Lend - Lease the Soviet Union not only would not have been able to win the Great Patriotic War, it would not have been able even to oppose the German invaders, since it could not itself produce sufficient quantities of arms and military equipment or adequate supplies of fuel and ammunition. The Soviet authorities were well aware of this dependency on Lend - Lease. Thus, Stalin told Harry Hopkins (FDR 's emissary to Moscow in July 1941) that the U.S.S.R. could not match Germany 's might as an occupier of Europe and its resources.
Nikita Khrushchev, having served as a military commissar and intermediary between Stalin and his generals during the war, addressed directly the significance of Lend - lease aid in his memoirs:
I would like to express my candid opinion about Stalin 's views on whether the Red Army and the Soviet Union could have coped with Nazi Germany and survived the war without aid from the United States and Britain. First, I would like to tell about some remarks Stalin made and repeated several times when we were "discussing freely '' among ourselves. He stated bluntly that if the United States had not helped us, we would not have won the war. If we had had to fight Nazi Germany one on one, we could not have stood up against Germany 's pressure, and we would have lost the war. No one ever discussed this subject officially, and I do n't think Stalin left any written evidence of his opinion, but I will state here that several times in conversations with me he noted that these were the actual circumstances. He never made a special point of holding a conversation on the subject, but when we were engaged in some kind of relaxed conversation, going over international questions of the past and present, and when we would return to the subject of the path we had traveled during the war, that is what he said. When I listened to his remarks, I was fully in agreement with him, and today I am even more so.
Joseph Stalin, during the Tehran Conference during 1943, acknowledged publicly the importance of American efforts during a dinner at the conference: "Without American production the United Nations (the Allies) could never have won the war. ''
In a confidential interview with the wartime correspondent Konstantin Simonov, the Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov is quoted as saying:
Today (1963) some say the Allies did n't really help us... But listen, one can not deny that the Americans shipped over to us material without which we could not have equipped our armies held in reserve or been able to continue the war.
Roosevelt, eager to ensure public consent for this controversial plan, explained to the public and the press that his plan was comparable to one neighbor 's lending another a garden hose to put out a fire in his home. "What do I do in such a crisis? '' the president asked at a press conference. "I do n't say... ' Neighbor, my garden hose cost me $15; you have to pay me $15 for it '... I do n't want $15 -- I want my garden hose back after the fire is over. '' To which Senator Robert Taft (R - Ohio), responded: "Lending war equipment is a good deal like lending chewing gum -- you certainly do n't want the same gum back. ''
In practice, very little was returned except for a few unarmed transport ships. Surplus military equipment was of no value in peacetime. The Lend - Lease agreements with 30 countries provided for repayment not in terms of money or returned goods, but in "joint action directed towards the creation of a liberalized international economic order in the postwar world. '' That is the U.S, would be "repaid '' when the recipient fought the common enemy and joined the world trade and diplomatic agencies, such as the United Nations.
American deliveries to the Soviet Union can be divided into the following phases:
Delivery was via the Arctic Convoys, the Persian Corridor, and the Pacific Route.
The Arctic route was the shortest and most direct route for lend - lease aid to the USSR, though it was also the most dangerous as it involved sailing past German - occupied Norway. Some 3,964,000 tons of goods were shipped by the Arctic route; 7 % was lost, while 93 % arrived safely. This constituted some 23 % of the total aid to the USSR during the war.
The Persian Corridor was the longest route, and was not fully operational until mid-1942. Thereafter it saw the passage of 4,160,000 tons of goods, 27 % of the total.
The Pacific Route opened in August 1941, but was affected by the start of hostilities between Japan and the US; after December 1941, only Soviet ships could be used, and, as Japan and the USSR observed a strict neutrality towards each other, only non-military goods could be transported. Nevertheless, some 8,244,000 tons of goods went by this route, 50 % of the total.
In total, the U.S. deliveries through Lend - Lease amounted to $11 billion in materials: over 400,000 jeeps and trucks; 12,000 armored vehicles (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386 of which were M3 Lees and 4,102 M4 Shermans); 11,400 aircraft (4,719 of which were Bell P - 39 Airacobras) and 1.75 million tons of food.
Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94 % coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.
The United States delivered to the Soviet Union from October 1, 1941 to May 31, 1945 the following: 427,284 trucks, 13,303 combat vehicles, 35,170 motorcycles, 2,328 ordnance service vehicles, 2,670,371 tons of petroleum products (gasoline and oil) or 57.8 percent of the High - octane aviation fuel, 4,478,116 tons of foodstuffs (canned meats, sugar, flour, salt, etc.), 1,911 steam locomotives, 66 Diesel locomotives, 9,920 flat cars, 1,000 dump cars, 120 tank cars, and 35 heavy machinery cars. Provided ordnance goods (ammunition, artillery shells, mines, assorted explosives) amounted to 53 percent of total domestic production. One item typical of many was a tire plant that was lifted bodily from the Ford Company 's River Rouge Plant and transferred to the USSR. The 1947 money value of the supplies and services amounted to about eleven billion dollars.
In June 1941, within weeks of the German invasion of the USSR, the first British aid convoy set off along the dangerous Arctic sea route to Murmansk, arriving in September. It carried 40 Hawker Hurricanes along with 550 mechanics and pilots of No. 151 Wing to provide immediate air defence of the port and to train Soviet pilots. The convoy was the first of many convoys to Murmansk and Archangelsk in what became known as the Arctic convoys, the returning ships carried the gold that the USSR was using to pay the US.
By the end of 1941, early shipments of Matilda, Valentine and Tetrarch tanks represented only 6.5 % of total Soviet tank production but over 25 % of medium and heavy tanks produced for the Red Army. The British tanks first saw action with the 138 Independent Tank Battalion in the Volga Reservoir on 20 November 1941. Lend - Lease tanks constituted 30 to 40 percent of heavy and medium tank strength before Moscow at the beginning of December 1941.
Significant numbers of British Churchill, Matilda and Valentine tanks were shipped to the USSR.
Between June 1941 and May 1945, Britain delivered to the USSR:
In total 4 million tonnes of war material including food and medical supplies were delivered. The munitions totaled £ 308m (not including naval munitions supplied), the food and raw materials totaled £ 120m in 1946 index. In accordance with the Anglo - Soviet Military Supplies Agreement of 27 June 1942, military aid sent from Britain to the Soviet Union during the war was entirely free of charge.
Reverse Lend - lease was the supply of equipment and services to the United States. Nearly $8 billion (equivalent to $124 billion today) worth of war material was provided to U.S. forces by her allies, 90 % of this sum coming from the British Empire. Reciprocal contributions included the Austin K2 / Y military ambulance, British aviation spark plugs used in B - 17 Flying Fortresses, Canadian - made Fairmile launches used in anti-submarine warfare, Mosquito photo - reconnaissance aircraft, and Indian petroleum products. Australia and New Zealand supplied the bulk of foodstuffs to United States forces in the South Pacific. Though diminutive in comparison, Soviet - supplied reverse lend - lease included 300,000 tonnes of chromium and 32,000 tonnes of manganese ore, as well as wood, gold and platinum.
In a November 1943 report to Congress, President Roosevelt said of Allied participation in reverse Lend - lease:
... the expenditures made by the British Commonwealth of Nations for reverse lend - lease aid furnished to the United States, and of the expansion of this program so as to include exports of materials and foodstuffs for the account of United States agencies from the United Kingdom and the British colonies, emphasizes the contribution which the British Commonwealth has made to the defense of the United States while taking its place on the battle fronts. It is an indication of the extent to which the British have been able to pool their resources with ours so that the needed weapon may be in the hands of that soldier -- whatever may be his nationality - who can at the proper moment use it most effectively to defeat our common enemies.
While in April 1944 Congress were briefed by the Foreign Economic Administrator, Leo T Crowley;
Just as the RAF 's operations against Germany and the invasion coasts would not have been possible on their present scale without lend - lease so the United States Eighth and Ninth air forces daylight missions from Britain would not have been possible without reverse lend - lease. Our Fortresses and Liberators take off from huge air bases built, equipped and serviced under reverse lend - lease at a cost to them of hundreds of millions of dollars. Many of our pilots fly Spitfires built in England, many more are flying American fighter planes powered by British Rolls Royce Merlin engines, turned over to us by the British. And many of the supplies needed by our Air Force are procured for us without cost by reverse lend - lease. In fact our armed forces in Britain, ground as well as air, receive as reverse lend - lease, with no payment by us, one third of all the supplies and equipment they currently require, Britain furnishes 90 % of their medical supplies and in spite of her food shortage, 20 % of their food.
In 1945 -- 46, the value of Reciprocal Aid from New Zealand exceeded that of Lend - Lease, though in 1942 -- 43, the value of Lend - Lease to New Zealand was much more than that of Reciprocal Aid. Britain also supplied extensive material assistance to American forces stationed in Europe, for example the USAAF was supplied with hundreds of Spitfire Mk V and Mk VIII fighter aircraft.
The cooperation that was built up with Canada during the war was an amalgam compounded of diverse elements of which the air and land routes to Alaska, the Canol project, and the CRYSTAL and CRIMSON activities were the most costly in point of effort and funds expended.
... The total of defense materials and services that Canada received through lend - lease channels amounted in value to approximately $419,500,000.
... Some idea of the scope of economic collaboration can be had from the fact that from the beginning of 1942 through 1945 Canada, on her part, furnished the United States with $1,000,000,000 to $1,250,000,000 in defense materials and services.
... Although most of the actual construction of joint defense facilities, except the Alaska Highway and the Canol project, had been carried out by Canada, most of the original cost was borne by the United States. The agreement was that all temporary construction for the use of American forces and all permanent construction required by the United States forces beyond Canadian requirements would be paid for by the United States, and that the cost of all other construction of permanent value would be met by Canada. Although it was not entirely reasonable that Canada should pay for any construction that the Canadian Government considered unnecessary or that did not conform to Canadian requirements, nevertheless considerations of self - respect and national sovereignty led the Canadian Government to suggest a new financial agreement.
... The total amount that Canada agreed to pay under the new arrangement came to about $76,800,000, which was some $13,870,000 less than the United States had spent on the facilities.
Canada had its own version of lend - lease for Britain. Canada gave Britain gifts totaling $3.5 billion during the war, plus a zero - interest loan of $1 billion; Britain used the money to buy Canadian food and war supplies. Canada also loaned $1.2 billion on a long - term basis to Britain immediately after the war; these loans were fully repaid in late 2006.
(RCAF Station Gander) located at Gander International Airport, built in 1936 in Newfoundland, was leased by Britain to Canada for 99 years because of its urgent need for the movement of fighter and bomber aircraft to Britain. The lease became redundant when Newfoundland became Canada 's tenth province in 1949.
Most American Lend - Lease aid comprised supplies purchased in the U.S., but Roosevelt allowed Lend - Lease to purchase supplies from Canada, for shipment to Britain, China and the Soviet Union.
Congress had not authorized the gift of supplies delivered after the cutoff date, so the U.S. charged for them, usually at a 90 % discount. Large quantities of undelivered goods were in Britain or in transit when Lend - Lease terminated on 2 September 1945. Britain wished to retain some of this equipment in the immediate post war period. In 1946, the post-war Anglo - American loan further indebted Britain to the U.S. Lend - Lease items retained were sold to Britain at 10 % of nominal value, giving an initial loan value of £ 1.075 billion for the Lend - Lease portion of the post-war loans. Payment was to be stretched out over 50 annual payments, starting in 1951 and with five years of deferred payments, at 2 % interest. The final payment of $83.3 million (£ 42.5 million), due on 31 December 2006 (repayment having been deferred in the allowed five years and during a sixth year not allowed), was made on 29 December 2006 (the last working day of the year). After this final payment Britain 's Economic Secretary to the Treasury formally thanked the U.S. for its wartime support.
Tacit repayment of Lend - Lease by the British was made in the form of several valuable technologies, including those related to radar, sonar, jet engines, antitank weaponry, rockets, superchargers, gyroscopic gunsights, submarine detection, self - sealing fuel tanks, and plastic explosives as well as the British contribution to the Manhattan Project. Many of these were transferred by the Tizard Mission. The official historian of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, James Phinney Baxter III, wrote: "When the members of the Tizard Mission brought the cavity magnetron to America in 1940, they carried the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores. ''
While repayment of the interest - free loans was required after the end of the war under the act, in practice the U.S. did not expect to be repaid by the USSR after the war. The U.S. received $2 M in reverse Lend - Lease from the USSR. This was mostly in the form of landing, servicing, and refueling of transport aircraft; some industrial machinery and rare minerals were sent to the U.S. The U.S. asked for $1.3 B at the cessation of hostilities to settle the debt, but was only offered $170 M by the USSR. The dispute remained unresolved until 1972, when the U.S. accepted an offer from the USSR to repay $722 M linked to grain shipments from the U.S., with the remainder being written off. During the war the USSR provided an unknown number of shipments of rare minerals to the US Treasury as a form of cashless repayment of Lend - Lease. This was agreed upon before the signing of the first protocol on 1 October 1941 and extension of credit. Some of these shipments were intercepted by the Germans. In May 1942, HMS Edinburgh was sunk while carrying 4.5 tonnes of Soviet gold intended for the U.S. Treasury. This gold was salvaged in 1981 and 1986. In June 1942, SS Port Nicholson was sunk en route from Halifax, Nova Scotia to New York, allegedly with Soviet platinum, gold, and industrial diamonds aboard; the wreck was discovered in 2008. However, none of this cargo has been salvaged, and no documentation of its treasures has been produced.
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who do you think you are 10 august 2017 | Who Do You Think You Are? (UK TV series) - wikipedia
Who Do You Think You Are? is a British genealogy documentary series that has aired on the BBC since 2004. In each episode, a celebrity traces their family tree. It is made by the production company Wall to Wall. The show has regularly attracted an audience of more than 6 million viewers. More than ten international adaptations of the show have been produced.
Series one and two were broadcast on BBC Two, and the first was the channel 's highest - rating programme of 2004. This led to episodes being shown on BBC One from the third series onwards. The current narrator, as of Series 14 in 2017, is Phil Davis. Mark Strong took over from David Morrissey after the first series, which was nominated for "Best Factual Series or Strand '' in the 2005 BAFTAs; Cherie Lunghi was the narrator between Series 10 and 13.
In the first series, the last ten minutes of each episode featured presenter Adrian Chiles and genealogical researcher Nick Barratt giving tips on tracing a family tree. In 2007, a special episode was broadcast in conjunction with the BBC 's "Family Wanted '' campaign featuring Nicky Campbell, who was adopted a few days after he was born.
The theme tune was composed by Mark Sayer - Wade, who also provided the background music for earlier episodes. The music for later episodes is provided by Julian Hamlin and Edmund Jolliffe.
On 23 June 2015, the BBC confirmed the lineup for Series 12, which began on 13 August 2015.
On 13 July, the line - up for the 13th series was confirmed. The series started on 24 November 2016.
On June 23, the BBC announced the line - up for the series ' 14th series, which again would comprise 10 episodes and like the previous series would be split into two halves to be broadcast across the year on BBC One. The remaining five episodes feature TV presenter Fearne Cotton, comedienne Ruby Wax, actor and director Noel Clarke, singer Lulu and actress Lisa Hammond.
The show was nominated for the 2010 BAFTA Television Award for Best Factual Series.
Series 1 -- 11 of Who Do You Think You Are? are available on DVD in the UK (Region 2).
In October 2007, BBC Magazines began issuing Who Do You Think You Are? Magazine, a monthly publication that includes material from the TV series.
The series 1 -- 4 box set of Who Do You Think You Are? is available, distributed by Acorn Media UK.
The format of the series has proved popular around the world and the BBC has licensed it to many foreign television companies, who have produced their own individual versions:
TVP1 has aired a Polish version, called Sekrety rodzinne, which was broadcast from November 2006 to March 2007.
In September 2007, a first series of Canadian version, consisting of 13 episodes, aired on CBC Television.
An Australian version aired on SBS in January 2008, after six episodes of the BBC version had been shown; the BBC programmes were those featuring Stephen Fry, Bill Oddie, Julia Sawalha, Jeremy Clarkson, Gurinder Chadha, and Nigella Lawson.
In 2008, ARD 's Das Erste aired the German version, called Das Geheimnis meiner Familie ("The secret of my family ''). They aired four episodes featuring Marie - Luise Marjan, Armin Rohde, Christine Neubauer and Peter Maffay.
Ireland 's national broadcaster RTÉ has aired two series of Irish version of Who Do You Think You Are? in autumn 2008 and autumn 2009. The Irish version has included internationally recognised names such as Ardal O'Hanlon, Dana, Rosanna Davison, and Dermot Gavin. The British version of the show already airs on TG4 in Ireland.
Sveriges Television, the Swedish public service broadcaster, aired a Swedish version called Vem tror du att du är? in 2009. Later that year, in May and June, they also aired the BBC episodes featuring Stephen Fry, Jeremy Irons, Nigella Lawson, John Hurt, and Jane Horrocks.
Also on 31 May 2009, South African station SABC2 premiered its version, split into two parts, featuring local personalities.
An American adaptation of the show premiered on 5 March 2010 on NBC. In Britain, this began airing on BBC One on Sunday 13 June 2010.
In 2010, the Dutch version called Verborgen Verleden ("Hidden Past '') of the show started. Thus far, eight series have been produced between 2010 and 2017. From 2005 to 2008, four series of the show Verre Verwanten ("Distant Relatives '') were shown on Dutch television.
In September 2010, the Danish TV station Danmarks Radio aired the first episode of the Danish version, called Ved du hvem du er?.
On 1 September 2010, France 2 aired two episodes of the French version, Retour aux Sources, featuring Vincent Pérez and Clémentine Célarié
In January 2011, the Norwegian TV station NRK started to air the Norwegian version, called Hvem tror du at du er?
Starting on 9 January 2012, Finland 's national public - broadcasting company, YLE, aired 15 episodes of the Finnish version, called Kuka oikein olet?, in which local public figures searched for their origins.
A furthering of the concept was developed for American public broadcast TV, called Finding Your Roots, with Henry Louis Gates. This series adds DNA profiling to the format; including Y - chromosome DNA, mitochondrial DNA and autosomal DNA analyses to infer both ancient and recent genetic relationships. The series started airing on 25 March 2012.
In January 2013, Czech broadcaster ČT started broadcasting their version of this show, called Tajemství rodu ("The secret of the lineage '').
Starting 15 January 2013, RTP1 broadcast a Portuguese version called Quem É que Tu Pensas Que És? ("Who Do You Think You Are? '') at the 10: 30 pm timeslot. The first season featured such names as the comedian Herman José, the actresses Maria do Céu Guerra and Maria João Abreu, the musician Zé Pedro from the Xutos & Pontapés rock band and the fadista Camané.
BBC Wales has a similar series called Coming Home, which is made by Yellow Duck Productions and features celebrities with a Welsh background. In 2007, Wall to Wall developed You Do n't Know You 're Born for ITV1. The series saw various celebrities taking on their ancestors ' jobs. UKTV broadcast My Famous Family in 2007.
A short parody sketch of the show featured in the first series of The Armstrong and Miller Show in which Alexander Armstrong plays a fictionalised version of himself, discovering that his paternal grandfather and maternal grandmother were a child molester and a brothel - owner, respectively.
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what colour is the cheshire cat in alice in wonderland | Cheshire Cat - wikipedia
The Cheshire Cat (/ ˈtʃɛʃər / or / ˈtʃɛʃɪər /) is a fictional cat popularised by Lewis Carroll in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland and known for its distinctive mischievous grin. While most often celebrated in Alice - related contexts, the Cheshire Cat predates the 1865 novel and has transcended the context of literature and become enmeshed in popular culture, appearing in various forms of media, from political cartoons to television, as well as cross-disciplinary studies, from business to science. One of its distinguishing features is that from time to time its body disappears, the last thing visible being its iconic grin.
There are numerous theories about the origins of the phrase "grinning like a Cheshire Cat '' in English history.
This phrase owes its origin to the unhappy attempts of a sign painter of that country to represent a lion rampant, which was the crest of an influential family, on the sign - boards of many of the inns. The resemblance of these lions to cats caused them to be generally called by the more ignoble name. A similar case is to be found in the village of Charlton, between Pewsey and Devizes, Wiltshire. A public - house by the roadside is commonly known by the name of The Cat at Charlton. The sign of the house was originally a lion or tiger, or some such animal, the crest of the family of Sir Edward Poore.
The Cheshire Cat is now largely identified with the character of the same name in Lewis Carroll 's novel Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland. Alice first encounters the Cheshire Cat at the Duchess 's house in her kitchen, and later on the branches of a tree, where it appears and disappears at will, and engages Alice in amusing but sometimes perplexing conversation. The cat sometimes raises philosophical points that annoy or baffle Alice; but appears to cheer her when it appears suddenly at the Queen of Hearts ' croquet field; and when sentenced to death, baffles everyone by having made its head appear without its body, sparking a debate between the executioner and the King and Queen of Hearts about whether a disembodied head can indeed be beheaded. At one point, the cat disappears gradually until nothing is left but its grin, prompting Alice to remark that ' she has often seen a cat without a grin but never a grin without a cat '.
According to recent analysis by scholar David Day, Lewis Carroll 's cat was Edward Bouverie Pusey, Oxford professor of Hebrew, and Carroll 's mentor.
The name Pusey was suggested by Alice 's deferential address of the cat as "Cheshire Puss ''. Pusey was an authority on the fathers of the Christian Church, and in Carroll 's time Pusey was known as the Patristic Catenary (or chain), after the chain of authority of Church patriarchs. As a mathematician, Carroll would have been well familiar with the other meaning of catenary: the curve of a horizontally - suspended chain, which suggests the shape of the cat 's grin.
RIDDLE: What kind of a cat can grin? ANSWER: A Catenary.
There are many other suggestions that Carroll found inspiration for the name and expression of the Cheshire Cat in the 16th century sandstone carving of a grinning cat, on the west face of St Wilfrid 's Church tower in Grappenhall, a village adjacent to his birthplace in Daresbury, Cheshire.
Lewis Carroll 's father, Reverend Charles Dodgson, was Rector of Croft and Archdeacon of Richmond in North Yorkshire, England, from 1843 to 1868; Carroll lived here from 1843 to 1850. Historians believe Lewis Carroll 's Cheshire Cat in the book Alice in Wonderland was inspired by a carving in Croft church.
Another possible inspiration was the British Shorthair: Carroll saw a representative British Shorthair illustrated on a label of Cheshire cheese. The Cat Fanciers ' Association profile reads: "When gracelessness is observed, the British Shorthair is duly embarrassed, quickly recovering with a ' Cheshire cat smile ' ''.
In 1992, members of the Lewis Carroll Society attributed it to a gargoyle found on a pillar in St Nicolas Church, Cranleigh, where Carroll used to travel frequently when he lived in Guildford (though this is doubtful as he moved to Guildford some three years after Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland had been published) and a carving in a church in the village of Croft - on - Tees, in the north east of England, where his father had been rector.
Carroll is believed to have visited St. Christopher 's church in Pott Shrigley, Cheshire, which has a stone sculpture most closely resembling the pictorial cat in the book. "St. Christopher 's Church, Pott Schrigley History ''. Retrieved 2017 - 10 - 10.
The Cheshire Cat character has been re-depicted by other creators and used as the inspiration for new characters, primarily in screen media (film, television, video games) and print media (literature, comics, art). Other non-media contexts that embrace the Cheshire Cat include music, business, and science.
Prior to 1951 when Walt Disney released an animated adaptation of the story (see below), there were few post-Alice allusions to the character. Martin Gardner, author of The Annotated Alice, wondered if T.S. Eliot had the Cheshire Cat in mind when writing Morning at the Window, but notes no other significant allusions in the pre-war period.
Images of and references to the Cheshire Cat cropped up with increasing frequency in the 1960s and 1970s, along with more frequent references to Carroll 's works in general. (See generally the lyrics to White Rabbit by the rock group Jefferson Airplane). The Cheshire Cat appeared on LSD blotters, as well as in song lyrics and popular fiction.
In the 1951 Disney animated film, Alice in Wonderland, the Cheshire Cat is depicted as an intelligent and mischievous character that sometimes helps Alice and sometimes gets her into trouble. He frequently sings the first verse of the Jabberwocky poem. The animated character was voiced by Sterling Holloway (Alice in Wonderland) and Jim Cummings (2004 -- present).
In the 1985 television adaptation of Carroll 's books, the Cheshire Cat is voiced by Telly Savalas. He sings a morose song called "There 's No Way Home, '' which simply drives Alice to try and find a way home even more.
In the 1999 television adaptation of Carroll 's books, the Cheshire Cat is voiced by Whoopi Goldberg. She acts as an ally and friend to Alice.
The Cheshire Cat appears in Walt Disney 's 2010 Alice in Wonderland, directed by Tim Burton. British actor Stephen Fry voices the character. In the movie, Cheshire (as he is often called; or sometimes "Chess '') binds the wound Alice suffered earlier by the Bandersnatch and guides her to Tarrant Hightopp, the Mad Hatter and Thackery Earwicket, the March Hare. He is blamed by the Hatter for desertion when the White Queen is deposed by the Red; but later impersonates the Hatter when the latter is sentenced to decapitation. Throughout his appearances, "Chess '' is able to make himself intangible or weightless, as well as invisible (and thus to survive decapitation), and is usually shown in mid-air, at shoulder - height to human - sized characters. In the video game adaptation of the movie, Chess is a playable character who can not only turn himself invisible, but other objects around him as well.
Each major film adaptation of Lewis Carroll 's tale represents the Cheshire Cat character and his traits uniquely.
In addition to the Cheshire Cat 's appearances in films central to its Lewis Carroll origins, the Cheshire Cat has been featured in other cinematic works. The late filmmaker Chris Marker gave his monumental documentary on the New Left movement of 1967 -- 1977, Le fond de l'air est rouge (1977), the English title Grin Without a Cat. Like the original, it signifies that revolution was in the air, but failed to take root. In the film, it is also stated: a spearhead without a spear, a grin without a catThe Cheshire Cat has been seen by television audiences in a broadcast spin - off. The Cheshire Cat appears in Once Upon a Time in Wonderland (a spin - off of Once Upon a Time) voiced by Keith David. While looking for the Mad Hatter 's house from the trees, Alice encounters the Cheshire Cat in giant form where the Red Queen had promised him that Alice would be good food for him. Both of them ended up engaging each other in combat until the Knave of Hearts arrived and threw a piece of one mushroom side into his mouth, which shrank him back to normal size as the Cheshire Cat leaves.
The Cheshire Cat appears as an avatar character in several the video games American McGee 's Alice (2000); and the sequel Alice: Madness Returns (2011), the Cheshire Cat is portrayed as an enigmatic, yet wise guide for Alice in the corrupted Wonderland. In keeping with the twisted tone of the game, the Cheshire Cat is mangy and emaciated in appearance. His voice was provided by Roger L. Jackson, who also voiced the Mad Hatter and The Jabberwock in the game.
Cheshire Cat is used as a metaphor to explain several scientific phenomena:
... (T) aken from Lewis Carroll, we liken this theory to the strategy used by the Cheshire Cat in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland of making its body invisible to make the sentence "off with his head '' pronounced by the Queen of Hearts impossible to execute... CC dynamics, which rely to some extent on separation of the sexual processes of meiosis and fusion in time and / or space, release the host from short - term pathogen pressure, thus widening the scope for the host to evolve in other directions.
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when does jane the virgin season 3 start | Jane the Virgin (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of Jane the Virgin premiered on The CW on October 17, 2016 and ended on May 22, 2017. The season consisted of 20 episodes and stars Gina Rodriguez as a young Latina university student accidentally artificially inseminated with her boss ' sperm, Rafael Solano (Justin Baldoni). In this season, Jane marries Michael Cordero, Jr. (Brett Dier) and must deal with married life while Rafael discovers secrets from his past and his ex-wife, Petra Solano (Yael Grobglas), gives birth to her and Rafael 's twin girls.
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what is the text of the 14th amendment | Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Fourteenth Amendment (Amendment XIV) to the United States Constitution was adopted on July 9, 1868, as one of the Reconstruction Amendments. The amendment addresses citizenship rights and equal protection of the laws and was proposed in response to issues related to former slaves following the American Civil War. The amendment was bitterly contested, particularly by the states of the defeated Confederacy, which were forced to ratify it in order to regain representation in Congress. The amendment, particularly its first section, is one of the most litigated parts of the Constitution, forming the basis for landmark decisions such as Brown v. Board of Education (1954) regarding racial segregation, Roe v. Wade (1973) regarding abortion, Bush v. Gore (2000) regarding the 2000 presidential election, and Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) regarding same - sex marriage. The amendment limits the actions of all state and local officials, including those acting on behalf of such an official.
The amendment 's first section includes several clauses: the Citizenship Clause, Privileges or Immunities Clause, Due Process Clause, and Equal Protection Clause. The Citizenship Clause provides a broad definition of citizenship, nullifying the Supreme Court 's decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), which had held that Americans descended from African slaves could not be citizens of the United States. The Privileges or Immunities Clause has been interpreted in such a way that it does very little.
The Due Process Clause prohibits state and local government officials from depriving persons of life, liberty, or property without legislative authorization. This clause has also been used by the federal judiciary to make most of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states, as well as to recognize substantive and procedural requirements that state laws must satisfy. The Equal Protection Clause requires each state to provide equal protection under the law to all people, including all non-citizens, within its jurisdiction. This clause has been the basis for many decisions rejecting irrational or unnecessary discrimination against people belonging to various groups.
The second, third, and fourth sections of the amendment are seldom litigated. However, the second section 's reference to "rebellion and other crime '' has been invoked as a constitutional ground for felony disenfranchisement. The fourth section was held, in Perry v. United States (1935), to prohibit a current Congress from abrogating a contract of debt incurred by a prior Congress. The fifth section gives Congress the power to enforce the amendment 's provisions by "appropriate legislation ''; however, under City of Boerne v. Flores (1997), this power may not be used to contradict a Supreme Court decision interpreting the amendment.
Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty - one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty - one years of age in such State.
Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two - thirds of each House, remove such disability.
Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.
Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
In the final years of the American Civil War and the Reconstruction Era that followed, Congress repeatedly debated the rights of black former slaves freed by the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation and the 1865 Thirteenth Amendment, the latter of which had formally abolished slavery. Following the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment by Congress, however, Republicans grew concerned over the increase it would create in the congressional representation of the Democratic - dominated Southern States. Because the full population of freed slaves would now be counted for determining congressional representation, rather than the three - fifths previously mandated by the Three - Fifths Compromise, the Southern States would dramatically increase their power in the population - based House of Representatives, regardless of whether the former slaves were allowed to vote. Republicans began looking for a way to offset this advantage, either by protecting and attracting votes of former slaves, or at least by discouraging their disenfranchisement.
In 1865, Congress passed what would become the Civil Rights Act of 1866, guaranteeing citizenship without regard to race, color, or previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude. The bill also guaranteed equal benefits and access to the law, a direct assault on the Black Codes passed by many post-war states. The Black Codes attempted to return ex-slaves to something like their former condition by, among other things, restricting their movement, forcing them to enter into year - long labor contracts, prohibiting them from owning firearms, and preventing them from suing or testifying in court.
Although strongly urged by moderates in Congress to sign the bill, President Andrew Johnson vetoed it on March 27, 1866. In his veto message, he objected to the measure because it conferred citizenship on the freedmen at a time when 11 out of 36 states were unrepresented in the Congress, and that it discriminated in favor of African - Americans and against whites. Three weeks later, Johnson 's veto was overridden and the measure became law. Despite this victory, even some Republicans who had supported the goals of the Civil Rights Act began to doubt that Congress really possessed constitutional power to turn those goals into laws. The experience also encouraged both radical and moderate Republicans to seek Constitutional guarantees for black rights, rather than relying on temporary political majorities.
Over 70 proposals for an amendment were drafted. In late 1865, the Joint Committee on Reconstruction proposed an amendment stating that any citizens barred from voting on the basis of race by a state would not be counted for purposes of representation of that state. This amendment passed the House, but was blocked in the Senate by a coalition of Radical Republicans led by Charles Sumner, who believed the proposal a "compromise with wrong '', and Democrats opposed to black rights. Consideration then turned to a proposed amendment by Representative John A. Bingham of Ohio, which would enable Congress to safeguard "equal protection of life, liberty, and property '' of all citizens; this proposal failed to pass the House. In April 1866, the Joint Committee forwarded a third proposal to Congress, a carefully negotiated compromise that combined elements of the first and second proposals as well as addressing the issues of Confederate debt and voting by ex-Confederates. The House of Representatives passed House Resolution 127, 39th Congress several weeks later and sent to the Senate for action. The resolution was debated and several amendments to it were proposed. Amendments to Sections 2, 3, and 4 were adopted on June 8, 1866, and the modified resolution passed by a 33 to 11 vote. The House agreed to the Senate amendments on June 13 by a 138 -- 36 vote. A concurrent resolution requesting the President to transmit the proposal to the executives of the several states was passed by both houses of Congress on June 18.
The Radical Republicans were satisfied that they had secured civil rights for blacks, but were disappointed that the amendment would not also secure political rights for blacks; in particular, the right to vote. For example, Thaddeus Stevens, a leader of the disappointed Radical Republicans, said: "I find that we shall be obliged to be content with patching up the worst portions of the ancient edifice, and leaving it, in many of its parts, to be swept through by the tempests, the frosts, and the storms of despotism. '' Abolitionist Wendell Phillips called it a "fatal and total surrender ''. This point would later be addressed by the Fifteenth Amendment.
Ratification of the amendment was bitterly contested. State legislatures in every formerly Confederate state, with the exception of Tennessee, refused to ratify it. This refusal led to the passage of the Reconstruction Acts. Ignoring the existing state governments, military government was imposed until new civil governments were established and the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified. It also prompted Congress to pass a law on March 2, 1867, requiring that a former Confederate state must ratify the Fourteenth Amendment before "said State shall be declared entitled to representation in Congress ''.
The first twenty - eight states to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment were:
If rescission by Ohio and New Jersey were invalid, South Carolina would have been the 28th State. Rescission by Oregon did not occur until later. These rescissions caused significant controversy. However, ratification by other states continued during the course of the debate:
On July 20, 1868, Secretary of State William H. Seward certified that if withdrawals of ratification by New Jersey and Ohio were ineffective, then the amendment had become part of the Constitution on July 9, 1868, with ratification by South Carolina. The following day, Congress adopted and transmitted to the Department of State a concurrent resolution declaring the Fourteenth Amendment to be a part of the Constitution and directing the Secretary of State to promulgate it as such. Both New Jersey and Ohio were named in the congressional resolution as having ratified the amendment, although Alabama was also named, making 29 states total.
On the same day, one more State ratified:
On July 27, Secretary Seward received the formal ratification from Georgia. The following day, July 28, Secretary Seward issued his official proclamation certifying the ratification of the 14th Amendment. Secretary Seward stated that his proclamation was "in conformance '' to the resolution by Congress, but his official list of States included both Alabama and Georgia, as well as Ohio and New Jersey.
The inclusion of Ohio and New Jersey has led some to question the validity of rescission of a ratification. The inclusion of Alabama and Georgia has called that conclusion into question. While there have been Supreme Court cases dealing with ratification issues, this particular question has never been adjudicated.
The Fourteenth Amendment was subsequently ratified:
Since Ohio and New Jersey re-ratified the Fourteenth Amendment in 2003, all U.S. states that existed during Reconstruction have ratified the amendment.
Section 1 of the amendment formally defines United States citizenship and also protects various civil rights from being abridged or denied by any state or state actor. Abridgment or denial of those civil rights by private persons is not addressed by this amendment; the Supreme Court held in the Civil Rights Cases (1883) that the amendment was limited to "state action '' and, therefore, did not authorize the Congress to outlaw racial discrimination by private individuals or organizations (though Congress can sometimes reach such discrimination via other parts of the Constitution). U.S. Supreme Court Justice Joseph P. Bradley commented in the Civil Rights Cases that "individual invasion of individual rights is not the subject - matter of the (14th) Amendment. It has a deeper and broader scope. It nullifies and makes void all state legislation, and state action of every kind, which impairs the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, or which injures them in life, liberty or property without due process of law, or which denies to any of them the equal protection of the laws. ''
The Radical Republicans who advanced the Thirteenth Amendment hoped to ensure broad civil and human rights for the newly freed people -- but its scope was disputed before it even went into effect. The framers of the Fourteenth Amendment wanted these principles enshrined in the Constitution to protect the new Civil Rights Act from being declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court and also to prevent a future Congress from altering it by a mere majority vote. This section was also in response to violence against black people within the Southern States. The Joint Committee on Reconstruction found that only a Constitutional amendment could protect black people 's rights and welfare within those states.
This first section of the amendment has been the most frequently litigated part of the amendment, and this amendment in turn has been the most frequently litigated part of the Constitution.
The Citizenship Clause overruled the Supreme Court 's Dred Scott decision that black people were not citizens and could not become citizens, nor enjoy the benefits of citizenship. Some members of Congress voted for the Fourteenth Amendment in order to eliminate doubts about the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, or to ensure that no subsequent Congress could later repeal or alter the main provisions of that Act. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 had granted citizenship to all persons born in the United States if they were not subject to a foreign power, and this clause of the Fourteenth Amendment constitutionalized this rule.
There are varying interpretations of the original intent of Congress and of the ratifying states, based on statements made during the congressional debate over the amendment, as well as the customs and understandings prevalent at that time. Some of the major issues that have arisen about this clause are the extent to which it included Native Americans, its coverage of non-citizens legally present in the United States when they have a child, whether the clause allows revocation of citizenship, and whether the clause applies to illegal immigrants.
Historian Eric Foner, who has explored the question of U.S. birthright citizenship to other countries, argues that:
Many things claimed as uniquely American -- a devotion to individual freedom, for example, or social opportunity -- exist in other countries. But birthright citizenship does make the United States (along with Canada) unique in the developed world. (...) Birthright citizenship is one expression of the commitment to equality and the expansion of national consciousness that marked Reconstruction. (...) Birthright citizenship is one legacy of the titanic struggle of the Reconstruction era to create a genuine democracy grounded in the principle of equality.
During the original congressional debate over the amendment Senator Jacob M. Howard of Michigan -- the author of the Citizenship Clause -- described the clause as having the same content, despite different wording, as the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1866, namely, that it excludes Native Americans who maintain their tribal ties and "persons born in the United States who are foreigners, aliens, who belong to the families of ambassadors or foreign ministers. '' According to historian Glenn W. LaFantasie of Western Kentucky University, "A good number of his fellow senators supported his view of the citizenship clause. '' Others also agreed that the children of ambassadors and foreign ministers were to be excluded.
Senator James Rood Doolittle of Wisconsin asserted that all Native Americans were subject to United States jurisdiction, so that the phrase "Indians not taxed '' would be preferable, but Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Lyman Trumbull and Howard disputed this, arguing that the federal government did not have full jurisdiction over Native American tribes, which govern themselves and make treaties with the United States. In Elk v. Wilkins (1884), the clause 's meaning was tested regarding whether birth in the United States automatically extended national citizenship. The Supreme Court held that Native Americans who voluntarily quit their tribes did not automatically gain national citizenship. The issue was resolved with the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, which granted full U.S. citizenship to indigenous peoples.
The Fourteenth Amendment provides that children born in the United States become American citizens regardless of the citizenship of their parents. At the time of the amendment 's passage, three Senators, including Trumbull, the author of the Civil Rights Act, as well as President Andrew Johnson, asserted that both the Civil Rights Act and the Fourteenth Amendment would confer citizenship on such children at birth; however, Senator Edgar Cowan of Pennsylvania had a definitively contrary opinion. These congressional remarks applied to non-citizens lawfully present in the United States, as the problem of unauthorized immigration did not exist in 1866, and some scholars dispute whether the Citizenship Clause applies to unauthorized immigrants, although the law of the land continues to be based on the standard interpretation. Congress during the 21st century has occasionally discussed revising the clause to reduce the practice of "birth tourism '', in which a pregnant foreign national gives birth in the United States for purposes of the child 's citizenship.
The clause 's meaning with regard to a child of legal immigrants was tested in United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898). The Supreme Court held that under the Fourteenth Amendment, a man born within the United States to Chinese citizens who have a permanent domicile and residence in the United States and are carrying on business in the United States -- and whose parents were not employed in a diplomatic or other official capacity by a foreign power -- was a citizen of the United States. Subsequent decisions have applied the principle to the children of foreign nationals of non-Chinese descent.
According to the Foreign Affairs Manual, which is published by the Department of Defense, "Despite widespread popular belief, U.S. military installations abroad and U.S. diplomatic or consular facilities abroad are not part of the United States within the meaning of the (Fourteenth) Amendment. ''
Loss of national citizenship is possible only under the following circumstances:
For much of the country 's history, voluntary acquisition or exercise of a foreign citizenship was considered sufficient cause for revocation of national citizenship. This concept was enshrined in a series of treaties between the United States and other countries (the Bancroft Treaties). However, the Supreme Court repudiated this concept in Afroyim v. Rusk (1967), as well as Vance v. Terrazas (1980), holding that the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment barred the Congress from revoking citizenship. However, Congress can revoke citizenship that it had previously granted to a person not born in the United States.
The Privileges or Immunities Clause, which protects the privileges and immunities of national citizenship from interference by the states, was patterned after the Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV, which protects the privileges and immunities of state citizenship from interference by other states. In the Slaughter - House Cases (1873), the Supreme Court concluded that the Constitution recognized two separate types of citizenship -- "national citizenship '' and "state citizenship '' -- and the Court held that the Privileges or Immunities Clause prohibits states from interfering only with privileges and immunities possessed by virtue of national citizenship. The Court concluded that the privileges and immunities of national citizenship included only those rights that "owe their existence to the Federal government, its National character, its Constitution, or its laws. '' The Court recognized few such rights, including access to seaports and navigable waterways, the right to run for federal office, the protection of the federal government while on the high seas or in the jurisdiction of a foreign country, the right to travel to the seat of government, the right to peaceably assemble and petition the government, the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus, and the right to participate in the government 's administration. This decision has not been overruled and has been specifically reaffirmed several times. Largely as a result of the narrowness of the Slaughter - House opinion, this clause subsequently lay dormant for well over a century.
In Saenz v. Roe (1999), the Court ruled that a component of the "right to travel '' is protected by the Privileges or Immunities Clause:
Despite fundamentally differing views concerning the coverage of the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, most notably expressed in the majority and dissenting opinions in the Slaughter - House Cases (1873), it has always been common ground that this Clause protects the third component of the right to travel. Writing for the majority in the Slaughter - House Cases, Justice Miller explained that one of the privileges conferred by this Clause "is that a citizen of the United States can, of his own volition, become a citizen of any State of the Union by a bona fide residence therein, with the same rights as other citizens of that State. '' (emphasis added)
Justice Miller actually wrote in the Slaughter - House Cases that the right to become a citizen of a state (by residing in that state) "is conferred by the very article under consideration '' (emphasis added), rather than by the "clause '' under consideration.
In McDonald v. Chicago (2010), Justice Clarence Thomas, while concurring with the majority in incorporating the Second Amendment against the states, declared that he reached this conclusion through the Privileges or Immunities Clause instead of the Due Process Clause. Randy Barnett has referred to Justice Thomas 's concurring opinion as a "complete restoration '' of the Privileges or Immunities Clause.
In the 1884 case of Hurtado v. California, the U.S. Supreme Court said:
Due process of law in the (Fourteenth Amendment) refers to that law of the land in each state which derives its authority from the inherent and reserved powers of the state, exerted within the limits of those fundamental principles of liberty and justice which lie at the base of all our civil and political institutions, and the greatest security for which resides in the right of the people to make their own laws, and alter them at their pleasure.
The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applies only against the states, but it is otherwise textually identical to the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment, which applies against the federal government; both clauses have been interpreted to encompass identical doctrines of procedural due process and substantive due process. Procedural due process is the guarantee of a fair legal process when the government tries to interfere with a person 's protected interests in life, liberty, or property, and substantive due process is the guarantee that the fundamental rights of citizens will not be encroached on by government. The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment also incorporates most of the provisions in the Bill of Rights, which were originally applied against only the federal government, and applies them against the states.
Beginning with Allgeyer v. Louisiana (1897), the Court interpreted the Due Process Clause as providing substantive protection to private contracts, thus prohibiting a variety of social and economic regulation; this principle was referred to as "freedom of contract ''. Thus, the Court struck down a law decreeing maximum hours for workers in a bakery in Lochner v. New York (1905) and struck down a minimum wage law in Adkins v. Children 's Hospital (1923). In Meyer v. Nebraska (1923), the Court stated that the "liberty '' protected by the Due Process Clause
(w) ithout doubt... denotes not merely freedom from bodily restraint but also the right of the individual to contract, to engage in any of the common occupations of life, to acquire useful knowledge, to marry, establish a home and bring up children, to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience, and generally to enjoy those privileges long recognized at common law as essential to the orderly pursuit of happiness by free men.
However, the Court did uphold some economic regulation, such as state Prohibition laws (Mugler v. Kansas, 1887), laws declaring maximum hours for mine workers (Holden v. Hardy, 1898), laws declaring maximum hours for female workers (Muller v. Oregon, 1908), and President Woodrow Wilson 's intervention in a railroad strike (Wilson v. New, 1917), as well as federal laws regulating narcotics (United States v. Doremus, 1919). The Court repudiated, but did not explicitly overrule, the "freedom of contract '' line of cases in West Coast Hotel v. Parrish (1937).
In Poe v. Ullman (1961), dissenting judge John Marshall Harlan II adopted a broad view of the "liberty '' protected by the Fourteenth Amendment Due Process clause:
(T) he full scope of the liberty guaranteed by the Due Process Clause can not be found in or limited by the precise terms of the specific guarantees elsewhere provided in the Constitution. This ' liberty ' is not a series of isolated points pricked out in terms of the taking of property; the freedom of speech, press, and religion; the right to keep and bear arms; the freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures; and so on. It is a rational continuum which, broadly speaking, includes a freedom from all substantial arbitrary impositions and purposeless restraints,... and which also recognizes, what a reasonable and sensitive judgment must, that certain interests require particularly careful scrutiny of the state needs asserted to justify their abridgment.
This broad view of liberty was adopted by the Supreme Court in Griswold v. Connecticut (for further information see below). Although the "freedom of contract '' described above has fallen into disfavor, by the 1960s, the Court had extended its interpretation of substantive due process to include other rights and freedoms that are not enumerated in the Constitution but that, according to the Court, extend or derive from existing rights. For example, the Due Process Clause is also the foundation of a constitutional right to privacy. The Court first ruled that privacy was protected by the Constitution in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), which overturned a Connecticut law criminalizing birth control. While Justice William O. Douglas wrote for the majority that the right to privacy was found in the "penumbras '' of various provisions in the Bill of Rights, Justices Arthur Goldberg and John Marshall Harlan II wrote in concurring opinions that the "liberty '' protected by the Due Process Clause included individual privacy.
The right to privacy was the basis for Roe v. Wade (1973), in which the Court invalidated a Texas law forbidding abortion except to save the mother 's life. Like Goldberg 's and Harlan 's concurring opinions in Griswold, the majority opinion authored by Justice Harry Blackmun located the right to privacy in the Due Process Clause 's protection of liberty. The decision disallowed many state and federal abortion restrictions, and it became one of the most controversial in the Court 's history. In Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), the Court decided that "the essential holding of Roe v. Wade should be retained and once again reaffirmed. ''
In Lawrence v. Texas (2003), the Court found that a Texas law against same - sex sexual intercourse violated the right to privacy. In Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), the Court ruled that the fundamental right to marriage included same - sex couples being able to marry.
When the government seeks to burden a person 's protected liberty interest or property interest, the Supreme Court has held that procedural due process requires that, at a minimum, the government provide the person notice, an opportunity to be heard at an oral hearing, and a decision by a neutral decision maker. For example, such process is due when a government agency seeks to terminate civil service employees, expel a student from public school, or cut off a welfare recipient 's benefits. The Court has also ruled that the Due Process Clause requires judges to recuse themselves in cases where the judge has a conflict of interest. For example, in Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co. (2009), the Court ruled that a justice of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia had to recuse himself from a case involving a major contributor to his campaign for election to that court.
While many state constitutions are modeled after the United States Constitution and federal laws, those state constitutions did not necessarily include provisions comparable to the Bill of Rights. In Barron v. Baltimore (1833), the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the Bill of Rights restrained only the federal government, not the states. However, the Supreme Court has subsequently held that most provisions of the Bill of Rights apply to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment under a doctrine called "incorporation. ''
Whether incorporation was intended by the amendment 's framers, such as John Bingham, has been debated by legal historians. According to legal scholar Akhil Reed Amar, the framers and early supporters of the Fourteenth Amendment believed that it would ensure that the states would be required to recognize the same individual rights as the federal government; all of these rights were likely understood as falling within the "privileges or immunities '' safeguarded by the amendment.
By the latter half of the 20th century, nearly all of the rights in the Bill of Rights had been applied to the states. The Supreme Court has held that the amendment 's Due Process Clause incorporates all of the substantive protections of the First, Second, Fourth, Fifth (except for its Grand Jury Clause) and Sixth Amendments and the Cruel and Unusual Punishment Clause of the Eighth Amendment. While the Third Amendment has not been applied to the states by the Supreme Court, the Second Circuit ruled that it did apply to the states within that circuit 's jurisdiction in Engblom v. Carey. The Seventh Amendment right to jury trial in civil cases has been held not to be applicable to the states, but the amendment 's Re-Examination Clause applies not only to federal courts, but also to "a case tried before a jury in a state court and brought to the Supreme Court on appeal. ''
On June 18, 2018, the Supreme Court agreed to hear Timbs v. Indiana. Timbs will decide whether the Excessive Fines Clause of the Eighth Amendment should be applied to the states.
The Equal Protection Clause was created largely in response to the lack of equal protection provided by law in states with Black Codes. Under Black Codes, blacks could not sue, give evidence, or be witnesses. They also were punished more harshly than whites. In 1880, the Supreme Court stated in Strauder v. West Virginia that the Equal Protection Clause was
The Clause mandates that individuals in similar situations be treated equally by the law. Although the text of the Fourteenth Amendment applies the Equal Protection Clause only against the states, the Supreme Court, since Bolling v. Sharpe (1954), has applied the Clause against the federal government through the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment under a doctrine called "reverse incorporation. ''
In Yick Wo v. Hopkins (1886), the Supreme Court has clarified that the meaning of "person '' and "within its jurisdiction '' in the Equal Protection Clause would not be limited to discrimination against African Americans, but would extend to other races, colors, and nationalities such as (in this case) legal aliens in the United States who are Chinese citizens:
These provisions are universal in their application to all persons within the territorial jurisdiction, without regard to any differences of race, of color, or of nationality, and the equal protection of the laws is a pledge of the protection of equal laws.
Persons "within its jurisdiction '' are entitled to equal protection from a state. Largely because the Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV has from the beginning guaranteed the privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states, the Supreme Court has rarely construed the phrase "within its jurisdiction '' in relation to natural persons. In Plyler v. Doe (1982), where the Court held that aliens illegally present in a state are within its jurisdiction and may thus raise equal protection claims the Court explicated the meaning of the phrase "within its jurisdiction '' as follows: "(U) se of the phrase "within its jurisdiction '' confirms the understanding that the Fourteenth Amendment 's protection extends to anyone, citizen or stranger, who is subject to the laws of a State, and reaches into every corner of a State 's territory. '' The Court reached this understanding among other things from Senator Howard, a member of the Joint Committee of Fifteen, and the floor manager of the amendment in the Senate. Senator Howard was explicit about the broad objectives of the Fourteenth Amendment and the intention to make its provisions applicable to all who "may happen to be '' within the jurisdiction of a state:
The last two clauses of the first section of the amendment disable a State from depriving not merely a citizen of the United States, but any person, whoever he may be, of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, or from denying to him the equal protection of the laws of the State. This abolishes all class legislation in the States and does away with the injustice of subjecting one caste of persons to a code not applicable to another... It will, if adopted by the States, forever disable every one of them from passing laws trenching upon those fundamental rights and privileges which pertain to citizens of the United States, and to all person who may happen to be within their jurisdiction. (emphasis added by the U.S. Supreme Court)
The relationship between the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments was addressed by Justice Field in Wong Wing v. United States (1896). He observed with respect to the phrase "within its jurisdiction '': "The term ' person, ' used in the Fifth Amendment, is broad enough to include any and every human being within the jurisdiction of the republic. A resident, alien born, is entitled to the same protection under the laws that a citizen is entitled to. He owes obedience to the laws of the country in which he is domiciled, and, as a consequence, he is entitled to the equal protection of those laws... The contention that persons within the territorial jurisdiction of this republic might be beyond the protection of the law was heard with pain on the argument at the bar -- in face of the great constitutional amendment which declares that no State shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. ''
The Supreme Court also decided whether foreign corporations are also within the jurisdiction of a state, ruling that a foreign corporation which sued in a state court in which it was not licensed to do business to recover possession of property wrongfully taken from it in another state was within the jurisdiction and could not be subjected to unequal burdens in the maintenance of the suit. When a state has admitted a foreign corporation to do business within its borders, that corporation is entitled to equal protection of the laws but not necessarily to identical treatment with domestic corporations.
In Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad (1886), the court reporter included a statement by Chief Justice Morrison Waite in the decision 's headnote:
The court does not wish to hear argument on the question whether the provision in the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which forbids a State to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, applies to these corporations. We are all of the opinion that it does.
This dictum, which established that corporations enjoyed personhood under the Equal Protection Clause, was repeatedly reaffirmed by later courts. It remained the predominant view throughout the twentieth century, though it was challenged in dissents by justices such as Hugo Black and William O. Douglas. Between 1890 and 1910, Fourteenth Amendment cases involving corporations vastly outnumbered those involving the rights of blacks, 288 to 19.
In the decades following the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court overturned laws barring blacks from juries (Strauder v. West Virginia, 1880) or discriminating against Chinese Americans in the regulation of laundry businesses (Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 1886), as violations of the Equal Protection Clause. However, in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), the Supreme Court held that the states could impose segregation so long as they provided similar facilities -- the formation of the "separate but equal '' doctrine.
The Court went even further in restricting the Equal Protection Clause in Berea College v. Kentucky (1908), holding that the states could force private actors to discriminate by prohibiting colleges from having both black and white students. By the early 20th century, the Equal Protection Clause had been eclipsed to the point that Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. dismissed it as "the usual last resort of constitutional arguments. ''
The Court held to the "separate but equal '' doctrine for more than fifty years, despite numerous cases in which the Court itself had found that the segregated facilities provided by the states were almost never equal, until Brown v. Board of Education (1954) reached the Court. In Brown the Court ruled that even if segregated black and white schools were of equal quality in facilities and teachers, segregation was inherently harmful to black students and so was unconstitutional. Brown met with a campaign of resistance from white Southerners, and for decades the federal courts attempted to enforce Brown 's mandate against repeated attempts at circumvention. This resulted in the controversial desegregation busing decrees handed down by federal courts in various parts of the nation. In Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 (2007), the Court ruled that race could not be the determinative factor in determining to which public schools parents may transfer their children.
In Plyler v. Doe (1982) the Supreme Court struck down a Texas statute denying free public education to illegal immigrants as a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment because discrimination on the basis of illegal immigration status did not further a substantial state interest. The Court reasoned that illegal aliens and their children, though not citizens of the United States or Texas, are people "in any ordinary sense of the term '' and, therefore, are afforded Fourteenth Amendment protections.
In Hernandez v. Texas (1954), the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment protects those beyond the racial classes of white or "Negro '' and extends to other racial and ethnic groups, such as Mexican Americans in this case. In the half - century following Brown, the Court extended the reach of the Equal Protection Clause to other historically disadvantaged groups, such as women and illegitimate children, although it has applied a somewhat less stringent standard than it has applied to governmental discrimination on the basis of race (United States v. Virginia (1996); Levy v. Louisiana (1968).)
The Supreme Court ruled in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) that affirmative action in the form of racial quotas in public university admissions was a violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964; however, race could be used as one of several factors without violating of the Equal Protection Clause or Title VI. In Gratz v. Bollinger (2003) and Grutter v. Bollinger (2003), the Court considered two race - conscious admissions systems at the University of Michigan. The university claimed that its goal in its admissions systems was to achieve racial diversity. In Gratz, the Court struck down a points - based undergraduate admissions system that added points for minority status, finding that its rigidity violated the Equal Protection Clause; in Grutter, the Court upheld a race - conscious admissions process for the university 's law school that used race as one of many factors to determine admission. In Fisher v. University of Texas (2013), the Court ruled that before race can be used in a public university 's admission policy, there must be no workable race - neutral alternative. In Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action (2014), the Court upheld the constitutionality of a state constitutional prohibition on the state or local use of affirmative action.
Reed v. Reed (1971), which struck down an Idaho probate law favoring men, was the first decision in which the Court ruled that arbitrary gender discrimination violated the Equal Protection Clause. In Craig v. Boren (1976), the Court ruled that statutory or administrative sex classifications had to be subjected to an intermediate standard of judicial review. Reed and Craig later served as precedents to strike down a number of state laws discriminating by gender.
Since Wesberry v. Sanders (1964) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the Supreme Court has interpreted the Equal Protection Clause as requiring the states to apportion their congressional districts and state legislative seats according to "one man, one vote ''. The Court has also struck down redistricting plans in which race was a key consideration. In Shaw v. Reno (1993), the Court prohibited a North Carolina plan aimed at creating majority - black districts to balance historic underrepresentation in the state 's congressional delegations.
The Equal Protection Clause served as the basis for the decision in Bush v. Gore (2000), in which the Court ruled that no constitutionally valid recount of Florida 's votes in the 2000 presidential election could be held within the needed deadline; the decision effectively secured Bush 's victory in the disputed election. In League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry (2006), the Court ruled that House Majority Leader Tom DeLay 's Texas redistricting plan intentionally diluted the votes of Latinos and thus violated the Equal Protection Clause.
Individual liberties guaranteed by the United States Constitution, other than the Thirteenth Amendment 's ban on slavery, protect not against actions by private persons or entities, but only against actions by government officials. Regarding the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court ruled in Shelley v. Kraemer (1948): "(T) he action inhibited by the first section of the Fourteenth Amendment is only such action as may fairly be said to be that of the States. That Amendment erects no shield against merely private conduct, however discriminatory or wrongful. '' The court added in Civil Rights Cases (1883): "It is State action of a particular character that is prohibited. Individual invasion of individual rights is not the subject matter of the amendment. It has a deeper and broader scope. It nullifies and makes void all State legislation, and State action of every kind, which impairs the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, or which injures them in life, liberty, or property without due process of law, or which denies to any of them the equal protection of the laws. ''
Vindication of federal constitutional rights are limited to those situations where there is "state action '' meaning action of government officials who are exercising their governmental power. In Ex parte Virginia (1880), the Supreme Court found that the prohibitions of the Fourteenth Amendment "have reference to actions of the political body denominated by a State, by whatever instruments or in whatever modes that action may be taken. A State acts by its legislative, its executive, or its judicial authorities. It can act in no other way. The constitutional provision, therefore, must mean that no agency of the State, or of the officers or agents by whom its powers are exerted, shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Whoever, by virtue of public position under a State government, deprives another of property, life, or liberty, without due process of law, or denies or takes away the equal protection of the laws, violates the constitutional inhibition; and as he acts in the name and for the State, and is clothed with the State 's power, his act is that of the State. ''
There are however instances where people are the victims of civil - rights violations that occur in circumstances involving both government officials and private actors. In the 1960s, the United States Supreme Court adopted an expansive view of state action opening the door to wide - ranging civil - rights litigation against private actors when they act as state actors (i.e., acts done or otherwise "sanctioned in some way '' by the state). The Court found that the state action doctrine is equally applicable to denials of privileges or immunities, due process, and equal protection of the laws.
The critical factor in determining the existence of state action is not governmental involvement with private persons or private corporations, but "the inquiry must be whether there is a sufficiently close nexus between the State and the challenged action of the regulated entity so that the action of the latter may be fairly treated as that of the State itself. '' "Only by sifting facts and weighing circumstances can the nonobvious involvement of the State in private conduct be attributed its true significance. ''
The Supreme Court asserted that plaintiffs must establish not only that a private party "acted under color of the challenged statute, but also that its actions are properly attributable to the State. (...) '' "And the actions are to be attributable to the State apparently only if the State compelled the actions and not if the State merely established the process through statute or regulation under which the private party acted. ''
The rules developed by the Supreme Court for business regulation are that (1) the "mere fact that a business is subject to state regulation does not by itself convert its action into that of the State for purposes of the Fourteenth Amendment, '' and (2) "a State normally can be held responsible for a private decision only when it has exercised coercive power or has provided such significant encouragement, either overt or covert, that the choice must be deemed to be that of the State. ''
Under Article I, Section 2, Clause 3, the basis of representation of each state in the House of Representatives was determined by adding three - fifths of each state 's slave population to its free population. Because slavery (except as punishment for crime) had been abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment, the freed slaves would henceforth be given full weight for purposes of apportionment. This situation was a concern to the Republican leadership of Congress, who worried that it would increase the political power of the former slave states, even as they continued to deny freed slaves the right to vote.
Two solutions were considered:
On January 31, 1866, the House of Representatives voted in favor of a proposed constitutional amendment that would reduce a state 's representation in the House in proportion to which that state used "race or color '' as a basis to deny the right to vote in that state. The amendment failed in the Senate, partly because radical Republicans foresaw that states would be able to use ostensibly race - neutral criteria, such as educational and property qualifications, to disenfranchise the freed slaves without negative consequence. So the amendment was changed to penalize states that denied the vote to male citizens over twenty - one for any reason other than participation in crime. Later, the Fifteenth Amendment was adopted to guarantee the right to vote could not be denied based on race or color.
The effect of Section 2 was twofold:
The first reapportionment after the enactment of the Fourteenth Amendment occurred in 1873, based on the 1870 census. Congress appears to have attempted to enforce the provisions of Section 2, but was unable to identify enough disenfranchised voters to make a difference to any state 's representation. In the implementing statute, Congress added a provision stating that
should any state, after the passage of this Act, deny or abridge the right of any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty - one years of age, and citizens of the United States, to vote at any election named in the amendments to the Constitution, article fourteen, section two, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the number of Representatives apportioned in this act to such State shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall have to the whole number of male citizens twenty - one years of age in such State.
A nearly identical provision remains in federal law to this day.
Despite this legislation, in subsequent reapportionments, no change has ever been made to any state 's Congressional representation on the basis of the Amendment. Bonfield, writing in 1960, suggested that "(t) he hot political nature of such proposals has doomed them to failure ''. Aided by this lack of enforcement, Southern States continued to use pretexts to prevent many blacks from voting until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
In the Fourth Circuit case of Saunders v Wilkins (1945), Saunders claimed that Virginia should have its Congressional representation reduced because of its use of a poll tax and other voting restrictions. The plaintiff sued for the right to run for Congress at large in the state, rather than in one of its designated Congressional districts. The lawsuit was dismissed as a political question.
Some have argued that Section 2 was implicitly repealed by the Fifteenth Amendment, but the Supreme Court acknowledged the provisions of Section 2 in some later decisions. In Minor v. Happersett (1875), the Supreme Court cited Section 2 as supporting its conclusion that the right to vote was not among the "privileges and immunities of citizenship '' protected by Section 1. In Richardson v. Ramirez (1974), the Court cited Section 2 as justifying the states disenfranchising felons. In Hunter v. Underwood (1985), a case involving disenfranchising black misdemeanants, the Supreme Court concluded that the Tenth Amendment can not save legislation prohibited by the subsequently enacted Fourteenth Amendment. More specifically the Court concluded that laws passed with a discriminatory purpose are not excepted from the operation of the Equal Protection Clause by the "other crime '' provision of Section 2. The Court held that Section 2 "was not designed to permit the purposeful racial discrimination (...) which otherwise violates (Section) 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment. ''
Abolitionist leaders criticized the amendment 's failure to specifically prohibit the states from denying people the right to vote on the basis of race.
Section 2 protects the right to vote only of adult males, not adult females, making it the only provision of the Constitution to explicitly discriminate on the basis of sex. Section 2 was condemned by women 's suffragists, such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, who had long seen their cause as linked to that of black rights. The separation of black civil rights from women 's civil rights split the two movements for decades.
Section 3 prohibits the election or appointment to any federal or state office of any person who had held any of certain offices and then engaged in insurrection, rebellion, or treason. However, a two - thirds vote by each House of the Congress can override this limitation. In 1898, the Congress enacted a general removal of Section 3 's limitation. In 1975, the citizenship of Confederate general Robert E. Lee was restored by a joint congressional resolution, retroactive to June 13, 1865. In 1978, pursuant to Section 3, the Congress posthumously removed the service ban from Confederate president Jefferson Davis.
Section 3 was used to prevent Socialist Party of America member Victor L. Berger, convicted of violating the Espionage Act for his anti-militarist views, from taking his seat in the House of Representatives in 1919 and 1920.
Section 4 confirmed the legitimacy of all public debt appropriated by the Congress. It also confirmed that neither the United States nor any state would pay for the loss of slaves or debts that had been incurred by the Confederacy. For example, during the Civil War several British and French banks had lent large sums of money to the Confederacy to support its war against the Union. In Perry v. United States (1935), the Supreme Court ruled that under Section 4 voiding a United States bond "went beyond the congressional power. ''
The debt - ceiling crises of 2011 and 2013 raised the question of what is the President 's authority under Section 4. Some, such as legal scholar Garrett Epps, fiscal expert Bruce Bartlett and Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner, have argued that a debt ceiling may be unconstitutional and therefore void as long as it interferes with the duty of the government to pay interest on outstanding bonds and to make payments owed to pensioners (that is, Social Security and Railroad Retirement Act recipients). Legal analyst Jeffrey Rosen has argued that Section 4 gives the President unilateral authority to raise or ignore the national debt ceiling, and that if challenged the Supreme Court would likely rule in favor of expanded executive power or dismiss the case altogether for lack of standing. Erwin Chemerinsky, professor and dean at University of California, Irvine School of Law, has argued that not even in a "dire financial emergency '' could the President raise the debt ceiling as "there is no reasonable way to interpret the Constitution that (allows him to do so) ''. Jack Balkin, Knight Professor of Constitutional Law at Yale University, opined that like Congress the President is bound by the Fourteenth Amendment, for otherwise, he could violate any part of the amendment at will. Because the President must obey the Section 4 requirement not to put the validity of the public debt into question, Balkin argued that President Obama is obliged "to prioritize incoming revenues to pay the public debt: interest on government bonds and any other ' vested ' obligations. What falls into the latter category is not entirely clear, but a large number of other government obligations -- and certainly payments for future services -- would not count and would have to be sacrificed. This might include, for example, Social Security payments. ''
Section 5, also known as the Enforcement Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, enables Congress to pass laws enforcing the amendment 's other provisions. In the Civil Rights Cases (1883), the Supreme Court interpreted Section 5 narrowly, stating that "the legislation which Congress is authorized to adopt in this behalf is not general legislation upon the rights of the citizen, but corrective legislation ''. In other words, the amendment authorizes Congress to pass laws only to combat violations of the rights protected in other sections.
In Katzenbach v. Morgan (1966), the Court upheld Section 4 (e) of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which prohibits certain forms of literacy requirements as a condition to vote, as a valid exercise of Congressional power under Section 5 to enforce the Equal Protection Clause. The Court ruled that Section 5 enabled Congress to act both remedially and prophylactically to protect the rights guaranteed by the amendment. However, in City of Boerne v. Flores (1997), the Court narrowed Congress 's enforcement power, holding that Congress may not enact legislation under Section 5 that substantively defines or interprets Fourteenth Amendment rights. The Court ruled that legislation is valid under Section 5 only if there is a "congruence and proportionality '' between the injury to a person 's Fourteenth Amendment right and the means Congress adopted to prevent or remedy that injury.
Why this if it was not in the power of the legislature to deny the right of suffrage to some male inhabitants? And if suffrage was necessarily one of the absolute rights of citizenship, why confine the operation of the limitation to male inhabitants? Women and children are, as we have seen, "persons. '' They are counted in the enumeration upon which the apportionment is to be made, but if they were necessarily voters because of their citizenship unless clearly excluded, why inflict the penalty for the exclusion of males alone? Clearly, no such form of words would have been elected to express the idea here indicated if suffrage was the absolute right of all citizens.
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what is the full form of wap in indian railways | Indian locomotive class WAP - 7 - wikipedia
The WAP 7 is a locomotive developed by Chittaranjan Locomotive Works by modifying the gear ratio of existing WAG 9 class. It is capable of hauling trains at speeds ranging between 110 -- 140 km / h (68 -- 87 mph) and is now largely used by Northern Railways (NR), South Central Railways (SCR), Southern Railways (SR), Eastern Railways (ER), South East Central Railway (SECR), Central Railways (CR), Western Railway (WR), West Central Railways (WCR), East Coast Railway (ECoR), South Eastern Railway (SER). As of August 2017 there are 360 locomotives in service. All the locomotives are fitted with AAR tightlock couplers and chain link couplers. All Newer WAP - 7 's are now being built with IGBT traction, replacing GTO thrysters used earlier
Now Diesel Locomotive Works (DLW), Varanasi started manufacturing WAP - 7 Class Locomotives, the first DLW built locomotive is WAP - 7 # 30509 Varun.
The WAP - 7 locomotive is a WAG 9 freight locomotive with modified gear ratios and is set to replace the fleet of WAP 4, the most widely used passenger locomotive today.
With a maximum speed rating of 140 km / h (87 mph), the WAP - 7 has the highest acceleration figures while hauling mail / express trains. The WAP - 7 can also haul loads of 24 - 26 passenger coaches (1,430 -- 1,550 t or 1,410 -- 1,530 long tons or 1,580 -- 1,710 short tons at 130 km / h or 81 mph). It is the most successful passenger locomotive on the Indian Railways roster after the WAP - 4. It is used to haul premium trains like the Rajdhani Express and the Shatabdi Express apart from other regular mail / express trains. It also regularly hauls other trains like the Hyderabad - New Delhi, Mumbai Central - Ahmedabad AC Duronto Express, Ahmedabad - Mumbai Central Shatabdi Express, Hazrat Nizamuddin - Bandra Terminus Garibrath Express, H. Nizamuddin - Thiruvananthapuram, H. Nizamuddin - Chennai, H. Nizamuddin - Bangalore, New Delhi - Sealdah and the New Delhi - Mumbai Rajdhani Express, New Delhi - Rajendra Nagar (Patna) Patna Rajdhani Express, Thiruvananthapuram - Chennai Super-fast Mail, Thiruvanthpuram - Chennai Super-fast Express, Chennai - Alaphuzha Express.
WAP - 7 locomotive can deliver a maximum power of 6,350 hp (4,740 kW), with regenerative braking being one of its salient features. The regenerative braking is deployed on down gradients conserving energy to the tune of 30 - 35 percent. It has an inbuilt microprocessor based fault diagnostic system to make trouble shooting easier. Another feature of this locomotive is that it eliminates the need to have separate EOG sets for air - conditioning in long distance trains hence providing significant amount of savings on maintenance and running costs. This technology, called HOG or "Head On Generation '', transfers electric power from the loco 's pantograph to the coaches instead of "End on Generation '' in which a Power Car equipped with diesel generator capable of generating adequate power of 3 - phase 50 Hz 415 V / 750 V AC (called ' hotel load ') is provided at either end of the train rake to supply power.
The current locomotive sheds which house this locomotive are:
On 10 July 2011 Kalka Mail derailed on the Kanpur - Fatehpur line near the Fatehpur railway station, more than 72 persons died and 200 were injured, some critically. The train was hauled by Ghaziabad - based WAP - 7 30221. Malfunction of the undergear of the locomotive could also be a reason. The driver of the Kalka Mail said he saw the engine shaking. A post-accident diagnostic revealed that the first axle (leading) of the locomotive registered a jerk and the fourth axle (trailing bogie) showed loss of contact of the wheel with the track. The locomotive in question has been re-railed and is undergoing fault diagnostics and repairs.
On 14 December 2014 the 12381 UP Howrah - New Delhi Poorva Express derailed at 8.27 am IST after leaving Howrah at 8.15 am IST. 11 sleeper coaches and a pantry car (AC Hot Buffer Car) of the New Delhi - bound Poorva Express derailed at Liluah shortly after leaving Howrah station. There was no casualty or injury to any passenger. Like Kalka Mail this train was also hauled by Howrah - based WAP - 7 30321. But the locomotive did not face much damage hence after undergoing fault diagnostics and repairs the locomotive has been re-railed.
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when does the new flash episode come on | List of the Flash episodes - wikipedia
The Flash is an American action television series developed by Greg Berlanti, Andrew Kreisberg, and Geoff Johns, airing on The CW. It is based on the DC Comics character Barry Allen / Flash, a costumed crimefighter with the power to move at superhuman speeds. It is a spin - off from Arrow, existing in the same fictional universe. The series follows Barry Allen, portrayed by Grant Gustin, a crime scene investigator who gains superhuman speed, which he uses to fight criminals, including others who have also gained superhuman abilities. The Flash was renewed in March 2016 for a third season, which premiered on October 4, 2016. On January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a fourth season, which premiered on October 10, 2017. As of February 6, 2018, 82 episodes of The Flash have aired.
Eddie proposes a task force to hunt down the Flash. A new metahuman, Roy Bivolo, shows up with the ability to send people into an uncontrollable rage, and uses his ability to rob a bank. Oliver Queen informs Barry that he and his team are tracking a killer who uses lethal boomerangs. Barry and Oliver agree to team - up and catch each other 's targets. Barry decides to go after Bivolo by himself. Bivolo uses his abilities on Barry; but because of Barry 's powers it makes the effects last longer. Oliver tries to stop Barry, and the two engage in a fight until Wells and Joe use colored strobe light to reset Barry 's emotional state. Afterward, Barry and Oliver capture Bivolo and place him in the prison at S.T.A.R. Labs. Eddie 's task force is established after he was beaten by an enraged Flash. Barry confirms Oliver 's belief that he has a lot to learn. Oliver advises him to stay away from Iris, whom Barry is in love with. Iris decides to end her support of the Flash. Oliver asks Barry 's team to keep his alter ego a secret. A new metahuman able to manipulate fire appears in Central City.
Vandal Savage arrives in Central City, seeking to kill Kendra. Barry goes to Star City and enlists the help of Oliver and his team to protect her. The team is visited by Malcolm who informs them that Savage is an immortal. Later, Kendra is kidnapped by Hawkman, but Barry and Oliver rescue her and capture Hawkman, who introducing himself as Carter Hall, tells them he and Kendra are soulmates who have been connected for millennia. The pair are destined to die, be reborn, and find each other in each lifetime. Carter also reveals that Savage has killed the pair several times, each time growing stronger. Savage acquires the Staff of Horus, a deadly weapon. Kendra unlocks her abilities and the team decides to regroup in Central City, where Oliver witnesses Samantha Clayton with her son, who is also his. Meanwhile, Caitlin and Harry create a serum that will temporarily increase Barry 's speed so that he can defeat Zoom. Jay initially refuses to test the serum, but changes his mind to save Harry when the latter is shot by an unaware Patty, whom Joe later informs about the truth. However, Jay advises against using the serum on Barry.
Barry investigates a meteor crash outside Central City that turns out to be a spaceship from which aliens emerge. Lyla tells the team that the "Dominators '' landed previously in the 1950s, but then mysteriously departed. Needing help, Barry assembles the original Team Arrow, Thea, the Legends, and Supergirl of Earth - 38. The team begins training at a S.T.A.R. Labs facility, sparring against Supergirl to prepare for combat against the aliens. Cisco reveals a message to Rip Hunter from Barry 's future self, which exposes Barry 's manipulation of the timeline and how it affected other team members. Oliver, Supergirl, Felicity, Martin, and Jefferson are left as the only ones who still trust Barry. The Dominators abduct the President. Supergirl leads most of the others in a rescue effort, but the Dominators kill the President and ensnare everyone with a mind control device. The controlled heroes return and attack S.T.A.R. Labs. While Oliver holds them off, Barry lures Supergirl to the device and manipulates her into destroying it, freeing everyone. The team decides to trust Barry again. Suddenly, Sara, Ray, Diggle, Thea, and Oliver are teleported away before Barry can intervene.
J'onn J'onzz and Mon - El arrive on Earth - 1 with a comatose Kara. The Music Meister attacks and places Barry in a similar coma. He wakes up in a musical world and finds Kara. Meister tells them that if they follow the script, they will return to the real world. Barry and Kara are forced to work as singers in a nightclub run by Malcolm, with Winn working as a piano player, Cisco as a waiter and Stein and Joe as two gangsters opposing Malcolm. Barry and Kara find Malcolm 's son, Mon - El, and Stein 's and Joe 's daughter, Iris, in a forbidden relationship. Kara and Barry convince the pair to reveal their love, also helping Barry and Kara to realize their own mistakes. Malcolm, Stein and Joe subsequently decide to go to war. Barry and Kara are shot in the crossfire, but the real Cisco, Mon - El and Iris vibe into their world to save them, allowing Barry and Kara to admit their loves for Iris and Mon - El. They wake up in S.T.A.R. Labs, and Meister reveals that he just wanted them to realize their love. Kara 's team returns to Earth - 38, and Barry and Iris move back in together. Barry re-proposes to Iris, who accepts.
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foods that start with a p and end with a y | List of Breakfast foods - wikipedia
This is a list of notable breakfast foods, consisting of foods that are commonly consumed at breakfast. Breakfast is the first meal taken after rising from a night 's sleep, most often eaten in the early morning before undertaking the day 's work. Among English speakers, "breakfast '' can be used to refer to this meal or to refer to a meal composed of traditional breakfast foods (such as eggs, oatmeal and sausage) served at any time of day. Breakfast foods are prepared with a multitude of ingredients, including oats, wheat, maize, barley, noodles, starches, eggs, meats and other foodstuffs.
Waffles with strawberries
Youtiao
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where does the money for minimum wage come from | Minimum wage - wikipedia
A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers can legally pay their workers. Equivalently, it is the price floor below which workers may not sell their labor. Although minimum wage laws are in effect in many jurisdictions, differences of opinion exist about the benefits and drawbacks of a minimum wage. Supporters of the minimum wage say it increases the standard of living of workers, reduces poverty, reduces inequality, and boosts morale. In contrast, opponents of the minimum wage say it increases poverty, increases unemployment (particularly among unskilled or inexperienced workers) and is damaging to businesses, because excessively high minimum wages require businesses to raise the prices of their product or service to accommodate the extra expense of paying a higher wage.
Modern national laws enforcing compulsory union membership which proscribed minimum wages for their members were first passed in New Zealand and Australia in the 1890s. The movement for minimum wages was first motivated as a way to stop the exploitation of workers in sweatshops, by employers who were thought to have unfair bargaining power over them. Over time, minimum wages came to be seen as a way to help lower - income families. Most countries had introduced minimum wage legislation by the end of the 20th century.
Modern minimum wage laws trace their origin to the Ordinance of Labourers (1349), which was a decree by King Edward III that set a maximum wage for laborers in medieval England. King Edward III, who was a wealthy landowner, was dependent, like his lords, on serfs to work the land. In the autumn of 1348, the Black Plague reached England and decimated the population. The severe shortage of labor caused wages to soar and encouraged King Edward III to set a wage ceiling. Subsequent amendments to the ordinance, such as the Statute of Labourers (1351), increased the penalties for paying a wage above the set rates.
While the laws governing wages initially set a ceiling on compensation, they were eventually used to set a living wage. An amendment to the Statute of Labourers in 1389 effectively fixed wages to the price of food. As time passed, the Justice of the Peace, who was charged with setting the maximum wage, also began to set formal minimum wages. The practice was eventually formalized with the passage of the Act Fixing a Minimum Wage in 1604 by King James I for workers in the textile industry.
By the early 19th century, the Statutes of Labourers was repealed as increasingly capitalistic England embraced laissez - faire policies which disfavored regulations of wages (whether upper or lower limits). The subsequent 19th century saw significant labor unrest affect many industrial nations. As trade unions were decriminalized during the century, attempts to control wages through collective agreement were made. However, this meant that a uniform minimum wage was not possible. In Principles of Political Economy in 1848, John Stuart Mill argued that because of the collective action problems that workers faced in organisation, it was a justified departure from laissez - faire policies (or freedom of contract) to regulate people 's wages and hours by law.
It was not until the 1890s that the first modern legislative attempts to regulate minimum wages were seen in New Zealand and Australia. The movement for a minimum wage was initially focused on stopping sweatshop labor and controlling the proliferation of sweatshops in manufacturing industries. The sweatshops employed large numbers of women and young workers, paying them what were considered to be substandard wages. The sweatshop owners were thought to have unfair bargaining power over their employees, and a minimum wage was proposed as a means to make them pay fairly. Over time, the focus changed to helping people, especially families, become more self - sufficient.
The first modern national minimum wages were enacted by the government recognition of unions which in turn established minimum wage policy among their members, as in New Zealand in 1894, followed by the Australia in 1896 and the United Kingdom in 1909. In the United States, statutory minimum wages were first introduced nationally in 1938, and they were reintroduced and expanded in the United Kingdom in 1998. There is now legislation or binding collective bargaining regarding minimum wage in more than 90 percent of all countries. In the European Union, 22 member states out of 28 currently have national minimum wages. Other countries, such as Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy, have no minimum wage laws, but rely on employer groups and trade unions to set minimum earnings through collective bargaining.
Minimum wage rates vary greatly across many different jurisdictions, not only in setting a particular amount of money -- for example $7.25 per hour ($14,500 per year) under certain US state laws (or $2.13 for employees who receive tips, which is known as the tipped minimum wage), $9.47 in the US state of Washington, or £ 7.50 (for those aged 25 +) in the United Kingdom -- but also in terms of which pay period (for example Russia and China set monthly minimum wages) or the scope of coverage. Currently the American federal minimum wage rests at seven dollars, twenty - five cents ($7.25) per hour. However, some states do not recognize the minimum wage law such as Louisiana and Tennessee. Other states operate below the federal minimum wage such as Georgia and Wyoming. Some jurisdictions even allow employers to count tips given to their workers as credit towards the minimum wage levels. India was one of the first developing countries to introduce minimum wage policy. It also has one of the most complicated systems with more than 1,200 minimum wage rates.
Customs and extra-legal pressures from governments or labor unions can produce a de facto minimum wage. So can international public opinion, by pressuring multinational companies to pay Third World workers wages usually found in more industrialized countries. The latter situation in Southeast Asia and Latin America was publicized in the 2000s, but it existed with companies in West Africa in the middle of the twentieth century.
Among the indicators that might be used to establish an initial minimum wage rate are ones that minimize the loss of jobs while preserving international competitiveness. Among these are general economic conditions as measured by real and nominal gross domestic product; inflation; labor supply and demand; wage levels, distribution and differentials; employment terms; productivity growth; labor costs; business operating costs; the number and trend of bankruptcies; economic freedom rankings; standards of living and the prevailing average wage rate.
In the business sector, concerns include the expected increased cost of doing business, threats to profitability, rising levels of unemployment (and subsequent higher government expenditure on welfare benefits raising tax rates), and the possible knock - on effects to the wages of more experienced workers who might already be earning the new statutory minimum wage, or slightly more. Among workers and their representatives, political consideration weigh in as labor leaders seek to win support by demanding the highest possible rate. Other concerns include purchasing power, inflation indexing and standardized working hours.
In the United States, the minimum wage promulgated by the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. According to the Economic Policy Institute, the minimum wage in the United States would have been $18.28 in 2013 if the minimum wage had kept pace with labor productivity. To adjust for increased rates of worker productivity in the United States, raising the minimum wage to $22 (or more) an hour has been presented.
According to the supply and demand model of the labor market shown in many economics textbooks, increasing the minimum wage decreases the employment of minimum - wage workers. One such textbook states:
If a higher minimum wage increases the wage rates of unskilled workers above the level that would be established by market forces, the quantity of unskilled workers employed will fall. The minimum wage will price the services of the least productive (and therefore lowest - wage) workers out of the market.... the direct results of minimum wage legislation are clearly mixed. Some workers, most likely those whose previous wages were closest to the minimum, will enjoy higher wages. Others, particularly those with the lowest prelegislation wage rates, will be unable to find work. They will be pushed into the ranks of the unemployed.
A firm 's cost is an increasing function of the wage rate, the higher the wage rate, the fewer hours an employer will demand of employees. This is because, as the wage rate rises, it becomes more expensive for firms to hire workers and so firms hire fewer workers (or hire them for fewer hours). The demand of labor curve is therefore shown as a line moving down and to the right. Since higher wages increase the quantity supplied, the supply of labor curve is upward sloping, and is shown as a line moving up and to the right. If no minimum wage is in place, wages will adjust until quantity of labor demanded is equal to quantity supplied, reaching equilibrium, where the supply and demand curves intersect. Minimum wage behaves as a classical price floor on labor. Standard theory says that, if set above the equilibrium price, more labor will be willing to be provided by workers than will be demanded by employers, creating a surplus of labor, i.e. unemployment. The basic economic model of markets predicts the same of other commodities (like milk and wheat, for example): Artificially raising the price of the commodity tends to cause the supply of it to increase and the demand for it to lessen. The result is a surplus of the commodity. When there is a wheat surplus, the government buys it. Since the government does not hire surplus labor, the labor surplus takes the form of unemployment, which tends to be higher with minimum wage laws than without them.
The basic supply and demand model implies that by mandating a price floor above the equilibrium wage, minimum wage laws should cause unemployment. This is because a greater number of people are willing to work at the higher wage while a smaller number of jobs will be available at the higher wage. Companies can be more selective in those whom they employ thus the least skilled and least experienced will typically be excluded. An imposition or increase of a minimum wage will generally only affect employment in the low - skill labor market, as the equilibrium wage is already at or below the minimum wage, whereas in higher skill labor markets the equilibrium wage is too high for a change in minimum wage to affect employment.
The basic supply and demand theory predicts that raising the minimum wage helps workers whose wages are raised, and hurts people who are not hired (or lose their jobs) when companies cut back on employment. But proponents of the minimum wage hold that the situation is much more complicated than the basic theory can account for. One complicating factor is possible monopsony in the labor market, whereby the individual employer has some market power in determining wages paid. Thus it is at least theoretically possible that the minimum wage may boost employment when affected employees spend more in other sectors of the economy. Though single employer market power is unlikely to exist in most labor markets in the sense of the traditional ' company town, ' asymmetric information, imperfect mobility, and the personal element of the labor transaction give some degree of wage - setting power to most firms.
Modern economic theory predicts that although an excessive minimum wage may raise unemployment as it fixes a price above most demand for labor, a minimum wage at a more reasonable level can increase employment, and enhance growth and efficiency. This is because labor markets are monopsonistic and workers persistently lack bargaining power. When poorer workers have more to spend it stimulates effective aggregate demand for goods and services.
The argument that a minimum wage decreases employment is based on a simple supply and demand model of the labor market. A number of economists (for example Pierangelo Garegnani, Robert L. Vienneau, and Arrigo Opocher & Ian Steedman), building on the work of Piero Sraffa, argue that that model, even given all its assumptions, is logically incoherent. Michael Anyadike - Danes and Wynne Godley argue, based on simulation results, that little of the empirical work done with the textbook model constitutes a potentially falsifiable theory, and consequently empirical evidence hardly exists for that model. Graham White argues, partially on the basis of Sraffianism, that the policy of increased labor market flexibility, including the reduction of minimum wages, does not have an "intellectually coherent '' argument in economic theory.
Gary Fields, Professor of Labor Economics and Economics at Cornell University, argues that the standard textbook model for the minimum wage is ambiguous, and that the standard theoretical arguments incorrectly measure only a one - sector market. Fields says a two - sector market, where "the self - employed, service workers, and farm workers are typically excluded from minimum - wage coverage... (and with) one sector with minimum - wage coverage and the other without it (and possible mobility between the two), '' is the basis for better analysis. Through this model, Fields shows the typical theoretical argument to be ambiguous and says "the predictions derived from the textbook model definitely do not carry over to the two - sector case. Therefore, since a non-covered sector exists nearly everywhere, the predictions of the textbook model simply can not be relied on. ''
An alternate view of the labor market has low - wage labor markets characterized as monopsonistic competition wherein buyers (employers) have significantly more market power than do sellers (workers). This monopsony could be a result of intentional collusion between employers, or naturalistic factors such as segmented markets, search costs, information costs, imperfect mobility and the personal element of labor markets. In such a case a simple supply and demand graph would not yield the quantity of labor clearing and the wage rate. This is because while the upward sloping aggregate labor supply would remain unchanged, instead of using the upward labor supply curve shown in a supply and demand diagram, monopsonistic employers would use a steeper upward sloping curve corresponding to marginal expenditures to yield the intersection with the supply curve resulting in a wage rate lower than would be the case under competition. Also, the amount of labor sold would also be lower than the competitive optimal allocation.
Such a case is a type of market failure and results in workers being paid less than their marginal value. Under the monopsonistic assumption, an appropriately set minimum wage could increase both wages and employment, with the optimal level being equal to the marginal product of labor. This view emphasizes the role of minimum wages as a market regulation policy akin to antitrust policies, as opposed to an illusory "free lunch '' for low - wage workers.
Another reason minimum wage may not affect employment in certain industries is that the demand for the product the employees produce is highly inelastic. For example, if management is forced to increase wages, management can pass on the increase in wage to consumers in the form of higher prices. Since demand for the product is highly inelastic, consumers continue to buy the product at the higher price and so the manager is not forced to lay off workers. Economist Paul Krugman argues this explanation neglects to explain why the firm was not charging this higher price absent the minimum wage.
Three other possible reasons minimum wages do not affect employment were suggested by Alan Blinder: higher wages may reduce turnover, and hence training costs; raising the minimum wage may "render moot '' the potential problem of recruiting workers at a higher wage than current workers; and minimum wage workers might represent such a small proportion of a business 's cost that the increase is too small to matter. He admits that he does not know if these are correct, but argues that "the list demonstrates that one can accept the new empirical findings and still be a card - carrying economist. ''
Economists disagree as to the measurable impact of minimum wages in practice. This disagreement usually takes the form of competing empirical tests of the elasticities of supply and demand in labor markets and the degree to which markets differ from the efficiency that models of perfect competition predict.
Economists have done empirical studies on different aspects of the minimum wage, including:
Until the mid-1990s, a general consensus existed among economists, both conservative and liberal, that the minimum wage reduced employment, especially among younger and low - skill workers. In addition to the basic supply - demand intuition, there were a number of empirical studies that supported this view. For example, Gramlich (1976) found that many of the benefits went to higher income families, and that teenagers were made worse off by the unemployment associated with the minimum wage.
Brown et al. (1983) noted that time series studies to that point had found that for a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage, there was a decrease in teenage employment of 1 -- 3 percent. However, the studies found wider variation, from 0 to over 3 percent, in their estimates for the effect on teenage unemployment (teenagers without a job and looking for one). In contrast to the simple supply and demand diagram, it was commonly found that teenagers withdrew from the labor force in response to the minimum wage, which produced the possibility of equal reductions in the supply as well as the demand for labor at a higher minimum wage and hence no impact on the unemployment rate. Using a variety of specifications of the employment and unemployment equations (using ordinary least squares vs. generalized least squares regression procedures, and linear vs. logarithmic specifications), they found that a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage caused a 1 percent decrease in teenage employment, and no change in the teenage unemployment rate. The study also found a small, but statistically significant, increase in unemployment for adults aged 20 -- 24.
Wellington (1991) updated Brown et al. 's research with data through 1986 to provide new estimates encompassing a period when the real (i.e., inflation - adjusted) value of the minimum wage was declining, because it had not increased since 1981. She found that a 10 % increase in the minimum wage decreased the absolute teenage employment by 0.6 %, with no effect on the teen or young adult unemployment rates.
Some research suggests that the unemployment effects of small minimum wage increases are dominated by other factors. In Florida, where voters approved an increase in 2004, a follow - up comprehensive study after the increase confirmed a strong economy with increased employment above previous years in Florida and better than in the US as a whole. When it comes to on - the - job training, some believe the increase in wages is taken out of training expenses. A 2001 empirical study found that there is "no evidence that minimum wages reduce training, and little evidence that they tend to increase training. ''
Some empirical studies have tried to ascertain the benefits of a minimum wage beyond employment effects. In an analysis of census data, Joseph Sabia and Robert Nielson found no statistically significant evidence that minimum wage increases helped reduce financial, housing, health, or food insecurity. This study was undertaken by the Employment Policies Institute, a think tank funded by the food, beverage and hospitality industries. In 2012, Michael Reich published an economic analysis that suggested that a proposed minimum wage hike in San Diego might stimulate the city 's economy by about $190 million.
The Economist wrote in December 2013: "A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs... America 's federal minimum wage, at 38 % of median income, is one of the rich world 's lowest. Some studies find no harm to employment from federal or state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage... High minimum wages, however, particularly in rigid labour markets, do appear to hit employment. France has the rich world 's highest wage floor, at more than 60 % of the median for adults and a far bigger fraction of the typical wage for the young. This helps explain why France also has shockingly high rates of youth unemployment: 26 % for 15 - to 24 - year - olds. ''
In 1992, the minimum wage in New Jersey increased from $4.25 to $5.05 per hour (an 18.8 % increase), while in the adjacent state of Pennsylvania it remained at $4.25. David Card and Alan Krueger gathered information on fast food restaurants in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania in an attempt to see what effect this increase had on employment within New Jersey. A basic supply and demand model predicts that relative employment should have decreased in New Jersey. Card and Krueger surveyed employers before the April 1992 New Jersey increase, and again in November -- December 1992, asking managers for data on the full - time equivalent staff level of their restaurants both times. Based on data from the employers ' responses, the authors concluded that the increase in the minimum wage slightly increased employment in the New Jersey restaurants.
Card and Krueger expanded on this initial article in their 1995 book Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage. They argued that the negative employment effects of minimum wage laws are minimal if not non-existent. For example, they look at the 1992 increase in New Jersey 's minimum wage, the 1988 rise in California 's minimum wage, and the 1990 -- 91 increases in the federal minimum wage. In addition to their own findings, they reanalyzed earlier studies with updated data, generally finding that the older results of a negative employment effect did not hold up in the larger datasets.
In 1996, David Neumark and William Wascher reexamined Card and Krueger 's result using administrative payroll records from a sample of large fast food restaurant chains, and reported that minimum wage increases were followed by decreases in employment. An assessment of data collected and analyzed by Neumark and Wascher did not initially contradict the Card and Krueger results, but in a later edited version they found a four percent decrease in employment, and reported that "the estimated disemployment effects in the payroll data are often statistically significant at the 5 - or 10 - percent level although there are some estimators and subsamples that yield insignificant -- although almost always negative '' employment effects. Neumark and Wascher 's conclusions were subsequently rebutted in a 2000 paper by Card and Krueger. A 2011 paper has reconciled the difference between Card and Krueger 's survey data and Neumark and Wascher 's payroll - based data. The paper shows that both datasets evidence conditional employment effects that are positive for small restaurants, but are negative for large fast - food restaurants. A 2014 analysis based on panel data found that the minimum wage reduces employment among teenagers.
In 1996 and 1997, the federal minimum wage was increased from $4.25 to $5.15, thereby increasing the minimum wage by $0.90 in Pennsylvania but by just $0.10 in New Jersey; this allowed for an examination of the effects of minimum wage increases in the same area, subsequent to the 1992 change studied by Card and Krueger. A study by Hoffman and Trace found the result anticipated by traditional theory: a detrimental effect on employment.
Further application of the methodology used by Card and Krueger by other researchers yielded results similar to their original findings, across additional data sets. A 2010 study by three economists (Arindrajit Dube of the University of Massachusetts Amherst, William Lester of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and Michael Reich of the University of California, Berkeley), compared adjacent counties in different states where the minimum wage had been raised in one of the states. They analyzed employment trends for several categories of low - wage workers from 1990 to 2006 and found that increases in minimum wages had no negative effects on low - wage employment and successfully increased the income of workers in food services and retail employment, as well as the narrower category of workers in restaurants.
However, a 2011 study by Baskaya and Rubinstein of Brown University found that at the federal level, "a rise in minimum wage have (sic) an instantaneous impact on wage rates and a corresponding negative impact on employment '', stating, "Minimum wage increases boost teenage wage rates and reduce teenage employment. '' Another 2011 study by Sen, Rybczynski, and Van De Waal found that "a 10 % increase in the minimum wage is significantly correlated with a 3 − 5 % drop in teen employment. '' A 2012 study by Sabia, Hansen, and Burkhauser found that "minimum wage increases can have substantial adverse labor demand effects for low - skilled individuals '', with the largest effects on those aged 16 to 24.
A 2013 study by Meer and West concluded that "the minimum wage reduces net job growth, primarily through its effect on job creation by expanding establishments... most pronounced for younger workers and in industries with a higher proportion of low - wage workers. '' This study by Meer and West was later critiqued for its trends of assumption in the context of narrowly defined low - wage groups. The authors replied to the critiques and released additional data which addressed the criticism of their methodology, but did not resolve the issue of whether their data showed a causal relationship. Another 2013 study by Suzana Laporšek of the University of Primorska, on youth unemployment in Europe claimed there was "a negative, statistically significant impact of minimum wage on youth employment. '' A 2013 study by labor economists Tony Fang and Carl Lin which studied minimum wages and employment in China, found that "minimum wage changes have significant adverse effects on employment in the Eastern and Central regions of China, and result in disemployment for females, young adults, and low - skilled workers ''.
Several researchers have conducted statistical meta - analyses of the employment effects of the minimum wage. In 1995, Card and Krueger analyzed 14 earlier time - series studies on minimum wages and concluded that there was clear evidence of publication bias (in favor of studies that found a statistically significant negative employment effect). They point out that later studies, which had more data and lower standard errors, did not show the expected increase in t - statistic (almost all the studies had a t - statistic of about two, just above the level of statistical significance at the. 05 level). Though a serious methodological indictment, opponents of the minimum wage largely ignored this issue; as Thomas Leonard noted, "The silence is fairly deafening. ''
In 2005, T.D. Stanley showed that Card and Krueger 's results could signify either publication bias or the absence of a minimum wage effect. However, using a different methodology, Stanley concluded that there is evidence of publication bias and that correction of this bias shows no relationship between the minimum wage and unemployment. In 2008, Hristos Doucouliagos and T.D. Stanley conducted a similar meta - analysis of 64 U.S. studies on disemployment effects and concluded that Card and Krueger 's initial claim of publication bias is still correct. Moreover, they concluded, "Once this publication selection is corrected, little or no evidence of a negative association between minimum wages and employment remains. '' In 2013, a meta - analysis of 16 UK studies found that the minimum wage has no significant effects on employment.
Minimum wage laws affect workers in most low - paid fields of employment and have usually been judged against the criterion of reducing poverty. Minimum wage laws receive less support from economists than from the general public. Despite decades of experience and economic research, debates about the costs and benefits of minimum wages continue today.
Various groups have great ideological, political, financial, and emotional investments in issues surrounding minimum wage laws. For example, agencies that administer the laws have a vested interest in showing that "their '' laws do not create unemployment, as do labor unions whose members ' finances are protected by minimum wage laws. On the other side of the issue, low - wage employers such as restaurants finance the Employment Policies Institute, which has released numerous studies opposing the minimum wage. The presence of these powerful groups and factors means that the debate on the issue is not always based on dispassionate analysis. Additionally, it is extraordinarily difficult to separate the effects of minimum wage from all the other variables that affect employment.
The following table summarizes the arguments made by those for and against minimum wage laws:
Supporters of the minimum wage claim it has these effects:
Opponents of the minimum wage claim it has these effects:
A widely circulated argument that the minimum wage was ineffective at reducing poverty was provided by George Stigler in 1949:
In 2006, the International Labour Organization (ILO) argued that the minimum wage could not be directly linked to unemployment in countries that have suffered job losses. In April 2010, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) released a report arguing that countries could alleviate teen unemployment by "lowering the cost of employing low - skilled youth '' through a sub-minimum training wage. A study of U.S. states showed that businesses ' annual and average payrolls grow faster and employment grew at a faster rate in states with a minimum wage. The study showed a correlation, but did not claim to prove causation.
Although strongly opposed by both the business community and the Conservative Party when introduced in the UK in 1999, the Conservatives reversed their opposition in 2000. Accounts differ as to the effects of the minimum wage. The Centre for Economic Performance found no discernible impact on employment levels from the wage increases, while the Low Pay Commission found that employers had reduced their rate of hiring and employee hours employed, and found ways to cause current workers to be more productive (especially service companies). The Institute for the Study of Labor found prices in the minimum wage sector rose significantly faster than prices in non-minimum wage sectors, in the four years following the implementation of the minimum wage. Neither trade unions nor employer organizations contest the minimum wage, although the latter had especially done so heavily until 1999.
In 2014, supporters of minimum wage cited a study that found that job creation within the United States is faster in states that raised their minimum wages. In 2014, supporters of minimum wage cited news organizations who reported the state with the highest minimum - wage garnered more job creation than the rest of the United States.
In 2014, in Seattle, Washington, liberal and progressive business owners who had supported the city 's new $15 minimum wage said they might hold off on expanding their businesses and thus creating new jobs, due to the uncertain timescale of the wage increase implementation. However, subsequently at least two of the business owners quoted did expand.
The dollar value of the minimum wage loses purchasing power over time due to inflation. Minimum wage laws, for instance proposals to index the minimum wage to average wages, have the potential to keep the dollar value of the minimum wage relevant and predictable.
With regard to the economic effects of introducing minimum wage legislation in Germany in January 2015, recent developments have shown that the feared increase in unemployment has not materialized, however, in some economic sectors and regions of the country, it came to a decline in job opportunities particularly for temporary and part - time workers, and some low - wage jobs have disappeared entirely. Because of this overall positive development, the Deutsche Bundesbank revised its opinion, and ascertained that "the impact of the introduction of the minimum wage on the total volume of work appears to be very limited in the present business cycle ''.
According to a 1978 article in the American Economic Review, 90 % of the economists surveyed agreed that the minimum wage increases unemployment among low - skilled workers. By 1992 the survey found 79 % of economists in agreement with that statement, and by 2000, 46 % were in full agreement with the statement and 28 % agreed with provisos (74 % total). The authors of the 2000 study also reweighted data from a 1990 sample to show that at that time 62 % of academic economists agreed with the statement above, while 20 % agreed with provisos and 18 % disagreed. They state that the reduction on consensus on this question is "likely '' due to the Card and Krueger research and subsequent debate.
A similar survey in 2006 by Robert Whaples polled PhD members of the American Economic Association (AEA). Whaples found that 47 % respondents wanted the minimum wage eliminated, 38 % supported an increase, 14 % wanted it kept at the current level, and 1 % wanted it decreased. Another survey in 2007 conducted by the University of New Hampshire Survey Center found that 73 % of labor economists surveyed in the United States believed 150 % of the then - current minimum wage would result in employment losses and 68 % believed a mandated minimum wage would cause an increase in hiring of workers with greater skills. 31 % felt that no hiring changes would result.
Surveys of labor economists have found a sharp split on the minimum wage. Fuchs et al. (1998) polled labor economists at the top 40 research universities in the United States on a variety of questions in the summer of 1996. Their 65 respondents were nearly evenly divided when asked if the minimum wage should be increased. They argued that the different policy views were not related to views on whether raising the minimum wage would reduce teen employment (the median economist said there would be a reduction of 1 %), but on value differences such as income redistribution. Daniel B. Klein and Stewart Dompe conclude, on the basis of previous surveys, "the average level of support for the minimum wage is somewhat higher among labor economists than among AEA members. ''
In 2007, Klein and Dompe conducted a non-anonymous survey of supporters of the minimum wage who had signed the "Raise the Minimum Wage '' statement published by the Economic Policy Institute. 95 of the 605 signatories responded. They found that a majority signed on the grounds that it transferred income from employers to workers, or equalized bargaining power between them in the labor market. In addition, a majority considered disemployment to be a moderate potential drawback to the increase they supported.
In 2013, a diverse group of 37 economics professors was surveyed on their view of the minimum wage 's impact on employment. 34 % of respondents agreed with the statement, "Raising the federal minimum wage to $9 per hour would make it noticeably harder for low - skilled workers to find employment. '' 32 % disagreed and the remaining respondents were uncertain or had no opinion on the question. 47 % agreed with the statement, "The distortionary costs of raising the federal minimum wage to $9 per hour and indexing it to inflation are sufficiently small compared with the benefits to low - skilled workers who can find employment that this would be a desirable policy '', while 11 % disagreed.
Economists and other political commentators have proposed alternatives to the minimum wage. They argue that these alternatives may address the issue of poverty better than a minimum wage, as it would benefit a broader population of low wage earners, not cause any unemployment, and distribute the costs widely rather than concentrating it on employers of low wage workers.
A basic income (or negative income tax) is a system of social security that periodically provides each citizen with a sum of money that is sufficient to live on frugally. It is argued that recipients of the basic income would have considerably more bargaining power when negotiating a wage with an employer as there would be no risk of destitution for not taking the employment. As a result, the jobseeker could spend more time looking for a more appropriate or satisfying job, or they could wait until a higher - paying job appeared. Alternatively, they could spend more time increasing their skills in university, which would make them more suitable for higher - paying jobs, as well as provide numerous other benefits. Experiments on Basic Income and NIT in Canada and the USA show that people spent more time studying while the program was running.
Proponents argue that a basic income that is based on a broad tax base would be more economically efficient, as the minimum wage effectively imposes a high marginal tax on employers, causing losses in efficiency.
A guaranteed minimum income is another proposed system of social welfare provision. It is similar to a basic income or negative income tax system, except that it is normally conditional and subject to a means test. Some proposals also stipulate a willingness to participate in the labor market, or a willingness to perform community services.
A refundable tax credit is a mechanism whereby the tax system can reduce the tax owed by a household to below zero, and result in a net payment to the taxpayer beyond their own payments into the tax system. Examples of refundable tax credits include the earned income tax credit and the additional child tax credit in the US, and working tax credits and child tax credits in the UK. Such a system is slightly different from a negative income tax, in that the refundable tax credit is usually only paid to households that have earned at least some income. This policy is more targeted against poverty than the minimum wage, because it avoids subsidizing low - income workers who are supported by high - income households (for example, teenagers still living with their parents).
In the United States, earned income tax credit rates, also known as EITC or EIC, vary by state -- some are refundable while other states do not allow a refundable tax credit. The federal EITC program has been expanded by a number of presidents including Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, and Bill Clinton. In 1986, President Reagan described the EITC as "the best anti poverty, the best pro-family, the best job creation measure to come out of Congress. '' The ability of the earned income tax credit to deliver larger monetary benefits to the poor workers than an increase in the minimum wage and at a lower cost to society was documented in a 2007 report by the Congressional Budget Office.
The Adam Smith Institute prefers cutting taxes on the poor and middle class instead of raising wages as an alternative to the minimum wage.
Italy, Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Denmark are examples of developed nations where there is no minimum wage that is required by legislation. Such nations, particularly the Nordics, have very high union participation rates. Instead, minimum wage standards in different sectors are set by collective bargaining.
Some economists such as Scott Sumner and Edmund Phelps advocate a wage subsidy program. A wage subsidy is a payment made by a government for work people do. It is based either on an hourly basis or by income earned. Advocates argue that the primary deficiencies of the EITC and the minimum wage are best avoided by a wage subsidy. However, the wage subsidy in America suffers from a lack of political support from either major political party.
In January 2014, seven Nobel economists -- Kenneth Arrow, Peter Diamond, Eric Maskin, Thomas Schelling, Robert Solow, Michael Spence, and Joseph Stiglitz -- and 600 other economists wrote a letter to the US Congress and the US President urging that, by 2016, the US government should raise the minimum wage to $10.10. They endorsed the Minimum Wage Fairness Act which was introduced by US Senator Tom Harkin in 2013. U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders introduced a bill in 2015 that would raise the minimum wage to $15, and in his 2016 campaign for president ran on a platform of increasing it. Although Sanders did not become the nominee, the Democratic National Committee adopted his $15 minimum wage push in their 2016 party platform.
Reactions from former McDonald 's USA Ed Rensi about raising minimum wage to $15 is to completely push humans out of the picture when it comes to labor if they are to pay minimum wage at $15 they would look into replacing humans with machines as that would be the more cost - effective than having employees that are ineffective. During an interview on FOX Business Network 's Mornings with Maria, he stated that he believes an increase to $15 an hour would cause job loss at an extraordinary level. Rensi also believes it does not only affect the fast food industry, franchising he sees as the best business model in the United States, it is dependent on people that have low job skills that have to grow and if you can not pay them a reasonable wage then they are going to be replaced with machines
In late March 2016, Governor of California Jerry Brown reached a deal to raise the minimum wage to $15 by 2022 for big businesses and 2023 for smaller businesses.
In contrast, the relatively high minimum wage in Puerto Rico has been blamed by various politicians and commentators as a highly significant factor in the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis. One study concluded that "Employers are disinclined to hire workers because the US federal minimum wage is very high relative to the local average ''.
As of December 2014, unions were exempt from recent minimum wage increases in Chicago, Illinois, SeaTac, Washington, and Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, as well as the California cities of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Long Beach, San Jose, Richmond, and Oakland.
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when does carlos find out about the affair | John Rowland (Desperate Housewives) - wikipedia
John Rowland is a fictional character portrayed by actor Jesse Metcalfe and created by television producer and screenwriter Marc Cherry for the ABC television series Desperate Housewives. The character is introduced as the teenage gardener of one of the titular housewives, Gabrielle Solis (Eva Longoria), with whom she has an affair and cheats on her husband, Carlos Solis (Ricardo Antonio Chavira).
Before Jesse Metcalfe was cast as John Rowland, actor Kyle Searles originated the role in the unaired pilot of the show. In June 2004, ABC called for three starring cast members to be recast. Metcalfe replaced Searles as John Rowland, as producers wanted to add more sexual appeal to the role "to justify why (Gabrielle) was having an affair. '' Metcalfe had previously read for the role during the initial casting process. He began playing the seventeen - year - old gardener when he was twenty - five.
Metcalfe was a regular cast member during the first season. However, after the affair is revealed to Carlos in the first season finale by John himself, Metcalfe left the regular cast. Since his departure, he has made several guest appearances in subsequent seasons.
John Rowland is employed by Gabrielle and Carlos Solis as a gardener. Gabrielle, having become bored with her husband never being with her, decided to seduce her teenage gardener. The pair embarked on an illicit affair which encountered several difficulties. The most prolific of these difficulties came when Gabrielle 's mother in law, Mama Solis, arrived to Wisteria Lane, called out by her son to find out if Gabrielle is in fact cheating on him. Consequently, Juanita struck out on a mission to learn the truth. However, she was hit by a car driven by Andrew Van de Kamp after discovering the affair. The hit and run placed Juanita into a coma. John became overwhelmed with guilt and confessed the affair to Father Crowley. John 's mother, Helen Rowland, overheard a conversation between her son and his friend Justin, in which they alluded to the fact the John was sleeping with a housewife. Helen suspected of Susan Mayer, but then Gabrielle confessed to her and she promised that it was over, to which Helen replied by saying "It 's not even close to being over ''. Afterwards, when the police arrive at the Solis house to arrest Carlos, Gabrielle thinks they have come for her, sent by Helen. Weeks later, in the episode "Your Fault '', the Rowlands meet with Gabrielle to tell her John has moved out and they expect her to help them move back into their house. Gabrielle meets with John, and he proposes to her. Gabrielle is forced to reject him. It is later revealed that Danielle Van de Kamp has a crush on John and wants to give him her virginity, but her mother Bree stopped that from happening. John becomes entranced once again by Gabrielle and may have conceived her unborn child. He demanded to see Carlos but Gabrielle refused, explaining to him that Carlos is the father of the child no matter what because he can provide.
Instead of backing up, John arrived at Carlos 's gay hate trial in the season finale and told him "he got the wrong guy ''. "Did n't you think it was strange that you had the only lawn on Wisteria Lane that needed to be mowed three times a week? '', he said. Carlos went mad and attempted to attack John but it looked like he was attacking Justin -- the gay person he beat up previously. Carlos was then arrested. While discussing the courtroom scene in which Carlos attacks John, Ricardo Antonio Chavira commented: "People can see the full rage that is in my character. I 'm yelling at him, ' I 'm gon na kill you '... Then I broke into Spanish: "Te voy a matar! ''... I just went for it... Then I looked, and Jesse (Metcalfe) had the most honest look of sheer terror. I think I scared the living shit out of him. '' Another scene between Gabrielle and John was also cut for time.
After what happened at the court in the previous season, Gabrielle breaks up with John. John goes and look for new housewives to be with intimately, and starts having an affair with 41 - year - old Joan. Upon finding this out, Gabrielle destroys Joan 's garden, and shuts John out of her life.
The beginning of Gabrielle 's affair with John is first seen in the second season finale in flashbacks. After their first sexual encounter, Gabrielle tells John that this was the only time it would ever happen.
John is not seen again until early in the third season. According to his dialogue in episode 3.03 (A Weekend in the Country), he is doing well and is very rich and successful with his gardening company. He is engaged to the daughter of the Sinclair Hotel owner, Tammy Sinclair. John and Gabrielle hook up in this episode, but John explains to her later that he is not planning on risking his marriage by having an affair with her. About half a year later, in episode 3.17 (Dress Big) Gabrielle tells Edie Britt that John is married.
In the fourth season, John meets Gabrielle at a hotel owned by his father - in - law and realizes that he still loved her. He constantly fights with his wife over the fact that she wants to lead his life. He tries to get back with Gabrielle, but she refuses because his wife is pregnant and she is married to Victor Lang but having an affair with Carlos. Carlos, who eavesdrops this, soon realizes he is not unlike John used to be and finally forgives him. John then just asks if he thinks Gabrielle is happy. And Carlos replies "I think she is ''.
John reappears in the sixth season, set six years after the events of the fourth season. He is divorced from Tammy, but managed to get a huge amount of money from the divorce, so he now owns a restaurant. John sees Gabrielle in the restaurant, along with Carlos, their daughters and their niece, Ana Solis. While Gabrielle looks a mess, John notices how beautiful Ana is and is surprised that she is from Carlos 's side of the family. When Gabrielle fixes herself up, Carlos suspects that she still has feeling for John. John offers to hire Ana as a waitress and Gabrielle declines, Carlos says that this is because she was jealous. After consulting Carlos, John hires Ana. Gabrielle sees John drop her off from work, she is furious with John for trying to flirt with Ana and concludes that she will now be picking Ana up from work. Gabrielle finds out that Ana bought condoms as she is in love with John and she goes to his restaurant to tell him to leave her alone. John believes that Gabrielle still has feelings for him and kisses her after expressing that he can provide for her now, she declines him yet again. Ana sees them kissing and Gabrielle tells her of the affair that happened many years before.
John Rowland was viewed as a sex symbol for the show during its first season. John, who USA Today described as "buff ' n ' sweaty '', became popular with mothers who watched the show and helped Metcalfe become established as "the (show 's) hottest sex symbol ''. Longoria attributed John 's appeal to the fact that he was seen shirtless in every episode, also describing him as "a really innocent young kid who has n't been tainted by the world. And I think that 's very endearing to people who watch. '' While reviewing the first season finale, Ann Hodgman of Entertainment Weekly stated that her interest in the Gabrielle and Carlos storyline was ruined by John telling Carlos about the affair rather than Carlos discovering it himself.
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what language is spoken in the movie avatar | Na'vi language - wikipedia
The Naʼvi language (Naʼvi: Lìʼfya leNaʼvi) is the constructed language of the Naʼvi, the sapient humanoid indigenous inhabitants of the fictional moon Pandora in the 2009 film Avatar. It was created by Paul Frommer, a professor at the USC Marshall School of Business with a doctorate in linguistics. Naʼvi was designed to fit James Cameron 's conception of what the language should sound like in the film, to be realistically learnable by the fictional human characters of the film, and to be pronounceable by the actors, but to not closely resemble any single human language.
When the film was released in 2009, Naʼvi had a growing vocabulary of about a thousand words, but understanding of its grammar was limited to the language 's creator. However, this has changed subsequently as Frommer has expanded the lexicon to more than 2200 words and has published the grammar, thus making Naʼvi a relatively complete, learnable and serviceable language.
The Naʼvi language has its origins in James Cameron 's early work on Avatar. In 2005, while the film was still in scriptment form, Cameron felt it needed a complete, consistent language for the alien characters to speak. He had written approximately thirty words for this alien language but wanted a linguist to create the language in full. His production company, Lightstorm Entertainment, contacted the linguistics department at the University of Southern California seeking someone who would be interested in creating such a language. Edward Finegan, a professor of linguistics at USC, thought that the project would appeal to Paul Frommer, with whom he had co-authored a linguistics textbook, and so forwarded Lightstorm 's inquiry on to him. Frommer and Cameron met to discuss the director 's vision for the language and its use in the film; at the end of the meeting, Cameron shook Frommer 's hand and said "Welcome aboard. ''
Based on Cameron 's initial list of words, which had a "Polynesian flavor '' according to Frommer, the linguist developed three different sets of meaningless words and phrases that conveyed a sense of what an alien language might sound like: one using contrasting tones, one using varying vowel lengths, and one using ejective consonants. Of the three, Cameron liked the sound of the ejectives most. His choice established the phonology that Frommer would use in developing the rest of the Naʼvi language -- morphology, syntax, and an initial vocabulary -- a task that took six months.
The Naʼvi vocabulary was created by Frommer as needed for the script. By the time casting for Avatar began, the language was sufficiently developed that actors were required to read and pronounce Naʼvi dialogue during auditions. During shooting Frommer worked with the cast, helping them understand their Naʼvi dialogue and advising them on their Naʼvi pronunciation, stress, and intonation. Actors would often make mistakes in speaking Naʼvi. In some cases, those mistakes were plausibly explained as ones their human characters would make; in other cases, the mistakes were incorporated into the language.
Frommer expanded the vocabulary further in May 2009 when he worked on the Avatar video game, which required Naʼvi words that had not been needed for the film script and thus had not yet been invented. Frommer also translated into Naʼvi four sets of song lyrics that had been written by Cameron in English, and he helped vocalists with their pronunciation during the recording of James Horner 's Avatar score. At the time of the film 's release on December 18, 2009, the Naʼvi vocabulary consisted of approximately 1000 words.
Work on the Naʼvi language has continued even after the film 's release. Frommer is working on a compendium which he plans to deliver to Fox in the near future. He hopes that the language will "have a life of its own, '' and thinks it would be "wonderful '' if the language developed a following. Apparently, it has developed a following, as is evident through the increasing learner community of the language. The community 's Lexical Expansion Project, together with Frommer, has expanded the lexicon by more than 50 percent.
Frommer also maintains a blog, Na'viteri, where he regularly posts additions to the lexicon and clarifications on grammar. Naʼviteri has been the source of the vast majority of Naʼvi growth independent of Frommer 's contract with 20th Century Fox.
The Naʼvi language was developed under three significant constraints. First, Cameron wanted the language to sound alien but pleasant and appealing to audiences. Second, since the storyline included humans who have learned to speak the language, it had to be a language that humans could plausibly learn to speak. And finally, the actors would have to be able to pronounce their Naʼvi dialogue without unreasonable difficulty. The language in its final form contains several elements which are uncommon in human languages, such as verbal conjugation using infixes. All Naʼvi linguistic elements are found in human languages, but the combination is unique.
Naʼvi lacks voiced plosives like (b) (d) (ɡ), but has the ejective consonants (pʼ) (tʼ) (kʼ), which are spelled px, tx, kx. It also has the syllabic consonants ll and rr. There are seven vowels, a ä ei ì o u. Although all the sounds were designed to be pronounceable by the human actors of the film, there are unusual consonant clusters, as in fngap (fŋap) "metal ''.
Naʼvi syllables may be as simple as a single vowel, or as complex as skxawng "moron '' or fngap above (both C C V C).
The fictional language Naʼvi of Pandora is unwritten. However, the actual (studio) language is written in the Latin script for the actors of Avatar. Some words include: zìsìt "year '', fpeio "ceremonial challenge '', ' awve "first '' (' aw "one ''), muiä "fair '', tireaioang "spirit animal '', tskxe "rock '', kllpxìltu "territory '', uniltìrantokx "avatar '' (dream - walk - body).
There are seven monophthong vowels:
There are additionally four diphthongs: aw (aw), ew (εw), ay (aj), ey (εj), and two syllabic consonants: ll (l̩) and rr (r̩), which mostly behave as vowels.
Note that the e is open - mid while the o is close - mid, and that there is no * oy. The rr is strongly trilled, and the ll is "light '', never a "dark '' (velarized) * (ɫ̩).
These vowels may occur in sequences, as in the Polynesian languages, Swahili, and Japanese. Each vowel counts as a syllable, so that tsaleioae has six syllables, (tsa. lɛ. i.o.a.e), and meoauniaea has eight, (mɛ. o.a.u. ni. a. ɛ. a).
Naʼvi does not have vowel length or tone, but it does have contrastive stress: túte "person '', tuté "female person ''. Although stress may move with derivation, as here, it is not affected by inflection (case on nouns, tense on verbs, etc.). So, for example, the verb lu ("to be '') has stress on its only vowel, the u, and no matter what else happens to it, the stress stays on that vowel: lolú "was '' (l ⟨ ol ⟩ u), lolängú "was (ugh!) '' (l ⟨ ol ⟩ ⟨ äng ⟩ u), etc.
There are twenty consonants. There are two Latin transcriptions: one that more closely approaches the ideal of one letter per phoneme, with the c and g for (ts) and (ŋ) (the values they have in much of Eastern Europe and Polynesia, respectively), and a modified transcription used for the actors, with the digraphs ts and ng used for those sounds. In both transcriptions, the ejective consonants are written with digraphs in x, a convention that appears to have no external inspiration.
The fricatives and the affricate, fv ts szh, are restricted to the onset of a syllable; the others may occur at the beginning or at the end (though wy in final position are considered parts of diphthongs, as they only occur as ay ey aw ew and may be followed by another final consonant, as in skxawng "moron ''). However, in addition to appearing before vowels, f ts s may form consonant clusters with any of the unrestricted consonants (the plosives and liquids / glides) apart from ', making for 39 clusters. Other sequences occur across syllable boundaries, such as Naʼvi (naʔ.vi) and ikran (ik. ɾan) "banshee ''.
The plosives ptk are tenuis, as in Spanish or French. In final position, they have no audible release, as in Indonesian and other languages of Southeast Asia. The r is flapped, as in Spanish and Indonesian; it sounds a bit like the tt or dd in the American pronunciation of the words latter / ladder.
The plosives undergo lenition after certain prefixes and prepositions. The ejective consonants px tx kx become the corresponding plosives ptk; the plosives and affricate pt ts k become the corresponding fricatives fsh; and the glottal stop ' disappears entirely. For example, the plural form of po "s / he '' is ayfo "they '', with the p weakening into an f after the prefix ay -.
Lenition has its own significance when the plural prefix can optionally be omitted. In the above example, ayfo can be shortened to fo. Similarly, the plural of tsmukan "brother '' can be smukan (from aysmukan).
Naʼvi has free word order. For example, the English "I see you '' (a common greeting in Naʼvi), can be as follows in Naʼvi:
Oel ngati kameie
Ngati oel kameie
Oel kameie ngati
All forms of "I see you '' in Naʼvi are completely correct. As sentences become more complex though, some words, like adjectives and negatives, will have to stay in a more or less fixed position in the sentence, depending on what the adjective or negative is describing.
"Today is a good day ''
Fìtrr lu sìltsana trr
Sìltsana trr fìtrr lu
In this case, the adjective sìltsan (a) (good) will need to stay with the noun trr (day), therefore limiting the sentence to fewer combinations on the construction of the sentence, but as long as it follows or precedes the noun, the sentence is fine. By putting the attributive a before the adjective, the adjective can be put after the noun:
Fìtrr lu trr asìltsan
More information about this can be found in the Adjectives section.
Nouns in Naʼvi show greater number distinctions than those in most human languages do: besides singular and plural, they not only have special dual forms for two of an item (eyes, hands, lovers, etc.), which are common in human language (English has a remnant in "both ''), but also trial forms for three of an item, which on Earth are only found with pronouns. Gender is only occasionally (and optionally) marked.
The plural prefix is ay+, and the dual is me+. Both trigger lenition (indicated by the "+ '' signs rather than the hyphens that usually mark prefix boundaries). In nouns which undergo lenition, the plural prefix may be dropped, so the plural of tokx "body '' is either aysokx or just sokx.
Masculine and feminine nouns may be distinguished by suffix. There are no articles (words for "a '' or "the '').
Nouns are declined for case in a tripartite system, which is rare among human languages. In a tripartite system, there are distinct forms for the object of a clause, as in "he kicks the ball ''; the agent of a transitive clause which has such an object, as in "he kicks the ball ''; and the subject of an intransitive clause, which does not have an object, as in "he runs ''. An object is marked with the accusative suffix - ti, and an agent with the ergative suffix - l, while an intransitive subject has no case suffix. The use of such case forms leaves the word order of Naʼvi largely free.
There are two other cases -- genitive in - yä, dative in - ru -- as well as a topic marker - ri. The latter is used to introduce the topic of the clause, and is somewhat equivalent to Japanese wa and the much less common English "as for ''. It preempts the case of the noun: that is, when a noun is made topical, usually at the beginning of the clause, it takes the - ri suffix rather than the case suffix one would expect from its grammatical role. For example, in,
Besides case, the role of a noun in a clause may be indicated with adpositions. Any adposition may occur as either as a preposition before the noun, or as an enclitic after the noun, a greater degree of freedom than English allows. For example, "with you '' may be either hu nga or ngahu. When used as enclitics, they are much like the numerous cases found in Hungarian and Finnish. When used as prepositions, more along the lines of what English does, certain of them trigger lenition. One of the leniting prepositions is mì "in '', as in mì sokx "in the body ''. This may cause some ambiguity with short plurals: mì sokx could also be short for mì aysokx "in the bodies ''.
Naʼvi pronouns encode clusivity. That is, there are different words for "we '' depending on whether the speaker is including his / her addressee or not. There are also special forms for "the two of us '' (with or without the addressee), "the three of us '', etc. They do not inflect for gender; although it is possible to distinguish "he '' from "she '', the distinction is optional.
The deferential forms of "I '' and "you '' are ohe and ngenga. Possessive forms include ngeyä "your '' and peyä "her / his ''. "He '' and "she '' can optionally be differentiated as poan and poé.
The grammatical distinctions made by nouns are also made by pronouns.
Naʼvi adjectives are uninflected -- that is, they do not agree with the noun they modify -- and may occur either before or after the noun. They are marked by a syllable a, which is attached on the side closest to the noun. For example, "a long river '' can be expressed either as,
or as,
The free word order holds for all attributives: Genitives (possessives) and relative clauses can also either precede or follow the noun they modify. The latter especially allows for great freedom of expression.
The attributive affix a - is only used when an adjective modifies a noun. Predicative adjectives instead take the "be '' verb lu:
Verbs are conjugated for tense and aspect, but not for person. That is, they record distinctions like "I am, I was, I would '', but not like "I am, we are, s / he is ''. Conjugation relies exclusively on infixes, which are like suffixes but go inside the verb. "To hunt '', for example, is taron, but "hunted '' is t ⟨ ol ⟩ aron, with the infix ⟨ ol ⟩.
There are two positions for infixes: after the onset (optional consonant (s)) of the penultimate syllable, and after the onset of the final syllable. Because many Na'vi verbs have two syllables, these commonly occur on the first and last syllable. In monosyllabic words like lu "be '', they both appear after the initial onset, keeping their relative order.
The first infix position is taken by infixes for tense, aspect, mood, or combinations thereof; also appearing in this position are participle, reflexive, and causative forms, the latter two of which may co-occur with a tense / aspect / mood infix by preceding it. Tenses are past, recent past, present (unmarked), future, and immediate future; aspects are perfective (completed or contained) and imperfective (ongoing or uncontained). The aspectual forms are not found in English but are somewhat like the distinction between ' having done ' and ' was doing '.
Tense and aspect need not be marked when they can be understood by context or elsewhere in the sentence.
The second infix position is taken by infixes for affect (speaker attitude, whether positive or negative) and for evidentiality (uncertainty or indirect knowledge). For example, in the greeting in the section on nouns, Oel ngati kameie "I See you '', the verb kame "to See '' is inflected positively as kam ⟨ ei ⟩ e to indicate the pleasure the speaker has in meeting you. In the subsequent sentence, Oeri ontu teya längu "My nose is full (of his smell) '', however, the phrase teya lu "is full '' is inflected pejoratively as teya l ⟨ äng ⟩ u to indicate the speaker 's distaste at the experience. Examples with both infix positions filled:
The Naʼvi language currently has over 2,000 words. These include a few English loan words such as kunsìp "gunship ''. The published lexicon, including the odd inflectional form, is available online at https://eanaeltu.learnnavi.org/dicts/NaviDictionary.pdf. Additionally, the community at learnnavi.org is working with Dr. Frommer to further develop the language. Naʼvi is a very modular language and the total number of usable words far exceeds the 2,000 dictionary words. For example: rol "to sing '' → tìrusol "the act of singing '' or ngop "to create '' → ngopyu "creator ''. Workarounds using existing words also abound in the Naʼvi corpus, such as eltu lefngap "metallic brain '' for "computer '' and palulukantsyìp "little thanator '' for "cat ''.
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is there such thing as a 100 pound note | Banknotes of the pound sterling - wikipedia
£ 1 (not used by the Bank of England or in NI), £ 100 (not used by the Bank of England)
Sterling banknotes are the banknotes in circulation in the United Kingdom and its related territories, denominated in pounds sterling (symbol: £; ISO 4217 currency code GBP (Great Britain pound)).
Sterling banknotes are official currency in the United Kingdom, Jersey, Guernsey, the Isle of Man, British Antarctic Territory, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, and Tristan da Cunha in St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. One pound is equivalent to 100 pence. Three British Overseas Territories also have currencies called pounds which are at par with the pound sterling.
In most countries of the world the issue of banknotes is handled exclusively by a single central bank or government, but in the United Kingdom seven retail banks have the right to print their own banknotes in addition to the Bank of England; sterling banknote issue is thus not automatically tied in with one national identity or the activity of the state. The arrangements in the UK are unusual, but comparable systems are used in Hong Kong and Macao, where three and two banks respectively issue their own banknotes in addition to their respective governments.
The Bank of England does act as a central bank in that it has a monopoly on issuing banknotes in England and Wales, and regulates the issues of banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Pounds issued by Crown Dependencies and other areas are regulated only by local governments and not the Bank of England.
Until the middle of the 19th century, privately owned banks in Great Britain and Ireland were free to issue their own banknotes. Paper currency issued by a wide range of provincial and town banking companies in England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland circulated freely as a means of payment.
As gold shortages affected the supply of money, note - issuing powers of the banks were gradually restricted by various Acts of Parliament, until the Bank Charter Act 1844 gave exclusive note - issuing powers to the central Bank of England. Under the Act, no new banks could start issuing notes; and note - issuing banks gradually vanished through mergers and closures. The last private English banknotes were issued in 1921 by Fox, Fowler and Company, a Somerset bank.
However, some of the monopoly provisions of the Bank Charter Act only applied to England and Wales. The Bank Notes (Scotland) Act was passed the following year, and to this day, three retail banks retain the right to issue their own sterling banknotes in Scotland, and four in Northern Ireland. Notes issued in excess of the value of notes outstanding in 1844 (1845 in Scotland) must be backed up by an equivalent value of Bank of England notes.
Following the partition of Ireland, the Irish Free State created an Irish pound in 1928; the new currency was pegged to sterling until 1979. The issue of banknotes for the Irish pound fell under the authority of the Currency Commission of the Republic of Ireland, which set about replacing the private banknotes with a single Consolidated Banknote Issue in 1928. In 1928 a Westminster Act of Parliament reduced the fiduciary limit for Irish banknotes circulating in Northern Ireland to take account of the reduced size of the territory concerned.
Elizabeth II was not the first British monarch to have her face on UK banknotes. George II, George III and George IV appeared on early Royal Bank of Scotland notes and George V appeared on 10 shilling and 1 pound notes issued by the British Treasury between 1914 and 1928. However, prior to the issue of its Series C banknotes in 1960, Bank of England banknotes generally did not depict the monarch. Today, notes issued by Scottish and Northern Irish banks do not depict the monarch.
The monarch is depicted on banknotes issued by the Crown dependencies and on some of those issued by overseas territories.
The following events and Acts of Parliament affected the course of banknote history in Great Britain and Ireland:
England & Wales Scotland
1708 1709
Bank Notes Act 1826 Bankers (Scotland) Act 1826
The wide variety of sterling notes in circulation means that acceptance of different pound sterling banknotes varies. Their acceptance may depend on the experience and understanding of individual retailers, and it is important to understand the idea of "legal tender '', which is often misunderstood (see section below). The assumption that all sterling notes are legitimate and of equal value, and are accepted by merchants anywhere, has become a tourism headache in some parts of the UK. In summary, the various banknotes are used as follows:
Legal tender is a narrow technical concept for the settlement of debt, and it has little practical meaning for many everyday transactions such as buying goods in shops. But it does apply, for example, to the settlement of a restaurant bill, where the food has been eaten prior to demand for payment and so a debt exists. Essentially, any two parties can agree to any item of value as a medium for exchange when making a purchase (in that sense, all money is ultimately an extended form of barter). If a debt exists that is legally enforceable and the debtor party offers to pay with some item that is not "legal tender '', the creditor may refuse such payment and declare that the debtor is in default of payment; if the debtor offers payment in legal tender, the creditor is required to accept it or else the creditor is in breach of contract. Thus, if in England party A owes party B 1,000 pounds sterling and offers to pay in Northern Irish banknotes, party B may refuse and sue party A for non-payment; if party A provides Bank of England notes, party B must acknowledge the debt as legally paid even if party B would prefer some other form of payment.
Banknotes do not have to be classed as legal tender to be acceptable for trade; millions of retail transactions are carried out each day in the UK using debit cards and credit cards, none of which is a payment using legal tender. Equally, traders may offer to accept payment in foreign currency, such as Euro, Yen or US Dollars. Acceptability as a means of payment is essentially a matter for agreement between the parties involved.
Millions of pounds ' worth of sterling banknotes in circulation are not legal tender, but that does not mean that they are illegal or of lesser value; their status is of "legal currency '' (that is to say that their issue is approved by the parliament of the UK) and they are backed up by Bank of England securities.
Bank of England notes are the only banknotes that are legal tender in England and Wales. Scottish and Northern Irish banknotes are not legal tender anywhere, and Jersey, Guernsey and Manx banknotes are only legal tender in their respective jurisdictions. Although these banknotes are not legal tender in the UK, this does not mean that they are illegal under English law, and creditors and traders may accept them if they so choose. Traders may, on the other hand, choose not to accept banknotes as payment, as contract law across the United Kingdom allows parties not to engage in a transaction at the point of payment if they choose not to.
In Scotland and Northern Ireland, no banknotes, not even those issued in those countries, are legal tender. They have a similar legal standing to cheques or debit cards, in that their acceptability as a means of payment is essentially a matter for agreement between the parties involved, although Scots law requires any reasonable offer for settlement of a debt to be accepted.
Until 31 December 1984, the Bank of England issued one pound notes, and these notes did have legal tender status in Scotland and Northern Ireland while they existed. The Currency and Bank Notes Act 1954 defined Bank of England notes of less than £ 5 in value as legal tender in Scotland. Since the English £ 1 note was removed from circulation in 1988, this leaves a legal curiosity in Scots law whereby there is no paper legal tender in Scotland. The UK Treasury has proposed extending legal tender status to Scottish banknotes. The proposal has been opposed by Scottish nationalists who claim it would reduce the independence of the Scottish banking sector.
Most of the notes issued by the note - issuing banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland have to be backed by Bank of England notes held by the issuing bank. The combined size of these banknote issues is well over a billion pounds. To make it possible for the note - issuing banks to hold equivalent values in Bank of England notes, the Bank of England issues special notes with denominations of one million pounds ("Giants '') and one hundred million pounds ("Titans '') for internal use by the other banks.
Bank notes are no longer redeemable in gold, and the Bank of England will only redeem sterling banknotes for more sterling banknotes or coins. The contemporary sterling is a fiat currency which is backed only by securities; in essence IOUs from the Treasury that represent future income from the taxation of the population. Some economists term this "currency by trust '', as sterling relies on the faith of the user rather than any physical specie.
The following table lays out the various banks or authorities which are authorised to print pound sterling banknotes, organised by territory:
In 1921, the Bank of England gained a legal monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales, a process that started with the Bank Charter Act of 1844 when the rights of other banks to issue notes was restricted.
The bank issued its first banknotes in 1694, although before 1745 they were written for irregular amounts, rather than predefined multiples of a pound. It tended to be times of war, which put inflationary pressure on the British economy, that led to greater note issue. In 1759, during the Seven Years ' War, when the lowest - value note issued by the Bank was £ 20, a £ 10 note was issued for the first time. In 1793, during the war with revolutionary France, the Bank issued the first £ 5 note. Four years later, £ 1 and £ 2 notes appeared, although not on a permanent basis. Notes did not become entirely machine - printed and payable to the bearer until 1855.
At the start of the First World War, the government issued £ 1 and 10 - shilling Treasury notes to supplant the sovereign and half - sovereign gold coins. The first coloured banknotes were issued in 1928, and were also the first notes to be printed on both sides. The Second World War saw a reversal in the trend of warfare creating more notes: to combat forgery, higher denomination notes (some as high as £ 1,000) were removed from circulation.
There are no Welsh banknotes in circulation; Bank of England notes are used throughout Wales. The last Welsh banknotes were withdrawn in 1908 upon the closure of the last Welsh bank, the North and South Wales Bank. An attempt was made in 1969 by a Welsh banker to revive Welsh banknotes, but the venture was short - lived and the notes did not enter general circulation, surviving today only as a collectors ' curiosity.
All Bank of England notes issued since Series C in 1960 depict Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse side, in full view facing left; her image also appears as a hidden watermark, facing right; recent issues have the anti-photocopier security EURion constellation around.
In the mid 1960s, shortly after the introduction of Series C, the Bank of England proposed to introduce a new banknote series featuring people from British history. In addition to enhancing the appearance of banknotes, the complexity of the new designs was intended to make counterfeiting harder. The task of designing the new Series D notes was given to the Bank 's new in - house designer, Harry Eccleston, who not only designed the notes themselves, but also created three individual portraits of the Queen. It was initially envisaged that all of the denominations of notes then in circulation would be issued under Series D. To that end, a Series D 10 shilling note was designed, featuring Sir Walter Raleigh, which would become the 50 pence note upon decimalisation, and intended to be the first of the new series to be issued. However, inflation meant that the lifespan of such a note would be too short -- estimates by the Decimal Currency Board suggested that a 10 shilling note would last approximately five months -- and it was more economical to have a coin instead: the fifty pence coin was introduced in 1969. Instead, the £ 20 note was the first Series D note to enter circulation in 1970, with William Shakespeare on the reverse.
The Series D £ 1 note, featuring Sir Isaac Newton, was discontinued in 1984, having been replaced by a pound coin the year before, and was officially withdrawn from circulation in 1988. Nonetheless, all banknotes, regardless of when they were withdrawn from circulation, may be presented at the Bank of England where they will be exchanged for current banknotes. Other banks may also decide to exchange old banknotes, but they are under no obligation to do so.
In the E revision series the £ 50 note was never issued, £ 100 notes were last used by the Bank of England in 1945.
As of June 2018, the Bank of England banknotes in circulation are from two distinct series. The two largest denominations are from Series F (£ 20 first issued in 2007, £ 50 first issued in 2011). The £ 5 and £ 10 notes are from Series G (first issued in 2016 & 2017).
The notes currently in circulation are as follows:
The launch of the new Series F banknotes was announced on 29 October 2006 by the Governor of the Bank of England. The first of these new notes, a £ 20 note, features the Scottish economist, Adam Smith, the first Scot to appear on an English note (the first non-Englishman, Anglo - Irish Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington appeared on the Series D £ 5 in 1971). Smith also features on £ 50 notes issued by the Clydesdale Bank. Previous issues of Bank of England £ 20 notes were known to have suffered from a higher incidence of counterfeiting (276,000 out of 290,000 cases detected in 2007) than any other denomination. The note, which also includes enhanced security features, entered circulation on 13 March 2007.
The next new Series F banknote, the £ 50 note, entered circulation on 2 November 2011. It is the first Bank of England banknote to feature two Britons on the reverse: James Watt (another Scotsman) and Matthew Boulton.
The first note of Series G, the polymer £ 5 note, entered circulation on 13 September 2016,; the £ 10 note on 14 September 2017,; and these will be followed by the £ 20 by 2020.
In April 2013, the Bank of England announced that its next planned new note issue, intended to be the £ 5 note in 2016, will feature former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. The selection of Churchill to replace Elizabeth Fry raised some debate about the representation of women on British banknotes, with critics raising concerns that Bank of England notes would portray exclusively male figures, other than Elizabeth II who appears on every sterling banknote and coin. In July 2013 it was announced that the Series F £ 10 note design would bear a portrait of 19th century author Jane Austen. In 2015, the Bank announced that they were accepting suggestions from the public for a figure from the visual arts to appear on the £ 20 note to replace Adam Smith, with the new note to be introduced from 2018 to 2020. In April 2016, it was announced that J.M.W. Turner had been selected to appear on the new £ 20 note.
In September 2013 the Bank of England opened a period of public consultation about the introduction of polymer, or plastic, banknotes, which would be introduced into circulation from 2016 if the proposals were supported. The polymer notes will be "around 15 % smaller '' than the notes being replaced.
In December 2013, the Bank confirmed that plastic or polymer notes would be brought into circulation in 2016 with the introduction of the £ 5 note featuring Sir Winston Churchill. The Jane Austen polymer £ 10 note went into circulation in September 2017.
A spokesman for LINK, the company that operates many of the cash machines in the United Kingdom, said machines would need to be altered to fit the smaller £ 5 banknotes.
The remaining planned polymer note will be the £ 20 showing J.M.W. Turner (from a self - portrait), the quote "Light is therefore colour '' from an 1818 lecture by Turner, and a view of The Fighting Temeraire.
As of June 2018 the Bank of England has no plans to introduce a Series G £ 50 note. The Series F version was introduced in 2011, while its predecessor was in circulation for twenty years, so the Bank is yet to make a decision on whether or not to replace it. An additional consideration is calls to withdraw the £ 50 note entirely as a way of combatting tax evasion, and the fact that cash transactions using such a high value note are becoming increasingly rare. In March 2018, the Treasury began a consultation looking at the potential withdrawal of the £ 50 note, as well as the one and two pence coins, on the basis that they are used significantly less than other denominations, with an additional rationale over the fifty - pound note being the perception in the UK of its use in money laundering, tax evasion and other financial crime, despite the demand for it overseas.
Not since 1945 has there been bigger notes than £ 50 issued for general circulation by the Bank of England, although banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland still use £ 100 notes. However, the Bank of England does produce higher - value notes that are used to maintain parity with Scottish and Northern Irish notes. Banknotes issued by Scottish and Northern Irish banks have to be backed pound for pound by Bank of England notes (other than a small amount representing the currency in circulation in 1845), and special £ 1 million and £ 100 million notes are used for this purpose. Their design is based on the old Series A notes.
While provincial banks in England and Wales lost the right to issue paper currency altogether, the practice of private banknote issue has continued in Scotland and Northern Ireland. The right of Scottish banks to issue notes is popularly attributed to the author Sir Walter Scott, who in 1826 waged a campaign to retain Scottish banknotes under the pseudonym Malachi Malagrowther. Scott feared that the limitation on private banknotes proposed with the Bankers (Scotland) Act 1826 would have adverse economic consequences if enacted in Scotland because gold and silver were scarce and Scottish commerce relied on small notes as the principal medium of circulating money. His action eventually halted the abolition of private banknotes in Scotland.
Scottish and Northern Irish banknotes are unusual, firstly because they are issued by retail banks, not central banks, and secondly, as they are technically not legal tender anywhere in the UK -- not even in Scotland or Northern Ireland -- they are in fact promissory notes.
Seven retail banks have the authority of HM Treasury to issue sterling banknotes as currency. Despite this, the notes can be refused at the discretion of recipients in England and Wales, and are often not accepted by banks and exchange bureaus outside of the United Kingdom. This is particularly true in the case of the Royal Bank of Scotland ' s £ 1 note, which is the only £ 1 note to remain in circulation within the UK.
In 2000, the European Central Bank indicated that, should the United Kingdom join the Euro, Scottish banks (and, by extension, Northern Irish banks) would have to cease banknote issue. During the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008, the future of private banknotes in the United Kingdom was uncertain.
After the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08, a number of banks were rescued from collapse by the United Kingdom government. The Banking Act 2009 was passed to improve protection for holders of banknotes issued by the authorised banks, so that the notes would have the same level of guaranteed value to that of Bank of England notes. Critics of the 2009 Act expressed concerns that it would restrict the issue of banknotes by commercial banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland by removing many of the provisions of the earlier Acts quoted above. Under the original proposals, banks would have been forced to lodge sterling funds with the Bank of England to cover private note issue for a full week, rather than over a weekend, thereby losing four days ' interest and making banknote production financially unviable. Following negotiations among the UK Treasury, the Bank of England and the Scottish banks, it was agreed that the funds would earn interest, allowing them to continue to issue their own notes.
During the public debate leading up to the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, the question of Scotland 's future currency was discussed. Whilst the SNP advocated a currency union between an independent Scotland and the remaining United Kingdom, HM Treasury issued a statement in April 2013 stating that the present relationship with the Bank of England could be changed after independence, with the result that Scottish banks might lose the ability to issue banknotes backed by Bank of England funds.
Until 1701 Scotland issued its own pound, the Pound Scots. The issuing of retail - bank banknotes in Scotland is subject to the Bank Charter Act 1844, Banknotes (Scotland) Act 1845, the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1928, and the Coinage Act 1971. Pursuant to some of these statutes, the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs publishes an account of "the Amount of Notes authorised by Law to be issued by the several Banks of Issue in Scotland, and the Average Amount of Notes in Circulation, and of Bank of England Notes and Coin held '' in the London Gazette. See for example Gazette Issue 58254 published 21 February 2007 at page 2544.
All Bank of Scotland notes bear a portrait of Sir Walter Scott on the front in commemoration of his 1826 Malachi Malagrowther campaign for Scottish banks to retain the right to issue their own notes. Bank of Scotland 's 2007 redesign of their banknotes are known as the Bridges of Scotland series. These notes were introduced on 17 September 2007, and show Scotland 's most famous bridges on the reverse side. The Bridges of Scotland series is currently being refreshed with the issue of new polymer notes with designs that follow the same basic theme of "bridges ''. The previous Tercentenary series notes are being withdrawn from circulation and replaced with the 2007 series (or polymer series as these are issued), but remain legal currency.
Following the announcement that HBOS (Bank of Scotland 's parent company) would be taken over by Lloyds TSB in September 2008, it was confirmed that the new banking company would continue to print bank notes under the Bank of Scotland name. According to the Bank Notes (Scotland) Act 1845, the bank could have lost its note - issuing rights, but by retaining headquarters within Scotland, banknote issue will continue.
As of August 2017, the Royal Bank of Scotland is in the process of adopting a new series of banknotes. These will be made of polymer. Two (the £ 5 and £ 10 notes) have already been released, whilst a new £ 20 note is being designed. The £ 5 note shows Nan Shepherd on the obverse accompanied by a quote from her book ' The Living Mountain ', and the Cairngorms in the background. The reverse displays two mackerel, with an excerpt from the poem ' The Choice ' by Sorley MacLean. The obverse of the £ 10 note shows Mary Somerville, with a quote from her work ' The Connection of the Physical Sciences ', and Burntisland beach in the background. The reverse displays two otters and an excerpt from the poem ' Moorings ' by Norman MacCaig. The obverse of the £ 20 note, to be introduced in 2020, will show Catherine Cranston.
The previous series of Royal Bank of Scotland notes, originally issued in 1987, remains in circulation, although it is now in the process of being replaced by polymer notes. On the front of each note is a picture of Lord Ilay (1682 -- 1761), the first governor of the bank, based on a portrait painted in 1744 by the Edinburgh artist Allan Ramsay. The front of the notes also feature an engraving of the bank 's former headquarters in St. Andrew Square, Edinburgh. The background graphic on both sides of the notes is a radial star design which is based on the ornate ceiling of the banking hall in the old headquarters building. On the back of the notes are images of Scottish castles, with a different castle for each denomination.
Occasionally the Royal Bank of Scotland issues commemorative banknotes. Examples include the £ 1 note issued to mark the 150th Anniversary of the birth of Alexander Graham Bell in 1997, the £ 20 note for the 100th birthday of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother in 2000, the £ 5 note honouring veteran golfer Jack Nicklaus in his last competitive Open Championship at St Andrews in 2005, and the £ 10 note issued in commemoration of HM Queen Elizabeth II 's Diamond Jubilee in 2012. These notes are much sought - after by collectors and they rarely remain long in circulation.
Clydesdale Bank has three series of banknotes in circulation at present. The most recent set of notes, the Polymer Series started coming into circulation in March 2015, when the Clydesdale Bank became the first bank in Great Britain to issue polymer banknotes. The £ 5 commemorative notes, issued to mark the 125th anniversary of the construction of the Forth Bridge, contain several new security features including a reflective graphic printed over a transparent "window '' in the banknote. Further notes in the polymer series will be introduced over time, replacing the previous paper notes.
The polymer notes continue the theme of the World Heritage Series of paper banknotes, introduced in autumn 2009. The new notes each depict a different notable Scot on the front and on the reverse bear an illustration of one of Scotland 's UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Banknotes of the earlier Famous Scots Series portray notable Scottish historical people along with items and locations associated with them.
The Clydesdale Bank also occasionally issues special edition banknotes, such as a 10 - pound note celebrating the bank 's sponsorship of the Scotland team at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
In Northern Ireland, four retail banks exercise their right to issue pound sterling notes: Bank of Ireland, First Trust Bank, Danske Bank (formerly Northern Bank) and Ulster Bank. Northern Bank and Ulster Bank are the only two banks that have issued special commemorative notes so far.
Like other Northern Irish banks, Bank of Ireland retains its note - issuing rights from before the partition of Ireland; while Bank of Ireland is headquartered in Dublin, it issues sterling notes within the United Kingdom. In spite of its name, Bank of Ireland is not, and never has been, a central bank; it is a retail bank. Its sterling notes should not be confused with banknotes of the former Irish pound which were in use in the Republic of Ireland before the adoption of the euro in 2001.
Banknotes issued by Bank of Ireland are of a uniform design, with denominations of £ 5, £ 10 £ 20, £ 50 and £ 100 each differentiated by colour. The notes all feature an illustration of a seated woman, Hibernia, and the heraldic shields of the Counties of Northern Ireland. Until April 2008, all Bank of Ireland notes featured an illustration of Queen 's University of Belfast on the reverse side. A new series of £ 5, £ 10 and £ 20 notes issued in April 2008 depicts the Old Bushmills Distillery and these new notes will gradually replace the previous series as older notes are withdrawn from circulation.
First Trust Bank issues notes in denominations of £ 10, £ 20, £ 50 and £ 100. The notes bear portraits of generic Northern Irish people on the front with varied illustrations on the reverse. Until 1993 the bank issued notes under its former trading name, Allied Irish Banks.
In 2012 Northern Bank adopted the name of its Copenhagen - based parent company Danske Bank Group and rebranded its retail banking operation. In June 2013 the bank issued a new series of £ 10 and £ 20 notes bearing the new brand name; at the same time it also announced that it would cease production of £ 50 and £ 100 notes. Older notes bearing the Northern Bank name will continue in circulation for some time as they are gradually withdrawn, and remain acceptable forms of payment. In spite of the Danish name on the new notes, banknotes issued by Danske Bank are sterling notes and should not be confused with banknotes of the Danish krone issued by the Danmarks Nationalbank, Denmark 's central bank.
Danske Bank does not issue £ 5 notes, but a special commemorative £ 5 note was issued by the Northern Bank to mark the Year 2000; uniquely among sterling notes, it was a polymer banknote, printed on synthetic polymer instead of paper. It is the only one of the bank 's pre-2004 notes still in circulation; all others were recalled following the £ 26.5 million pound robbery at its Belfast headquarters in 2004.
Ulster Bank notes all feature a vignette of three Northern Ireland views: the Mourne Mountains, the Queen Elizabeth Bridge and the Giant 's Causeway. Notes issued from 1 January 2007 feature the Royal Bank of Scotland Group logo.
In November 2006 Ulster Bank issued its first commemorative banknote -- an issue of one million £ 5 notes commemorating the first anniversary of the death of Northern Irish footballer George Best.
The Channel Islands are grouped for administrative purposes into the Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey. The islands are not part of the United Kingdom but are dependencies of the British Crown and in currency union with the UK. Both Jersey and Guernsey issue their own banknotes. These notes circulate freely between the two territories, so Jersey notes are commonly used in Guernsey, and vice versa. Private banknotes are no longer in circulation in the Channel Islands. These pounds are sterling pounds but the word "sterling '' is omitted as with the English notes. These notes are legal tender in their jurisdictions but are not legal tender in the UK.
The Government of Alderney (a part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey) is also licensed to issue its own currency, the Alderney pound, but only mints special commemorative sterling coins and does not issue banknotes.
The current series of notes entered circulation on 29 April 2010. The obverse of the notes includes a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II based on a photograph by Mark Lawrence, alongside a view of an important Jersey landmark, with text in English. The reverse of each note includes an image of one of Jersey 's numerous historic coastal defence towers, built in the late 18th century, as well as a further image of cultural or landscape importance, images of the twelve parish crests, and with denomination worded in French and Jèrriais. The watermark is a Jersey cow, and further security features include a see - through map of Jersey, and on the £ 10, £ 20 and £ 50 a patch hologram showing a varying image of the coat of arms of Jersey and the Island of Jersey on a background pattern of La Corbière lighthouse. On 1 June 2012, a £ 100 note was issued to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II.
The previous series, gradually being withdrawn from circulation in 2010, depicted Queen Elizabeth II on the front and various landmarks of Jersey or incidents in Jersey history on the reverse.
The Guernsey Pound is legal tender in Guernsey, but also circulates freely in Jersey. These pounds are sterling pounds but the word "sterling '' is omitted on banknotes, as on the English ones. It is also accepted in the UK. These notes can also be exchanged in banks and in bureaux de change although it has been reported that British banks no longer accept £ 1 Guernsey banknotes because they no longer have the facility for handling £ 1 UK banknotes. In addition to coins, the following banknotes are used:
The Isle of Man Government issues its own banknotes and coinage, which are legal tender in the Isle of Man. Manx pounds are a local issue of the pound sterling, but the word "sterling '' does not appear on the banknotes. These notes can be exchanged in banks and in bureaux de change in the United Kingdom.
The front of all Manx banknotes features images of Queen Elizabeth II (not wearing a crown: she is only "Lord '' on the island) and the Triskeles (three legs emblem). Each denomination features a different scene of the Island on its reverse side:
Three British overseas territories use their own separate currencies called pounds which are at par with the pound sterling. The governments of these territories print their own banknotes which in general may only be used within their territory of origin. Bank of England notes usually circulate alongside the local note issues and are accepted as legal currency.
In Gibraltar, banknotes are issued by the Government of Gibraltar. The pound was made sole legal tender in 1898 and Gibraltar has issued its own banknotes since 1934. The notes bear an image of the British monarch on the obverse and the wording "pounds sterling '', meaning that more retailers in the UK will accept them.
The Falkland Islands pound is the currency of the Falkland Islands. Banknotes are issued by the Falkland Islands Government. The illustrations on all notes are the same, featuring the British monarch, wildlife and local scenes; denominations are distinguished by the size and colour of the notes.
St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha 's constituent territories of Saint Helena and Ascension Island use the Saint Helena pound. Banknotes in these areas are issued by the Saint Helena Government and bear the image of the British monarch.
According to the central banks, the ratio of counterfeited bank notes is about 10 in one million of real bank notes for the Swiss franc, 50 in one million for the Euro, 100 in one million for United States dollar and 300 in one million for Pound sterling.
States within the Commonwealth of Nations issue their own banknotes which are separate currencies:
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the life cycle of sarcoptes scabiei differs from other arthropoda because it | Sarcoptes scabiei - wikipedia
Sarcoptes scabiei or the itch mite is a parasitic mite (an arthropod) that burrows into skin and causes scabies. The mite is found in all parts of the world. Humans are not the only mammals that can become infected. Other mammals, such as wild and domesticated dogs and cats (in which it is one cause of mange) as well as ungulates, wild boars, bovids, wombats, koalas, and great apes are affected.
The Italian biologists Cosimo Bonomo and Diacinto Cestoni showed in the 17th century that scabies is caused by Sarcoptes scabiei; this discovery of the itch mite in 1687 marked scabies as the first disease of humans with a known microscopic causative agent. The disease produces intense, itchy skin rashes when the impregnated female tunnels into the stratum corneum of the skin and deposits eggs in the burrow. The larvae, which hatch in three to 10 days, move about on the skin, moult into a nymphal stage, and then mature into adult mites. The adult mites live three to four weeks in the host 's skin.
The action of the mites moving within the skin and on the skin itself produces an intense itch that may resemble an allergic reaction in appearance. A delayed Type IV hypersensitivity reaction to the mites, their eggs, or scybala (packets of feces) occurs approximately 30 days after infestation. The presence of the eggs produces a massive allergic response that, in turn, produces more itching. Individuals who already are sensitized from a prior infestation can develop symptoms within hours.
Sarcoptes is a genus of skin parasites, and part of the larger family of mites collectively known as "scab mites ''. They are also related to the scab mite Psoroptes, also a mite that infests the skin of domestic animals. Sarcoptic mange affects domestic animals and similar infestations in domestic fowls causes the disease known as "scaly leg ''. The effects of S. scabiei are the most well - known, causing "scabies '', or "the itch ''. The adult female mite, having been fertilized, burrows into the skin (usually at the hands or wrists, but other parts of the body may also be affected), and lays its eggs.
The burrowing is carried out using the mouth parts and special cutting surfaces on the front legs. While these are being used, the mite anchors itself with suckers on its feet. Eggs are laid in small numbers as the mite burrows, and, as these hatch, six - legged larvae climb out on to the skin and search for hair follicles, where they feed and moult (discard old cuticles to grow). In the hair follicles, the larvae show the first nymphal stages, with eight legs.
In the nymphal stages, the creature feeds and moults, and if male, gives rise to the adult. In the case of females, another moult occurs before adulthood. The female has more moults than a male, so takes longer -- 17 days compared to 9 to 11 days for a male -- to reach adulthood. The female is about twice the size of the male.
Although the life - cycle is only about two weeks, individual patients are seldom found to have more than about a dozen mites on them. Even so, this number can cause agonising itching, especially at night, and severe damage to the skin often comes as a result of scratching, in particular by the introduction of infective bacteria, which may lead to impetigo or eczema.
The eggs are laid by the female at a rate of about two to three eggs a day for about two months. About 2 % of the British population is thought to be infected with these mites, which take about 25 minutes to an hour to burrow into the skin.
The best conditions in which to harbor S. scabiei is in areas with frequent skin - to - skin contact, such as the hands and wrists, as the mites are transmitted by skin contact with carriers, and they very easily spread. Infestations of S. scabiei are commonly found in pigs. They significantly depress growth and feeding rate, but usually die out in around five days in typical farm conditions. However, once in a herd, the mites are very difficult to eliminate without great measures taken.
Adult scabies mites are spherical, eyeless mites with four pairs of legs (two pairs in front and two pairs behind). They are recognizable by their oval, ventrally flattened and dorsally convex tortoise - like bodies and multiple cuticular spines. No demarcation into cephalothorax or abdomen occurs, and the mite 's surface has folds covered with short bristles. The front legs end in long, tubular processes known as suckers, and the hind legs end in long bristles. The male has suckers on all legs except the third pair, which distinguishes it from the female. Females are 0.3 -- 0.45 mm (0.012 -- 0.018 in) long and 0.25 -- 0.35 mm (0.0098 -- 0.0138 in) wide, and males are just over half that size.
The scabies mite Sarcoptes scabiei var. hominis goes through four stages in its lifecycle: egg, larva, nymph, and adult.
Upon infesting a human host, the adult female burrows into the stratum corneum (outermost layer of skin), where she deposits two or three eggs per day. These oval eggs are 0.1 -- 0.15 mm (0.0039 -- 0.0059 in) long and hatch as larvae in three to four days. A female can lay up to 30 eggs, then dies at end of a burrow. Upon hatching, the six - legged larvae migrate to the skin surface and then burrow into molting pouches, usually into hair follicles, where vesicles form (these are shorter and smaller than the adult burrows). After three to four days, the larvae molt, turning into eight - legged nymphs. This form molts a second time into slightly larger nymphs, before a final molt into adult mites. Adult mites then mate when the male penetrates the molting pouch of the female. Mating occurs only once, as that one event leaves the female fertile for the rest of her life (one to two months). The impregnated female then leaves the molting pouch in search of a suitable location for a permanent burrow. Once a site is found, the female creates her characteristic S - shaped burrow, laying eggs in the process. The female will continue lengthening her burrow and laying eggs for the duration of her life.
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what is the ratio on love it or list it | Love It or List It - wikipedia
Love It or List It is a Canadian home design TV show currently airing on HGTV, W Network, and on OWN Canada, and is the original show in the Love it or List It franchise. The show is produced by Big Coat Productions and was based in Toronto and other surrounding areas in Ontario, Canada. The show premiered as a primetime program on W Network on September 8, 2008, and has since aired on OWN Canada as well as HGTV in the United States. In September 2014, the show began filming in the United States in North Carolina.
In September 2017, HGTV ordered 20 additional episodes of the program. The next season is to start airing in June 2018.
Every episode of Love It or List It follows the same formula. A couple (usually, but not in all cases) presents their living situation in the current house that they own. In most episodes, the couple is split on whether or not they want to stay in the house.
Interior designer Hilary Farr and real estate agent David Visentin tour the couple 's home before meeting with them. The tour usually consists of David finding mostly negative things to say about the residence while Hilary is convinced that she can work magic with whatever plans she is given.
At the meetup between the couple and the hosts of the show, both Hilary and David are briefed as to what the couple 's desires are. Hilary is given a list of renovations the couple wants for the current house and her budget for the entire project. David, meanwhile, is tasked with searching for a new home for the couple that both meets their needs and stays within their desired budget.
Common challenges faced by Hilary are an inadequate budget to complete the entire request list from the homeowners, often due to discovery of unforeseen issues with the house that are uncovered during the renovation such as lack of compliance with modern building codes. Common issues for David, meanwhile, depend on the homeowners ' desires; for instance, the couple has children enrolled in the neighborhood school and they do not desire to change, or the potential house is too distant from family members or a workplace.
After Hilary 's renovation is complete, the homeowners are given a tour of their current home to see what she was able to accomplish. After the tour, David meets with them and hands them an evaluation of the home 's current market value following the renovations. He will then remind the couple what they could have in one of the new homes they looked at and that they would not get that in their current home.
The homeowners then meet with Hilary and David, who pose a question to them: The homeowners must choose either to "Love It, '' meaning that they will continue to live in their current home with the renovations, or to "List It, '' meaning that they will buy one of the homes David showed them and sell their current home. At this stage, all else being equal Hilary is at a theoretical disadvantage: Although Hilary 's renovations increase the attractiveness of her "Love It '' option by improving the current home 's livability, they simultaneously increase the attractiveness of David 's "List It '' option by increasing the current home 's resale value and thereby decreasing the net cost of acquiring any given new home that he proposes. By contrast, David 's efforts to maximize the attractiveness of his "List It '' option do not provide Hilary any offsetting benefit increasing the attractiveness of her "Love It '' option. Despite this disadvantage, as of the end of Season 9 Hilary leads by an overall tally of 90 "Love Its '' against 64 "List Its. ''
After a moment to deliberate, the homeowners reveal their decision and explain their reasoning to Hilary and David. If the homeowners decide to "List It, '' Hilary generally reacts with equanimity and expresses a desire for their best interest, whereas if they decide to "Love It, '' David frequently reacts with incredulity, questioning their reasoning and / or giving at least the impression of taking their decision personally. The parties then bid each other farewell, with closing footage of Hilary and David continuing to react and occasionally continuing their bout of one - upmanship.
Hosts
Assistant Designer
Contractors
Behind the Scenes
Victories for Hilary are families or clients who decided to love their home and stay. Victories for David are families and clients who decided to list and move into a new or better home.
Love It or List It has spawned five spinoffs. The first, known as Love It or List It Vancouver (or Love it or List it Too in the US), was launched in winter 2012 and is hosted by Jillian Harris and Todd Talbot. The second spin - off, a British version known as Love It or List It UK, debuted in 2015, is hosted by Kirstie Allsopp and Phil Spencer. The third spin off, Love It or List It Vacation Homes debuted in spring 2016 and is hosted by Dan Vickery and Elisa Goldhawke. A fourth spin off, Vendre ou renover au Quebec debuted in January 2017 and is hosted by Maika Desnoyers and Daniel Corbin. The fifth spin off, Love It Or List It Australia, debuted in September 2017 and is hosted by Andrew Winter and Neale Whittaker.
On August 31, 2010, Love It or List It was nominated for two Gemini Awards: Best Reality Program or Series and Best Direction in a Reality Program or Series. When HGTV premiered the show on the network, the company stated that Love It or List It has been the highest rating reality series since Candice Olson 's Candice Tells All.
In 2012, New York Times ' columnist Gail Collins noted that it was US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton 's favorite TV show. According to Collins, Clinton finds the show "very calming '' after being interviewed about her departure from politics.
In a 2013 interview with Las Vegas Magazine, Vanna White from Wheel of Fortune said it was one of her favourite HGTV programs. Actress Julianne Moore also gave similar praise for the show in an interview with Katie Couric and the Daily Mail.
According to the Wall Street Journal, the show and its Vancouver spinoff is one of Canada 's beloved reality series.
In April 2016, homeowners Deanna Murphy and Tim Sullivan who had participated in a 2015 Love It or List It episode filed suit against production company Big Coat TV, as well as the North Carolina contractor (Aaron Fitz Construction) who had been hired by the show to do the renovations on their home. The couple alleges that the renovation funds that they provided were not properly disbursed, and that the work on their home was done to a substandard quality. Moreover, the lawsuit states that the television personalities on the show do not play an active role in the renovation process, and that they were not shown homes on the market by any licensed North Carolina real estate agent. Big Coat TV has commented that they "do intend to vigorously defend what (they) consider to be false allegations. ''
The suit was settled in April 2017. The plaintiffs had signed a confidentiality agreement; their lawyer would not comment on the settlement. Big Coat had previously filed a countersuit for libel, slander and product disparagement; parts of that suit had been dismissed by the time of the settlement but that was under appeal by Big Coat. After the agreements had been concluded, both suits were dismissed.
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when was yogurt first sold in the uk | Yogurt - wikipedia
Yogurt, yoghurt, or yoghourt (/ ˈjoʊɡərt / or / ˈjɒɡərt /; from Turkish: yoğurt; other spellings listed below) is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make yogurt are known as "yogurt cultures ''. Fermentation of lactose by these bacteria produces lactic acid, which acts on milk protein to give yogurt its texture and characteristic tart flavor. Cow 's milk is commonly available worldwide, and, as such, is the milk most commonly used to make yogurt. Milk from water buffalo, goats, ewes, mares, camels, and yaks is also used to produce yogurt where available locally. The milk used may be homogenized or not; each type produces substantially different results.
Yogurt is produced using a culture of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus bacteria. In addition, other lactobacilli and bifidobacteria are also sometimes added during or after culturing yogurt. Some countries require yogurt to contain a certain amount of colony - forming units (CFU) of bacteria; in China, for example, the requirement for the number of lactobacillus bacteria is at least 1 × 10 CFU per milliliter.
To produce yogurt, milk is first heated, usually to about 85 ° C (185 ° F), to denature the milk proteins so that they do not form curds. After heating, the milk is allowed to cool to about 45 ° C (113 ° F). The bacterial culture is mixed in, and a temperature of 45 ° C (113 ° F) is maintained for four to twelve hours to allow fermentation.
The word is derived from Turkish: yoğurt, and is usually related to the verb yoğurmak, "to knead '', or "to be curdled or coagulated; to thicken ''. It may be related to yoğun, meaning thick or dense. The sound ğ was traditionally rendered as "gh '' in transliterations of Turkish from around 1615 -- 1625. In modern Turkish the letter ğ marks a diaeresis between two vowels, without being pronounced itself, which is reflected in some languages ' versions of the word (e.g. Greek γιαούρτι giaoúrti, French yaourt, Romanian iaurt). In English, the several variations of the spelling of the word include yogurt, yoghurt, and to a lesser extent yoghourt or yogourt.
Analysis of the L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus genome indicates that the bacterium may have originated on the surface of a plant. Milk may have become spontaneously and unintentionally exposed to it through contact with plants, or bacteria may have been transferred from the udder of domestic milk - producing animals. The origins of yogurt are unknown, but it is thought to have been invented in Mesopotamia around 5000 BC. In ancient Indian records, the combination of yogurt and honey is called "the food of the gods ''. Persian traditions hold that "Abraham owed his fecundity and longevity to the regular ingestion of yogurt ''.
The cuisine of ancient Greece included a dairy product known as oxygala (οξύγαλα) which is believed to have been a form of yogurt. Galen (AD 129 -- c. 200 / c. 216) mentioned that oxygala was consumed with honey, similar to the way thickened Greek yogurt is eaten today. The oldest writings mentioning yogurt are attributed to Pliny the Elder, who remarked that certain "barbarous nations '' knew how "to thicken the milk into a substance with an agreeable acidity ''. The use of yogurt by medieval Turks is recorded in the books Dīwān Lughāt al - Turk by Mahmud Kashgari and Kutadgu Bilig by Yusuf Has Hajib written in the 11th century. Both texts mention the word "yogurt '' in different sections and describe its use by nomadic Turks. The earliest yogurts were probably spontaneously fermented by wild bacteria in goat skin bags.
Some accounts suggest that Indian emperor Akbar 's cooks would flavor yogurt with mustard seeds and cinnamon. Another early account of a European encounter with yogurt occurs in French clinical history: Francis I suffered from a severe diarrhea which no French doctor could cure. His ally Suleiman the Magnificent sent a doctor, who allegedly cured the patient with yogurt. Being grateful, the French king spread around the information about the food which had cured him.
Until the 1900s, yogurt was a staple in diets of people in the Russian Empire (and especially Central Asia and the Caucasus), Western Asia, South Eastern Europe / Balkans, Central Europe, and India. Stamen Grigorov (1878 -- 1945), a Bulgarian student of medicine in Geneva, first examined the microflora of the Bulgarian yogurt. In 1905, he described it as consisting of a spherical and a rod - like lactic acid - producing bacteria. In 1907, the rod - like bacterium was called Bacillus bulgaricus (now Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus). The Russian Nobel laureate and biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, from the Institut Pasteur in Paris, was influenced by Grigorov 's work and hypothesized that regular consumption of yogurt was responsible for the unusually long lifespans of Bulgarian peasants. Believing Lactobacillus to be essential for good health, Mechnikov worked to popularize yogurt as a foodstuff throughout Europe.
Isaac Carasso industrialized the production of yogurt. In 1919, Carasso, who was from Ottoman Salonika, started a small yogurt business in Barcelona, Spain, and named the business Danone ("little Daniel '') after his son. The brand later expanded to the United States under an Americanized version of the name: Dannon. Yogurt with added fruit jam was patented in 1933 by the Radlická Mlékárna dairy in Prague.
Yogurt was introduced to the United States in the first decade of the twentieth century, influenced by Élie Metchnikoff 's The Prolongation of Life; Optimistic Studies (1908); it was available in tablet form for those with digestive intolerance and for home culturing. It was popularized by John Harvey Kellogg at the Battle Creek Sanitarium, where it was used both orally and in enemas, and later by Armenian immigrants Sarkis and Rose Colombosian, who started "Colombo and Sons Creamery '' in Andover, Massachusetts in 1929. Colombo Yogurt was originally delivered around New England in a horse - drawn wagon inscribed with the Armenian word "madzoon '' which was later changed to "yogurt '', the Turkish name of the product, as Turkish was the lingua franca between immigrants of the various Near Eastern ethnicities who were the main consumers at that time. Yogurt 's popularity in the United States was enhanced in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was presented as a health food by scientists like Hungarian - born bacteriologist Stephen A. Gaymont. By the late 20th century, yogurt had become a common American food item and Colombo Yogurt was sold in 1993 to General Mills, which discontinued the brand in 2010.
Yogurt (plain yogurt from whole milk) is 81 % water, 9 % protein, 5 % fat, and 4 % carbohydrates, including 4 % sugars (table). A 100 - gram amount provides 406 kilojoules (97 kcal) of dietary energy. As a proportion of the Daily Value (DV), a serving of yogurt is a rich source of vitamin B (31 % DV) and riboflavin (23 % DV), with moderate content of protein, phosphorus, and selenium (14 to 19 % DV; table).
Tilde (~) represents missing or incomplete data. The above shows little difference exists between whole milk and yogurt made from whole milk with respect to the listed nutritional constituents.
Although yogurt is often associated with probiotics having positive effects on immune, cardiovascular or metabolic health, high - quality clinical evidence is insufficient to conclude that consuming yogurt lowers risk of diseases or improves health.
Dahi is a yogurt of the Indian subcontinent, known for its characteristic taste and consistency. The word dahi seems to be derived from the Sanskrit word dadhi, one of the five elixirs, or panchamrita, often used in Hindu ritual. Sweet yogurt (mishti doi or meethi dahi) is common in eastern parts of India, made by fermenting sweetened milk. While cow 's milk is considered sacred and is currently the primary ingredient for yogurt, goat and buffalo milk were widely used in the past, and valued for the fat content (see buffalo curd).
Dadiah or dadih is a traditional West Sumatran yogurt made from water buffalo milk, fermented in bamboo tubes. Yogurt is common in Nepal, where it is served as both an appetizer and dessert. Locally called dahi, it is a part of the Nepali culture, used in local festivals, marriage ceremonies, parties, religious occasions, family gatherings, and so on. One Nepalese yogurt is called juju dhau, originating from the city of Bhaktapur. In Tibet, yak milk (technically dri milk, as the word yak refers to the male animal) is made into yogurt (and butter and cheese) and consumed.
In Northern Iran, Mâst Chekide is a variety of kefir yogurt with a distinct sour taste. It is usually mixed with a pesto - like water and fresh herb purée called delal. Common appetizers are spinach or eggplant borani, Mâst - o - Khiâr with cucumber, spring onions and herbs, and Mâst - Musir with wild shallots. In the summertime, yogurt and ice cubes are mixed together with cucumbers, raisins, salt, pepper and onions and topped with some croutons made of Persian traditional bread and served as a cold soup. Ashe - Mâst is a warm yogurt soup with fresh herbs, spinach and lentils. Even the leftover water extracted when straining yogurt is cooked to make a sour cream sauce called kashk, which is usually used as a topping on soups and stews.
Matsoni is a Georgian yogurt in the Caucasus and Russia. Tarator and Cacık are cold soups made from yogurt during summertime in eastern Europe. They are made with ayran, cucumbers, dill, salt, olive oil, and optionally garlic and ground walnuts. Tzatziki in Greece and milk salad in Bulgaria are thick yogurt - based salads similar to tarator.
Khyar w Laban (cucumber and yogurt salad) is a dish in Lebanon and Syria. Also, a wide variety of local Lebanese and Syrian dishes are cooked with yogurt like "Kibbi bi Laban '' Rahmjoghurt, a creamy yogurt with much higher fat content (10 %) than many yogurts offered in English - speaking countries. Dovga, a yogurt soup cooked with a variety of herbs and rice, is served warm in winter or refreshingly cold in summer. Jameed, yogurt salted and dried to preserve it, is consumed in Jordan. Zabadi is the type of yogurt made in Egypt, usually from the milk of the Egyptian water buffalo. It is particularly associated with Ramadan fasting, as it is thought to prevent thirst during all - day fasting.
To offset its natural sourness, yogurt is also sold sweetened, sweetened and flavored or in containers with fruit or fruit jam on the bottom. The two styles of yogurt commonly found in the grocery store are set - style yogurt and Swiss - style yogurt. Set - style yogurt is poured into individual containers to set, while Swiss - style yogurt is stirred prior to packaging. Either may have fruit added to increase sweetness.
Lassi and moru are common beverages in India. Lassi is stirred liquified curd that is either salted or sweetened with sugar commonly, less commonly honey and often combined with fruit pulp to create flavored lassi. Mango lassi is a western favorite, as is coconut lassi. Consistency can vary widely, with urban and commercial lassis being of uniform texture through being processed, whereas rural and rustic lassi has curds in it, and sometimes has malai (cream) added or removed. Moru is a South Indian summer drink, meant to keep drinkers hydrated through the hot and humid summers of the South. It is prepared by considerably thinning down yogurt with water, adding salt (for electrolyte balance) and spices, usually green chili peppers, asafoetida, curry leaves and mustard.
Large amounts of sugar -- or other sweeteners for low - energy yogurts -- are often used in commercial yogurt. Some yogurts contain added modified starch, pectin (found naturally in fruit), and / or gelatin to create thickness and creaminess artificially at lower cost. This type of yogurt is also marketed under the name Swiss - style, although it is unrelated to the way yogurt is eaten in Switzerland. Some yogurts, often called "cream line '', are made with whole milk which has not been homogenized so the cream rises to the top. In the UK, Ireland, France and United States, sweetened, flavored yogurt is common, typically sold in single - serving plastic cups. Common flavors include vanilla, honey, and toffee, and fruit such as strawberry, cherry, blueberry, blackberry, raspberry, mango and peach. In the early twenty - first century yogurt flavors inspired by desserts, such as chocolate or cheesecake, have been available. There is concern about the health effects of sweetened yogurt, due to its high sugar content.
Strained yogurt has been strained through a filter, traditionally made of muslin and more recently of paper or non-muslin cloth. This removes the whey, giving a much thicker consistency. Strained yogurt is made at home, especially if using skimmed milk which results in a thinner consistency. Yogurt that has been strained to filter or remove the whey is known as Labneh in Middle Eastern countries. It has a consistency between that of yogurt and cheese. It may be used for sandwiches in Middle Eastern countries. Olive oil, cucumber slices, olives, and various green herbs may be added. It can be thickened further and rolled into balls, preserved in olive oil, and fermented for a few more weeks. It is sometimes used with onions, meat, and nuts as a stuffing for a variety of pies or kibbeh balls.
Some types of strained yogurts are boiled in open vats first, so that the liquid content is reduced. The East Indian dessert, a variation of traditional dahi called mishti dahi, offers a thicker, more custard - like consistency, and is usually sweeter than western yogurts. Strained yogurt is also enjoyed in Greece and is the main component of tzatziki (from Turkish "cacık ''), a well - known accompaniment to gyros and souvlaki pita sandwiches: it is a yogurt sauce or dip made with the addition of grated cucumber, olive oil, salt and, optionally, mashed garlic. Srikhand, a dessert in India, is made from strained yogurt, saffron, cardamom, nutmeg and sugar and sometimes fruits such as mango or pineapple.
In North America and Britain, strained yogurt is commonly called "Greek yogurt ''. Strained yogurt is sometimes marketed in North America as "Greek yogurt '' and in Britain as "Greek - style yoghurt ''. In Britain the name "Greek '' may only be applied to yogurt made in Greece.
Ayran, doogh ("dawghe '' in Neo-Aramaic) or dhallë is a yogurt - based, salty drink. It is made by mixing yogurt with water and (sometimes) salt.
Borhani (or burhani) is a spicy yogurt drink. It is usually served with kacchi biryani at weddings and special feasts. Key ingredients are yogurt blended with mint leaves (mentha), mustard seeds and black rock salt (Kala Namak). Ground roasted cumin, ground white pepper, green chili pepper paste and sugar are often added.
Lassi is a yogurt - based beverage that is usually slightly salty or sweet, and may be commercially flavored with rosewater, mango or other fruit juice. Salty lassi is usually flavored with ground, roasted cumin and red chilies, may be made with buttermilk.
An unsweetened and unsalted yogurt drink usually called simply jogurt is consumed with burek and other baked goods. Sweetened yogurt drinks are the usual form in Europe (including the UK) and the US, containing fruit and added sweeteners. These are typically called "drinkable yogurt ''. Also available are "yogurt smoothies '', which contain a higher proportion of fruit and are more like smoothies.
A variety of plant - milk yogurts appeared in the 2000s, using soy milk, rice milk, and nut milks such as almond milk and coconut milk. So far the most widely sold variety of plant milk yogurts is soy yogurt. These yogurts are suitable for vegans, people with intolerance to dairy milk, and those who prefer plant milks.
Yogurt is made by heating milk to a temperature that denaturates its proteins (scalding), essential for making yogurt, cooling it to a temperature that will not kill the live microorganisms that turn the milk into yogurt, inoculating certain bacteria (starter culture), usually Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus, into the milk, and finally keeping it warm for several hours. The milk may be held at 85 ° C (185 ° F) for a few minutes, or boiled (giving a somewhat different result). It must be cooled to 50 ° C (122 ° F) or somewhat less, typically 40 -- 46 ° C (104 -- 115 ° F). Starter culture must then be mixed in well, and the mixture must be kept undisturbed and warm for some time, anywhere between 5 to 12 hours. Longer fermentation times produces a more acidic yogurt. The starter culture may be a small amount of live (not sterilized) existing yogurt or commercially available dried starter culture.
Milk with a higher concentration of solids than normal milk may be used; the higher solids content produces a firmer yogurt. Solids can be increased by adding dried milk. The yogurt - making process provides two significant barriers to pathogen growth, heat and acidity (low pH). Both are necessary to ensure a safe product. Acidity alone has been questioned by recent outbreaks of food poisoning by E. coli O157: H7 that is acid - tolerant. E. coli O157: H7 is easily destroyed by pasteurization (heating); the initial heating of the milk kills pathogens as well as denaturing proteins. The microorganisms that turn milk into yogurt can tolerate higher temperatures than most pathogens, so that a suitable temperature not only encourages the formation of yogurt, but inhibits pathogenic microorganisms. Once the yogurt has formed it can, if desired, be strained to reduce the whey content and thicken it.
Lactose intolerance is a condition in which people have symptoms due to the decreased ability to digest lactose, a sugar found in dairy products. In 2010, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) determined that lactose intolerance can be alleviated by ingesting live yogurt cultures (lactobacilli) that are able to digest the lactose in other dairy products. The scientific review by EFSA enabled yogurt manufacturers to use a health claim on product labels, provided that the "yoghurt should contain at least 108 CFU live starter microorganisms (Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus) per gram. The target population is individuals with lactose maldigestion. ''
Ayran is a Turkish savory yogurt - based beverage, traditionally served cold and is sometimes carbonated and seasoned with mint.
Skyr is an Icelandic cultured dairy product, similar to strained yogurt traditionally served cold with milk and a topping of sugar
Raita is a condiment made with yogurt in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh
Dadiah in a market
Plant - milk yogurt
Home yogurt maker
A drinkable yogurt made from water buffalo milk
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where does the sydney mardi gras parade start | Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras - wikipedia
The Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras, at one stage temporarily the Sydney Mardi Gras, or locally Mardi Gras, is an annual LGBT pride parade and festival in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, attended by hundreds of thousands of people from around Australia and overseas. It is one of the largest such festivals in the world, and includes a variety of events such as the Sydney Mardi Gras Parade and Party, Bondi Beach Drag Races, Harbour Party, the academic discussion panel Queer Thinking, Mardi Gras Film Festival, as well as Fair Day, which attracts 70,000 people to Victoria Park, Sydney.
The Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras is one of Australia 's biggest tourist drawcards, with the parade and dance party attracting many international and domestic tourists. It is New South Wales ' second - largest annual event in terms of economic impact, generating an annual income of about A $ 30 million for the state.
The event grew from gay rights parades held annually since 1978, when numerous participants had been arrested by New South Wales Police. The Mardi Gras Parade maintains a political flavour, with many marching groups and floats promoting LGBTQI rights issues or themes. Reflecting changes since the first Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras, participants in the Mardi Gras Parade now include groups of uniformed Australian Defence Force personnel, police officers from New South Wales State Police, as well as interstate and federal police officers, firefighters and other emergency services personnel from the Australian LGBTQI communities. Marriage equality was a dominant theme in the 2011 Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras Parade with at least 15 floats lobbying for same - sex marriage.
On 24 June 1978 at 10 pm as a night - time celebration following a morning protest march and commemoration of the Stonewall Riots organised by the Gay Solidarity Group more than 500 people gathered on Oxford Street, in a planned street "festival '' calling for an end to discrimination against homosexuals in employment and housing, an end to police harassment and the repeal of all anti-homosexual laws. The figure rose to around 2,000 as revellers out for the Saturday night at Oxford Street bars and clubs responded to the call "Out of the bars and into the streets! ''. Although the organisers had obtained permission, this was revoked, and the parade was broken up by the police. After the parade was dispersing in Kings Cross, 53 of the participants were arrested. Although most charges were eventually dropped, The Sydney Morning Herald published the names of those arrested in full, leading to many people being outed to their friends and places of employment, and many of those arrested lost their jobs as homosexuality was a crime in New South Wales (NSW) until 1984. Only two people who were arrested were fined. The rest were released without bail and the charges dismissed. The police response to a legal, local minority protest transformed it into a nationally significant event which stimulated gay rights and law reform campaigns.
The second Mardi Gras Parade occurred in 1979 despite opposition by gay media, businesses and groups. The 1979 parade, in recognition of the Stonewall Riots and commemorating the riot of the previous year, was attended by 3,000 people. In that same year, the Labor Government of New South Wales, led by Neville Wran, repealed the Summary Offences Act (NSW) under which the arrests in 1978 were made. The second Mardi Gras had the theme of Power in the Darkness. While there was a large police presence, there were no arrests made.
In 1980, after the third successful Mardi Gras parade, at community consultations, decisions were made to move the parade to the summer. In 1981, the parade was shifted to February, with the name changed to the "Sydney Gay Mardi Gras ''. An increasingly large number of people not only participated in the now summertime event, but a crowd of 5,000 came to watch it. 1981 's event saw a split develop between lesbian and gays over the inclusion of floats representing businesses. For most of the decade many lesbian excluded themselves from the event. A large post-parade party was held in 1982, which 4,000 people attended. This would continue to become an integral part of the Sydney Gay & Lesbian Mardi Gras. 1983 saw 44 floats participate with 20,000 onlookers. Footage of the 1984 event appeared in the music video for the Cold Chisel song "Saturday Night ''. In 1987, an estimated 100,000 people came to watch the parade. The mid-1980s saw considerable pressure placed to the Mardi Gras Committee following media controversy regarding AIDS. Despite calls for the parade and the party to be banned, the 1985 parade went ahead with the theme Fighting for Our Lives. In 1988 the parade was renamed the "Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras '' at an Extraordinary General Meeting.
1991 saw the eighth annual Sydney Gay and Lesbian Film festival, a Mardi Gras event, included in a national film festival for the first time. In this year the parade had become the largest ever held in Australia. In 1992, the festival lasted for four weeks, making it the largest gay and lesbian festival in the world. By 1993, the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras Parade had become the largest night time outdoor parade in the world. Mardi Gras ' Economic Impact Study found that the total Mardi Gras impact into the Australian economy was around A $38 million. In February 1993 an Umbrella Event of the festival was the play "Nothing Personal '' designed by Arthur Dicks. In 1994, Mardi Gras Festival adopted the theme We are Family, a nod to it being International Year of the Family. That year there were 137 floats in the parade with 600,000 spectators. For the first time, the parade was filmed by the ABC TV and shown on Sunday 6 March at 8.30 pm. It won its time slot and earned ABC TV its highest ratings in history. The 1997 parade was covered by Libbi Gorr 's current affairs show McFeast on ABC TV. An Aboriginal man dressed as Captain Cook and Aboriginal float led the parade in 1988, 218 years after Cook 's landing and claim on the land. The State Library of NSW holds an extensive collection of material related to the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras including posters, clippings, photographs and the personal papers of people active in the event and festival over many years.
Criticism of the Sydney Mardi Gras was perhaps at its strongest during the early years of the AIDS crisis, and flared again when in 1994 the national broadcaster ABC telecast the parade for the first time.
In 1996 there was criticism over the inclusion of bisexuals and heterosexuals as members of the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras. It was claimed that the subsequent requirement for those people to correctly answer specific questions, created two classes of membership - namely (1) gays, lesbians and transgender people and (2) bisexuals and heterosexuals.
The 2001 Parade was broadcast on Network Ten and had a theme of gay and lesbian parenting. The 2002 event saw a loss of A $400,000. In August the organising company was bankrupt. In 2003, the festival organisers responded to claims that the event was becoming too commercialised by implemented a scaled - down, grassroots approach. The 2009 performance figures indicated about 9,500 participants and 134 floats were part of the parade, making it the largest ever. Up to 300,000 spectators from Australia and overseas turned out in 2011 for the celebrations.
Mardi Gras, at different times, has attracted criticism from its own members, LGBTQI communities, and a variety of religious and political groups. Some argue Mardi Gras is inherently subversive to traditional Christian, Islamic and Jewish values. Each year the event is held, Fred Nile, a member of the New South Wales Legislative Council and a former minister of the Uniting Church in Australia, leads a prayer for rain on the event.
In January 2008 Robert Forsyth, the Anglican bishop of South Sydney, condemned Corpus Christi for opening the Mardi Gras because it depicted Judas seducing a gay Jesus as well as Jesus ' administration of gay marriage between two apostles. Director Leigh Rowney accepted that it would generate discussion on Homosexuality and Christianity and stated: "I wanted this play in the hands of a Christian person like myself to give it dignity but still open it up to answering questions about Christianity as a faith system. '' Playwright Terrence McNally, a gay man, received death threats when it was played in the United States.
In early 2011, members of the organisation unanimously voted to include intersex formally into the organisation at the Annual General Meeting and adopt the formal use of the LGBTQI acronym. To allow for greater inclusion of the LGBTQI community it represents (including those identifying as bisexual, transsexual, queer and intersex), on 17 November 2011 the festival and event organisers changed the event name to "Sydney Mardi Gras ''. On the same date the organisation reverted to its former name, "Sydney Gay & Lesbian Mardi Gras '' (from "New Mardi Gras ''), as more than 9,100 participants joined in the 2012 Parade, on 134 floats.
In 2011 Mardi Gras came under fire from LGBTQI communities for removing the words "Gay and Lesbian '' from the festival 's name. The organisation 's board confessed that they did not adequately consult the community in such an important decision. The organisation has also been criticised for focusing on the requests of corporate sponsors, and allowing their floats rather than maintaining its original sense of identity. This followed the 2010 season in which the Mardi Gras Parade and Party were held on separate dates for the first time in history.
During the rebranding in 2011, Mardi Gras Chairman Peter Urmson stated:
"I think that whilst we are first and foremost a GLBTQI community organisation, we also are very open to all of our friends that do not necessarily identify within that alphabet soup. ''
In addition to offending many, including former Mardi Gras president Richard Cobden, who says the group did n't have the authority to make such a change:
"Peter Urmson says ' this is our gift to the city '. It was not his to give... For 20 - plus years we have been able to force the mainstream media to call it the ' Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras. ' They had to say the words. For a long time they did not want to but we made them. That has been thrown away. ''
The name of the festival was subsequently restored as the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras.
In 2013, the New South Wales Police were accused of police brutality after a video shot by a bystander showing a handcuffed man thrown to the ground by an officer. By 2014, all charges against the bystander were withdrawn by police and the officer concerned was facing disciplinary proceedings.
On a number occasions, there have been controversies with, and bans of, the UFO - related Raelians participation in the parade. A Raelian spokesman said the bans were unfair as the Raelians support non-discrimination and have gay and lesbian members.
In 2012 Mardi Gras organisers faced the issue of having an Australian polygamists ' float in the parade, whilst also promoting marriage equality for couples. Particularly, as the 2012 Mardi Gras theme was "universal and infinite love '', some polygamists felt discriminated against. The issue was resolved with a polygamy float, based on the theme, "Queer Polyamory ''. In the 2014 Mardi Gras there was another float, "Polyamory Sydney ' Birds of a Feather, love together ' -- the infinite love Nest ''.
Some also believe that the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras perpetuates gay stereotypes and excludes other members of the LGBTIQ community.
The Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras festival culminates in the renowned Sydney Mardi Gras Parade, an LGBTQI rights protest and celebration of sexuality. The parade features more than 8,500 entrants in colourful costumes and elaborate floats, who represent a community group, topical theme or political message. Parade entrants include members of Parents, Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays, the Australian Defence Force, Amnesty International Australia, Australian Marriage Equality, City of Sydney, Fire and Rescue NSW, Taronga Conservation Society and DNA (magazine) among many others.
Each parade starts with approximately 200 Dykes on Bikes riding up Oxford Street. It is often accompanied by fireworks displays, which are launched from the rooftops of buildings along the parade route. Approximately 300,000 spectators watch the Parade as it snakes 1.7 kilometres (1.1 mi) through the Sydney CBD and Darlinghurst.
The parade travels along Oxford Street before turning into Flinders Street and finally into the bus lane that runs parallel to Anzac Parade -- to the parade end. These roads and others including some around Hyde Park, are closed to traffic for the duration of the parade and for a few hours after as clean - up operations proceed.
Each year, a Chief of Parade (Grand Marshal), is chosen by the organisation New Mardi Gras as someone who represents the values and spirit of Mardi Gras. This honourable title has previously been awarded to:
The Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras Parade is extensively covered by the media. In 2011, it was broadcast on radio by Joy 94.9 FM Melbourne and 2SER 107.3 FM Sydney. The Parade was also shown live on Foxtel 's Arena in its entirety. The Arena broadcast was presented by hosts Louie Spence of Pineapple Dance Studios, Charlotte Dawson, Ruby Rose and Matthew Mitcham. The Parade was also broadcast on radio live by various community radio stations, via the CBAA 's Community Radio Network satellite. In 2012, Optus, a corporate sponsor, broadcast a delayed and edited highlights of the parade via www.mardigrastv.org.au. In 2014, SBS TV broadcast delayed and edited coverage of the parade highlights, hosted by Tom Ballard, Patrick Abboud and Heather Peace.
Despite its name, Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras is not held on Mardi Gras (Shrove Tuesday) or indeed, on a Tuesday at all. In recent years, the Mardi Gras Parade has been on the first Saturday of March, with a festival of events going for approximately three weeks preceding it.
The parade running order for 4 March 2017.
The post parade party is one of the largest ongoing party events in the country. Mardi Gras Party attendances at Sydney 's Hordern Pavilion / Royal Hall of Industries peaked in 1998 with 27,000 tickets sold. In the years since 17,000 to 20,000 tickets are consistently sold, an increase over the first Parade Ball held in 1980 at the Paddington Town Hall, a BYO event which attracted 700 guests. Although, by the late first decade of the 21st century, ticket sales has begun to fall, with the 2012 post parade party selling out at 15,300 tickets; and ticket sales a little lower again in 2013.
The 2010 party was not held on the night of the parade and was later described by the organisers as human error during scheduling.
In the last 20 years, several well known local and international artists have performed at the Party and include:
By 1987 the festival included 35 events. The 1998 festival was estimated to contribute $99 million to the Sydney economy.
Multi-disc Mardi Gras compilation albums were released in 1995, 1997, 2002 and 2003.
The festival 's live entertainment includes cabaret, comedy, music and theatre. The Mardi Gras Film Festival showcases international and local gay and lesbian films. There are many literature and arts events, forum and conferences to attend between the many social activities. Individual and team sports have always been a big part of the festival.
In 1979 an ' Alternative Lifestyle Fair ' as part of a week of activities around International Gay Solidarity Day. During the early 1980s the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Business Association held an annual Fair Day, which was brought into the Sydney Gay Mardi Gras program in 1985. From 1985 to 1988 the Business Association continued to run the Fair, which was subsequently run by the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras from 1989. The event is the kick off event for the official Mardi Gras season in Victoria Park, Sydney for Sydney 's wider LGBTQI communities and their friends and family. Up to 70,000 people routinely turn out to sit on the grass, browse the stalls and catch up with old friends or make some new ones. Fair Day 2011 saw record numbers of attendees. Entertainment came from the Foxtel Main Stage and included a set from Zoe Badwi and Garçon Garçon, and one of the biggest ever "Mr and Mrs Fair Day '' competitions. Approximately 250 volunteers assisted with 220 stalls made up of many LGBTQI community groups.
In 2017, Mardi Gras Fair Day will be held at Camperdown Memorial Rest Park on Sunday 19 February.
The Mardi Gras Awards are presented to organisations and individuals who made an outstanding contribution to Mardi Gras and the gay and lesbian community.
Political support has come from a number of local and federal politicians such as Senators Natasha Stott Despoja and Penny Wong, Members of the House of Representatives Anthony Albanese and Tanya Plibersek, Premier Barry O'Farrell as well as the present Lord Mayor of Sydney, Clover Moore.
Prime Minister, Malcolm Turnbull attended the 2016 Mardi Gras. There was a movement by some Mardi Gras members to disinvite him in 2017 due to "lack of action on marriage equality ''. however the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras board subsequently rejected the move.
Hundreds of thousands of Australians and international guests come out in support of the Parade, with many lining up for a viewing spot from early in the afternoon. By the 7.45 pm Parade kick - off, crowds are usually ten - people deep. Though it has rained on several Mardi Gras parades (notably with heavy downpours prior to, and drizzle during, the parade in 1995, and heavy rainfall during the parade in 2004), this has never stopped the parade.
The Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras is regarded internationally as one of the world 's biggest and best LGBTQI marches and festivals, and has been described as an "absolute once - in - a-lifetime must for every travelling gay man ''. Mardi Gras is featured in the programmes of tour operators which target the gay market.
In the 2000s the Mardi Gras organisation struck financial trouble, and collapsed. This was attributed at the time to poor financial management and a downturn in international tourism following the attack on the World Trade Center in New York, while another explanation was given as Australia 's ongoing public liability crisis, which has seen massive insurance premiums impose a significant burden on community and public events, if not preventing them. As a consequence of the impending collapse of the organisation, there was a groundswell of concern and support within Sydney 's LGBTQI communities for the continuation of the work and events of Mardi Gras. A series of crisis meetings culminated in the creation of a reformed organisation "New Mardi Gras '' being formed to continue the Parade, the Festival & the Party.
In 2008, it was announced that the Government of New South Wales would provide funding for Mardi Gras as it had become part of the state 's Master Events Calendar. Limited funds have also been sourced from the Sleaze Ball party held in Sydney towards the end of the year. Mardi Gras still receives significant public support and the event now receives some limited government funding.
In 2013, a temporary rainbow crossing was created by City of Sydney Council as part of the 35th anniversary celebrations. The rainbow crossing proved popular with tourists and when it was removed a protest campaign, DIY rainbow crossing, emerged and was picked up by the local and international media.
Coordinates: 33 ° 52 ′ 50 '' S 151 ° 13 ′ 02 '' E / 33.88068 ° S 151.21719 ° E / - 33.88068; 151.21719
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which technology is used in lcd monitors to glow the pixel positions | Liquid - crystal display - wikipedia
A liquid - crystal display (LCD) is a flat - panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light - modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in colour or monochrome. LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general - purpose computer display) or fixed images with low information content, which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and 7 - segment displays, as in a digital clock. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements.
LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD screens are common in portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones. LCD screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. LCD screens are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to huge, big - screen television sets.
Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn - in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time (e.g., the table frame for an aircraft schedule on an indoor sign). LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence. The LCD screen is more energy - efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery - powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be. By 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes.
Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the liquid - crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray. Color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels.
The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage - on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage - off state. Because of this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). As most of 2010 - era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors and smartphones, they have high - resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, in particular in smartphones such as iPhones. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).
Displays for a small number of individual digits or fixed symbols (as in digital watches and pocket calculators) can be implemented with independent electrodes for each segment. In contrast, full alphanumeric or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows on one side of the LC layer and columns on the other side, which makes it possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general method of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the matrix, for example by selecting the rows one - by - one and applying the picture information on the other side at the columns row - by - row. For details on the various matrix addressing schemes see passive - matrix and active - matrix addressed LCDs.
The origins and the complex history of liquid - crystal displays from the perspective of an insider during the early days were described by Joseph A. Castellano in Liquid Gold: The Story of Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation of an Industry. Another report on the origins and history of LCD from a different perspective until 1991 has been published by Hiroshi Kawamoto, available at the IEEE History Center. A description of Swiss contributions to LCD developments, written by Peter J. Wild, can be found at the Engineering and Technology History Wiki.
In 1888, Friedrich Reinitzer (1858 -- 1927) discovered the liquid crystalline nature of cholesterol extracted from carrots (that is, two melting points and generation of colors) and published his findings at a meeting of the Vienna Chemical Society on May 3, 1888 (F. Reinitzer: Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins, Monatshefte für Chemie (Wien) 9, 421 -- 441 (1888)). In 1904, Otto Lehmann published his work "Flüssige Kristalle '' (Liquid Crystals). In 1911, Charles Mauguin first experimented with liquid crystals confined between plates in thin layers.
In 1922, Georges Friedel described the structure and properties of liquid crystals and classified them in 3 types (nematics, smectics and cholesterics). In 1927, Vsevolod Frederiks devised the electrically switched light valve, called the Fréedericksz transition, the essential effect of all LCD technology. In 1936, the Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patented the first practical application of the technology, "The Liquid Crystal Light Valve ''. In 1962, the first major English language publication on the subject "Molecular Structure and Properties of Liquid Crystals '', by Dr. George W. Gray. In 1962, Richard Williams of RCA found that liquid crystals had some interesting electro - optic characteristics and he realized an electro - optical effect by generating stripe - patterns in a thin layer of liquid crystal material by the application of a voltage. This effect is based on an electro - hydrodynamic instability forming what are now called "Williams domains '' inside the liquid crystal.
In 1964, George H. Heilmeier, then working at the RCA laboratories on the effect discovered by Williams achieved the switching of colors by field - induced realignment of dichroic dyes in a homeotropically oriented liquid crystal. Practical problems with this new electro - optical effect made Heilmeier continue to work on scattering effects in liquid crystals and finally the achievement of the first operational liquid - crystal display based on what he called the dynamic scattering mode (DSM). Application of a voltage to a DSM display switches the initially clear transparent liquid crystal layer into a milky turbid state. DSM displays could be operated in transmissive and in reflective mode but they required a considerable current to flow for their operation. George H. Heilmeier was inducted in the National Inventors Hall of Fame and credited with the invention of LCDs. Heilmeier 's work is an IEEE Milestone. In the late 1960s, pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken by the UK 's Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, England. The team at RRE supported ongoing work by George William Gray and his team at the University of Hull who ultimately discovered the cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals, which had correct stability and temperature properties for application in LCDs.
On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect in liquid crystals was filed for patent by Hoffmann - LaRoche in Switzerland, (Swiss patent No. 532 261) with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt (then working for the Central Research Laboratories) listed as inventors. Hoffmann - La Roche then licensed the invention to the Swiss manufacturer Brown, Boveri & Cie who produced displays for wristwatches during the 1970s and also to Japanese electronics industry, which soon produced the first digital quartz wrist watches with TN - LCDs and numerous other products. James Fergason, while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State University Liquid Crystal Institute, filed an identical patent in the United States on April 22, 1971. In 1971 the company of Fergason ILIXCO (now LXD Incorporated) produced the first LCDs based on the TN - effect, which soon superseded the poor - quality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower power consumption. In 1972, the first active - matrix liquid - crystal display panel was produced in the United States by T. Peter Brody 's team at Westinghouse, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1983, researchers at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC), Switzerland, invented the super-twisted nematic (STN) structure for passive matrix addressed LCDs. H. Amstutz et al. were listed as inventors in the corresponding patent applications filed in Switzerland on July 7, 1983, and October 28, 1983. Patents were granted in Switzerland CH 665491, Europe EP 0131216, U.S. Patent 4,634,229 and many more countries. In 1980 Brown Boveri started a 50 / 50 joint venture, Videlec AG, with the Dutch Philips company. Philips had all the required know how to design and build chips for the control of large LCD elements. In addition. Philips had better access to markets for electronic components and intended to use LCDs in new product generations of hi - fi, video equipment and telephones. In 1984 Philips researchers Theodorus Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan invented video speed drive schemes that solved the slow response time of STN - LCDs, enabling high resolution, high quality, and smooth moving video images on STN - LCDs. In 1985 Philips inventors Theodorus Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan solved the problem to drive high - resolution STN - LCDs using low - voltage (CMOS - based) drive electronics; opening the application of high - quality (high resolution and video speed) LCD panels to be used in battery operated portable products like notebook computers and mobile phones. In 1985 Philips acquired 100 % of the in Switzerland located Videlec AG company, after Philips moved the Videlec production lines to the Netherlands. The years after, Philips successfully produced and marketed complete modules (consisting of the LCD screen, microphone, speakers etc.) in high - volume production for the booming mobile phone industry.
In 1990, under different titles, inventors conceived electro optical effects as alternatives to twisted nematic field effect LCDs (TN - and STN - LCDs). One approach was to use interdigital electrodes on one glass substrate only to produce an electric field essentially parallel to the glass substrates. To take full advantage of the properties of this In Plane Switching (IPS) technology further work was needed. After thorough analysis, details of advantageous embodiments are filed in Germany by Guenter Baur et al. and patented in various countries. The Fraunhofer Institute in Freiburg, where the inventors worked, assigns these patents to Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, a supplier of LC substances. In 1992, shortly thereafter, engineers at Hitachi work out various practical details of the IPS technology to interconnect the thin - film transistor array as a matrix and to avoid undesirable stray fields in between pixels. Hitachi also improves the viewing angle dependence further by optimizing the shape of the electrodes (Super IPS). NEC and Hitachi become early manufacturers of active - matrix addressed LCDs based on the IPS technology. This is a milestone for implementing large - screen LCDs having acceptable visual performance for flat - panel computer monitors and television screens. In 1996, Samsung developed the optical patterning technique that enables multi-domain LCD. Multi-domain and In Plane Switching subsequently remain the dominant LCD designs through 2006. In 2007 the image quality of LCD televisions surpassed the image quality of cathode - ray - tube - based (CRT) TVs. In the fourth quarter of 2007, LCD televisions surpassed CRT TVs in worldwide sales for the first time. LCD TVs were projected to account 50 % of the 200 million TVs to be shipped globally in 2006, according to Displaybank. In October 2011, Toshiba announced 2560 × 1600 pixels on a 6.1 - inch (155 mm) LCD panel, suitable for use in a tablet computer, especially for Chinese character display.
Since LCD panels produce no light of their own, they require external light to produce a visible image. In a transmissive type of LCD, this light is provided at the back of the glass stack and is called the backlight. While passive - matrix displays are usually not backlit (e.g. calculators, wristwatches), active - matrix displays almost always are. Over the last years (1990 - 2017), the LCD backlight technologies have strongly been emerged by lighting companies such as Philips, Lumileds (a Philips subsidiary) and more.
The common implementations of LCD backlight technology are:
Today, most LCD screens are being designed with an LED backlight instead of the traditional CCFL backlight, while that backlight is dynamically controlled with the video information (dynamic backlight control). The combination with the dynamic backlight control, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan, simultaneously increases the dynamic range of the display system (also marketed as HDR, high dynamic range television.
The LCD backlight systems are made highly efficient by applying optical films such as prismatic structure to gain the light into the desired viewer directions and reflective polarizing films that recycle the polarized light that was formerly absorbed by the first polarizer of the LCD (invented by Philips researchers Adrianus de Vaan and Paulus Schaareman), generally achieved using so called DBEF films manufactured and supplied by 3M. These polarizers consist of a large stack of uniaxial oriented birefringent films that reflect the former absorbed polarization mode of the light. Such reflective polarizers using uniaxial oriented polymerized liquid crystals (birefringent polymers or birefringent glue) are invented in 1989 by Philips researchers Dirk Broer, Adrianus de Vaan and Joerg Brambring. The combination of such reflective polarizers, and LED dynamic backlight control make today 's LCD televisions far more efficient than the CRT - based sets, leading to a worldwide energy saving of 600 TWh (2017), equal to 10 % of the electricity consumption of all households worldwide or equal to 2 times the energy production of all solar cells in the world.
Due to the LCD layer that generates the desired high resolution images at flashing video speeds using very low power electronics in combination with these excellent LED based backlight technologies, LCD technology has become the domination display technology for products such as televisions, desktop monitors, notebooks, tablets, smartphones and mobile phones. Although competing OLED technology is pushed to the market, such OLED displays does not feature the HDR capabilities like LCDs in combination with 2D LED backlight technologies have, reason why the annual market of such LCD - based products is still growing faster (in volume) than OLED - based products while the efficiency of LCDs (and products like portable computers, mobile phones and televisions) may even be further improved by preventing the light to be absorbed in the colour filters of the LCD. Although until today such reflective colour filter solutions are not yet implemented by the LCD industry and did not made it further than laboratory prototypes, such reflective colour filter solutions still likely will be implemented by the LCD industry to increase the performance gap with OLED technologies).
Considering that a standard television receiver screen, an LCD panel today in 2017, has over six million pixels, it may appear as somewhat of a mystery as to how they can all be powered. Luckily you do n't need twelve million wires to that panel but still 3 x 1920 + 1080 = 6840 wires. That 's three for red, green and blue and 1920 columns of pixels for each color for a total of 5760 wires on the horizontal edge of the panel and 1080 rows of pixels on the vertical edge. For a panel that 's 28.8 inches (73 centimeters) wide, that 's 200 wires per inch on the horizontal edge. The LCD panel is powered by LCD drivers that are carefully matched up with the edge of the LCD panel at the factory level. These same principles apply also for smart phone screens that are so much smaller than TV screens. LCD panels typically use thinly - coated metallic conductive pathways on a glass substrate to form the cell circuitry to operate the panel. It is usually not possible to use soldering techniques to directly connect the panel to a separate copper - etched circuit board. Instead, interfacing is accomplished using either adhesive plastic ribbon with conductive traces glued to the edges of the LCD panel, or with an elastomeric connector, which is a strip of rubber or silicone with alternating layers of conductive and insulating pathways, pressed between contact pads on the LCD and mating contact pads on a circuit board.
Monochrome and later color passive - matrix LCDs were standard in most early laptops (although a few used plasma displays) and the original Nintendo Game Boy until the mid-1990s, when color active - matrix became standard on all laptops. The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh Portable (released in 1989) was one of the first to use an active - matrix display (though still monochrome). Passive - matrix LCDs are still used in the 2010s for applications less demanding than laptop computers and TVs, such as inexpensive calculators. In particular, these are used on portable devices where less information content needs to be displayed, lowest power consumption (no backlight) and low cost are desired or readability in direct sunlight is needed.
Displays having a passive - matrix structure are employing super-twisted nematic STN (invented by Brown Boveri Research Center, Baden, Switzerland, in 1983; scientific details were published) or double - layer STN (DSTN) technology (the latter of which addresses a color - shifting problem with the former), and color - STN (CSTN) in which color is added by using an internal filter. STN LCDs have been optimized for passive - matrix addressing. They exhibit a sharper threshold of the contrast - vs - voltage characteristic than the original TN LCDs. This is important, because pixels are subjected to partial voltages even while not selected. Crosstalk between activated and non-activated pixels has to be handled properly by keeping the RMS voltage of non-activated pixels below the threshold voltage, while activated pixels are subjected to voltages above threshold (the voltages according to the "Alt & Pleshko '' drive scheme) Driving such STN displays according to the Alt & Pleshko drive scheme require very high line addressing voltages. Welzen and de Vaan invented an alternative drive scheme (a non "Alt & Pleshko '' drive scheme) requiring much lower voltages, such that the STN display could be driven using low voltage CMOS technologies. STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating pulsed voltages of one polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite polarity during the next frame. Individual pixels are addressed by the corresponding row and column circuits. This type of display is called passive - matrix addressed, because the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady electrical charge. As the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows) increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Slow response times and poor contrast are typical of passive - matrix addressed LCDs with too many pixels and driven according to the "Alt & Pleshko '' drive scheme. Welzen and de Vaan also invented a non RMS drive scheme enabling to drive STN displays with video rates and enabling to show smooth moving video images on an STN display. Citizen, amongst others, licensed these patents and successfully introduced several STN based LCD pocket televisions on the market
Bistable LCDs do not require continuous refreshing. Rewriting is only required for picture information changes. In 1984 HA van Sprang and AJSM de Vaan invented an STN type display that could be operated in a bistable mode, enabling extreme high resolution images up to 4000 lines or more using only low voltages. Since a pixel however may be either in an on - state or in an off state at the moment new information needs to be written to that particular pixel, the addressing method of these bistable displays is rather complex, reason why these displays did not made it to the market. That changed when in the 2010 "zero - power '' (bistable) LCDs became available. Potentially, passive - matrix addressing can be used with devices if their write / erase characteristics are suitable, which was the case for ebooks showing still pictures only. After a page is written to the display, the display may be cut from the power while that information remains readable. This has the advantage that such ebooks may be operated long time on just a small battery only. High - resolution color displays, such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions, use an active - matrix structure. A matrix of thin - film transistors (TFTs) is added to the electrodes in contact with the LC layer. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is selected, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and voltages corresponding to the picture information are driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is selected. All of the row lines are selected in sequence during a refresh operation. Active - matrix addressed displays look brighter and sharper than passive - matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images.
Twisted nematic displays contain liquid crystals that twist and untwist at varying degrees to allow light to pass through. When no voltage is applied to a TN liquid crystal cell, polarized light passes through the 90 - degrees twisted LC layer. In proportion to the voltage applied, the liquid crystals untwist changing the polarization and blocking the light 's path. By properly adjusting the level of the voltage almost any gray level or transmission can be achieved.
In - plane switching is an LCD technology that aligns the liquid crystals in a plane parallel to the glass substrates. In this method, the electrical field is applied through opposite electrodes on the same glass substrate, so that the liquid crystals can be reoriented (switched) essentially in the same plane, although fringe fields inhibit a homogeneous reorientation. This requires two transistors for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin - film transistor (TFT) display. Before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2009, the additional transistors resulted in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight and consuming more power, making this type of display less desirable for notebook computers. Currently Panasonic is using an enhanced version eIPS for their large size LCD - TV products as well as Hewlett - Packard in its WebOS based TouchPad tablet and their Chromebook 11.
In 2011, LG claimed the smartphone LG Optimus Black (IPS LCD (LCD NOVA)) has the brightness up to 700 nits, while the competitor has only IPS LCD with 518 nits and double an active - matrix OLED (AMOLED) display with 305 nits. LG also claimed the NOVA display to be 50 percent more efficient than regular LCDs and to consume only 50 percent of the power of AMOLED displays when producing white on screen. When it comes to contrast ratio, AMOLED display still performs best due to its underlying technology, where the black levels are displayed as pitch black and not as dark gray. On August 24, 2011, Nokia announced the Nokia 701 and also made the claim of the world 's brightest display at 1000 nits. The screen also had Nokia 's Clearblack layer, improving the contrast ratio and bringing it closer to that of the AMOLED screens.
Super-IPS was later introduced after in - plane switching with even better response times and color reproduction.
Known as fringe field switching (FFS) until 2003, advanced fringe field switching is similar to IPS or S - IPS offering superior performance and color gamut with high luminosity. AFFS was developed by Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd, Korea (formally Hyundai Electronics, LCD Task Force). AFFS - applied notebook applications minimize color distortion while maintaining a wider viewing angle for a professional display. Color shift and deviation caused by light leakage is corrected by optimizing the white gamut which also enhances white / gray reproduction. In 2004, Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd licensed AFFS to Japan 's Hitachi Displays. Hitachi is using AFFS to manufacture high - end panels. In 2006, HYDIS licensed AFFS to Sanyo Epson Imaging Devices Corporation. Shortly thereafter, Hydis introduced a high - transmittance evolution of the AFFS display, called HFFS (FFS+). Hydis introduced AFFS+ with improved outdoor readability in 2007. AFFS panels are mostly utilized in the cockpits of latest commercial aircraft displays. But is no longer produced as of February 2015.
Vertical - alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystals naturally align vertically to the glass substrates. When no voltage is applied, the liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the substrate, creating a black display between crossed polarizers. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystals shift to a tilted position, allowing light to pass through and create a gray - scale display depending on the amount of tilt generated by the electric field. It has a deeper - black background, a higher contrast ratio, a wider viewing angle, and better image quality at extreme temperatures than traditional twisted - nematic displays.
Blue phase mode LCDs have been shown as engineering samples early in 2008, but they are not in mass - production. The physics of blue phase mode LCDs suggest that very short switching times (~ 1 ms) can be achieved, so time sequential color control can possibly be realized and expensive color filters would be obsolete.
Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective transistors are usually still usable. Manufacturers ' policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero - tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea. As of 2005, though, Samsung adheres to the less restrictive ISO 13406 - 2 standard. Other companies have been known to tolerate as many as 11 dead pixels in their policies.
Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the ISO 13406 - 2 standard. However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite often interpreted in different ways. LCD panels are more likely to have defects than most ICs due to their larger size. For example, a 300 mm SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However, 134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection of the whole LCD panel would be a 0 % yield. In recent years, quality control has been improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4 defective pixels is usually considered defective and customers can request an exchange for a new one. Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have a zero - defective - pixel guarantee, which is an extra screening process which can then determine "A '' - and "B '' - grade panels. Many manufacturers would replace a product even with one defective pixel. Even where such guarantees do not exist, the location of defective pixels is important. A display with only a few defective pixels may be unacceptable if the defective pixels are near each other. LCD panels also have defects known as clouding (or less commonly mura), which describes the uneven patches of changes in luminance. It is most visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes.
The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by QinetiQ (formerly DERA), can retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one of two stable orientations ("black '' and "white '') and power is only required to change the image. ZBD Displays is a spin - off company from QinetiQ who manufactured both grayscale and color ZBD devices. Kent Displays has also developed a "no - power '' display that uses polymer stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLCD). In 2009 Kent demonstrated the use of a ChLCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile phone, allowing it to change colors, and keep that color even when power is cut off. In 2004 researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new types of zero - power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable techniques. Several bistable technologies, like the 360 ° BTN and the bistable cholesteric, depend mainly on the bulk properties of the liquid crystal (LC) and use standard strong anchoring, with alignment films and LC mixtures similar to the traditional monostable materials. Other bistable technologies, e.g. BiNem technology, are based mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak anchoring materials.
Some of these issues relate to full - screen displays, others to small displays as on watches, etc. Many of the comparisons are with CRT displays.
Several different families of liquid crystals are used in liquid crystals. The molecules used have to be anisotropic, and to exhibit mutual attraction. Polarizable rod - shaped molecules (biphenyls, terphenyls, etc.) are common. A common form is a pair of aromatic benzene rings, with a nonpolar moiety (pentyl, heptyl, octyl, or alkyl oxy group) on one end and polar (nitrile, halogen) on the other. Sometimes the benzene rings are separated with an acetylene group, ethylene, CH = N, CH = NO, N = N, N = NO, or ester group. In practice, eutectic mixtures of several chemicals are used, to achieve wider temperature operating range (- 10... + 60 ° C for low - end and - 20... + 100 ° C for high - performance displays). For example, the E7 mixture is composed of three biphenyls and one terphenyl: 39 wt. % of 4 ' - pentyl (1, 1 ' - biphenyl) - 4 - carbonitrile (nematic range 24... 35 ° C), 36 wt. % of 4 ' - heptyl (1, 1 ' - biphenyl) - 4 - carbonitrile (nematic range 30... 43 ° C), 16 wt. % of 4 ' - octoxy (1, 1 ' - biphenyl) - 4 - carbonitrile (nematic range 54... 80 ° C), and 9 wt. % of 4 - pentyl (1, 1 ': 4 ', 1 - terphenyl) - 4 - carbonitrile (nematic range 131... 240 ° C).
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where does the title and the soul shall dance originate from in the play | And the Soul Shall Dance - wikipedia
And The Soul Shall Dance is Wakako Yamauchi 's first full - length play. Written in 1977, the story involves a young Japanese American girl and her parents as they struggle to live in a white America during The Great Depression. And The Soul Shall Dance grapples with many of the issues facing Japanese Americans in America such as Assimilation, immigration, social, economic and political status, and simply surviving in the cruelties of California 's
The play is based on her short story by the same name that was published in Aiiieeeee! An Anthology of Asian - American Writers and was made into a PBS film in 1977. This launched Yamauchi 's career as a playwright and awarded Yamauchi with playwriting grants from the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mark Taper Forum to continue her writing. The play went on to win Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award for best new play of 1977.
Masako
An 11 year old American born Japanese girl struggling to understand where she fits into a prejudice white America. She is the daughter of Murata and Hana and is constantly in need of advice from them, as she is a more Americanized generation of Japanese Americans.
Kiyoko
A 14 year old Japanese born girl who was brought over from Japan by her father, Oka, after the death of her mother, Shizue. Seeking a better life with the help of Masako, she struggles to understand the ways of America.
Murata
A 40 year old Japanese born American farmer, father of Masako, and husband to Hana. Murata strives to be the best example of hard work, hope and kindness that he can be and to be the mediator of many situations.
Hana
A Japanese born American Farmer, mother of Masako, wife of Murata. Hana has a realistic outlook on the Murata Family 's situation in America, and seeks a better life, hoping to return to Japan.
Oka
A 45 year old Japanese born American Farmer in his second marriage to Emiko and father to Kiyoko. As a neighbor to the Murata family, his unpleasant relationship with Emiko is very noticeable.
Emiko
A 30 year old Japanese woman, wife of Oka and Sister to Shizue. Emiko was sent by her family in Japan to be Oka 's second wife as a punishment for the dishonorable acts she committed in Japan.
Shizue
Deceased Japanese former wife of Oka
The play takes place on two small farms in the Imperial Valley in California near the Mexican border during the early 1930s. During the time of the play, the great depression left a deep sense of poverty in places like the Imperial Valley. On top of this, relations between Japan and the US turned sour, leading to a negative view of Japanese Americans and laws restricting their right to property.
The set for the play is very minimalist, including but not limited to: a kitchen table, a wooden bench, 4 chairs, a bed, and a wall calendar. Props include but are not limited to: A bottle of sake, two cups, a dish of chilies, a phonograph, two towels hanging on pegs on the wall.
Act 1 Scene 1
The play begins in the Murata 's kitchen in 1935, on a June afternoon while Hana is scolding Masako, her eleven - year - old daughter, for accidentally burning down the bathhouse. Murata, the father, walks in and the family begins to argue over how they will shower. Oka, their neighbor, runs in worried about the smoke he saw from down the street. Once he is filled in on what happened, he offers to help rebuild it, but Murata offers Oka a seat and a drink of sake. The two begin to talk about Oka wanting to sell his horse. After a few drinks Oka tells Murata that he needs the money to bring his fifteen - year - old daughter, Kiyoko, over from Japan, and the only way he could think to manage it would be to sell his horse and ask to use Murata 's every once in a while.
Oka, having his fill of sake, then explains that as a young boy in Japan, he went to apprentice for a family of blacksmiths with no sons. He eventually married their daughter, Shizue. The family always looked down on him and pushed him around. He decided to go to America when they had a daughter to get away from the humiliation and to make enough money to bring his wife and daughter to America. When Shizue passed away, the family sent Emiko, Shizue 's sister, over to be married to Oka.
After more talk of income, Oka asks if she would help Kiyoko assimilate to the American culture by teaching her English and helping her study. Masako agrees and Oka offers for the whole Murata family to use his bath house whenever they would like and goes home. Hana is weary about going over to Oka 's bathhouse because of her strange impression of Emiko, but they get ready to go over anyway.
Act 1 Scene 2
That evening, outside the Oka residence, the Muratas come bowing and ready to bathe. Oka greets them and Emiko awkwardly comes outside, not having been warned of the company. The Muratas offer their sake and Victrola as an icebreaker, but things do not seem to get any warmer. Oka goes inside and the Muratas try to fill the awkward silence with the music from the Victrola, asking Emiko what she liked to listen to, but Emiko simply smokes a cigarette and starts to cry out of nostalgia for her home country of Japan. After Emiko runs inside, Hana fears that she has offended her, but Oka comes back and Masako goes to take her bath. They all agree to find something that is more fun to listen to and put on the song "And the Soul Shall Dance ''.
While the music plays, Emiko, seemingly having had a few drinks, comes around the house dressed in a straw hat with her hair down and begins to dance. Everyone is taken off guard, but tries to go along with it. Oka becomes grieved with her behavior and Emiko runs hack in the house.
Masako comes back from her short bath and Murata and Hana go to take theirs. Alone with Masako, Oka begins to talk about the help that Kiyoko will need here in American and then goes to the bathroom when the conversation awkwardly dies out. Emiko emerges from the house again and Masako begins to talk with her about the lyrics of the song. The nostalgia leads Emiko to divulge to Masako that she is trying to go back to Japan by herself.
Just then, Emiko sees Oka returning and swiftly goes back into the house. Oka becomes very angry and goes into the house and hits Emiko, calling her crazy. Masako witnesses all of this through the window. Oka composes himself and comes back out as Murata and Hana come back from their shower to see Emiko with a black eye and the Murata family is eager to leave. Emiko tries to engage them in conversation to get them to stay, but they leave and Masako explains what she saw to her parents. Hana quickly decides that they are never going back for a bath at Oka 's again.
Act 1 Scene 3
Back at Oka 's, he scolds Emiko for her drunken behavior. He calls her a whore for going to school and having a scandalous life, while his wife Shizue slaved away at home to make up for her absence. They begin a heated argument about who is at fault for their situation. Emiko says she wants to go back to Japan, but Oka refuses to help her. After Oka leaves, Emiko reminds herself to keep the dream alive, and pours herself another drink.
Act 2 Scene 1
On a September day, Hana and Masako wonder about what Kiyoko will be like and why life is so hard as a Japanese American. Oka arrives to introduce Kiyoko to the Murata Family and tells them about their 3 days journey home. Kiyoko says little but the traditional Japanese greeting "Hajime mashite '' and nods while shyly giggling. Upon seeing how mature Kiyoko looks, Masako goes outside in disappointment. Outside, Masako runs into Emiko, who is eavesdropping, and they quickly talk of boyfriends. When Hana goes to bring her back in, Emiko exits and Masako explains that she feels like a child in a room of adults and she does n't like the way that Kiyoko giggles and acts. Hana urges Masako to stop being so inconsiderate and forces them both in a room together to talk. After a short and awkward conversation with Kiyoko, Masako leaves again to join her parents.
Act 2 Scene 2
In the kitchen on a November night, the Muratas talk of Ohigan, and Kiyoko 's progression since she arrived at school. It begins to storm and they are worried that the fields will flood and freeze, leaving them with a bad crop yield and losing the family a lot of money.
Suddenly, Kiyoko urgently knocks at the door and explains that Oka and Emiko are violently fighting. Hana tries to reassure her that everything is fine and that fighting is normal, but Kiyoko Insists that it is very violent and brutal. She explains that they hide a special brew of alcohol and they get crazy when they drink it. She is worried that Emiko hates her and does not know what to do. Hana explains that everyone has their flaws and that Emiko 's behavior has nothing to do with her, but rather her hatred for America. Kiyoko does not want to go back to Oka 's and Hana offers to have her sleep with Masako that night.
Oka comes knocking on the door searching for Kiyoko, with a jovial disposition as if nothing had happened. Though Oka tries to brush it off, Hana scolds him and he becomes ashamed. Oka promises to never let it happen again and Hana wraps Murata 's robe around Kiyoko and sends them both home for the night.
Act 2 Scene 3
Before school, Masako runs into Kiyoko, whose eyes are red from crying as she quietly tries to return Murata 's robe from the night before. Masako succeeds in getting Kiyoko to laugh and offers to share her lunch with Kiyoko, who does not want to go back home to get her own.
Hana is distraught about the storm damage to the crops and Murata tries to reassure her that it will be alright. He promises that in two years ' time they will have enough money to go back to Japan. Murata thinks of Kiyoko and Emiko. He realizes that they are lucky with what they have.
Act 2 Scene 4
The following spring, Oka and Kiyoko are all dressed up and ready to go to a picture show. The two discuss Kiyoko 's fashion and hair style choices as well as How Masako dresses. Kiyoko says that Oka is enough to make her happy and Oka promises that they will move to a place with suitable boys for her. When Kiyoko is surprised by this, Oka explains that Japanese Americans can not own land and only lease it for two to three years.
Suddenly Emiko burst out of the house in a frenzy blaming Oka for stealing the money she had been saving to go to Japan. Oka urges Kiyoko to go to the Murata 's and then yells at Emiko for stealing that money from him bit by bit. Oka leaves her crying alone, which turns into her sensuously touching herself with nostalgia for her lover back in Japan.
Act 2 Scene 5
On another day in the late afternoon, Masako and Hana are putting up a furin that Kiyoko gave them and discussing nostalgia for Japan. Emiko timidly enters with a box of expensive Kimonos, keeping herself from breaking down and asks if they could give her any money for her Kimonos. Hana says they are too expensive for them and are too nice for country folk and that she would not be doing them justice and insists that she find someone in the city who can pay a better price.
After Emiko leaves in despair, Murata comes wondering what had happened. Hana brushes it off and says she must fix supper. Murata remembers that he forgot to shut the irrigation water off and Masako offers to do it for him. Hana thinks the gates are too heavy for her, but Murata trust her with the responsibility and they shortly discuss how Masako is growing up.
Act 2 Scene 6
When Masako goes to shut off the water, she sees Emiko in the distance, dancing and singing to "And the Soul Shall Dance '', with her hair down, dressed in her beautiful kimonos, but scares her away into the distance.
Wakako Yamauchi, born Wakako Nakamuro in 1924 in Westmorland, CA to Japanese immigrant parents, is a female Asian American playwright, short story writer, painter, and poet who allows her struggles as a Japanese American shine through her work.
As a child her family lived in the Imperial Valley near the border of Mexico on a small farm. When she was only seventeen her family was sent to Poston concentration camp in Arizona for a year and a half, and then relocated to Utah, and Chicago, where she got the chance to attend plays and gain a love for theatre. She married Chester Yamauchi in 1948 and had a daughter named joy. In 1960 Rafu Shimpo, a Los Angeles Japanese American newspaper, published Yamauchi 's contribution to their holiday edition, giving her one of her first published works and getting her foot in the door as a writer rather than an artist. Then in the 1970s, Aiiieeee published her short story "And The Soul Shall Dance '' and adapted it into a full - length play. Since the publishing of the full length And The Soul Shall Dance, Yamauchi has also written a second play called The Music Lessons.
Yamauchi draws much of her inspiration for her works from her life experience as a victim of racism and class discrimination in America. She has many writers that inspire her to infuse her own personality into her work. Namely, Thomas Wolfe is one of the biggest influences on her work, as Yamauchi was introduced to his work in the Poston internment camp when she was only seventeen years old. Other authors that inspire Yamauchi include: Tennessee Williams, Momoko Iko, and Frank Chin - let. Many of these writers tackled social issues of Racism, sexism, and sexuality with a grace and style unlike other authors, which resonated with Yamauchi as she struggled to find her voice in a racist America.
In a 1998 Interview Yamauchi said:
1974 - East West Players Los Angeles premiere
1979 - Pan Asian Repertory Theater New York City, NY
1990 - P.A.R.T. at the Apple Corps Theatre NY
1993 - Theatre Off Jackson Seattle, WA
1996 - East West Players 30th anniversary season
1977: Hollywood Television Theatre adaptation for a national airing on PBS.
The play hit home for Many Japanese Americans during the time. Audiences were moved by the explosion of held back emotions through the play For many audiences feeling the wrath of Racism, this play brings back depressing feelings, however the play spoke a truth for a whole race of Americans. The play became popular in the Asian American communities across the United States and has been brought to regional theaters across the country going on to receive the Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award for best new play of 1977.
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is the british prime minister commander in chief | Commander - in - Chief of the British Armed Forces - wikipedia
The Commander - in - Chief of the British Armed Forces is a position vested in the British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II, who as Sovereign and head of state is the "Head of the Armed Forces ''. Long - standing constitutional convention, however, has vested de facto executive authority, by the exercise of Royal Prerogative powers, in the Prime Minister and the Secretary of State for Defence, and the Prime Minister (acting with the support of the Cabinet) makes the key decisions on the use of the armed forces. The Queen, however, remains the "ultimate authority '' of the military, with officers and personnel swearing allegiance only to the monarch.
The Ministry of Defence is the Government department and highest level of military headquarters charged with formulating and executing defence policy for the Armed Forces; it employed 103,930 civilians in 2006. The department is controlled by the Secretary of State for Defence (or "the Defence Secretary '') and contains three deputy appointments: Minister of State for the Armed Forces, Minister for Defence Procurement, and Minister for Veterans ' Affairs.
Responsibility for the management of the forces is delegated to a number of committees: the Defence Council, Chiefs of Staff Committee, Defence Management Board, and three single - service boards. The Defence Council, composed of senior representatives of the services and the Ministry of Defence, provides the "formal legal basis for the conduct of defence ''. The three constituent single - service committees (Admiralty Board, Army Board, and Air Force Board) are chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence.
The Chief of the Defence Staff is the professional head of the Armed Forces and is an appointment that can be held by an Admiral, General or Air Chief Marshal (four - star officers). Before the practice was discontinued in the 1990s, those who were appointed to the position of CDS (head of the Armed Forces) had been elevated to the most senior rank in their respective service (a five - star officer). The CDS, along with the Permanent Under Secretary, are the principal advisers to the departmental minister. The three services have their own respective professional chiefs: the First Sea Lord who is also Chief of Naval Staff, the Chief of the General Staff and the Chief of the Air Staff.
Each of the three services also had one or more Commands with a Commander - in - Chief in charge of operations. These were Commander - in - Chief Fleet (CINCFLEET - sharing a Command HQ with Commander - in - Chief Naval Home Command (CINCNAVHOME)), Commander - in - Chief, Land Forces (CINCLAND) and Commander - in - Chief Air (CINCAIR). Previously, there were also territorial Commands, e.g. Commander - in - Chief Far East. This practised discontinued with the initiation of the 2011 Levene reform.
Army (Chief)
Navy / Marines (Chief)
Air Force (Chief)
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what is the world largest freshwater lake by volume | List of lakes by volume - wikipedia
This article lists lakes with a water volume of more than 100 km3, ranked by volume. The volume of a lake is a difficult quantity to measure. Generally, the volume must be inferred from bathymetric data by integration. Lake volumes can also change dramatically over time and during the year, especially for salt lakes in arid climates. For these reasons, and because of changing research, information on lake volumes can vary considerably from source to source. The base data for this article are from The Water Encyclopedia (1990). Where volume data from more recent surveys or other authoritative sources has been used, it is referenced in each entry.
The volume of the lakes below varies little by season. This list does not include reservoirs; if it did, six reservoirs would appear on the list: Lake Kariba at 26th, Bratsk Reservoir, Lake Volta, Lake Nasser, Manicouagan Reservoir, and Lake Guri.
Two bodies of water at times considered to be lakes are hydrologically ocean (Maracaibo) or geologically ocean (the Caspian Sea).
The following are geological as well as geographical lakes.
In 1960, the Aral Sea was the world 's twelfth - largest known lake by volume, at 1,100 km (260 cu mi). However, by 2007 it had shrunk to 10 % of its original volume and was divided into three lakes; none of them is large enough to appear on this list.
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where did the flavor blue raspberry come from | Blue raspberry flavor - Wikipedia
Blue raspberry is a common flavoring for candy, snack foods, syrups and soft drinks. The flavor ostensibly originates from Rubus leucodermis, more commonly known as the "whitebark raspberry '' or "blue raspberry '' for the blue - black color of its fruit.
Food products labeled as blue raspberry flavor often contain a bright blue food coloring, the most common being Brilliant Blue FCF, although this coloring is not an accurate rendition of the actual color of the fruit, which has an almost black hue when ripe. The blue color also helps distinguish raspberry - flavored foods from cherry - and strawberry - flavored foods (the former usually being colored red, and the latter also sometimes colored red but often colored pink if the same product is also available in a cherry flavor).
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who sings can't find a better man | Better Man (Pearl Jam song) - wikipedia
"Better Man '' is a song by the American rock band Pearl Jam. It is the eleventh track on the band 's third studio album, Vitalogy (1994). The song was written by vocalist Eddie Vedder. Despite the lack of a commercial single release, "Better Man '' reached the top of the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and spent a total of eight weeks at number one. The song was included on Pearl Jam 's 2004 greatest hits album, rearviewmirror (Greatest Hits 1991 -- 2003).
"Better Man '' was written by vocalist Eddie Vedder when he was in high school. He said, "I wrote ' Better Man ' before I could drink -- legally -- on a four - track in my old apartment. '' In another interview, Vedder stated, "Sometimes I think of how far I 've come from the teenager sitting on the bed in San Diego writing ' Better Man ' and wondering if anyone would ever even hear it. '' Its melody and chord progression are based loosely on the song "Save It for Later '' by The English Beat, which the band sometimes jams to live after "Better Man ''. He first performed it with a San Diego, California -- based group called Bad Radio. Vedder later recorded it with Pearl Jam, although Pearl Jam was initially reluctant to record it and had initially rejected it from Vs. due to its accessibility.
Producer Brendan O'Brien on the song:
There 's a great song we recorded for Vs., "Better Man, '' which ended up on Vitalogy. One of the first rehearsals we did they played it and I said "Man, that song 's a hit. '' Eddie just went "uhhh. '' I immediately knew I 'd just said the wrong thing. We cut it once for Vs., he wanted to give it away to this Greenpeace benefit record, the idea was that the band was going to play and some other singer was going to sing it. I remember saying to the engineer, Nick (DiDia), "This is one of their best songs and they 're going to give it away! Ca n't happen! '' And we went to record it and I 'm not going to say we did n't try very hard, but it did n't end up sounding very good. I may have even sabotaged that version but I wo n't admit to that. It took us to the next record, recording it two more times, before he became comfortable with it because it was such a blatantly great pop song.
Al Weisel of Rolling Stone called the song a "haunting ballad about a woman trapped in a bad relationship. '' When "Better Man '' was performed on VH1 Storytellers in 2006, Vedder introduced it as a song about "abusive relationships. '' Before a performance of the song at Pearl Jam 's show on April 3, 1994 in Atlanta at the Fox Theatre, Vedder clearly said "it 's dedicated to the bastard that married my Momma. '' He was referring to his stepfather, Peter Mueller, a California attorney whom Vedder had long believed to be his biological father and who divorced his mother in the early 1980 's.
Although never released as a single, "Better Man '' nonetheless became one of Pearl Jam 's most - played songs on the radio in the U.S. "Better Man '' became the most successful song from Vitalogy on the American rock charts. The song reached the top of Billboard 's Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, number two on their Modern Rock Tracks chart, and number 13 on their Top 40 Mainstream chart in 1995. The song spent a total of eight weeks at number one on the Mainstream Rock chart. It appeared on Billboard magazine 's Hot 100 Airplay chart, reaching the top 20. In Canada, the song reached the top ten on the Canadian Singles Chart on 6 March 1995. At the 13th annual Pop Music Awards of the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers, "Better Man '' was cited as one of the most - performed ASCAP songs of 1995. Chris True of Allmusic proclaimed it as "arguably the stand out track on 1994 's Vitalogy -- and equally arguably -- (one of) the bands ' better songs in the whole of their career. '' He added, "Vitalogy was, admittedly, the end of Pearl Jam 's reign as top rock act and it 's because of songs like "Better Man '' that they were able to stay there without succumbing to all the traps of stardom and shameless marketing. '' When "Better Man '' was performed on VH1 Storytellers in 2006, Vedder introduced it as a song about "abusive relationships. ''
"Better Man '' was first performed live at the band 's May 13, 1993 concert in San Francisco at Slim 's Café, almost six months before the album 's release, and had more of an up - tempo beat attached to it. In Pearl Jam concerts, the slow opening verses and choruses of "Better Man '' are frequently sung as much by the audience as by Vedder. The song is often performed live as a medley with The English Beat 's "Save It For Later ''. At the last Vote for Change concert on October 13, 2004 in East Rutherford, New Jersey at Continental Airlines Arena, Vedder made a guest appearance with Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band and sang "Better Man '' upon Springsteen 's request; sizeable numbers of the audience sang along with it. Pearl Jam performed the song for its appearance on VH1 Storytellers in 2006. At Pearl Jam 's August 29, 2006 concert in Arnhem, Netherlands at the Gelredome, Vedder tagged Bob Marley 's "No Woman, No Cry '' at the beginning of "Better Man ''. The song is also a part of the so - called "Man '' trio ("Better Man '', "Nothingman '', "Leatherman '') played occasionally at concerts. There is no connection between the three songs beyond the word "man '' being in each of their titles. Certain live performances of "Better Man '' can be found albums such as: Live on Two Legs, the international versions of the "Nothing as It Seems '' single, the bonus disc included in the Japanese edition of Binaural, various official bootlegs, the compilation album For the Lady, the iTunes exclusive release The Bridge School Collection, Vol. 1, the Live at the Gorge 05 / 06 box set, the live album Live at Lollapalooza 2007, and the Canadian iTunes edition of Backspacer. Performances of the song are also included on the DVDs Touring Band 2000, Live at the Showbox, Live at the Garden, and Immagine in Cornice. The version of the song on The Bridge School Collection, Vol. 1 is a subdued acoustic performance by the band and was recorded live at the Bridge School Benefit.
The song has been covered by:
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everybody's free (to wear sunscreen) by quindon tarver | Wear Sunscreen - wikipedia
"Advice, like youth, probably just wasted on the young '', commonly known by the title "Wear Sunscreen '', is an essay written as a hypothetical commencement speech by columnist Mary Schmich, originally published in June 1997 in the Chicago Tribune. The essay, giving various pieces of advice on how to live a happier life and avoid common frustrations, spread massively via viral email, often erroneously described as a commencement speech given by author Kurt Vonnegut at MIT.
The essay became the basis for a successful spoken word song released in 1999 by Baz Luhrmann, "Everybody 's Free (To Wear Sunscreen) '', also known as "The Sunscreen Song ''. The song inspired numerous parodies.
Mary Schmich 's column "Advice, like youth, probably just wasted on the young '' was published in the Chicago Tribune on June 1, 1997. In the column 's introduction Schmich presents the essay as the commencement speech she would give if she were asked to give one.
In the speech she insistently recommends the wearing of sunscreen, and dispenses other advice and warnings which are intended to help people live a happier life and avoid common frustrations. She later explained that the initial inspiration for what advice to offer came from seeing a young woman sunbathing, and hoping that she was wearing sunscreen, unlike what she herself did at that age.
The essay soon became the subject of an urban legend which claimed it was an MIT commencement speech given by author Kurt Vonnegut. In reality, MIT 's commencement speaker in 1997 was Kofi Annan and Vonnegut had never been a commencement speaker there. Despite a follow - up article by Schmich on August 3, 1997, the story became so widespread that Vonnegut 's lawyer began receiving requests to reprint the speech. Vonnegut commented that he would have been proud had the words been his.
Schmich published a short gift book adaptation of the essay, Wear Sunscreen: A Primer for Real Life, in 1998. A tenth anniversary edition was published in 2008.
The essay was used in its entirety by Australian film director Baz Luhrmann on his 1998 album Something for Everybody, as "Everybody 's Free (To Wear Sunscreen) ''. It was released in some territories in 1997, with the speech (including its opening words, "Ladies and Gentlemen of the Class of ' 97 '') completely intact. This version appeared in the Triple J Hottest 100 of that year at number 16 in the countdown, and was released on the subsequent CD in early 1998.
Also known as "The Sunscreen Song '', it sampled Luhrmann 's remixed version of the song "Everybody 's Free (To Feel Good) '' by Rozalla, and opened with the words, "Ladies and Gentlemen of the Class of ' 99 '' (instead of "' 97 '', as in the original column). It was later released as a single in 1999.
Luhrmann explained that Anton Monsted, Josh Abrahams, and he were working on the remix when Monsted received an email with the supposed Vonnegut speech. They decided to use it but were doubtful of getting through to Vonnegut for permission before their deadline, which was only one or two days away. While searching the Internet for contact information they came upon the "Sunscreen '' authorship controversy and discovered that Schmich was the actual author. They emailed her and, with her permission, recorded the song the next day.
The song features a spoken - word track set over a mellow backing track. The "Wear Sunscreen '' speech is narrated by Australian voice actor Lee Perry. The backing is the choral version of "Everybody 's Free (To Feel Good) '', a 1991 song by Rozalla, used in Luhrmann 's film William Shakespeare 's Romeo + Juliet. The chorus, also from "Everybody 's Free '', is sung by Quindon Tarver.
The song was a top ten hit across Europe, but largely obscure in the US until Aaron Scofield, a producer in Phoenix, Arizona, edited the original 12 '' version into a segment of a syndicated radio show called Modern Mix. This show played on many stations in the United States. In Portland, Oregon -- where Modern Mix played on KNRK -- listeners began requesting the track. KNRK program director Mark Hamilton edited the song for time and began playing it regularly. He distributed the song to other program directors that he networked with and the song exploded in the US.
The song reached number 24 on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay in the United States; by the time it was released as a commercial single in the country, radio airplay had declined significantly, and only managed to peak at number 45 on the Billboard Hot 100. It also peaked at number one in the United Kingdom and Ireland, partly due to a media campaign by Radio One DJ Chris Moyles.
There are four versions of the song: the original 7: 09 minute mix from the album Baz Luhrmann Presents: Something for Everybody; a 1999 single release which features a 5: 05 minute edit that lacks both choruses; "Geographic 's Factor 15 + Mix '' that runs for 4: 42 minutes; and a "2007 Mix '' of the original 7: 09 minute version released on the 10th Anniversary Edition of the William Shakespeare 's Romeo + Juliet soundtrack on which the opening words are changed to "Ladies and gentlemen of the class of 2007 ''.
There are two videos for the song: one which uses the 1999 5: 05 minute single edit of the song (the version in which Quindon Tarver is not featured), directed and animated by Bill Barminski; and another using the 7: 09 minute edit made by the Brazilian advertising agency DM9DDB.
The song also appeared in Germany and was soon followed by a German version with the title "Sonnencreme ''. The German translation is narrated by the German actor Dieter Brandecker. A Brazilian version is narrated in Portuguese by Pedro Bial, and a Swedish version is narrated by Rikard Wolff. A Russian adaptation of the song, recorded live by Silver Rain Radio, was performed by Alex Dubas and Yolka.
On August 10, 2008 the song re-entered the UK Singles Chart at number 72.
CD - Maxi Capitol 8871762 (EMI) / EAN 0724388717625
shipments figures based on certification alone
This version was released as a remix to Baz Luhrmann 's 1999 version. The remix was written by Mau Kilauea and dubbed as a "Tropical Remix '' because of the choice of instrumentation. The song was posted to Soundcloud on Mau Kilauea 's page and reposted by Spinnin ' Records. The song became a first hit for Mau Kilauea.
The Baz Luhrmann song version inspired numerous parodies. John Safran released a song entitled "Not the Sunscreen Song '' which peaked at # 20 in Australia.
American comedian Chris Rock enjoyed great success with his spoken word song "No Sex (In the Champagne Room) '' which was in turn parodied on Mad TV as "Ai n't No Blacks on the TV Screen '' in the style of Rock 's stand - up. The song was also parodied in an episode of Disney 's House of Mouse performed by Jiminy Cricket. The comedy group Three Dead Trolls in a Baggie also made a parody entitled "The Sunscreen Marketing Board ''. Jegsy Dodd and the Original Sinners ' version, "Grumpy Old Men '', was voted favourite track of 2005 by BBC Radio 1 listeners in their annual Festive 50 poll.
Angelos Epithemiou 's live tour included a parody of the song titled "Do n't Muck About ''.
A parody entitled "Mow Against The Grain '' appears on the King of the Hill soundtrack album.
Another parody by comedian Simmi Areff was played on South African radio station East Coast Radio at the conclusion of the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
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is it legal to drink in public in indiana | Alcohol Laws of Indiana - Wikipedia
Indiana is one of nearly a dozen U.S. states to ban all Sunday alcohol sales outside of bars and restaurants.
Effective July 4, 2010, beer sold in microbreweries may be sold on Sundays pursuant to Senate Bill 75. The sales must take place where the brewing is done. However, off - site sales may take place in trade shows and similar back door events. The sales limit is two cases per person, or 576 ounces.
In Indiana, alcohol may be sold only to those 21 years of age or older during the hours 7 a.m. to 3 a.m.
Establishments that sell beverages by the "drink '' must have food service for 25 persons at a minimum (hot soups, hot sandwiches, coffee, milk, and soft drinks) available at all times. It is unlawful for establishments to provide discounts on alcohol to certain customers or at certain times of day (e.g., during "happy hour '') that are not available to everyone.
Sale or serving of alcoholic beverages from 3 a.m. Christmas Day until 7 a.m. December 26 was banned until HB 1542 was passed in 2015.
Indiana is not an alcoholic beverage control state.
Public intoxication is a class B misdemeanor in Indiana.
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is the movie double jeopardy based on a book | Double Jeopardy (1999 film) - wikipedia
Double Jeopardy is a 1999 American neo noir adventure crime thriller film directed by Bruce Beresford and starring Tommy Lee Jones, Ashley Judd, and Bruce Greenwood. The film is about a woman wrongfully imprisoned for murder who tracks down her husband who had framed her while eluding her parole officer.
Libby Parsons (Ashley Judd) and her husband Nick (Bruce Greenwood) are wealthy residents of Whidbey Island, Washington. With her best friend, Angela Green (Annabeth Gish) offering to look after her 4 - year - old son, Matty (Benjamin Weir), Libby and Nick go off sailing for the weekend on their yacht. After a session of love making, Libby falls asleep. She wakes to find her husband missing and blood all over her hands, clothes, legs, and the boat 's floors. A Coast Guard vessel appears and Libby is spotted holding a bloody knife she found lying on the deck.
Even with Nick 's body unaccounted for, Libby is arrested, humiliated in the media, tried, and convicted of her husband 's murder. Libby asks Angela to look after Matty for the duration of her prison sentence. At first, Angela brings Matty to see Libby in prison, but after a while, these visits cease. On a phone call with Matty from prison, Libby hears a door open in the background, then Matty exclaims, "Daddy! '' right before the line goes dead.
Libby realizes that Nick possibly faked his death and framed her, leaving Matty as the sole beneficiary of his life insurance policy, as people convicted for murder are not allowed to collect the life insurance on their victims. After unsuccessfully attempting to get investigative help, she is told by a fellow inmate named Margaret (Roma Maffia) that if she were to get paroled for good behavior, she could kill Nick with impunity due to the Double Jeopardy Clause in the Fifth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
Libby is paroled after six years and begins searching for Nick and Matty, while living in a halfway house under the supervision of parole officer Travis Lehman (Tommy Lee Jones). Lehman is a former law professor whose wife and daughter left him after the family was in a car accident with him at the wheel. Libby violates her curfew and is caught breaking into Matty 's school on Whidbey Island to try to get Angela 's records. However, as Lehman is delivering Libby back to prison via a car ferry, Libby drives Lehman 's car overboard, which forces him to uncuff her. Libby then knocks out Lehman and swims to shore while he is rescued by ferry personnel.
Libby discovers that Angela has recently died in Colorado in a gas explosion, which looks like an accident staged by Nick. Then Libby recognizes a Kandinsky painting in a newspaper photo. Tracing it through an art dealer 's database (which nearly again allows her capture by Lehman) leads her to New Orleans, where she finds Nick running a luxury hotel under an assumed name, Jonathan Devereaux.
Libby confronts Nick after making a winning bid of $10,000 on him at a bachelor 's auction during a party hosted at his hotel. She demands he return Matty in exchange for her silence about his real identity, while he claimed that he faked his death to collect insurance as his original business was going under. Their parley is cut short when Lehman shows up at the hotel party to warn Nick that his wife is a fugitive. In the French Quarter, Libby is later tipped off by a bartender who recognizes her from a wanted poster but lets her escape the police as no reward is offered.
Nick agrees to bring Matty to a meeting in a cemetery. There he uses a decoy boy to distract Libby, knocks her unconscious, and locks her in a casket inside a mausoleum. Using a. 38 caliber handgun she had snatched from Lehman, Libby manages to shoot the hinges off the lid of the casket and escape the mausoleum by throwing a flower vase through a stained glass window.
While tracking Libby in New Orleans, Lehman himself becomes suspicious of Nick 's death and begins to believe Libby 's story, based on the clues uncovered in his search. He finds a picture of a different Nicholas Parsons when searching the Washington State DMV records to prove his suspicions, and later confirms them when he uncovers six DMV records under that name, including Nick 's DMV application and photograph. After intercepting and capturing Libby later in the city as she makes her way to Nick 's hotel, the two end teaming up.
Lehman visits Nick in his office under the pretense of asking for money to keep his identity secret. He records a remark by Nick that he had murdered his wife, the only witness to his true past, and then Libby enters, holding Nick at gunpoint. Nick is given a choice of surrendering to the authorities or getting shot by his vengeful wife, who he believes would go free for this deed because of double jeopardy. Nick pulls out a hidden gun, shoots Lehman, and fires away at Libby. Lehman manages to bring Nick down before he can shoot Libby. Nick gets the upper hand in the scuffle, but before he can kill the wounded parole officer, Libby shoots Nick dead.
Lehman promises to help Libby get fully pardoned, and together they travel to Matty 's boarding school in Georgia. Matty (Spencer Treat Clark), now eleven years old, recognizes his mother, and they embrace with Lehman watching them.
Jodie Foster was originally attached to star in the film as Libby Parsons after Michelle Pfeiffer, Meg Ryan and Brooke Shields all declined the role, and Bruce Beresford met with her several times about the script:
She said to me once, when we were having... not an argument, we had different points of view over something, and she said, ' We 'll have to do it my way, I 'm afraid. ' And I said, ' Why, Jodie? ' And she said, ' Because I 'm so intelligent. I 'm such an intelligent person that there is no point in disagreeing with me because I 'm always right. ' I thought she was joking, but she was n't! (laughs) She had this extraordinary opinion of her own IQ.
However, Foster then became pregnant so Ashley Judd stepped in. Greg Kinnear was offered the part of Nick Parsons, but he passed and Bruce Greenwood eventually took over. According to Beresford, Robert Benton did an uncredited ten - day rewrite shortly before production began.
The song the band plays at the funeral in the cemetery scene is the American folksong, "St. James Infirmary Blues. ''
The Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution states plainly: "(N) or shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb... '' The four essential protections included are prohibitions against, for the same offense: retrial after an acquittal; after a conviction; or after certain mistrials; and multiple punishment. The Double Jeopardy Clause has no bearing on separate crimes of the same nature. Harvard Professor Alan Dershowitz criticized the movie for allegedly misrepresenting the Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth Amendment. "There are two separate incidents, '' Dershowitz claims. "She was falsely accused the first time. And maybe she can sue for that or get some credit. But then she committed an entirely separate, or at least planned to commit, an entirely separate crime the second time. And there 's just no defense of double jeopardy for doing it the second time. ''
With regards to jurisdictions, the law was unquestionably misrepresented considering the Clause was interpreted by the Supreme Court in Heath v. Alabama (1985), where it was held a conviction in a Georgia state court would not bar a prosecution in a federal or a Louisiana state court, even for an identical offense.
However, regardless of the accuracy of the movie 's interpretation of the double jeopardy clause, since Nick was about to kill Lehman and Libby when Libby killed Nick, Libby likely would have been acquitted by reason of self - defense.
Moreover, the movie 's misinterpretation of the double jeopardy clause, could just be the movie character 's own misinterpretation of the double jeopardy clause.
The film received mixed to generally negative reviews. It is rated 25 % on Rotten Tomatoes, as its "consensus '' states: "A talented cast fails to save this unremarkable thriller. '' Some noted that Jones portrayed a watered - down version of his character from The Fugitive. Roger Ebert gave the film two and a half stars out of four, indicating a lukewarm reception. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
However, some critics reacted to this film with positive reviews. Leonard Maltin gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, calling it "slick entertainment ''. Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that the film is a "well - acted diversion, directed by Bruce Beresford (Driving Miss Daisy) with an intelligent grasp of the moment - to - moment emotion ''. For her performance in the film Ashley Judd won Favorite Actress at the 6th Blockbuster Entertainment Awards.
The film was a box office success, spending three weeks as the No. 1 film, and grossing $116 million domestically and $61 million overseas.
Double Jeopardy was released on VHS and DVD by Paramount Home Video on February 22, 2000. The DVD includes a behind - the - scenes featurette and its original theatrical trailer. It is presented in its original 2.35: 1 widescreen format.
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who walked across niagara falls on tightrope in 1859 | Charles Blondin - Wikipedia
Charles Blondin (born Jean François Gravelet, 28 February 1824 -- 22 February 1897) was a French tightrope walker and acrobat.
Blondin was born on 28 February 1824 at St Omer, Pas - de-Calais, France. His real name was Jean - François Gravelet and he was known also by the names Charles Blondin, Jean - François Blondin and called the "Chevalier Blondin '', or simply "The Great Blondin ''. At the age of five he was sent to the École de Gymnase at Lyon and, after six months training as an acrobat, made his first public appearance as "The boy Wonder ''. His superior skill and grace, as well as the originality of the settings of his acts, made him a popular favourite. He first married Marie Blancherie, and at the same time legitimised their son Aime Leopold. It is not known what happened to his French family after he went to America.
Blondin went to the United States in 1855. He was engaged by William Niblo to perform with the Ravel troupe in New York City and was subsequently part proprietor of a circus. He especially owed his celebrity and fortune to his idea of crossing the Niagara Gorge (located on the Canada -- US border) on a tightrope, 1,100 ft (340 m) long, 3.25 in (8.3 cm) in diameter and 160 ft (49 m) above the water, near the location of the current Rainbow Bridge. This he did on 30 June 1859, and a number of times thereafter, always with different theatrical variations: blindfolded, in a sack, trundling a wheelbarrow, on stilts, carrying a man (his manager, Harry Colcord) on his back, sitting down midway while he cooked and ate an omelette and standing on a chair with only one chair leg on the rope.
While in the US he married a second wife, Charlotte Lawrence, with whom he had Adele c. 1854, Edward c. 1855 and Isis c. 1861.
In 1861, Blondin first appeared in London, at the Crystal Palace, turning somersaults on stilts on a rope stretched across the central transept, 70 feet (21 m) from the ground. In 1862, he again gave a series of performances at the Crystal Palace, and elsewhere in England, and on the continent of Europe.
In September 1861 he performed in Edinburgh, Scotland at the Royal Botanic Gardens (then called the Experimental Gardens) on Inverleith Row.
In 1861, he performed at the Royal Portobello Gardens, on South Circular Road, Portobello, Dublin, on a rope 50 feet (15 m) feet above the ground. While he was performing, the rope broke, which led to the scaffolding collapsing. He was not injured, but two workers who were on the scaffolding fell to their deaths. An investigation was held, and the broken rope (reported as 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter and 5 inches (13 cm) in circumference) examined. No blame was attributed at the time to either Blondin or his manager. However, the judge said that the rope manufacturer had a lot to answer for. The organiser of the event, a Mr. Kirby, said he would never have another one like it. A bench warrant for the arrest of Blondin and his manager was issued when they did not appear at a further trial (they were in America). However, the following year, Blondin was back at the same venue in Dublin, this time performing 100 feet (30 m) above the ground.
On 6 September 1873, Blondin crossed Edgbaston Reservoir in Birmingham. A statue built in 1992 on the nearby Ladywood Middleway (52.476656, - 1.925325) marks his feat.
While he was living in England he and Charlotte had two more children, Henry, born about 1863, and Charlotte Mary Janet, baptised on 25 April 1866.
After a period of retirement, Blondin reappeared in 1880, including starring in the 1893 / 4 season of the pantomime "Jack and the Beanstalk '' at the Crystal Palace, organised by Oscar Barrett.
Charlotte, his wife, died in 1888. In 1895, he married again. His third wife, Katherine James, had nursed him through a back injury earlier that year. His final performance was in Belfast in 1896.
Blondin died of diabetes at his "Niagara House '' in Ealing, London, on 22 February 1897, in his 73rd year, and was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery. His estate at death was valued at £ 1,832 (£ 187 thousand as of 2015). Although much younger, his widow survived him by only four years, dying of cancer in 1901 at the age of 36.
During his lifetime, Blondin 's name was so synonymous with tightrope walking that many employed the name "Blondin '' to describe others in the profession. For example, there were at least five people working with variations of the Blondin name in Sydney in the 1880s, the most famous of whom was Henri L'Estrange -- "the Australian Blondin ''. So popular had tightrope walking become, that one Sydney resident wrote to the Sydney Morning Herald to complain of "the Blondin business '' that saw people walking on high wires wherever the opportunity arose. He noted that he had seen one walking on a wire in Liverpool Street in the city with a child strapped to his back. The practice which had become so popular was both dangerous and, the correspondent thought, likely to be unlawful, particularly in the risk of harming others. In reporting on the fall of a woman from a tightrope at an 1869 performance of Pablo Fanque 's Circus in Bolton, the Illustrated London News described the tightrope walker, Madame Caroline, as a "female Blondin ''.
Two streets in Northfields, Ealing, London, are named in his honour: Blondin Avenue and Niagara Avenue; they were formerly the site of part of Hugh Ronalds ' renowned nursery.
During the run - up to the Presidential election of 1864, Abraham Lincoln compared himself to "Blondin on the tightrope, with all that was valuable to America in the wheelbarrow he was pushing before him ''. A political cartoon appeared in Harper 's Weekly on 1 September 1864 depicting Lincoln on a tightrope, pushing a wheelbarrow and carrying two men on his back -- Navy Secretary Gideon Welles and War Secretary Edwin Stanton -- while "John Bull '', Napoleon III, Jefferson Davis (representing the nations of England, France, and the Confederate States, respectively), and Generals Grant, Lee and Sherman (representing the military) looked on, among other onlookers.
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who wrote i'll follow you into the dark | I Will Follow You into the Dark - wikipedia
"I Will Follow You into the Dark '' is a song by indie rock band Death Cab for Cutie, the third single from their fifth album Plans, released on August 30, 2005.
Written and performed by Ben Gibbard, it is an acoustic solo ballad, and was recorded in monaural with a single microphone and little editing.
The single was released on Atlantic Records, becoming one of Death Cab for Cutie 's lowest - charting singles, peaking number 28 on the Modern Rock Tracks, number 66 on the UK Singles Chart and failing to chart on the Billboard Hot 100; however, "I Will Follow You into the Dark '' was certified as gold by the Recording Industry Association of America, and is the band 's best - selling single to - date. Despite charting lower than other singles, the single is still one of the band 's most played songs on commercial radio stations. The song 's popularity has led it to be featured in a various television shows and movies, and has been covered by numerous artists.
The song was written entirely by Death Cab for Cutie 's lead singer and guitarist Ben Gibbard.
Nearing age 29, Gibbard had never lost anyone really special in his life. Growing older during an ideal and comfortable time of his life led him to begin obsessing over death, the afterlife, and the weight of his relationships. He started to take stock of the importance of the people in his life and felt a need to say something about it, writing the song to deal with his problems of focusing on life by expanding his scope to include death and what comes afterward.
"It 's just this idea that what if somebody dies and we 're just floating, just stumbling around in infinite darkness, and I 'm just trying to find some kind of spiritual kind of peace with myself, and the world. ''
Originally planned to be recorded later in the sessions for Plans, technical issues arose with one set of headphones while tracking the vocals for a different song. Producer and guitarist Chris Walla told Gibbard to take a break while the issues were being addressed. Gibbard picked up his guitar and began playing "I Will Follow You into the Dark '', which was still going through the vocal microphone. Walla was impressed by the sound, leading him to suggest they do a quick tracking of the performance. It was this mono recording, with the only editing being mild compression and de-essing, that was eventually featured on the album and released as a single. Due to the impromptu nature of the recording, the vocals on the track are mixed louder than the guitar, and Gibbard 's breathing can be heard at the start of the song.
Two music videos were created for "I Will Follow You into the Dark '':
The main music video, filmed in Romania and directed by Jamie Thraves, features Ben Gibbard in a small sparsely decorated apartment, playing the song while sitting on his bed when he notices a hole in the wooden floor. Gibbard goes about daily activities while avoiding the constantly expanding hole, eventually rolling out of bed into it, hanging on by his fingertips. He finally lets go, only to land unharmed on solid ground within the void about as deep as his height. The song ends with Gibbard walking into the darkness, then pans to show the entire room again with the floor restored to its original, intact state.
An alternative video, directed by Monkmus, appears on the Death Cab for Cutie 's DVD Directions: The Plans Video Album. In this video, a picture - book takes up the center of the video frame, and the pages turn as the song progresses. Within the book, two rabbits meet and fall in love. Time passes until one of the rabbits apparently dies. There are other references to death throughout the video, such as a rotten bowl of fruit and an elderly man who appears to die, leaving his grandson behind. The video ends with a picture of the two rabbits together, presumably in eternal happiness together.
"I Will Follow You into the Dark '' has two separate United Kingdom - exclusive, colored vinyl 7 '' releases with B - sides recorded as part of the band 's Rolling Stone originals session. The part - one release is printed on teal vinyl with "Photobooth '' from The Forbidden Love EP as the B - side, and the part - two release is printed on clear orange vinyl with a B - side of "Brothers on a Hotel Bed ''. The CD single was also only released in the UK and contains the same "Brothers on a Hotel Bed '' B - side.
Critical response to "I Will Follow You into the Dark '' was generally positive. In their reviews for the album Plans, Robert Christgau selected the song as his "choice cut '', Pitchfork Media called it the album 's "quiet centerpiece '' and praised its "unexpected turns of phrase '', PopMatters called it "one of the best written pop songs of the year -- if not of the past five years '', and Tiny Mix Tapes stated that it was "one of the band 's best songs to date. '' Rolling Stone however, said that the song "demonstrates how wise Gibbard is to let the band mess with his pristine melodies, which would sound wispy and ignorable on their own. ''
The song was nominated for the 2007 Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals, but lost to "My Humps '' by The Black Eyed Peas. By being nominated in this category, instead of for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance, it credited the entire band for Gibbard 's solo performance.
The song achieved gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America in December 2009, for over 500,000 sales. "I Will Follow You into the Dark '' became Death Cab for Cutie 's best - selling single to date, and their overall second best - selling release after the album Plans itself.
"I Will Follow You into the Dark '' was featured on the soundtrack of the 2007 film The Invisible, a remake of the 2002 Swedish film Den Osynlige. In 2008 it was featured in the television series 90210, in the episode "That Which We Destroy ''. The song was featured in the sitcom Scrubs, in the season eight episode entitled "My Last Words '', first broadcast in January 2009. The same year it was also the title of an episode of Grey 's Anatomy in the fifth season, originally airing in March 2009. It was used in the 2011 Nikita episode "Into the Dark '' (of which it was also the namesake), and was also used in the film Friends With Benefits the same year. An instrumental version of the song was featured in the 2011 film Crazy, Stupid, Love. The song was also used for the end credits of Mike Birbiglia 's Netflix comedy special My Girlfriend 's Boyfriend.
The 2012 film Into the Dark, originally titled I Will Follow You Into the Dark, derives its name from the song.
The book series, "ghostgirl '', references the song in the books.
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how much land is under forest cover in india | Forest cover by state in India - wikipedia
The forest cover (in square kilometres) in 2017 in India by state and union territory as published by the Forest Survey of India.
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who says abnormal addiction to alcohol is alcoholism | Alcohol abuse - wikipedia
Alcohol abuse is a previous psychiatric diagnosis in which there is recurring harmful use of alcohol despite its negative consequences. In 2013 it was reclassified as alcohol use disorder (alcoholism) along with alcohol dependence. There are two types of alcohol abuse, those who have anti-social and pleasure - seeking tendencies, and those who are anxiety - ridden people who are able to go without drinking for long periods of time but are unable to control themselves once they start.
Binge drinking is another form of alcohol abuse. According to surveys, the heaviest drinkers are the United Kingdom 's adolescents. In 2013, 139,000 deaths globally were directly due to alcohol abuse and an additional 384,000 to cirrhosis from excess alcohol consumption.
Alcohol abuse is a pattern of drinking that results in harm to one 's health, interpersonal relationships, or ability to work. According to Gelder, Mayou & Geddes (2005) alcohol abuse is linked with suicide. They state the risk of suicide is high in older men who have a history of drinking, as well as those suffering from depression. Certain features of alcohol abuse include failure to fulfill responsibilities at work, school, or home; drinking in dangerous situations, including the operation of a motor vehicle; legal concerns associated with alcohol use; and continued drinking despite problems that are caused or worsened by drinking. Alcohol abuse can lead to alcohol dependence. In the diagnosis manual DSM - 5 alcohol abuse is combined with alcohol dependence to create one unified disorder, alcohol use disorder (AUD), that includes a graded clinical severity from moderate to severe with at least 2 criteria to make diagnoses. For adolescents, the DSM - 5 proposes that diagnoses meeting 2 or 3 criteria would be similar to alcohol abuse while meeting over 4 criteria would be equivalent to alcohol dependence when compared to the DSM - IV.
Alcohol abuse has both short - term and long - term risks. If a person drives while drunk or regularly consuming binge drink (more than five standard drinks in one drinking session), they are considered to have been involved in alcohol abuse. Short - term abuses of alcohol include, but are not limited to, violence, injuries, unprotected sexual activities and, additionally, social and financial problems.
The older adult population (over 65 years) is frequently overlooked when discussing alcohol abuse. A smaller volume of consumed alcohol has a greater impact on the older adult than it does on a younger individual. As a result, the American Geriatrics Society recommends for an older adult with no known risk factors less than one drink a day or fewer than two drinks per occasion regardless of gender, this is less than current recommendations of maximum alcohol consumption per week, for adults noted to be nine drinks for a male and seven for a female.
In the USA, binge drinking is defined as consuming more than five units in men and four units in women. It increases chances for vandalism, fights, violent behaviours, injuries, drunk driving, trouble with police, negative health, social, economic, or legal consequences to occur. Binge drinking is also associated with neurocognitive deficits of frontal lobe processing and impaired working memory as well as delayed auditory and verbal memory deficits.
Binge drinking combined with the stress of returning to work is a contributing factor to Monday deaths from heart attacks. The chances of becoming dependent are increased greatly in men who have 15 or more drinks each week or women who have 12 or more drinks each week. This is known as alcohol dependency.
It is believed that one way to prevent binge drinking is to raise the legal drinking age.
Individuals with an alcohol use disorder will often complain of difficulty with interpersonal relationships, problems at work or school, and legal problems. Additionally, people may complain of irritability and insomnia. Alcohol abuse is also an important cause of chronic fatigue.
Signs of alcohol abuse are related to alcohol 's effects on organ systems. However, while these findings are often present, they are not necessary to make a diagnosis of alcohol abuse. Signs of alcohol abuse show its drastic effects on the central nervous system, including inebriation and poor judgment; chronic anxiety, irritability, and insomnia. Alcohol 's effects on the liver include elevated liver function tests (classically AST is at least twice as high as ALT). Prolonged use leads to cirrhosis and liver failure. With cirrhosis, patients develop an inability to process hormones and toxins. The skin of a patient with alcoholic cirrhosis can feature cherry angiomas, palmar erythema and -- in acute liver failure -- jaundice and ascites. The derangements of the endocrine system lead to the enlargement of the male breasts. The inability to process toxins leads to liver disease, such as hepatic encephalopathy.
Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which causes impairments in executive functioning such as impairments to working memory, visuospatial skills, and can cause an abnormal personality as well as affective disorders to develop. Binge drinking is associated with individuals reporting fair to poor health compared to non-binge drinking individuals and which may progressively worsen over time. Alcohol also causes impairment in a person 's critical thinking. A person 's ability to reason in stressful situations is compromised, and they seem very inattentive to what is going on around them. Social skills are significantly impaired in people suffering from alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are impaired by alcohol abuse include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, difficulty with perceiving vocal emotions and theory of mind deficits; the ability to understand humour is also impaired in alcohol abusers. Adolescent binge drinkers are most sensitive to damaging neurocognitive functions especially executive functions and memory. People who abuse alcohol are less likely to survive critical illness with a higher risk for having sepsis and were more likely to die during hospitalization.
Alcohol abuse is significantly associated with suicide and violence. Alcohol is the most significant health concern in Native American communities because of very high rates of alcohol dependence and abuse; up to 80 percent of suicides and 60 percent of violent acts are a result of alcohol abuse in Native American communities.
In the United States alcohol - related violence is related to more severe injuries and chronic cases.
Alcohol abuse among pregnant women causes their baby to develop fetal alcohol syndrome. Fetal alcohol syndrome is the pattern of physical abnormalities and the impairment of mental development which is seen with increasing frequency among children with alcoholic mothers. Alcohol exposure in a developing fetus can result in slowed development of the fetal brain, resulting in severe retardation or death. Surviving infants may suffer severe abnormalities such as abnormal eyes, fissures, lips and incomplete cerebella. Some infants may develop lung disease. It is even possible that the baby throughout pregnancy will develop heart defects such as ventricular septal defect or atrial septal defect. Experts suggest that pregnant women take no more than one unit of alcohol per day. However, other organizations advise complete abstinence from alcohol while pregnant.
Adolescence and the onset of puberty have both a physiological and social impact on a developing person. About half of grade 12 students have been drunk, and a third binge drink. About 3 % drink every day. One of these social impacts is the increase in risk - taking behaviors, such as the emergence of alcohol use. Children aged 16 and under who consume alcohol heavily display symptoms of conduct disorder. Its symptoms include troublesome behaviour in school, constantly lying, learning disabilities and social impairments.
Alcohol abuse during adolescence greatly increases the risk of developing an alcohol use disorder in adulthood due to changes to neurocircuitry that alcohol abuse causes in the vulnerable adolescent brain. Younger ages of initial consumption among males in recent studies has shown to be associated with increased rates of alcohol abuse within the general population.
Societal inequalities (among other factors) have influenced an adolescents decision to consume alcohol. One study suggests that girls were scrutinized for "drinking like men, '' whereas magazines that target the male population sent underlying messages to boys and or men that drinking alcohol was "masculine. '' (Bogren, 2010)
The cause of alcohol abuse is complex. Alcohol abuse is related to economic and biological origins and is associated with adverse health consequences. Peer pressure influences individuals to abuse alcohol; however, most of the influence of peers is due to inaccurate perceptions of the risks of alcohol abuse. According to Gelder, Mayou and Geddes (2005) easy accessibility of alcohol is one of the reasons people engage in alcohol abuse as this substance is easily obtained in shops. Another influencing factor among adolescents and college students are the perceptions of social norms for drinking; people will often drink more to keep up with their peers, as they believe their peers drink more than they actually do. They might also expect to drink more given the context (e.g. sporting event, fraternity party, etc.). This perception of norms results in higher alcohol consumption than is normal. Alcohol abuse is also associated with acculturation, because social and cultural factors such as an ethnic group 's norms and attitudes can influence alcohol abuse.
A person misusing alcohol may be doing so because they find alcohol 's effects provide relief from a psychological problem, such as anxiety or depression. Often both the alcohol misuse and psychological problems need to be treated at the same time.
The numbing effects of alcohol and narcotics can become a coping strategy for traumatized people who are unable to dissociate themselves from the trauma. However, the altered or intoxicated state of the abuser prevents the full consciousness necessary for healing.
Gender differences may affect drinking patterns and the risk for developing alcohol use disorders. Sensation - seeking behaviors have been previously shown to be associated with advanced pubertal maturation, as well as the company of deviant peers. Early pubertal maturation, as indicated by advanced morphological and hormonal development, has been linked to increased alcohol usage in both male and female individuals. Additionally, when controlling for age, this association between advanced development and alcohol use still held true.
Excessive alcohol use causes neuroinflammation and leads to myelin disruptions and white matter loss. The developing adolescent brain is at increased risk of brain damage and other long - lasting alterations to the brain. Adolescents with an alcohol use disorder damage the hippocampal, prefrontal cortex, and temporal lobes.
Until recently, the underlying mechanisms mediating the link between pubertal maturation and increased alcohol use in adolescence was poorly understood. Now research has suggested that sex steroid hormone levels may play a role in this interaction. When controlling for age, it was demonstrated that elevated estradiol and testosterone levels in male teenagers undergoing pubertal development was linked to increased alcohol consumption. It has been suggested that sex hormones promote alcohol consumption behaviors in teens by stimulating areas in the male adolescent brain associated with reward processing. The same associations with hormone levels were not demonstrated in females undergoing pubertal development. It is hypothesized that sex steroid hormones, such as testosterone and estradiol, are stimulating areas in the male brain that function to promote sensation - seeking and status - seeking behaviors and result in increased alcohol usage.
Additionally, the enzyme TTTan aromatase, which functions in the male brain to convert testosterone to estradiols, has been linked to addictive and reward - seeking behaviors. Therefore, the increased activity of the enzyme may be influencing male adolescent alcohol - usage behaviors during pubertal development. The underlying mechanisms for female alcohol consumption and abuse is still under examination, but is believed to be largely influenced by morphological, rather than hormonal, changes during puberty as well as the presence of deviant peer groups.
The brain goes through dynamic changes during adolescence as a result of advancing pubertal maturation, and alcohol can damage long - and short - term growth processes in teenagers. The rapid effect of drugs releases the neurotransmitter dopamine which acts as reinforcement for the behavior.
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To be diagnosed with an Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD), individuals must meet certain criteria outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Under DSM -- 5, the current version of the DSM, anyone meeting any two of the 11 criteria during the same 12 - month period receives a diagnosis of AUD. The severity of an AUD -- mild, moderate, or severe -- is based on the number of criteria met.
To assess whether you or loved one may have an AUD, here are some questions to ask. In the past year, have you:
The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) is considered the most accurate alcohol screening tool for identifying potential alcohol misuse, including dependence. It was developed by the World Health Organisation, designed initially for use in primary healthcare settings with supporting guidance.
Preventing or reducing the harm has been called for via increased taxation of alcohol, stricter regulation of alcohol advertising and the provision of brief Interventions. Brief Interventions for alcohol abuse reduce the incidence of unsafe sex, sexual violence, unplanned pregnancy and, likely, STD transmission. Information and education on social norms and the harms associated with alcohol abuse delivered via the internet or face - to - face has not been found to result in any meaningful benefit in changing harmful drinking behaviours in young people.
According to European law, individuals who are suffering from alcohol abuse or other related problems can not be given a license, or if in possession of a license can not get it renewed. This is a way to prevent individuals driving under the influence of alcohol, but does not prevent alcohol abuse per se.
An individual 's need for alcohol can depend on their family 's alcohol use history. For instance, if it is discovered that their family history with alcohol has a strong pattern, there might be a need for education to be set in place to reduce the likelihood of reoccurrence (Powers, 2007). However, studies have established that those with alcohol abuse tend to have family members who try to provide help. In many of these occasions the family members would try to help the individual to change or to help improve the individual 's lifestyle.
Youth treatment and intervention should focus on eliminating or reducing the effects of adverse childhood experiences, like childhood maltreatment, since these are common risk factors contributing to the early development of alcohol abuse. Approaches like contingency management and motivational interviewing have shown to be effective means of treating substance abuse in impulsive adolescents by focusing on positive rewards and redirecting them towards healthier goals. Educating youth about what is considered heavy drinking along with helping them focus on their own drinking behaviors has been shown to effectively change their perceptions of drinking and could potentially help them to avoid alcohol abuse. Completely stopping the use of alcohol, or "abstinence, '' is the ideal goal of treatment. A strong social network and family support maybe important in achieving this goal.
Some people who abuse alcohol may be able to reduce the amount they drink, also called "drinking in moderation. '' If this method does not work, the person may need to try abstinence. Abstinence has been regularly achieved by many alcoholics in Alcoholics Anonymous.
Mindfulness - based intervention programs (that encourage people to be aware of their own experiences in the present moment and of emotions that arise from thoughts) can reduce the consumption of alcohol.
Alcohol abuse is said to be most common in people aged between 15 and 24 years, according to Moreira 2009. However, this particular study of 7275 college students in England collected no comparative data from other age groups or countries.
Causes of alcohol abuse are complex and are likely the combination of many factors, from coping with stress to childhood development. The US Department of Health & Human Services identifies several factors influencing adolescent alcohol use, such as risk - taking, expectancies, sensitivity and tolerance, personality and psychiatric comorbidity, hereditary factors, and environmental aspects.
Studies show that child maltreatment such as neglect, physical, and / or sexual abuse, as well as having parents with alcohol abuse problems, increases the likelihood of that child developing alcohol use disorders later in life. According to Shin, Edwards, Heeren, & Amodeo (2009), underage drinking is more prevalent among teens that experienced multiple types of childhood maltreatment regardless of parental alcohol abuse, putting them at a greater risk for alcohol use disorders. Genetic and environmental factors play a role in the development of alcohol use disorders, depending on age. The influence of genetic risk factors in developing alcohol use disorders increase with age ranging from 28 % in adolescence and 58 % in adults.
Alcohol abuse during adolescence, especially early adolescence (i.e. before age 15), may lead to long - term changes in the brain which leaves them at increased risk of alcoholism in later years; genetic factors also influence age of onset of alcohol abuse and risk of alcoholism. For example, about 40 percent of those who begin drinking alcohol before age 15 develop alcohol dependence in later life, whereas only 10 percent of those who did not begin drinking until 20 years or older developed an alcohol problem in later life. It is not entirely clear whether this association is causal, and some researchers have been known to disagree with this view.
Alcohol use disorders often cause a wide range of cognitive impairments that result in significant impairment of the affected individual. If alcohol - induced neurotoxicity has occurred a period of abstinence for on average a year is required for the cognitive deficits of alcohol abuse to reverse.
College / university students who are heavy binge drinkers (three or more times in the past two weeks) are 19 times more likely to be diagnosed with alcohol dependence, and 13 times more likely to be diagnosed with alcohol abuse compared to non-heavy episodic drinkers, though the direction of causality remains unclear. Occasional binge drinkers (one or two times in past two weeks), were found to be four times more likely to be diagnosed with alcohol abuse or dependence compared to non-heavy episodic drinkers.
The introduction of alcopops, sweet and pleasantly flavoured alcoholic drinks, was responsible for half of the increase in alcohol abuse in 15 - and 16 - year - olds, according to one survey in Sweden. In the case of girls, the alcopops, which disguise the taste of alcohol, were responsible for two thirds of the increase. The introduction of alcopops to Sweden was a result of Sweden joining the European Union and adopting the entire European Union law. Alcohol abuse is highly associated with adolescent suicide. Adolescents who abuse alcohol are 17 times more likely to commit suicide than adolescents who do n't drink.
Alcohol abuse is associated with many accidents, fights, driving offenses and unprotected sex. Alcohol is responsible in the world for 1.8 million deaths and results in disability in approximately 58.3 million people. Approximately 40 percent of the 58.3 million people disabled through alcohol abuse are disabled due to alcohol - related neuropsychiatric disorders. In South Africa, where HIV infection is epidemic, alcohol abusers exposed themselves to double the risk of this infection. Moreover, problems caused by alcohol abuse in Ireland cost about 3.7 billion euro in 2007. Additionally, alcohol abuse increases the risk of individuals either experiencing or perpetrating sexual violence.
In the United States, many people are arrested for drinking and driving. Also, people under the influence of alcohol commit a large portion of various violent crimes, including child abuse, homicide and suicide. In addition, people of minority groups are affected by alcohol - related problems disproportionately, with the exception of Asian Americans.
Also, according to studies of present and former alcoholic drinkers in Canada, 20 % of them are aware that their drinking has negatively impacted their lives in various vital areas including finances, work and relationships.
Alcohol misuse costs the United Kingdom 's National Health Service £ 3 billion per year. The cost to employers is 6.4 billion pounds sterling per year. These figures do not include the crime and social problems associated with alcohol misuse. The number of women regularly drinking alcohol has almost caught up with men.
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when was the last time georgia was 6-0 | List of Georgia Bulldogs football seasons - wikipedia
The following is a complete list of Georgia Bulldogs football seasons. The Bulldogs currently compete in the Southeastern Conference, and have an overall record of 799 -- 418 -- 54 in 124 seasons.
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who is the oldest basketball player currently playing | List of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players - wikipedia
This is a list of oldest and youngest National Basketball Association players. The National Basketball Association (NBA) is a men 's professional basketball league in North America. The NBA was founded in 1946 as the Basketball Association of America (BAA). The league adopted its current name at the start of the 1949 -- 50 season when it merged with the National Basketball League (NBL).
The oldest person ever to play in the NBA was Nat Hickey, a coach who activated himself as a player for a game two days before his 46th birthday. The youngest player ever to play in the NBA was Andrew Bynum, who played his first game six days after his 18th birthday. The oldest active player is Atlanta Hawks guard / forward Vince Carter, who is currently 41 years old. The youngest active player in the NBA is Indiana Pacers forward / center Ike Anigbogu, the 47th pick in the 2017 NBA draft, who is currently 19 years old and became the second college player to go from one year of college to the NBA while still playing at 18 years old.
The oldest player ever to play in the NBA was Nat Hickey who played one game in the 1947 -- 48 season when he was 45 years and 363 days old. Hickey, who was coaching the Providence Steamrollers at the time, decided to activate himself and played in a game for the Steamrollers. In his first game as a player for the Steamrollers, he missed all six of his shot attempts and only scored two points from three free throw attempts; he only played in one more game before retiring as a player two days shy of his 46th birthday. The second - oldest player is Kevin Willis. Willis, who had played 20 seasons (excluding the 1988 -- 89 season he missed due to injury) in the league before he sat out the 2005 -- 06 season and earned a contract with the Dallas Mavericks on April 2, 2007. He then played 5 games for the Mavericks at the age of 44. The third - oldest player is Hall of Famer Robert Parish. Parish, who starred with the Boston Celtics in the 1980s, played his last season with the Chicago Bulls at the age of 43. He played in 1,611 regular season games during his 21 - year career, more than any other player in NBA history. When the Bulls won the 1997 Finals, Parish became the oldest player ever to win the NBA championship. There are currently 27 players who played in the NBA after they turned 40.
The oldest active player is Vince Carter, who is now 41 years old. Carter played his first game in 1999 and is about to play his 21th season. Carter, along with Manu Ginóbili, Jason Terry, Dirk Nowitzki, and Metta World Peace are the only players who were born in 1979 or earlier and are still active and under contract with an NBA team. Ten players total, however, were born in 1980 or earlier and still play in the NBA.
NBA players usually come from U.S. college basketball. In the past, a college player had to complete his four - year college eligibility before he could enter the league through the NBA Draft or as a free agent. In the 1970s, the league began to allow college underclassmen and high school players to enter the league. However, the trend of drafting high school players only began in the mid 1990s. This has led to more younger players entering the league directly after high school graduation. In 2005, the league and the players ' union agreed on a new collective bargaining agreement that includes a minimum age limit which requires that players who wish to enter the league must be at least 19 years old on December 31 of the year of the draft, and at least one year removed from high school. International players who did not play college basketball also have to be at least 19 years old on the same date to be able to play in the NBA. Despite a trend toward drafting younger players, the NBA has a higher average age than it had in the 1980s. However, since the NBA introduced the minimum age limit in 2005, the league 's average age has decreased in the past few seasons.
The youngest player to ever play in the NBA was Andrew Bynum who played his first game at the age of 18 years and 6 days old. Bynum, who was also the youngest player ever selected in the NBA Draft, went into the NBA straight out of high school. Jermaine O'Neal and Kobe Bryant, both drafted in 1996, were the second - and third - youngest players. Serbian Darko Miličić was the youngest player ever to play in an NBA Finals game. He played for the Detroit Pistons in Game 3 of the 2004 Finals at the age of 18 years and 356 days old. The Pistons won the 2004 Finals and Miličić became the youngest player ever to win the NBA championship, being only five days away from his 19th birthday at the time. There are currently 27 players who played in the NBA before they turned 19. Nineteen of them came to the league straight out of high school, while 6 of them are international players who never played basketball in the U.S. high schools or colleges before they entered the NBA, and two more players ended up playing only a year of college before entering the NBA.
The youngest active player in the NBA is Ike Anigbogu. As a result of the NBA 's latest updates on their scheduling policy, he became the second college player to play in the NBA at 18 years old on October 20 against the Portland Trail Blazers. He now joins Devin Booker as the only other player to go from a year of college to the NBA while remaining 18 years old throughout the process. Coincidentally, both of them played their first NBA games at the exact same age of 18 years, 363 days old in order to start their official NBA careers as players of the league, and their first games played would be the only time they 'd play in the NBA as 18 - year - olds.
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when was the last time game of thrones was on | List of Game of Thrones episodes - wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R.R. Martin. The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert 's chief advisor) dies mysteriously.
The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R.R. Martin. Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain. Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm Eastern Time, and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length. The first seven seasons are available on DVD and Blu - ray.
As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes and is set to air in 2019. The show 's episodes have won numerous awards including three Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.
In the continent of Westeros, Lord Paramount of the North Eddard "Ned '' Stark accepts King Robert Baratheon 's offer to serve as "Hand of the King ''. When his 10 - year - old son Bran stumbles on Queen Cersei having sex with Jaime Lannister, her twin brother and a member of the Kingsguard, Jaime pushes Bran out of a tower window, leaving him crippled and comatose. Moving to King 's Landing, the capital of the Seven Kingdoms, Ned discovers the truth about Prince Joffrey and his siblings being incestuously fathered by Jaime. When King Robert dies, Ned does not recognize Joffrey as the rightful heir and is beheaded for treason. Meanwhile, Ned 's bastard son Jon Snow joins the Night 's Watch, an ancient brotherhood sworn to watch over the massive wall in the north, which separates the Seven Kingdoms from hostile tribes known as "Wildlings '', and mythological humanoid creatures, the White Walkers. In the continent of Essos, the exiled Viserys Targaryen, son of King Aerys who was deposed by King Robert, marries off his sister Daenerys to the Dothraki warlord Khal Drogo, in exchange for an army to return to Westeros and take the throne. Viserys grows impatient and threatens his sister 's life. Drogo kills Viserys, not long before he himself dies. Having been left alone, Daenerys steps into Drogo 's funeral pyre with three dragon eggs. By daybreak, she is found unharmed in the ashes, carrying three dragon hatchlings.
The Starks have declared war on the Lannisters, with Ned 's oldest son Robb winning successive victories and holding Jaime Lannister prisoner. However, his mother Catelyn secretly frees Jaime to ransom her daughters, Sansa and Arya, believed to be captives in King 's Landing. Sansa is being regularly abused by her betrothed King Joffrey, while a disguised Arya escapes Lannister forces in Harrenhal with the help of the enigmatic Jaqen H'ghar. Ned 's ward Theon Greyjoy sides with his father and seizes Winterfell, the Starks ' ancestral home, though Bran and his little brother Rickon manage to escape. Meanwhile, Stannis and Renly Baratheon, brothers of the deceased King Robert, claim the throne for themselves. Having been proclaimed a prophesied hero by Melisandre, a Red Priestess of the Lord of Light, Stannis kills Renly and attacks King 's Landing, whose defense is successfully led by Tyrion Lannister, the Hand of the King and Queen Cersei 's younger brother. On a ranging beyond the Wall, Jon Snow and his fellow ranger Qhorin Halfhand are captured by Wildlings. Qhorin convinces Jon to kill him in order to gain their trust, while other members of the Watch come under attack by an army of White Walkers and their reanimated corpses. In Essos, Daenerys and her khalasar find refuge in Qarth. The merchant Xaro Xhoan Daxos and the warlock Pyat Pree try but fail to steal her dragons, and Daenerys leaves the city.
After Robb breaks his vow to marry one of Lord Walder Frey 's daughters, in exchange for his support in the war, Lord Frey arranges the massacre of Robb, his mother, his wife, his unborn child, and his bannermen during a wedding feast. The northern House Bolton, which had liberated Winterfell from Theon at Robb 's request, also betrays the Starks. After Robb 's death, Lord Roose Bolton is appointed as the new Warden of the North by Lord Tywin. In Dreadfort, the Boltons ' ancestral castle, Theon is being tortured by Roose Bolton 's bastard son Ramsay Snow. Further north, Jon Snow climbs the Wall with a wilding party and ends up on its south side, but when he is asked to kill an old horse breeder, he fails to prove his loyalty and flees. In the capital, King Joffrey has decided to marry Margaery of House Tyrell, setting Sansa aside. Lord Tywin, however, the head of House Lannister and new Hand of the King, arranges Sansa 's marriage with his son Tyrion, to her dismay. Jaime reaches King 's Landing, having lost his sword - hand along the way. In Essos, Daenerys acquires "The Unsullied '', an army of eunuch slave soldiers, with the help of her dragon Drogon. Joining forces with the "Second Sons '', a company of mercenaries, she takes the city of Yunkai and frees its slaves.
In King 's Landing, Lady Olenna secretly poisons King Joffrey at his wedding with her granddaughter Margaery. Tyrion is falsely accused by his family of the murder. In a trial by combat, Cersei 's champion Ser Gregor Clegane defeats Oberyn Martell, the Prince of Dorne representing Tyrion. However, Jaime conspires with Varys, a member of the King 's Small Council, and smuggles his brother to Essos. Before fleeing Westeros, Tyrion kills his father Tywin. Petyr Baelish, a devious man and former member of the Small Council, smuggles Sansa into the Vale, ruled by her aunt and his lover, the widowed Lysa Arryn. Baelish marries Lysa, but when she witnesses him kissing Sansa, he kills her. After spending some time trying to reunite with her family, Arya takes a ship bound for Braavos, in Essos. Having returned to the Night 's Watch, Jon Snow defends Castle Black against an army of Wildlings, who are superior in strength. The Watch is rescued by the sudden arrival of Stannis Baratheon and his forces. A crippled Bran with newfound powers travels north beyond the Wall with a few companions. Beneath a weirwood tree, he finds the Three - Eyed Raven, an old man with the ability to perceive future and past. In Essos, Daenerys continues her conquest of Slaver 's Bay by taking control of Meereen. When, she discovers that her trusted advisor, Ser Jorah Mormont, had spied on her for Robert Baratheon, she exiles him.
In King 's Landing, Margaery marries the new King Tommen Baratheon, Joffrey 's younger brother. The Sparrows, a group of religious fanatics, impose their puritanical views upon the city, imprisoning Margaery, her brother Loras, and Cersei for committing various sins. Jaime travels to Dorne, along with the sellsword Bronn, to take back Myrcella Baratheon, who is betrothed to Trystane Martell. However, the bastard daughters of Oberyn Martell, along with his lover Ellaria Sand, poison Myrcella as an act of vengeance for Oberyn 's death. In Winterfell, the new seat of House Bolton, Baelish arranges Sansa 's marriage with the now - legitimized son of Roose Bolton, the sadist Ramsay. Stannis 's unsuccessful march on Winterfell, which leads to his death, allows Sansa the opportunity to escape with Theon. At the Wall, newly elected Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch, Jon Snow forms an alliance with the Wildlings to save them from the White Walkers and their army of reanimated corpses. However, some members of the Watch see Jon as a traitor and stab him to death. Arya arrives in Braavos, where she finds Jaqen H'ghar and begins training with the Faceless Men, a guild of assassins serving the Many - Faced God. In Essos, Tyrion becomes an advisor to Daenerys. When the Sons of the Harpy revolt against her regime, Ser Jorah saves the life of Daenerys, who flees Meereen on Drogon 's back.
At the Wall, Melisandre resurrects Jon, whom she now believes to be "the prince who was promised ''. Jon reunites with Sansa and leaves the Night 's Watch. Aided by loyalists and the Knights of the Vale, they defeat the Boltons, and Jon is proclaimed the King in the North. Beyond the Wall, Bran trains with the Three - Eyed Raven, but they come under attack by the White Walkers. The Three - Eyed Raven is killed, but he is succeeded by Bran, who escapes with the help of his companions. Bran has a vision revealing that Jon is in fact the child of his deceased aunt Lyanna Stark and crown prince Rhaegar Targaryen. In King 's Landing, Cersei uses wildfire to burn the Great Sept, killing the High Sparrow, Margaery, Loras and many others. Tommen kills himself after witnessing the events, and Cersei is crowned Queen. In the Iron Islands, Euron Greyjoy usurps leadership by killing his brother and Theon 's father, Balon. Ellaria seizes control of Dorne, and joins Olenna Tyrell in an alliance with Daenerys. In Braavos, Arya continues her training with the Faceless Men, but she runs away, unable to forsake her identity. While away from Meereen, Daenerys takes control of the Dothraki. Returning, she defeats the slavers and forgives Ser Jorah. Daenerys sails for Westeros, joined by Theon and his sister Yara, who also pledge their allegiance.
Daenerys arrives in Westeros, and takes up the ancestral seat of House Targaryen, in Dragonstone. She begins forming plans to overthrow Cersei, but Jon arrives to convince her to pause her assault and instead use her forces to save Westeros from the Night King, leader of the White Walkers, and his Army of the Dead. During a mission beyond the Wall to gather evidence of the coming threat, one of Daenerys ' dragons is killed and reanimated by the Night King. Jon and Daenerys attempt to persuade Cersei to join their cause, but she secretly uses the ceasefire to bolster her own army in an attempt to increase control over the continent. At Winterfell, Sansa is reunited with her siblings, Arya and Bran. When Lord Protector of the Vale Petyr Baelish begins to turn the Stark children against one another, they work together to uncover his treacherous past and sentence him to death. In a vision, Bran sees that his aunt Lyanna was in fact married to Prince Rhaegar, and that Jon 's true name is Aegon Targaryen. After his sister Yara is kidnapped by his uncle Euron, Theon sets out to reclaim his true identity and save her. Having claimed Viserion as his own dragon, the Night King demolishes a section of The Wall, allowing the White Walkers and Army of the Dead to pass into the Seven Kingdoms.
The first season averaged 2.5 million viewers for its first Sunday - night screenings and a gross audience (including repeats and on - demand viewings) of 9.3 million viewers per episode. For its second season, the series had an average gross audience of 11.6 million viewers. The third season was seen by 14.2 million viewers, making Game of Thrones the second-most - viewed HBO series (after The Sopranos). For the fourth season, HBO said that its average gross audience of 18.4 million viewers (later adjusted to 18.6 million) had passed The Sopranos for the record. By the sixth season the average per - episode gross viewing figure had increased to over 25 million, with nearly 40 percent of viewers watching on HBO digital platforms. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Game of Thrones was "much more popular in cities than in the countryside, probably the only show involving zombies that is ''. By season seven, average viewer numbers had increased to over 30 million per episode across all platforms.
The series set records on pay - television channels in the United Kingdom (with a 2016 average audience of more than five million on all platforms) and Australia (with a cumulative average audience of 1.2 million).
For the second season and the average ratings of the first season, see "Game of Thrones: Season Two Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. June 11, 2012. Archived from the original on September 1, 2016. Retrieved April 18, 2016.
For the third season, see "Game of Thrones: Season Three Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. June 12, 2013. Archived from the original on September 1, 2016. Retrieved April 18, 2016.
For the fourth season, see "Game of Thrones: Season Four Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. June 18, 2014. Archived from the original on September 1, 2016. Retrieved April 18, 2016.
For the fifth season, see "Game of Thrones: Season Five Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. June 16, 2015. Archived from the original on September 1, 2016. Retrieved April 18, 2016.
For the sixth season, see "Game of Thrones: Season Six Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. June 28, 2016. Archived from the original on September 1, 2016. Retrieved April 24, 2016.
For the seventh season, see "Game of Thrones: Season Seven Ratings ''. TV Series Finale. August 29, 2017. Archived from the original on September 16, 2017. Retrieved August 29, 2017.
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what does first aid in disk utility do | Disk First Aid - wikipedia
Disk First Aid is a free software utility made by Apple Inc. that was bundled with all computers running the classic Mac OS. This tool verifies and repairs a limited number of directory structure problems on any HFS or HFS Plus hard disk or volume.
Disk First Aid is a very simple tool, with it only being able to detect and repair directory damage and many books are critical of its sometimes inaccurate reporting of errors, and often suggest to run the tool more than once to ensure you are receiving a consistent result. Disk First Aid is located in Applications: Utilities: Disk First Aid. The classic Mac OS provides an option to run Disk First Aid on startup, although it has been reported that it provides little gain and sometimes can amplify a problem.
Its capabilities were incorporated into Disk Utility in macOS.
One source suggests that disk utility should be used when there are:
as well is for general maintenance every 6 months.
Disk First Aid has built - in capabilities to check for damage to:
After analyzing the disk directory, Disk First Aid determines whether it is able to repair any damage that was detected. The utility can commonly only fix problems associated with the catalog / extents files and the volume bitmap. Commonly, the program reports that there is an error, but can not fix it.
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in scotland what name designates any mountain peak 3000 and over | Mountains and hills of Scotland - wikipedia
Scotland is the most mountainous country in the United Kingdom. The area north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault is known as the Highlands, and contains the country 's main mountain ranges. Scotland 's mountain ranges, in a rough north to south direction are: The Highlands & Islands, The Hills of the Central Lowlands, the Southern Uplands. The zone includes Britain 's highest peaks, especially Ben Nevis at over 4000 feet, with several similar peaks in the Cairngorms.
Some of the most spectacular mountains occur in the northwest highlands, especially on Skye, the largest island off the coast. On the mainland nearby lie some great ranges based on the Torridonian sandstone, a Precambrian rock which overlies yet older rocks such as the Lewisian gneiss. Some of the highest peaks, such as Beinn Eighe are crowned by white quartzite, which gives those peaks a distinctive appearance. The trend continues to the north with larger caps of the white rock at Foinaven and Arkle (hill). Some of the quartzite contains fossilized worm burrows. It is known as pipe rock and is circa 500 million years old.
The formation continues to the north with gigantic peaks such as An Teallach near Ullapool and Stac Polly in Sutherland. The Torridonian rocks continue south to Applecross opposite Skye, where similar massive mountains occur. The Black Cuillin are mainly composed of basalt and gabbro, the latter being a very rough rock which makes for superb grip for mountaineers. It is from the dark colour of the gabbro that the Black Cuillin receive their name. The summits of the Cuillin are bare rock, jagged in outline and with steep cliffs and deep cut corries and gullies.
The mountains exhibit many notable individual peaks and many exceed 1,000 metres (3,280 ft) in height, so qualifying as Munros. Ben Nevis exceeds 1,300 metres (4,265 ft). To the south, Glen Coe has many notable mountains, such as Buachaille Etive Mòr and Bidean nam Bian, both of which are Munros. There is also a famous ridge walk, the Aonach Eagach, on the opposite side of the glen. The ridge is one of the most popular scrambles in the entire country, being a craggy arête with few escape routes.
The Grampians, extend southwest to northeast between the Highland Boundary Fault and the Great Glen, occupying almost half of the land - area of Scotland and including the Cairngorms and the Lochaber hills. The range includes many of the highest mountains in the British Isles, including Ben Nevis and Ben Macdui the two highest. The Cairngorm Plateau is the highest, coldest and snowiest plateau in the British Isles.
The southern and eastern parts of Scotland are usually referred to as the Scottish Lowlands, but these areas also have significant ranges of hills, although these are lower than the Highland mountains. Because they are much closer to towns and cities, they are more popular for hill walking and rambling than the more distant mountains of the northern Highlands.
In addition to the main ranges, there are numerous individual hills in the Lowlands, often volcanic in origin. Many are known by the Scots word Law, meaning hill
The Southern Uplands form a continuous belt of hills across southern Scotland from Galloway to the Borders. The Uplands are divided into several local ranges. The heartland of the Galloway hills lies to the north of Loch Trool and many excellent walks into that particularly wild remote territory start from the extensive car park by Bruce 's Stone. There are three ridges which run northwards from the Loch Trool / Loch Dee / Clatteringshaws area - The Awful Hand on the west, The Rhinns of Kells to the east, and the Dungeon hills in between.
The ten highest mountains in Scotland are also the ten highest in the UK.
Scottish peaks are categorised by means of the following hill lists. Note that any one peak may ' qualify ' for inclusion in several lists.
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when was the school leaving age raised to 18 | Raising of school leaving age in England and Wales - Wikipedia
The raising of school leaving age (shortened to ROSLA) is the name given by the government to refer to changes regarding the legal age a child is permitted to leave compulsory education as specified under an Education Act. In most countries, the school leaving age often reflects when young people are seen to be mature enough within their society, but not necessarily when they are old enough to be regarded as an adult.
In England and Wales, this age has been raised numerous times since the introduction of compulsory education in 1870. On 1 September 1972, the age was raised from 15 to 16, following preparations which began eight years earlier in 1964. This left a gap year of school leavers who, by law, had to complete an additional year of education from 1973 onwards.
There are several reasons why the government may wish to increase the school leaving age, considering it has raised the age numerous times over the 19th and 20th centuries, the last time being in 2015. With past age raisings, the reasons given have been focused mainly on generating more skilled labour by providing additional time for students to gain additional skills and qualifications. In recent years, it became apparent that most 16 to 18 year - olds have not been motivated to continue their education after completion of their GCSEs, thus increasing the overall unemployment rate given many are unable to find work. The British government hoped that by making education compulsory up to the age of 17 by 2013 and 18 by 2015, it could change this.
Prior to the 19th century, there were very few schools. Most of those that existed were run by the church, for the church, stressing religious education. In the latter part of the 19th Century, compulsory attendance at school ceased to be a matter for local option, with the introduction of the Elementary Education Act 1870 a milestone in the British school education system. Children had to attend between the ages of 5 and 10 though with some local discretion such as early leaving in agricultural areas.
The introduction of the Elementary Education Act 1870 (applying to England and Wales), commonly known as Forster 's Education Act having been drawn up by William Edward Forster, created the concept of compulsory education for children under thirteen, although the decision to make education compulsory was at the discretion of school boards; education was compulsory in approximately 40 % of schools by 1873. In areas where education was considered a problem, elected school boards could be set up. These boards could, at their discretion, create local by - laws, confirmed by Parliament, to require attendance and fine the parents of children who did not attend. There were exemptions for illness, living more than a certain distance (typically one mile) from a school, or certification of having reached the required standard (which varied by board) which were made mandatory across England and Wales by the 1880 Act.
The Elementary Education Act 1880 insisted on compulsory attendance from 5 -- 10 years. For poorer families, ensuring their children attended school proved difficult, as it was more tempting to send them working if the opportunity to earn an extra income was available. Attendance Officers often visited the homes of children who failed to attend school, which often proved to be ineffective. Children under the age of 13 who were employed were required to have a certificate to show they had reached the educational standard; employers of these children who were n't able to show this were penalised. An act brought into force thirteen years later went under the name of the Elementary Education (School Attendance) Act 1893, which stated a raised minimum leaving age to 11. Later the same year, the act was also extended for blind and deaf children, who previously had no means of an official education. This act was later amended in 1899 to raise the school leaving age up to 12 years of age.
The start of the 20th century saw school boards abolished in 1902 and replaced with local education authorities, which are still in use to the present day.
The year 1918 saw the introduction of the Education Act 1918, commonly also known as the Fisher Act as it was devised by Herbert Fisher. The act enforced compulsory education from 5 -- 14 years, but also included provision for compulsory part - time education for all 14 to 18 - year - olds. There were also plans for expansion in tertiary education, by raising the participation age to 18 though cuts in public spending after World War I made this impractical. This is the first act which starting planning provisions for young people to remain in education until the age of 18. The 1918 act was not implemented until a further act of 1921 was passed.
In 1944, Rab Butler introduced the Education Act 1944 which amongst other changes, including the introduction of the Tripartite System, included raising the school leaving age to 15. Although the act should have been brought into effect as from September 1939, it was not implemented because of the effects of World War II, but was eventually enforced from April 1947. The Comprehensive school system has since replaced the Tripartite System brought in by this act across most of England. This act also recommended compulsory part - time education for all children until the age of 18, but was dropped, in similar fashion to the 1918 Act, to cut spending after World War II.
Changes in government approaches towards education meant that it was no longer regarded adequate for a child to leave education aged 14, as that is the age when they were seen to really understand and appreciate the value of education, as well as being the period when adolescence was at its height. It was beginning to be seen as the worst age for a sudden switch from education to employment, with around 80 % of children in 1938 leaving education at this age, many having only had primary - school level education. Although there were concerns about the effects of having less labour from these children, it was hoped that the outcome of a larger quantity of more qualified, skilled workers would eliminate the deficit problem from the loss of unskilled labour.
This act introduced the 11 + examination to determine if a child should be eligible for a grammar school, secondary modern or technical college, under the Tripartite System, but has since been phased out across the majority of the United Kingdom, with just several boroughs in England and Northern Ireland still using it. League tables published in March 2007 showed grammar schools throughout the country were outperforming comprehensive schools; data published ten years later in 2017 suggested a similar clear division between student attainment in grammar schools compared to comprehensive schools.
Changes in society and approaches towards education, including equal opportunities, has meant that it is now recognised that all children deserve to have the same educational opportunities without singling out those who learn at a slower rate than others, thus every child has the opportunity to gain secondary school level qualifications or similar, regardless of background or intelligence.
In 1964, preparations began to raise the school leaving age to 16. These were delayed in 1968, and eventually the decision was taken in 1971 that the new upper age limit be enforced from 1 September 1972 onwards. As well as raising the school leaving age in 1972, the year also saw the introduction of the Education (Work Experience) Act, allowing LEAs to organise work experience for the additional final year school students. In some counties around the country, these changes also led to the introduction of middle schools in 1968, where students were kept at primary or junior school for an additional year, meaning that the number of students in secondary schools within these areas remained virtually constant through the change. In others, more radical changes led to middle schools for pupils aged up to 13 opening in smaller secondary school buildings, with other schools accommodating students over 13. As of 2010, there are fewer than 300 middle schools across England, situated in just 22 local education authorities; the number of remaining middle schools has gradually fallen since the mid-1980s.
For many secondary schools around England and Wales in areas without a Middle School, accommodating for the new 5th year students would be a struggle. A popular solution was to provide those schools with a pre-fabricated building (often referred to as ROSLA Buildings or ROSLA Blocks) that were in need of additional capacity, providing them with the resources to cope with the new generation of 5th year students. This solution proved popular with many schools across the country, not least due to the low cost involved for materials and construction, but also the speed which these buildings could be erected. Many were supplied by F. Pratten and Co Ltd.
The ROSLA Buildings were delivered to schools in self assembly packs, being assembled by a team often within days, regardless of weather conditions. Consequently, they were not intended to stand long - term, though some have proven to have stood much longer than was initially planned. Many ROSLA Buildings shared similar exterior attributes such as their design, with the only difference being the separation of rooms within the building. The room separation within the building was decided upon by senior school management, hence many walls are false from being added in after construction.
Although the majority of schools around England and Wales have since replaced the ROSLA Building at their site, there are still numerous schools around the country which are still actively using these buildings.
Between 1976 and 1997, the minimum school leaving arrangements were:
Under the Education Act 1996, a new single school leaving date was set for 1998 and all subsequent years thereafter. This was set as the last Friday in June in the school year which the child reaches the age of 16.
Reports published in November 2006 suggested that Education Secretary Alan Johnson was exploring ways to raise the school leaving age in England to 18, just over 40 years later than the last rise in 1972, pointing to the decline in unskilled jobs and the need for young people to be equipped for modern day employment.
A year later, on 6 November 2007, Prime Minister Gordon Brown unveiled the government 's plans in his Queen 's Speech. The plans included the duty for parents to assist their children in education or training participation until the date of their 18th birthday, as well as detailing proposed moves to reform the apprenticeship system and to improve achievement for children in care. The Education and Skills Act 2008, when it came into force in the 2013 academic year, initially required participation in some form of education or training until the school year in which the child turned 17, followed by the age being raised to the young person 's 18th birthday in 2015. This was referred to as raising the "participation age '' to distinguish it from the school leaving age which remains at 16. To qualify as participation the young person must be in education or training for the equivalent of one day a week (at a minimum). The local council is responsible for ensuring that a suitable place is available. The Act makes similar powers available to the National Assembly for Wales. A spokesperson for the Welsh Assembly indicated that it would want to encourage more young people to stay in education, but without compulsion, so school leavers there are not required to continue with any education or training.
Figures were published in June 2006 showing that 76.2 % of all young people aged 16 -- 18 are already in further education or training, meaning that the rise might only affect around 25 % of young people who may have otherwise sought employment immediately upon finishing compulsory education. This did not specifically state that young people would remain in secondary school, but rather by law be required to continue their education full or part - time, whether that be in sixth form, college or work based training. Around 80 % of 16 - year - olds stay in full - time academic or vocational education, or go on a government - financed training course. In a survey of 859 people, 9 / 10 supported the plans for the age increase.
Reports published by the DfES showed that although there are around 70 % of 16 year olds who remain in full - time education, this declines to less than 50 % by the time they reach 18, with the majority finding unskilled employment and even fewer going into employment where their training has relevance. There is also a small increase in those who become unemployed by the time they reach 18, which the government hoped to reduce with the act. It is these cases of unemployment which the government believes to be the toughest, whom it classifies as NEET (Not in Education, Employment or Training). In 2006 an additional 7 % of 16 year olds fell into this category and the proportion rose to 13 % among 18 year olds. In practice, only 1 % of young people are classified as NEET during their time aged 16 -- 18, due to churn between training, employment and NEET classification. In 2015 the percentage of 16 - 18 classified as NEET fell to 7.5 %, the lowest figure since 2000.
The government believed that the changes were needed because of the collapse in unskilled jobs in the economy, which means that young school leavers at 16 years of age are finding it increasingly more difficult to find employment, consequentially in many cases making them unemployable. Within the last 40 years, the number of unskilled jobs available have more than halved, from 8 million in the 1960s to 3.5 by 2007, with predictions of further drops to just 600,000 by 2020 due to the increasing demand for skilled labour. This, together with fewer students continuing their further education, increase the difficulty for young school leavers to find work if they were either not able, or chose not to, stay on at school and complete further education. s
Whilst the government is eager to implement the changes, many oppose the proposal, some on civil liberties grounds. Compulsory school attendance is usually justified by reference to the argument that minors are incapable of making sufficiently reasoned choices. However, the 16 - 18 age group falls into a grey area, being regarded as effectively adult in a number of contexts. Indeed, in some jurisdictions (e.g. Scotland), individuals are considered to reach full maturity at 16.
The proposal of using criminal sanctions to enforce attendance under this new system was opposed by MPs from both the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats, who believed compulsion and threats were the wrong approach to increasing participation. A spokesperson for the DfES said the proposals were not about "forcing young people to do something they do n't want to '', and that "we are letting young people down if we allow them to leave education and training without skills at the age of 16. '' However, the Prime Minister 's Queen 's Speech in November 2007, which discussed the raise in school leaving age, suggested that pupils who failed to comply with new laws are to be expected to face fines or community service, rather than custodial sentencing which had previously been proposed. Local Authorities will also be expected to ensure pupils are participating up to 18 years of age.
The downward trend in the number of unskilled jobs available throughout the country is continuing. The government believes that the extension of compulsory education until the age of 18 will mean many more young people will leave education in a much better position to find skilled employment. Speaking in March 2007, Chancellor Gordon Brown stated that around 50,000 teenagers would be paid a training allowance to sign up to college - based courses, with estimates on the available number of apprenticeships available to double to around 500,000 by 2020, with 80 % being available in England, which will be an increase from the current 250,000 apprenticeships available, offered by 130,000 employers.
A skills commission report released in 2013, backed by Labour MP Barry Sheerman, suggests that young people were being let down by the education system, with particular criticism aimed towards the lack of information, advice and guidance available to 14 - 19 year olds. The government were hopeful that the changes would have an effect on preventing the increase in crime levels, as figures reported a substantial percentage of young people leaving school were turning to a life of crime, with many being unable to find suitable work due to lack of skills and qualifications.
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everything is going to be alright jesus christ superstar | Everything 's Alright (Jesus Christ Superstar song) - Wikipedia
"Everything 's Alright '' is a song from the musical Jesus Christ Superstar by Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber.
In the song, Mary Magdalene tries to calm Jesus with an expensive ointment and tells him not to get worried. Judas accuses her of wasting resources which would be better served helping the poor. Jesus retorts by saying that there will always be poverty in the world and that they will never be able to help everyone.
The song is musically notable for its 5 4 time signature.
Yvonne Elliman, who sang the part of Mary Magdalene on the original rock opera concept album Jesus Christ Superstar and also in the 1971 Broadway original cast and 1973 film, released a single of "Everything 's Alright '' in 1971, which reached # 92 on the Billboard Hot 100.
The reprise of "Everything 's Alright '' is sung by Mary Magdalene to calm Jesus after his intense day of negative events, as he goes to sleep. The short, 29 second reprise leads into the hit single, "I Do n't Know How to Love Him, '' which is also sung by Mary Magdalene. In the 1973 film version, only the "Close your Eyes '' number is sung, omitting all of the rest of the lyrics, including the line: "I know that I will sleep well tonight '', sung by Jesus.
John Farnham, Kate Ceberano, and Jon Stevens released a version of "Everything 's Alright '' in 1992. The song peaked at number 6 for one week in the Australian Recording Industry Association 's ARIA Charts. The song stayed in the ARIA Charts top 10 for five weeks. It spent an overall total of 14 weeks in Australia 's ARIA Charts: entry date: 26 July 1992 at number 46, exit date: 25 October 1992 at number 44.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what are the four types of operant conditioning | Operant conditioning - wikipedia
Operant conditioning (also called "instrumental conditioning '') is a learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reward or punishment. It is also a procedure that is used to bring about such learning.
Although operant and classical conditioning both involve behaviors controlled by environmental stimuli, they differ in nature. In operant conditioning, stimuli present when a behavior is rewarded or punished come to control that behavior. For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove; in operant terms, the box and the stove are "discriminative stimuli ''. However, in classical conditioning, stimuli that signal significant events produce reflexive behavior. For example, sight of candy may cause a child to salivate, or the sound of a door slam may signal an angry parent, causing a child to tremble. Salivation and trembling are not operants; they are not reinforced by their consequences.
The study of animal learning in the 20th century was dominated by the analysis of these two sorts of learning, and they are still at the core of behavior analysis.
Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental learning, was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike (1874 -- 1949), who observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from home - made puzzle boxes. A cat could escape from the box by a simple response such as pulling a cord or pushing a pole, but when first constrained, the cats took a long time to get out. With repeated trials ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, so the cats escaped more and more quickly. Thorndike generalized this finding in his law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated and those that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. In short, some consequences strengthen behavior and some consequences weaken behavior. By plotting escape time against trial number Thorndike produced the first known animal learning curves through this procedure.
Humans appear to learn many simple behaviors through the sort of process studied by Thorndike, now called operant conditioning. That is, responses are retained when they lead to a successful outcome and discarded when they do not, or when they produce aversive effects. This usually happens without being planned by any "teacher '', but operant conditioning has been used by parents in teaching their children for thousands of years.
B.F. Skinner (1904 -- 1990) is often referred to as the father of operant conditioning, and his work is frequently cited in connection with this topic. His book "The Behavior of Organisms '', published in 1938, initiated his lifelong study of operant conditioning and its application to human and animal behavior. Following the ideas of Ernst Mach, Skinner rejected Thorndike 's reference to unobservable mental states such as satisfaction, building his analysis on observable behavior and its equally observable consequences.
Skinner believed that classical conditioning was too simplistic to be used to describe something as complex as human behavior. Operant conditioning, in his opinion, better described human behavior since it examined causes and effects of intentional behavior.
To implement his empirical approach, Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber, or "Skinner Box '', in which subjects such as pigeons and rats were isolated and could be exposed to carefully controlled stimuli. Unlike Thorndike 's puzzle box, this arrangement allowed the subject to make one or two simple, repeatable responses, and the rate of such responses became Skinner 's primary behavioral measure. Another invention, the cumulative recorder, produced a graphical record from which these response rates could be estimated. These records were the primary data that Skinner and his colleagues used to explore the effects on response rate of various reinforcement schedules. A reinforcement schedule may be defined as "any procedure that delivers reinforcement to an organism according to some well - defined rule ''. The effects of schedules became, in turn, the basic findings from which Skinner developed his account of operant conditioning. He also drew on many less formal observations of human and animal behavior.
Many of Skinner 's writings are devoted to the application of operant conditioning to human behavior. In 1948 he published Walden Two, a fictional account of a peaceful, happy, productive community organized around his conditioning principles. In 1957, Skinner published Verbal Behavior, which extended the principles of operant conditioning to language, a form of human behavior that had previously been analyzed quite differently by linguists and others. Skinner defined new functional relationships such as "mands '' and "tacts '' to capture some essentials of language, but he introduced no new principles, treating verbal behavior like any other behavior controlled by its consequences, which included the reactions of the speaker 's audience.
Operant behavior is said to be "emitted ''; that is, initially it is not elicited by any particular stimulus. Thus one may ask why it happens in the first place. The answer to this question is like Darwin 's answer to the question of the origin of a "new '' bodily structure, namely, variation and selection. Similarly, the behavior of an individual varies from moment to moment, in such aspects as the specific motions involved, the amount of force applied, or the timing of the response. Variations that lead to reinforcement are strengthened, and if reinforcement is consistent, the behavior tends to remain stable. However, behavioral variability can itself be altered through the manipulation of certain variables.
Reinforcement and punishment are the core tools through which operant behavior is modified. These terms are defined by their effect on behavior. Either may be positive or negative, as described below.
There is an additional procedure called "extinction ''
Thus there are a total of five basic consequences --
It is important to note that actors (e.g. rat) are not spoken of as being reinforced, punished, or extinguished; it is the actions (e.g. lever press) that are reinforced, punished, or extinguished. Also, reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the laboratory. Naturally occurring consequences can also reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not always planned or delivered by people.
Schedules of reinforcement are rules that control the delivery of reinforcement. The rules specify either the time that reinforcement is to be made available, or the number of responses to be made, or both. Many rules are possible, but the following are the most basic and commonly used
The effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment can be changed in various ways.
Most of these factors serve biological functions. For example, the process of satiation helps the organism maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis). When an organism has been deprived of sugar, for example, the taste of sugar is a highly effective reinforcer. However, when the organism 's blood sugar reaches or exceeds an optimum level the taste of sugar becomes less effective, perhaps even aversive.
Shaping is a conditioning method much used in animal training and in teaching non-verbal humans. It depends on operant variability and reinforcement, as described above. The trainer starts by identifying the desired final (or "target '') behavior. Next, the trainer chooses a behavior that the animal or person already emits with some probability. The form of this behavior is then gradually changed across successive trials by reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior more and more closely. When the target behavior is finally emitted, it may be strengthened and maintained by the use of a schedule of reinforcement.
Noncontingent reinforcement is the delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organism 's behavior. Noncontingent reinforcement may be used in an attempt to reduce an undesired target behavior by reinforcing multiple alternative responses while extinguishing the target response. As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement ''.
Though initially operant behavior is emitted without an identified reference to a particular stimulus, during operant conditioning operants come under the control of stimuli that are present when behavior is reinforced. Such stimuli are called "discriminative stimuli. '' A so - called "three - term contingency '' is the result. That is, discriminative stimuli set the occasion for responses that produce reward or punishment. Thus, a rat may be trained to press a lever only when a light comes on; a dog rushes to the kitchen when it hears the rattle of its food bag; a child reaches for candy when she sees it on a table.
Most behavior is under stimulus control. Several aspects of this may be distinguished:
Most behavior can not easily be described in terms of individual responses reinforced one by one. The scope of operant analysis is expanded through the idea of behavioral chains, which are sequences of responses bound together by the three - term contingencies defined above. Chaining is based on the fact, experimentally demonstrated, that a discriminative stimulus not only sets the occasion for subsequent behavior, but it can also reinforce a behavior that precedes it. That is, a discriminative stimulus is also a "conditioned reinforcer ''. For example, the light that sets the occasion for lever pressing may be used to reinforce "turning around '' in the presence of a noise. This results in the sequence "noise -- turn - around -- light -- press lever -- food ''. Much longer chains can be built by adding more stimuli and responses.
In escape learning, a behavior terminates an (aversive) stimulus. For example, shielding one 's eyes from sunlight terminates the (aversive) stimulation of bright light in one 's eyes. (This is an example of negative reinforcement, defined above.) Behavior that is maintained by preventing a stimulus is called "avoidance, '' as, for example, putting on sun glasses before going outdoors. Avoidance behavior raises the so - called "avoidance paradox '', for, it may be asked, how can the non-occurrence of a stimulus serve as a reinforcer? This question is addressed by several theories of avoidance (see below).
Two kinds of experimental settings are commonly used: discriminated and free - operant avoidance learning.
A discriminated avoidance experiment involves a series of trials in which a neutral stimulus such as a light is followed by an aversive stimulus such as a shock. After the neutral stimulus appears an operant response such as a lever press prevents or terminate the aversive stimulus. In early trials the subject does not make the response until the aversive stimulus has come on, so these early trials are called "escape '' trials. As learning progresses, the subject begins to respond during the neutral stimulus and thus prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring. Such trials are called "avoidance trials. '' This experiment is said to involve classical conditioning, because a neutral CS is paired with an aversive US; this idea underlies the two - factor theory of avoidance learning described below.
In free - operant avoidance a subject periodically receives an aversive stimulus (often an electric shock) unless an operant response is made; the response delays the onset of the shock. In this situation, unlike discriminated avoidance, no prior stimulus signals the shock. Two crucial time intervals determine the rate of avoidance learning. This first is the S-S (shock - shock) interval. This is time between successive shocks in the absence of a response. The second interval is the R-S (response - shock) interval. This specifies the time by which an operant response delays the onset of the next shock. Note that each time the subject performs the operant response, the R-S interval without shock begins anew.
This theory was originally proposed in order to explain discriminated avoidance learning, in which an organism learns to avoid an aversive stimulus by escaping from a signal for that stimulus. Two processes are involved: classical conditioning of the signal followed by operant conditioning of the escape response: a) Classical conditioning of fear. Initially the organism experiences the pairing of a CS (conditioned stimulus) with an aversive US (unconditioned stimulus). The theory assumes that this pairing creates an association between the CS and the US through classical conditioning and, because of the aversive nature of the US, the CS comes to elicit a conditioned emotional reaction (CER) -- "fear. '' b) Reinforcement of the operant response by fear - reduction. As a result of the first process, the CS now signals fear; this unpleasant emotional reaction serves to motivate operant responses, and responses that terminate the CS are reinforced by fear termination. Note that the theory does not say that the organism "avoids '' the US in the sense of anticipating it, but rather that the organism "escapes '' an aversive internal state that is caused by the CS. Several experimental findings seem to run counter to two - factor theory. For example, avoidance behavior often extinguishes very slowly even when the initial CS - US pairing never occurs again, so the fear response might be expected to extinguish (see Classical conditioning). Further, animals that have learned to avoid often show little evidence of fear, suggesting that escape from fear is not necessary to maintain avoidance behavior.
Some theorists suggest that avoidance behavior may simply be a special case of operant behavior maintained by its consequences. In this view the idea of "consequences '' is expanded to include sensitivity to a pattern of events. Thus, in avoidance, the consequence of a response is a reduction in the rate of aversive stimulation. Indeed, experimental evidence suggests that a "missed shock '' is detected as a stimulus, and can act as a reinforcer. Cognitive theories of avoidance take this idea a step farther. For example, a rat comes to "expect '' shock if it fails to press a lever and to "expect no shock '' if it presses it, and avoidance behavior is strengthened if these expectancies are confirmed.
Operant hoarding refers to the observation that rats reinforced in a certain way may allow food pellets to accumulate in a food tray instead of retrieving those pellets. In this procedure, retrieval of the pellets always instituted a one - minute period of extinction during which no additional food pellets were available but those that had been accumulated earlier could be consumed. This finding appears to contradict the usual finding that rats behave impulsively in situations in which there is a choice between a smaller food object right away and a larger food object after some delay. See schedules of reinforcement.
The first scientific studies identifying neurons that responded in ways that suggested they encode for conditioned stimuli came from work by Mahlon deLong and by R.T. Richardson. They showed that nucleus basalis neurons, which release acetylcholine broadly throughout the cerebral cortex, are activated shortly after a conditioned stimulus, or after a primary reward if no conditioned stimulus exists. These neurons are equally active for positive and negative reinforcers, and have been shown to be related to neuroplasticity in many cortical regions. Evidence also exists that dopamine is activated at similar times. There is considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both reinforcement and aversive learning. Dopamine pathways project much more densely onto frontal cortex regions. Cholinergic projections, in contrast, are dense even in the posterior cortical regions like the primary visual cortex. A study of patients with Parkinson 's disease, a condition attributed to the insufficient action of dopamine, further illustrates the role of dopamine in positive reinforcement. It showed that while off their medication, patients learned more readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement. Patients who were on their medication showed the opposite to be the case, positive reinforcement proving to be the more effective form of learning when dopamine activity is high.
A neurochemical process involving dopamine has been suggested to underlie reinforcement. When an organism experiences a reinforcing stimulus, dopamine pathways in the brain are activated. This network of pathways "releases a short pulse of dopamine onto many dendrites, thus broadcasting a rather global reinforcement signal to postsynaptic neurons. '' This allows recently activated synapses to increase their sensitivity to efferent (conducting outward) signals, thus increasing the probability of occurrence for the recent responses that preceded the reinforcement. These responses are, statistically, the most likely to have been the behavior responsible for successfully achieving reinforcement. But when the application of reinforcement is either less immediate or less contingent (less consistent), the ability of dopamine to act upon the appropriate synapses is reduced.
A number of observations seem to show that operant behavior can be established without reinforcement in the sense defined above. Most cited is the phenomenon of autoshaping (sometimes called "sign tracking ''), in which a stimulus is repeatedly followed by reinforcement, and in consequence the animal begins to respond to the stimulus. For example, a response key is lighted and then food is presented. When this is repeated a few times a pigeon subject begins to peck the key even though food comes whether the bird pecks or not. Similarly, rats begin to handle small objects, such as a lever, when food is presented nearby. Strikingly, pigeons and rats persist in this behavior even when pecking the key or pressing the lever leads to less food (omission training).
These observations and others appear to contradict the law of effect, and they have prompted some researchers to propose new conceptualizations of operant reinforcement (e.g.) A more general view is that autoshaping is an instance of classical conditioning; the autoshaping procedure has, in fact, become one of the most common ways to measure classical conditioning. In this view, many behaviors can be influenced by both classical contingencies (stimulus - response) and operant contingencies (response - reinforcement), and the experimenter 's task is to work out how these interact.
The example of someone having a positive experience with a drug is easy to see how drug dependence and the law of effect works. The tolerance for a drug goes down as one continues to use it after having a positive experience with a certain amount the first time. It will take more and more to get that same feeling. This is when the controlled substance in an experiment would have to be modified and the experiment would really begin. The law of work for psychologist B.F. Skinner almost half a century later on the principles of operant conditioning, "a learning process by which the effect, or consequence, of a response influences the future rate of production of that response.
Reinforcement and punishment are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and a great many applications of operant principles have been suggested and implemented. Following are a few examples.
Applied behavior analysis is the discipline initiated by B.F. Skinner that applies the principles of conditioning to the modification of socially significant human behavior. It uses the basic concepts of conditioning theory, including conditioned stimulus (S), discriminative stimulus (S), response (R), and reinforcing stimulus (S or S for reinforcers, sometimes S for aversive stimuli). A conditioned stimulus controls behaviors developed through respondent (classical) conditioning, such as emotional reactions. The other three terms combine to form Skinner 's "three - term contingency '': a discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for responses that lead to reinforcement. Researchers have found the following protocol to be effective when they use the tools of operant conditioning to modify human behavior:
Practitioners of applied behavior analysis (ABA) bring these procedures, and many variations and developments of them, to bear on a variety of socially significant behaviors and issues. In many cases, practitioners use operant techniques to develop constructive, socially acceptable behaviors to replace aberrant behaviors. The techniques of ABA have been effectively applied in to such things as early intensive behavioral interventions for children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) research on the principles influencing criminal behavior, HIV prevention, conservation of natural resources, education, gerontology, health and exercise, industrial safety, language acquisition, littering, medical procedures, parenting, psychotherapy, seatbelt use, severe mental disorders, sports, substance abuse, phobias, pediatric feeding disorders, and zoo management and care of animals. Some of these applications are among those described below.
Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of addiction and drug dependence. An addictive drug is intrinsically rewarding; that is, it functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. The brain 's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., it is "wanted '' or "desired ''), so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In addition, stimuli associated with drug use -- e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the location of use -- become associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the drug. These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their appearance can induce craving, and they can become conditioned positive reinforcers of continued use. Thus, if an addicted individual encounters one of these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters.
In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is self - administered in order to alleviate or "escape '' the symptoms of physical dependence (e.g., tremors and sweating) and / or psychological dependence (e.g., anhedonia, restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise during the state of drug withdrawal.
Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this article, a few of the most salient are the following: (a) availability of primary reinforcement (e.g. a bag of dog yummies); (b) the use of secondary reinforcement, (e.g. sounding a clicker immediately after a desired response, then giving yummy); (c) contingency, assuring that reinforcement (e.g. the clicker) follows the desired behavior and not something else; (d) shaping, as in gradually getting a dog to jump higher and higher; (e) intermittent reinforcement, as in gradually reducing the frequency of reinforcement to induce persistent behavior without satiation; (f) chaining, where a complex behavior is gradually constructed from smaller units.
Example of animal training from Seaworld related on Operant conditioning
Animal training has effects on positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcements may play a big role on the animal training case.
Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of parent management training. Typically, parents learn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger reward as part of an incentive system created collaboratively with the child). In addition, parents learn to select simple behaviors as an initial focus and reward each of the small steps that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is called "successive approximations '').
Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example is the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. In economics, the degree to which price influences consumption is called "the price elasticity of demand. '' Certain commodities are more elastic than others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on the amount bought, while gasoline and other essentials may be less affected by price changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers.
As stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of persistent lever - pulling behavior in gamblers. The variable ratio payoff from slot machines and other forms of gambling has often been cited as a factor underlying gambling addiction.
Nudge theory (or nudge) is a concept in behavioural science, political theory and economics which argues that positive reinforcement and indirect suggestions to try to achieve non-forced compliance can influence the motives, incentives and decision making of groups and individuals, at least as effectively -- if not more effectively -- than direct instruction, legislation, or enforcement.
The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement is rooted in B.F. Skinner 's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said behavior. Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and academic performance, but also in the study of work performance. Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as a classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement. Praise may be more or less effective in changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery. In order for praise to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly.
Acknowledging the effect of praise as a positive reinforcement strategy, numerous behavioral and cognitive behavioral interventions have incorporated the use of praise in their protocols. The strategic use of praise is recognized as an evidence - based practice in both classroom management and parenting training interventions, though praise is often subsumed in intervention research into a larger category of positive reinforcement, which includes strategies such as strategic attention and behavioral rewards.
Cognitive - Behavioral Therapy and Operant - Behavioral Therapy Several studies have been done on the effect Cognitive - Behavioral therapy and Operant - Behavioral therapy have on different medical conditions. When patients developed cognitive and behavioral techniques that changed their behaviors, attitudes, and emotions; their pain severity decreased. The results of these studies showed an influence of cognitions on pain perception and impact presented explained the general efficacy of Cognitive - Behavioral therapy (CBT) and Operant - Behavioral therapy (OBT).
Braiker identified the following ways that manipulators control their victims:
Traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change.
The other source indicated that ' The necessary conditions for traumatic bonding are that one person must dominate the other and that the level of abuse chronically spikes and then subsides. The relationship is characterized by periods of permissive, compassionate, and even affectionate behavior from the dominant person, punctuated by intermittent episodes of intense abuse. To maintain the upper hand, the victimizer manipulates the behavior of the victim and limits the victim 's options so as to perpetuate the power imbalance. Any threat to the balance of dominance and submission may be met with an escalating cycle of punishment ranging from seething intimidation to intensely violent outbursts. The victimizer also isolates the victim from other sources of support, which reduces the likelihood of detection and intervention, impairs the victim 's ability to receive countervailing self - referent feedback, and strengthens the sense of unilateral dependency... The traumatic effects of these abusive relationships may include the impairment of the victim 's capacity for accurate self - appraisal, leading to a sense of personal inadequacy and a subordinate sense of dependence upon the dominating person. Victims also may encounter a variety of unpleasant social and legal consequences of their emotional and behavioral affiliation with someone who perpetrated aggressive acts, even if they themselves were the recipients of the aggression. '.
Most video games are designed around some type of compulsion loop, adding a type of positive reinforcement through a variable rate schedule to keep the player playing the game, though this can also lead to video game addiction.
As part of a trend in the monetization of video games in the 2010s, some games offered "loot boxes '' as rewards or purchasable by real - world funds that offered a random selection of in - game items, distributed by rarity. The practice has been tied to the same methods that slot machines and other gambling devices dole out rewards, as it follows a variable rate schedule. While the general perception that loot boxes are a form of gambling, the practice is only classified as such in a few countries as gambling and otherwise legal. However, methods to use those items as virtual currency for online gambling or trading for real - world money has created a skin gambling market that is under legal evaluation.
Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants: leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. When employees get the sense that bullies are tolerated, a climate of fear may be the result.
Individual differences in sensitivity to reward, punishment, and motivation have been studied under the premises of reinforcement sensitivity theory and have also been applied to workplace performance.
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what was another name for the white mans burden | The White Man 's Burden - wikipedia
"The White Man 's Burden: The United States and the Philippine Islands '' is a 1899 poem by Rudyard Kipling about the Philippine -- American War (1899 -- 1902), which invites the U.S. to assume colonial control of that country. The poem was published in The New York Sun on 10 February 1899.
Originally, Kipling wrote the poem for the Diamond Jubilee celebration of Queen Victoria 's reign (1837 -- 1901), but it was exchanged for the poem "Recessional '', also by Kipling. Later, he rewrote the poem "The White Man 's Burden '' to address the American colonization of the Philippine Islands, a Pacific Ocean archipelago conquered from Imperial Spain, in the three - month Spanish -- American War (1898); the birth of the American Empire.
The poem exhorts the reader and the listener to embark upon the enterprise of empire, yet gives somber warning about the costs involved; nonetheless, American imperialists understood the phrase The white man 's burden to justify imperialism as a noble enterprise of civilization, conceptually related to the American philosophy of Manifest Destiny.
The title and themes of "The White Man 's Burden '' ostensibly make the poem about Eurocentric racism and about the belief of the Western world that industrialisation is the way to civilise the Third World.
The poem of "The White Man 's Burden '' was first published in the 10 February 1899 edition of the New York Sun, a McLure 's newspaper.
Three days earlier, on 7 February 1899, to the senate floor, Senator Benjamin Tillman had read aloud three stanzas of "The White Man 's Burden '' in argument against ratification of the Treaty of Paris, and that the U.S should renounce claim of authority over the Philippine Islands. To that effect, Senator Tillman asked:
Why are we bent on forcing upon them a civilization not suited to them, and which only means, in their view, degradation and a loss of self - respect, which is worse than the loss of life itself?
Four days later, on 11 February 1899, the U.S. Congress ratified the "Treaty of Peace between the United States of America and the Kingdom of Spain '' (Treaty of Paris, 1898), which established American imperial jurisdiction upon the archipelago of the Philippine Islands, in the Pacific Ocean, near the Asian mainland.
Kipling included his poem in his 1903 collection The Five Nations.
The imperialist interpretation of "The White Man 's Burden '' (1899) proposes that the white man has a moral obligation to rule the non-white peoples of the Earth, whilst encouraging their economic, cultural, and social progress through colonialism.
In the later 20th century, in the context of decolonisation and the Developing World, the phrase "the white man 's burden '' was emblematic of the "well - intentioned '' aspects of Western colonialism and "Eurocentrism ''. The poem 's imperialist interpretation also includes the milder, philanthropic colonialism of the missionaries:
The implication, of course, was that the Empire existed not for the benefit -- economic or strategic or otherwise -- of Britain, itself, but in order that primitive peoples, incapable of self - government, could, with British guidance, eventually become civilized (and Christianized).
The poem positively represents colonialism as the moral burden of the white race, which is divinely destined to civilise the brutish and barbarous parts of the world; to wit, the Filipino people are "new - caught, sullen peoples, half - devil and half - child ''. Although imperialist beliefs were common currency in the culture of that time, there were opponents to Kipling 's poetic misrepresentation of imperial conquest and colonisation, notably Mark Twain (To the Person Sitting in Darkness, 1901) and William James; for them, "The White Man 's Burden '' was plain of manner, meaning, and intent.
Kipling offered the poem to Theodore Roosevelt, then governor of New York state (1899 -- 1900), to help him politically persuade anti-imperialist Americans to accept the annexation of the Philippine Islands to the United States. Kipling 's literary work extolling the virtues of British colonialism in India was popular in the U.S.; thus, in September 1898, Kipling could tell Governor Roosevelt:
Now, go in and put all the weight of your influence into hanging on, permanently, to the whole Philippines. America has gone and stuck a pick - axe into the foundations of a rotten house, and she is morally bound to build the house over, again, from the foundations, or have it fall about her ears.
In the event, the Norton Anthology of English Literature thematically aligns the poem "The White Man 's Burden '' (1899) with Kipling 's beliefs that the British Empire (1583 -- 1945) was the Englishman 's "Divine Burden to reign God 's Empire on Earth. '' Like much of his work, The White Man 's Burden (1899) is a poetic celebration of imperialism, which Rudyard Kipling believed eventually would benefit the colonised peoples.
In the late 19th century, the philanthropic racism that Rudyard Kipling presented and defended in the poem of The White Man 's Burden (1899) provoked contemporary parodies and critical works, such as "The Brown Man 's Burden '' (1899) by Henry Labouchère, a British politician and "The Black Man 's Burden: A Response to Kipling '' (April 1899) by H.T. Johnson, a clergyman, and Take up the Black Man 's Burden by J. Dallas Bowser. Moreover, a Black Man 's Burden Association was organised to demonstrate to the public how the colonial mistreatment of brown people in the Philippines Islands was an extension of the Jim Crow laws (1863 -- 1965) of the legal mistreatment of black Americans at home, in the U.S.
Because Kipling meant the poem to push for the U.S. to annex the Philippines, the subsequent colonial war compelled more people to join the Anti-Imperialist League to oppose colonial annexation and warfare. In response to "The White Man 's Burden '', in the New York World newspaper, another poet asked "How may We Put it Down? '':
We 've taken up the white man 's burden
Of ebony and brown;
Now will you tell us, Rudyard
Ernest Crosby wrote a poem, "The Real White Man 's Burden '' (1902).
In the Congo Free State (1885 -- 1908), the British journalist, E.D. Morel, reported the brutality of Belgian imperialism in "The Black Man 's Burden '' (1903). In The Black Man 's Burden: The White Man in Africa, from the Fifteenth Century to World War I (1920), Morel presents a critique of the relation between the White Man 's Burden and the Black Man 's Burden.
In poem "The Black Man 's Burden (A Reply to Rudyard Kipling) '' (1920), Hubert Harrison counters the points of colonial - civilization that Kipling extols in "The White Man 's Burden '' (1899), which result in the moral degradation of colonist and colonized.
T.S. Eliot included the poem in his 1941 collection A Choice of Kipling 's Verse.
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who was the first boyd on last man standing | List of Last Man Standing episodes - wikipedia
Last Man Standing is an American sitcom that premiered on ABC on October 11, 2011. Created by Jack Burditt, the series stars Tim Allen as Mike Baxter, a director of marketing at an outdoor sporting goods store in Colorado, whose home life and world is dominated by women: his wife Vanessa (Nancy Travis) and their three daughters Eve (Kaitlyn Dever), Mandy (Molly Ephraim), and Kristin (Alexandra Krosney for season 1 and Amanda Fuller for the remaining seasons). Héctor Elizondo also stars as Ed Alzate, Mike 's boss at his sporting goods store "Outdoor Man '', while Christoph Sanders appears as Kyle Anderson, a young employee of Outdoor Man.
On May 10, 2017, ABC cancelled the series. During the course of the series 130 episodes of Last Man Standing aired over six seasons.
On May 11, 2012, ABC renewed Last Man Standing for a second season. Beginning this season, Amanda Fuller now plays Kristin, replacing Alexandra Krosney. Flynn Morrison was also added to the main cast as an age - advanced Boyd, replacing twins Evan and Luke Kruntchev. Jordan Masterson recurs as Ryan, Boyd 's father, replacing Nick Jonas, who guest starred in one episode in the previous season. The second season initially received a thirteen - episode order, but ABC announced on November 12, 2012 that an additional three scripts had been ordered. The episode order was then extended to five additional episodes, bringing the current total to eighteen for the season. Tim Allen 's former Home Improvement co-star Richard Karn guest starred in the episode "Attractive Architect '', playing the character Bill McKendree. Karn reprised his role again in the episode "The Fight ''. Jonathan Taylor Thomas, another Home Improvement co-star of Allen 's, guest starred in the season finale, "College Girl '', as the character John Baker.
Bill McKendree (Richard Karn), an architect that has worked with Mike and Outdoor Man for years, is bidding on the construction of a new Outdoor Man mall store. Bill assumes the bid is a formality, but Ed feels that an attractive young female architect, Alyssa (Jackie Seiden), is more qualified. Mike assumes that Ed only wants to hire Alyssa for her looks, but Vanessa convinces him to view the bids "blindly '' and determine who really is best for the job. After a colleague at her job passes away, Vanessa gets that person 's job over an equally qualified but "plain '' looking candidate, and she questions whether she got the job based on her looks. After Mandy takes all the drawers in their bathroom for herself, Eve hides all of Mandy 's makeup, forcing her to go to school without wearing any.
Kristin is shocked to hear that Mandy has been accepted into not one, but two colleges, causing her to re-evaluate where she is in her own life. This is further reinforced when Kristin runs into a previous co-worker from the diner named John Baker (Jonathan Taylor Thomas) who now owns a hip new restaurant. Eve gets help preparing for her Junior ROTC drills from neighbor and former Marine, Chuck Larabee. Meanwhile, Mandy 's choice of an expensive college in Laguna Beach, California does not sit well with Mike and Vanessa, and Mike lets out a secret to Mandy that Ed pulled some strings to get her accepted there.
On May 10, 2013, the series was renewed for a third season, it premiered on September 20, 2013. Beginning this season, at the start of each episode a different cast member narrates that the series is recorded in front of a live studio audience. Duck Dynasty stars Willie Robertson and Si Robertson guest starred in the season premiere, "Back to School ''. Jonathan Taylor Thomas reprised his role as John Baker in the episode "Ryan v. John Baker ''. Thomas also made his directorial debut, directing the episode "Haunted House '', it was the first episode of series not directed by John Pasquin. Petty Officer First Class Raymond McKnight guest starred in the episode "Elfie ''.
On May 10, 2014, ABC renewed Last Man Standing for a fourth season, which premiered on October 3, 2014. Both Jordan Masterson and Jonathan Adams were promoted to the main cast this season, however they are only credited in the opening credits for episodes they appear in. Patricia Richardson, Tim Allen 's former Home Improvement co-star, guest starred in the episode "Helen Potts '', playing the episode 's titular character. Richardson is the third Home Improvement cast member to guest star on Last Man Standing after both Richard Karn and Jonathan Taylor Thomas guest starred previously. Thomas also made a cameo appearance at the end of the "Helen Potts '' episode, not as John Baker (the character he previously played on Last Man Standing), but as Helen 's son Randy, a reference to his character from Home Improvement. On April 3, 2015, Allen and Héctor Elizondo guest starred on the fellow ABC sitcom Cristela as their Last Man Standing characters in the episode "Last Goose Standing '', which aired after "Restaurant Opening ''.
On May 10, 2015, Last Man Standing was renewed for a fifth season. At the start of this season, a different cast member narrating that the series is recorded in front of a live studio audience at the start of each episode is discontinued. Jay Leno guest starred as Joe Leonard, a mechanic in the episodes "The Road Less Driven '', "Mike and the Mechanics '' and the season finale "The Shortcut ''. Patricia Richardson reprised her role as Helen Potts in the episode "Tanks for the Memories ''. Bill Engvall guest starred in the episode "The Marriage Doctor '', reuniting with his Bill Engvall Show co-star Nancy Travis.
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what is the size of the polar ice caps | Polar ice cap - wikipedia
A polar ice cap or polar cap is a high - latitude region of a planet, dwarf planet, or natural satellite that is covered in ice.
There are no requirements with respect to size or composition for a body of ice to be termed a polar ice cap, nor any geological requirement for it to be over land; only that it must be a body of solid phase matter in the polar region. This causes the term "polar ice cap '' to be something of a misnomer, as the term ice cap itself is applied more narrowly to bodies that are over land, and cover less than 50,000 km2: larger bodies are referred to as ice sheets.
The composition of the ice will vary. For example, Earth 's polar caps are mainly water ice, whereas Mars 's polar ice caps are a mixture of solid carbon dioxide and water ice.
Polar ice caps form because high - latitude regions receive less energy in the form of solar radiation from the Sun than equatorial regions, resulting in lower surface temperatures.
Earth 's polar caps have changed dramatically over the last 12,000 years. Seasonal variations of the ice caps takes place due to varied solar energy absorption as the planet or moon revolves around the Sun. Additionally, in geologic time scales, the ice caps may grow or shrink due to climate variation.
Extent of the Arctic sea - ice in September 1978 -- 2002
Extent of the Arctic sea - ice in February 1978 -- 2002
The Blue Marble, Earth as seen from Apollo 17 with the southern polar ice cap visible (courtesy NASA)
Earth 's North Pole is covered by floating pack ice (sea ice) over the Arctic Ocean. Portions of the ice that do not melt seasonally can get very thick, up to 3 -- 4 meters thick over large areas, with ridges up to 20 meters thick. One - year ice is usually about 1 meter thick. The area covered by sea ice ranges between 9 and 12 million km2. In addition, the Greenland ice sheet covers about 1.71 million km2 and contains about 2.6 million km3 of ice. When the ice breaks off (calves) it forms icebergs scattered around the northern Atlantic.
According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center, "since 1979, winter Arctic ice extent has decreased about 4.2 percent per decade ''. Both 2008 and 2009 had a minimum Arctic sea ice extent somewhat above that of 2007. At other times of the year the ice extent is still sometimes near the 1979 -- 2000 average, as in April 2010, by the data from the National Snow and Ice Data Center. Still, between these same years, the overall average ice coverage appears to have declined from 8 million km2 to 5 million km2.
Earth 's south polar land mass, Antarctica, is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet. It covers an area of about 14.6 million km and contains between 25 and 30 million km of ice. Around 70 % of the fresh water on Earth is contained in this ice sheet.
Data from the National Snow and Ice Data Center shows that the sea ice coverage of Antarctica has a slightly positive trend over the last three decades (1979 -- 2009).
Over the past several decades, Earth 's polar ice caps have gained significant attention because of the alarming decrease in land and sea ice. NASA reports that since the late 1970s, the Arctic has lost an average of 20,800 square miles (53,900 square kilometers) of ice per year while the Antarctic has gained an average of 7,300 square miles (18,900 km) of ice per year. On September 19, 2014, for the first time since 1979, Antarctic sea ice extent exceeded 7.72 million square miles (20 million square kilometers), according to the National Snow and Ice Data Center. The ice extent stayed above this benchmark extent for several days. The average maximum extent between 1981 and 2010 was 7.23 million square miles (18.72 million square kilometers). The single - day maximum extent in 2014 was reached on Sept. 20, according to NSIDC data, when the sea ice covered 7.78 million square miles (20.14 million square kilometers). The 2014 five - day average maximum was reached on Sept. 22, when sea ice covered 7.76 million square miles (20.11 million square kilometers), according to NSIDC.
The current rate of decline of the ice caps has caused many investigations and discoveries on glacier dynamics and their influence on the world 's climate. In the early 1950s, scientists and engineers from the US Army began drilling into polar ice caps for geological insight. These studies resulted in "nearly forty years of research experience and achievements in deep polar ice core drillings... and established the fundamental drilling technology for retrieving deep ice cores for climatologic archives. '' Polar ice caps have been used to track current climate patterns but also patterns over the past several thousands years from the traces of CO2 and CH4 found trapped in the ice. In the past decade, polar ice caps have shown their most rapid decline in size with no true sign of recovery. Josefino Comiso, a senior research scientist at NASA, found that the "rate of warming in the Arctic over the last 20 years is eight times the rate of warming over the last 100 years. '' In September 2012, sea ice reached its smallest size ever. Journalist John Vidal stated that sea ice is "700,000 sq km below the previous minimum of 4.17 m sq km set in 2007 ''. In August 2013, Arctic sea ice extent averaged 6.09 m km, which represents 1.13 million km below the 1981 -- 2010 average for that month.
In addition to Earth, the planet Mars also has polar ice caps. They consist of primarily water - ice with a few percent dust. Frozen carbon dioxide makes up a small permanent portion of the Planum Australe or the South Polar Layered Deposits. In both hemispheres a seasonal carbon dioxide frost deposits in the winter and sublimes during the spring.
Data collected in 2001 from NASA missions to Mars show that the southern residual ice cap undergoes sublimation inter-annually. The most widely accepted explanation is that fluctuations in the planet 's orbit are causing the changes.
On April 29, 2015, NASA stated that its New Horizons missions had discovered a feature thought to be a polar ice cap on the dwarf planet Pluto. The probe 's flyby of Pluto in July 2015 allowed the Alice ultraviolet imaging spectrometer to confirm that the feature was in fact an ice cap composed of methane and nitrogen ices.
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how many types of dogs are there in india | List of Dog breeds - wikipedia
Dogs have been selectively bred for thousands of years, sometimes by inbreeding dogs from the same ancestral lines, sometimes by mixing dogs from very different lines. The process continues today, resulting in a widening in appearance without speciation, "from the Chihuahua to the Great Dane. ''
The following list uses a wide interpretation of "breed. '' Breeds are usually categorized by the functional type from which the breed was developed. The basic types are companion dogs, guard dogs, hunting dogs, herding dogs, and working dogs, although there are many other types and subtypes. Breeds listed here may be traditional breeds with long histories as registered breeds, rare breeds with their own registries, or new breeds that may still be under development.
In some cases, a breed 's origin overlaps the boundaries of two or more countries; the dog is normally listed only in the country with which it is most commonly associated; for example, by its designated country according to the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI). Some dogs, such as the Löwchen, have an uncertain origin and are listed under several countries.
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when did the us start fighting germany in ww2 | Military history of the United States during World war II - Wikipedia
The military history of the United States in World War II covers the war against Germany, Italy, Japan and starting with the 7 December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor. During the first two years of World War II, the United States had maintained formal neutrality as made officially in the Quarantine Speech delivered by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937, while supplying Britain, the Soviet Union, and China with war material through the Lend - Lease Act which was signed into law on 11 March 1941, as well as deploying the U.S. military to replace the British invasion forces in Iceland. In the Pacific Theater, there was unofficial early U.S. combat activity such as the Flying Tigers. The U.S. economic sanctions on Japan, as part of the effort to deter Japanese military aggression in Asia and the Pacific, was a major cause of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. During the war, over 16 million Americans served in the United States Armed Forces, with 405,399 killed in action and 671,278 wounded. There were also 130,201 American prisoners of war, of whom 116,129 returned home after the war. Key civilian advisors to President Roosevelt included Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, who mobilized the nation 's industries and induction centers to supply the Army, commanded by General George Marshall and the Army Air Forces under General Hap Arnold. The Navy, led by Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox and Admiral Ernest King, proved more autonomous. Overall priorities were set by Roosevelt and the Joint Chiefs of Staff, chaired by William Leahy. Highest priority went to the defeat of Germany in Europe, but first the war against Japan in the Pacific was more urgent after the sinking of the main battleship fleet at Pearl Harbor.
Admiral King put Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, based in Hawaii, in charge of the Pacific War against Japan. The result was a series of some of the most famous naval battles in history. The Imperial Japanese Navy had the advantage, taking the Philippines as well as British and Dutch possessions, and threatening Australia but in June 1942, its main carriers were sunk during the Battle of Midway, and the Americans seized the initiative. The Pacific War became one of island hopping, so as to move air bases closer and closer to Japan. The Army, based in Australia under General Douglas MacArthur, steadily advanced across New Guinea to the Philippines, with plans to invade the Japanese home islands in late 1945. With its merchant fleet sunk by American submarines, Japan ran short of aviation gasoline and fuel oil, as the U.S. Navy in June 1944 captured islands within bombing range of the Japanese home islands. Strategic bombing directed by General Curtis Lemay destroyed all the major Japanese cities, as the U.S. captured Okinawa after heavy losses in spring 1945. With the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and an invasion and Soviet intervention imminent, Japan surrendered.
The war against Germany involved aid to Britain, her allies, and the Soviet Union, with the U.S. supplying munitions until it could ready an invasion force. U.S. forces were first tested to a limited degree in the North African Campaign and then employed more significantly with British Forces in Italy in 1943 -- 45, where U.S. forces, representing about a third of the Allied forces deployed, bogged down after Italy surrendered and the Germans took over. Finally the main invasion of France took place in June 1944, under General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Meanwhile, the U.S. Army Air Forces and the British Royal Air Force engaged in the area bombardment of German cities and systematically targeted German transportation links and synthetic oil plants, as it knocked out what was left of the Luftwaffe post Battle of Britain in 1944. With the Soviets unstoppable in the east, and the Allies unstoppable in the west, Germany was squeezed to death. Berlin fell to the Soviets in May 1945, and with Adolf Hitler dead, the Germans surrendered.
The military effort was strongly supported by civilians on the home front, who provided the military personnel, the munitions, the money, and the morale to fight the war to victory. World War II cost the United States an estimated $341 billion in 1945 dollars -- equivalent to 74 % of America 's GDP and expenditures during the war. In 2015 dollars, the war cost over $4.5 trillion.
American public opinion was hostile to Hitler 's Germany, but how much aid to give the Allies was controversial. Public opinion was even more hostile to Japan, and there was little opposition to increased support for China. By 1940 the U.S., while still neutral, was becoming the "Arsenal of Democracy '' for the Allies, supplying money and war materials. The sudden defeat of France in spring 1940 caused the nation to begin to greatly grow its armed forces, including the first peacetime draft. After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, America began sending Lend Lease aid to the Soviet Union as well as Britain and China.
Prior to America 's entry into World War II in December 1941, individual Americans volunteered to fight against the Axis powers in other nations ' armed forces. Although under American law, it was illegal for United States citizens to join the armed forces of foreign nations and in doing so, they lost their citizenship, many American volunteers changed their nationality to Canadian. However Congress passed a blanket pardon in 1944. American mercenary Colonel Charles Sweeny living in London began recruiting American citizens to fight as a US volunteer detachment in the French Air force, however France fell before this was implemented. During the Battle of Britain, 11 American pilots flew in the RAF, one of whom was killed, Charles Sweeney 's nephew, also called Charles formed a Home Guard unit from American volunteers living in London.
One notable example were the Eagle Squadrons, these were RAF Squadrons made up of American volunteers and British personnel. The first squadron was formed; No. 71 Squadron on 19 September 1940 by followed by No. 121 Squadron on 14 May 1941 and No. 133 Squadron on 1 August 1941. 6,700 Americans applied to join but only 244 Americans got to serve with the three Eagle Squadrons, 16 Britons also served as squadron and flight commanders. The first Eagle Squadron became operational in February 1941 and the Squadrons scored their first kill in July 1941. On 29 September 1942, the three squadrons were officially turned over by the RAF to the Eighth Air Force of the U.S. Army Air Forces and became the 4th Fighter Group, in their time with the RAF the squadrons claim to have shot, 731⁄2 German planes among them, 77 Americans and 5 Britons were killed.
Another notable example were the Flying Tigers, created by Claire L. Chennault, a retired U.S. Army Air Corps officer working in the China since August 1937, first as military aviation advisor to Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek in the early months of the Sino - Japanese War. Officially known as the 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG) but nicknamed the "Flying Tigers '', this was a group of American Pilots already serving in the US Armed forces and recruited under presidential authority. As a unit they would serve in the Chinese Air Force to fight against the Japanese. The group comprised three fighter squadrons of around thirty aircraft each, the AVG 's first combat mission was on 20 December 1941, twelve days after the Pearl Harbor attack. On 4 July 1942 the AVG was disbanded, it was replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces, which was later absorbed into the U.S. Fourteenth Air Force. During their time in the Chinese Air Force, they succeeded in destroying 296 enemy aircraft, while losing only fourteen pilots in combat.
In 1942 President Franklin D. Roosevelt set up a new command structure to provide leadership in the US Armed Forces while retaining authority as Commander - in - Chief as assisted by Secretary of War Henry Stimson with Admiral Ernest J. King as Chief of Naval Operations in complete control of the Navy and on the Marine Corps through its Commandant, then Lt. General Thomas Holcomb and his successor as Commandant of the Marine Corps, Lt. General Alexander Vandegrift, General George C. Marshall in charge of the Army, and in nominal control of the Air Force, which in practice was commanded by General Hap Arnold on Marshall 's behalf. King was also in control for wartime being of the US Coast Guard under its Commandant, Admiral Russell R. Waesche. Roosevelt formed a new body, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which made the final decisions on American military strategy and as the chief policy - making body for the armed forces. The Joint Chiefs was a White House agency chaired by Admiral William D. Leahy, who became FDR 's chief military advisor and the highest military officer of the US at that time. As the war progressed Marshall became the dominant voice in the JCS in the shaping of strategy. When dealing with Europe, the Joint Chiefs met with their British counterparts and formed the Combined Chiefs of Staff. Unlike the political leaders of the other major powers, Roosevelt rarely overrode his military advisors. The civilians handled the draft and procurement of men and equipment, but no civilians -- not even the secretaries of War or Navy, had a voice in strategy. Roosevelt avoided the State Department and conducted high level diplomacy through his aides, especially Harry Hopkins. Since Hopkins also controlled $50 billion in Lend Lease funds given to the Allies, they paid attention to him.
The year 1940 marked a change in attitude in the United States. The German victories in France, Poland and elsewhere, combined with the Battle of Britain, led many Americans to believe that the United States would be forced to fight soon. In March 1941, the Lend - Lease program began shipping money, munitions, and food to Britain, China, and (by that fall) the Soviet Union.
By 1941 the United States was taking an active part in the war, despite its nominal neutrality. In spring U-boats began their "wolf - pack '' tactics which threatened to sever the trans - Atlantic supply line; Roosevelt extended the Pan-American Security Zone east almost as far as Iceland. The US Navy 's "neutrality patrols '' were anything but, as in practice their function was to report Axis ship and submarine sightings to the British and Canadian navies, and from April the US Navy began escorting Allied convoys from Canada as far as the "Mid-Atlantic Meeting Point '' (MOMP) south of Iceland, where they handed off to the RN.
On 16 June 1941, after negotiation with Churchill, Roosevelt ordered the United States occupation of Iceland to replace the British invasion forces. On 22 June 1941, the US Navy sent Task Force 19 (TF 19) from Charleston, South Carolina to assemble at Argentia, Newfoundland. TF 19 included 25 warships and the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade of 194 officers and 3714 men from San Diego, California under the command of Brigadier General John Marston. Task Force 19 (TF 19) sailed from Argentia on 1 July. On 7 July, Britain persuaded the Althing to approve an American occupation force under a U.S. - Icelandic defense agreement, and TF 19 anchored off Reykjavík that evening. U.S. Marines commenced landing on 8 July, and disembarkation was completed on 12 July. On 6 August, the U.S. Navy established an air base at Reykjavík with the arrival of Patrol Squadron VP - 73 PBY Catalinas and VP - 74 PBM Mariners. U.S. Army personnel began arriving in Iceland in August, and the Marines had been transferred to the Pacific by March 1942. Up to 40,000 U.S. military personnel were stationed on the island, outnumbering adult Icelandic men (at the time, Iceland had a population of about 120,000.) The agreement was for the US military to remain until the end of the war (although the US military presence in Iceland remained through 2006, as postwar Iceland became a member of NATO).
American warships escorting Allied convoys in the western Atlantic had several hostile encounters with U-boats. On 4 September, a German U-Boat attacked the destroyer USS Greer off Iceland. A week later Roosevelt ordered American warships to attack U-boats on sight. A U-boat shot up the USS Kearny as it escorted a British merchant convoy. The USS Reuben James was sunk by U-552 on 31 October 1941.
On 11 December 1941, Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany declared war against the United States, the same day that the United States declared war on Germany and Italy.
The established grand strategy of the Allies was to defeat Germany and its allies in Europe first, and then focus could shift towards Japan in the Pacific. This was because two of the Allied capitals (London and Moscow) could be directly threatened by Germany, but none of the major Allied capitals were threatened by Japan. Germany was the United Kingdom 's primary threat, especially after the Fall of France in 1940, which saw Germany overrun most of the countries of Western Europe, leaving the United Kingdom alone to combat Germany. Germany 's planned invasion of the UK, Operation Sea Lion, was averted by its failure to establish air superiority in the Battle of Britain. At the same time, war with Japan in East Asia seemed increasingly likely. Although the U.S. was not yet at war with either Germany or Japan, it met with the UK on several occasions to formulate joint strategies.
In the 29 March 1941 report of the ABC - 1 conference, the Americans and British agreed that their strategic objectives were: (1) "The early defeat of Germany as the predominant member of the Axis with the principal military effort of the United States being exerted in the Atlantic and European area; and (2) A strategic defensive in the Far East. '' Thus, the Americans concurred with the British in the grand strategy of "Europe first '' (or "Germany first '') in carrying out military operations in World War II. The UK feared that, if the United States was diverted from its main focus in Europe to the Pacific (Japan), Hitler might crush both the Soviet Union and Britain, and would then become an unconquerable fortress in Europe. The wound inflicted on the United States by Japan at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, did not result in a change in U.S. policy. Prime Minister Winston Churchill hastened to Washington shortly after Pearl Harbor for the Arcadia Conference to ensure that the Americans did n't have second thoughts about Europe First. The two countries reaffirmed that, "notwithstanding the entry of Japan into the War, our view remains that Germany is still the prime enemy. And her defeat is the key to victory. Once Germany is defeated the collapse of Italy and the defeat of Japan must follow. ''
The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest continuous military campaign in World War II, running from 1939 to the defeat of Germany in 1945. At its core was the Allied naval blockade of Germany, announced the day after the declaration of war, and Germany 's subsequent counter-blockade. It was at its height from mid-1940 through to the end of 1943. The Battle of the Atlantic pitted U-boats and other warships of the Kriegsmarine (German navy) and aircraft of the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) against the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Navy, the United States Navy, and Allied merchant shipping. The convoys, coming mainly from North America and predominantly going to the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, were protected for the most part by the British and Canadian navies and air forces. These forces were aided by ships and aircraft of the United States from September 13, 1941. The Germans were joined by submarines of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) after their Axis ally Italy entered the war on June 10, 1940.
The United States entered the war in the west with Operation Torch on 8 November 1942, after their Soviet allies had pushed for a second front against the Germans. General Dwight Eisenhower commanded the assault on North Africa, and Major General George Patton struck at Casablanca.
The United States did not have a smooth entry into the war against Nazi Germany. Early in 1943, the U.S. Army suffered a near - disastrous defeat at the Battle of the Kasserine Pass in February. The senior Allied leadership was primarily to blame for the loss as internal bickering between American General Lloyd Fredendall and the British led to mistrust and little communication, causing inadequate troop placements. The defeat could be considered a major turning point, however, because General Eisenhower replaced Fredendall with General Patton.
Slowly the Allies stopped the German advance in Tunisia and by March were pushing back. In mid April, under British General Bernard Montgomery, the Allies smashed through the Mareth Line and broke the Axis defense in North Africa. On 13 May 1943, Axis troops in North Africa surrendered, leaving behind 275,000 men. Allied efforts turned towards Sicily and Italy.
The first stepping stone for the Allied liberation of Europe was, in Prime Minister Winston Churchill 's words, the "soft underbelly '' of Europe on the Italian island of Sicily. Launched on 9 July 1943, Operation Husky was, at the time, the largest amphibious operation ever undertaken. The American seaborne assault by the U.S. 7th Army landed on the southern coast of Sicily between the town of Licata in the west, and Scoglitti in the east and units of the 82nd airborne division parachuted ahead of landings. Despite the elements, the operation was a success and the Allies immediately began exploiting their gains. On 11 August, seeing that the battle was lost, the German and Italian commanders began evacuating their forces from Sicily to Italy. On 17 August, the Allies were in control of the island, U.S. 7th Army lost 8,781 men (2,237 killed or missing, 5,946 wounded, and 598 captured).
Following the Allied victory in Sicily, Italian public sentiment swung against the war and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. He was deposed in a coup, and the Allies struck quickly, hoping resistance would be slight. The first Allied troops landed on the Italian peninsula on 3 September 1943 and Italy surrendered on 8 September, however the Italian Social Republic was established soon afterwards. The first American troops landed at Salerno on 9 September 1943, by U.S. 5th Army, however German troops in Italy were prepared and after the Allied troops at Salerno had consolidated their beachhead, The Germans launched fierce counterattacks. However they failed to destroy the beachhead and retreated on 16 September and in October 1943 began preparing a series of defensive lines across central Italy. The US 5th Army and other Allied armies broke through the first two lines (Volturno and the Barbara Line) in October and November 1943. As winter approached, the Allies made slow progress due to the weather and the difficult terrain against the heavily defended German Winter Line, they did however manage to breakthrough the Bernhardt Line in January 1944. By early 1944 the Allied attention had turned to the western front and the Allies were taking heavy losses trying to breakthrough the Winter line at Monte Cassino. The Allies Landed at Anzio on 22 January 1944 with the aim of outflanking the Gustav line and pulling Axis forces out of it so other allied armies could breakthrough. After slow progress, the Germans counterattacked in February but failed to stamp out the Allies, after months of stalemate, the Allies broke out in May 1944 and Rome fell to the Allies on 4 June 1944. Following the Normandy invasion in on 6 June 1944, the Equivalent of seven US and French divisions were pulled out of Italy to Participate in Operation Dragoon: the allied landings in southern France, despite this the remaining US forces in Italy with other Allied forces pushed up to the Gothic line in northern Italy, the last major defensive line. From August 1944 to March 1945 the Allies managed to breach the formidable defenses but they narrowly failed to break out into the Lombardy Plains before the winter weather closed in and made further progress impossible. In April 1945 the Allies broke through the remaining Axis positions in Operation Grapeshot ending the Italian Campaign on 2 May 1945, US forces in mainland Italy suffered between 114,000 and over 119,000 casualties.
Numerous bombing runs were launched by the United States aimed at the industrial heart of Germany. Using the high altitude B - 17, it was necessary for the raids to be conducted in daylight for the drops to be accurate. As adequate fighter escort was rarely available, the bombers would fly in tight, box formations, allowing each bomber to provide overlapping machine - gun fire for defense. The tight formations made it impossible to evade fire from Luftwaffe fighters, however, and American bomber crew losses were high. One such example was the Schweinfurt - Regensburg mission, which resulted in staggering losses of men and equipment. The introduction of the revered P - 51 Mustang, which had enough fuel to make a round trip to Germany 's heartland, helped to reduce losses later in the war. In mid-1942, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) arrived in the UK and carried out a few raids across the English Channel. The USAAF Eighth Air Force 's B - 17 bombers were called the "Flying Fortresses '' because of their heavy defensive armament of ten to twelve machine guns, and armor plating in vital locations. In part because of their heavier armament and armor, they carried smaller bomb loads than British bombers. With all of this, the USAAF 's commanders in Washington, DC, and in Great Britain adopted the strategy of taking on the Luftwaffe head on, in larger and larger air raids by mutually defending bombers, flying over Germany, Austria, and France at high altitudes during the daytime. Also, both the U.S. Government and its Army Air Forces commanders were reluctant to bomb enemy cities and towns indiscriminately. They claimed that by using the B - 17 and the Norden bombsight, the USAAF should be able to carry out "precision bombing '' on locations vital to the German war machine: factories, naval bases, shipyards, railroad yards, railroad junctions, power plants, steel mills, airfields, etc.
In January 1943, at the Casablanca Conference, it was agreed RAF Bomber Command operations against Germany would be reinforced by the USAAF in a Combined Operations Offensive plan called Operation Pointblank. Chief of the British Air Staff MRAF Sir Charles Portal was put in charge of the "strategic direction '' of both British and American bomber operations. The text of the Casablanca directive read: "Your primary object will be the progressive destruction and dislocation of the German military, industrial and economic system and the undermining of the morale of the German people to a point where their capacity for armed resistance is fatally weakened. '', At the beginning of the combined strategic bombing offensive on 4 March 1943 669 RAF and 303 USAAF heavy bombers were available.
In the late 1943, the ' Pointblank ' attacks manifested themselves in the infamous Schweinfurt raids (first and second). Formations of unescorted bombers were no match for German fighters, which inflicted a deadly toll. In despair, the Eighth halted air operations over Germany until a long - range fighter could be found in 1944; it proved to be the P - 51 Mustang, which had the range to fly to Berlin and back.
USAAF leaders firmly held to the claim of "precision bombing '' of military targets for much of the war, and dismissed claims they were simply bombing cities. However the American Eighth Air Force received the first H2X radar sets in December 1943. Within two weeks of the arrival of these first six sets, the Eighth command gave permission for them to area bomb a city using H2X and would continue to authorize, on average, about one such attack a week until the end of the war in Europe.
In reality, the day bombing was "precision bombing '' only in the sense that most bombs fell somewhere near a specific designated target such as a railway yard. Conventionally, the air forces designated as "the target area '' a circle having a radius of 1000 feet around the aiming point of attack. While accuracy improved during the war, Survey studies show that, in the over-all, only about 20 % of the bombs aimed at precision targets fell within this target area. In the fall of 1944, only seven percent of all bombs dropped by the Eighth Air Force hit within 1,000 feet of their aim point. The only offensive ordnance possessed by the USAAF that was guidable, the VB - 1 Azon, saw very limited service in both Europe and in the CBI Theater late in the war.
Nevertheless, the sheer tonnage of explosive delivered by day and by night was eventually sufficient to cause widespread damage, and, more importantly from a military point of view, forced Germany to divert resources to counter it. This was to be the real significance of the Allied strategic bombing campaign -- resource allocation. For the sake of improving the US air - force Fire bombing capabilities a mock - up German Village was built up and repeatedly burned down. It contained full - scale replicas of German residential homes. Fire bombing attacks proved quite successful, in a single 1943 attack on Hamburg roughly 50,000 civilians were killed and practically the entire city destroyed.
With the arrival of the brand - new Fifteenth Air Force, based in Italy, command of the U.S. Air Forces in Europe was consolidated into the United States Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF). With the addition of the Mustang to its strength, the Combined Bomber Offensive was resumed. Planners targeted the Luftwaffe in an operation known as ' Big Week ' (20 -- 25 February 1944) and succeeded brilliantly -- losses were so heavy German planners were forced into a hasty dispersal of industry and the day fighter arm never fully recovered.
The dismissal of General Ira Eaker at the end of 1943 as commander of the Eighth Air Force and his replacement by American aviation legend, Maj. Gen Jimmy Doolittle signaled a change in how the American bombing effort went forward over Europe. Doolittle 's major influence on the European air war occurred early in the year when he changed the policy requiring escorting fighters to remain with the bombers at all times. With his permission, initially performed with P - 38s and P - 47s with both previous types being steadily replaced with the long - ranged P - 51s as the spring of 1944 wore on, American fighter pilots on bomber defense missions would primarily be flying far ahead of the bombers ' combat box formations in air supremacy mode, literally "clearing the skies '' of any Luftwaffe fighter opposition heading towards the target. This strategy fatally disabled the twin - engined Zerstörergeschwader heavy fighter wings and their replacement, single - engined Sturmgruppen of heavily armed Fw 190As, clearing each force of bomber destroyers in their turn from Germany 's skies throughout most of 1944. As part of this game - changing strategy, especially after the bombers had hit their targets, the USAAF 's fighters were then free to strafe German airfields and transport while returning to base, contributing significantly to the achievement of air superiority by Allied air forces over Europe.
On 27 March 1944, the Combined Chiefs of Staff issued orders granting control of all the Allied air forces in Europe, including strategic bombers, to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander, who delegated command to his deputy in SHAEF Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder. There was resistance to this order from some senior figures, including Winston Churchill, Harris, and Carl Spaatz, but after some debate, control passed to SHAEF on 1 April 1944. When the Combined Bomber Offensive officially ended on 1 April, Allied airmen were well on the way to achieving air superiority over all of Europe. While they continued some strategic bombing, the USAAF along with the RAF turned their attention to the tactical air battle in support of the Normandy Invasion. It was not until the middle of September that the strategic bombing campaign of Germany again became the priority for the USSTAF.
The twin campaigns -- the USAAF by day, the RAF by night -- built up into massive bombing of German industrial areas, notably the Ruhr, followed by attacks directly on cities such as Hamburg, Kassel, Pforzheim, Mainz and the often - criticized bombing of Dresden.
The second European front that the Soviets had pressed for was finally opened on 6 June 1944, when the Allies attacked the heavily fortified Atlantic Wall. Supreme Allied commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower had delayed the attack because of bad weather, but finally the largest amphibious assault in history began.
After prolonged bombing runs on the French coast by the Army Air Forces, 225 U.S. Army Rangers scaled the cliffs at Pointe du Hoc under intense enemy fire and destroyed the German gun emplacements that could have threatened the amphibious landings.
Also prior to the main amphibious assault, the American 82nd and 101st Airborne divisions dropped behind the beaches into Nazi - occupied France, in an effort to protect the coming landings. Many of the paratroopers were not dropped on their intended landing zones and were scattered throughout Normandy.
As the paratroops fought their way through the hedgerows, the main amphibious landings began. The Americans came ashore at the beaches codenamed ' Omaha ' and ' Utah '. The landing craft bound for Utah, as with so many other units, went off course, coming ashore two kilometers off target. The 4th Infantry Division faced weak resistance during the landings and by the afternoon were linked up with paratroopers fighting their way towards the coast.
However, at Omaha the Germans had prepared the beaches with land mines, Czech hedgehogs and Belgian Gates in anticipation of the invasion. Intelligence prior to the landings had placed the less experienced German 714th Division in charge of the defense of the beach. However, the highly trained and experienced 352nd moved in days before the invasion. As a result, the soldiers from the 1st and 29th Infantry Divisions became pinned down by superior enemy fire immediately after leaving their landing craft. In some instances, entire landing craft full of men were mowed down by the well - positioned German defenses. As the casualties mounted, the soldiers formed impromptu units and advanced inland.
The small units then fought their way through the minefields that were in between the Nazi machine - gun bunkers. After squeezing through, they then attacked the bunkers from the rear, allowing more men to come safely ashore.
By the end of the day, the Americans suffered over 6,000 casualties. Omaha Beach is the code name for one of the five sectors of the Allied invasion of German - occupied France in the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944, during World War II. The beach is located on the coast of Normandy, France, facing the English Channel, and is 5 miles (8 km) long, from east of Sainte - Honorine - des - Pertes to west of Vierville - sur - Mer on the right bank of the Douve River estuary. Landings here were necessary in order to link up the British landings to the east at Gold Beach with the American landing to the west at Utah Beach, thus providing a continuous lodgement on the Normandy coast of the Bay of the Seine. Taking Omaha was to be the responsibility of United States Army troops, with sea transport and naval artillery support provided by the U.S. Navy and elements of the British Royal Navy.
On D - Day, the untested 29th Infantry Division, joined by the veteran 1st Infantry Division and nine companies of U.S. Army Rangers redirected from Pointe du Hoc, were to assault the western half of the beach. The battle - hardened 1st Infantry Division was given the eastern half. The initial assault waves, consisting of tanks, infantry, and combat engineer forces, were carefully planned to reduce the coastal defenses and allow the larger ships of the follow - up waves to land.
The primary objective at Omaha was to secure a beachhead of some five miles (eight kilometres) depth, between Port - en - Bessin and the Vire River, linking with the British landings at Gold Beach to the east, and reaching the area of Isigny to the west to link up with VII Corps landing at Utah Beach. Opposing the landings was the German 352nd Infantry Division, a large portion of whom were teenagers, though they were supplemented by veterans who had fought on the Eastern Front. The 352nd had never had any battalion or regimental training. Of the 12,020 men of the division, only 6,800 were experienced combat troops, detailed to defend a 53 - kilometre - long (33 - mile) front. The Germans were largely deployed in strongpoints along the coast -- the German strategy was based on defeating any seaborne assault at the water line. Nevertheless, Allied calculations indicated that Omaha 's defenses were three times as strong as those they had encountered during the Battle of Kwajalein, and its defenders were four times as many. (1) Very little went as planned during the landing at Omaha Beach. Difficulties in navigation caused the majority of landing craft to miss their targets throughout the day. The defenses were unexpectedly strong, and inflicted heavy casualties on landing US troops. Under heavy fire, the engineers struggled to clear the beach obstacles; later landings bunched up around the few channels that were cleared. Weakened by the casualties taken just in landing, the surviving assault troops could not clear the heavily defended exits off the beach. This caused further problems and consequent delays for later landings. Small penetrations were eventually achieved by groups of survivors making improvised assaults, scaling the bluffs between the most heavily defended points. By the end of the day, two small isolated footholds had been won, which were subsequently exploited against weaker defenses further inland, thus achieving the original D - Day objectives over the following days.
With the Beaches secured, the Allies needed to secure a deep - water port to allow reinforcements to be brought in, with American forces at the base of the Cotentin Peninsula the target was Cherbourg, at the end of the Cotentin. The US VII Corps immediately began making their push after the beaches were secured on 6 June, facing mix of weak regiments and battlegroups from several divisions who used The bocage terrain, flooded fields and narrow roads to their advantage which slowed the American advance. After being reinforced, VII corps took control of the peninsula in fierce fighting on 19 June and launched their assault on Cherbourg on 22 June. The German garrison surrendered on 29 June, but by this time they had destroyed the port facilities, which were not made fully operational until September.
The Battle of Saint - Lô is one of the three conflicts in the Battle of the Hedgerows (fr), which took place between July 9 -- 24, 1944, just before Operation Cobra. Saint - Lô had fallen to Germany in 1940, and, after the Invasion of Normandy, the Americans targeted the city, as it served as a strategic crossroads. American bombardments caused heavy damage (up to 95 % of the city was destroyed) and a high number of casualties, which resulted in the martyr city being called "The Capital of Ruins '', popularized in a report by Samuel Beckett
The Battle of Carentan was an engagement between airborne forces of the United States Army and the German Wehrmacht during the Battle of Normandy. The battle took place between 10 and 15 June 1944, on the approaches to and within the city of Carentan, France.
The objective of the attacking American forces was consolidation of the U.S. beachheads (Utah Beach and Omaha Beach) and establishment of a continuous defensive line against expected German counterattacks. The defending German force attempted to hold the city long enough to allow reinforcements on route from the south to arrive, prevent or delay the merging of the lodgments, and keep the U.S. First Army from launching an attack towards Lessay - Périers that would cut off the Cotentin Peninsula.
Carentan was defended by two battalions of Fallschirmjäger - Regiment 6 (6th Parachute Regiment) of the 2nd Fallschirmjäger - Division and two Ost battalions. The 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division, ordered to reinforce Carentan, was delayed by transport shortages and attacks by Allied aircraft. The attacking 101st Airborne Division, landed by parachute on 6 June as part of the American airborne landings in Normandy, was ordered to seize Carentan.
In the ensuing battle, the 101st forced passage across the causeway into Carentan on 10 and 11 June. A lack of ammunition forced the German forces to withdraw on 12 June. The 17th SS PzG Division counter-attacked the 101st Airborne on 13 June. Initially successful, its attack was thrown back by Combat Command A (CCA) of the U.S. 2nd Armored Division
After the amphibious assault, the Allied forces remained stalled in Normandy for some time, advancing much more slowly than expected with close - fought infantry battles in the dense hedgerows. However, with Operation Cobra, launched on 24 July with mostly American troops, the Allies succeeded in breaking the German lines and sweeping out into France with fast - moving armored divisions. This led to a major defeat for the Germans, with 400,000 soldiers trapped in the Falaise pocket, and the capture of Paris on 25 August.
Operation Lüttich was a codename given to a German counter-attack during the Battle of Normandy, which took place around the American positions near Mortain from 7 August to 13 August 1944. (Lüttich is the German name for the city of Liège in Belgium, where the Germans had won a victory in the early days of August 1914 during World War I.) The offensive is also referred to in American and British histories of the Battle of Normandy as the Mortain counter-offensive.
The assault was ordered by Adolf Hitler, to eliminate the gains made by the First United States Army during Operation Cobra and the subsequent weeks, and by reaching the coast in the region of Avranches at the base of the Cotentin peninsula, cut off the units of the Third United States Army which had advanced into Brittany.
The main German striking force was the XLVII Panzer Corps, with one and a half SS Panzer Divisions and two Wehrmacht Panzer Divisions. Although they made initial gains against the defending U.S. VII Corps, they were soon halted and Allied aircraft inflicted severe losses on the attacking troops, eventually destroying nearly half of the German tanks involved in the attack. (2) Although fighting continued around Mortain for six days, the American forces had regained the initiative within a day of the opening of the German attack.
As the German commanders on the spot had warned Hitler in vain, there was little chance of the attack succeeding, and the concentration of their armoured reserves at the western end of the front in Normandy soon led to disaster, as they were outflanked to their south and the front to their east collapsed, resulting in many of the German troops in Normandy being trapped in the Falaise Pocket.
Following Operation Cobra, the American breakout from the Normandy beachhead, rapid advances were made to the south and south - east by the Third U.S. Army under the command of General George Patton. Despite lacking the resources to defeat the U.S. breakthrough and simultaneous British and Canadian offensives south of Caumont and Caen, Field Marshal Günther von Kluge, the commander of Army Group B, was not permitted by Adolf Hitler to withdraw but was ordered to conduct a counter-offensive at Mortain against the U.S. breakthrough. Four depleted panzer divisions were not enough to defeat the First U.S. Army. Operation Lüttich was a disaster, which drove the Germans deeper into the Allied envelopment.
On 8 August, the Allied ground forces commander, General Bernard Montgomery, ordered the Allied armies to converge on the Falaise -- Chambois area to envelop Army Group B, the First U.S. Army forming the southern arm, the British Second Army the base and the First Canadian Army the northern arm of the encirclement. The Germans began to withdraw on 17 August and on 19 August, the Allies linked up in Chambois. Gaps were forced in the Allied lines by German counter-attacks, the biggest being a corridor forced past the 1st Polish Armoured Division on Hill 262, a commanding position at the mouth of the pocket. By the evening of 21 August, the pocket had been sealed, with c. 50,000 Germans trapped inside. Many Germans escaped but losses in men and equipment were huge. Two days later the Allied Liberation of Paris was completed and on 30 August, the remnants of Army Group B retreated across the Seine, which ended Operation Overlord.
On 15 August 1944, the US 7th Army, spearheaded by the 3rd Infantry Division and 36th Infantry Division and other Allied forces landed in southern France between Cannes and Hyères. The aim of the operation was to secure the southern half of France and one objective in particular was to capture Marseille as a main supply harbor for the Allies in France. The operation was a success and forced the German Army Group G to abandon southern France and to retreat under constant Allied attacks to the Vosges Mountains. By the time the operation finished on 14 September 1944, US forces suffered 2,050 killed, captured or missing 7,750 other casualties, on 15 September 1944 the Allied forces of the operation were renamed the Sixth Army Group and placed under Eisenhower 's command.
The next major Allied operation came on 17 September. Devised by British General Bernard Montgomery, its primary objective was the capture of several bridges in the Netherlands. Fresh off of their successes in Normandy, the Allies were optimistic that an attack on the Nazi - occupied Netherlands would force open a route across the Rhine and onto the North German Plain. Such an opening would allow Allied forces to break out northward and advance toward Denmark and, ultimately, Berlin.
The plan involved a daylight drop of the American 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions. The 101st was to capture the bridges at Eindhoven, with the 82nd taking the bridges at Grave and Nijmegen. After the bridges had been captured, the ground force, also known as XXX Corps or "Garden '', would drive up a single road and link up with the paratroops.
The operation failed because the Allies were unable to capture the bridge furthest to the north at Arnhem. There, the British 1st Airborne had been dropped to secure the bridges, but upon landing they discovered that a highly experienced German SS Panzer unit was garrisoning the town. The paratroopers were only lightly equipped in respect to anti-tank weaponry and quickly lost ground. Failure to quickly relieve those members of the 1st who had managed to seize the bridge at Arnhem on the part of the armored XXX Corps, meant that the Germans were able to stymie the entire operation. In the end, the operation 's ambitious nature, the fickle state of war, and failures on the part of Allied intelligence (as well as tenacious German defense) can be blamed for Market - Garden 's ultimate failure. This operation also signaled the last time that either the 82nd or 101st would make a combat jump during the war.
Unable to push north into the Netherlands, the Allies in western Europe were forced to consider other options to get into Germany. In the summer of 1944, the Allies suffered from a large supply crisis, due to the long supply route. But by the fall of 1944, this has largely been resolved (Red Ball Express). As part of the Siegfriend Line Campaign, the Allies tried to push into Germany towards the Rhine. As a first step, Aachen was captured during a heavy battle. The Germans now had the advantage of their old fortification system, the Siegfried line. During the Battle of Hürtgen Forest, the Allies fought a long battle of attrition with the Germans, which ended initially in a stalemate, with the Allies unable to take the complete forest. The battle of the Hürtgen Forrest was later absorbed by a larger offensive, Operation Queen. During this offensive, the Allies intended to push towards the Rur River, as a staging point for a subsequent thrust over the river to the Rhine into Germany. However, against underestimated and stiffened German resistance, the Allies were only able to make slow progress. By mid-December the Allies were finally at the Rur, but by then the Germans had prepared their own offensive through the Ardennes, which was launched in the midst of an unsuccessful Allied attack against the Rur dams.
On 16 December 1944, the Germans launched a massive attack westward in the Ardennes forest, along a battlefront extending southwards from Monschau to Echternach, hoping to punch a hole in the Allied lines and capture the Belgian city of Antwerp. The Allies responded slowly, allowing the German attack to create a large "bulge '' in the Allied lines. In the initial stages of the offensive, American POW 's from the 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion were executed at the Malmedy massacre by Nazi SS and Fallschirmjäger.
As the Germans pushed westward, General Eisenhower ordered the 101st Airborne and elements of the U.S. 10th Armored Division into the road junction town of Bastogne to prepare a defense. The town quickly became cut off and surrounded. The winter weather slowed Allied air support, and the defenders were outnumbered and low on supplies. When given a request for their surrender from the Germans, General Anthony McAuliffe, acting commander of the 101st, replied, "Nuts! '', contributing to the stubborn American defense. On 19 December, General Patton told Eisenhower that he could have his army in Bastogne in 48 hours. Patton then turned his army, at the time on the front in Luxembourg, north to break through to Bastogne. Patton 's armor pushed north, and by 26 December was in Bastogne, effectively ending the siege. By the time it was over, more American soldiers had served in the battle than in any engagement in American history.
On 31 December, the Germans launched their last major offensive of the war on the Western Front, Operation Nordwind, in Alsace and Lorraine in northeastern France. Against weakened American forces there, the Germans were able to push the Americans back to the south bank of the Moder River on 21 January. On 25 January, Allied reinforcements from the Ardennes arrived, the German offensive was stopped and in fierce fighting the so - called Colmar Pocket was eliminated.
The German offensive was supported by several subordinate operations known as Unternehmen Bodenplatte, Greif, and Währung. Germany 's goal for these operations was to split the British and American Allied line in half, capturing Antwerp and then proceed to encircle and destroy four Allied armies, forcing the Western Allies to negotiate a peace treaty in the Axis Powers ' favour. Once accomplished, Hitler could fully concentrate on the eastern theatre of war.
The offensive was planned with the utmost secrecy, minimizing radio traffic and moving troops and equipment under cover of darkness. The Third U.S. Army 's intelligence staff predicted a major German offensive, and Ultra indicated that a "substantial and offensive '' operation was expected or "in the wind '', although a precise date or point of attack could not be given. Aircraft movement from the Soviet Front to the Ardennes and transport of forces by rail to the Ardennes was noticed but not acted upon, according to a report later written by Peter Calvocoressi and F.L. Lucas at the codebreaking centre Bletchley Park.
Near - complete surprise was achieved by a combination of Allied overconfidence, preoccupation with Allied offensive plans, and poor aerial reconnaissance. The Germans attacked a weakly defended section of the Allied line, taking advantage of a heavy overcast, which grounded the Allies ' overwhelmingly superior air forces. Fierce resistance on the northern shoulder of the offensive around Elsenborn Ridge and in the south around Bastogne blocked German access to key roads to the west that they counted on for success. This and terrain that favoured the defenders threw the German timetable behind schedule and allowed the Allies to reinforce the thinly placed troops. Improved weather conditions permitted air attacks on German forces and supply lines, which sealed the failure of the offensive. In the wake of the defeat, many experienced German units were left severely depleted of men and equipment, as survivors retreated to the defenses of the Siegfried Line.
With about 610,000 men committed and some 89,000 casualties, including 19,000 killed, the Battle of the Bulge was the largest and bloodiest battle fought by the United States in World War II.
The Colmar Pocket (French: Poche de Colmar; German: Brückenkopf Elsaß) was the area held in central Alsace, France by the German Nineteenth Army from November 1944 -- February 1945, against the U.S. 6th Army Group during World War II. It was formed when 6th AG liberated southern and northern Alsace and adjacent eastern Lorraine, but could not clear central Alsace. During Operation Nordwind in December 1944, the 19th Army attacked north out of the Pocket in support of other German forces attacking south from the Saar into northern Alsace. In late January and early February 1945, the French First Army (reinforced by the U.S. XXI Corps) cleared the Pocket of German forces.
By early 1945, events favored the Allied forces in Europe. On the Western Front the Allies had been fighting in Germany since the Battle of Aachen in October 1944 and by January had turned back the Germans in the Battle of the Bulge. The failure of this last major German offensive exhausted much of Germany 's remaining combat strength, leaving it ill - prepared to resist the final Allied campaigns in Europe. Additional losses in the Rhineland further weakened the German Army, leaving shattered remnants of units to defend the east bank of the Rhine. On 7 March, the Allies seized the last remaining intact bridge across the Rhine at Remagen, and had established a large bridgehead on the river 's east bank. During Operation Lumberjack and Operation Plunder in February -- March 1945, German casualties are estimated at 400,000 men, including 280,000 men captured as prisoners of war.
The South German Offensive is the general name of one of the final offensives of World War II in Europe. The offensive was led by the Seventh and Third armies of the United States along with the First Army of France. Soviet troops linked up with American forces in Czechoslovakia notably in the Battle of Slivice. (citation needed) The offensive was made by the US 6th Army Group to protect the 12th Army Group 's right flank and to prevent a German last stand in the Alps. However German resistance was much more fierce than in the north, which slowed the 6th Army Group 's progress. However, by the end of April, many German divisions surrendered without a fight to the advancing American forces to avoid the inevitable destruction. The VI Corps of the Seventh Army linked up with the US Fifth Army, which fought through Italy, in the Alps as the Third Army advanced into Austria and Czechoslovakia, where it linked up with Soviet forces advancing from the east. Fighting continued a few days after the Surrender of Germany on 8 May, due to German forces fighting west to surrender to the Americans instead of the Soviets.
Following the defeat of the German army in the Ardennes, the Allies pushed back towards the Rhine and the heart of Germany. With the capture of the Ludendorff bridge at Remagen, the Allies crossed the Rhine in March 1945. The Americans then executed a pincer movement, setting up the Ninth Army north, and the First Army south. When the Allies closed the pincer, 300,000 Germans were captured in the Ruhr Pocket. The Americans then turned east, first meeting up with the Soviets at Torgau on the Elbe River in April. The Germans surrendered Berlin to the Soviets on 2 May 1945.
The war in Europe came to an official end on V-E Day, 8 May 1945.
Because of Japanese advances in French Indochina and China, the United States, in coordination with the British and Dutch, cut off all oil supplies to Japan, which had imported 90 % of its oil. The oil embargo threatened to grind the Japanese military machine to a halt. Japan refused American demands to leave China and decided that war with the United States was inevitable; its only hope was to strike first. President Roosevelt had months earlier transferred the American fleet to Hawaii from California in order to deter the Japanese. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto argued the only way to win the war was to knock out the powerful main American fleet immediately. His elaborately trained fleet approached within 200 miles of Hawaii without being detected. Admiral Chūichi Nagumo held tactical command. Over a five - hour period his six carriers sent two waves of 360 dive - bombers, torpedo planes, and fighters. They destroyed or severely damaged eight battleships, ten smaller warships, and 230 aircraft; 2,403 American servicemen and civilians were killed. Japanese losses were negligible -- 29 planes shot down (several American planes were also shot down by anti-aircraft fire). Commander Minoru Genda, the chief planner of the raid, begged Nagumo to strike again at the shore facilities, oil storage tanks, and submarines, and to hunt down the American carriers that were supposedly nearby. But Nagumo, having just smashed the Americans in one of the greatest victories of naval history, decided not to risk further action. Japanese success was due to courage, good equipment, excellent pilots, total surprise, and above all, a daring and imaginative plan. To even reach Pearl Harbor, they had to learn how to refuel at sea (a technique the US Navy already had worked out); to sink all those ships they used their superb electric torpedoes and perfected shallow - water bombing tactics. Surprise was decisive. While everyone knew that war was imminent, no one at Pearl expected an attack. Despite later rumors, there was no advance knowledge of the Japanese plan. The commanders had been complacent about routine defensive measures. Even if the defense had been more alert, the surprise and overwhelming power of the Japanese strike probably would have been decisive. In broader perspective, the attack was a failure. The lost battleships reflected obsolete doctrine and were not needed; the lost planes were soon replaced; the casualty list was short by World War II standards. Tokyo 's calculation that the Americans would lose heart and seek a compromise peace proved wildly wrong -- the "sneak attack '' electrified public opinion, committing America with near unanimity to a war to the death against the Japanese Empire.
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt officially pronounced 7 December 1941, as "a date which will live in infamy '' and asked for a declaration of war on Japan before a joint session of Congress on 8 December 1941. The motion passed with only one vote against it, in both chambers. Just three days later, on 11 December 1941 Adolf Hitler declared war on the United States, and had already remarked on the evening of the date of the Japanese attack that "We ca n't lose the war at all. We now have an ally which has never been conquered in 3,000 years ''.
Within hours of Pearl Harbor Japanese air forces from Formosa destroyed much of the U.S. Far East Air Force, based near Manila. The Japanese army invaded and trapped the American and Filipino forces on the Bataan peninsula. Roosevelt evacuated General Douglas MacArthur and the nurses, but there was no way to save the trapped men against overwhelming Japanese naval power. MacArthur flew to Australia, vowing "I came out of Bataan and I shall return. '' Major General Jonathan M. Wainwright surrendered on 8 May; the prisoners died by the thousands in the Bataan Death March and in disease - ridden Japanese prison camps where food and medicine were in very short supply.
The Japanese Navy seemed unstoppable as they seized the Dutch East Indies to gain its rich oil resources. The American, British, Dutch, and Australian forces were combined under the ABDA command but its fleet was quickly sunk in several naval battles around Java.
Following their rapid advance, the Japanese started the Solomon Islands Campaign from their newly conquered main base at Rabaul in January 1942. The Japanese seized several islands including Tulagi and Guadalcanal, before they were halted by further events leading to the Guadalcanal Campaign. This campaign also converged with the New Guinea campaign.
In May 1942, the United States fleet engaged the Japanese fleet during the first battle in history in which neither fleet fired directly on the other, nor did the ships of both fleets actually see each other. It was also the first time that aircraft carriers were used in battle. While indecisive, it was nevertheless a starting point because American commanders learned the tactics that would serve them later in the war.
The Battle of the Aleutian Islands was the last battle between sovereign nations to be fought on American soil. As part of a diversionary plan for the Battle of Midway, the Japanese took control of two of the Aleutian Islands (Attu and Kiska Island). Their hope was that strong American naval forces would be drawn away from Midway, enabling a Japanese victory. Because their ciphers were broken, the American forces only drove the Japanese out after Midway. On 11 May 1943, American and Canadian forces, spearheaded by the U.S. 7th Infantry Division landed on Attu, beginning the operation to take back the islands, by the end of May 1943 and after a series of battles, Allied forces retook Attu. On 15 August 1943, Allied forces landed on Kiska to retake it, only to find the Island abandoned by the Japanese.
Having learned important lessons at Coral Sea, the United States Navy was prepared when the Japanese navy under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto launched an offensive aimed at destroying the American Pacific Fleet at Midway Island. The Japanese hoped to embarrass the Americans after the humiliation of the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo. Midway was a strategic island that both sides wished to use as an air base. Yamamoto hoped to achieve complete surprise and a quick capture of the island, followed by a decisive carrier battle with which he could completely destroy the American carrier fleet. Before the battle began, however, American intelligence intercepted his plan, allowing Admiral Chester Nimitz to formulate an effective defensive ambush of the Japanese fleet. The battle began on 4 June 1942. By the time it was over, the Japanese had lost four carriers, as opposed to one American carrier lost. The Battle of Midway was the turning point of the war in the Pacific because the United States had seized the initiative and was on the offensive for the remaining duration of the war.
Following the resounding victory at Midway, the United States began a major land offensive. The Allies came up with a strategy known as Island hopping, or the bypassing of islands that either served little or no strategic importance or were heavily defended but could be bypassed, such as Rabaul. Because air power was crucial to any operation, only islands that could support airstrips were targeted by the Allies. The fighting for each island in the Pacific Theater would be savage, as the Americans faced a determined and battle - hardened enemy who had known little defeat on the ground.
General George Kenney, in charge of tactical air power under MacArthur, never had enough planes, pilots or supplies. (He was not allowed any authority whatsoever over the Navy 's carriers.) But the Japanese were always in worse shape -- their equipment deteriorated rapidly because of poor airfields and incompetent maintenance. The Japanese had excellent planes and pilots in 1942, but ground commanders dictated their missions and ignored the need for air superiority before any other mission could be attempted. Theoretically, Japanese doctrine stressed the need to gain air superiority, but the infantry commanders repeatedly wasted air assets defending minor positions. When Arnold, echoing the official Army line, stated the Pacific was a "defensive '' theater, Kenney retorted that the Japanese pilot was always on the offensive. "He attacks all the time and persists in acting that way. To defend against him you not only have to attack him but to beat him to the punch. '' Key to Kenney 's strategy was the neutralization of bypassed Japanese strongpoints like Rabaul and Truk through repeated bombings. He said a major shortfall was "the kids coming here from the States were green as grass. They were not getting enough gunnery, acrobatics, formation flying, or night flying. '' So he set up extensive retraining programs. The arrival of superior fighters, especially the twin - tailed Lockheed P - 38 Lightning, gave the Americans an edge in range and performance. Occasionally a ripe target appeared, as in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea (March 1943) when bombers sank a major convoy bringing troops and supplies to New Guinea. That success was no fluke. High - flying bombers almost never could hit moving ships. Kenney solved that weakness by teaching pilots the effective new tactic of flying in close to the water then pulling up and lobbing bombs that skipped across the water and into the target.
The goal of island hopping was to build forward air fields. AAF commander General Hap Arnold correctly anticipated that he would have to build forward airfields in inhospitable places. Working closely with the Army Corps of Engineers, he created Aviation Engineer Battalions that by 1945 included 118,000 men; it operated in all theatres. Runways, hangars, radar stations, power generators, barracks, gasoline storage tanks and ordnance dumps had to be built hurriedly on tiny coral islands, mud flats, featureless deserts, dense jungles, or exposed locations still under enemy artillery fire. The heavy construction gear had to be imported, along with the engineers, blueprints, steel - mesh landing mats, prefabricated hangars, aviation fuel, bombs and ammunition, and all necessary supplies. As soon as one project was finished the battalion would load up its gear and move forward to the next challenge, while headquarters inked in a new airfield on the maps. Heavy rains often reduced the capacity of old airfields, so new ones were built. Often engineers had to repair and use a captured enemy airfield. Unlike the well - built German air fields in Europe, the Japanese installations were ramshackle affairs with poor siting, poor drainage, scant protection, and narrow, bumpy runways. Engineering was a low priority for the offense - minded Japanese, who chronically lacked adequate equipment and imagination.
Airmen flew far more often in the Southwest Pacific than in Europe, and although rest time in Australia was scheduled, there was no fixed number of missions that would produce transfer out of combat, as was the case in Europe. Coupled with the monotonous, hot, sickly environment, the result was bad morale that jaded veterans quickly passed along to newcomers. After a few months, epidemics of combat fatigue (now called Combat stress reaction) would drastically reduce the efficiency of units. The men who had been at jungle airfields longest, the flight surgeons reported, were in a bad shape:
The Marines had their own land - based aviation, built around the excellent Chance - Vought F4U Corsair, an unusually large fighter - bomber. By 1944 10,000 Marine pilots operated 126 combat squadrons. Marine Aviation originally had the mission of close support for ground troops, but it dropped that role in the 1920s and 1930s and became a junior component of naval aviation. The new mission was to protect the fleet from enemy air attacks. Marine pilots, like all aviators, fiercely believed in the prime importance of air superiority; they did not wish to be tied down to supporting ground troops. On the other hand, the ground Marines needed close air support because they lacked heavy firepower of their own. Mobility was a basic mission of Marine ground forces; they were too lightly armed to employ the sort of heavy artillery barrages and massed tank movements the Army used to clear the battlefield. The Japanese were so well dug in that Marines often needed air strikes on positions 300 to 1,500 yards ahead. In 1944, after considerable internal acrimony, Marine Aviation was forced to start helping out. At Iwo Jima ex-pilots in the air liaison party (ALP) not only requested air support, but actually directed it in tactical detail. The Marine formula increased responsiveness, reduced "friendly '' casualties, and (flying weather permitting) substituted well for the missing armor and artillery. For the next half century close air support would remain central to the mission of Marine Aviation, provoking eternal jealousy from the Army which was never allowed to operate fixed - wing fighters or bombers, although the Army was allowed to have some unarmed transports and spotter planes.
Guadalcanal, fought from August 1942 to February 1943, was the first major Allied offensive of the war in the Pacific Theater. This campaign pitted American air, naval and ground forces (later augmented by Australians and New Zealanders) against determined Japanese resistance. Guadalcanal was the key to control the Solomon Islands, which both sides saw as strategically essential. Both sides won some battles but both sides were overextended in terms of supply lines. Logistical failures in a hostile physical environment hampered everyone. As happened time and again in the Pacific, the Japanese logistical support system failed, as only 20 % of the supplies dispatched from Rabaul to Guadalcanal ever reached there. Consequently, the 30,000 Japanese troops lacked heavy equipment, adequate ammunition and even enough food; 10,000 were killed, 10,000 starved to death, and the remaining 10,000 were evacuated in February 1943. In the end Guadalcanal was a major American victory as the Japanese inability to keep pace with the rate of American reinforcements proved decisive. Guadalcanal is an iconic episode in the annals of American military history, underscoring heroic bravery of underequipped individuals in fierce combat with a determined foe.
Marines from the 1st Marine Division landed on 7 August 1942, soldiers from the Army XIV Corps reinforced and eventually replaced in late - November 1942. They quickly captured Henderson Field, and prepared defenses. In the Battle of Bloody Ridge, the Americans held off wave after wave of Japanese counterattacks before charging what was left of the Japanese. After more than six months of combat the island was firmly in control of the Allies on 8 February 1943.
Meanwhile, the rival navies fought seven battles, with the two sides diving the victories. Following the Japanese victory at the Battle of Savo Island on 8 -- 9 August, Admiral Fletcher withdrew his ships from around Guadalcanal. A second Japanese naval force sailed south and engaged the American fleet in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24 -- 25 August, ending in a draw but forced the Japanese naval force to retreat. On 11 -- 12 October 1942, to disrupt Japanese attempts to reinforce and resupply their troops on Guadalcanal (nicknamed the "Tokyo Express ''), a small US naval force attacked this supply lines at the Battle of Cape Esperance and succeeded. In support of the Japanese ground offensive in October, Japanese naval forces engaged and hoped to decisively defeat any US naval forces in the area of operation at the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands on 25 -- 27 October 1942, however the Japanese failed to decisively defeat US Navy. From 12 -- 15 November 1942, the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal took place: Learning that the Japanese were trying to reinforce their troops for an attack on Henderson field, U.S. forces launched aircraft and warship to prevent the Japanese ground troops from reaching Guadalcanal, the U.S. succeeded thus turning back Japan 's last major attempt to dislodge Allied forces from Guadalcanal. A small US naval force attempted to surprise and destroy the Japanese Navy were attempting to deliver supplies to their forces on Guadalcanal at Battle of Tassafaronga however it was n't successful. The final naval battle took place between 29 -- 30 January 1943, known as the Battle of Rennell Island, US naval forces attempted to stop the Japanese Navy evacuating its ground forces from Guadalcanal, however the Japanese successfully forced the US Navy to withdraw, protecting the Japanese evacuation.
Guadalcanal made it clear to the Americans that the Japanese would fight to the bitter end. After brutal fighting in which few prisoners were taken on either side, the United States and the Allies pressed on the offensive. The landings at Tarawa on 20 November 1943, by the Americans became bogged down as armor attempting to break through the Japanese lines of defense either sank, were disabled or took on too much water to be of use. The Americans were eventually able to land a limited number of tanks and drive inland. After days of fighting they took control of Tarawa on 23 November. Of the original 2,600 Japanese soldiers on the island, only 17 were still alive.
In preparation of the recapture of the Philippines, the Allies started the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign to retake the Gilbert and Marshall Islands from the Japanese in summer 1943. Moving closer to Japan, the U.S. Navy decisively won the Battle of the Philippine Sea and landing forces captured the Mariana and Palau Islands in summer 1944. The goal was building airbases within range of the new B - 29 bomber aimed at Japan 's industrial cities.
The Battle of Leyte Gulf in 23 -- 26 October 1944, was a decisive American victory that sank virtually the entire remaining Japanese fleet in arguably the largest naval battle in history. Although the Japanese came surprisingly close to inflicting a major defeat on the Americans, at the last minute the Japanese panicked and lost. The battle was a complex overlapping series of engagements fought off the Philippine island of Leyte, which the U.S. Army had just invaded. The army forces were highly vulnerable to naval attack, and the Japanese goal was to inflict massive destruction. Two American fleets were involved, the Seventh and Third, but they were independent and did not communicate well so the Japanese with a trick maneuver slipped between the two American fleets and almost reached the beaches. However the Japanese communication system was even worse, and the Japanese army and navy did not cooperate, and the three Japanese fleets were each destroyed.
General MacArthur fulfilled his promise to return to the Philippines by landing at Leyte on 20 October 1944. The grueling re-capture of the Philippines took place from 1944 to 1945 and included the battles of Leyte, Luzon, and Mindanao.
The Americans did not bypass the small island of Iwo Jima because it wanted bases for fighter escorts; it was actually used as an emergency landing base for B - 29s. The Japanese knew they could not win, but they devised a strategy to maximize American casualties. Learning from the Battle of Saipan they prepared many fortified positions on the island, including pillboxes and underground tunnels. The Marines attack began on 19 February 1945. Initially the Japanese put up no resistance, letting the Americans mass, creating more targets before the Americans took intense fire from Mount Suribachi and fought throughout the night until the hill was surrounded. Over the next 36 days, the Japanese were pressed into an ever - shrinking pocket, but they chose to fight on to the end, leaving only 1,000 of the original 21,000 defenders alive. The Marines suffered as well, suffering 25,000 casualties. The battle became iconic in America as the epitome of heroism in desperate hand - to - hand combat.
Okinawa became the last major battle of the Pacific Theater and the Second World War. The island was to become a staging area for the eventual invasion of Japan since it was just 350 miles (550 km) south of the Japanese mainland. Marines and soldiers landed unopposed on 1 April 1945, to begin an 82 - day campaign which became the largest land - sea - air battle in history and was noted for the ferocity of the fighting and the high civilian casualties with over 150,000 Okinawans losing their lives. Japanese kamikaze pilots caused the largest loss of ships in U.S. naval history with the sinking of 38 and the damaging of another 368. Total U.S. casualties were over 12,500 dead and 38,000 wounded, while the Japanese lost over 110,000 men. The fierce combat and high American losses led the Navy to oppose an invasion of the main islands. An alternative strategy was chosen: using the atomic bomb to induce surrender.
The flammability of Japan 's large cities, and the concentration of munitions production there, made strategic bombing the favorite strategy of the Americans from 1941 onward. The first efforts were made from bases in China, where massive efforts to establish B - 29 bases there and supply them over the Hump (the Himalayas) failed in 1944; the Japanese Army simply moved overland and captured the bases. Saipan and Tinian, captured by the U.S. in June 1944, gave secure bases for the very - long - range B - 29. The Boeing B - 29 Superfortress boasted four 2,200 horsepower Wright R - 3350 supercharged engines that could lift four tons of bombs 33,000 feet (high above Japanese flak or fighters), and make 3,500 mile round trips. However, the systematic raids that began in June 1944, were unsatisfactory, because the AAF had learned too much in Europe; it overemphasized self - defense. Arnold, in personal charge of the campaign (bypassing the theater commanders) brought in a new leader, brilliant, indefatigable, hard - charging General Curtis LeMay. In early 1945, LeMay ordered a radical change in tactics: remove the machine guns and gunners, fly in low at night. (Much fuel was used to get to 30,000 feet; it could now be replaced with more bombs.) The Japanese radar, fighter, and anti-aircraft systems were so ineffective that they could not hit the bombers. Fires raged through the cities, and millions of civilians fled to the mountains.
Tokyo was hit repeatedly, and during the first massive fire raid of March 9 -- 10, 1945 suffered a conflagration of about 16 square miles (41 km2) in area, that killed at least 83,000. On 5 June, 51,000 buildings in four miles of Kobe were burned out by 473 B - 29s; the Japanese were learning to fight back, as 11 B - 29s went down and 176 were damaged. Osaka, where one - sixth of the Empire 's munitions were made, was hit by 1,733 tons of incendiaries dropped by 247 B - 29s. A firestorm burned out 8.1 square miles, including 135,000 houses; 4,000 died. The Japanese local officials reported:
The Japanese army, which was not based in the cities, was largely undamaged by the raids. The Army was short of food and gasoline, but, as Iwo Jima and Okinawa proved, it was capable of ferocious resistance. The Japanese also had a new tactic that it hoped would provide the bargaining power to get a satisfactory peace, the Kamikaze.
In late 1944 the Japanese invented an unexpected and highly effective new tactic, the Kamikaze suicide plane aimed like a guided missile at American ships. The attacks began in October 1944 and continued to the end of the war. Experienced pilots were used to lead a mission because they could navigate; they were not Kamikazes, and they returned to base for another mission. The Kamikaze pilots were inexperienced and had minimal training; however most were well educated and intensely committed to the Emperor.
Kamikaze attacks were highly effective at the Battle of Okinawa as 4000 kamikaze sorties sank 38 US ships and damaged 368 more, killing 4,900 sailors. Task Force 58 analyzed the Japanese technique at Okinawa in April 1945:
The Americans decided the best defense against Kamikazes was to knock them out on the ground, or else in the air long before they approached the fleet. The Navy called for more fighters, and more warning, which meant combat air patrols circling the big ships, more radar picket ships (which themselves became prime targets), and more attacks on airbases and gasoline supplies. Japan suspended Kamikaze attacks in May 1945, because it was now hoarding gasoline and hiding planes in preparation for new suicide attacks if the Allies dared to invade their home islands. The Kamikaze strategy allowed the use of untrained pilots and obsolete planes, and since evasive maneuvering was dropped and there was no return trip, the scarce gasoline reserves could be stretched further. Since pilots guided their airplane like a guided missile all the way to the target, the proportion of hits was much higher than in ordinary bombing. Japan 's industry was manufacturing 1,500 new planes a month in 1945. However, the quality of construction was very poor, and many new planes crashed during training or before reaching targets.
Expecting increased resistance, including far more Kamikaze attacks once the main islands of Japan were invaded, the U.S. high command rethought its strategy and used atomic bombs to end the war, hoping it would make a costly invasion unnecessary.
U.S. submarines participated in the majority of naval battles in the Pacific theatre, but the submarines were most decisive in their blockade of Japan, for which Japan was dependent on its sea transport to provide resources for its war effort.
On the afternoon of 7 December 1941, six hours after the Japanese attack, U.S. naval commanders in the Pacific were ordered by the U.S. Navy Chief of Staff to "execute unrestricted air and submarine warfare against Japan ''. This order authorized all U.S. submarines in the Pacific to attack and sink any warship, commercial vessel, or civilian passenger ship flying the Japanese flag, without warning. The Pacific Fleet and the Asiatic Fleet Submarine Force immediately went into action to counter the Japanese offensive across the Pacific, such as in the Philippines, Indochina, Dutch East Indies and Malaya. The U.S. Navy submarine force was small; less than 2 %. On 7 December 1941, the U.S. Navy had 55 fleet and 18 - medium - sized submarines (S - boats) in the Pacific, 38 submarines elsewhere, and 73 under construction. By war 's end, the U.S. would complete 228 submarines.
U.S. Navy submarines were often used for surveillance. This included reconnaissance U.S. submarines landed and supplied guerillas in Japanese occupied territory and carrying in commandos for missions such as the Makin Island raid, they also rescued crews of aircraft which had been forced down over the ocean.
As a result of several key improvements in strategy and tactics, from 1943, Allied submarines waged a more effective campaign against Japanese merchant shipping and the IJN, in effect strangling the Japanese Empire of resources. By the end of the war in August, 1945, U.S. Navy submarines sank around 1300 Japanese merchant ships, as well as roughly 200 warships. Only 42 U.S. submarines were sunk in the Pacific, but 3,500 (22 %) submariners were killed, the highest casualty rate of any American force in World War II. The force destroyed over half of all Japanese merchant ships, totaling well over five million tons of shipping. (File: Atomic cloud over Hiroshima. jpg thumb Atomic bomb mushroom cloud rising from Hiroshima, 6 August 1945.)
As victory for the United States slowly approached, casualties mounted. A fear in the American high command was that an invasion of mainland Japan would lead to enormous losses on the part of the Allies, as casualty estimates for the planned Operation Downfall demonstrate. President Harry Truman gave the order to drop the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945, hoping that the destruction of the city would break Japanese resolve and end the war. A second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on 9 August after it appeared that the Japanese high command was not planning to surrender. Approximately 140,000 people died in Hiroshima from the bomb and its aftereffects by the end of 1945, and approximately 74,000 in Nagasaki.
V-J Day which occurred on 15 August 1945 marked the end of the United States ' war with the Empire of Japan. Since Japan was the last remaining Axis Power, V-J Day also marked the end of World War II.
The United States contributed several forces to the China Burma India theater, such as the 5307th Composite Unit (Provisional) but nicknamed "Merrill 's Marauders '' after its commander; Frank Merrill, it was a United States Army long range penetration special operations jungle warfare unit organized as light infantry assault units. In slightly more than five months of combat in 1944, the Marauders advanced 750 miles through some of the harshest jungle terrain in the world, fought in five major engagements, mostly behind enemy lines, with or in support of British Empire and Chinese forces in Burma and suffered many casualties. On 10 August 1944 the Marauders were consolidated into the 475th Infantry. The U.S. also had an adviser to Chiang Kai - shek and Joseph Stillwell. Units of the Tenth Air Force, Fourteenth Air Force, and Twentieth Air Force of the USAAF also served in the theatre, including the previously mentioned "Flying Tigers ''.
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what does the british chamber of commerce do | British Chambers of Commerce - wikipedia
The British Chambers of Commerce (BCC) is the national representative body of 52 Accredited Chambers of Commerce across the UK, representing 75,000 businesses, which employ over 5m people. Members range from growth - oriented start - ups to local and regional subsidiaries of multinational companies, in all commercial and industrial sectors, and from all over the UK. Its office is in London on Petty France, near the Ministry of Justice (former Home Office), and off Buckingham Gate (A323).
Adam Marshall has been Director General of the British Chambers of Commerce (BCC) since October 2016. Previously, Adam served as the BCC 's Executive Director for Policy and External Affairs (July 2009 -- March 2016), and as Acting Director General (March -- October 2016)
Prior to joining BCC, Adam helped start up the Centre for Cities, built commercial links between industry and universities, and worked in the broadcast media. He holds a BA from Yale University and MPhil and PhD degrees from the University of Cambridge. Adam is a national of the United Kingdom and the USA.
The Chamber Awards were launched by the British Chambers of Commerce (BCC) in 2004 to recognise and celebrate business excellence through the successes and achievements of its Accredited Chambers of Commerce and their members. As part of recognising the significant contribution that a person under 30 can make to the success of a business, the Chamber created a new category and announced the first ' Young person in Business ' award winner in November 2014, Oliver Bryssau of Origin Broadband.
The BCC Annual Conference is a yearly one - day event. It is an opportunity for senior politicians, business leaders and thought - leaders to connect over some of the most prominent issues affecting the economy and society. Speakers usually include high - profile cabinet ministers and company CEOs, which in the past have included the Rt Hon George Osborne MP, Chancellor of the Exchequer and the Rt Hon Jeremy Corbyn MP, Leader of the Opposition
The Annual Conference 2018 is being held on 8 March 2018 at QEII Conference Centre
The British Chambers of Commerce (QES) is the largest and most representative independent business survey of its kind in the UK. The survey has been in existence since 1989 and the survey results are widely reported in the national media.
Export Britain is the online resource by the British Chambers of Commerce which showcases opportunities in key international markets, and links UK exporters to support available from British Chambers and business groups both in the UK and around the world.
The BCC currently works with accredited or BCC - assessed international Chambers around the world, details of which can found in their International Directory. These overseas Chambers aim to promote trade between the U.K and their home countries by linking businesses, providing in - country expertise and sharing useful resources.
As part of the Export Britain campaign, the BCC hosts an annual International Trade Conference, bringing together exporting businesses, Chamber staff / members and overseas Chambers for a day of networking, panel debates and workshops. The aim of the event, branded in 2016 as ' Global Business Network Live ' is to provide exporters with the knowledge, expertise and contacts they need to succeed. Workshops consisted of practical exporting advice on a range of subjects including export finance, trade events and managing currency fluctuations. Region specific sessions were also run by representatives from overseas chambers. Notable speakers at the 2016 event included Lord Price (Minister of State at the Department of International Trade) and Sarah Wood (Co-founder and CEO, Unruly) among others.
The BCC campaign ' Bridging the Gap ' is a positive call to action to help businesses find the talent they need, and boost the career prospects of young people. The campaign aims to increase collaboration between education providers and businesses, support young people to gain exposure to business and influence government education and skills policy to ensure young people develop the skills, experience and attitude to make a successful transition into work. The 52 Accredited Chambers of Commerce have a growing number of education providers in membership, including 1,700 schools and colleges. Chambers across the country help them connect with their local business community.
This campaign is carried out through the Young Chambers, who provide a range of effective ways to connect businesses and schools, tapping into the knowledge, skills and experience of local firms There are currently 18 Chambers offering the Young Chamber membership offer.
The BCC hosts an annual ' Business and Education Summit ' in London to promote the values of the bridging the gap campaign and share insights from organisations around the country. The one - day event is an inspirational and interactive forum which provides the opportunity for delegates to make new connections and engage with latest best practice through expert speakers, panel debates and informative breakout sessions.
The 52 accredited Chambers are:
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take it easy on yourself the walker brothers | Take It Easy with the Walker Brothers - wikipedia
Take It Easy with the Walker Brothers is the debut album by the American pop group the Walker Brothers. It is also commonly known as Take It Easy. The group 's musical accompaniment was directed by Ivor Raymonde and produced by John Franz and Nick Venet. It was released in 1965 and reached number three on the UK Albums Chart. The album contains the group 's first major hit single "Make It Easy on Yourself ''. receiving good to mixed reviews the album was released in both Mono and Stereo LP formats in November 1965. The album was later released on CD having been remastered and expanded in 1998. The sleeve notes were written by Brian Mulligan, the then press officer for Philips Records, with photography by Terence Donovan.
In the USA the album was released on Smash Records as Introducing the Walker Brothers. This alternate version shifted the running order around and replaced "Lonely Winds '', "Girl I Lost in the Rain '', "First Love Never Dies '', and "Tell the Truth '' with the singles "Love Her '', "My Ship Is Coming In '' and "Pretty Girls Everywhere '', along with the latter 's B - side "Doin ' the Jerk ''. The group can be seen miming "Doin ' the Jerk '' on the 1965 beach party movie Beach Ball.
Introducing the Walker Brothers is now out of print. In 2008 Water Records released the Philips Take It Easy track listing in the US for the first time.
Take It Easy with the Walker Brothers received good to mixed reviews from the majority of critics. Richie Unterberger writing retrospectively for Allmusic described the US version Introducing the Walker Brothers as "an erratic affair '' that features "their trademark balladeering groove with the hits "Make It Easy On Yourself '' and "My Ship Is Comin ' In, '' but (sounding) stiff on uptempo R&B numbers like "Land of 1,000 Dances '' and "Dancing in the Street ''. ''
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who did houston vote for in 2016 election | United States presidential Election in Texas, 2016 - wikipedia
Trump
Clinton
Barack Obama Democratic
Donald Trump Republican
The 2016 United States presidential election in Texas was won by Republican Donald Trump and his running mate Mike Pence by an 8.99 % margin over Democrats Hillary Clinton and Tim Kaine, part of the November 8, 2016 General Election. Texas assigns its 38 Electoral College votes to the state 's popular vote winner, but two faithless electors chose other candidates, making Texas the only state in 2016 to give Trump less than the assigned electoral votes.
When the electoral college met on December 19, 2016, only 36 out of the 38 electors voted for Trump for President. Two electors defected, one to Ohio Governor John Kasich, and the other to Congressman Ron Paul. For Vice President, 37 electors voted for Pence, and one for Carly Fiorina.
The primary of March 1, 2016 included the Green Party, in addition to the two major parties.
Hillary Clinton lost Texas by a smaller margin than any Democrat since 1996 (though Barack Obama got a larger percentage of the vote in 2008), which analysts attributed to ongoing demographic changes. Trump also became the 10th Republican in a row to carry the state.
The Texas Democratic Party held their state 's primary in concurrence with the other Super Tuesday contests on March 1. Eight candidates appeared on the ballot, Hillary Clinton, Bernie Sanders, dropped - out candidate Martin O'Malley and five minor candidates (Rocky De La Fuente, Willie Wilson, Star Locke, Keith Russell Judd and Calvis Hawes.) The Texas Democratic primary had 251 delegates to the Democratic National Convention; 222 pledged delegates and 29 super delegates. 145 delegates were allocated proportionally based on the results in the state 's 31 senatorial districts. The other 77 pledged delegates were allocated proportionally based on the statewide popular vote.
February 24, 2016 -- Houston, Texas Megyn Kelly hosted a two - hour town hall event on The Kelly File with Kasich, Cruz, Rubio, and Carson in attendance. Trump did not participate in the forum.
February 25, 2016 -- Houston, Texas
After the caucus in Nevada, the tenth debate was held at the University of Houston in Houston and broadcast by CNN as its third of four debates, in conjunction with Telemundo. The debate aired five days before 14 states vote on Super Tuesday, March 1. While the debate was to be held in partnership with Telemundo 's English - language counterpart NBC, RNC Chairman Reince Priebus announced on October 30, 2015, that it had suspended the partnership in response to CNBC 's "bad faith '' in handling the October 28, 2015, debate. On January 18, 2016, the RNC announced that CNN would replace NBC News as the main host of the debate, in partnership with Telemundo and Salem Communications (CNN 's conservative media partner). The debate was shifted a day earlier at the same time. National Review was disinvited by the Republican National Committee from co-hosting the debate over its criticism of GOP front - runner Donald Trump. On February 19, the criteria for invitation to the debate was announced: in addition to having official statements of candidacy with the Federal Election Commission and accepting the rules of the debate, candidates must have received at least 5 % support in one of the first four election contests held in Iowa, New Hampshire, South Carolina, and Nevada. By these criteria, all five remaining candidates, Carson, Cruz, Kasich, Rubio, and Trump, qualified for invitation to the debate. The 155 delegates to the Republican National Convention were allocated in this way. 108 delegates are allocated by congressional district; 3 per district. If a candidate gets over 50 % of the vote in a congressional district; they would win all of the district 's 3 delegates. If no one had a majority and one candidate had at least 20 % of the vote, the candidate winning the plurality would get 2 delegates and the candidate in second place would get 1 delegate. If nobody receives at least 20 % of the vote, the top 3 vote - getters each get 1 delegate. There were another 47 at - large delegates. If someone received more than 50 % of the vote, they would get all of the at - large delegates. If no one got more than 50 % of the vote and there were at least 2 candidates that got over 20 % of the vote, the delegates would be allocated proportionally among the candidates receiving more than 20 % of the vote. If only one candidate got over 20 % of the vote and not a majority, the delegates would be allocated between the candidate that got over 20 % of the vote and the candidate who received the 2nd most amount of votes. If no candidate got 20 %, they would allocate all of the 47 at - large delegates proportionally.
The Texas Green Party held its elections at conventions at the precinct level on March 8, the county level on March 12, and the district level on March 19, leading up to the state nominating convention in Grey Forest, Texas on April 9 and 10.
On April 10 it was announced Jill Stein had won the convention.
The last time Texas voted for a Democratic candidate was the 1976 Presidential election when Jimmy Carter won 51.14 % of the popular vote. Hispanic participation can create a very interesting and unpredictable outcome, especially on the Democratic statewide tickets since they lean heavily Democratic. The Hispanic turnout has increased by approximately 200,000 for each and every presidential election since 2000.
The following are final 2016 predictions from various organizations for Texas as of Election Day.
Continuing the Republican 10 - cycle winning streak in Texas, Trump 's winning margin was down from Mitt Romney 's 16 % in 2012 to 8.99 %, a 7.01 % drop, making 2016 the closest Democrats had come to winning Texas since 1996. However, the Democrats also received a smaller percentage of the vote in Texas in this election than in the 2008 presidential election. This can partly be attributed to a growing population of Hispanics / Latinos, along with cities and their respective suburbs in the Texas Triangle region swinging more Democratic than in 2012. These were Clinton 's main voter sources. She had swept the Rio Grande region counties, such as El Paso, Webb. Hidalgo and Cameron in the state as they have sizable Hispanic populations. Clinton also took the highly liberal and fast growing Travis County (Austin), as well as the urban and minority - heavy counties of Bexar (San Antonio), Dallas, and in Harris County (Houston), where she turned the historically thin vote margins of previous cycles into a 12 - point lead. Places that had large amounts of young voters in the state were a stronghold for Clinton as well.
In total, Clinton beat Trump in 27 counties by a total of 883,819 votes, and had the best percentage performance than any other Democrat running statewide. Conversely, Trump, who won 227 of the state 's 254 counties, got the smallest percentage of the vote than all other Republicans running in the state.
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who have been the hosts of the price is right | The Price Is Right - wikipedia
The Price Is Right is a television game show franchise originally produced by Mark Goodson and Bill Todman, and created by Bob Stewart, and is currently produced and owned by FremantleMedia (Endemol in Netherlands). The franchise centers on television game shows, but also includes merchandise such as video games, printed media and board games. The franchise began in 1956 as a television game show hosted by Bill Cullen and was revamped in 1972. This version was originally hosted by Bob Barker. Since 2007, Drew Carey has hosted the program.
In the show, contestants compete to win cash and prizes by guessing the pricing of merchandise. The program has been critically successful and remains a stalwart in the television ratings. It also managed to break away from the quiz show format that has been used in other game shows. Since the current version premiered, it has also been adapted in several international formats around the world, most notably in the United Kingdom, Australia and Mexico.
In 2013, TV Guide ranked it No. 5 in its list of the 60 greatest game shows ever.
The original version of The Price Is Right was first broadcast on NBC, and later ABC, from 1956 to 1965. Hosted by Bill Cullen, it involved four contestants bidding on a wide array of merchandise prizes, whose values ranged anywhere from a few dollars, (in many cases, "bonus '' prizes were attached after the fact, to the winner) to thousands, doing so in the manner of auctions except that Cullen did not act out the role of auctioneer. Instead, contestants tried to bid closest to the product 's actual retail price without going over that price. Depending on the prize, contestants were allowed, in proper turn, to make multiple bids; or only allowed one bid. In the case of the former, each contestant in - turn bid on the displayed item until a buzzer sounded. They could make a final bid, or "freeze. '' The contestant whose bid was closest to the correct value of the prize -- and had not gone over that value -- won it. There was also a special game set aside for the home viewer, which offered several prizes in a package, which usually included a luxury vacation trip, and / or a new car as part of the package. Viewers submitted their bids via post cards; the winner was announced on the air. At the end of each episode, the contestant who had won the most (by dollar value) was declared the winner and became the returning champion, entitled to play again in the next episode.
This version began as part of NBC 's daytime schedule. An alleged series of technical problems made the pilot episode look bad enough for NBC to decline buying the show, but after an appeal from the producers, citing the fact that at that time all TV shows were given up to an initial 13 weeks to succeed or fail, it aired anyway. It became successful enough to warrant a second version of the series, beginning on prime time in the fall of 1957. Shown weekly, that version had the distinction of being the first TV game show to be broadcast in color. After being a Top - 10 prime time show for some time its ratings gradually but noticeably declined, and by 1963 NBC canceled it, only to be picked up by ABC. ABC 's primetime version ran for one full season (1963 -- 64), and the daytime version ended in 1965.
Since 1972, the current version of The Price Is Right uses the same structure:
When the new format debuted as The New Price Is Right, shows were thirty minutes in length: three pricing games were played and the two contestants with the highest winnings entered the Showcase. By June 1973, the show was renamed back to The Price is Right.
The show was expanded into a hour - long format on November 3, 1975. This allowed for six pricing games to be played. A new feature, the Showcase Showdown, was added to select which players would play in the Showcase. It is used after the first three players completed their pricing games to select one player from this set, and after the next three. In the Showdown, each player is given two chance to spin a wheel which has a monetary amounts from 5 cents to 1 dollar by 5 cent increments. The goal was to be the closest to one dollar from both spins without going over; a player can opt to not spin a second time. Additional prize money can be won if the player make a total of one dollar exactly with either one or both spins, and even a larger amount if they could can a bonus spin on marked spaces on the wheel.
The series debuted September 4, 1972, in two forms: a daily version on CBS with Bob Barker as host, and a weekly version, eventually dubbed "the nighttime Price Is Right, '' hosted by Dennis James and airing in first - run syndication. Barker took over the nighttime version in 1977 (which remained a half - hour in length throughout its existence) and hosted both until the nighttime version was discontinued in 1980. The syndicated nighttime version returned five years later, with Tom Kennedy as host and running five days a week. This version ran for one season.
Barker hosted the program from its debut until June 15, 2007. During his 35 years as host, Barker won numerous awards and honors including Daytime Emmys and a Lifetime Achievement Award. Directors of the show included Marc Breslow, Paul Alter, and Bart Eskander, with Eskander receiving a Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Direction of a Game Show. Producer Roger Dobkowitz won a Daytime Emmy for his work on the show, which included the development of many of the show 's games that are still being played today.
After a season - long search for a successor, Drew Carey took the helm of the show, with production resuming in August 2007, and his first episode airing on October 15. It is believed to be the longest - running game show on television (the Spanish - language variety show Sábado Gigante ended on September 19, 2015). It is also the longest running game show airing episodes five days - per - week in the world. The Price Is Right is one of two game show franchises (along with To Tell the Truth) to be seen nationally in either first - run network or syndication airings in the U.S. in every decade from the 1950s onward. CBS has occasionally aired extra episodes of the show for short periods between the cancellation of one daytime program and the premiere of its successor. On occasion since 1986, special episodes have aired during prime time hours, most notably to fill in gaps between the Survivor series, and during the 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike.
On September 22, 2008, Terry Kneiss made game show history by bidding the exact amount of his $23,743 showcase. Taping of the show immediately stopped, with Carey and show staffers concerned that cheating was taking place. It was later learned that -- by constantly watching the show, noticing the frequency of certain products showing up on the show, and using statistical analysis -- Kneiss and his wife Linda, who was in the studio audience, had legitimately determined the exact prices of the items in the showcase. Kneiss was awarded the prizes, and the show subsequently discontinued featuring certain products.
On April Fools ' Day in 2014, Craig Ferguson and Carey switched hosting duties, with Carey hosting The Late Late Show and Ferguson taking over the hosting duties on The Price Is Right. The episode also featured Shadoe Stevens as announcer. Barker appeared on the April Fools ' Day episode in 2015, hosting the first item up for bids and the first pricing game, with Carey hosting the remainder of the episode.
Primetime episodes have been ordered by CBS on occasion since 1986. The first, The Price Is Right Special, was a six - week summer series which aired on CBS in 1986, hosted by Barker. In 2002, the show celebrated its 30th year with a Las Vegas special.
Later in 2002, the show began its current line of primetime episodes (known as # xxxSP in show codes). Six special episodes titled The Price Is Right Salutes aired in primetime, saluting the branches of the United States armed forces, and for the police and firefighters of America in the wake of the September 11 attacks became the first in the canon. The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular (# 007SP - # 033SP) was a series of primetime specials airing from 2003 until 2008 featuring chances at winning $1,000,000, as well as more expensive prizes than on the daytime counterpart.
Two daytime episodes aired in primetime. Episode # 4035K (June 15, 2007, season finale and Bob Barker 's final episode) was rebroadcast in primetime after airing that morning, leading to the Daytime Emmy Awards. Episode # 4512K, the show 's military special, originally intended for November 11, 2008, became the first daytime episode scheduled to originally air in primetime when it was moved to November 14.
The Celebrity Week format in daytime where a celebrity plays along with contestants was adopted for the next series of primetime episodes, which are part of the same series as the 2002 Salutes and 2003 -- 08 $1,000,000 Spectaculars (# 034SP - # 036SP). These shows used former participants on the network 's three primetime reality game shows (Survivor, The Amazing Race and Big Brother) who joined contestants as teams. The three - night special aired May 23 -- 25, 2016.
Endless Games, which in the past has produced board games based on several other game shows, including The Newlywed Game and Million Dollar Password, distributes home versions of The Price Is Right, featuring the voice of Rich Fields, including a DVD edition and a Quick Picks travel - size edition. Ubisoft also released a video game version of the show for the PC, Nintendo DS, and Wii console on September 9, 2008. An updated version of the game (The Price Is Right: 2010 Edition) was released on September 22, 2009. Both versions feature the voice of Rich Fields, who was the show 's announcer at the time of the release of the video games in question.
In September 2010, Ludia released the official Facebook version of The Price Is Right game. The game had two million monthly active users only two months after the launch.
In October 2011, Ludia (now owned by RTL Group) released The Price Is Right Decades, a video game featuring production elements from various decades of the show, for the Wii, mobile devices, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 to celebrate their 40 years on the CBS network.
The 1972 revised format appeared on Australian television the following year and debuted in the U.K. in 1984. The format has also been adapted elsewhere around the world. Hosts and models from the versions in other countries have made appearances on the U.S. version, usually sitting in the audience and acknowledged by the host during the broadcast. Barker and then - music - director Stan Blits appeared on the Carlo Boszhard - hosted Cash en Carlo at the start of the 200th episode.
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who was in the original we are the world | We Are the World - wikipedia
"We Are the World '' is a song and charity single originally recorded by the supergroup United Support of Artists (USA) for Africa in 1985. It was written by Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie (with arrangements by Michael Omartian) and produced by Quincy Jones for the album We Are the World. With sales in excess of 20 million copies, it is one of the fewer than 30 all - time physical singles to have sold at least 10 million copies worldwide.
Following Band Aid 's 1984 "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '' project in the United Kingdom, an idea for the creation of an American benefit single for African famine relief came from activist Harry Belafonte, who, along with fundraiser Ken Kragen, was instrumental in bringing the vision to reality. Several musicians were contacted by the pair, before Jackson and Richie were assigned the task of writing the song. The duo completed the writing of "We Are the World '' seven weeks after the release of "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '', and one night before the song 's first recording session, on January 21, 1985. The historic event brought together some of the most famous artists in the music industry at the time.
The song was released on March 7, 1985, as the only single from the album. A worldwide commercial success, it topped music charts throughout the world and became the fastest - selling American pop single in history. The first ever single to be certified multi-platinum, "We Are the World '' received a Quadruple Platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America.
Awarded numerous honors -- including three Grammy Awards, one American Music Award, and a People 's Choice Award -- the song was promoted with a critically received music video, a home video, a special edition magazine, a simulcast, and several books, posters, and shirts. The promotion and merchandise aided the success of "We Are the World '' and raised over $63 million (equivalent to $138 million today) for humanitarian aid in Africa and the US.
Following the devastation caused by the magnitude 7.0 M earthquake in Haiti on January 12, 2010, a remake of the song by another all - star cast of singers was recorded on February 1, 2010. Entitled "We Are the World 25 for Haiti '', it was released as a single on February 12, 2010, and proceeds from the record aided survivors in the impoverished country.
Before the writing of "We Are the World '', American entertainer and social activist Harry Belafonte had sought for some time to have a song recorded by the most famous artists in the music industry at the time. He planned to have the proceeds donated to a new organization called United Support of Artists for Africa (USA for Africa). The non-profit foundation would then feed and relieve starving people in Africa, specifically Ethiopia, where around one million people died during the country 's 1983 -- 85 famine. The idea followed Band Aid 's "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '' project in the UK, which Belafonte had heard about. In the activist 's plans, money would also be set aside to help eliminate hunger in the United States of America. Entertainment manager and fellow fundraiser Ken Kragen was contacted by Belafonte, who asked for singers Lionel Richie and Kenny Rogers -- Kragen 's clients -- to participate in Belafonte 's musical endeavor. Kragen and the two musicians agreed to help with Belafonte 's mission, and in turn, enlisted the cooperation of Stevie Wonder, to add more "name value '' to their project. Quincy Jones was drafted to co-produce the song, taking time out from his work on The Color Purple. Jones also telephoned Michael Jackson, who had just released the commercially successful Thriller album and had concluded a tour with his brothers.
Jackson revealed to Richie that he not only wanted to sing the song, but to participate in its writing as well. To begin with, "We Are the World '' was to be written by Jackson, Richie, and Wonder. As Wonder had limited time to work on the project, Jackson and Richie proceeded to write "We Are the World '' themselves. They began creating the song at Hayvenhurst, the Jackson family home in Encino. For a week, the two spent every night working on lyrics and melodies in the singer 's bedroom. They knew that they wanted a song that would be easy to sing and memorable. The pair wanted to create an anthem. Jackson 's older sister La Toya watched the two work on the song, and later contended that Richie only wrote a few lines for the track. She stated that her younger brother wrote 99 percent of the lyrics, "but he 's never felt it necessary to say that ''. La Toya further commented on the song 's creation in an interview with the American celebrity news magazine People. "I 'd go into the room while they were writing and it would be very quiet, which is odd, since Michael 's usually very cheery when he works. It was very emotional for them. ''
Richie had recorded two melodies for "We Are the World '', which Jackson took, adding music and words to the song in the same day. Jackson stated, "I love working quickly. I went ahead without even Lionel knowing, I could n't wait. I went in and came out the same night with the song completed -- drums, piano, strings, and words to the chorus. '' Jackson then presented his demo to Richie and Jones, who were both shocked; they did not expect the pop star to see the structure of the song so quickly. The next meetings between Jackson and Richie were unfruitful; the pair did not produce any additional vocals and got no work done. It was not until the night of January 21, 1985, that Richie and Jackson completed the lyrics and melody of "We Are the World '' within two and a half hours, one night before the song 's first recording session.
The first night of recording, January 22, 1985, had tight security on hand, as Richie, Jackson, Wonder, and Jones started work on "We Are the World '' at Kenny Rogers ' Lion Share Recording Studio. The studio, on Beverly Boulevard in California, was filled with musicians, technicians, video crews, retinues, assistants, and organizers as the four musicians entered. To begin the night, a "vocal guide '' of "We Are the World '' was recorded by Richie and Jackson and duplicated on tape for each of the invited performers. The guide was recorded on the sixth take, as Quincy Jones felt that there was too much "thought '' in the previous versions.
Following their work on the vocal guide, Jackson and Jones began thinking of alternatives for the line "There 's a chance we 're taking, we 're taking our own lives '': the pair was concerned that the latter part of the line would be considered a reference to suicide. As the group listened to a playback of the chorus, Richie declared that the last part of the line should be changed to "We 're ' saving ' our own lives '', which his fellow musicians agreed with. Producer Jones also suggested altering the former part of the line. "One thing we do n't want to do, especially with this group, is look like we 're patting ourselves on the back. So it 's really, ' There 's a choice we 're making. ' '' Around 1: 30 am, the four musicians ended the night by finishing a chorus of melodic vocalizations, including the sound "sha - lum sha - lin - gay ''. Jones told the group that they were not to add anything else to the tape. "If we get too good, someone 's gon na start playing it on the radio, '' he announced.
On January 24, 1985, after a day of rest, Jones shipped Richie and Jackson 's vocal guide to all of the artists who would be involved in "We Are the World '' 's recording. Enclosed in the package was a letter from Jones, addressed to "My Fellow Artists '':
The cassettes are numbered, and I ca n't express how important it is not to let this material out of your hands. Please do not make copies, and return this cassette the night of the 28th. In the years to come, when your children ask, ' What did mommy and daddy do for the war against world famine? ', you can say proudly, this was your contribution.
Ken Kragen chaired a production meeting at a bungalow off Sunset Boulevard on January 25, 1985. There, Kragen and his team discussed where the recording sessions with the supergroup of musicians should take place. He stated, "The single most damaging piece of information is where we 're doing this. If that shows up anywhere, we 've got a chaotic situation that could totally destroy the project. The moment a Prince, a Michael Jackson, a Bob Dylan -- I guarantee you! -- drives up and sees a mob around that studio, he will never come in. '' On the same night, Quincy Jones ' associate producer and vocal arranger, Tom Bahler, was given the task of matching each solo line with the right voice. Bahler stated, "It 's like vocal arranging in a perfect world. '' Jones disagreed, stating that the task was like "putting a watermelon in a Coke bottle ''. The following evening, Lionel Richie held a "choreography '' session at his home, where it was decided who would stand where.
The final night of recording was held on January 28, 1985, at A&M Recording Studios in Hollywood. Michael Jackson arrived at 9 pm, earlier than the other artists, to record his solo section and record a vocal chorus by himself. He was subsequently joined in the recording studio by the remaining USA for Africa artists, who included Ray Charles, Billy Joel, Diana Ross, Cyndi Lauper, Bruce Springsteen and Smokey Robinson. Also in attendance were five of Jackson 's siblings: Jackie, La Toya, Marlon, Randy and Tito. Many of the participants came straight from an American Music Award ceremony, which had been held that same night. Invited musician Prince, who would have had a part in which he and Michael Jackson sang to each other, did not attend the recording session. The reason given for his absence has varied. One newspaper claimed that the singer did not want to record with other acts. Another report, from the time of "We Are the World '' 's recording, suggested that the musician did not want to partake in the session because organizer Bob Geldof called him a "creep ''. Prince did, however, donate an exclusive track, "4 The Tears In Your Eyes '', for the We Are the World album. In all, more than 45 of America 's top musicians participated in the recording, and another 50 had to be turned away. Upon entering the recording studio, the musicians were greeted by a sign pinned to the door which read, "Please check your egos at the door. '' They were also greeted by Stevie Wonder, who proclaimed that if the recording was not completed in one take, he and Ray Charles, two blind men, would drive everybody home.
Each of the performers took their position at around 10: 30 pm and began to sing. Several hours passed before Stevie Wonder announced that he would like to substitute a line in Swahili for the "sha - lum sha - lin - gay '' sound. At this point, Waylon Jennings left the recording studio for a short time when it was suggested by some that the song be sung in Swahili. A heated debate ensued, in which several artists also rejected the suggestion. The "sha - lum sha - lin - gay '' sound ran into opposition as well and was subsequently removed from the song. Jennings returned to the studio and participated in the recording, which bears his name in the end credits. The participants eventually decided to sing something meaningful in English. They chose to sing the new line "One world, Our children '', which most of the participants enjoyed.
In the early hours of the morning, two Ethiopian women, guests of Stevie Wonder, were brought into the recording studio -- it had been decided that a portion of the proceeds raised would be used to bring aid to those affected by the recent famine in Ethiopia. They thanked the singers on behalf of their country, bringing several artists to tears, before being led from the room. Wonder attempted to lighten the mood, by joking that the recording session gave him a chance to "see '' fellow blind musician Ray Charles. "We just sort of bumped into each other! '' The solo parts of the song were recorded without any problems. The final version of "We Are the World '' was completed at 8 am.
"We Are the World '' is sung from a first person viewpoint, allowing the audience to "internalize '' the message by singing the word we together. It has been described as "an appeal to human compassion ''. The first lines in the song 's repetitive chorus proclaim, "We are the world, we are the children, we are the ones who make a brighter day, so let 's start giving ''. "We Are the World '' opens with Lionel Richie, Stevie Wonder, Paul Simon, Kenny Rogers, James Ingram, Tina Turner and Billy Joel singing the first verse. Michael Jackson and Diana Ross follow, completing the first chorus together. Dionne Warwick, Willie Nelson and Al Jarreau sing the second verse, before Bruce Springsteen, Kenny Loggins, Steve Perry and Daryl Hall go through the second chorus. Co-writer Jackson, Huey Lewis, Cyndi Lauper and Kim Carnes follow with the song 's bridge. This structuring of the song is said to "create a sense of continuous surprise and emotional buildup ''. "We Are the World '' concludes with Bob Dylan and Ray Charles singing a full chorus, Wonder and Springsteen duetting, and ad libs from Charles and Ingram.
On March 8, 1985, "We Are the World '' was released as a single, in both 7 '' and 12 '' format. The song was the only one released from the We Are the World album and became a chart success around the world. In the US, it was a number one hit on the R&B singles chart, the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart and the Billboard Hot 100, where it remained for a month. The single had initially debuted at number 21 on the Hot 100, the highest entry since Michael Jackson 's "Thriller '' entered the charts at number 20 the year before. It took four weeks for the song to claim the number one spot -- half the time a single would normally have taken to reach its charting peak. On the Hot 100, the song moved from 21 to 5 to 2 and then number 1. "We Are the World '' might have reached the top of the Hot 100 chart sooner, if it were not for the success of Phil Collins ' "One More Night '', which received a significant level of support from both pop and rock listeners. "We Are the World '' also entered Billboard 's Top Rock Tracks and Hot Country Singles charts, where it peaked at numbers 27 and 76 respectively. The song became the first single since The Beatles ' "Let It Be '' to enter Billboard 's Top 5 within two weeks of release. Outside of the US, the single reached number one in Australia, France, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK. The song peaked at number 2 in only two countries: Germany and Austria.
The single was also a commercial success; the initial shipment of 800,000 "We Are the World '' records sold out within three days of release. The record became the fastest - selling American pop single in history. At one Tower Records store on Sunset Boulevard in West Hollywood, 1,000 copies of the song were sold in two days. Store worker Richard Petitpas commented, "A number one single sells about 100 to 125 copies a week. This is absolutely unheard of. '' By the end of 1985, "We Are the World '' had become the best selling single of the year. Five years later it was revealed that the song had become the biggest single of the 1980s. "We Are the World '' was eventually cited as the biggest selling single in both US and pop music history. The song became the first - ever single to be certified multi-platinum; it received a 4 × certification by the Recording Industry Association of America. The estimated global sales of "We Are the World '' are said to be 20 million.
Despite the song 's commercial success, "We Are the World '' received mixed reviews from journalists, music critics and the public following its release. American journalist Greil Marcus felt that the song sounded like a Pepsi jingle. He wrote, "... the constant repetition of ' There 's a choice we 're making ' conflates with Pepsi 's trademarked ' The choice of a new generation ' in a way that, on the part of Pepsi - contracted song writers Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie, is certainly not intentional, and even more certainly beyond the realm of serendipity. '' Marcus added, "In the realm of contextualization, ' We Are the World ' says less about Ethiopia than it does about Pepsi -- and the true result will likely be less that certain Ethiopian individuals will live, or anyway live a bit longer than they otherwise would have, than that Pepsi will get the catch phrase of its advertising campaign sung for free by Ray Charles, Stevie Wonder, Bruce Springsteen, and all the rest. '' Author Reebee Garofalo agreed, and expressed the opinion that the line "We 're saving our own lives '' was a "distasteful element of self - indulgence ''. He asserted that the artists of USA for Africa were proclaiming "their own salvation for singing about an issue they will never experience on behalf of a people most of them will never encounter ''.
In contrast, Stephen Holden of The New York Times praised the phrase "There 's a choice we 're making, We 're saving our own lives ''. He commented that the line assumed "an extra emotional dimension when sung by people with superstar mystiques ''. Holden expressed that the song was "an artistic triumph that transcends its official nature ''. He noted that unlike Band Aid 's "Do They Know It 's Christmas '', the vocals on "We Are the World '' were "artfully interwoven '' and emphasized the individuality of each singer. Holden concluded that "We Are the World '' was "a simple, eloquent ballad '' and a "fully - realized pop statement that would sound outstanding even if it were n't recorded by stars ''.
The song proved popular with both young and old listeners. The public enjoyed hearing a supergroup of musicians singing together on one track, and felt satisfied in buying the record, knowing that the money would go towards a good cause. People reported they bought more than one copy of the single, some buying up to five copies of the record. One mother from Columbia, Missouri purchased two copies of "We Are the World '', stating, "The record is excellent whether it 's for a cause or not. It 's fun trying to identify the different artists. It was a good feeling knowing that I was helping someone in need. ''
According to music critic and Bruce Springsteen biographer Dave Marsh, "We Are the World '' was not widely accepted within the rock music community. The author revealed that the song was "despised '' for what it was not: "a rock record, a critique of the political policies that created the famine, a way of finding out how and why famines occur, an all - inclusive representation of the entire worldwide spectrum of post-Presley popular music ''. Marsh revealed that he felt some of the criticisms were right, while others were silly. He claimed that despite the sentimentality of the song, "We Are the World '' was a large - scale pop event with serious political overtones.
"We Are the World '' was recognized with several awards following its release. At the 1986 Grammy Awards, the song and its accompanying music video won four awards: Record of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and Best Music Video, Short Form. The music video was awarded two honors at the 1985 MTV Video Music Awards. It collected the awards for Best Group Video and Viewer 's Choice. People 's Choice Awards recognized "We Are the World '' with the Favorite New Song award in 1986. In the same year, the American Music Awards named "We Are the World '' "Song of the Year '', and honored organizer Harry Belafonte with the Award of Appreciation. Collecting his award, Belafonte thanked Ken Kragen, Quincy Jones, and "the two artists who, without their great gift would not have inspired us in quite the same way as we were inspired, Mr. Lionel Richie and Mr. Michael Jackson ''. Following the speech, the majority of USA for Africa reunited on stage, closing the ceremony with "We Are the World ''.
"We Are the World '' was promoted with a music video, a video cassette, and several other items made available to the public, including books, posters, shirts and buttons. All proceeds from the sale of official USA for Africa merchandise went directly to the famine relief fund. All of the merchandise sold well; the video cassette -- entitled We Are the World: The Video Event -- documented the making of the song, and became the ninth best - selling home video of 1985. All of the video elements were produced by Howard G. Malley and Craig B. Golin along with April Lee Grebb as the production supervisor.
The music video showed the recording of "We Are the World '', and drew criticism from some. Michael Jackson joked before filming, "People will know it 's me as soon as they see the socks. Try taking footage of Bruce Springsteen 's socks and see if anyone knows who they belong to. '' Jackson was also criticized for filming and recording his solo piece privately, away from the other artists.
The song was also promoted with a special edition of the American magazine Life. The publication had been the only media outlet permitted inside A&M Recording Studios on the night of January 28, 1985. All other press organizations were barred from reporting the events leading up to and during "We Are the World '' 's recording. Life ran a cover story of the recording session in its April 1985 edition of the monthly magazine. Seven members of USA for Africa were pictured on the cover: Bob Dylan, Bruce Springsteen, Cyndi Lauper, Lionel Richie, Michael Jackson, Tina Turner and Willie Nelson. Inside the magazine were photographs of the "We Are the World '' participants working and taking breaks.
"We Are the World '' received worldwide radio coverage in the form of an international simultaneous broadcast later that year. Upon spinning the song on their local stations, Georgia radio disc jockeys, Bob Wolf and Don Briscar came up with the idea for a worldwide simulcast. They called hundreds of radio and satellite stations asking them to participate. On the morning of April 5, 1985 (Good Friday of that year) at 10: 25 am, over 8000 radio stations simultaneously broadcast the song around the world. As the song was broadcast, hundreds of people sang along on the steps of St. Patrick 's Cathedral in New York. The simultaneous radio broadcast of "We Are the World '' was repeated again the following Good Friday.
"We Are the World '' gained further promotion and coverage on May 25, 1986, when it was played during a major benefit event held throughout the US. Hands Across America -- USA for Africa 's follow - up project -- was an event in which millions of people formed a human chain across the US. The event was held to draw attention to hunger and homelessness in the United States. "We Are the World '' 's co-writer, Michael Jackson, had wanted his song to be the official theme for the event. The other board members of USA for Africa outvoted the singer, and it was instead decided that a new song would be created and released for the event, titled "Hands Across America ''. When released, the new song did not achieve the level of success that "We Are the World '' did, and the decision to use it as the official theme for the event led to Jackson -- who co-owned the publishing rights to "We Are the World '' -- resigning from the board of directors of USA for Africa.
Four months after the release of "We Are the World '', USA for Africa had taken in almost $10.8 million (equivalent to $24 million today). The majority of the money came from record sales within the US. Members of the public also donated money -- almost $1.3 million within the same time period. In May 1985, USA for Africa officials estimated that they had sold between $45 million and $47 million worth of official merchandise around the world. Organizer Ken Kragen announced that they would not be distributing all of the money at once. Instead, he revealed that the foundation would be looking into finding a long - term solution for Africa 's problems. "We could go out and spend it all in one shot. Maybe we 'd save some lives in the short term but it would be like putting a Band - Aid over a serious wound. '' Kragen noted that experts had predicted that it would take at least 10 to 20 years to make a slight difference to Africa 's long - term problems.
In June 1985, the first USA for Africa cargo jet carrying food, medicine and clothing departed for Ethiopia and Sudan. It stopped en route in New York, where 15,000 T - shirts were added to the cargo. Included in the supplies were high - protein biscuits, high - protein vitamins, medicine, tents, blankets and refrigeration equipment. Harry Belafonte, representing the USA for Africa musicians, visited Sudan in the same month. The trip was his last stop on a four - nation tour of Africa. Tanzanian Prime Minister Salim Ahmed Salim greeted and praised Belafonte, telling him, "I personally and the people of Tanzania are moved by this tremendous example of human solidarity. ''
One year after the release of "We Are the World '', organizers noted that $44.5 million had been raised for USA for Africa 's humanitarian fund. They stated that they were confident that they would reach an initial set target of $50 million (equivalent to $109 million in 2017). By October 1986, it was revealed that their $50 million target had been met and exceeded; CBS Records gave USA for Africa a check for $2.5 million, drawing the total amount of money to $51.2 million. USA for Africa 's Hands Across America event had also raised a significant amount of money -- approximately $24.5 million for the hungry in the US.
Since its release, "We Are the World '' has raised over $63 million (equivalent to $138 million today) for humanitarian causes. Ninety percent of the money was pledged to African relief, both long and short term. The long - term initiative included efforts in birth control and food production. The remaining 10 percent of funds was earmarked for domestic hunger and homeless programs in the US. From the African fund, over 70 recovery and development projects were launched in seven African nations. Such projects included aid in agriculture, fishing, water management, manufacturing and reforestation. Training programs were also developed in the African countries of Mozambique, Senegal, Chad, Mauritania, Burkina Faso and Mali.
Elias Kifle Maraim Beyene, a survivor from Ethiopia being asked about his memory of Michael Jackson after his death remembers: "I wo n't ever forget Michael Jackson because his contribution to the song We are the World had a very significant effect on my life. I am 50 now but 25 years ago I was living in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, which at that time was suffering from a long drought and famine. It was a terrible situation. Lots of people became sick and many more died. Around one million people in all were killed by the famine. In 1984 Michael Jackson, along with a number of other leading musicians, made the song We are the World to raise money for Africa. We received a lot of aid from the world and I was one of those who directly benefitted from it. The wheat flour that was distributed to the famine victims was different to the usual cereal we bought at the market. We baked a special bread from it. The local people named the bread after the great artist and it became known as Michael Bread. It was soft and delicious.
When you have been through such hard times you never forget events like this. If you speak to anyone who was in Addis Ababa at that time they will all know what Michael Bread is and I know I will remember it for the rest of my life. (...) ''
"We Are the World '' has been performed live by members of USA for Africa on several occasions both together and individually. One of the earliest such performances came in 1985, during the rock music concert Live Aid, which ended with more than 100 musicians singing the song on stage. Harry Belafonte and Lionel Richie made surprise appearances for the live rendition of the song. Michael Jackson would have joined the artists, but was "working around the clock in the studio on a project that he 's made a major commitment to '', according to his press agent, Norman Winter.
An inaugural celebration was held for US President - elect Bill Clinton in January 1993. The event was staged by Clinton 's Hollywood friends at the Lincoln Memorial and drew hundreds of thousands of people. Aretha Franklin, LL Cool J, Michael Bolton and Tony Bennett were among some of the musicians in attendance. Said Jones, "I 've never seen so many great performers come together with so much love and selflessness. '' The celebration included a performance of "We Are the World '', which involved Clinton, his daughter Chelsea, and his wife Hillary singing the song along with USA for Africa 's Kenny Rogers, Diana Ross and Michael Jackson. The New York Times ' Edward Rothstein commented on the event, stating, "The most enduring image may be of Mr. Clinton singing along in ' We Are the World ', the first President to aspire, however futilely, to hipness. ''
As a prelude to his song "Heal the World '', "We Are the World '' was performed as an interlude during two of Michael Jackson 's tours, the Dangerous World Tour from 1992 to 1993 and the HIStory World Tour from 1996 to 1997. Jackson briefly perform the song with a chorus at the 2006 World Music Award in London, in his last live public performance. Jackson planned to use the song for his This Is It comeback concerts at The O2 Arena in London from 2009 to 2010, but the shows were cancelled due to his sudden death.
Michael Jackson died in June 2009, after suffering a cardiac arrest. His memorial service was held several days later on July 7, and was reported to have been viewed by more than three billion people. The finale of the event featured group renditions of the Jackson anthems "We Are the World '' and "Heal the World ''. The singalong of "We Are the World '' was led by Darryl Phinnessee, who had worked with Jackson since the late 1980s. It also featured co-writer Lionel Richie and Jackson 's family, including his children. Following the performance, "We Are the World '' re-entered the US charts for the first time since its 1985 release. The song debuted at number 50 on Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs chart.
On January 12, 2010, Haiti was struck by a magnitude - 7.0 earthquake, the country 's most severe earthquake in over 200 years. The epicenter of the quake was just outside the Haitian capital Port - au - Prince. Over 230,000 civilians have been confirmed dead by the Haitian government because of the disaster and around 300,000 have been injured. Approximately 1.2 million people are homeless and it has been reported that the lack of temporary shelter may lead to the outbreak of disease.
To raise money for earthquake victims, a new celebrity version of "We Are the World '' was recorded on February 1, 2010, and released on February 12, 2010. Over 75 musicians were involved in the remake, which was recorded in the same studio as the 1985 original. The new version features revised lyrics as well as a rap segment pertaining to Haiti. Michael Jackson 's younger sister Janet duets with her late brother on the track, as per a request from their mother Katherine. In the video and on the track, archive material of Michael Jackson is used from the original 1985 recording.
On February 20, 2010, a non-celebrity remake, "We Are the World 25 for Haiti (YouTube Edition) '', was posted to the video sharing website YouTube. Internet personality and singer - songwriter Lisa Lavie conceived and organized the Internet collaboration of 57 unsigned or independent YouTube musicians geographically distributed around the world. Lavie 's 2010 YouTube version, a cover of the 1985 original, excludes the rap segment and minimizes the Auto - tune that characterizes the 2010 celebrity remake. Another 2010 remake of the original is the Spanish - language "Somos El Mundo ''. It was written by Emilio Estefan and his wife Gloria Estefan, and produced by Emilio, Quincy Jones and Univision Communications, the company that funded the project.
"We Are the World '' has been recognized as a politically important song, which "affected an international focus on Africa that was simply unprecedented ''. It has been credited with creating a climate in which musicians from around the world felt inclined to follow. According to The New York Times ' Stephen Holden, since the release of "We Are the World '', it has been noted that movement has been made within popular music to create songs that address humanitarian concerns. "We Are the World '' was also influential in subverting the way music and meaning were produced, showing that musically and racially diverse musicians could work together both productively and creatively. Ebony described the January 28 recording session, in which Quincy Jones brought together a multi-racial group, as being "a major moment in world music that showed we can change the world ''. "We Are the World '', along with Live Aid and Farm Aid, demonstrated that rock music had become more than entertainment, but a political and social movement. Journalist Robert Palmer noted that such songs and events had the ability to reach people around the world, send them a message, and then get results.
Since the release of "We Are the World '', and the Band Aid single that influenced it, numerous songs have been recorded in a similar fashion, with the intent to aid disaster victims throughout the world. One such example involved a supergroup of Latin musicians billed as "Hermanos del Tercer Mundo '', or "Brothers of the Third World ''. Among the supergroup of 62 recording artists were Julio Iglesias, José Feliciano and Sérgio Mendes. Their famine relief song was recorded in the same studio as "We Are the World ''. Half of the profits raised from the charity single was pledged to USA for Africa. The rest of the money was to be used for impoverished Latin American countries. Another notable example is the 1989 cover of the Deep Purple song "Smoke on the Water '' by a supergroup of hard rock, prog rock, and heavy metal musicians collaborating as Rock Aid Armenia to raise money for victims of the devastating 1988 Armenian earthquake.
The 20th anniversary of "We Are the World '' was celebrated in 2005. Radio stations around the world paid homage to USA for Africa 's creation by simultaneously broadcasting the charity song. In addition to the simulcast, the milestone was marked by the release of a two - disc DVD called We Are the World: The Story Behind the Song. Ken Kragen asserted that the reason behind the simulcast and DVD release was not for USA for Africa to praise themselves for doing a good job, but to "use it to do some more good (for the original charity). That 's all we care about accomplishing. '' Harry Belafonte also commented on the 20th anniversary of the song. The entertainer acknowledged that "We Are the World '' had "stood the test of time ''; anyone old enough to remember it can still at least hum along.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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summary of the poem the cloud written by pb shelley | The Cloud (poem) - wikipedia
"The Cloud '' is a major 1820 poem written by Percy Bysshe Shelley. "The Cloud '' was written during late 1819 or early 1820, and submitted for publication on 12 July 1820. The work was published in the 1820 collection Prometheus Unbound, A Lyrical Drama, in Four Acts, With Other Poems by Charles and James Ollier in London in August 1820. The work was proof - read by John Gisborne. There were multiple drafts of the poem. The poem consists of six stanzas in anapestic or antidactylus meter, a foot with two unaccented syllables followed by an accented syllable.
The cloud is a metaphor for the unending cycle of nature: "I silently laugh at my own cenotaph /... I arise and unbuild it again. '' As with the wind and the leaves in "Ode to the West Wind '', the skylark in "To a Skylark '', and the plant in "The Sensitive Plant '', Shelley endows the cloud with sentient traits that personify the forces of nature.
In "The Cloud '', Shelley relies on the imagery of transformation or metamorphosis, a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth: "I change, but I can not die. '' Mutability or change is a fact of physical nature.
Lightning or electricity is the "pilot '' or guide for the cloud. Lightning is attracted to the "genii '' in the earth which results in lightning flashes. The genii symbolize the positive charge of the surface of the earth while the cloud possesses a negative charge.
British scientist and poet Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles Darwin, had written about plant life and science in the poem collection The Botanic Garden (1791) and on "spontaneous vitality '', that "microscopic animals are said to remain dead for many days or weeks... and quickly to recover life and motion '' when water and heat are added, in The Temple of Nature (1803). Percy Bysshe Shelley had cited Darwin in his Preface to the anonymously published novel Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818), explaining how the novel was written and its meaning. He argued that imparting life to a corpse "as not of impossible occurrence ''.
The cloud is a personification and a metaphor for the perpetual cycle of transformation and change in nature. All life and matter are interconnected and undergo unending change and metamorphosis.
A review of the 1820 Prometheus Unbound collection in the September and October 1821 issues of The London Magazine noted the originality of "The Cloud '': "It is impossible to peruse them without admiring the peculiar property of the author 's mind, which can doff in an instant the cumbersome garments of metaphysical speculations, and throw itself naked as it were into the arms of nature and humanity. The beautiful and singularly original poem of ' The Cloud ' will evince proofs of our opinion, and show the extreme force and freshness with which the writer can impregnate his poetry. ''
In the October 1821 issue of Quarterly Review, W.S. Walker argued that "The Cloud '' is related to Prometheus Unbound in that they are both absurd and "galimatias ''.
John Todhunter wrote in 1880 that "The Cloud '' and "To a Skylark '' were "the two most popular of Shelley 's lyrics ''.
In 1889, Francis Thompson asserted that "The Cloud '' was the "most typically Shelleyan of all the poems '' because it contained "the child 's faculty of make - believe raised to the nth power '' and that "He is still at play, save only that his play is such as manhood stops to watch, and his playthings are those which the gods give their children. The universe is his box of toys. He dabbles his fingers in the dayfall. He is gold - dusty with tumbling amidst the stars. ''
On 20 April 1919, a silent black and white movie was released in the US entitled The Cloud which was "a visual poem featuring clouds and landscapes in accompaniment to the words of Shelley 's poem ' The Cloud '. '' The film was directed by W.A. Van Scoy and produced by the Post Nature Pictures company.
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what was the last marvel movie to come out | List of Marvel Cinematic Universe films - wikipedia
The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films are an American series of superhero films, based on characters that appear in publications by Marvel Comics. The films have been in production since 2007, and in that time Marvel Studios has produced 20 films, with 11 more in various stages of production. It is the highest - grossing film franchise of all time, having grossed over $17.5 billion at the global box office.
Kevin Feige has produced every film in the series. Avi Arad served as a producer on the first two releases, Gale Anne Hurd also produced The Incredible Hulk, Amy Pascal produced the Spider - Man films, and Stephen Broussard produced Ant - Man and the Wasp. The films are written and directed by a variety of individuals and feature large, often ensemble, casts. Many of the actors, including Robert Downey Jr., Chris Evans, Chris Hemsworth, Samuel L. Jackson, and Scarlett Johansson signed contracts to star in numerous films.
The first film in the series was Iron Man (2008), which was distributed by Paramount Pictures. Paramount also distributed Iron Man 2 (2010), Thor (2011) and Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), while Universal Pictures distributed The Incredible Hulk (2008). Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures began distributing the films with the 2012 crossover film The Avengers, which concluded Phase One of the franchise. Phase Two includes Iron Man 3 (2013), Thor: The Dark World (2013), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), and Ant - Man (2015).
Captain America: Civil War (2016) is the first film in the franchise 's Phase Three, and is followed by Doctor Strange (2016), Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (2017), Spider - Man: Homecoming (2017), Thor: Ragnarok (2017), Black Panther (2018), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), and Ant - Man and the Wasp (2018), with Captain Marvel (2019) and an untitled Avengers film (2019) still scheduled for the phase. Sony Pictures distributes the Spider - Man films, which they continue to own, finance, and have final creative control over.
Spider - Man: Far From Home has been scheduled for 2019, alongside two untitled films scheduled for 2020, three untitled films scheduled for 2021, and three untitled films scheduled for 2022. Feige has indicated that Marvel may abandon the phase grouping after the conclusion of Phase Three.
Billionaire industrialist Tony Stark builds himself a suit of armor after he is taken captive by a terrorist organization. Free from his captors, he decides to upgrade and don his armor in order to hunt down weapons that were sold under the table.
In April 2006, Marvel hired Jon Favreau to direct Iron Man, with the writing teams of Art Marcum and Matt Holloway and Mark Fergus and Hawk Ostby writing competing scripts. Favreau consolidated both into one script, which was then polished by John August. Robert Downey, Jr. was cast in the title role in September 2006, after growing out a goatee and working out to convince the filmmakers he was right for the part. Principal photography began on March 12, 2007, with the first few weeks spent on Stark 's captivity in Afghanistan, which was filmed in Inyo County, California. Production also occurred on the former Hughes Company soundstages in Playa Vista, Los Angeles, California, with additional filming at Edwards Air Force Base and Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. Iron Man premiered at the Greater Union theater in George Street, Sydney, on April 14, 2008, and was released internationally on April 30, and in the United States on May 2.
The film ends with a post-credits scene featuring Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury, who approaches Stark regarding the "Avenger Initiative ''. Favreau said that he included the scene as "a little tip of the hat for the fans... a way to sort of tee up The Avengers. '' Jackson was only on set for a day, with a skeleton crew to avoid the news of his cameo leaking. Captain America 's shield is also visible in the background of a scene; it was added by an ILM artist as a joke, and Favreau decided to leave it in the film.
After being exposed to gamma radiation that causes him to transform into the monstrous Hulk, scientist Bruce Banner goes on the run and isolates himself from his love, Betty Ross. Hunted by the military, Banner seeks to cure himself and prevent his condition from being weaponized.
In January 2006, Marvel reclaimed the film rights for the Hulk character from Universal Pictures after Universal failed to meet a deadline to develop a sequel to director Ang Lee 's 2003 film Hulk. Universal retained distribution rights for future Hulk films. Instead of moving forward with a sequel, Marvel hired Louis Leterrier to direct The Incredible Hulk, a reboot. Leterrier initially turned down the job out of respect for Lee, but later reconsidered and signed on. The script was written by Zak Penn, who drafted a treatment for the 2003 film. In April 2006, Edward Norton entered negotiations to portray Bruce Banner and rewrite Penn 's script, although Penn received sole credit for the screenplay. Production began on July 9, 2007 and filming primarily took place in Toronto, with additional filming in New York City and Rio de Janeiro. The film premiered at the Gibson Amphitheatre on June 8, 2008, and was released on June 13.
The film takes place simultaneously with the events of Iron Man 2 and Thor, the former of which is set six months after the events of Iron Man. Downey briefly reprised his role from Iron Man as Tony Stark in a cameo appearance at the end of the film. Downey said that the filmmakers "were just cross-pollinating our superheroes. It happens to be a scene where I basically approach (actor William Hurt 's character General Ross), and we may be considering going into some sort of limited partnership together. The great thing is he -- and I do n't want to give too much away -- but he 's in disrepair at the time I find him. It was really fun seeing him play this really powerful character who 's half in the bag. '' In addition, Captain America is briefly seen frozen in ice in an alternate opening of the film, included in the DVD release.
After Tony Stark reveals himself to be Iron Man, the U.S. government demands he hand over his technology. Meanwhile, a rival industrialist and a Russian scientist conspire to use his own technology against him.
Immediately following the successful release of Iron Man in May 2008, Marvel Studios announced it was developing a sequel, Iron Man 2. Favreau returned as director and Justin Theroux was hired to write the screenplay, which would be based on an original story by Favreau and Downey. In October 2008, Downey signed a new four - picture deal, that retroactively included the first film, to reprise his role and Don Cheadle was hired to replace Terrence Howard as James Rhodes. Jackson signed on to reprise his role as Nick Fury from the Iron Man post-credits sequence in up to nine films, and Scarlett Johansson was cast as the Black Widow, as part of a multi-film commitment. Principal photography began April 6, 2009, at the Pasadena Masonic Temple in Pasadena, California. The majority of filming took place at Raleigh Studios in Manhattan Beach, California. Other locations included Edwards Air Force Base, Monaco, and the Sepulveda Dam. Iron Man 2 premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California on April 26, 2010, and was released internationally between April 28 and May 7 before releasing in the United States on May 7.
The film is set six months after the events of Iron Man, and takes place simultaneously with the events of The Incredible Hulk and Thor. The filmmakers continued to refer to other Marvel films by again including Captain America 's shield. Favreau explained, "We introduced Captain America 's shield briefly in one shot in the last film. So now it really was in his room, so we had to figure out how to deal with the reality that the shield was in his workshop. '' A scene toward the end of Iron Man 2 in a S.H.I.E.L.D. safe house contains several Easter eggs, ranging from footage from The Incredible Hulk displayed on a monitor to pointers on a map indicating several locales related to other Marvel films, including one pointing toward a region of Africa in reference to the Black Panther. A young Peter Parker appears as the child wearing an Iron Man mask whom Stark saves from a drone; the appearance was confirmed in June 2017 by Spider - Man actor Tom Holland, Kevin Feige and Spider - Man: Homecoming director Jon Watts. The film 's post-credits scene showed the discovery of Thor 's hammer in a crater.
Thor, crown prince of Asgard, is banished to Earth and stripped of his powers after he reignites a dormant war. As his brother, Loki, plots to take the throne for himself, Thor must prove himself worthy and reclaim his hammer Mjölnir.
Mark Protosevich was hired to develop a script for Thor in April 2006, after the rights were acquired from Sony Pictures. In August 2007 Marvel hired Matthew Vaughn to direct the film, however he exited the project in May 2008. In September 2008, Kenneth Branagh entered into negotiations to replace Vaughn. In May 2009, Chris Hemsworth was in negotiations to portray the titular character, and Tom Hiddleston was set to play his brother, Loki. Both actors were contracted to star in several films. Marvel hired the writing team of Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz to write a new script for the film, which was then rewritten by Don Payne. Production began on January 11, 2010 in Los Angeles, California, before moving to Galisteo, New Mexico in March. Thor had its world premiere on April 17, 2011 at the Event Cinemas theatre in George Street, Sydney and a U.S. premiere on May 2 at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California. The film was released internationally from April 21 to 30, and on May 6 in the United States.
The film takes place simultaneously with the events of The Incredible Hulk and Iron Man 2, the latter of which is set six months after the events of Iron Man. Clark Gregg, who appeared in Iron Man and Iron Man 2 as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson, reprised the role in Thor. About his role in Thor he stated, "Agent Coulson was one of the guys who was n't really in the comic books, and he (had) a very kind of small role in Iron Man. And I was just very lucky that they chose to expand that character and (chose) to put him more into the universe of it. '' After signing on to appear as Clint Barton / Hawkeye in The Avengers, Jeremy Renner made a cameo appearance as the character during a scene in Thor. Branagh said that they "were always going to have a guy in a basket above the action where Thor breaks in the S.H.I.E.L.D. camp '', and that he was thrilled when the producers told him they wanted to use Renner 's Hawkeye for that role. The film ends with a post-credits scene featuring Loki, watching as Erik Selvig and Nick Fury discuss the Tesseract. The scene was directed by Joss Whedon, who directed The Avengers. Stellan Skarsgård, who played Selvig, said the scene was not included when he first read the screenplay for Thor, and that he was sent pages for the scene after agreeing to appear in The Avengers.
In 1942, Steve Rogers is deemed physically unfit to enlist in the U.S. Army and fight the German Reich in World War II. Recruited for a secret military operation, he is physically transformed into a super-soldier dubbed Captain America and must battle the Red Skull, head of a Nazi science division known as Hydra.
In April 2006, Marvel hired David Self to write the script for a Captain America film. Joe Johnston signed on to direct in November 2008, and Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely were hired to rewrite the script. In March 2010, Chris Evans was cast as Captain America and Hugo Weaving was cast as the Red Skull. Production began on June 28, 2010 in the United Kingdom, with locations in London, Caerwent, Manchester and Liverpool. The film premiered on July 19, 2011, at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California, and was released in the United States on July 22, and in international markets starting July 27.
The Tesseract from the Thor post-credits scene appears as a MacGuffin in Captain America: The First Avenger. In the film, Dominic Cooper portrays a young Howard Stark, the father of Tony Stark, who hosts an early version of the Stark Expo, the fair Tony hosts in Iron Man 2. The final scene of the film includes a brief appearance by Jackson 's Nick Fury followed by a teaser trailer for Marvel 's The Avengers after the credits.
Nick Fury, the director of S.H.I.E.L.D., gathers the superheroes Iron Man, Thor, Captain America, the Hulk, Black Widow and Hawkeye to fight Thor 's brother Loki, who plots to subjugate the Earth.
Zak Penn, who wrote The Incredible Hulk, was hired to write a script for The Avengers in June 2007. In April 2010, Joss Whedon closed a deal to direct the film, and to rework Penn 's script. Marvel announced that Edward Norton would not be reprising the role of Bruce Banner / Hulk, and in July 2010, Mark Ruffalo was cast in his place. Downey, Evans, Hemsworth, Johansson, Renner, Hiddleston and Jackson reprised their respective roles from previous films. Principal photography began in April 2011 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, before moving to Cleveland, Ohio in August, and New York City in September. The premiere was held on April 11, 2012 at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California, and the film was released in the United States on May 4.
Gwyneth Paltrow, who portrayed Pepper Potts in Iron Man and Iron Man 2, was included in the film at Downey 's insistence. Prior to this, Whedon had not intended the film to include supporting characters from the heroes ' individual films, commenting, "You need to separate the characters from their support systems in order to create the isolation you need for a team. '' Avi Arad said that Sony Pictures and Disney discussed incorporating the OsCorp Tower from The Amazing Spider - Man into the climax of The Avengers, but Feige said that "the deal was never close to happening. '' The supervillain Thanos appears in a mid-credits scene, portrayed by Damion Poitier.
Tony Stark faces a powerful enemy, the Mandarin, who attacks and destroys his mansion. Left to his own devices and battling posttraumatic stress disorder, Stark struggles to get to the bottom of a series of mysterious explosions.
In late 2010, Marvel and Disney announced that they were developing a third Iron Man film. In February 2011, Marvel hired Shane Black to direct Iron Man 3. Black co-wrote the film 's script with Drew Pearce. Downey, Paltrow, and Cheadle reprised their roles from Iron Man 2, while Guy Pearce and Ben Kingsley joined the cast as Aldrich Killian and Trevor Slattery, respectively. Filming began in May 2012, in North Carolina. Additional filming took place in southern Florida, China, and Los Angeles. Iron Man 3 premiered at Le Grand Rex in Paris, France on April 14, 2013 and at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California on April 24. The film was released internationally on April 25, and in the United States on May 3.
The film is set in December 2013, after the events of The Avengers. In the film Tony Stark experiences PTSD - like symptoms following the Battle of New York in The Avengers. Black explained, "that 's an anxiety response to feeling inferior to The Avengers, but also to being humbled by sights he can not possibly begin to understand or reconcile with the realities he 's used to... There 's a line in the movie about ' ever since that big guy with the hammer fell out of the sky, the rules have changed '. That 's what we 're dealing with here. '' Bruce Banner appears in a post-credits scene, with Ruffalo reprising the role. About the scene, Ruffalo said "They were about to wrap the movie and I saw Robert (Downey, Jr.) at the Academy Awards... and he said, ' What do you think about coming and doing a day? ' I said, ' Are you kidding me? Bang, let 's do it! ' We sort of spitballed that scene, then I came in and we shot for a couple of hours and laughed. ''
Thor reunites with astrophysicist Jane Foster as a series of portals, linking worlds at random, begin to appear. He discovers that Malekith and his army of Dark Elves have returned after thousands of years, and they seek a powerful weapon known as the Aether. Thor must join forces with his now - imprisoned brother Loki to stop them.
A sequel to Thor was first announced in June 2011, with Hemsworth reprising his role as Thor. Hiddleston confirmed he would return as Loki in September, and Alan Taylor signed on to direct the film in December. The film 's title was announced as Thor: The Dark World in July 2012 at the San Diego Comic - Con International, and Christopher Eccleston was cast as Malekith a month later. Production started in September 2012 in Bourne Wood, Surrey, with additional filming taking place in Iceland and London. The film premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on October 22, 2013. It was internationally released on October 30, 2013 and on November 8, 2013 in the United States.
The film is set one year after the events of The Avengers. Evans briefly makes a cameo appearance in the film as Captain America when Loki shapeshifts into him while mocking Thor. Hiddleston wore the Captain America costume while standing in for Evans, before Evans came to shoot the scene. Hiddleston said, "I did an impression of Loki in the Captain America costume, and then they showed Chris (Evans) my performance on tape. It 's him doing an impression of me doing an impression of him. And it 's brilliant. '' James Gunn, the director of Guardians of the Galaxy, directed the mid-credits scene that featured the Collector, played by Benicio del Toro. Asked about shooting the scene, Gunn said, "I got the script that morning, and I did it in two hours at the end of a day of second unit shooting (for Guardians of the Galaxy). ''
Steve Rogers, now working with S.H.I.E.L.D., teams up with Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow and Sam Wilson / Falcon to expose a deep conspiracy which involves a mysterious assassin known only as the Winter Soldier.
A sequel to 2011 's Captain America: The First Avenger was announced in April 2012. Anthony and Joe Russo were hired to direct in June, and in July it was officially titled Captain America: The Winter Soldier. Evans and Jackson were set to reprise their respective roles as Captain America and Nick Fury, and Johansson would again play the Black Widow. Sebastian Stan, who portrayed Bucky Barnes in Captain America: The First Avenger, returned as the Winter Soldier. Production started in April 2013 in Manhattan Beach, California, and filming also took place in Washington, D.C. and Cleveland, Ohio. The film premiered in Los Angeles on March 13, 2014. Captain America: The Winter Soldier was released internationally on March 26 and in the United States on April 4.
The film is set two years after the events of The Avengers. Stephen Strange, the alter - ego of the Marvel superhero Doctor Strange, is mentioned by name in the film by the character Jasper Sitwell. A remodeled Stark Tower from The Avengers, now known as Avengers Tower, also makes an appearance in the film. Whedon directed a post-credits scene featuring Baron Wolfgang von Strucker (Thomas Kretschmann), List (Henry Goodman), Quicksilver (Aaron Taylor - Johnson), and the Scarlet Witch (Elizabeth Olsen), who appear in Avengers: Age of Ultron. The revelation in the film that S.H.I.E.L.D. had been infiltrated by Hydra informed the final six episodes of the first season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., a television series set in the MCU.
Peter Quill / Star - Lord and a group of misfits, including Gamora, Rocket, Drax the Destroyer and Groot, fight to keep a powerful orb from the clutches of the villainous Ronan.
Nicole Perlman began writing a screenplay in 2009. Marvel Studios announced it was developing a Guardians of the Galaxy film in July 2012. The film is directed by James Gunn, based on his and Perlman 's screenplay. In February 2013, Chris Pratt was cast in the lead role, as Peter Quill / Star - Lord. The film was shot at Shepperton Studios and in London from July to October 2013, and post-production work was completed on July 7, 2014. The film premiered on July 21, 2014 in Hollywood. Guardians of the Galaxy was released in the United Kingdom on July 31, 2014, and in the United States on August 1.
The film is set in 2014. Josh Brolin provides the voice and performance capture for Thanos, the supervillain who appeared in The Avengers mid-credits scene. Gunn noted that the film would be connected to Avengers: Infinity War. Several other objects of significance appear in the Collector 's museum, including a Chitauri from The Avengers and a Dark Elf from Thor: The Dark World, among other characters. About their appearances Gunn said, "There 's a lot of stuff in the Collector 's Museum. And for me, it was mostly just really fun. As a Marvel fan, giving the actual fans something that they can freeze frame on their Blu - Ray at home and just kind of pick out everything that 's in there. So there are, I mean, seriously all those boxes have something interesting in them, so it 's pretty fun. '' Ronan 's race, the Kree, were first introduced in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "T.A.H.I.T.I. ''.
Captain America, Iron Man, Thor, the Hulk, Black Widow, and Hawkeye must work together as the Avengers to defeat Ultron, a technological enemy bent on human extinction, while encountering the powerful twins Pietro and Wanda Maximoff, as well as the new entity Vision.
A sequel to The Avengers was announced by Disney in May 2012, shortly after the first film 's release. In August 2012, Joss Whedon was signed to return as writer and director. In June 2013, Downey signed a deal to reprise the role of Iron Man for the second and third Avengers films. On July 20, 2013, at San Diego Comic - Con International, Whedon announced that the subtitle of the film would be Age of Ultron. In August 2013, James Spader was announced to portray Ultron. Second unit filming began on February 11, 2014 in Johannesburg, South Africa. Principal photography began in March 2014 at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England, with additional footage filmed at Fort Bard and various other locations in the Aosta Valley region of Italy, and Seoul, South Korea. Filming was completed on August 6, 2014. Avengers: Age of Ultron had its world premiere in Los Angeles on April 13, 2015, and was released internationally beginning April 22, and on May 1 in the United States.
The film confirms that the gem in Loki 's scepter is an Infinity Stone, specifically the Mind Stone, and Brolin reappears as Thanos in the mid-credit scene wielding an Infinity Gauntlet. It also features references to Vibranium and Wakanda, both connections to Black Panther, introducing both to the universe ahead of Black Panther 's solo film. Additionally, Andy Serkis portrays Ulysses Klaue in the film, traditionally a Black Panther antagonist.
Thief Scott Lang must aid his mentor Dr. Hank Pym in safeguarding the mystery of the Ant - Man technology, which allows its user to decrease in size but increase in strength, from various menaces and plot a heist to defend the Earth.
Ant - Man is directed by Peyton Reed with a screenplay written by Edgar Wright & Joe Cornish and Adam McKay & Paul Rudd, from a story by Wright & Cornish, that includes both Scott Lang and Hank Pym. Edgar Wright was initially slated to direct and write the film, but left the project in May 2014 due to creative differences. In January 2013, Feige stated that Ant - Man would be the first film in Phase Three of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. However, in October 2014, it was revealed that the film would be the last film of Phase Two. Pre-production started in October 2013, and principal photography took place from August to December 2014, in San Francisco, Fayette County, Georgia at Pinewood Atlanta, and Downtown Atlanta. In December 2013, Rudd was cast as Ant - Man, followed in January 2014 with the casting of Michael Douglas as Pym and the confirmation of Rudd as Lang. Ant - Man had its world premiere in Los Angeles on June 29, 2015, and was released in France on July 14, and in the United States on July 17.
The film is set several months after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron. Scott Lang attempts to infiltrate the new Avengers headquarters in Upstate New York featured in Age of Ultron, and confronts Sam Wilson / Falcon, played by Anthony Mackie. McKay and Rudd decided to add Falcon to Ant - Man after watching Captain America: The Winter Soldier. The Russo brothers filmed the post-credit scene, which was footage from Captain America: Civil War, and features Mackie as Falcon, Chris Evans as Steve Rogers / Captain America, and Sebastian Stan as Bucky Barnes / Winter Soldier.
The Avengers become fractured into two opposing teams, one led by Captain America and another by Iron Man, after extensive collateral damage prompts politicians to pass an act regulating superhuman activity with government oversight and accountability for the Avengers while also facing against a new enemy, Helmut Zemo, who seeks revenge upon the Avengers.
By January 2014, Anthony and Joe Russo had signed on to return to direct a third Captain America installment, which they confirmed in March 2014, with Chris Evans returning as Captain America, Feige returning to produce, and Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely writing the screenplay. In October 2014, the title was officially announced as Captain America: Civil War along with the reveal that Downey would appear in the film as Tony Stark / Iron Man. The film is an adaptation from the "Civil War '' storyline in the comics. It is also the first film of Phase Three. Filming began in April 2015 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in August 2015. Captain America: Civil War had its premiere in Hollywood on April 12, 2016, was released internationally beginning April 27, and was released on May 6 in the United States.
The film is set one year after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron. Captain America: Civil War introduces Tom Holland as Peter Parker / Spider - Man and Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther to the MCU, who appear in solo films in 2017 and 2018, respectively. William Hurt reprises his role as Thunderbolt Ross from The Incredible Hulk, and is now the US Secretary of State. For the mid-credits scene, in which Black Panther offers Captain America and Bucky Barnes asylum in Wakanda, Joe and Anthony Russo received input from Black Panther director Ryan Coogler on the look and design of Wakanda.
After Stephen Strange, the world 's top neurosurgeon, is involved in a car accident that ruins his career, he sets out on a journey of healing, where he encounters the Ancient One, who teaches Strange the use of Mystic Arts and to defend the Earth from mystical threats.
In June 2010, Thomas Dean Donnelly and Joshua Oppenheimer were hired to write the screenplay for a film starring the character Doctor Strange. In January 2013, Kevin Feige confirmed that Doctor Strange would be a part of their Phase Three slate of films. In June 2014, Scott Derrickson was hired to direct. In December 2014, Benedict Cumberbatch was cast in the eponymous role, and Jon Spaihts was confirmed to rewrite the script. In December 2015, C. Robert Cargill revealed he was a co-writer on the film, and the following April, revealed that Derrickson also wrote the script. Pre-production began in June 2014, with filming beginning in November 2015 in Nepal, before moving to Longcross Studios in the UK later in the month. Filming concluded in New York City in April 2016. Doctor Strange had its premiere in Hong Kong on October 13, 2016, and was released in the United Kingdom on October 25, 2016, and on November 4 in the United States.
Derrickson stated that the events of the film take "roughly '' a year, ending "up to date with the rest of the MCU ''. Doctor Strange introduces the Eye of Agamotto, a mystical relic that can manipulate time and is revealed to be an Infinity Stone at the end of the film, specifically the Time Stone. The film 's mid-credits scene features a cameo appearance by Hemsworth as Thor, meeting with Strange, which was footage from Thor: Ragnarok. The scene was directed by Ragnarok director Taika Waititi.
The Guardians of the Galaxy travel throughout the cosmos and struggle to keep their newfound family together while helping Peter Quill learn more about his true parentage and facing against new enemies.
In July 2014, Guardians of the Galaxy co-writer Nicole Perlman confirmed that Gunn would return to write and direct the sequel. Chris Pratt returns for the sequel as Peter Quill / Star - Lord, along with the other Guardians from the first film as well as additional cast members. They are joined by Pom Klementieff as Mantis, and Kurt Russell as Ego. In June 2015, the film 's title was revealed as Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Filming began in February 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in June 2016. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 premiered in Tokyo on April 10, 2017, and was released on May 5, 2017.
The film is set two - to - three months after the events of Guardians of the Galaxy, in 2014. One of the film 's post-credit sequences hints at the introduction of Adam Warlock, after Gunn originally intended for Warlock to make a full appearance in Vol. 2. He noted that Warlock could appear in future Guardians films, and is considered "a pretty important part '' of the cosmic side of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The Grandmaster, played by Jeff Goldblum, is seen dancing in the end credits, before his appearance in Thor: Ragnarok.
Peter Parker tries to balance being the hero Spider - Man with his high school life under guidance of Tony Stark as he deals with the threat of the Vulture.
On February 9, 2015, Sony Pictures and Marvel announced that Sony would be releasing a Spider - Man film co-produced by Marvel Studios president Feige and Amy Pascal, with Sony Pictures continuing to own, finance, distribute, and have final creative control of the Spider - Man films. In April 2015, Feige confirmed the character would be Peter Parker and added that Marvel had been working to add Spider - Man to the MCU since at least October 2014, when they announced their full slate of Phase Three films, saying, "Marvel does n't announce anything officially until it 's set in stone. So we went forward with that Plan A in October, with the Plan B being, if (the deal) were to happen with Sony, how it would all shift. We 've been thinking about (the Spider - Man film) as long as we 've been thinking about Phase Three. '' In June 2015, Tom Holland was cast in the role of Spider - Man and Jon Watts was hired to direct the film, and the next month, John Francis Daley & Jonathan Goldstein were hired to write the screenplay. Additional screenwriters include Watts & Christopher Ford and Chris McKenna & Erik Sommers. In April 2016, the title was revealed to be Spider - Man: Homecoming. Production began in June 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in October 2016. Spider - Man: Homecoming premiered on June 28, 2017 in Hollywood, and was released in the United Kingdom on July 5, and the United States on July 7, 2017.
The film is set several months after the events of Captain America: Civil War, which is eight years after the events of The Avengers. In April 2016, Feige confirmed that characters from previous MCU films would appear in the film, with Robert Downey Jr. confirmed to reprise his role as Tony Stark / Iron Man shortly thereafter. Favreau, Paltrow, and Evans also reprise their roles as Happy Hogan, Pepper Potts, and Steve Rogers / Captain America, respectively. The clean - up crew Damage Control appear in the film (after previously being referenced in Iron Man and Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.) ahead of an intended television series about them. Various weaponry and artifacts from previous films are referenced throughout the film that Toomes and his crew repurpose for their weapons. In Parker 's high school, one of his classes has a lesson about the Sokovia Accords, and portraits of Bruce Banner, Howard Stark and Abraham Erskine are seen within the school.
Thor, trapped on another world without Mjölnir, must survive a gladiatorial duel against the Hulk and return to Asgard in time to stop the villainous Hela and the impending Ragnarök.
In January 2014, Marvel announced that a third Thor film was in development, with Craig Kyle and Christopher L. Yost writing the screenplay, and was officially announced as Thor: Ragnarok in October 2014. By October 2015, Taika Waititi entered in negotiations to direct Thor: Ragnarok. In December 2015, Stephany Folsom was hired to rewrite the script. A year later, in January 2017, it was revealed that Eric Pearson wrote the screenplay, with Kyle, Yost and Folsom receiving story credit. Pearson, Kyle and Yost would ultimately receive screenwriting credit for the film. Hemsworth, Hiddleston, Idris Elba and Anthony Hopkins reprise their roles as Thor, Loki, Heimdall and Odin, respectively, and are joined by Cate Blanchett as Hela. Production began in July 2016 in Australia at Village Roadshow Studios, and wrapped in late October 2016. Thor: Ragnarok premiered in Los Angeles on October 10, 2017, began its international release on October 24, 2017 in the United Kingdom, and was released on November 3, 2017 in the United States.
The film is set four years after the events of Thor: The Dark World, two years after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron, and around the same time period as Captain America: Civil War and Spider - Man: Homecoming. Producer Brad Winderbaum noted that "Things happen on top of each other now in Phase Three. They 're not as interlocked as they were in Phase One. '' Mark Ruffalo and Benedict Cumberbatch appear in the film as Bruce Banner / Hulk and Doctor Stephen Strange, respectively. The film reveals that the Infinity Gauntlet first seen in Odin 's vault in Thor was a fake, while also introducing Thanos ' ship Sanctuary II in a post-credits scene.
T'Challa returns home as sovereign of the nation of Wakanda only to find his dual role of king and protector challenged by a long - time adversary in a conflict that has global consequences.
Documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey was hired to write a script for Black Panther in January 2011. In October 2014, the film was announced and Chadwick Boseman was revealed to be portraying T'Challa / Black Panther. In January 2016, Ryan Coogler was announced as director, and the following month, Joe Robert Cole was confirmed as the film 's screenwriter. In April 2016, Feige confirmed that Coogler was a co-screenwriter. Filming began in January 2017 at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in Atlanta, and concluded in April 2017. Black Panther premiered in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018, and began its international release on February 13, 2018, and was released on February 16, 2018 in the United States. The film also had a "cross-nation release '' in Africa, a first for a Disney film.
The film is set one week after the events of Captain America: Civil War. Florence Kasumba, Serkis, Martin Freeman, and John Kani reprise their roles as Ayo, Ulysses Klaue, Everett K. Ross and T'Chaka respectively from previous MCU films. The film 's post-credits scene features a cameo appearance by Sebastian Stan, reprising his role as Bucky Barnes.
The Avengers join forces with the Guardians of the Galaxy to try to stop Thanos from collecting all of the Infinity Stones.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 1. In April 2015, Marvel announced that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct the film and in May, that Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely would write the screenplay. In July 2016, Marvel revealed the title would be shortened to simply Avengers: Infinity War. Brolin reprises his role as Thanos, and is part of an ensemble cast featuring many actors who have appeared in other MCU films. Filming for Infinity War began in January 2017 in Atlanta, and lasted until July 2017. Additional filming also took place in Scotland. Avengers: Infinity War premiered in Los Angeles on April 23, 2018. It was released worldwide on April 27, 2018, with a few debuts beginning as early as April 25 in a handful of countries.
The film is set two years after the events of Captain America: Civil War. Marvel had been planting the seeds for Infinity War since their early films, by introducing the Infinity Stones as MacGuffins: the Tesseract / Space Stone in Captain America: The First Avenger, Loki 's Scepter / Mind Stone in The Avengers, the Aether / Reality Stone in Thor: The Dark World, the Orb / Power Stone in Guardians of the Galaxy, and the Eye of Agamotto / Time Stone in Doctor Strange. Additionally, Thanos is shown holding an empty Infinity Gauntlet in Avengers: Age of Ultron. The Red Skull from Captain America: The First Avenger appears in the film, played by Ross Marquand instead of Hugo Weaving, and is the keeper of the final Infinity Stone, the Soul Stone. The post-credits scene features Nick Fury transmitting a distress signal on a device, which has the insignia of Captain Marvel.
Scott Lang tries to balance his home life with his responsibilities as Ant - Man, when Hope van Dyne and Hank Pym present him with a new mission, requiring him to team up with Van Dyne as the Wasp.
Ant - Man and the Wasp was announced in October 2015. Peyton Reed confirmed that he would return to direct in November 2015, and that Paul Rudd and Evangeline Lilly would reprise their roles as Scott Lang / Ant - Man and Hope van Dyne / Wasp, respectively. In December 2015, Andrew Barrer, Gabriel Ferrari, and Rudd were confirmed to write the screenplay, with Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers revealed to have also contributed to the script in August 2017. In February 2017, Michael Douglas confirmed he would reprise his role as Hank Pym in the film. Michelle Pfeiffer was revealed as having been cast as Janet van Dyne in July 2017. Filming began in August 2017 in Atlanta with additional filming in San Francisco, and ended in November 2017. Stephen Broussard also served as a producer on the film. Ant - Man and the Wasp had its premiere in Hollywood on June 25, 2018, and was released in the United States on July 6, 2018.
The film is set two years after the events of Captain America: Civil War and before the events of Avengers: Infinity War. In the mid-credits scene, Hank Pym, Hope van Dyne and Janet van Dyne are disintegrated as a result of the events of Avengers: Infinity War.
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In June 2012, Marvel announced a 10 - disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase One -- Avengers Assembled '', for release on September 25, 2012. The box set includes all six of the Phase One films -- Iron Man, The Incredible Hulk, Iron Man 2, Thor, Captain America: The First Avenger, and Marvel 's The Avengers -- on Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D, in a replica of Nick Fury 's briefcase from The Avengers. In August 2012, luggage company Rimowa GmbH, who developed the briefcase for The Avengers, filed suit against Marvel Studios and Buena Vista Home Entertainment in U.S. federal court, complaining that "Marvel did not obtain any license or authorization from Rimowa to make replica copies of the cases for any purpose. '' The set was delayed to early 2013 for the packaging to be redesigned. The box set, with a redesigned case, was released on April 2, 2013. In addition, the box set included a featurette on the then - upcoming Phase Two films, showing footage and concept art, as well as previously unreleased deleted scenes from all of the Phase One films.
In July 2015, Marvel announced a 13 - disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Two Collection '', for release on December 8, 2015, exclusive to Amazon.com. The box set includes all six of the Phase Two films -- Iron Man 3, Thor: The Dark World, Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Guardians of the Galaxy, Avengers: Age of Ultron, and Ant - Man -- on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D and a digital copy, in a replica of the Orb from Guardians of the Galaxy, plus a bonus disc and exclusive memorabilia. Material on the bonus disc includes all of the Marvel One - Shots with commentary, deleted scenes and pre-production creative features for each of the films, featurettes on the making of the post-credit scenes for the films, and first looks at Captain America: Civil War, Doctor Strange, and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2.
From August 30 to September 6, 2018, in conjunction with Marvel Studios ' 10 year anniversary celebrations, all 20 films released at the time (Iron Man through Ant - Man and the Wasp) were screened in IMAX. The films were shown in release order, with four films per day. The final days of the festival were theme related, with one showing "origin '' films (Iron Man, Spider - Man: Homecoming, Black Panther, and Doctor Strange), one showing "team - ups '' (Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, Captain America: Civil War, The Avengers, and Avengers: Infinity War), and the final day showing Iron Man and The Avengers as chosen by the fans. The festival also saw Iron Man, The Incredible Hulk, and Captain America: The First Avenger released in IMAX for the first time.
Carol Danvers becomes Captain Marvel, one of the galaxy 's strongest heroes, after the Earth is caught in the center of an intergalactic conflict between two alien worlds.
In May 2013, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Marvel had a working script for Ms. Marvel. In October 2014, Marvel announced the film would be titled Captain Marvel and feature Carol Danvers. In April 2015, Nicole Perlman and Meg LeFauve were announced as screenwriters. At the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con, Brie Larson was confirmed to play the role of Carol Danvers. In April 2017, Anna Boden and Ryan Fleck were hired to direct. That August, Geneva Robertson - Dworet was revealed to be taking over as the film 's screenwriter, replacing Perlman and LeFauve. Liz Flahive, Carly Mensch, Boden and Ryan Fleck are also credited as screenwriters on the film. Location filming occurred in January 2018, while principal photography began in March in Los Angeles and concluded in July. The film is scheduled to be released on March 8, 2019.
The film is set in the 1990s. Jackson, Djimon Hounsou, Lee Pace, and Clark Gregg reprise their roles as Nick Fury, Korath, Ronan the Accuser, and Phil Coulson, respectively, while the Skrull species are introduced to the MCU.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 2. In April 2015, it was revealed that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct the film and in May, that Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely would write the screenplay. In July 2016, Marvel revealed the title would be changed, being known simply at that time as the Untitled Avengers film. Brolin reprises his role as Thanos, and is part of an ensemble cast featuring many actors who have appeared in other MCU films. Filming began in August 2017 in Atlanta, and ended in January 2018. The film is scheduled to be released on May 3, 2019.
In December 2016, Sony Pictures scheduled a sequel to Spider - Man: Homecoming for release on July 5, 2019. A year later, Watts was confirmed to be returning to direct the film. Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers, two of the writers of the first film, returned to write the script. Holland revealed the film 's title as Spider - Man: Far From Home in late June 2018. Filming began in July 2018, in England, with filming also occurring in the Czech Republic, Venice, and New York City. and lasted until October 2018.
The film is set after the untitled Avengers film. Jackson and Cobie Smulders reprise their roles as Nick Fury and Maria Hill, respectively, from previous MCU films.
Disney has scheduled multiple release dates for untitled Marvel Studios films. These include: May 1 and November 6, 2020; February 12, May 7, and November 5, 2021; and February 18, May 6, and July 29, 2022. Marvel had previously dated an untitled film for July 31, 2020, before removing it from their schedule in October 2018. In October 2016, Feige said it was a combination of knowing what films would occupy the 2020 dates and allowing some flexibility, saying, "We know what (films) we 'd like them to be for 2020. Over the years, where we 're aiming we 've been lucky enough that it 's usually been the same thing but we always leave ourselves the opportunity to bob and weave and adapt if we have to. But we know where we 're headed for 2020 and we have ideas and we 're beginning to solidify the years beyond that. '' Feige and Marvel have additional storylines planned through 2028, resulting in 20 films "on the docket that are completely different from anything that 's come before -- intentionally. ''
In October 2014, in terms of Phase Four films, Feige said, for the time being, "We 're not going to talk specifically about the story of any of those films, the plot of any of those films, what happens to any of the characters in any of those films. In fact, even to talk about any of those characters -- who will be involved in those movies -- will be a bit of a spoiler as to what may or may not happen to them in earlier movies. '' In April 2016, Feige added, "We 're only working on what 's been announced through the end of 2019. And it is still a big chess board for 2020 and beyond. '' A year later, Feige noted, "We have an idea (of what the MCU looks like post-Infinity War), and it 's gon na be very, very different '', but cautioned that Marvel would not be "actively discussing anything past untitled Avengers '' besides dating the sequel to Spider - Man: Homecoming and that James Gunn would be working on Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. He also was not sure if Marvel would continue to group the films in phases once Phase Three concluded, that "it might be a new thing ''. Feige noted Marvel hoped to reveal additional films after the release of the untitled Avengers film. A second sequel to Homecoming is also planned.
Potential film projects include:
A film based on the Runaways went through a number of iterations. Brian K. Vaughan was originally hired to write a screenplay based on the property in May 2008. In April 2010, Marvel hired Peter Sollett to direct the film, and Drew Pearce was hired to write a script in May. The following October, development on the film was put on hold, with Pearce revealing in September 2013 that the Runaways film had been shelved in favor of The Avengers, with the earliest it could release being Phase Three. In October 2014, after announcing all of Marvel 's Phase Three films without Runaways, Feige stated the project was "still an awesome script that exists in our script vault '', adding, "We 'd love to do something with Runaways some day. In our television and future film discussions, it 's always one that we talk about, because we have a solid draft there. But again, we ca n't make them all. '' In August 2016, Marvel Television announced Marvel 's Runaways from the streaming service Hulu, with the series receiving a full season order in May 2017. It premiered in November 2017.
In April 2013, Feige mentioned the Inhumans as a property out of which he was "confident '' a film would be made. Inhumans as a concept would first be introduced to the MCU in 2014 through the second season of the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. By August 2014, the studio was ready to move forward in development with the film, with a screenplay written by Joe Robert Cole. In October 2014, the film was announced for Phase Three and scheduled for release July 2019. By October 2015, Cole was no longer involved with the film and any potential drafts that he may have written would not be used. In April 2016, Inhumans was removed from the release schedule, and would no longer be a part of Phase Three. In July 2016, Feige said Inhumans would "certainly '' be a part of the discussion regarding the film ideas for 2020 and 2021, adding the following November that he was still optimistic the film could be released in Phase Four. In November 2016, Marvel Television announced the series Marvel 's Inhumans, which premiered on ABC in September 2017, after the first two episodes were screened in IMAX. The series was not intended to be a reworking of the film. ABC canceled Inhumans after one season in May 2018.
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what are the books for game of thrones | A Game of Thrones - wikipedia
A Game of Thrones is the first novel in A Song of Ice and Fire, a series of fantasy novels by American author George R.R. Martin. It was first published on August 1, 1996. The novel won the 1997 Locus Award and was nominated for both the 1997 Nebula Award and the 1997 World Fantasy Award. The novella Blood of the Dragon, comprising the Daenerys Targaryen chapters from the novel, won the 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella. In January 2011 the novel became a New York Times bestseller and reached # 1 on the list in July 2011.
In the novel, recounting events from various points of view, Martin introduces the plot - lines of the noble houses of Westeros, the Wall, and the Targaryens. The novel has inspired several spin - off works, including several games. It is also the namesake and basis for the first season of Game of Thrones, an HBO television series that premiered in April 2011. A March 2013 paperback TV tie - in re-edition was also titled Game of Thrones, excluding the indefinite article "A ''.
A Game of Thrones follows three principal storylines simultaneously.
At the beginning of the story, Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark executes a deserter from the Night 's Watch, who has betrayed his vows and fled from the Wall. On the way back, his children adopt six direwolf pups, the animal of his sigil. There are three male and two female direwolf pups, as well as an albino runt, which aligns with his three trueborn sons, two trueborn daughters, and one bastard son. That night, Ned receives word of the death of his mentor, Lord Jon Arryn, the principal advisor to Ned 's childhood friend, King Robert Baratheon. During his own visit to Ned 's castle of Winterfell, Robert recruits Ned to replace Arryn as the King 's Hand. Ned is reluctant, but agrees to go when he learns that Arryn 's widow Lysa believes Queen Cersei Lannister and her family poisoned Arryn. Shortly thereafter, Ned 's son Bran inadvertently discovers Cersei having sex with her twin brother Jaime Lannister, who throws Bran from the tower to conceal their affair.
Ned and his daughters Sansa and Arya depart for the royal capital of King 's Landing, while his wife Catelyn, a comatose Bran, and their other sons Robb and Rickon remain at Winterfell. During the journey south, a physical altercation between Arya and Robert 's son, Prince Joffrey, to whom Sansa has been betrothed, increases both the tension between the Starks and the Lannisters and the sibling rivalry between Arya and Sansa. Arya 's direwolf Nymeria attacks Joffrey to protect her, and Arya chases Nymeria away to protect her from the Lannisters ' wrath, wherefore Sansa 's direwolf Lady is executed in Nymeria 's place.
At Winterfell, an assassin attempts to kill Bran, thwarted only by his direwolf. Catelyn departs for King 's Landing to bring word of this to Ned. Shortly after that, Bran awakens as a paraplegic, with no memory of the cause of his fall. Upon Catelyn 's arrival in King 's Landing, she is brought to her childhood friend, Petyr "Littlefinger '' Baelish, who identifies Tyrion Lannister, the dwarf brother of Cersei and Jaime, as the owner of the dagger used against Bran, and agrees to help Ned investigate the possibility of Lannister treason. During her return to Winterfell, Catelyn meets Tyrion by chance on the Kingsroad, arrests him, and takes him to her sister Lysa Arryn 's stronghold in the Vale, where Tyrion demands trial by combat and regains his freedom when his champion, a mercenary named Bronn, is victorious. In retaliation for Tyrion 's abduction, his father Lord Tywin Lannister sends soldiers to raid Catelyn 's homeland, the Riverlands.
In King 's Landing, Ned finds Robert 's eldest brother Stannis Baratheon left the city after Jon Arryn 's death for his island of Dragonstone. Ned begins to investigate into Jon Arryn 's affairs, which leads him to visiting locations where Jon Arryn visited with Stannis - including places where Robert 's bastard children are found. On the way back from one such place, Ned and his soldiers are waylaid by Jaime Lannister, who demands Tyrion 's return, and when he does not get what he wants he orders Ned 's men be killed - in the ensuing skirmish, Ned is crippled in one leg when his horse collapses on top of him. Even afterwards, Ned continues to investigate and eventually discovers that Robert 's legal heirs, including Joffrey, are in fact Cersei 's children by Jaime and that Jon Arryn was killed to conceal his discovery of their incest. Ned offers Cersei a chance to flee before he informs Robert, but she uses this chance to arrange Robert 's death in a hunting accident. Ned, made lord - regent by Robert 's will, enlists Littlefinger 's help to secure the loyalty and assistance of the city guards to challenge Joffrey 's claim on the throne and place Stannis on the throne; but Littlefinger betrays him, resulting in Ned 's arrest, and the death of his men. Whilst Joffrey is crowned King of the Seven Kingdoms, Ned eventually agrees to falsely confess to high treason and join the Night 's Watch in exchange for Sansa and Arya 's safety, but Joffrey has him beheaded anyway. Whilst Sansa is retained into custody, Arya escapes with the help of her fencing instructor, Syrio Forel, and Yoren, a recruiting agent for the Night 's Watch.
Robb Stark has gathered an army and marched south in response to his father 's arrest; and upon learning of Ned 's death, attempts to raise further support from and to aid his maternal grandfather, Lord Hoster Tully. To reach the Tully lands, he agrees to a marital alliance with the notoriously unreliable House Frey, who control the intervening territory but declined to assist the Tullys despite being sworn to Riverrun. Robb proves victorious against Jaime Lannister, who is captured and taken prisoner, while his father Tywin decides to withdraw to the southern border of the Tully lands, sending Tyrion to King 's Landing to keep Joffrey under control. When Robb elects not to ally himself with Robert 's brothers Renly and Stannis, who have both made claims to the throne, the southern and northern lords hail him as "King in the North '': his family 's ancestral title.
The prologue of the novel introduces the Wall: an ancient barrier of stone, ice, and magic, hundreds of feet high and hundreds of miles long, shielding the Seven Kingdoms from the Northern wilderness. The Wall is manned by the Night 's Watch: an order of warriors sworn to serve there for life, forgoing marriage, titles, property, and children. North of the Wall, a small patrol of Rangers from the Night 's Watch encounter the Others, an ancient and hostile race of superhumans. All of the Rangers are killed except the single survivor later executed by Eddard Stark for desertion.
Jon Snow, the bastard son of Eddard Stark, is inspired by his uncle, Benjen Stark, to join the Night 's Watch, but becomes disillusioned when he discovers that its primary use is that of a penal colony for criminals, meant to keep "wildlings '', human tribesmen in relative anarchy north of the Wall, in check. At the Wall, Jon unites the recruits against their harsh instructor and protects the cowardly but good - natured and intelligent Samwell Tarly. Jon hopes that his combat skills will earn him assignment to the Rangers, the military arm of the Night 's Watch, but instead is made a steward to the leader of the Watch, Lord Commander Jeor Mormont, potentially making Jon the successor to Mormont. Benjen, who had led a small party of Rangers beyond the Wall, fails to return, and six months later, the dead bodies of two of the Rangers from his party are recovered beyond the Wall, but soon re-animate as wights, which kill six men and threaten Mormont before being dispatched by Jon.
When word of his father 's execution reaches Jon, he attempts to join Robb against the Lannisters but is prevented by his comrades and persuaded by Mormont to remain loyal to the Watch. Mormont then declares his intention to find Benjen -- dead or alive -- and to investigate the disappearance of many wildlings and the dark rumors surrounding "the King - Beyond - the - Wall '': a deserter from the Night 's Watch known as Mance Rayder.
In Pentos, a city - state of Essos, a continent to the east of Westeros, Viserys Targaryen, son of the king overthrown by Robert Baratheon, betroths his sister Daenerys to Khal Drogo, a warlord of the nomadic Dothraki, in exchange for the use of Drogo 's army to reclaim the throne of Westeros. Illyrio, a wealthy merchant who has been supporting the penniless Targaryens and brokered the marriage, gives Daenerys three petrified dragon eggs as a wedding gift. Jorah Mormont, a knight exiled from Westeros, joins Viserys as an adviser. Initially terrified of her new husband and his people, Daenerys eventually embraces the role of Drogo 's queen. When Drogo shows little interest in conquering Westeros, Viserys tries to browbeat his sister into coercing Drogo, but she refuses. When Viserys publicly threatens Daenerys, Drogo executes him by pouring molten gold on his head. After that, an assassin seeking King Robert 's favor attempts to poison Daenerys and her unborn child, and Drogo agrees to help her conquer Westeros. While sacking villages to fund the invasion, Drogo is wounded, and Daenerys commands a captive folk healer to save him. When he is beyond saving, the healer, angered by the Dothraki raids, sacrifices Daenerys ' unborn child to power the spell to save Drogo 's life, which restores Drogo 's health but leaves him in a vegetative state. Most of the Dothraki army departs to follow a new leader. Daenerys smothers Drogo with a pillow and orders the healer tied to Drogo 's funeral pyre. She places her three dragon eggs on the pyre, enters it herself, and emerges unscathed with three newly hatched dragons suckling at her breasts. The remaining Dothraki and Jorah Mormont, awe - struck, swear allegiance to her.
Throughout the novel, characters are often faced with decisions that match one redeemable trait against another. The Guardian outlines characters who are frequently "forced to choose between their love for those close to them and the greater interests of honour, duty and the realm. '' In Westeros, Ned ultimately decides to venture south with Robert, leaving much of his family in Winterfell. At the Wall, Jon wrestles with the predicament of joining his half - brother Robb in rebellion or staying with his sworn brothers in the Night 's Watch. Daenerys has issue with the Dothraki treatment of those they conquered in Essos. These conflicts characters encounter oftentimes reflect inconsistent decision making. Catelyn initially is overwhelmed by grief and does not leave Bran 's bedside while he is comatose, ignoring her political responsibilities, choosing family over duty. But soon after, Catelyn leaves Bran and her family for Kings Landing to inform Ned of potential Lannister treason, effectively displaying a more duty fulfilling role. Family, duty, and honor play major roles in conflicts that arise in the story arc, and qualities traditionally categorized as noble oppose each other in resolution. Character decision conflicts and consequence analysis are particular to how Martin wants to portray fantasy.
Martin characteristically deviates from the traditional fantasy model and clear - cut lines of good versus evil. Martin reflects: "I think the battle between good and evil is fought largely within the individual human heart, by the decisions that we make. It 's not like evil dresses up in black clothing and you know, they 're really ugly ''. This viewpoint characterizes the book and is evident in the actions of several different families which frequently have conflicts with each other. The Starks ' and Lannisters ' conflict is a central component of the novel, and the reader receives points of view from both sides. Likewise, Daenerys ' storyline develops around the Targaryen 's upheaval in Westeros, in which the Starks played a significant role. Martin argues:
Having multiple viewpoints is crucial to the grayness of the characters. You have to be able to see the struggle from both sides, because real human beings in a war have all these processes of self - justification, telling ourselves why what we 're doing is the right thing.
Each chapter concentrates on the third person limited point of view of a single character; the book presents the perspective of eight main characters. Additionally, a minor character provides the prologue. Chapter headings indicate the perspective.
In the later books, certain viewpoint characters are added while others are removed.
The novel has been translated into many languages and published in multiple editions in hardcover, paperback, e-book, and audio book form. In different languages, the number of books may not be the same.
In June 2000, Meisha Merlin published a limited edition of the book, fully illustrated by Jeffrey Jones.
A Game of Thrones and the subsequent novels in the A Song of Ice and Fire series have been adapted in a HBO television series, a comics series, several card, board and video games, and other media.
A Game of Thrones has received critical acclaim. Lauren K. Nathan of the Associated Press wrote that the book "grip (s) the reader from Page One '' and is set in a "magnificent '' fantasy world that is "mystical, but still believable. '' Steve Perry told readers of The Oregonian that the plot is "complex and fascinating '' and the book is "rich and colorful '' with "all the elements of a great fantasy novel ''. Writing in The Washington Post, John H. Riskind commented that "many fans of sword - and - sorcery will enjoy the epic scope of this book '' but felt that the book "suffers from one - dimensional characters and less than memorable imagery. '' Phyllis Eisenstein of the Chicago Sun - Times wrote that, although the book uses many generic fantasy tropes, Martin 's approach is "so refreshingly human and intimate that it transcends them. '' She described it as "an absorbing combination of the mythic, the sweepingly historical, and the intensely personal. '' John Prior, writing in the San Diego Union - Tribune, called Martin 's writing "strong and imaginative, with plenty of Byzantine intrigue and dynastic struggle '', and compared it to Robert Jordan 's Wheel of Time books, "though much darker, with no comedy or romance to relieve the nastiness. ''
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when was the last time oklahoma state beat oklahoma | Bedlam series - Wikipedia
The Bedlam Series refers to the athletics rivalry between the University of Oklahoma Sooners and the Oklahoma State University Cowboys of the Big 12 Conference. Both schools were also members of the Big 8 Conference before the formation of the Big 12 Conference in 1996, and both were divisional rivals in the Big 12 South Division prior to 2011.
The Bedlam Series is, like most other intrastate rivalries, a rivalry that goes beyond one or two sports. Both schools also have rivalries with other schools, though most of those rivalries are limited to one or two sports at the most. The rivalry is all the more intense since their games often decide the conference championship.
While the football and basketball games stand today as the marquee events in the Bedlam Series, the term "Bedlam '' actually began with the rivalry between the schools ' prestigious wrestling programs, more particularly the raucous crowds that attended the matches held at Oklahoma State 's Gallagher - Iba Arena.
When the Bedlam Series gained Ford and the Bank of Oklahoma as corporate sponsors, the series became much more formalized. A points system was adopted in order to award a winner of the all athletic competitions combined between the two schools. A crystal bell trophy is awarded to individual Bedlam game winners (such as football), in addition to a trophy for the overall series champion for that year. The "Bedlam Bell '' is modeled after the bell clapper in Old Central, the oldest building on Oklahoma State 's campus. For a time, the actual bell clapper was a traveling trophy for the two schools, until the popularity of this tradition waned.
The first Bedlam football game was held at Island Park, now known as Mineral Wells Park, in Guthrie, Oklahoma. It was a cold, and very windy day with the temperatures well below the freezing mark. At one moment in the game when the Oklahoma A&M Aggies were punting, the wind carried the ball backwards behind the kicker. If the Oklahoma A&M squad recovered the ball it would be a touchback and if the University of Oklahoma squad recovered it, it would be a touchdown. The ball rolled down a hill into the half - frozen creek. Since a touchdown was at stake, members of both teams dove into the icy waters to recover the ball. A member of the OU team came out with the ball and downed it for a touchdown. OU won the game, 75 -- 0. Though this was not the source of the name "Bedlam '', the scene was clearly an apt beginning for the Bedlam Series in football.
Author Steve Budin, whose father was a New York bookie, has recently publicized the claim that the 1954 Bedlam Game was fixed by mobsters in his book Bets, Drugs, and Rock & Roll (ISBN 1 - 60239 - 099 - 1). Allegedly, the mobsters threatened and paid off a cook to slip laxatives into a soup eaten by many OU Sooner starting players, causing them to fall violently ill in the days leading up to the game. OU was victorious in the end, but their 14 -- 0 win did not cover the 20 - point spread they had in their favor. However, many people involved in the 1954 contest do not recall any incident like the one purported by Budin to have occurred.
Oklahoma currently leads the series 87 -- 18 -- 7, making it the most lopsided, continuous in - state rivalry in the nation as of 2017. The series has historically been very lopsided in the Sooners ' favor; Oklahoma State has defeated OU twice in a row just three times since World War II, and has never done it three times in a row. Although the series has been interrupted twice since its inception, it has been uninterrupted since 1910, tying it with North Carolina St. / Wake Forest for the third - longest continuous rivalry in FBS Division 1 college football, after only Minnesota / Wisconsin (uninterrupted since 1907), and Clemson / South Carolina (uninterrupted since 1909). It is also the longest uninterrupted rivalry between two public universities, in the same state, that have a game named "University of _ vs. _ State University. ''
Oklahoma owns the all - time series record in men 's basketball, 135 -- 95. The Sooners swept the 2013 -- 14, 2014 -- 15 and 2015 -- 16 regular season Bedlam series for the fourth and fifth time in the last 10 seasons. OSU 's last series sweep came in 2017. OU is 17 -- 6 in the last 23 Bedlam games and is now 25 -- 18 vs. the Cowboys since the formation of the Big 12 (135 -- 95 all - time).
Oklahoma State holds a large advantage in the schools ' wrestling rivalry, the original "Bedlam Series ''. The Cowboy wrestling program currently holds a 134 -- 27 -- 10 record against the Sooners, which is all the more remarkable considering that both schools have long been national powers in wrestling. Oklahoma has won seven team national championships in its history, while Oklahoma State 's wrestling program has a record thirty - four team national titles.
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what is the second longest name in the bible | Maher - shalal - hash - baz - Wikipedia
Maher - shalal - hash - baz (/ ˌmeɪhər ʃælæl ˈhæʃ bɑːz /; Hebrew: מַהֵר שָׁלָל חָשׁ בַּז Mahêršālālḥāšbaz -- "Hurry to the spoils! '' or "He has made haste to the plunder! '' -- was the second mentioned prophetic - name child in Isaiah chapter 7 - 9.
And I went unto the prophetess; and she conceived, and bore a son. Then said the LORD unto me: ' Call his name Maher - shalal - hashbaz '
The prophet Isaiah 's first son Shearjashub is mentioned only once in Isaiah 7: 3. Commentators, Jewish and Christian, traditionally note that this first son 's name is also prophetic -- meaning "the remnant shall return '' -- but no account of why, when or how this son was named is given in the Book of Isaiah.
The child Maher - shalal - hash - baz is the second prophetic - name child after the birth of Immanuel -- traditionally understood as the son of Abi the bride of king Ahaz, i.e., the future king Hezekiah, by many Jewish commentators, or of another woman. The name Maher - shalal - hash - baz is a reference to the impending plunder of Samaria and Damascus by the king of Assyria, Tiglath - Pileser III (734 - 732 BCE).
This is often counted the longest name (and word) used in the Bible, though a possible longer name - phrase in Isaiah is found in Isaiah 9: 6 "called Pele - joez - el - gibbor - abi - ad - sar - shalom ''
The section is also quoted in the Book of Mormon.
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who is the guy that does the arby commercials | Ving Rhames - Wikipedia
Irving Rameses "Ving '' Rhames (born May 12, 1959) is an American actor known for his roles in I Now Pronounce You Chuck & Larry, Bringing Out the Dead, Pulp Fiction, Out of Sight, Baby Boy, Dark Blue, Don King: Only in America, Dawn of the Dead, Rosewood, Con Air, Dave, and as Luther Stickell in the Mission: Impossible film series.
Rhames was born in Harlem, New York City, New York, the son of Reather, a homemaker, and Ernest Rhames, an auto mechanic. His parents were raised as sharecroppers in South Carolina. Named after the late NBC journalist, Irving R. Levine, Irving Rhames also grew up in Harlem.
He entered New York 's High School of Performing Arts, where he discovered his love of acting. After high school, he studied drama at SUNY Purchase, where fellow acting student Stanley Tucci gave him his nickname "Ving ''. Rhames later transferred to the Juilliard School 's Drama Division (Group 12: 1979 -- 1983) where he graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in 1983.
Rhames first appeared on Broadway in the play The Boys of Winter in 1984. He started out in film in Wes Craven 's The People Under the Stairs (1991) as Leroy; he watched over Kevin Kline as Secret Service agent Duane Stevensen in Dave (1993); and he played Marsellus Wallace in Pulp Fiction (1994).
Rhames played Dr. Peter Benton 's brother - in - law on the TV medical drama ER, a recurring role he filled for three seasons. He played ace computer hacker Luther Stickell opposite Tom Cruise in Brian De Palma 's Mission: Impossible (1996). In 1997 Rhames portrayed the character of Nathan ' Diamond Dog ' Jones in the popular film Con Air. and Muki in the Ice Cube film Dangerous Ground.
Rhames won a Golden Globe in 1998 for Best Actor -- Miniseries or Television Film in HBO 's Don King: Only in America. At the ceremony Rhames gave his award to fellow nominee Jack Lemmon, saying, "I feel that being an artist is about giving, and I 'd like to give this to you. '' Lemmon was clearly touched by the gesture as was the celebrity audience who gave Lemmon a standing ovation. Lemmon, who tried unsuccessfully to give the award back to Rhames, said it was "one of the nicest, sweetest moments I 've ever known in my life. '' The Hollywood Foreign Press Association announced later that they would have a duplicate award prepared for Rhames. That moment was # 98 on E! 's 101 Awesome Moments in Entertainment. The New York Times lauded Rhames for the act, writing that in doing so he "demonstrated his capacity for abundant generosity. ''
Rhames appeared in Striptease (1996) as the wisecracking bodyguard Shad, Bringing Out the Dead (1999), then reprised his Luther Stickell role for Mission: Impossible 2 (2000). He played Johnnie Cochran in American Tragedy (2000), the ex-con boyfriend of Jodie 's mother in the John Singleton film Baby Boy, portrayed a gay drag queen in the television movie Holiday Heart, contributed his voice for the character of Cobra Bubbles in Lilo & Stitch (2002) and the subsequent TV series, and played a stoic cop fighting zombie hordes in Dawn of the Dead (2004) and Day of the Dead (2008) remakes. Rhames has also appeared in a series of television commercials for RadioShack, usually performing with Vanessa L. Williams.
In March 2005, Rhames played the lead role on a new Kojak series, on the USA Network cable channel (and on ITV4 in the UK). The bald head, lollipops, and "Who loves ya, baby? '' catchphrase remained intact, but little else remained from the Savalas original.
Rhames voiced the part of Tobias Jones in the computer game Driver 3.
Rhames reprised his role in Mission: Impossible III (2006), had a cameo appearance in Mission: Impossible -- Ghost Protocol (2011), and played a major role in the fifth film, Mission: Impossible -- Rogue Nation (2015). He is the only actor besides Tom Cruise to appear in all five Mission: Impossible films. It was announced that he would have a role in the Aquaman - based show Mercy Reef, however due to the integration of The WB and UPN for the new network, CW, Mercy Reef was not picked up. Rhames played a homosexual, possibly also homicidal, firefighter who comes out of the closet in I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry. He narrates the BET television series American Gangster.
In the 2008 film Saving God, he played an ex-con who is released from prison a changed man looking to take over his father 's former church congregation in a deteriorating neighborhood. Rhames stars in Phantom Punch, a biopic of boxer Sonny Liston released directly to DVD as well as The Tournament portraying a fighter out to win a no - rules tournament.
Rhames makes an appearance in Ludacris 's song "Southern Gangstas '' on his album Theater of the Mind. Rappers Playaz Circle and Rick Ross are also featured on the track.
In 2010, he filed a lawsuit against the producer of a film titled Red Canvas, claiming that he had only been paid $175,000 of a $200,000 contract.
He filmed the movie Submission with Ernie Reyes, Jr. and UFC lightweight contender Gray Maynard and Randy Couture.
In 2015, he filmed a series of commercials for The ADT Corporation.
Rhames is one of the narrators for UFC.
Rhames introduced the New England Patriots and the Atlanta Falcons in the 2017 Super Bowl LI (51).
Rhames 's deep voice is the center of many recent (2015 - 2017) Arby 's commercials, with the catchline ' Arby 's, we have the meats! '
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when did stranger things season one take place | Stranger Things - wikipedia
Stranger Things is an American science fiction - horror web television series created, written, directed and co-executive produced by The Duffer Brothers, as well as co-executive produced by Shawn Levy and Dan Cohen. The first season, released in July 2016, stars Winona Ryder, David Harbour, Finn Wolfhard, Millie Bobby Brown, Gaten Matarazzo, Caleb McLaughlin, Natalia Dyer, Charlie Heaton, Cara Buono and Matthew Modine, with Noah Schnapp and Joe Keery in recurring roles. For the second season, Schnapp and Keery were promoted to series regulars, along with the additions of Sadie Sink, Dacre Montgomery, Sean Astin and Paul Reiser.
Set in the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana, in the 1980s, the first season focuses on the investigation into the disappearance of a young boy amid supernatural events occurring around the town including the appearance of a girl with psychokinetic abilities who helps the missing boy 's friends in their own search. The second season, titled Stranger Things 2, is set a year after the first, and deals with attempts of the characters to return to normal and consequences that linger from the first season.
The Duffer Brothers developed the series as a mix of investigative drama alongside supernatural elements with childlike sensibilities, establishing its time frame in the 1980s and creating a homage to pop culture of that decade. Several themes and directorial aspects were inspired and aesthetically informed by the works of Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, and Stephen King, among others, including several films, anime and video games.
The first season was released on Netflix on July 15, 2016. It received critical acclaim for its characterization, pacing, atmosphere, acting, soundtrack, directing, writing, and homages to 1980s genre films. The series has received several industry nominations and awards, including winning the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2016, and receiving eighteen nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series. On August 31, 2016, Netflix renewed the series for a second season of nine episodes, which was released on October 27, 2017. In December 2017, Netflix ordered a third season. The Duffer Brothers intend to conclude Stranger Things with a fourth or fifth season.
Stranger Things is set in the fictional rural town of Hawkins, Indiana, during the early 1980s. The nearby Hawkins National Laboratory ostensibly performs scientific research for the United States Department of Energy, but secretly does experiments into the paranormal and supernatural, including those that involve human test subjects. Inadvertently, they have created a portal to an alternate dimension called "the Upside Down ''. The influence of the Upside Down starts to affect the unknowing residents of Hawkins in calamitous ways.
The first season begins in November 1983, when Will Byers is abducted by a creature from the Upside Down. His mother, Joyce, and the town 's police chief, Jim Hopper, search for Will. At the same time, a young psychokinetic girl called Eleven escapes from the laboratory and assists Will 's friends, Mike, Dustin, and Lucas, in their own efforts to find Will. The second season is set a year later, starting in October 1984. Will had been rescued, but few know of the details of the events. When Will is found to be still influenced by entities from the Upside Down, his friends and family learn there is a larger threat to their universe from the Upside Down.
Executive producer Shawn Levy cameos as a morgue worker.
Stranger Things was created by Matt and Ross Duffer, known professionally as The Duffer Brothers. The two had completed writing and producing their 2015 film Hidden, which they had tried to emulate the style of M. Night Shyamalan, however, due to changes at Warner Bros., its distributor, the film did not see a wide release and the Duffers were unsure of their future. To their surprise, television producer Donald De Line approached them, impressed with Hidden 's script, and offered them the opportunity to work on episodes of Wayward Pines alongside Shyamalan. The brothers were mentored by Shyamalan during the episode 's production, so that when they finished, they felt they were ready to produce their own television series.
The Duffer Brothers prepared a script that would essentially be similar to the series ' actual pilot episode, along with a 20 - page pitch book to help shop the series around for a network. They pitched the story to a number of cable networks, all of which rejected the script on the basis that they felt a plot centered around children as leading characters would not work, asking them to make it a children 's show or to drop the children and focus on Hopper 's investigation in the paranormal. In early 2015, Dan Cohen, the VP of 21 Laps Entertainment, brought the script to his colleague Shawn Levy. They subsequently invited The Duffer Brothers to their office and purchased the rights for the series, giving full authorship of it to the brothers. After reading the pilot, the streaming service Netflix purchased the whole season for an undisclosed amount; the show was subsequently announced for a planned 2016 release by Netflix in early April 2015. The Duffer Brothers stated that at the time they had pitched to Netflix, the service had already gotten recognized for its original programming, such as House of Cards and Orange Is the New Black, with well - recognized producers behind them, and were ready to start giving upcoming producers like them a chance. The brothers started to write out the series and brought Levy and Cohen in as executive producers to start casting and filming.
The series was originally known as Montauk, as the setting of the script was in Montauk, New York and nearby Long Island locations. The brothers had chosen Montauk as it had further Spielberg ties with the film Jaws, where Montauk was used for the fictional setting of Amity Island. After deciding to change the narrative of the series to take place in the fictional town of Hawkins instead, the brothers felt they could now do things to the town, such as placing it under quarantine, that they really could not envision with a real location. With the change in location, they had to come up with a new title for the series under direction from Netflix 's Ted Sarandos so that they could start marketing it to the public. The brothers started by using a copy of Stephen King 's Firestarter novel to consider the title 's font and appearance, and came up with a long list of potential alternatives. Stranger Things came about as it sounded similar to another King novel, Needful Things, though Matt noted they still had a "lot of heated arguments '' over this final title.
With the critical success of the first season after its release in July 2016, speculation on a possible second season was raised. By the end of July, The Duffer Brothers had outlined a plan for such a season if it was green - lit, and Netflix 's CEO Reed Hastings said in early August that the company "would be dumb not to '' renew Stranger Things for a second season. On August 31, 2016, Netflix announced it had renewed Stranger Things for a second season of nine episodes, to be released in 2017. The Duffer Brothers revealed that the series had been renewed for a second season before the first premiered. Regarding the decision to wait more than a month after the first season premiered to announce the renewal, Matt Duffer said, "it actually ended up working because it had built up to this fever pitch. I guess that 's what (Netflix) were intending to do all the time. ''
The Duffers wrote the second season to make the combined first and second season feel like a complete work, but setting elements in place to go forward with additional seasons if they are green - lit. While most of the story for the second season had been decided before the first season aired, the Duffers took in the audience reactions from the first season to adjust some of the details within the second season. They knew they would not have the same element of audience surprise as when the show aired anew, and were aware fans wanted to see certain elements, but Ross said "... the point is not to give everyone what they think they want. Because I do n't think they really know what they want. '' The Duffers felt that the second season should be treated more as a sequel rather than a continuation, and thus have opted to call the second Stranger Things 2. This approach had some trepidation from Netflix, since the company felt movie sequels typically have a bad reputation, but the Duffers pointed out that there had been many successful sequels that surpassed the original film, and felt confident with this name. Despite revealing episode titles for the season in the announcement teaser in order "to provide some hint of where we were going in season two without giving anything away, '' Matt Duffer stated that some of the titles would change, since there were some things "we did n't want to put on there because we felt like it would give too much away, '' and because "people are smart on the fucking internet '' with fan - created "videos analyzing the chapter titles... right on a lot '' of how the titles related to the plot of the season. In early October 2017, the Duffers revealed the final titles for the first six episodes of the season.
Levy noted in November 2016 that he and The Duffer Brothers had already begun planning a potential third season, saying, "We are not gon na be caught off guard and we do n't wan na be making stuff up like the day before we have to write it and make it, so we are definitely optimistic and we have started thinking ahead. '' The Duffers anticipate having about four to five seasons to work with, but do want to "have a really finite ending '' while the show is still at a height of success, according to Matt, rather than letting it draw out indefinitely. In August 2017, the Duffers confirmed there would be a third season, with the likelihood of one more season following that, with Ross saying, "We 're thinking it will be a four - season thing and then out ''. However, executive producer Shawn Levy later suggested that either four or five total seasons were possibilities, claiming that "the truth is we 're definitely going four seasons and there 's very much the possibility of a fifth. Beyond that, it becomes I think very unlikely. '' Matt Duffer later commented that no official decision has been made, claiming that "It 's hard, like four seems short, five seems long. So I do n't know what to do. '' In December 2017, Netflix officially confirmed that they have greenlit the third season. Later that month, David Harbour said that the Duffers were still writing episodes for the season, and did not expect the season would release until 2019.
The idea of Stranger Things started with how the brothers felt they could take the concept of the 2013 film Prisoners, detailing the moral struggles a father goes through when his daughter is kidnapped, and expand it out over eight or so hours in a serialized television approach. As they focused on the missing child aspect of the story, they wanted to introduce the idea of "childlike sensibilities '' they could offer, and toyed around with the idea of a monster that could consume humans. The brothers thought the combination of these things "was the best thing ever ''. To introduce this monster into the narrative, they considered "bizarre experiments we had read about taking place in the Cold War '' such as Project MKUltra, which gave a way to ground the monster 's existence in science rather than something spiritual. This also helped them to decide on using 1983 as the time period, as it was a year before the film Red Dawn came out, which focused on Cold War paranoia. Subsequently, they were able to use all their own personal inspirations from the 1980s, the decade they were born, as elements of the series, crafting it in the realm of science fiction and horror. The Duffer Brothers have cited as influence for the show (among others): Stephen King novels; films produced by Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, Wes Craven, Robert Zemeckis, George Lucas and Guillermo del Toro; films such as Alien and Stand by Me; Japanese anime such as Akira and Elfen Lied; and video games such as Silent Hill, The Last of Us, and Dark Souls. The Duffers also believe that they may have brought influences from other works unintentionally, including Beyond the Black Rainbow and D.A.R.Y.L., discovered by reviewing fan feedback on the show.
With Netflix as the platform, The Duffer Brothers were not limited to a typical 22 - episode format, opting for the eight - episode approach. They had been concerned that a 22 - episode season on broadcast television would be difficult to "tell a cinematic story '' with that many episodes. Eight episodes allowed them to give time to characterization in addition to narrative development; if they had less time available, they would have had to remain committed to telling a horror film as soon as the monster was introduced and abandon the characterization. Within the eight episodes, the brothers aimed to make the first season "feel like a big movie '' with all the major plot lines completed so that "the audience feels satisfied '', but left enough unresolved to indicate "there 's a bigger mythology, and there 's a lot of dangling threads at the end '', something that could be explored in further seasons if Netflix opted to create more.
Regarding writing for the children characters of the series, The Duffer Brothers considered themselves as outcasts from other students while in high school and thus found it easy to write for Mike and his friends, and particularly for Barb. Joyce was fashioned after Richard Dreyfuss ' character Roy Neary in Close Encounters of the Third Kind, as she appears "absolutely bonkers '' to everyone else as she tries to find Will. Other characters, such as Billy in the second season, have more villainous attributes that are not necessarily obvious from the onset; Matt explained that they took further inspiration from Stephen King for these characters, as King "always has really great human villains '' that may be more malicious than the supernatural evil.
In June 2015, it was announced that Winona Ryder and David Harbour had joined the series as Joyce and as the unnamed chief of police, respectively. The brothers ' casting director Carmen Cuba had suggested Ryder for the role of Joyce, which the two were immediately drawn to because of her predominance in the films of the 1980s. Levy believed Ryder could "wretch up the emotional urgency and yet find layers and nuance and different sides of (Joyce) ''. Ryder praised that the show 's multiple storylines required her to act for Joyce as "she 's out of her mind, but she 's actually kind of onto something '', and that the producers had faith she could pull off the difficult role. The Duffer Brothers had been interested in Harbour before, who until Stranger Things primarily had smaller roles as villainous characters, and they felt that he had been "waiting too long for this opportunity '' to play a lead, while Harbour himself was thrilled by the script and the chance to play "a broken, flawed, anti-hero character ''.
Additional casting followed two months later with Finn Wolfhard as Mike, Millie Bobby Brown in an undisclosed role, Gaten Matarazzo as Dustin, Caleb McLaughlin as Lucas, Natalia Dyer as Nancy, and Charlie Heaton as Jonathan. In September 2015, Cara Buono joined the cast as Karen, followed by Matthew Modine as Martin Brenner a month later. Additional cast who recur for the first season include Noah Schnapp as Will, Shannon Purser as Barbara "Barb '' Holland, Joe Keery as Steve Harrington, and Ross Partridge as Lonnie, among others.
Actors auditioning for the children roles read lines from Stand By Me. The Duffer Brothers estimated they went through about a thousand different child actors for the roles. They noted that Wolfhard was already "a movie buff '' of the films from the 1980s period and easily filled the role, while they found Matarazzo 's audition to be much more authentic than most of the other audition tapes, and selected him after a single viewing of his audition tape. As casting was started immediately after Netflix greenlit the show, and prior to the scripts being fully completed, this allowed some of the actor 's takes on the roles to reflect into the script. The casting of the young actors for Will and his friends had been done just after the first script was completed, and subsequent scripts incorporated aspects from these actors. The brothers said Modine provided significant input on the character of Dr. Brenner, whom they had not really fleshed out before as they considered him the hardest character to write for given his limited appearances within the narrative.
In October 2016, it was announced that Schnapp and Keery had been promoted to the main cast for the second season, after each recurring in the first season, and that Sadie Sink and Dacre Montgomery would join the main cast as Max and Billy, respectively. Ryder, Harbour, Wolfhard, Brown, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, Dyer and Heaton also return for the season. Sean Astin as Bob Newby and Paul Reiser as Sam Owens are also part of the main cast in the season. For Owens, The Duffer Brothers had referred to the character in their pitch to Netflix for the season as "Paul Reiser '', and specifically alluded to Reiser 's character Burke in Aliens, with Ross referencing James Cameron 's casting choice for that film, saying, "(Cameron) thought people would inherently trust (Reiser) and it would be a twist ''. Reiser 's son was a fan of Stranger Things, and gave his father an early appreciation of the series, so that by when the production called his agent about the role, Reiser was excited for the part. Joining them in recurring roles are Linnea Berthelsen as Kali / Eight and Brett Gelman as Murray Bauman.
The brothers had desired to film the series around the Long Island area to match the initial Montauk concept. However, with filming scheduled to take place in November 2015, it was difficult to shoot in Long Island in the cold weather, and the production started scouting locations in and around the Atlanta, Georgia area. The brothers, who grew up in North Carolina, found many places that reminded them of their own childhoods in that area, and felt the area would work well with the narrative shift to the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana.
The filming of the first season began in November 2015 and was extensively done in Atlanta, Georgia, with The Duffer Brothers and Levy handling the direction of individual episodes. Jackson served as the basis of the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana. Other shooting locations included the Georgia Mental Health Institute as the Hawkins National Laboratory site, Bellwood Quarry, Patrick Henry High School in Stockbridge, Georgia, for the middle and high school scenes, Emory University 's Continuing Education Department, the former city hall in Douglasville, Georgia, Georgia International Horse Park, the probate court in Butts County, Georgia, Old East Point Library and East Point First Baptist Church in East Point, Georgia, Fayetteville, Georgia, Stone Mountain Park, Palmetto, Georgia, and Winston, Georgia. Set work was done at Screen Gem Studios in Atlanta. The series was filmed with a Red Dragon digital camera. Filming for the first season concluded in early 2016.
While filming, the brothers tried to capture shots that could be seen as homages to many of the 1980s references they recalled. Their goal was not necessarily to fill the work with these references, but instead make the series seem to the viewer as a 1980s film. They spent little time reviewing those works and instead went by memory. Matt further recognized that some of their filming homages were not purposely done but were found to be very comparable, as highlighted by a fan - made video comparing the show to several 1980s works side - by - side. Matt commented on the video that "Some were deliberate and some were subconscious. '' The brothers recognized that many of the iconic scenes from these 1980s films, such as with Poltergeist, was about "taking a very ordinary object that people deal with every day, their television set, and imbuing it with something otherworldly '', leading to the idea of using the Christmas light strings for Will to communicate with Joyce.
The brothers attributed much of the 1980s feel to set and costume designers and the soundtrack composers that helped to recreate the era for them. Lynda Reiss, the head of props, had about a $220,000 budget, similar to most films, to acquire artifacts of the 1980s, using eBay and searching through flea markets and estate sales around the Atlanta area. The bulk of the props were original items from the 1980s with only a few pieces, such as the Dungeons & Dragons books made as replicas. Costume designer Kimberly Adams - Galligan for the first season aimed for capturing authenticity of the clothes choices by the characters, such as reflecting that the Byers would likely use hand - me - down clothes compared to the other families; in this case, while the costume department did distress the outfits for all the characters, they spent more time for Will 's clothes compared to Mike 's. Frequently, they needed to create outfits for the kids themselves since many were still growing during the time of filming, and could not readily acquire period fashion across a range of sizes. Director of photography Tim Ives shot the first season with Leica lens and the 6K Red Scarlet Dragon to "make sure that our images had the soft and round tones that are in ' 80s films ''; this is achieved through digital image processing. Ives said that these cameras allow them to create an adaptable quality to the recorded film that is adaptable to a wide range of viewing experiences, including support for newer and future television technologies such as high dynamic range video that was just becoming adopted at the time of filming.
Filming for the second season began on November 7, 2016, once again in and around the Atlanta Metro area. While parts of Season 2 were set in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, these were actually filmed in downtown Atlanta, with skylines of Pittsburgh added in post-production. Andrew Stanton, director of Pixar 's Finding Nemo and WALL - E, directed the fifth and sixth episodes of the second season. Levy stated that Stanton was a big fan of the show and called up Levy, offering his directorial abilities for the show. Rebecca Thomas directed the seventh episode of the season. Unlike the first season, which they were able to film without any real security issues, the heightened awareness of the show required the producers to take significant steps to keep the show 's production in secret while filming the second season. They spoke to the production team of HBO 's Game of Thrones for tips and advice for securing filming sites, and have adopted code names for the series and various parts to allow the actors to speak to others without revealing details of the show 's plot. Kim Wilcox took over for costumes in the second season, finding many of the same problems with designing for the child actors that were aging. Furthermore, she wanted to create the 80 's aestetic but as reflected in a small rural town, with the trends of period slowly filtering into it rather that immediately jump on elements like neon colors. The second season concluded filming on June 2, 2017. Ives once again used Leica lens to film the season, while upgrading to the Red Weapon 8K S35 camera.
To create the aged effect for the series, a film grain was added over the footage, which was captured by scanning in film stock from the 1980s. The Duffers wanted to scare the audience, but not to necessarily make the show violent or gory, following in line with how the 1980s Amblin Entertainment films drove the creation of the PG - 13 movie rating. It was "much more about mood and atmosphere and suspense and dread than they are about gore '', though they were not afraid to push into more scary elements, particularly towards the end of the first season. The brothers had wanted to avoid any computer - generated effects for the monster and other parts of the series and stay with practical effects. However, the six - month filming time left them little time to plan out and test practical effects rigs for some of the shots. They went with a middle ground of using constructed props including one for the monster whenever they could, but for other shots, such as when the monster bursts through a wall, they opted to use digital effects. Post-production on the first season was completed the week before it was released to Netflix.
The title sequence uses closeups of the letters in the Stranger Things title with a red tint against a black background as they slide into place within the title. The sequence was created by the studio Imaginary Forces, formerly part of R / GA, led by creative director Michelle Doughtey. Levy introduced the studio to The Duffer Brothers, who explained their vision of the 1980s - inspired show, which helped the studio to fix the concept the producers wanted. Later, but prior to filming, the producers sent Imaginary Forces the pilot script, the synth - heavy background music for the titles, as well as the various book covers from King and other authors that they had used to establish the title and imagery, and were looking for a similar approach for the show 's titles, primarily using a typographical sequence. They took inspiration from several title sequences of works from the 1980s that were previously designed by Richard Greenberg under R / GA, such as Altered States and The Dead Zone. They also got input from Dan Perri, who worked on the title credits of several 1980s films. Various iterations included having letters vanish, to reflect the "missing '' theme of the show, and having letters cast shadows on others, alluding to the mysteries, before settling into the sliding letters. The studio began working on the title sequence before filming, and took about a month off during the filming process to let the producers get immersed in the show and come back with more input. Initially they had been working with various fonts for the title and used close - ups of the best features of these fonts, but near the end the producers wanted to work with ITC Benguiat, requiring them to rework those shots. The final sequence is fully computer generated, but they took inspiration from testing some practical effects, such as using Kodalith masks as would have been done in the 1980s, to develop the appropriate filters for the rendering software. The individual episode title cards used a "fly through '' approach, similar to the film Bullitt, which the producers had suggested to the studio.
The Stranger Things original soundtrack was composed by Michael Stein and Kyle Dixon of the electronic band Survive. It makes extensive use of synthesizers in homage to 1980s artists and film composers including Jean - Michel Jarre, Tangerine Dream, Vangelis, Goblin, John Carpenter, Giorgio Moroder, and Fabio Frizzi.
According to Stein and Dixon, The Duffer Brothers had been fans of Survive 's music, and used their song "Dirge '' for the mock trailer that was used to sell the show to Netflix. Once the show was green - lit, the Duffers contacted Survive around July 2015 to ask if they were still doing music; the two provided the production team with dozens of songs from their band 's past to gain their interest, helping to land them the role. Once aboard, the two worked with producers to select some of their older music to rework for the show, while developing new music, principally with character motifs. The two had been hired before the casting process, so their motif demos were used and played over the actors ' audition tapes, aiding in the casting selection. The show 's theme is based on an unused work Stein composed much earlier that ended up in the library of work they shared with the production staff, who thought that with some reworking would be good for the opening credits.
In addition to original music, Stranger Things features period music from artists including The Clash, Joy Division, Toto, New Order, The Bangles, Foreigner, Echo and the Bunnymen, Peter Gabriel, and Corey Hart, as well as excerpts from Tangerine Dream, John Carpenter, and Vangelis. In particular, The Clash 's "Should I Stay or Should I Go '' was specifically picked to play at pivotal moments of the story, such as when Will is trying to communicate with Joyce from the Upside Down.
Stranger Things ' original soundtrack, consisting of 75 songs from Stein and Dixon split across two volumes, was released by Lakeshore Records. Digital release and streaming options were released on August 10 and 19, 2016 for the two volumes, respectively, while retail versions were available on September 16 and 23, 2016. Limited editions of the soundtrack on vinyl, in both individual and a boxed set, are set for release in July 2017. A cassette version of the soundtrack, sold exclusively by Urban Outfitters, was released on July 14, 2017. The cassette packaging features a cardboard cover that emulates an old VHS sleeves, while the cassette case is made to look like a VHS tape.
Both volumes were nominated individually for the Best Score Soundtrack Category for the 2017 Grammy Awards, though neither won.
The soundtrack for the second season of Stranger Things was released digitally on October 20, 2017. The soundtrack, once again composed by Stein and Dixon, consists of 34 songs and was released by Lakeshore Records in the United States and Invada Records internationally. The soundtrack is intended to be released on physical formats, such as compact disc, vinyl, and cassette as well. On the soundtrack 's composition, Stein and Dixon together said that the score for the season introduces "new styles of composition, while still revisiting old themes when appropriate... We 've created new elements that are necessary to support the story, but still want to remain true to the sound of Season 1. '' The first track from the soundtrack, "Walkin ' in Hawkins '', was released on October 12.
The first season consisted of eight one - hour - long episodes which were released worldwide on Netflix on July 15, 2016, in Ultra HD 4K. The second season, consisting of nine episodes, was released on October 27, 2017 in HDR. A teaser for the second season, which also announced the release date, aired during Super Bowl LI.
The first season of Stranger Things was released on a Blu - ray / DVD combo pack exclusively to Target retailers on October 17, 2017, which includes a vintage VHS - inspired packaging.
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series, Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the season based on people using software on their phones that measures television viewing by detecting a program 's sound. According to Symphony, within the first 35 days of release, Stranger Things averaged ratings around 14.07 million adults between the ages 18 -- 49 in the United States. This made it the third most - watched season of Netflix original content in the U.S. at the time behind the first season of Fuller House and fourth season of Orange Is the New Black. In a September 2016 analysis, Netflix found that Stranger Things "hooked '' viewers by the second episode of the first season, indicating that the second episode was "the first installment that led at least 70 percent of viewers who watched that episode to complete the entire first season of a show. ''
In August 2017, the marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the season was the seventh-most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered, garnering slightly more than 20 % of the viewers that the second season of Daredevil received, which was the most viewed season according to Jumpshot. Jumpshot, which "analyzes click - stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers '', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company 's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season an approval rating of 94 % based on 69 reviews, and a weighted average rating of 7.96 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Exciting, heartbreaking, and sometimes scary, Stranger Things acts as an addictive homage to Spielberg films and vintage 1980s television. '' Review aggregator Metacritic gave the first season a normalized score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
IGN gave the score of 8 out of 10 and called the series "Great '', saying "Stranger Things is an easy recommendation, offering viewers an atmospheric and endearing series that is a nostalgic throwback without feeling like a simple copy. '' In a review in the San Francisco Chronicle Dave Wiegand wrote: "Stranger Things reminds us of a time marked by a kind of no - strings escapism. And as it does so, we find ourselves yearning for it because the Duffers have made it so irresistibly appealing. There may be other equally great shows to watch this summer, but I guarantee you wo n't have more fun watching any of them than you will watching Stranger Things. '' Joshua Alston of The A.V. Club also reviewed it positively saying, "Balancing style and substance is always challenging for a series like Stranger Things, but the show is perfectly calibrated. It feels like watching a show produced during the era in which it 's set, but with the craft of today 's prestige television. '' Reviewing for HitFix, Alan Sepinwall said, "Over the course of the eight hours, the story and characters take on enough life of their own so that the references do n't feel self - indulgent, and so that the series can be appreciated even if you do n't know the plot of E.T. or the title font of Stephen King 's early novels (a huge influence on the show 's own opening credits) by heart. ''
Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker also applauded the series and wrote, "This is astoundingly efficient storytelling, eight hours that pass in a blink, with even minor characters getting sharp dialogue, dark humor, or moments of pathos. '' Television critic Mary McNamara of Los Angeles Times said, "For the most part, and in absolute defiance of the odds, Stranger Things honors its source material in the best way possible: By telling a sweet ' n ' scary story in which monsters are real but so are the transformative powers of love and fealty. '' The Wall Street Journal 's Brian Kelly said, "Matt Duffer and Ross Duffer, brothers and the show 's creators, have done their homework when it comes to ' 80s cinema. Whether you 're a fan of John Carpenter 's The Thing or The Goonies is more your speed, there 's plenty to like in Stranger Things. ''
In a negative review, cultural critic Grafton Tanner called the series "wish fulfillment '' and "a window through which the present - shocked can gaze at a clichéd past. '' Similarly, Marinna Guzy of The Establishment wrote: "When confronted with a story like Stranger Things, a recycled retelling of an old story being marketed as homage and good, clean nostalgia, one has to wonder whether or not studios and content creators like The Duffer Brothers ever ask themselves whether or not the story they are telling is the one that should be told. What purpose does Stranger Things serve beyond reinforcing the status quo in the media landscape and perpetuating the dangerous delusion that things were better way back when? ''
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 94 % based on 109 reviews, and an average rating of 7.83 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Stranger Things ' slow - building sophomore season balances moments of humor and a nostalgic sweetness against a growing horror that 's all the more effective thanks to the show 's full - bodied characters and evocative tone. '' On Metacritic, the second season has a normalized score of 78 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Shortly after its release, Stranger Things gained a dedicated fanbase. One area of focus from these fans was the character of Barb, the nerdy friend and classmate of Nancy who is taken and killed by the monster early in the season. According to actress Shannon Purser, Barb "was n't supposed to be a big deal '', and The Duffer Brothers had not gone into great detail about the character since the focus was on finding Will. However, many fans sympathized with the character, with Laura Bradley of Vanity Fair suggesting that these people found that Barb would be a similar misfit in society, and "looks more like someone you might actually meet in real life '' compared to the other characters, particularly Nancy, in the series. Hashtags such as "# ImWithBarb '' and "# JusticeforBarb '' grew in popularity after the series ' release, and several fan sites and forums were created to support her. While Purser did not return for the second season, The Duffer Brothers used the real - life "Justice for Barb '' movement as inspiration for narrative at the start of the second season, with Nancy addressing the fact "that no one ever cares about '' Barb. Purser and several media outlets took her nomination as Barb for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series in the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards as achieving "Justice for Barb '', highlighting how well her character was received.
Another impact of the series has been an increase demand for Eggo waffles, as they are shown to be Eleven 's favorite food in several episodes and are seen as a representation of the show. The Kellogg Company, which manufactures Eggo, had not been part of the production prior to the first season 's release, but recognized the market impact of the series. It provided a vintage 1980s Eggo television advertisement for Netflix to use in its Super Bowl LI commercial, and is looking to become more involved with cross-promotion.
With the release of the second season of the series, Netflix also released Beyond Stranger Things, an aftershow hosted by Jim Rash. The guests of the aftershow are composed of cast and crew from the series, including The Duffer Brothers and the series ' stars, to discuss the development and behind - the - scenes production of the series and its larger mythology. Unlike previous aftershows created by Embassy Row, such as Talking Dead and Talking Bad, Beyond Stranger Things is intended to be watched after a screening of the entire current season.
Netflix and BonusXP developed a free mobile game tie - in for Stranger Things, released to iOS and Android devices on October 4, 2017. The game uses a retro - pixel style of art, similar to games for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The game is loosely based on the Stranger Things story after season one, with the player starting as Chief of Police Jim Hopper looking for the missing boys. Once these characters are found, they become playable and have special abilities that allow the player to access more areas in the game. BonusXP had less than a year to complete the game. The team decided to make the game in a similar style to The Legend of Zelda because it "was a perfect match because both (Stranger Things and Zelda) are about exploration, and it 's kind of a mysterious fit that fit the mood of the show, '' according to BonusXP president Dave Pottinger. The map of Hawkins in the game was based on a Google street view map of Jackson, Georgia where the series is filmed. In order to help keep the game a secret, BonusXP did not hire game testers for their quality assurance, instead having family members from the design team provide feedback; this process helped create the two difficulty levels in the game. Completing the game gives players a clip from the Season 2 premiere episode of the show. The game was downloaded 3 million times in the first week, becoming a top download and receiving critical praise. With the release of season two, an update to the game added Max as a playable character, and a release for the Amazon Fire TV, which included controller support.
Sony Interactive Entertainment has announced that it is working on a PlayStation 4 - exclusive game, based on Stranger Things, for their PlayStation VR peripheral. The company has since released a teaser showing the Christmas - lights - on - a-wall scenes.
United States Representative David Cicilline compared the state of the nation during the presidency of Donald Trump to that of Stranger Things during a speech given in Congress on February 16, 2017, using a sign "Trump Things '' in the same format as the title card of the show and saying "Like the main characters in Stranger Things, we are now stuck in the Upside Down ''.
As part of its release on Netflix on April 14, 2017, the cast of the rebooted version of Mystery Science Theater 3000 riffed on the first part of "Chapter 1 '' of Stranger Things. Google used augmented reality (AR) "stickers '' of Stranger Things characters to introduce its ARCore technology announced alongside its Pixel 2 phone in October 2017. Sesame Street created a young audience - appropriate spoof of Stranger Things, called Sharing Things, released in November 2017; it featured Cookie Monster as the "Cookiegorgon '', Grover as Lucas, Ernie as Dustin, and included several nods to the narrative of the second season.
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who sang the song how do i live without you | How Do I Live - wikipedia
"How Do I Live '' is a song written by Diane Warren. It was originally performed by LeAnn Rimes and the extended version of the song was later featured on her second studio album You Light Up My Life: Inspirational Songs in 1997. It was also performed by Trisha Yearwood, and Yearwood 's version was used in the soundtrack of the film Con Air. Both versions were released on May 27, 1997.
In the US, Rimes 's version peaked at No. 2 for five non-consecutive weeks in late 1997 and early 1998, behind "Candle in the Wind 1997 '' by Elton John, and "Truly Madly Deeply '' by Savage Garden. It set a record for staying on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for 69 weeks, a record it held until "I 'm Yours '' by Jason Mraz set a new record of 76 weeks. The Rimes recording also set the record for the most time in the Billboard Hot 100 's top 5 at 25 consecutive weeks and held the record for nineteen years (until it was broken in early 2017 by The Chainsmokers 's song "Closer ''), the record for Billboard Hot 100 's top 10 at 32 consecutive weeks (a record surpassed by "Shape of You '' by Ed Sheeran in 2017), and the record for Billboard Hot 100 's top 40 at 62 consecutive weeks. It ranks at No. 4 on Billboard 's All Time Top 100, the only single on the top 10 of this list not peaking at No. 1. The only songs that finished ahead of it were Bobby Darin 's cover of "Mack the Knife '', Santana 's song "Smooth '', and Chubby Checker 's version of "The Twist ''. It has been certified 3 × Platinum by the RIAA for shipments of 3 million copies in the United States, the highest certified country single of that time, to be surpassed twelve years later by "Love Story '' from artist Taylor Swift, which has been certified 8 × Platinum.
Despite only peaking as high as No. 7 in the UK Singles Chart, Rimes ' version of "How Do I Live '' spent 34 weeks on the chart, ending up as the 6th best selling single of 1998. As of August 2014, the song has sold 710,000 copies in the UK.
"How Do I Live '' was also covered by F.I.R. (Faye and Real featuring LeAnn Rimes). F.I.R. invited Rimes to record a portion of the song for their third album Flight Tribe in 2006. Billboard Magazine ranked "How Do I Live '' as the most successful song of the 1990s despite not going to number one on the Billboard Hot 100.
The song was originally intended for release as a single for the 1997 action blockbuster Con Air soundtrack.
According to LeAnn Rimes, Warren wrote the song specifically with her in mind, promising it to Rimes. Walt Disney Pictures, the parent company of Touchstone Pictures, decided that Rimes ' recording had too much of a "pop '' sound, and also that because she was 14 years old, she was too young to sing about the subject matter expressed in the song. Trisha Yearwood was ultimately chosen to re-record the song, utilizing a more throaty, country - western vibe. Yearwood 's version was released on May 27, 1997 to country radio and appeared in the film. According to Yearwood, she was unaware of Rimes ' recording prior to being approached by Touchstone Pictures to record the song.
When Wilbur Rimes (LeAnn 's father and then manager) heard of the release, her version was quickly released to mainstream pop radio. Neither Rimes ' nor Yearwood 's version of the song was included on the soundtrack album for the film (which consists of the score by Trevor Rabin and Mark Mancina).
Rimes ' version was released on a CD and cassette tape single, with the original rendition of the song plus an extended version, the latter of which was later re-issued on Rimes ' You Light Up My Life: Inspirational Songs, while the former was issued on her Greatest Hits in 2003 in the US, The Best of LeAnn Rimes in 2004 internationally and again in the US on her All - Time Greatest Hits album in 2015. The CD single was later re-issued with the original version of the song as the A-side track with the B - side being replaced by the Mr. Mig 's Dance Radio Edit, which would later be featured on the remix edition of The Best of LeAnn Rimes in 2004, while in 2014 her Dance Like You Do n't Give A... Greatest Hits Remixes featured a new remix by Cahill.
UK maxi - CD
UK maxi CD # 2 / Australian CD single
Germany maxi - CD
US / Japan CD - Single / US cassette tape
European CD single
Both the Rimes and the Yearwood versions debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending June 14, 1997. Rimes ' version was noted for its extreme longevity, spending a record - breaking 69 weeks on the chart and 32 weeks on the top ten alone, also a record. The track spent 25 of those in the top five, yet another record. Despite not peaking at number one, the Rimes version spent five weeks at number two, ten weeks at number three and seven weeks at number four, all non-consecutive. The song spent so many weeks inside the top 5 of the chart that it competed directly with two songs by R&B singer Usher, "You Make Me Wanna... '' and "Nice & Slow '', that were released seven months apart from each other. Overall, "How Do I Live '' by Rimes spent 62 weeks in the US Top 40 and 30 weeks on the UK Top 40 singles chart.
On March 11, 2017, "Closer '' by The Chainsmokers and Halsey set the new record for the most amount of time a song has spent in the top five of the Hot 100 when it was ranked at number five, marking its 27th week in the top five (though unlike "How Do I Live '' this was nonconsecutive). On July 29, 2017 "Shape of You '' by Ed Sheeran also ranked in the top five for a 27th week, thus surpassing "How Do I Live. ''
Trisha Yearwood 's version was moving quickly up the charts, getting as high as number 23, when MCA refused to issue any more copies of the single, for fear of cannibalizing album sales. The limited press run of 300,000 sold out, and the single was off the Hot 100 after 12 weeks. Yearwood 's single on the country charts quickly climbed all the way to number 2. Rimes single was the top selling country single of all time.
Rimes ' version ranked at number 4 on Billboard 's All Time Top 100 in 2008. When the All Time chart was retabulated for the chart 's 55th anniversary in 2013, it remained in the same position, being the most successful single by a female artist in the list. Billboard Magazine also ranked the song as the most successful single of the 1990s.
Rimes ' version spent 11 weeks atop the Adult Contemporary chart. In Australia, Rimes ' version peaked on the ARIA Charts at number 17 while Yearwood 's peaked at number 3.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
shipments figures based on certification alone
In 1998, for the first time in history, the Grammy Awards nominated two artists for the same song in the same category. Directly following Rimes ' performance of the song, Yearwood won the Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance. Yearwood also performed the song at the Country Music Association for which she won the 1997 award for Female Vocalist of the Year. Yearwood also won the 1997 Academy of Country Music Award for Top Female Vocalist.
The song was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song, but lost to "My Heart Will Go On '' from the film Titanic. Yearwood performed the song at the award ceremony.
Diane Warren -- songwriter
Credits for LeAnn 's version are adapted from the liner notes of the UK version of Sittin ' on Top of the World.
The song was used in the 1997 movie Con Air.
The song is semi-frequently used in the webcomic Homestuck (albeit in the form of a cover) due to the character John Egbert 's fascination with the movie Con Air and, in particular, the scene near the end of the movie during which the song is played.
Australian born Irish singer Johnny Logan covered the song on his 2001 album, Reach for Me.
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who sang sha na na na hey hey hey goodbye | Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye - wikipedia
"Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye '' is a song written and recorded by Paul Leka, Gary DeCarlo and Dale Frashuer, attributed to a then - fictitious band they named "Steam ''. It was released under the Mercury subsidiary label Fontana and became a number one pop single on the Billboard Hot 100 in late 1969, and remained on the charts in early 1970. In 1977, Chicago White Sox organist Nancy Faust began playing the song when White Sox sluggers knocked out the opposing pitcher. The fans would sing and a sports ritual was born. The song 's chorus remains well - known, and is still frequently used as a crowd chant at many sporting events. It is generally directed at the losing side in an elimination contest when the outcome is all but certain or when an individual player is ejected or disqualified. It has also been observed by crowds in political rallies to drown out and mock disruptive protesters who are being escorted out by security.
Paul Leka, Gary DeCarlo and Dale Frashuer wrote a blues shuffle version of the song in the early 1960s when they were members of a doo - wop group from Bridgeport, Connecticut, called the Glenwoods, the Citations, and the Chateaus, of which Leka was the piano player. The group disbanded when Leka talked Frashuer into going into New York City with him to write and possibly produce. In 1968, DeCarlo recorded four songs at Mercury Records in New York with Leka as producer. The singles impressed the company 's executives, who wanted to issue all of them as A-side singles. In need of a B - side, Leka and DeCarlo resurrected an old song from their days as the Glenwoods, "Kiss Him Goodbye '', with their old bandmate, Frashuer.
With DeCarlo as lead vocalist, they recorded the song in one recording session. Instead of using a full band, Leka played keyboards himself and had engineer Warren Dewey splice together a drum track from one of DeCarlo 's four singles and a conga drum solo by Ange DiGeronimo recorded in Mr. Leka 's Bridgeport, Conn. studio for an entirely different session. "I said we should put a chorus to it (to make it longer) '', Leka told Fred Bronson in The Billboard Book of Number One Hits. "I started writing while I was sitting at the piano going ' na, na, na, na, na, na, na, na '... Everything was ' na na ' when you did n't have a lyric. '' Gary added "hey hey ''. The group that is seen on the album cover and in the old black and white video was a road group that had nothing to do with the recording. The road group was lip syncing to DeCarlo 's vocal in the video.
"Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye '' reached number one in the United States for two weeks, on December 6 and 13, 1969; it was Billboard 's final multi-week number 1 hit of the 1960s and also peaked at number twenty on the soul chart. In Canada, the song reached number six. By the beginning of the 21st century, sales of "Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye '' had exceeded 6.5 million records, attaining gold record status.
The Supremes included a cover of the song on their 1970 album New Ways but Love Stays.
The Belmonts recorded an acappella version, which can be found as a track on their 1972 album Cigars, Acappella, Candy.
Dave Clark & Friends released the song in October 1973 under the title "Sha - Na - Na - Na (Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye) '' (EMI 2082), but the single did n't chart.
In 1987, Canadian quartet The Nylons released an a cappella version of this song as a single under the shortened title "Kiss Him Goodbye ''. It became their biggest hit on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number twelve that summer.
The Donna Summer compilation album Gold (a 1995 release exclusively for the Netherlands) contains a 3: 42 disco cover of the song.
In 2014 the Norwegian artist Adelén used the chorus line of the song on her World Cup song "Olé. '' The song was one of the tracks on the One Love, One Rhythm - The 2014 FIFA World Cup Official Album. The song peaked at number # 3 in Norway.
The song "Chillin '' by rapper Wale featuring singer Lady Gaga samples the chorus.
"Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye '' bears a resemblance to the coda of the 1968 Beatles ' "Na Na Hey Jude ''.
In February 1983, UK girl group Bananarama released the song as a single from their album Deep Sea Skiving. This version became a top ten hit in the United Kingdom (# 5), but only a minor hit in the US (Billboard # 101) later that year.
This was the fifth single released from their first album in 1983. It peaked at number five in the UK singles chart, and number 38 in Australia on the Kent Music Report chart.
UK: London Records NANA 4; USA: London Records 810 115 - 7
London Records NANX 4
The music video features the band playing in a school playground and then being made to move by a group of lads. They then decide to join a boxing club so the video features them singing the song whilst boxing. By the end of the video they return to the playground wearing leathers and this time make the group of lads move away. They then ride off into the night on motorbikes.
The song is sang acapella by the crowd in hockey games in Canada (specially in Montreal) by the end of games in order to say goodbye to the losing team.
On January 23, 2006, Paul Martin was defeated by Stephen Harper as Prime Minister of Canada. Martin had acceded to the prime ministry following the ouster of Jean Chrétien. The next day 's issue of La Voix de l'Est, a French newspaper in Granby, Quebec, included a cartoon by Paquette showing Chrétien calling Martin and singing Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye. This cartoon demonstrates that the impact of the song did not stop at the U.S. border, and its impact also went beyond the English - speaking world.
At the 2009 and 2017 Presidential Inaugurations, some audiences were chanting ' Na na na na ' to the departing Presidents, respectively George W. Bush and Barack Obama.
On May 4, 2017, after the House of Representatives voted to pass the American Health Care Act which partially repealed Obamacare, Democratic representatives chanted "Na na na na, hey hey, goodbye '' to Republican representatives, implying that in voting for the bill, they would lose their House seats in the next election. DeCarlo was happy to hear of the song getting renewed exposure, but said he opposed Obamacare. It was not the first time the song had been sung in Congress; in 1993, after Democrats voted for then - President Bill Clinton 's tax bill, House Republicans sung "Goodbye ''.
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who played rocky balboa's son in rocky iv | Rocky IV - wikipedia
Rocky IV is a 1985 American sports drama film written, directed by, and starring Sylvester Stallone. The film co-stars Dolph Lundgren, Burt Young, Talia Shire, Carl Weathers, Tony Burton, Brigitte Nielsen and Michael Pataki. Rocky IV was the highest grossing sports movie for 24 years, before it was overtaken by The Blind Side. It is the fourth and most financially successful entry in the Rocky film series.
In the film, the Soviet Union and its top boxer make an entrance into professional boxing with their best athlete Ivan Drago, who initially wants to take on World champion Rocky Balboa. Rocky 's best friend Apollo Creed decides to fight him instead, but is fatally beaten in the ring. Enraged, Rocky decides to fight Drago in the Soviet Union to avenge the death of his friend, and defend the honor of his country.
Critical reception was mixed, but the film earned $300 million at the box office. This film marked Carl Weathers ' final appearance in the series. Its success led to a fifth entry released on November 16, 1990.
Ivan Drago, a Soviet Russian boxer, arrives in the United States with his wife, Ludmilla, and a team of trainers from the USSR and Cuba. His manager, Nicolai Koloff, takes every opportunity to promote Drago 's athleticism as a hallmark of Soviet superiority. Motivated by patriotism and an innate desire to prove himself, Apollo Creed challenges Drago to an exhibition bout. Rocky has reservations, but agrees to train Apollo despite his misgivings about the match. He asks Apollo whether the fight is against the Soviet, or "you against you? ''
During a press conference regarding the match, hostility sparks between Apollo and Drago 's respective camps. The boxing exhibition takes place at the MGM Grand Hotel in Las Vegas. Apollo enters the ring in an over-the - top patriotic entrance with James Brown performing "Living in America '' complete with showgirls. The bout starts tamely with Apollo landing several punches that are ineffective against Drago, and Drago retaliates with devastating effect. By the end of the first round, Rocky and Apollo 's trainer, Duke, plead with him to give up, but Apollo refuses to do so, and tells Rocky not to stop the match "No matter what ''. Drago continues to pummel him in the second round, Duke begs Rocky to throw in the towel. Eventually, Drago lands one final punch on Apollo, killing him. In the aftermath, Drago displays no sense of remorse commenting to the assembled media: "If he dies, he dies. ''
Enraged by guilt and the Russians ' cold indifference, Rocky decides to challenge Drago himself. Drago 's camp agrees to an unsanctioned 15 - round fight in the Soviet Union on Christmas Day, an arrangement meant to protect Drago from the threats of violence he has been receiving in America. Rocky travels to the USSR without Adrian, setting up his training base in Krasnogourbinsk with only Duke and brother - in - law Paulie to accompany him. Duke opens up to Rocky, stating that he actually raised Apollo, and that his death felt like a father losing his son. He expresses his faith in Rocky to prevail. To prepare for the match, Drago uses high - tech equipment, steroid enhancement, and a team of trainers and doctors monitoring his every movement. Rocky, on the other hand, lifts and throws heavy logs, chops down trees, pulls an overloaded snow sleigh with Paulie atop, jogs through heavy snow under treacherous icy conditions, and climbs the largest icy mountain. Adrian arrives unexpectedly to give Rocky her support after initially refusing to travel to the Soviet Union, because of her worry that Rocky would be killed like Apollo.
Before the match, Drago is introduced with an elaborate patriotic ceremony, inspired by Apollo Creed 's intro. The home crowd is squarely on Drago 's side and hostile to Rocky, the American representing the Main Enemy. In stark contrast to his match with Apollo, Drago immediately goes on the offensive. Rocky takes a fierce pounding, and is thrown and shoved across the ring in the first round, but comes back toward the end of the second round, and cuts Drago 's left eye, stunning both the Russian and the crowd. This prompts Rocky to continue punching even after the bell rings. While Duke and Paulie encourage Rocky, they remind him that Drago is not a machine, but rather still human. Drago ironically comments to his trainers that Rocky "is not human, he is like a piece of iron, '' after his trainers reprimand him for his performance against the "weak '' American.
The two boxers continue their battle over the next dozen rounds, with Rocky managing to continually hold his ground, despite Drago 's valiant efforts. His resilience and persistence rallies the previously hostile Soviet crowd to his side, which unsettles Drago to the point that he picks Koloff up by the throat and throws him off the ring for berating his performance. In the final round, Rocky attempts the Rope - a-dope tactic against Drago, a tactic that successfully worked against Clubber Lang. However, this strategy proves to be unsuccessful against Drago. Rocky then goes toe to toe and lands rapid uppercuts to the body of the Russian following shouted orders from Duke, lifting Drago off his feet with each blow. Rocky follows up with punches to the face that daze Drago until a left hook finally causes him to fall out. Rocky wins by a knockout, to the shock of the Soviet politburo members watching the match.
Rocky gives a victory speech, acknowledging that the local crowd 's disdain of him had turned to respect during the fight. He compares it to the animosity between the Soviets and America, and says that seeing him and Drago fight was "better than 20 million '', alluding to a possible war between the USA and the USSR. Rocky finally declares, "If I can change, and you can change, then everybody can change! '' The Soviet General Secretary stands up to it and reluctantly applauds Rocky, and his aides follow suit. Rocky ends his speech by wishing his son watching the match on TV a Merry Christmas, and raises his arms into the air in victory as the crowd applauds.
LeRoy Neiman plays the ring announcer in the Creed - Drago match. Burgess Meredith appears as Mickey Goldmill in archive footage. Appearing as themselves are singer James Brown and commentators Stu Nahan, Warner Wolf, R.J. Adams, Barry Tompkins and Al Bandiero.
Wyoming doubled for the frozen expanse of the Soviet Union. The small farm where Rocky lived and trained was in Jackson Hole, and the Grand Teton National Park was used for filming many of the outdoor sequences in the Soviet Union. The PNE Agrodome at Hastings Park in Vancouver, British Columbia, served as the location of Rocky 's Soviet bout.
Sylvester Stallone has stated that the original punching scenes filmed between him and Dolph Lundgren in the first portion of the fight are completely authentic. Stallone wanted to capture a realistic scene and Lundgren agreed that they would engage in legitimate sparring. One particularly forceful Lundgren punch to Stallone 's chest slammed his heart against his breastbone, causing the heart to swell. Stallone, suffering from labored breathing and a blood pressure over 200, was flown from the set in Canada to Saint John 's Regional Medical Center in Santa Monica, and was forced into intensive care for eight days. Stallone later commented that he believed Lundgren had the athletic ability and talent to fight in the professional heavyweight division of boxing.
Additionally, Stallone has stated that Lundgren nearly forced Carl Weathers to quit in the middle of filming the Apollo - vs. - Drago "exhibition '' fight. At one point in the filming of the scene, Lundgren tossed Weathers into the corner of the boxing ring. Weathers shouted profanities at Lundgren while leaving the ring, and announcing that he was calling his agent and quitting the movie. Only after Stallone forced the two actors to reconcile did filming continue. The event caused a four - day work stoppage, while Weathers was talked back into the part and Lundgren agreed to tone down his aggressiveness.
Rocky IV is one of the few sport movies that applies genuine sound effects from actual punches, bona fide training methods created by boxing consultants, and a bevy of other new special effects. The film is recognized as being ahead of its time in its demonstration of groundbreaking high - tech sporting equipment, some of which was experimental and 20 years from public use. In 2012, Olympians Michael Phelps and Ryan Lochte noted that the training sequences in Rocky IV inspired them to use a cabin similar to what the resourceful Balboa utilized in the film.
Sportscaster Stu Nahan makes his fourth appearance in the series as commentator for the Creed -- Drago fight. Warner Wolf replaces Bill Baldwin, who died following filming for Rocky III, as co-commentator. For the fight between Rocky and Drago, commentators Barry Tompkins and Al Bandiero portray themselves as USA Network broadcasters.
Apollo Creed 's wife Mary Anne (Sylvia Meals) made her second appearance in the series, the first being Rocky II, although the character was mainly featured in Rocky II. Stallone 's future wife, Brigitte Nielsen, appeared as Drago 's wife, Ludmilla.
Paulie 's robot, a character that through the years has enjoyed a cult following of its own, was created by International Robotics Inc. in New York City. The robot 's initial voice was that of the company 's CEO, Robert Doornick. The robot is identified by its engineers as "SICO '' and is / was a member of the Screen Actors Guild. It toured with James Brown in the 1980s. The robot was written into the movie after it had been used to help treat Stallone 's autistic son, Seargeoh.
The Soviet premier in the sky box during the Rocky -- Drago match, played by David Lloyd Austin, strongly resembles contemporary Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Austin later played Gorbachev in The Naked Gun, and Russian characters in other films.
The musical score for Rocky IV was composed by Vince DiCola, who would later compose the music for The Transformers: The Movie. Rocky IV is the only film in the series not to feature original music by Bill Conti, who was replaced by DiCola; however, it does feature arrangements of themes composed by Conti from previous films in the series, such as "The Final Bell ''. Conti, who was too busy with the first two Karate Kid films at the time, would return for Rocky V and Rocky Balboa. Conti 's famous piece of music from the Rocky series, "Gonna Fly Now '', does not appear at all in Rocky IV (the first time in the series this happened), though a few bars of it are incorporated into DiCola 's training montage instrumental.
Songs from the movie included "Living in America '', by James Brown, and also music by John Cafferty ("Heart 's on Fire '', featuring Vince DiCola), Survivor, Kenny Loggins, and Robert Tepper. Go West wrote "One Way Street '' for the movie by request of Sylvester Stallone. Europe 's hit "The Final Countdown '', written earlier in the decade by lead singer Joey Tempest, is often incorrectly stated as being featured in the film due to its similarity to DiCola 's "Training Montage. '' However, Europe 's track was not released as a single until late 1986, after Rocky IV 's release.
According to singer Peter Cetera, he originally wrote his best - selling solo single "Glory of Love '' as the end title for this film, but was passed over by United Artists, and instead used the theme for The Karate Kid Part II.
Rocky IV grossed $127.8 million in United States and Canada, and $300 million worldwide, the most of any Rocky film. It was the highest - grossing sports film of all time, until The Blind Side (2009), which grossed $309 million (without accounting for inflation).
Stallone has been quoted as saying the enormous financial success and fan - following of Rocky IV once had him envisioning another Rocky movie, devoted to Drago and his post-boxing life, with Balboa 's storyline running parallel to Drago 's. However, he noted the damage both boxers sustained in the fight made them "incapable of reason '', and thus instead planned Rocky V as a showcase of the dangers of boxing.
The film has a 39 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, from 43 critics, indicating mixed reviews; the critical consensus states, "Rocky IV inflates the action to absurd heights, but it ultimately rings hollow thanks to a story that hits the same basic beats as the first three entries in the franchise. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 42 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews. ''
Roger Ebert gave the film two out of four stars, stating that with this film the Rocky series began "finally losing its legs. It 's been a long run, one hit movie after another, but Rocky IV is a last gasp, a film so predictable that viewing it is like watching one of those old sitcoms where the characters never change and the same situations turn up again and again. '' Ian Nathan of Empire gave the film two out of five stars, calling the script a "laughable turd '' and describing Rocky IV as "the (film) where the Rocky series threw in the towel on the credibility. ''
Gene Siskel of The Chicago Tribune gave the film a 3.5 out of 4 stars, and stated in his review, "(Stallone) creates credible villains worthy of his heroic character. ''
Dolph Lundgren received acclaim for his performance as Ivan Drago. He won the Marshall Trophy for Best Actor at the Napierville Cinema Festival. Rocky IV also won Germany 's Golden Screen Award.
The film won five Golden Raspberry Awards, including Worst Actor (Sylvester Stallone, along with Rambo: First Blood Part II), Worst Director (Stallone), Worst Supporting Actress (Brigitte Nielsen), Worst New Star (Nielsen, and also for Red Sonja) and Worst Musical Score. It also received nominations for Worst Picture, Worst Supporting Actress (Talia Shire), Worst Supporting Actor (Burt Young) and Worst Screenplay.
Scholars note that the film 's strong yet formulaic structure emphasizes the power of the individual, embodied by Rocky, the prototypically American hero who is inventive, determined, and idealistic. They contrast that with Ivan Drago 's hyperbolic characterization as a representation of Soviet power in the context of the latter part of the Cold War. Writer / director Stallone highlights the nationalistic overtones of the Balboa -- Drago fight throughout the film, such as when Drago 's wife calls the United States an "antagonistic and violent government, '' that is filled with "threats of violence '' to her husband. Drago 's trainer comments that American society has become "pathetic and weak. '' Drago represents the totalitarian regime, demonstrating his power when he topples an arrogant opponent (Creed). Later on, the radio announcer says, "Ivan Drago is a man with an entire country in his corner. '' Scholars note that Drago 's ultimate defeat -- and the Soviet crowd 's embrace of Rocky -- represents a crumbling of the Soviet Union.
Rocky IV has also been interpreted as a commentary on the power struggle between technology and humans, illustrated by both Paulie 's robot and the technology utilized by Drago 's trainers.
A novelization was published by Ballantine Books in 1985. Sylvester Stallone was credited as the author.
The script development was the subject of a famous copyright lawsuit, Anderson v. Stallone. Timothy Anderson developed a treatment for Rocky IV on spec; after the studio decided not to buy his treatment, he sued when the resulting movie script was similar to his treatment. The court held that Anderson had prepared an unauthorized derivative work of the characters Stallone had developed in Rocky I through III, and thus he could not enforce his unauthorized story extension against the owner of the character 's copyrights.
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when does the new aladdin movie come out | Aladdin (2019 film) - wikipedia
Aladdin is an upcoming American musical romantic fantasy adventure film directed by Guy Ritchie, written by Ritchie, John August and Vanessa Taylor, and produced by Walt Disney Pictures. It is a live - action adaptation of Disney 's 1992 animated film of the same name, which is in turn based on the Arab - style folktale of the same name from One Thousand and One Nights and the French interpretation by Antoine Galland. The film stars Mena Massoud as the title character alongside Naomi Scott, Will Smith, Marwan Kenzari, Navid Negahban, Nasim Pedrad, Billy Magnussen, and Numan Acar.
In October 2016, Disney announced Guy Ritchie would direct a live - action Aladdin remake. Smith was the first member of the cast to join, signing on to voice Genie in July 2017, and later that month Massoud and Scott were confirmed for the two lead roles. Principal photography began that September at Longcross Studios in Surrey, England, also filming in the Wadi Rum Desert in Jordan, and lasted until January 2018. The production saw several controversies, including accusations of whitewashing.
Aladdin is scheduled to be released in the United States on May 24, 2019.
On October 10, 2016, it was announced that Guy Ritchie would direct a live action Aladdin film with John August penning the screenplay for Walt Disney Pictures with Dan Lin attached as producer. The studio said that the film would be "an ambitious and nontraditional '' take on the tale of Aladdin that would keep much of the musical elements of the original film. On the non-traditional aspect, the studio planned for the film to be told in a nonlinear format.
In February 2017, Lin revealed about casting during an interview, saying that they were looking for a diverse cast and that they would not try "to make Prince of Persia ''. A worldwide casting call for the lead roles of Aladdin and Princess Jasmine commenced in March 2017, with principal production set to begin in the UK in July 2017 until January 2018. On April 19, 2017, it was reported that either Gabriel Iglesias or Will Smith was in talks for the role of Genie, for which the latter was confirmed in July. In May 2017, it was revealed that Jade Thirlwall was in talks for the part of Princess Jasmine.
On July 11, 2017, it was revealed that principal production on Aladdin had been pushed back by a month, to August 2017, due to struggles in finding the right actor to portray the titular role. It was revealed that over 2,000 actors and actresses had auditioned for the roles of Aladdin and Jasmine but that finding a male lead of Middle - Eastern or Indian descent in his 20s who could act and sing had proven difficult. Naomi Scott and Tara Sutaria were revealed to be the final two actresses in the running for the role of Jasmine, but neither could be cast until a chemistry test was done with whomever was cast as Aladdin. The studio was interested in casting Dev Patel or Riz Ahmed for the lead role of Aladdin, but neither were considered likely to obtain the role. In the most recent rounds of screen testing, actors Achraf Koutet, Mena Massoud, and George Kosturos were still in the running for the role of Aladdin. However, the studio had begun perusing old audition tapes for the role, having not been satisfied by the latest round of screen tests.
At the 2017 D23 Expo, on July 15, it was announced that Massoud had been cast as Aladdin and Scott had been cast as Jasmine, ending a four month long open casting call. On July 17, 2017, it was revealed that Disney had hired Vanessa Taylor to polish the original screenplay by August, specifically to do some "character work '' and what is called "script doctoring ''. Meanwhile, Richie and the studio focused on casting the other main roles with filming slated to start in August in London. In August 2017, Marwan Kenzari joined the cast as Jafar with Nasim Pedrad casted in a newly created role as "a hand maid and friend of Jasmine '' who will serve as a "comic relief '' and Numan Acar as Hakim. The following month, Billy Magnussen joined the cast in a newly created role as Prince Anders alongside Navid Negahban as the Sultan.
About her role as Jasmine, Scott speculated that the character "will be strong and have fun, but also get it wrong and be emotional. She 's a multidimensional woman, and she does n't have to just be one thing. So in this movie, you see her go on such a roller coaster, as opposed to her one goal being to fall in love or get married. '' When asked about Ritchie 's take on the movie, Pasek & Paul described it as "very muscular and action - packed ''. Despite initial reports, the animal characters Abu the monkey, Iago the parrot, and Rajah the tiger from the original Disney movie will be appearing in some capacity.
Principal photography commenced on September 6, 2017 at Longcross Studios in Longcross, Surrey, England, and concluded on January 24, 2018. Part of the film was shot in Wadi Rum Desert, Jordan. Reshoots took place during the month of August 2018.
At the 2017 D23 Expo, Alan Menken announced that he will be co-writing new songs for the film with the Oscar - winning songwriters of La La Land, Pasek & Paul. Menken would also score the film, which will also include original recordings written by Menken, Howard Ashman and Tim Rice. They wrote the lyrics for two new songs.
Aladdin is scheduled to be released in 3D and IMAX by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures on May 24, 2019, replacing the original date set for Star Wars: Episode IX.
The film has drawn criticism for its decision to add a new original white character by casting actor Billy Magnussen as Prince Anders which fans and critics deemed "unnecessary '' and "offensive '', sparking accusations of whitewashing to the film while pointing out the irony regarding the worldwide search for actors and actresses to play the leads in connection to the controversy. The decision to hire non-Arab, non-Middle Eastern British Indian actress Naomi Scott to play the lead female Princess Jasmine has also drawn criticism as well as accusations of colorism, although certain members of the cast, particularly Negahban and Pedrad, are of Iranian descent while Acar is of Turkish descent.
In January 2018, it was reported that the white extras were being applied brown make - up during filming in order to "blend in '', which caused an outcry among fans and critics, branding the practice as "an insult to the whole industry '' while accusing the producers of not recruiting people with Middle - Eastern or North African heritage. Disney responded to the controversy, saying, "Diversity of our cast and background performers was a requirement and only in a handful of instances when it was a matter of specialty skills, safety and control (special effects rigs, stunt performers and handling of animals) were crew made up to blend in. ''
People have also been highly critical of the casting of Will Smith as Genie, with the general consensus being that the actor is unfeasible to match the late Robin William 's performance from the 1992 film.
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how did that so raven get her powers | That 's So Raven - wikipedia
That 's So Raven is an American supernatural sitcom that debuted on Disney Channel on January 17, 2003, and ended its run on November 10, 2007. The series was nominated in 2005 and 2007 for Emmy Awards for Outstanding Children 's Programming.
The show was set in San Francisco and revolved around teenager Raven Baxter, played by Raven - Symoné, her friends Eddie (Orlando Brown) and Chelsea (Anneliese van der Pol), her family members; mother Tanya Baxter (T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh), father Victor Baxter (Rondell Sheridan) and brother Cory (Kyle Massey). The title character drew on her psychic powers, ingenuity, and talent as a fashion designer as well as a variety of disguises to get into and out of amusing adolescent and pre-adolescent situations.
Reruns of episodes aired on the ABC Kids Saturday morning segment of Disney - owned broadcast network ABC in the United States until August 27, 2011, when the block was discontinued. No announcement was made as to whether the show would get complete season releases on DVD. That 's So Raven garnered higher ratings than any other Disney Channel show at the time. It went on to be the first show in Disney Channel history to make the 100 - episode mark.
The show was so popular that it received a spin - off focusing on Cory. The show was called Cory in the House. The series lasted for two seasons and had 34 episodes. In October 2016, Raven - Symoné announced that there would be a second spin - off about Raven raising her two children, one with psychic visions. The show, titled Raven 's Home, premiered on July 21, 2017.
Raven Baxter, a teenage girl, receives short psychic visions of the future events when in deep situations. Attempting to make these visions come true frequently results in trouble and hilarious situations for herself, her family, and her friends.
The name for the main character changed several times prior to production, starting with Dawn Baxter in a show named The Future Is on Me. Names changed to Rose Baxter in a show called Absolutely Psychic but finally settling on Raven Baxter when actress Raven - Symoné won the lead part, with the show titled That 's So Raven. Symoné originally auditioned for the role of the best friend, Chelsea. Raven - Symoné was credited simply as "Raven '' throughout the series.
The show filmed a special pilot episode on April 12, 2001, and the first season was filmed from November 9, 2001 -- June 2002.
That 's So Raven was responsible for many firsts for Disney Channel: the series was the highest - rated series in the history of Disney Channel and the first series to garner more than three - million viewers; the third longest - running original series in Disney Channel history, the first Disney Channel series to reach 100 episodes, the first Disney Channel series to produce a spinoff (Cory in the House) and one of the first two live action original series where the lead and most of the supporting main characters are minorities (The Famous Jett Jackson being the other).
In addition, it was also the first Disney Channel sitcom to be shot on videotape, to use a multi-camera format, to be shot in front of a studio audience or use a laugh track, and to use the simulated film look created by FilmLook, Inc. (all of which has become standard on all Disney Channel comedies, though a ' filmized ' appearance was given to all of the channel 's videotaped sitcoms produced from 2009 onward, as the live - action Disney Channel Original Series begin being produced in high definition).
The first three seasons were produced by Brookwell McNamara Entertainment. The company later left at the end of season 3, being replaced by Warren & Rinsler Productions. Raven - Symoné then received a producer credit for the show 's fourth and final season, with the credit being called "That So Productions ''. It became the first Disney Channel series to create a spin - off, Cory in the House, which followed her younger brother, Cory, as his dad became the head chef for the President of the United States, causing the two of them to move to Washington, D.C.
In the fourth season of That 's So Raven and on Cory in the House, Victor states that Tanya (T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh) is in England studying to be a lawyer. The show shot its final few episodes in January 2006, but they were n't all aired until a year later, with the series finale airing in March 2007 and the second - to - last episode shown that November.
The show 's title theme song was written by John Coda, who also composed the music cues to signify scene changes and commercial breaks for this series as well as Even Stevens. It was produced by Jeffrey "Def Jef '' Fortson and Christopher B. Pearman and was performed by Raven - Symoné, Anneliese van der Pol and Orlando Brown.
Each season had opening credits composed of footage from the episodes of that season. Each season also made an exception to the guideline by showing footage from the previous seasons, most of the time when it was needed. For example, if footage being shown was of the characters dancing, then footage of a character or characters would be shown. When originally broadcast, season two followed the guideline, but when season three began airing, the opening credits from season two were inexplicably replaced with the opening credits from season three for daytime network rebroadcasts and subsequent syndication.
Each opening sequence, before going to the title card, always ended with the main cast being together (in clips that were not part of any episode). Seasons one, two, and three were of the Baxters sitting on their living room couch, and season four was of the Baxters (with the exception of Tanya), Eddie, and Chelsea coming down the Baxters ' living room stairs.
At the end of the opening credits, Raven stands next to the title card and says, "Yep, that 's me. '' This remained in season four, except with a new addition. Raven 's catchphrase "Oh, Snap! '' was dubbed in right before she says, "Yep, that 's me. ''
Raven - Symoné performs most of the theme, while Brown performs a rap near the end of the theme and some scattered vocals in the beginning of the theme. Anneliese van der Pol sings the show 's title in the chorus. A full - length version of this theme was heard in a music video which aired a few months before the show 's U.S. premiere and also can be heard on the show 's first soundtrack, released in 2004.
In Disney Channel Asia, an Asian version of the show 's theme song was made. The music video debuted on January 17, 2007, back - to - back with the 100th episode of That 's So Raven. It also aired in China on CCTV as 那 是 因此 掠夺.
The series is the third - longest running Disney Channel Original Series, with its popularity extending the show 's contract from 65 to 100 episodes. The last episode produced was "The Way We Were '', but then "Checkin ' Out '' was produced. Although it was chronologically the last episode, it did not air last; instead, "Where There 's Smoke '' aired last.
The episode "Checkin ' Out '' is the first part of a three - way crossover that continues on The Suite Life of Zack & Cody and concludes on Hannah Montana. Raven Baxter meets Zack and Cody while visiting the Tipton Hotel to do a photo shoot promoting a fashion line for boys. During her stay, Raven upsets Cody with a psychic vision and London Tipton refuses to take interest in one of Raven 's clothing designs until Hannah Montana arrives and shows an interest.
Eight years after the series ended, there was speculation and rumors that the series would get a second spin - off or revamp. On August 14, 2015, a reunion with Raven and her former co-stars happened on The View, where they discussed all things about the show and past times. Crystal Keymah and Sheridan were not present, but got a special mention from Symoné herself.
The That 's So Raven franchise has been modeled after fellow Disney Channel hit Lizzie McGuire. Raven has a clothing line, DVD releases, novels, bedroom sets, a perfume, a Girl Talk board game, three video games and two soundtracks, That 's So Raven: Songs from and inspired by the hit TV show and That 's So Raven Too!.
In February 2005, That 's So Raven toys were featured in the McDonald 's Happy Meal. In April 2005, a doll based on Raven Baxter was released and another was released the following year.
In September 2005, the show also spawned a fragrance and an MP3 player. That same month, the clothing line was shipped to Macy 's stores. As of 2006, That 's So Raven merchandise had made $400 million.
That 's So Raven has spawned three video games:
The series premiere was watched by 3.5 million viewers, the first Disney Channel series to garner more than 3 million viewers. The most watched episode of That 's So Raven is "Country Cousins '', scoring 10.8 million viewers.
Cory in the House is the first Disney Channel spin - off and it premiered on January 12, 2007. It was the one chosen out of the many pitched and proposed spin - offs that were to have aired after the completion of That 's So Raven, including one about Raven going off to college. Originally Raven - Symoné was offered the spin - off, but she declined it, therefore Disney Channel decided to give it to Kyle Massey.
The storyline involves Cory and Victor adjusting to life in Washington, D.C.; Victor has received a job as the Head Chef to the President. The show takes place while Raven is attending fashion college and Tanya is still in London.
The series is similar to its sister show, That 's So Raven. Cory has two best friends, one a boy, Newton Livingston III (Jason Dolley), and one a girl, Meena Paroom (Maiara Walsh). Note that in That 's So Raven, the main character also has two best friends, one a boy and one a girl and Newt and Meena 's persona 's are similar to Chelsea and Eddie. Cory attends a middle school in Washington, D.C. Also in the series, the president 's daughter Sophie (Madison Pettis) constantly pesters Cory, like Cory did to Raven in That 's So Raven. Cory also participates in crazy situations in which he learns a moral lesson and will most likely get punished. Candy Smiles plays in Cory 's love life multiple times, and Stickler continuously spies on Cory, Newton and especially Meena 's.
It is implied the episode, "When 6021 Met 4267 '', that Cory and Victor did move back to San Francisco.
In the episode "That 's So in the House '', Raven came to show designs of new tour guide uniforms to President Martinez (John D'Aquino). Unfortunately, she has a vision of a clock falling on the President, and tackles him, earning the Secret Service a chance to chase her around the grounds. Cory poses as his sister to display the uniforms, modeled by Newton and Meena. Raven is discovered outside the Oval Office window, and chased, until she actually does save Mr. Martinez from the clock. The episode ends with the credits sequence for That 's So Pooshnick, a show from Meena 's country about a psychic girl who can see the past and always ends up messing up trying to stop the vision from happening again.
Stanley and the Juicer have also made special appearances on the show as well.
In 2011, to promote her latest film Vampires Suck, Anneliese van der Pol revealed in an interview that a That 's So Raven film had been written but failed to go into production. "The storyline saw us going to France. (Raven) was going to start a fashion line in France. Eddie and (Chelsea) were going to fly out and meet her. Of course, something tragic happens. We have to rescue the situation. '' Van der Pol admitted that Raven 's schedule at the time was booked solid for a year and the possibility of the film seemed unlikely. "But no, It 's not ever happening. If I hear something, I will be the first to sign on. '' She also commented on reprising her role of Chelsea Daniels.
On October 27, 2016, it was announced that Raven - Symoné will star in and develop a sequel to the original series. Raven departed as a host of The View later in 2016 in order to work on the series full-time.In November 2016, it was announced that Anneliese van der Pol will reprise her role of Chelsea Daniels.
In the new series, Raven Baxter will be a divorced mother of two pre-teens, Nia and Booker. Booker will inherit his mother 's psychic abilities during middle school. Chelsea Daniels is also a divorced mother, who is raising a son, Levi, and moves in with Raven.
Palak Pe Jhalak is the sixth Disney Channel India series to be adapted in Hindi after Art Attack, Good Luck Charlie, The Suite Life of Zack and Cody, Shake It Up and Jessie, and premiered on September 27, 2015. Ayesha Kaduskar is seen playing the role of Nysha Kapoor, a character similar to Raven Baxter played by Raven - Symoné. The original That 's So Raven aired on Disney Channel India as well from 2004 to 2010 and Star Plus from 2003 to 2008.
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how much zoom does the hubble telescope have | Hubble Space Telescope - Wikipedia
The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 and remains in operation. Although not the first space telescope, Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile and is well known as both a vital research tool and a public relations boon for astronomy. The HST is named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble and is one of NASA 's Great Observatories, along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Spitzer Space Telescope.
With a 2.4 - meter (7.9 ft) mirror, Hubble 's four main instruments observe in the near ultraviolet, visible, and near infrared spectra. Hubble 's orbit outside the distortion of Earth 's atmosphere allows it to take extremely high - resolution images, with substantially lower background light than ground - based telescopes. Hubble has recorded some of the most detailed visible light images ever, allowing a deep view into space and time. Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics, such as accurately determining the rate of expansion of the universe.
The HST was built by the United States space agency NASA, with contributions from the European Space Agency. The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) selects Hubble 's targets and processes the resulting data, while the Goddard Space Flight Center controls the spacecraft.
Space telescopes were proposed as early as 1923. Hubble was funded in the 1970s, with a proposed launch in 1983, but the project was beset by technical delays, budget problems, and the Challenger disaster (1986). When finally launched in 1990, Hubble 's main mirror was found to have been ground incorrectly, compromising the telescope 's capabilities. The optics were corrected to their intended quality by a servicing mission in 1993.
Hubble is the only telescope designed to be serviced in space by astronauts. After launch by Space Shuttle Discovery in 1990, five subsequent Space Shuttle missions repaired, upgraded, and replaced systems on the telescope, including all five of the main instruments. The fifth mission was initially canceled on safety grounds following the Columbia disaster (2003). However, after spirited public discussion, NASA administrator Mike Griffin approved the fifth servicing mission, completed in 2009. The telescope is operating as of 2018, and could last until 2030 -- 2040. Its scientific successor, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), is scheduled for launch in March 2021.
In 1923, Hermann Oberth -- considered a father of modern rocketry, along with Robert H. Goddard and Konstantin Tsiolkovsky -- published Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen ("The Rocket into Planetary Space ''), which mentioned how a telescope could be propelled into Earth orbit by a rocket.
The history of the Hubble Space Telescope can be traced back as far as 1946, to the astronomer Lyman Spitzer 's paper "Astronomical advantages of an extraterrestrial observatory ''. In it, he discussed the two main advantages that a space - based observatory would have over ground - based telescopes. First, the angular resolution (the smallest separation at which objects can be clearly distinguished) would be limited only by diffraction, rather than by the turbulence in the atmosphere, which causes stars to twinkle, known to astronomers as seeing. At that time ground - based telescopes were limited to resolutions of 0.5 -- 1.0 arcseconds, compared to a theoretical diffraction - limited resolution of about 0.05 arcsec for a telescope with a mirror 2.5 m (8.2 ft) in diameter. Second, a space - based telescope could observe infrared and ultraviolet light, which are strongly absorbed by the atmosphere.
Spitzer devoted much of his career to pushing for the development of a space telescope. In 1962, a report by the US National Academy of Sciences recommended the development of a space telescope as part of the space program, and in 1965 Spitzer was appointed as head of a committee given the task of defining scientific objectives for a large space telescope.
Space - based astronomy had begun on a very small scale following World War II, as scientists made use of developments that had taken place in rocket technology. The first ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun was obtained in 1946, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) launched the Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO) to obtain UV, X-ray, and gamma - ray spectra in 1962. An orbiting solar telescope was launched in 1962 by the United Kingdom as part of the Ariel space program, and in 1966 NASA launched the first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) mission. OAO - 1 's battery failed after three days, terminating the mission. It was followed by OAO - 2, which carried out ultraviolet observations of stars and galaxies from its launch in 1968 until 1972, well beyond its original planned lifetime of one year.
The OSO and OAO missions demonstrated the important role space - based observations could play in astronomy, and in 1968, NASA developed firm plans for a space - based reflecting telescope with a mirror 3 m (9.8 ft) in diameter, known provisionally as the Large Orbiting Telescope or Large Space Telescope (LST), with a launch slated for 1979. These plans emphasized the need for manned maintenance missions to the telescope to ensure such a costly program had a lengthy working life, and the concurrent development of plans for the reusable Space Shuttle indicated that the technology to allow this was soon to become available.
The continuing success of the OAO program encouraged increasingly strong consensus within the astronomical community that the LST should be a major goal. In 1970, NASA established two committees, one to plan the engineering side of the space telescope project, and the other to determine the scientific goals of the mission. Once these had been established, the next hurdle for NASA was to obtain funding for the instrument, which would be far more costly than any Earth - based telescope. The U.S. Congress questioned many aspects of the proposed budget for the telescope and forced cuts in the budget for the planning stages, which at the time consisted of very detailed studies of potential instruments and hardware for the telescope. In 1974, public spending cuts led to Congress deleting all funding for the telescope project.
In response a nationwide lobbying effort was coordinated among astronomers. Many astronomers met congressmen and senators in person, and large scale letter - writing campaigns were organized. The National Academy of Sciences published a report emphasizing the need for a space telescope, and eventually the Senate agreed to half of the budget that had originally been approved by Congress.
The funding issues led to something of a reduction in the scale of the project, with the proposed mirror diameter reduced from 3 m to 2.4 m, both to cut costs and to allow a more compact and effective configuration for the telescope hardware. A proposed precursor 1.5 m (4.9 ft) space telescope to test the systems to be used on the main satellite was dropped, and budgetary concerns also prompted collaboration with the European Space Agency. ESA agreed to provide funding and supply one of the first generation instruments for the telescope, as well as the solar cells that would power it, and staff to work on the telescope in the United States, in return for European astronomers being guaranteed at least 15 % of the observing time on the telescope. Congress eventually approved funding of US $36 million for 1978, and the design of the LST began in earnest, aiming for a launch date of 1983. In 1983 the telescope was named after Edwin Hubble, who made one of the greatest scientific breakthroughs of the 20th century when he discovered that the universe is expanding.
Once the Space Telescope project had been given the go - ahead, work on the program was divided among many institutions. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) was given responsibility for the design, development, and construction of the telescope, while Goddard Space Flight Center was given overall control of the scientific instruments and ground - control center for the mission. MSFC commissioned the optics company Perkin - Elmer to design and build the Optical Telescope Assembly (OTA) and Fine Guidance Sensors for the space telescope. Lockheed was commissioned to construct and integrate the spacecraft in which the telescope would be housed.
Optically, the HST is a Cassegrain reflector of Ritchey -- Chrétien design, as are most large professional telescopes. This design, with two hyperbolic mirrors, is known for good imaging performance over a wide field of view, with the disadvantage that the mirrors have shapes that are hard to fabricate and test. The mirror and optical systems of the telescope determine the final performance, and they were designed to exacting specifications. Optical telescopes typically have mirrors polished to an accuracy of about a tenth of the wavelength of visible light, but the Space Telescope was to be used for observations from the visible through the ultraviolet (shorter wavelengths) and was specified to be diffraction limited to take full advantage of the space environment. Therefore, its mirror needed to be polished to an accuracy of 10 nanometers (0.4 microinches), or about 1 / 65 of the wavelength of red light. On the long wavelength end, the OTA was not designed with optimum IR performance in mind -- for example, the mirrors are kept at stable (and warm, about 15 ° C) temperatures by heaters. This limits Hubble 's performance as an infrared telescope.
Perkin - Elmer intended to use custom - built and extremely sophisticated computer - controlled polishing machines to grind the mirror to the required shape. However, in case their cutting - edge technology ran into difficulties, NASA demanded that PE sub-contract to Kodak to construct a back - up mirror using traditional mirror - polishing techniques. (The team of Kodak and Itek also bid on the original mirror polishing work. Their bid called for the two companies to double - check each other 's work, which would have almost certainly caught the polishing error that later caused such problems.) The Kodak mirror is now on permanent display at the National Air and Space Museum. An Itek mirror built as part of the effort is now used in the 2.4 m telescope at the Magdalena Ridge Observatory.
Construction of the Perkin - Elmer mirror began in 1979, starting with a blank manufactured by Corning from their ultra-low expansion glass. To keep the mirror 's weight to a minimum it consisted of top and bottom plates, each one inch (25 mm) thick, sandwiching a honeycomb lattice. Perkin - Elmer simulated microgravity by supporting the mirror from the back with 130 rods that exerted varying amounts of force. This ensured that the mirror 's final shape would be correct and to specification when finally deployed. Mirror polishing continued until May 1981. NASA reports at the time questioned Perkin - Elmer 's managerial structure, and the polishing began to slip behind schedule and over budget. To save money, NASA halted work on the back - up mirror and put the launch date of the telescope back to October 1984. The mirror was completed by the end of 1981; it was washed using 2,400 US gallons (9,100 L) of hot, deionized water and then received a reflective coating of 65 nm - thick (2.6 μin) aluminum and a protective coating of 25 nm - thick (0.98 μin) magnesium fluoride.
Doubts continued to be expressed about Perkin - Elmer 's competence on a project of this importance, as their budget and timescale for producing the rest of the OTA continued to inflate. In response to a schedule described as "unsettled and changing daily '', NASA postponed the launch date of the telescope until April 1985. Perkin - Elmer 's schedules continued to slip at a rate of about one month per quarter, and at times delays reached one day for each day of work. NASA was forced to postpone the launch date until March and then September 1986. By this time, the total project budget had risen to US $1.175 billion.
The spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments were to be housed was another major engineering challenge. It would have to withstand frequent passages from direct sunlight into the darkness of Earth 's shadow, which would cause major changes in temperature, while being stable enough to allow extremely accurate pointing of the telescope. A shroud of multi-layer insulation keeps the temperature within the telescope stable and surrounds a light aluminum shell in which the telescope and instruments sit. Within the shell, a graphite - epoxy frame keeps the working parts of the telescope firmly aligned. Because graphite composites are hygroscopic, there was a risk that water vapor absorbed by the truss while in Lockheed 's clean room would later be expressed in the vacuum of space; resulting in the telescope 's instruments being covered by ice. To reduce that risk, a nitrogen gas purge was performed before launching the telescope into space.
While construction of the spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments would be housed proceeded somewhat more smoothly than the construction of the OTA, Lockheed still experienced some budget and schedule slippage, and by the summer of 1985, construction of the spacecraft was 30 % over budget and three months behind schedule. An MSFC report said that Lockheed tended to rely on NASA directions rather than take their own initiative in the construction.
The two initial, primary computers on the HST were the 1.25 MHz DF - 224 system, built by Rockwell Autonetics, which contained three redundant CPUs, and two redundant NSSC - 1 (NASA Standard Spacecraft Computer, Model 1) systems, developed by Westinghouse and GSFC using diode -- transistor logic (DTL). A co-processor for the DF - 224 was added during Servicing Mission 1 in 1993, which consisted of two redundant strings of an Intel - based 80386 processor with an 80387 math co-processor. The DF - 224 and its 386 co-processor were replaced by a 25 MHz Intel - based 80486 processor system during Servicing Mission 3A in 1999.
Additionally, some of the science instruments and components had their own embedded microprocessor - based control systems. The MATs (Multiple Access Transponder) components, MAT - 1 and MAT - 2, utilize Hughes Aircraft CDP1802CD microprocessors. The Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WFPC) also utilized an RCA 1802 microprocessor (or possibly the older 1801 version). The WFPC - 1 was replaced by the WFPC - 2 during Servicing Mission 1 in 1993, which was then replaced by the Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) during Servicing Mission 4 in 2009.
When launched, the HST carried five scientific instruments: the Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WF / PC), Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS), High Speed Photometer (HSP), Faint Object Camera (FOC) and the Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS). WF / PC was a high - resolution imaging device primarily intended for optical observations. It was built by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and incorporated a set of 48 filters isolating spectral lines of particular astrophysical interest. The instrument contained eight charge - coupled device (CCD) chips divided between two cameras, each using four CCDs. Each CCD has a resolution of 0.64 megapixels. The "wide field camera '' (WFC) covered a large angular field at the expense of resolution, while the "planetary camera '' (PC) took images at a longer effective focal length than the WF chips, giving it a greater magnification.
The GHRS was a spectrograph designed to operate in the ultraviolet. It was built by the Goddard Space Flight Center and could achieve a spectral resolution of 90,000. Also optimized for ultraviolet observations were the FOC and FOS, which were capable of the highest spatial resolution of any instruments on Hubble. Rather than CCDs these three instruments used photon - counting digicons as their detectors. The FOC was constructed by ESA, while the University of California, San Diego, and Martin Marietta Corporation built the FOS.
The final instrument was the HSP, designed and built at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison. It was optimized for visible and ultraviolet light observations of variable stars and other astronomical objects varying in brightness. It could take up to 100,000 measurements per second with a photometric accuracy of about 2 % or better.
HST 's guidance system can also be used as a scientific instrument. Its three Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS) are primarily used to keep the telescope accurately pointed during an observation, but can also be used to carry out extremely accurate astrometry; measurements accurate to within 0.0003 arcseconds have been achieved.
The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) is responsible for the scientific operation of the telescope and the delivery of data products to astronomers. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) and is physically located in Baltimore, Maryland on the Homewood campus of Johns Hopkins University, one of the 39 US universities and seven international affiliates that make up the AURA consortium. STScI was established in 1981 after something of a power struggle between NASA and the scientific community at large. NASA had wanted to keep this function in - house, but scientists wanted it to be based in an academic establishment. The Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST - ECF), established at Garching bei München near Munich in 1984, provided similar support for European astronomers until 2011, when these activities were moved to the European Space Astronomy Centre.
One rather complex task that falls to STScI is scheduling observations for the telescope. Hubble is in a low - Earth orbit to enable servicing missions, but this means that most astronomical targets are occulted by the Earth for slightly less than half of each orbit. Observations can not take place when the telescope passes through the South Atlantic Anomaly due to elevated radiation levels, and there are also sizable exclusion zones around the Sun (precluding observations of Mercury), Moon and Earth. The solar avoidance angle is about 50 °, to keep sunlight from illuminating any part of the OTA. Earth and Moon avoidance keeps bright light out of the FGSs, and keeps scattered light from entering the instruments. If the FGSs are turned off, however, the Moon and Earth can be observed. Earth observations were used very early in the program to generate flat - fields for the WFPC1 instrument. There is a so - called continuous viewing zone (CVZ), at roughly 90 ° to the plane of Hubble 's orbit, in which targets are not occulted for long periods. Due to the precession of the orbit, the location of the CVZ moves slowly over a period of eight weeks. Because the limb of the Earth is always within about 30 ° of regions within the CVZ, the brightness of scattered earthshine may be elevated for long periods during CVZ observations.
Hubble orbits in low Earth orbit at an altitude of approximately 540 kilometers (340 mi) and an inclination of 28.5 °. The position along its orbit changes over time in a way that is not accurately predictable. The density of the upper atmosphere varies according to many factors, and this means that Hubble 's predicted position for six weeks ' time could be in error by up to 4,000 km (2,500 mi). Observation schedules are typically finalized only a few days in advance, as a longer lead time would mean there was a chance that the target would be unobservable by the time it was due to be observed.
Engineering support for HST is provided by NASA and contractor personnel at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, 48 km (30 mi) south of the STScI. Hubble 's operation is monitored 24 hours per day by four teams of flight controllers who make up Hubble 's Flight Operations Team.
By early 1986, the planned launch date of October that year looked feasible, but the Challenger accident brought the U.S. space program to a halt, grounding the Space Shuttle fleet and forcing the launch of Hubble to be postponed for several years. The telescope had to be kept in a clean room, powered up and purged with nitrogen, until a launch could be rescheduled. This costly situation (about US $6 million per month) pushed the overall costs of the project even higher. This delay did allow time for engineers to perform extensive tests, swap out a possibly failure - prone battery, and make other improvements. Furthermore, the ground software needed to control Hubble was not ready in 1986, and was barely ready by the 1990 launch.
Eventually, following the resumption of shuttle flights in 1988, the launch of the telescope was scheduled for 1990. On April 24, 1990, Space Shuttle Discovery successfully launched the telescope into its planned orbit during the STS - 31 mission.
From its original total cost estimate of about US $400 million, the telescope cost about US $4.7 billion by the time of its launch. Hubble 's cumulative costs were estimated to be about US $10 billion in 2010, twenty years after launch.
Hubble accommodates five science instruments at a given time, plus the Fine Guidance Sensors, which are mainly used for aiming the telescope but are occasionally used for science (astrometry). Early instruments were replaced with more advanced ones during the Shuttle servicing missions. COSTAR was strictly a corrective optics device rather than a true science instrument, but occupied one of the five instrument bays.
Since the final servicing mission in 2009, the four active instruments have been ACS, COS, STIS and WFC3. NICMOS is kept in hibernation, but may be revived if WFC3 were to fail in the future.
Of the former instruments, three (COSTAR, FOS and WFPC2) are displayed in the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. The FOC is in the Dornier museum, Germany. The HSP is in the Space Place at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison. The first WFPC was dismantled, and some components were then re-used in WFC3. The current location of GHRS is unclear.
Within weeks of the launch of the telescope, the returned images indicated a serious problem with the optical system. Although the first images appeared to be sharper than those of ground - based telescopes, Hubble failed to achieve a final sharp focus and the best image quality obtained was drastically lower than expected. Images of point sources spread out over a radius of more than one arcsecond, instead of having a point spread function (PSF) concentrated within a circle 0.1 arcsec in diameter as had been specified in the design criteria.
Analysis of the flawed images showed that the cause of the problem was that the primary mirror had been polished to the wrong shape. Although it was probably the most precisely figured optical mirror ever made, smooth to about 10 nm (0.4 μin), at the perimeter it was too flat by about 2,200 nanometers (2.2 micrometers; 87 microinches). This difference was catastrophic, introducing severe spherical aberration, a flaw in which light reflecting off the edge of a mirror focuses on a different point from the light reflecting off its center.
The effect of the mirror flaw on scientific observations depended on the particular observation -- the core of the aberrated PSF was sharp enough to permit high - resolution observations of bright objects, and spectroscopy of point sources was only affected through a sensitivity loss. However, the loss of light to the large, out - of - focus halo severely reduced the usefulness of the telescope for faint objects or high - contrast imaging. This meant that nearly all of the cosmological programs were essentially impossible, since they required observation of exceptionally faint objects. NASA and the telescope became the butt of many jokes, and the project was popularly regarded as a white elephant. For instance, in the 1991 comedy The Naked Gun 21⁄2: The Smell of Fear, Hubble was pictured with Lusitania, the Hindenburg, and the Edsel. Nonetheless, during the first three years of the Hubble mission, before the optical corrections, the telescope still carried out a large number of productive observations of less demanding targets. The error was well characterized and stable, enabling astronomers to partially compensate for the defective mirror by using sophisticated image processing techniques such as deconvolution.
A commission headed by Lew Allen, director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, was established to determine how the error could have arisen. The Allen Commission found that a reflective null corrector, a testing device used to achieve a properly shaped non-spherical mirror, had been incorrectly assembled -- one lens was out of position by 1.3 mm (0.051 in). During the initial grinding and polishing of the mirror, Perkin - Elmer analyzed its surface with two conventional refractive null correctors. However, for the final manufacturing step (figuring), they switched to the custom - built reflective null corrector, designed explicitly to meet very strict tolerances. The incorrect assembly of the device resulted in the mirror being ground very precisely but to the wrong shape. A few final tests, using the conventional null correctors, correctly reported spherical aberration. But these results were dismissed, thus missing the opportunity to catch the error, because the reflective null corrector was considered more accurate.
The commission blamed the failings primarily on Perkin - Elmer. Relations between NASA and the optics company had been severely strained during the telescope construction, due to frequent schedule slippage and cost overruns. NASA found that Perkin - Elmer did not review or supervise the mirror construction adequately, did not assign its best optical scientists to the project (as it had for the prototype), and in particular did not involve the optical designers in the construction and verification of the mirror. While the commission heavily criticized Perkin - Elmer for these managerial failings, NASA was also criticized for not picking up on the quality control shortcomings, such as relying totally on test results from a single instrument.
The design of the telescope had always incorporated servicing missions, and astronomers immediately began to seek potential solutions to the problem that could be applied at the first servicing mission, scheduled for 1993. While Kodak had ground a back - up mirror for Hubble, it would have been impossible to replace the mirror in orbit, and too expensive and time - consuming to bring the telescope back to Earth for a refit. Instead, the fact that the mirror had been ground so precisely to the wrong shape led to the design of new optical components with exactly the same error but in the opposite sense, to be added to the telescope at the servicing mission, effectively acting as "spectacles '' to correct the spherical aberration.
The first step was a precise characterization of the error in the main mirror. Working backwards from images of point sources, astronomers determined that the conic constant of the mirror as built was 2999898610000000000 ♠ − 1.01390 ± 0.0002, instead of the intended 2999899770000000000 ♠ − 1.00230. The same number was also derived by analyzing the null corrector used by Perkin - Elmer to figure the mirror, as well as by analyzing interferograms obtained during ground testing of the mirror.
Because of the way the HST 's instruments were designed, two different sets of correctors were required. The design of the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2, already planned to replace the existing WF / PC, included relay mirrors to direct light onto the four separate charge - coupled device (CCD) chips making up its two cameras. An inverse error built into their surfaces could completely cancel the aberration of the primary. However, the other instruments lacked any intermediate surfaces that could be figured in this way, and so required an external correction device.
The Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement (COSTAR) system was designed to correct the spherical aberration for light focused at the FOC, FOS, and GHRS. It consists of two mirrors in the light path with one ground to correct the aberration. To fit the COSTAR system onto the telescope, one of the other instruments had to be removed, and astronomers selected the High Speed Photometer to be sacrificed. By 2002, all of the original instruments requiring COSTAR had been replaced by instruments with their own corrective optics. COSTAR was removed and returned to Earth in 2009 where it is exhibited at the National Air and Space Museum. The area previously used by COSTAR is now occupied by the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph.
Hubble was designed to accommodate regular servicing and equipment upgrades while in orbit. Instruments and limited life items were designed as orbital replacement units. Five servicing missions (SM 1, 2, 3A, 3B, and 4) were flown by NASA space shuttles, the first in December 1993 and the last in May 2009. Servicing missions were delicate operations that began with maneuvering to intercept the telescope in orbit and carefully retrieving it with the shuttle 's mechanical arm. The necessary work was then carried out in multiple tethered spacewalks over a period of four to five days. After a visual inspection of the telescope, astronauts conducted repairs, replaced failed or degraded components, upgraded equipment, and installed new instruments. Once work was completed, the telescope was redeployed, typically after boosting to a higher orbit to address the orbital decay caused by atmospheric drag.
After the problems with Hubble 's mirror were discovered, the first servicing mission assumed greater importance, as the astronauts would need to do extensive work to install corrective optics. The seven astronauts for the mission were trained to use about a hundred specialized tools. SM1 flew aboard Endeavour in December 1993, and involved installation of several instruments and other equipment over ten days.
Most importantly, the High Speed Photometer was replaced with the COSTAR corrective optics package, and WFPC was replaced with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) with an internal optical correction system. The solar arrays and their drive electronics were also replaced, as well as four gyroscopes in the telescope pointing system, two electrical control units and other electrical components, and two magnetometers. The onboard computers were upgraded with added coprocessors, and Hubble 's orbit was boosted.
On January 13, 1994, NASA declared the mission a complete success and showed the first sharper images. The mission was one of the most complex performed up until that date, involving five long extra-vehicular activity periods. Its success was a boon for NASA, as well as for the astronomers who now had a more capable space telescope.
Servicing Mission 2, flown by Discovery in February 1997, replaced the GHRS and the FOS with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) and the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS), replaced an Engineering and Science Tape Recorder with a new Solid State Recorder, and repaired thermal insulation. NICMOS contained a heat sink of solid nitrogen to reduce the thermal noise from the instrument, but shortly after it was installed, an unexpected thermal expansion resulted in part of the heat sink coming into contact with an optical baffle. This led to an increased warming rate for the instrument and reduced its original expected lifetime of 4.5 years to about 2 years.
Servicing Mission 3A, flown by Discovery, took place in December 1999, and was a split - off from Servicing Mission 3 after three of the six onboard gyroscopes had failed. The fourth failed a few weeks before the mission, rendering the telescope incapable of performing scientific observations. The mission replaced all six gyroscopes, replaced a Fine Guidance Sensor and the computer, installed a Voltage / temperature Improvement Kit (VIK) to prevent battery overcharging, and replaced thermal insulation blankets. The new computer is 20 times faster, with six times more memory, than the DF - 224 it replaced. It increases throughput by moving some computing tasks from the ground to the spacecraft and saves money by allowing the use of modern programming languages.
Servicing Mission 3B flown by Columbia in March 2002 saw the installation of a new instrument, with the FOC (which, except for the Fine Guidance Sensors when used for astrometry, was the last of the original instruments) being replaced by the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS). This meant that COSTAR was no longer required, since all new instruments had built - in correction for the main mirror aberration. The mission also revived NICMOS by installing a closed - cycle cooler and replaced the solar arrays for the second time, providing 30 percent more power.
Plans called for Hubble to be serviced in February 2005, but the Columbia disaster in 2003, in which the orbiter disintegrated on re-entry into the atmosphere, had wide - ranging effects on the Hubble program. NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe decided that all future shuttle missions had to be able to reach the safe haven of the International Space Station should in - flight problems develop. As no shuttles were capable of reaching both HST and the ISS during the same mission, future crewed service missions were canceled. This decision was assailed by numerous astronomers, who felt that Hubble was valuable enough to merit the human risk. HST 's planned successor, the James Webb Telescope (JWST), was not expected to launch until at least 2018. A gap in space - observing capabilities between a decommissioning of Hubble and the commissioning of a successor was of major concern to many astronomers, given the significant scientific impact of HST. The consideration that JWST will not be located in low Earth orbit, and therefore can not be easily upgraded or repaired in the event of an early failure, only makes these concerns more acute. On the other hand, many astronomers felt strongly that the servicing of Hubble should not take place if the expense were to come from the JWST budget.
In January 2004, O'Keefe said he would review his decision to cancel the final servicing mission to HST due to public outcry and requests from Congress for NASA to look for a way to save it. The National Academy of Sciences convened an official panel, which recommended in July 2004 that the HST should be preserved despite the apparent risks. Their report urged "NASA should take no actions that would preclude a space shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope ''. In August 2004, O'Keefe asked Goddard Space Flight Center to prepare a detailed proposal for a robotic service mission. These plans were later canceled, the robotic mission being described as "not feasible ''. In late 2004, several Congressional members, led by Senator Barbara Mikulski, held public hearings and carried on a fight with much public support (including thousands of letters from school children across the country) to get the Bush Administration and NASA to reconsider the decision to drop plans for a Hubble rescue mission.
The nomination in April 2005 of a new NASA Administrator with an engineering rather than accounting background, Michael D. Griffin, changed the situation, as Griffin stated he would consider a manned servicing mission. Soon after his appointment Griffin authorized Goddard to proceed with preparations for a manned Hubble maintenance flight, saying he would make the final decision after the next two shuttle missions. In October 2006 Griffin gave the final go - ahead, and the 11 - day mission by Atlantis was scheduled for October 2008. Hubble 's main data - handling unit failed in September 2008, halting all reporting of scientific data until its back - up was brought online on October 25, 2008. Since a failure of the backup unit would leave the HST helpless, the service mission was postponed to incorporate a replacement for the primary unit.
Servicing Mission 4, flown by Atlantis in May 2009, was the last scheduled shuttle mission for HST. SM4 installed the replacement data - handling unit, repaired the ACS and STIS systems, installed improved nickel hydrogen batteries, and replaced other components. SM4 also installed two new observation instruments -- Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) and the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) -- and the Soft Capture and Rendezvous System, which will enable the future rendezvous, capture, and safe disposal of Hubble by either a crewed or robotic mission. Except for the ACS 's High Resolution Channel which could not be repaired and was disabled, the work accomplished during SM4 rendered the telescope fully functional, and it remains so as of 2018.
Since the start of the program, a number of research projects have been carried out, some of them almost solely with Hubble, others coordinated facilities such as Chandra X-ray Observatory and ESO 's Very Large Telescope. Although the Hubble observatory is nearing the end of its life, there are still major projects scheduled for it. One example is the upcoming Frontier Fields program, inspired by the results of Hubble 's deep observation of the galaxy cluster Abell 1689.
In an August 2013 press release, CANDELS was referred to as "the largest project in the history of Hubble ''. The survey "aims to explore galactic evolution in the early Universe, and the very first seeds of cosmic structure at less than one billion years after the Big Bang. '' The CANDELS project site describes the survey 's goals as the following:
The Cosmic Assembly Near - IR Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey is designed to document the first third of galactic evolution from z = 8 to 1.5 via deep imaging of more than 250,000 galaxies with WFC3 / IR and ACS. It will also find the first Type Ia SNe beyond z > 1.5 and establish their accuracy as standard candles for cosmology. Five premier multi-wavelength sky regions are selected; each has multi-wavelength data from Spitzer and other facilities, and has extensive spectroscopy of the brighter galaxies. The use of five widely separated fields mitigates cosmic variance and yields statistically robust and complete samples of galaxies down to 10 solar masses out to z ~ 8.
The program, officially named "Hubble Deep Fields Initiative 2012 '', is aimed to advance the knowledge of early galaxy formation by studying high - redshift galaxies in blank fields with the help of gravitational lensing to see the "faintest galaxies in the distant universe. '' The Frontier Fields web page describes the goals of the program being:
Anyone can apply for time on the telescope; there are no restrictions on nationality or academic affiliation, but funding for analysis is only available to US institutions. Competition for time on the telescope is intense, with about one - fifth of the proposals submitted in each cycle earning time on the schedule.
Calls for proposals are issued roughly annually, with time allocated for a cycle lasting about one year. Proposals are divided into several categories; "general observer '' proposals are the most common, covering routine observations. "Snapshot observations '' are those in which targets require only 45 minutes or less of telescope time, including overheads such as acquiring the target. Snapshot observations are used to fill in gaps in the telescope schedule that can not be filled by regular GO programs.
Astronomers may make "Target of Opportunity '' proposals, in which observations are scheduled if a transient event covered by the proposal occurs during the scheduling cycle. In addition, up to 10 % of the telescope time is designated "director 's discretionary '' (DD) time. Astronomers can apply to use DD time at any time of year, and it is typically awarded for study of unexpected transient phenomena such as supernovae.
Other uses of DD time have included the observations that led to views of the Hubble Deep Field and Hubble Ultra Deep Field, and in the first four cycles of telescope time, observations that were carried out by amateur astronomers.
Public image processing of Hubble data is encouraged as most of the data in the archives has not been processed into color imagery.
The first director of STScI, Riccardo Giacconi, announced in 1986 that he intended to devote some of his director discretionary time to allowing amateur astronomers to use the telescope. The total time to be allocated was only a few hours per cycle but excited great interest among amateur astronomers.
Proposals for amateur time were stringently reviewed by a committee of amateur astronomers, and time was awarded only to proposals that were deemed to have genuine scientific merit, did not duplicate proposals made by professionals, and required the unique capabilities of the space telescope. Thirteen amateur astronomers were awarded time on the telescope, with observations being carried out between 1990 and 1997. One such study was "Transition Comets -- UV Search for OH ''. The very first proposal, "A Hubble Space Telescope Study of Posteclipse Brightening and Albedo Changes on Io '', was published in Icarus, a journal devoted to solar system studies. A second study from another group of amateurs was also published in Icarus. After that time, however, budget reductions at STScI made the support of work by amateur astronomers untenable, and no additional amateur programs have been carried out.
In the early 1980s, NASA and STScI convened four panels to discuss key projects. These were projects that were both scientifically important and would require significant telescope time, which would be explicitly dedicated to each project. This guaranteed that these particular projects would be completed early, in case the telescope failed sooner than expected. The panels identified three such projects: 1) a study of the nearby intergalactic medium using quasar absorption lines to determine the properties of the intergalactic medium and the gaseous content of galaxies and groups of galaxies; 2) a medium deep survey using the Wide Field Camera to take data whenever one of the other instruments was being used and 3) a project to determine the Hubble constant within ten percent by reducing the errors, both external and internal, in the calibration of the distance scale.
Hubble has helped resolve some long - standing problems in astronomy, while also raising new questions. Some results have required new theories to explain them. Among its primary mission targets was to measure distances to Cepheid variable stars more accurately than ever before, and thus constrain the value of the Hubble constant, the measure of the rate at which the universe is expanding, which is also related to its age. Before the launch of HST, estimates of the Hubble constant typically had errors of up to 50 %, but Hubble measurements of Cepheid variables in the Virgo Cluster and other distant galaxy clusters provided a measured value with an accuracy of ± 10 %, which is consistent with other more accurate measurements made since Hubble 's launch using other techniques. The estimated age is now about 13.7 billion years, but before the Hubble Telescope scientists predicted an age ranging from 10 to 20 billion years.
While Hubble helped to refine estimates of the age of the universe, it also cast doubt on theories about its future. Astronomers from the High - z Supernova Search Team and the Supernova Cosmology Project used ground - based telescopes and HST to observe distant supernovae and uncovered evidence that, far from decelerating under the influence of gravity, the expansion of the universe may in fact be accelerating. Three members of these two groups have subsequently been awarded Nobel Prizes for their discovery. The cause of this acceleration remains poorly understood; the most common cause attributed is dark energy.
The high - resolution spectra and images provided by the HST have been especially well - suited to establishing the prevalence of black holes in the nuclei of nearby galaxies. While it had been hypothesized in the early 1960s that black holes would be found at the centers of some galaxies, and astronomers in the 1980s identified a number of good black hole candidates, work conducted with Hubble shows that black holes are probably common to the centers of all galaxies. The Hubble programs further established that the masses of the nuclear black holes and properties of the galaxies are closely related. The legacy of the Hubble programs on black holes in galaxies is thus to demonstrate a deep connection between galaxies and their central black holes.
The collision of Comet Shoemaker - Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994 was fortuitously timed for astronomers, coming just a few months after Servicing Mission 1 had restored Hubble 's optical performance. Hubble images of the planet were sharper than any taken since the passage of Voyager 2 in 1979, and were crucial in studying the dynamics of the collision of a comet with Jupiter, an event believed to occur once every few centuries.
Other discoveries made with Hubble data include proto - planetary disks (proplyds) in the Orion Nebula; evidence for the presence of extrasolar planets around Sun - like stars; and the optical counterparts of the still - mysterious gamma - ray bursts. HST has also been used to study objects in the outer reaches of the Solar System, including the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris.
A unique window on the Universe enabled by Hubble are the Hubble Deep Field, Hubble Ultra-Deep Field, and Hubble Extreme Deep Field images, which used Hubble 's unmatched sensitivity at visible wavelengths to create images of small patches of sky that are the deepest ever obtained at optical wavelengths. The images reveal galaxies billions of light years away, and have generated a wealth of scientific papers, providing a new window on the early Universe. The Wide Field Camera 3 improved the view of these fields in the infrared and ultraviolet, supporting the discovery of some of the most distant objects yet discovered, such as MACS0647 - JD.
The non-standard object SCP 06F6 was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope in February 2006. During June and July 2012, US astronomers using Hubble discovered a tiny fifth moon moving around icy Pluto.
In March 2015, researchers announced that measurements of aurorae around Ganymede revealed that the moon has a subsurface ocean. Using Hubble to study the motion of its aurorae, the researchers determined that a large saltwater ocean was helping to suppress the interaction between Jupiter 's magnetic field and that of Ganymede. The ocean is estimated to be 100 km (60 mi) deep, trapped beneath a 150 km (90 mi) ice crust.
On December 11, 2015, Hubble captured an image of the first - ever predicted reappearance of a supernova, dubbed "Refsdal '', which was calculated using different mass models of a galaxy cluster whose gravity is warping the supernova 's light. The supernova was previously seen in November 2014 behind galaxy cluster MACS J1149. 5 + 2223 as part of Hubble 's Frontier Fields program. Astronomers spotted four separate images of the supernova in an arrangement known as an Einstein Cross. The light from the cluster has taken about five billion years to reach Earth, though the supernova exploded some 10 billion years ago. The detection of Refsdal 's reappearance served as a unique opportunity for astronomers to test their models of how mass, especially dark matter, is distributed within this galaxy cluster.
On March 3, 2016, researchers using Hubble data announced the discovery of the farthest known galaxy to date: GN - z11. The Hubble observations occurred on February 11, 2015, and April 3, 2015, as part of the CANDELS / GOODS - North surveys.
Many objective measures show the positive impact of Hubble data on astronomy. Over 15,000 papers based on Hubble data have been published in peer - reviewed journals, and countless more have appeared in conference proceedings. Looking at papers several years after their publication, about one - third of all astronomy papers have no citations, while only 2 % of papers based on Hubble data have no citations. On average, a paper based on Hubble data receives about twice as many citations as papers based on non-Hubble data. Of the 200 papers published each year that receive the most citations, about 10 % are based on Hubble data.
Although the HST has clearly helped astronomical research, its financial cost has been large. A study on the relative astronomical benefits of different sizes of telescopes found that while papers based on HST data generate 15 times as many citations as a 4 m (13 ft) ground - based telescope such as the William Herschel Telescope, the HST costs about 100 times as much to build and maintain.
Deciding between building ground - versus space - based telescopes is complex. Even before Hubble was launched, specialized ground - based techniques such as aperture masking interferometry had obtained higher - resolution optical and infrared images than Hubble would achieve, though restricted to targets about 10 times brighter than the faintest targets observed by Hubble. Since then, advances in adaptive optics have extended the high - resolution imaging capabilities of ground - based telescopes to the infrared imaging of faint objects. The usefulness of adaptive optics versus HST observations depends strongly on the particular details of the research questions being asked. In the visible bands, adaptive optics can only correct a relatively small field of view, whereas HST can conduct high - resolution optical imaging over a wide field. Only a small fraction of astronomical objects are accessible to high - resolution ground - based imaging; in contrast Hubble can perform high - resolution observations of any part of the night sky, and on objects that are extremely faint.
In addition to its scientific results, Hubble has also made significant contributions to aerospace engineering, in particular the performance of systems in low Earth orbit. These insights result from Hubble 's long lifetime on orbit, extensive instrumentation, and return of assemblies to the Earth where they can be studied in detail. In particular, Hubble has contributed to studies of the behavior of graphite composite structures in vacuum, optical contamination from residual gas and human servicing, radiation damage to electronics and sensors, and the long term behavior of multi-layer insulation. One lesson learned was that gyros assembled using pressurized oxygen to deliver suspension fluid were prone to failure due to electric wire corrosion. Gyros are now assembled using pressurized nitrogen.
Hubble data was initially stored on the spacecraft. When launched, the storage facilities were old - fashioned reel - to - reel tape recorders, but these were replaced by solid state data storage facilities during servicing missions 2 and 3A. About twice daily, the Hubble Space Telescope radios data to a satellite in the geosynchronous Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), which then downlinks the science data to one of two 60 - foot (18 - meter) diameter high - gain microwave antennas located at the White Sands Test Facility in White Sands, New Mexico. From there they are sent to the Space Telescope Operations Control Center at Goddard Space Flight Center, and finally to the Space Telescope Science Institute for archiving. Each week, HST downlinks approximately 140 gigabits of data.
All images from Hubble are monochromatic grayscale, taken through a variety of filters, each passing specific wavelengths of light, and incorporated in each camera. Color images are created by combining separate monochrome images taken through different filters. This process can also create false - color versions of images including infrared and ultraviolet channels, where infrared is typically rendered as a deep red and ultraviolet is rendered as a deep blue.
All Hubble data is eventually made available via the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes at STScI, CADC and ESA / ESAC. Data is usually proprietary -- available only to the principal investigator (PI) and astronomers designated by the PI -- for six months after being taken. The PI can apply to the director of the STScI to extend or reduce the proprietary period in some circumstances.
Observations made on Director 's Discretionary Time are exempt from the proprietary period, and are released to the public immediately. Calibration data such as flat fields and dark frames are also publicly available straight away. All data in the archive is in the FITS format, which is suitable for astronomical analysis but not for public use. The Hubble Heritage Project processes and releases to the public a small selection of the most striking images in JPEG and TIFF formats.
Astronomical data taken with CCDs must undergo several calibration steps before they are suitable for astronomical analysis. STScI has developed sophisticated software that automatically calibrates data when they are requested from the archive using the best calibration files available. This ' on - the - fly ' processing means that large data requests can take a day or more to be processed and returned. The process by which data is calibrated automatically is known as ' pipeline reduction ', and is increasingly common at major observatories. Astronomers may if they wish retrieve the calibration files themselves and run the pipeline reduction software locally. This may be desirable when calibration files other than those selected automatically need to be used.
Hubble data can be analyzed using many different packages. STScI maintains the custom - made Space Telescope Science Data Analysis System (STSDAS) software, which contains all the programs needed to run pipeline reduction on raw data files, as well as many other astronomical image processing tools, tailored to the requirements of Hubble data. The software runs as a module of IRAF, a popular astronomical data reduction program.
It has always been important for the Space Telescope to capture the public 's imagination, given the considerable contribution of taxpayers to its construction and operational costs. After the difficult early years when the faulty mirror severely dented Hubble 's reputation with the public, the first servicing mission allowed its rehabilitation as the corrected optics produced numerous remarkable images.
Several initiatives have helped to keep the public informed about Hubble activities. In the United States, outreach efforts are coordinated by the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) Office for Public Outreach, which was established in 2000 to ensure that U.S. taxpayers saw the benefits of their investment in the space telescope program. To that end, STScI operates the HubbleSite.org website. The Hubble Heritage Project, operating out of the STScI, provides the public with high - quality images of the most interesting and striking objects observed. The Heritage team is composed of amateur and professional astronomers, as well as people with backgrounds outside astronomy, and emphasizes the aesthetic nature of Hubble images. The Heritage Project is granted a small amount of time to observe objects which, for scientific reasons, may not have images taken at enough wavelengths to construct a full - color image.
Since 1999, the leading Hubble outreach group in Europe has been the Hubble European Space Agency Information Centre (HEIC). This office was established at the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility in Munich, Germany. HEIC 's mission is to fulfill HST outreach and education tasks for the European Space Agency. The work is centered on the production of news and photo releases that highlight interesting Hubble results and images. These are often European in origin, and so increase awareness of both ESA 's Hubble share (15 %) and the contribution of European scientists to the observatory. ESA produces educational material, including a videocast series called Hubblecast designed to share world - class scientific news with the public.
The Hubble Space Telescope has won two Space Achievement Awards from the Space Foundation, for its outreach activities, in 2001 and 2010.
A replica of the Hubble Space Telescope is on the courthouse lawn in Marshfield, Missouri, the hometown of namesake Edwin P. Hubble.
The Hubble Space Telescope celebrated its 20th anniversary in space on April 24, 2010. To commemorate the occasion, NASA, ESA, and the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) released an image from the Carina Nebula.
To commemorate Hubble 's 25th anniversary in space on April 24, 2015, STScI released images of the Westerlund 2 cluster, located about 20,000 light - years (6,100 pc) away in the constellation Carina, through its Hubble 25 website. The European Space Agency created a dedicated 25th anniversary page on its website. In April 2016, a special celebratory image of the Bubble Nebula was released for Hubble 's 26th "birthday ''.
Past servicing missions have exchanged old instruments for new ones, both avoiding failure and making possible new types of science. Without servicing missions, all of the instruments will eventually fail. In August 2004, the power system of the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) failed, rendering the instrument inoperable. The electronics had originally been fully redundant, but the first set of electronics failed in May 2001. This power supply was fixed during Servicing Mission 4 in May 2009.
Similarly, the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) main camera primary electronics failed in June 2006, and the power supply for the backup electronics failed on January 27, 2007. Only the instrument 's Solar Blind Channel (SBC) was operable using the side - 1 electronics. A new power supply for the wide angle channel was added during SM 4, but quick tests revealed this did not help the high resolution channel. The Wide Field Channel (WFC) was returned to service by STS - 125 in May 2009 but the High Resolution Channel (HRC) remains offline.
HST uses gyroscopes to detect and measure any rotations so it can stabilize itself in orbit and point accurately and steadily at astronomical targets. (The gyroscopes are part of the Pointing Control System which has five types of sensor: magnetic sensors, various optical sensors and the gyros, and has two types of actuator: reaction wheels and magnetic torquers.) It carries six gyroscopes in total. Three gyroscopes are normally required for operation; observations are still possible with two or one, but the area of sky that can be viewed would be somewhat restricted, and observations requiring very accurate pointing are more difficult. In 2018, the plan is to drop into one - gyro mode if less than three working gyroscopes are operational.
After the Columbia disaster in 2003, it was unclear whether another servicing mission would be possible, and gyro life became a concern again, so engineers developed new software for two - gyro and one - gyro modes to maximize the potential lifetime. The development was successful, and in 2005, it was decided to switch to two - gyroscope mode for regular telescope operations as a means of extending the lifetime of the mission. The switch to this mode was made in August 2005, leaving Hubble with two gyroscopes in use, two on backup, and two inoperable. One more gyro failed in 2007.
By the time of the final repair mission in May 2009, during which all six gyros were replaced (with two new pairs and one refurbished pair), only three gyros were still working. Engineers determined that the gyro failures were caused by corrosion of electric wires powering the motor that was initiated by oxygen - pressurized air used to deliver the thick suspending fluid. The new gyro models were assembled using pressurized nitrogen and they should be much more reliable. In the 2009 servcing mission all six gyroscopes were replaced, and after almost ten years only three gryos failed, but only after exceeding the average expected run time for the design.
Of the six gyroscopes replaced in 2009, three were of the old design susceptible for flex - lead failure, and three were of the new design with a longer expected lifetime. The first of the old - style gyros failed in March 2014, and the second of the old - style gyros failed in April 2018. On October 5, 2018, the last of the old - style gyros failed, and one of the new - style gyros was powered - up from standby state. However, that reserve gyro did not immediately perform within operational limits, and so the observatory was placed into "safe '' mode while scientists attempted to fix the problem. NASA tweeted on October 22, 2018 that the "rotation rates produced by the backup gyro have reduced and are now within a normal range. Additional tests to be performed to ensure Hubble can return to science operations ''.
The solution to the October 2018 failure of the final old - style gyroscope was widely reported as "turning it off and on again ''. A "running restart '' of the gyroscope was performed, but the final resolution to the failure was more complex. The failure was attributed to a blockage in the gyroscope, limiting its range of motion. On October 18, 2018 the Hubble Operations Team directed the spacecraft into a series of maneuvers - moving the spacecraft in opposite directions - in order to dislodge any objects or debris from the gyroscope. Only after the maneuvers, and a subsequent set of maneuvers on October 19, did the gyroscope truly operate within its normal ranges.
Hubble orbits the Earth in the extremely tenuous upper atmosphere, and over time its orbit decays due to drag. If it is not re-boosted, it will re-enter the Earth 's atmosphere within some decades, with the exact date depending on how active the Sun is and its impact on the upper atmosphere. If Hubble were to descend in a completely uncontrolled re-entry, parts of the main mirror and its support structure would probably survive, leaving the potential for damage or even human fatalities. In 2013, deputy project manager James Jeletic projected that Hubble could survive into the 2020s. Based on solar activity and atmospheric drag, or lack thereof, a natural atmospheric reentry for Hubble will occur between 2028 and 2040. In June 2016, NASA extended the service contract for Hubble until June 2021.
NASA 's original plan for safely de-orbiting Hubble was to retrieve it using a space shuttle. Hubble would then have most likely been displayed in the Smithsonian Institution. This is no longer possible since the space shuttle fleet has been retired, and would have been unlikely in any case due to the cost of the mission and risk to the crew. Instead, NASA considered adding an external propulsion module to allow controlled re-entry. Ultimately, in 2009, as part of Servicing Mission 4, the last servicing mission by the Space Shuttle, NASA installed the Soft Capture Mechanism (SCM), to enable deorbit by either a crewed or robotic mission. The SCM together with the Relative Navigation System (RNS) - mounted on the Shuttle to collect data to "enable NASA to pursue numerous options for the safe de-orbit of Hubble '' - constitute the Soft Capture and Rendezvous System (SCRS).
As of 2017, the Trump Administration is considering a proposal by the Sierra Nevada Corporation to use a manned version of its Dream Chaser spacecraft to service Hubble some time in the 2020s both as a continuation of its scientific capabilities and as insurance against any malfunctions in the to - be-launched James Webb Space Telescope.
There is no direct replacement to Hubble as an ultraviolet and visible light space telescope, because near - term space telescopes do not duplicate Hubble 's wavelength coverage (near - ultraviolet to near - infrared wavelengths), instead concentrating on the farther infrared bands. These bands are preferred for studying high redshift and low - temperature objects, objects generally older and farther away in the universe. These wavelengths are also difficult or impossible to study from the ground, justifying the expense of a space - based telescope. Large ground - based telescopes can image some of the same wavelengths as Hubble, sometimes challenge HST in terms of resolution by using adaptive optics (AO), have much larger light - gathering power, and can be upgraded more easily, but can not yet match Hubble 's excellent resolution over a wide field of view with the very dark background of space.
Plans for a Hubble successor materialized as the Next Generation Space Telescope project, which culminated in plans for the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the formal successor of Hubble. Very different from a scaled - up Hubble, it is designed to operate colder and farther away from the Earth at the L2 Lagrangian point, where thermal and optical interference from the Earth and Moon are lessened. It is not engineered to be fully serviceable (such as replaceable instruments), but the design includes a docking ring to enable visits from other spacecraft. A main scientific goal of JWST is to observe the most distant objects in the universe, beyond the reach of existing instruments. It is expected to detect stars in the early Universe approximately 280 million years older than stars HST now detects. The telescope is an international collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency, and the Canadian Space Agency since 1996, and is planned for launch on an Ariane 5 rocket. Although JWST is primarily an infrared instrument, its coverage extends down to 600 nm wavelength light, or roughly orange in the visible spectrum. A typical human eye can see to about 750 nm wavelength light, so there is some overlap with the longest visible wavelength bands, including orange and red light.
A complementary telescope, looking at even longer wavelengths than Hubble or JWST, was the European Space Agency 's Herschel Space Observatory, launched on May 14, 2009. Like JWST, Herschel was not designed to be serviced after launch, and had a mirror substantially larger than Hubble 's, but observed only in the far infrared and submillimeter. It needed helium coolant, of which it ran out on April 29, 2013.
Further concepts for advanced 21st - century space telescopes include the Advanced Technology Large - Aperture Space Telescope, a conceptualized 8 to 16.8 meters (310 to 660 inches) optical space telescope that if realized could be a more direct successor to HST, with the ability to observe and photograph astronomical objects in the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with substantially better resolution than Hubble or the Spitzer Space telescope. This effort is being planned for the 2025 -- 2035 time frame.
Existing ground - based telescopes, and various proposed Extremely Large Telescopes, can exceed the HST in terms of sheer light - gathering power and diffraction limit due to larger mirrors, but other factors affect telescopes. In some cases, they may be able to match or beat Hubble in resolution by using adaptive optics (AO). However, AO on large ground - based reflectors will not make Hubble and other space telescopes obsolete. Most AO systems sharpen the view over a very narrow field -- Lucky Cam, for example, produces crisp images just 10 '' to 20 '' wide, whereas Hubble 's cameras produce crisp images across a 21⁄2 ' (150 ") field. Furthermore, space telescopes can study the universe across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, most of which is blocked by Earth 's atmosphere. Finally, the background sky is darker in space than on the ground, because air absorbs solar energy during the day and then releases it at night, producing a faint -- but nevertheless discernible -- airglow that washes out low - contrast astronomical objects.
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what is the si unit of time period | Frequency - wikipedia
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency, which emphasizes the contrast to spatial frequency and angular frequency. The period is the duration of time of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency. For example, if a newborn baby 's heart beats at a frequency of 120 times a minute, its period -- the time interval between beats -- is half a second (that is, 60 seconds divided by 120 beats). Frequency is an important parameter used in science and engineering to specify the rate of oscillatory and vibratory phenomena, such as mechanical vibrations, audio signals (sound), radio waves, and light.
For cyclical processes, such as rotation, oscillations, or waves, frequency is defined as a number of cycles per unit time. In physics and engineering disciplines, such as optics, acoustics, and radio, frequency is usually denoted by a Latin letter f or by the Greek letter ν (\ displaystyle \ nu) or ν (nu) (see e.g. Planck 's formula).
The relation between the frequency and the period T (\ displaystyle T) of a repeating event or oscillation is given by
The SI derived unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz. One hertz means that an event repeats once per second. A previous name for this unit was cycles per second (cps). The SI unit for period is the second.
A traditional unit of measure used with rotating mechanical devices is revolutions per minute, abbreviated r / min or rpm. 60 rpm equals one hertz.
As a matter of convenience, longer and slower waves, such as ocean surface waves, tend to be described by wave period rather than frequency. Short and fast waves, like audio and radio, are usually described by their frequency instead of period. These commonly used conversions are listed below:
For periodic waves in nondispersive media (that is, media in which the wave speed is independent of frequency), frequency has an inverse relationship to the wavelength, λ (lambda). Even in dispersive media, the frequency f of a sinusoidal wave is equal to the phase velocity v of the wave divided by the wavelength λ of the wave:
In the special case of electromagnetic waves moving through a vacuum, then v = c, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and this expression becomes:
When waves from a monochrome source travel from one medium to another, their frequency remains the same -- only their wavelength and speed change.
Measurement of frequency can done in the following ways,
Calculating the frequency of a repeating event is accomplished by counting the number of times that event occurs within a specific time period, then dividing the count by the length of the time period. For example, if 71 events occur within 15 seconds the frequency is:
If the number of counts is not very large, it is more accurate to measure the time interval for a predetermined number of occurrences, rather than the number of occurrences within a specified time. The latter method introduces a random error into the count of between zero and one count, so on average half a count. This is called gating error and causes an average error in the calculated frequency of Δ f = 1 2 T m (\ displaystyle \ Delta f = (\ frac (1) (2T_ (m)))), or a fractional error of Δ f f = 1 2 f T m (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ Delta f) (f)) = (\ frac (1) (2fT_ (m)))) where T m (\ displaystyle T_ (m)) is the timing interval and f (\ displaystyle f) is the measured frequency. This error decreases with frequency, so it is generally a problem at low frequencies where the number of counts N is small.
An older method of measuring the frequency of rotating or vibrating objects is to use a stroboscope. This is an intense repetitively flashing light (strobe light) whose frequency can be adjusted with a calibrated timing circuit. The strobe light is pointed at the rotating object and the frequency adjusted up and down. When the frequency of the strobe equals the frequency of the rotating or vibrating object, the object completes one cycle of oscillation and returns to its original position between the flashes of light, so when illuminated by the strobe the object appears stationary. Then the frequency can be read from the calibrated readout on the stroboscope. A downside of this method is that an object rotating at an integral multiple of the strobing frequency will also appear stationary.
Higher frequencies are usually measured with a frequency counter. This is an electronic instrument which measures the frequency of an applied repetitive electronic signal and displays the result in hertz on a digital display. It uses digital logic to count the number of cycles during a time interval established by a precision quartz time base. Cyclic processes that are not electrical in nature, such as the rotation rate of a shaft, mechanical vibrations, or sound waves, can be converted to a repetitive electronic signal by transducers and the signal applied to a frequency counter. Frequency counters can currently cover the range up to about 100 GHz. This represents the limit of direct counting methods; frequencies above this must be measured by indirect methods.
Above the range of frequency counters, frequencies of electromagnetic signals are often measured indirectly by means of heterodyning (frequency conversion). A reference signal of a known frequency near the unknown frequency is mixed with the unknown frequency in a nonlinear mixing device such as a diode. This creates a heterodyne or "beat '' signal at the difference between the two frequencies. If the two signals are close together in frequency the heterodyne is low enough to be measured by a frequency counter. This process only measures the difference between the unknown frequency and the reference frequency. To reach higher frequencies, several stages of heterodyning can be used. Current research is extending this method to infrared and light frequencies (optical heterodyne detection).
Visible light is an electromagnetic wave, consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields traveling through space. The frequency of the wave determines its color: 7014400000000000000 ♠ 4 × 10 Hz is red light, 7014800000000000000 ♠ 8 × 10 Hz is violet light, and between these (in the range 4 - 7014800000000000000 ♠ 8 × 10 Hz) are all the other colors of the visible spectrum. An electromagnetic wave can have a frequency less than 7014400000000000000 ♠ 4 × 10 Hz, but it will be invisible to the human eye; such waves are called infrared (IR) radiation. At even lower frequency, the wave is called a microwave, and at still lower frequencies it is called a radio wave. Likewise, an electromagnetic wave can have a frequency higher than 7014800000000000000 ♠ 8 × 10 Hz, but it will be invisible to the human eye; such waves are called ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Even higher - frequency waves are called X-rays, and higher still are gamma rays.
All of these waves, from the lowest - frequency radio waves to the highest - frequency gamma rays, are fundamentally the same, and they are all called electromagnetic radiation. They all travel through a vacuum at the same speed (the speed of light), giving them wavelengths inversely proportional to their frequencies.
where c is the speed of light (c in a vacuum, or less in other media), f is the frequency and λ is the wavelength.
In dispersive media, such as glass, the speed depends somewhat on frequency, so the wavelength is not quite inversely proportional to frequency.
Sound propagates as mechanical vibration waves of pressure and displacement, in air or other substances.. In general, frequency components of a sound determine its "color '', its timbre. When speaking about the frequency (in singular) of a sound, it means the property that most determines pitch.
The frequencies an ear can hear are limited to a specific range of frequencies. The audible frequency range for humans is typically given as being between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz), though the high frequency limit usually reduces with age. Other species have different hearing ranges. For example, some dog breeds can perceive vibrations up to 60,000 Hz.
In many media, such as air, the speed of sound is approximately independent of frequency, so the wavelength of the sound waves (distance between repetitions) is approximately inversely proportional to frequency.
In Europe, Africa, Australia, Southern South America, most of Asia, and Russia, the frequency of the alternating current in household electrical outlets is 50 Hz (close to the tone G), whereas in North America and Northern South America, the frequency of the alternating current in household electrical outlets is 60 Hz (between the tones B ♭ and B; that is, a minor third above the European frequency). The frequency of the ' hum ' in an audio recording can show where the recording was made, in countries using a European, or an American, grid frequency.
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what side of the street do they drive on in sweden | Left - and right - hand traffic - wikipedia
The terms left - hand traffic (LHT) and right - hand traffic (RHT) refer to regulations requiring all bidirectional traffic, unless otherwise directed, to keep to the left side or to the right side of the road, respectively. This is so fundamental to traffic flow that it is sometimes referred to as the rule of the road.
One hundred and sixty - three countries and territories use RHT, with the remaining seventy - six countries and territories using LHT. Countries that use LHT account for about a sixth of the world 's area and a quarter of its roads. In the early 1900s some countries including Canada, Spain, and Brazil had different rules in different parts of the country. During the 1900s many countries standardised within their jurisdictions, and changed from LHT to RHT, mostly to conform with regional custom. In 1919, 104 of the world 's territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. From 1919 to 1986, 34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT.
Many of the countries with LHT are former British colonies in the Caribbean, Southern Africa, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. Japan, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan, Mozambique, Suriname, East Timor, and Indonesia are among those LHT countries outside the former British Empire. In Europe, only four countries still drive on the left: the United Kingdom, Ireland, Malta, and Cyprus, all of which are on islands that have no direct road connections with countries driving on the right.
Nearly all countries use one side or the other throughout their entire territory. Most exceptions are due to historical considerations and / or involve islands with no road connection to the main part of a country. China is RHT except the Special Administrative Regions of China of Hong Kong and Macau. The United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands. The United Kingdom is LHT, but its overseas territories of Gibraltar and British Indian Ocean Territory are RHT.
According to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is RHT. For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations provide for passing on the right, both in the air and on water.
Light rail vehicles generally operate on the same side as road traffic in a country. Some countries use RHT for automobiles but LHT for trains, often because of the influence of the British on early railway systems.
There is no technical reason to prefer one side over the other. In healthy populations, traffic safety is thought to be the same regardless of handedness, although some researchers have speculated that LHT may be safer for ageing populations since humans are more commonly right - eye dominant than left - eye dominant.
Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching. In 1998, archaeologists found a well - preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon, in southern England. The grooves in the road on the left side (viewed facing down the track away from the quarry) were much deeper than those on the right side, suggesting LHT, at least at this location, since carts would exit the quarry heavily loaded, and enter it empty.
The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, with regard to London Bridge.
Some historians, such as C. Northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left. In the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left.
In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on teamsters ' use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no driver 's seat, so the (typically right - handed) postilion held his whip in his right hand and thus sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons.
In France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left. Following the French Revolution, all traffic kept right. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the French imposed RHT on parts of Europe. During the colonial period, RHT was introduced by the French in New France, French West Africa, the Maghreb, French Indochina, the West Indies, French Guiana and the Réunion, among others.
Meanwhile, LHT traffic was introduced by the British in Atlantic Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the East Africa Protectorate, British India, Southern Rhodesia and the Cape Colony (now Zimbabwe and South Africa), British Malaya (now Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore), British Guiana, and British Hong Kong. LHT was also introduced by the Portuguese Empire in Portuguese Macau, Colonial Brazil, East Timor, Portuguese Mozambique, and Angola.
The first keep - right law for driving in the United States was passed in 1792 and applied to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike. New York formalized RHT in 1804, New Jersey in 1813 and Massachusetts in 1821.
Influential in Europe was the 1920 Paris Convention, which advised driving on the right - hand side of the road, in order to harmonise traffic across a continent with many borders. This was despite the fact that left - hand traffic was still widespread: in 1915 for example, LHT was introduced everywhere in the Austro - Hungarian Empire. However, three years later the Empire was split up into several countries, and they all changed eventually to RHT, notably including when Nazi Germany introduced RHT with almost immediate effect in Czechoslovakia in 1938 - 39.
Sweden was LHT from about 1734 to 1967, despite having land borders with RHT countries, and approximately 90 percent of cars being left - hand drive (LHD) vehicles. A referendum was held in 1955, with an overwhelming majority voting against a change to RHT. Nevertheless, some years later the government ordered a conversion, which took place at 5 am on Sunday, 3 September 1967. The accident rate dropped sharply after the change, but soon rose back to near its original level. The day was known as Dagen H ("H - Day ''), the ' H ' being for Högertrafik or right traffic. When Iceland switched the following year, it was known as H - dagurinn, again meaning "H - Day ''.
In the late 1960s, the UK Department for Transport considered switching to RHT, but declared it unsafe and too costly for such a built - up nation. Road building standards, for motorways in particular, allow asymmetrically designed road junctions, where merge and diverge lanes differ in length.
China adopted RHT in 1946. Taiwan changed to driving on the right at the same time. Hong Kong and Macau continue to be LHT.
Both North Korea and South Korea switched to RHT in September 1945 after liberation from Japan which was defeated and surrendered by the Allies.
Myanmar switched to RHT in 1970.
Samoa, a former German colony, had been RHT for more than a century. It switched to LHT in 2009, being the first territory in almost 30 years to switch. The move was legislated in 2008 to allow Samoans to use cheaper right hand drive (RHD) vehicles imported from Australia, New Zealand or Japan, and to harmonise with other South Pacific nations. A political party, The People 's Party, was formed to try to protest against the change, a protest group which launched a legal challenge, and an estimated 18,000 people attending demonstrations against it. The motor industry was also opposed, as 14,000 of Samoa 's 18,000 vehicles are designed for RHT and the government has refused to meet the cost of conversion. After months of preparation, the switch from right to left happened in an atmosphere of national celebration. There were no reported incidents. At 05: 50 local time, Monday 7 September, a radio announcement halted traffic, and an announcement at 6: 00 ordered traffic to switch to LHT. The change coincided with more restrictive enforcement of speeding and seat - belt laws. That day and the following day were declared public holidays, to reduce traffic. The change included a three - day ban on alcohol sales, while police mounted dozens of checkpoints, warning drivers to drive slowly.
The Philippines was mostly LHT during its Spanish and American colonial periods, the latter despite United States switch to RHT in the 1930s (see above); as well as during the Commonwealth era. During the Japanese occupation the Philippines remained LHT, also because LHT had been required by the Japanese; but during the Battle of Manila the liberating American forces drove their tanks to the right for easier facilitation of movement. RHT was formally finalised by Executive Order No. 34 signed by President Sergio Osmeña on 10 March 1945.
A number of non-contiguous former British colonies in West Africa originally drove LHT and switched to RHT in the early 1970s to match the surrounding countries. Sierra Leone switched to RHT in 1971, Nigeria in 1972 and Ghana in 1974. Before this period The Gambia, a country entirely contained within RHT Senegal, had officially switched to RHT in 1965.
Rwanda, a former Belgian colony in central Africa, is RHT but is considering switching to LHT, to bring the country in line with other members of the East African Community (EAC). A survey, carried out in 2009, indicated that 54 % of Rwandans were in favour of the switch. Reasons cited were the perceived lower costs of RHD vehicles as opposed to LHD versions of the same model, easier maintenance and the political benefit of harmonisation of traffic regulations with other EAC countries. The same survey also indicated that RHD cars are 16 to 49 per cent cheaper than their LHD equivalents. In 2014 an internal report from consultants to the Ministry of Infrastructure recommended a switch to LHT. In 2015, the ban on RHD vehicles was lifted; RHD trucks from neighbouring countries cost $1000 less than LHD models imported from Europe.
Although many LHT jurisdictions are on islands, there are cases where vehicles may be driven from LHT across a border into a RHT area. The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic regulates the use of foreign registered vehicles in the 72 countries that are parties to the 1968 agreement.
Although the United Kingdom is separated from Continental Europe by the English Channel, the level of cross-Channel traffic is very high; the Channel Tunnel alone carries 3.5 million vehicles per year between the UK and France.
Some countries have borders where drivers must switch from LHT to RHT and vice versa.
LHT Thailand has three RHT neighbours: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar. Most of its borders use a simple traffic light to do the switch, but there are also interchanges which enable the switch while keeping up a continuous flow of traffic.
There are four road border crossing points between Hong Kong and Mainland China. In 2006, the daily average number of vehicle trips recorded at Lok Ma Chau was 31,100. The next largest is Man Kam To, where there is no changeover system and the border roads on the mainland side Wenjindu intersect as one - way streets with a main road.
The Takutu River Bridge (which links LHT Guyana and RHT Brazil) is the only border in the Americas where traffic changes sides.
In RHT jurisdictions, vehicles are configured with LHD, with the driver sitting on the left side. In LHT jurisdictions, the reverse is true. The driver 's side, the side closest to the centre of the road, is sometimes called the offside, while the passenger side, the side closest to the side of the road, is sometimes called the nearside.
Historically there was less consistency in the relationship of the position of the driver to the handedness of traffic. Most American cars produced before 1910 were RHD. In 1908 Henry Ford standardised the Model T as LHD in RHT America, arguing that with RHD and RHT, the passenger was obliged to "get out on the street side and walk around the car '' and that with steering from the left, the driver "is able to see even the wheels of the other car and easily avoids danger. '' By 1915 other manufacturers followed Ford 's lead, due to the popularity of the Model T.
In specialised cases, the driver will sit on the nearside, or kerbside. Examples include:
Generally, the convention is to mount a motorcycle on the left, and kickstands are usually on the left which makes it more convenient to mount on the safer kerbside as is the case in LHT. Some jurisdictions prohibit fitting a sidecar to a motorcycle 's offside.
The projection of light from low - beam headlamps is asymmetrical. The kerbside lamp projects light forwards, while the other headlamp dips the beam down and away from oncoming traffic, so as not to dazzle drivers coming in the opposite direction. In Europe, headlamps approved for use on one side of the road must be adaptable to produce adequate illumination with controlled glare for temporarily driving on the other side of the road. This is done by affixing masking strips or prismatic lenses to a designated part of the lens or by moving all or part of the headlamp optic so all or part of the beam is shifted or the asymmetrical portion is occluded. Some cars have a built - in adjustment to adapt the projection mechanically.
Some crash test results indicate that the RHD variant of a vehicle primarily developed for a LHD country may not protect the driver as well as the LHD variant, although differences in testing methodology could also cause the results to vary.
One of the possible causes of this difference in crash test results is the RHD variant will not be an exact mirror image of the LHD variant. The number of differences in chassis, bodywork and parts needed to produce the RHD variant will be minimised to reduce the cost. The RHD vehicle is usually a variant of the LHD markets, due to potentially lower sales volumes of the RHD variant. When minimising the changes needed for the RDH variant, there is a possibility that key strengthening structures that would protect the driver in a crash may not be transferred to the driver side in the RHD variant. (There are no easily reference - able sources for LHD variant performing less well in crash testing than the RHD variant where the vehicle is primarily manufactured for / in RHD markets).
It is commonplace in Europe for only the LHD variant of a vehicle to be tested under the Euro NCAP crash testing scheme, although the result will be used in the promotion of the RHD variant in European countries which operate LHT.
Of the 193 countries currently recognised by the United Nations (and the unrecognised Palestine), 140 use RHT and 54 use LHT. A country and its territories and dependencies is counted once.
Gibraltar is RHT (since 1929)
A sign reminding motorists to keep left in Australia
Vehicles entering and leaving Macau cross over each other at the Lotus Bridge.
Sign reminding motorists to drive on the left in Ireland
The entrance to the Channel Tunnel in France.
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kelly price she was a friend of mine | Friend of Mine (Kelly Price song) - wikipedia
"Friend of Mine '' is a Grammy nominated number - one R&B song recorded by singer Kelly Price. It spent five weeks at number - one on the U.S. R&B chart and was awarded a Soul Train Music Award for Best R&B / Soul or Rap New Artist.
A remix was made of the song featuring R. Kelly and Ronald Isley. This version became a pop hit in 1998, peaking at number twelve on the U.S. Pop chart.
The music video for the remix is directed by Hype Williams.
The song opens up with Ronald Isley (Mr. Biggs) returning from to his goddaughter Kelly. In tears, Kelly says she just discovered that her best friend had been sleeping with her husband (portrayed by R. Kelly). Outraged to hear this, Biggs tells Kelly to call up her ex so he can talk to him. Kelly reluctantly does so and the song ends with Biggs scolding her ex for what he did while Kelly says she does n't want him anymore.
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i was a dam builder across the river deep | Highwayman (song) - wikipedia
"Highwayman '' is a song written by American singer - songwriter Jimmy Webb, about a soul with incarnations in four different places in time and history: as a highwayman, a sailor, a construction worker on the Hoover Dam, and finally as a captain of a starship. The song was influenced by the real - life hanged highwayman Jonathan Wild. The dam builder verse alludes to the deaths of over one hundred men during the construction of Hoover Dam near Boulder City, Nevada. Webb first recorded the song on his album El Mirage, released in May 1977. The following year, Glen Campbell recorded his version, which was released on his 1979 album Highwayman. In 1985, the song became the inspiration for the naming of the supergroup The Highwaymen, which featured Johnny Cash, Waylon Jennings, Willie Nelson, and Kris Kristofferson. Their first album, Highwayman, became a number one platinum - selling album, and their version of the song went to number one on the Hot Country Songs Billboard chart in a twenty - week run. Their version earned Webb a Grammy Award for Best Country Song in 1986. The song has since been recorded by other artists. Webb himself included a different version on his 1996 album Ten Easy Pieces, a live version on his 2007 album Live and at Large, and a duet version with Mark Knopfler on 2010 album Just Across the River.
According to Jimmy Webb, he wrote the song in London while he was finishing up work on his album El Mirage. After a late - night round of "professional drinking '' with his friend Harry Nilsson, Webb went to sleep and had "an incredibly vivid dream '':
I had an old brace of pistols in my belt and I was riding, hell - bent for leather, down these country roads, with sweat pouring off of my body. I was terrified because I was being pursued by police, who were on the verge of shooting me. It was very real. I sat up in bed, sweating through my pajamas. Without even thinking about it, I stumbled out of bed to the piano and started playing "Highwayman ''. Within a couple of hours, I had the first verse.
Webb included the phrasing in the line, "Along the coach roads I did ride '' to convey a kind of "antique way of speaking ''. Not sure of where the song was leading him, Webb realized that the highwayman character does not die, but becomes reincarnated, and the three subsequent verses evolve from that idea. In the second verse he becomes a sailor, in the third verse a dam builder, and in the fourth verse Webb switches to future tense and the character becomes an astronaut who will someday "fly a starship across the universe divide ''.
Webb 's version of the song was first released on the album El Mirage in May 1977.
Webb then brought the song to Glen Campbell, who recorded it in 1978. His record label, Capitol Records, wanted him to go in a different direction and record music like the group The Knack. Campbell wanted to release the song as a single, but Capitol refused. After recording thirty albums for the only record label he had worked with since 1962, Campbell left the main studios of Capitol and never returned. Although he would record three more albums for Capitol, the relationship was at an end. Campbell eventually released the song on his album Highwayman in October 1979.
In 1984, Glen Campbell played the song "Highwayman '' for Johnny Cash, who was making a quartet album with Willie Nelson, Waylon Jennings, and Kris Kristofferson. A few years earlier, Webb brought the song to Jennings, but Jennings, having heard the Campbell version, said "I just could n't see it then ''. The four were all together in Switzerland doing a television special and decided that they should do a project together. While the four were recording their first album, Marty Stuart again played the song for Cash, saying it would be perfect for them -- four verses, four souls, and four of them. Campbell then played the song again, this time to all four of them, and the quartet had the name for their new supergroup, The Highwaymen, the name of their first album, Highwayman, and the name of their first single. The four thought it was a perfect name for them because they were always on the road and all four had the image of being outlaws in country music.
In The Highwaymen version of the song, each of the four verses was sung by a different performer: first Nelson as the highwayman, then Kristofferson as the sailor, then Jennings as the dam builder, and finally Cash as the starship captain. Webb later observed, "I do n't know how they decided who would take which verse, but having Johnny last was like having God singing your song (laughs). '' Rosanne Cash has said her father did n't realize the song was about reincarnation until she explained it to him. A black - and - white music video was released, which used actors to reenact the song 's lyrics, including the deaths of the first three characters. Each of the performers is seen briefly in the sky singing a few lines, as their segment of the song concludes.
Their cover of the Webb song remains the most popular and widely known of The Highwaymen 's songs, being their only song to reach number 1 ("Desperados Waiting for a Train '' at number 15 is the next closest). The version by the quartet entered the Hot Country Songs Billboard chart on May 18, 1985, rose to number 1, and spent 20 weeks total on the chart. It finished 1985 as the number 5 country song of the year in terms of airplay.
The Highwaymen version of the song earned songwriter Jimmy Webb a Grammy Award for 1985 's "Best Country Song ''.
"Highwayman '' has also been recorded by numerous other artists. Irish traditional musicians Makem and Clancy covered the song on their album We 've Come a Long Way in 1986. Norwegian folk singer Finn Kalvik recorded his version of the song, called "Fredløs '', for his 1981 album Natt og dag. Finnish rock musician Pate Mustajärvi recorded a Finnish - language version of the song for his album Ukkometso, which was released in 2000. The band Arbouretum covered the song on their 2011 album The Gathering. Canadian band Walk off the Earth covered the song in their 2012 album Vol 1. Independent Americana - folk artist Jake Smith, also known as The White Buffalo, covered the song in 2013. Heavy metal band Iced Earth also covered the song on their 2014 album Plagues of Babylon in the format of The Highwaymen with four different singers singing. In this case it is Jon Schaffer of Iced Earth singing Willie Nelson 's part, Russell Allen of Symphony X singing Kris Kristofferson 's part, Stu Block of Iced Earth singing Waylon Jennings ' part and Michael Poulsen of Volbeat singing Johnny Cash 's part
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who plays the beast in beauty and the beast movie 2017 | Beauty and the Beast (2017 film) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast is a 2017 American musical romantic fantasy film directed by Bill Condon from a screenplay written by Stephen Chbosky and Evan Spiliotopoulos, and co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Mandeville Films. The film is a live - action reimagining of Disney 's 1991 animated film of the same name, itself an adaptation of Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's 18th - century fairy tale. The film features an ensemble cast that includes Emma Watson and Dan Stevens as the eponymous characters with Luke Evans, Kevin Kline, Josh Gad, Ewan McGregor, Stanley Tucci, Audra McDonald, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ian McKellen, and Emma Thompson in supporting roles.
Principal photography began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom on May 18, 2015, and ended on August 21. With an estimated budget of around $255 million, it is one of the most expensive films ever made. Beauty and the Beast premiered at Spencer House in London on February 23, 2017, and was released in the United States in standard, Disney Digital 3 - D, RealD 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D formats, along with Dolby Cinema on March 17, 2017.
The film received generally favorable reviews from critics, with many praising Watson and Stevens 's acting performances as well as the ensemble cast, faithfulness to the original animated film alongside elements from the Broadway musical, visual style, production values, and musical score, though it received criticism for some of the character designs and its excessive similarity to the original. The film grossed over $1.2 billion worldwide, becoming the highest - grossing live - action musical film, and making it the second - highest - grossing film of 2017, the tenth - highest - ever - grossing film in North America and the 13th - highest - grossing film of all time. The film received four nominations at the 23rd Critics ' Choice Awards and two nominations at the 71st British Academy Film Awards. It also received Academy Award nominations for Best Production Design and Best Costume Design at the 90th Academy Awards.
A beautiful enchantress disguised as an old beggar woman arrives at a castle during a ball and offers the host, a cruel and selfish prince, a rose in return for shelter from a storm. When he refuses, she reveals her identity. To punish the prince for his lack of compassion, the enchantress transforms him into a beast and his servants into household objects, then erases the castle, the prince and his servants from the memories of their loved ones. She casts a spell on the rose and warns the prince that the curse will only be broken if he learns to love another, and earn their love in return, before the last petal falls.
Some years later, in the small town of Villeneuve, Belle, the book - loving daughter of a music box maker and artist Maurice, dreams of adventure and brushes off advances from Gaston, an arrogant former soldier. On his way to a convention and lost in the forest, Maurice seeks refuge in the Beast 's castle, but the Beast imprisons him for stealing a rose from his garden as a gift to Belle. When Maurice 's horse returns without him, Belle ventures out in search for him, and finds him locked in the castle dungeon. The Beast agrees to let her take Maurice 's place.
Belle befriends the castle 's servants, who invite her to a spectacular dinner. When she wanders into the forbidden west wing and finds the rose, the Beast scares her into the woods. She is ambushed by a pack of wolves, but the Beast rescues her, and is injured in the process. As Belle nurses his wounds, a friendship develops between them. The Beast shows Belle a gift from the enchantress, a book that transports readers wherever they want. Belle uses the book to visit her childhood home in Paris, where she discovers a plague doctor mask and realizes that she and her father were forced to leave when her mother succumbed to the plague.
In Villeneuve, Gaston sees rescuing Belle as an opportunity to win her hand in marriage, and agrees to help Maurice. When Maurice learns of his ulterior motive and rejects him, Gaston abandons him to be eaten by the wolves. Maurice is rescued by the hermit Agathe, but when he tells the townsfolk of Gaston 's crime but is unable to provide solid evidence, Gaston convinces them to send Maurice to an insane asylum.
After sharing a romantic dance with the Beast, Belle discovers her father 's predicament using a magic mirror. The Beast releases her to save Maurice, giving her the mirror to remember him with. At Villeneuve, Belle reveals the Beast in the mirror to the townsfolk, proving her father 's sanity. Realizing that Belle loves the Beast, a jealous Gaston claims she has been charmed by dark magic, and has her thrown into the asylum carriage with her father. He rallies the villagers to follow him to the castle to slay the Beast before he curses the whole village. Maurice and Belle escape, and Belle rushes back to the castle.
During the battle, Gaston abandons his companion LeFou, who then sides with the servants to fend off the villagers. Gaston attacks the Beast in his tower, who is too depressed to fight back, but regains his spirit upon seeing Belle return. He defeats Gaston, but spares his life before reuniting with Belle. Ungrateful and unrepentant, Gaston fatally shoots the Beast from a bridge, but it collapses when the castle crumbles, and he falls to his death. The Beast dies as the last petal falls, and the servants become inanimate. As Belle tearfully professes her love to the Beast, Agathe reveals herself as the enchantress and undoes the curse, repairing the crumbling castle, and restoring the Beast 's and servants ' human forms and the villagers ' memories. The Prince and Belle host a ball for the kingdom, where they dance happily.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Mitchell was miscredited as Rudi Gooman in the cast, but listed under his real name in the soundtrack credits
^ In the initial theatrical release, Turner is miscredited as Henry Garrett in the cast.
Stephen Merchant also appeared in the film as Monsieur Toilette, a servant who was turned into a toilet. This character was cut from the film, but is featured in the deleted scenes.
Previously, Disney had begun work on a film adaptation of the 1994 Broadway musical. However, in a 2011 interview, composer Alan Menken stated the planned film version of the Beauty and the Beast stage musical "was canned ''.
By April 2014, Walt Disney Pictures had already begun developing a new live - action version of Beauty and the Beast after making other live - action fantasy films such as Alice in Wonderland, Maleficent, Cinderella and The Jungle Book. In June 2014, Bill Condon was signed to direct the film from a script by Evan Spiliotopoulos. Later in September of that same year, Stephen Chbosky (who had previously directed Watson in The Perks of Being a Wallflower) was hired to re-write the script.
Before Condon was hired to direct the film, Disney approached him with a proposal to remake the film in a more radical way as Universal Studios had remade Snow White and the Huntsman (2012). Condon later explained that "after Frozen opened, the studio saw that there was this big international audience for an old - school - musical approach. But initially, they said, ' We 're interested in a musical to a degree, but only half full of songs. ' My interest was taking that film and doing it in this new medium -- live - action -- as a full - on musical movie. So I backed out for a minute, and they came back and said, ' No, no, no, we get it, let 's pursue it that way. ' '' Walt Disney Pictures president of production Sean Bailey credited Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn with the decision to make the film as a musical: "We worked on this for five or six years, and for 18 months to two years, Beauty was a serious dramatic project, and the scripts were written to reflect that. It was n't a musical at that time. But we just could n't get it to click and it was Alan Horn who championed the idea of owning the Disney of it all. We realized there was a competitive advantage in the songs. What is wrong with making adults feel like kids again? ''
In January 2015, Emma Watson announced that she would be starring as Belle, the female lead. She was the first choice of Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn, as he had previously overseen Warner Bros. which released the eight Harry Potter films that co-starred Watson as Hermione Granger. Two months later, Luke Evans and Dan Stevens were revealed to be in talks to play Gaston and the Beast respectively, and Watson confirmed their casting the following day through tweets. The rest of the principal cast, including Josh Gad, Emma Thompson, Kevin Kline, Audra McDonald, Ian McKellen, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ewan McGregor and Stanley Tucci were announced between March and April to play LeFou, Mrs. Potts, Maurice, Madame de Garderobe, Cogsworth, Plumette, Lumière and Cadenza, respectively.
Susan Egan, who originated the role of Belle on Broadway, commented on the casting of Watson as "perfect ''. Paige O'Hara, who voiced Belle in the original animated film and its sequels, offered to help Watson with her singing lessons.
According to The Hollywood Reporter, Emma Watson was reportedly paid $3 million upfront, together with an agreement that her final take - home pay could rise as high as $15 million if the film generated gross box office income similar to Maleficent 's $759 million worldwide gross.
Principal photography on the film began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom, on May 18, 2015. Filming with the principal actors concluded on August 21. Six days later, co-producer Jack Morrissey confirmed that the film had officially wrapped production.
The Beast was portrayed with a "more traditional motion capture puppeteering for the body and the physical orientation '', where actor Dan Stevens was "in a forty - pound gray suit on stilts for much of the film ''. The facial capture for the Beast was done separately in order to "communicate the subtleties of the human face '' and "(capture the) thought that occurs to him '' which gets "through (to) the eyes, which are the last human element in the Beast. '' The castle servants who are transformed into household objects were created with CGI animation.
Before the release of the film, Bill Condon refilmed one certain sequence in the "Days of the Sun '' number, due to confusion among test audiences caused by actress Harriet Jones, who looked similar to Hattie Morahan, who portrayed Agathe. In the original version of the scene, it was Jones 's character, the Prince 's mother, who sings the first verse of the song, with Rudi Goodman playing the young Prince and Henry Garrett playing his father; but in the reshot version of the scene, the singing part is given to the Prince (now played by Adam Mitchell). The King was also recast to Tom Turner, although Harriet Jones was still the Queen, albeit with dark hair. Both Goodman and Garrett 's names were mistakenly featured in the original theatrical release 's credits, but was later corrected in home releases.
When released in 1991, Beauty and the Beast, marked a turning point for Walt Disney Pictures by appealing to millions of fans with its Oscar - winning musical score by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken. In Bill Condon 's opinion, that original score was the key reason he agreed to direct a live - action version of the movie. "That score had more to reveal '', he says, "You look at the songs and there 's not a clunker in the group. In fact, Frank Rich described it as the best Broadway musical of 1991. The animated version was already darker and more modern than the previous Disney fairytales. Take that vision, put it into a new medium, make it a radical reinvention, something not just for the stage because it 's not just being literal, now other elements come into play. It 's not just having real actors do it ''.
Condon initially prepared on only drawing inspiration from the original film, but he also planned to include most of the songs composed by Alan Menken, Howard Ashman and Tim Rice from the Broadway musical, with the intention of making the film as a "straight - forward, live - action, large - budget movie musical ''. Menken returned to score the film 's music, which features songs from the original film by him and Howard Ashman, plus new material written by Menken and Tim Rice. Menken said the film would not include songs that were written for the Broadway musical and instead, created four new songs. However, an instrumental version of the song "Home '', which was written for the musical, is used during the scene where Belle first enters her room in the castle.
On January 19, 2017, it was confirmed by both Disney and Céline Dion -- singer of the original 1991 "Beauty and the Beast '' duet song, with singer Peabo Bryson -- that Dion would be performing one of the new original songs "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' to play over the end titles. She originally had doubts about whether or not to record the song due to the recent death of her husband and manager René Angélil, who had previously helped her secure the 1991 pop duet. While ultimately accepting the opportunity, she said: "(The) first Beauty and the Beast decision was made with my husband. Now I 'm making decisions on my own. It 's a little bit harder. I could n't say yes right away, because I felt like I was kind of cheating in a way ''. She eventually felt compelled to record the song because of the impact Beauty and the Beast has had on her career. According to Dion, "I was at the beginning of my career, it put me on the map, it put me where I am today ''. Also, Josh Groban was announced to be performing the new original song "Evermore '' on January 26, 2017.
The 2017 film features a remake of the 1991 original song recorded as a duet by Ariana Grande and John Legend. Grande and Legend 's updated version of the title song is faithful to the original, Grammy - winning duet, performed by Céline Dion and Peabo Bryson for the 1991 Disney film. Disney debuted the music video for Ariana Grande and John Legend 's interpretation of the title song on Freeform television network on March 5, 2017, and it has since been viewed over 100 million views on the Vevo video - hosting service.
Emma Thompson also performed a rendition of the title song, which was performed by Angela Lansbury in the original 1991 animated film.
On March 16, 2015, Disney announced the film would be released in 3D on March 17, 2017. The first official presentation of the film took place at Disney 's three - day D23 Expo in August 2015.
The world premiere of Beauty and the Beast took place at Spencer House in London, United Kingdom on February 23, 2017; and the film later premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, on March 2, 2017. The stream was broadcast onto YouTube.
A sing along version of the film released in over 1,200 US theaters nationwide on April 7, 2017. The United Kingdom received the same version on April 21, 2017.
The film was re-released in New York and Los Angeles for a one - week engagement starting December 1, 2017. The move was an awards push as awards season heats up.
Disney spent around $140 million to market the film worldwide. Following an announcement on May 22, 2016, Disney premiered the first official teaser trailer on Good Morning America the next day. In its first 24 hours, the teaser trailer reached 91.8 million views, which was the largest number ever seen for a trailer in that amount of time. This record has since been broken by Thor: Ragnarok, It and Avengers: Infinity War. The first official teaser poster was released on July 7, 2016. On November 2, 2016, Entertainment Weekly debuted the first official image on the cover of their magazine, along with nine new photos. One week later, Emma Watson and Disney debuted a new poster. On November 14, 2016, the first theatrical trailer was released, again on Good Morning America. This reached 127.6 million views in its first 24 hours, setting a new record for the most views in one day, beating Fifty Shades Darker; this record has since been broken by The Fate of the Furious. A TV spot with Watson singing was shown during the 74th Golden Globe Awards. Disney released the final trailer on January 30, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast was released on Blu - ray, DVD and Digital HD on June 6, 2017. The film debuted at No. 1 on the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart, with all other titles in the top 20, collectively, selling only 40 % as many units as Beauty and the Beast. The movie regained the top spot on the national home video sales charts during its third week of release. The movie became available on Netflix on September 19, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast grossed $504 million in the United States and Canada and $759.5 million in other countries for a worldwide gross of $1.263 billion. With a production budget of $254 million, it is the most expensive musical ever made. In just ten days, it became the highest - grossing live - action musical of all time, beating the nine - year - old record held by Mamma Mia!. It is currently the second - biggest musical ever overall, behind Disney 's Frozen (2013). Worldwide, the film proved to be a global phenomenon, earning a total of $357 million over its four - day opening weekend from 56 markets. Critics said the film was playing like superhero movies amongst women. It was the second - biggest March global opening, behind only Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the thirteenth - biggest worldwide opening ever and the seventh - biggest for Disney. This includes $21 million from IMAX plays on 1,026 screens, a new record for an IMAX PG title. It surpassed the entire lifetime total of the original film in just six days.
Beauty and the Beast was the 300th digitally remastered release in IMAX company 's history, which began with the re-release of Apollo 13 in 2002. Its robust global debut helped push the company past $6 billion for the first time, and led to analysts believing that the film had a shot of passing $1 billion worldwide from theatrical earnings. On April 12, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the first film of 2017, the fourteenth Disney film, and the twenty - ninth film overall to pass the mark. It became the first film since Rogue One (also a Disney property) in December 2016 to make over a billion dollars, and did so on its 29th day of release. It is currently the second - highest - grossing film of 2017 (behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi), the highest - grossing March release, the highest - grossing remake of all time, and the sixth - biggest Disney film. Even after inflation adjusted, it is still ahead of the $425 million gross ($760 million in 2017 dollars) of the original film. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $414.7 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues, making it the second-most profitable release of 2017.
In the United States and Canada, Beauty and the Beast topped Fandango 's pre-sales and became the fastest - selling family film in the company 's history, topping the studio 's own animated film Finding Dory released the previous year. Early tracking had the film grossing around $100 million in its opening weekend, with some publications predicting it could reach $130 million. By the time the film 's release was 10 days away, analysts raised projections to as high as $150 million. It earned $16.3 million from Thursday previews night, marking the biggest of 2017 (breaking Logan 's record), the biggest ever for a Disney live - action film (breaking Maleficent 's record), the second - biggest ever for both a G - or PG - rated film (behind the sixth Harry Potter film Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince which also starred Watson), and the third - biggest ever in the month of March (behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and The Hunger Games). An estimated 41 % of the gross came from IMAX, 3D and premium large format screenings which began at 6 pm, while the rest -- 59 % -- came from regular 2D shows which began at 7 pm. The numbers were considered more impressive given that the film played during a school week.
On its opening day, the film made $63.8 million from 4,210 theaters across 9,200 screens, marking the third biggest in the month of March, trailing behind Batman v Superman ($81.5 million) and The Hunger Games ($67 million). It was also the biggest opening day ever for a film that was n't PG - 13, displacing the $58 million opening Wednesday of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince. Its opening day alone (which includes Thursday 's previews) almost matched the entire opening weekend of previous Disney live - action films, Maleficent ($69.4 million) and Cinderella ($67.9 million). Unlike all previous four Disney live - action films witnessing a hike on their second day, Saturday, Beauty and the Beast actually fell 2 % but, nevertheless, the dip was paltry, and the grosses are so much bigger compared to the other titles. Earning a total of $174.8 million on its opening weekend, it defied all expectations and went on to set numerous notable records. This includes the biggest opening of the year as well as the biggest for the month of March and pre-summer / spring opening, beating Batman v Superman, the biggest start ever for a PG title (also for a family film), surpassing Finding Dory, the biggest debut of all time for a female - fueled film, ahead of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, the biggest for a Disney live - action adaptation, ahead of Alice in Wonderland and the biggest musical debut ever, supplanting Pitch Perfect 2. Furthermore, it is also Watson 's highest - opening, beating Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 same with Emma Thompson, director Bill Condon 's biggest debut ever ahead of The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 and the biggest outside of summer, save for Star Wars: The Force Awakens, not accounting for inflation.
It became the forty - third film to debut with over $100 million and the fifteenth film to open above $150 million. Its three - day opening alone surpassed the entire original North American run of the first film ($146 million; before the 3D re-release), instantly becoming the second - biggest film of the year, behind Logan ($184 million), and also the second - highest - grossing musical, behind Grease 's $188 million cumulative gross in 1978. Seventy percent of the total ticket sales came from 2D showings signifying that people who do n't go to theaters frequently came out in bulk to watch the film. About 26 % of the remaining tickets were for 3D. IMAX accounted for 7 % ($12.5 million) of the total weekend 's gross, setting a new record for a PG title, ahead of Alice in Wonderland ($12.1 million) while PLF repped 11 % of the box office. Seventy percent of the film 's opening day demographic was female, dropping to 60 % through the weekend. According polling service PostTrak, about 84 percent of American parents who saw the film on its opening day said they would "definitely '' recommend it for families. The film 's opening was credited to positive word of mouth from audiences, good reviews from critics, effective marketing which sold the title not just as a family film but also as a romantic drama, the cast 's star power (especially Emma Watson), lack of competition, being the first family film since The Lego Batman Movie a month earlier, nostalgia, and the success and ubiquity of the first film and Disney 's brand.
On Monday, its fourth day of release, the film fell precipitously by 72 % earning $13.5 million. The steep fall was due to a limited marketplace where only 11 % K - 12 and 15 % colleges were off per ComScore. Nevertheless, it is the second - biggest March Monday, behind Batman v Superman ($15 million). This was followed by the biggest March and pre-summer Tuesday with $17.8 million, a 32 % increase from its previous day. The same day, the film passed $200 million in ticket sales. It earned $228.6 million in the first week of release, the sixth - biggest seven - day gross of all time. In its second weekend, the film continued to maintain the top positioning and fell gradually by 48 % earning another $90.4 million to register the fourth - biggest second weekend of all time, and the third - biggest for Disney. In terms of percentage drop, its 48 % decline is the third - smallest drop for any film opening above $125 million (behind Finding Dory and The Force Awakens). The hold was notable considering how the film was able to fend off three new wide releases: Power Rangers, Life, and CHiPs. As a result, it passed the $300 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 the pass said mark. The film grossed $45.4 million in its third weekend, finally being overtaken for the top spot by newcomer The Boss Baby ($50.2 million). On April 4, 2017, its nineteenth day of release, it passed the $400 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 to do so. By its fourth weekend, the film began was playing in 3,969 cinemas, a fall of 241 theaters from its previous weekend. Of those, approximately 1,200 cinemas were sing - along versions. It earned $26.3 million (− 48 %) and retained second place. By comparison, previous Disney films Moana (− 8 %) and Frozen (− 2 %) both witnessed mild percentage declines the weekend their sing - alone versions were released. Its seventh weekend of release was in contemporaneous with another Emma Watson - starring new film The Circle. That weekend, The Circle was number four, while Beauty and the Beast was at number six. By May 28, the film had earned over $500 million in ticket sales becoming the first film of 2017 (until it was later surpassed by The Last Jedi), the third female - fueled film (after The Force Awakens and Rogue One: A Star Wars Story followed by Wonder Woman and The Last Jedi) and the eighth overall film in cinematic history to pass the mark.
It has already become the biggest March release, dethroning The Hunger Games (2012), the biggest musical film (both animated and live - action), as well as the biggest film of 2017 (alongside The Last Jedi).
Outside the US and Canada, the film began playing on Thursday, March 16, 2017. Through Sunday, March 19, it had a total international opening of $182.3 million from 55 markets, 44 of which were major territories, far exceeding initial estimations of $100 million and opened at No. 1 in virtually all markets except Vietnam, Turkey, and India. Its launch is the second - biggest for the month of March, behind Batman v Superman ($256.5 million). In IMAX, it recorded the biggest debut for a PG - rated title (although it carried varying certificate amongst different markets) with $8.5 million from 649 screens, the second - biggest for a PG title behind The Jungle Book. In its second weekend, it fell just by 35 % earning another $120.6 million and maintaining its first position hold. It added major markets like France and Australia. It topped the international box office for three consecutive weekends before finally being dethroned by Ghost in the Shell and The Boss Baby in its fourth weekend. Despite the fall, the film helped Disney push past the $1 billion thresold internationally for the first time in 2017.
It scored the biggest opening day of the year in Hong Kong and the Philippines, the biggest March Thursday in Italy ($1 million, also the biggest Disney Thursday debut), the biggest March opening day in Austria, and the second - biggest in Germany ($1.1 million), Disney 's biggest March in Denmark, the biggest Disney live - action debut in China ($12.6 million), the UK ($6.2 million), Mexico ($2.4 million) and Brazil ($1.8 million) and the third - biggest in South Korea with $1.2 million, behind only Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End and Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides. In terms of opening weekend, the largest debut came from China ($44.8 million), followed by the UK ($24.3 million), Korea ($11.8 million), Mexico ($11.8 million), Australia ($11.1 million), Brazil ($11 million), Germany ($10.7 million), France ($8.4 million), Italy ($7.6 million), Philippines ($6.3 million), Russia ($6 million), and Spain ($5.8 million).
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film recorded the biggest opening ever for a PG - rated film, the biggest Disney live - action opening of all time, the biggest March opening weekend, the biggest opening for a musical (ahead of 2012 's Les Misérables), the number one opening of 2017 to date and the fifth - biggest - ever overall with £ 19.7 million ($24.5 million) from 639 theatres and almost twice that of The Jungle Book (£ 9.9 million). This included the second - biggest Saturday ever (£ 7.9 million), only behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens. It witnessed a decline in its second weekend, earning £ 12.33 million ($15.4 million). Though the film was falling at a faster rate than The Jungle Book, it had already surpassed the said film and its second weekend is the third - biggest ever (behind the two James Bond films Skyfall (2012) and Spectre). In India, despite facing heavy competitions from four new Hindi releases, two Tamils films and a Malayalam and a Punjabi release, the film managed to take an occupancy of 15 % on its opening day, an impressive feat despite tremendous competitions. It earned around ₹ 15 million (US $220,000) nett on its opening day from an estimated 600 screens which is more than the three Hindi releases -- Machine, Trapped, and Aa Gaya Hero -- combined. Disney reported a total of ₹ 92.6 million (US $1.4 million) gross for its opening weekend there. It was ahead of all new releases and second overall behind Bollywood film Badrinath Ki Dulhania. In Russia, despite receiving a restrictive 16 rating, the film managed to deliver a very successful opening with $6 million.
In China, expectations were high for the film. The release date was announced on January 24, giving Disney and local distributor China Film Group Corporation ample time -- around two months -- to market the film nationwide. The release date was strategically chosen to coincide with White Day. Preliminary reports suggested that it could open to $40 -- 60 million in its opening weekend. Largely driven by young women, its opening day pre-sales outpaced that of The Jungle Book. The original film was, however, never widely popular in the country. Although China has occasionally blocked gay - themed content from streaming video services, in this case, Chinese censors decided to leave the gay scene intact. According to local box office tracker Ent Group, the film grossed an estimated $12.1 million on its opening day (Friday), representing 70 % of the total receipts. Including previews, it made a total of $14.5 million from 100,000 screenings, which is 43 % of all screenings in the country. It climbed to $18.5 million on Saturday (102,700 showings) for a three - day total of $42.6 million, securing 60 % of the total marketplace. Disney on the other hand reported a different figure of $44.8 million. Either ways, it recorded the second - biggest opening for a Disney live - action film, with $3.4 million coming from 386 IMAX screens. Japan -- a huge Disney market -- served as the film 's final market and opened there on April 21. It debuted with a better - than - expected $12.5 million on its opening weekend helping the film push past the $1.1 billion threshold. An estimated $1.1 million came from IMAX screenings, the fourth - biggest ever in the country. The two - day gross was $9.7 million, outstripping Frozen 's previous record of $9.5 million. Due to positive reviews, good word - of - mouth and benefitting from the Golden Week, the film saw a 9 % increase on its second weekend. The hold was strong enough to fend off newcomer The Fate of the Furious from securing the top spot. The total there is now over $98 million after seven weekends and is the biggest film release of the year and, overall, the eleventh - biggest of all time. It topped the box office there for eight consecutive weekends.
The only markets where the film did not top the weekend charts were Vietnam (behind Kong: Skull Island), Turkey (with two local movies and Logan ahead) and India (where Badrinath Ki Dulhania retained No. 1). It topped the box office for four straight weekends in Germany, Korea, Austria, Finland, Poland, Portugal, Brazil, Venezuela, Bolivia, Switzerland and the UK (exclusive of previews). In the Philippines, it emerged as the most successful commercial film of all time -- both local and foreign -- with over $13.5 million. In just five weeks, the film became one of the top 10 highest - grossing film of all time in the United Kingdom and Ireland, ahead of all but one Harry Potter film (Deathly Hallows -- Part 2) and all three The Lord of the Rings movies (which also starred Ian McKellen). It is currently the eighth - biggest grosser with £ 70.1 million ($90 million), overtaking Mamma Mia! to become the biggest musical production ever there. The biggest international earning markets following the UK are Japan ($108 million), China ($85.8 million), Brazil ($41.5 million), Korea ($37.5 million), and Australia ($35 million). In Europe alone, the cumulative total is $267 million to become the second - highest - grossing film in the past year (behind Rogue One: A Star Wars Story).
Beauty and the Beast received generally positive reviews, with praise for its ensemble cast, visuals, production values, musical score, songs, and faithfulness to the original film with a few elements of the Broadway musical version, while the designs of the Beast and the servants ' household object forms received mixed reviews. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, as of April, 2018, the film had an approval rating of 70 % based on 322 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7 / 10. The website 's critical consensus read, "With an enchanting cast, beautifully crafted songs, and a painterly eye for detail, Beauty and the Beast offers a faithful yet fresh retelling that honors its beloved source material. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "It 's a Michelin - triple - starred master class in patisserie skills that transforms the cinematic equivalent of a sugar rush into a kind of crystal - meth - like narcotic high that lasts about two hours. '' Felperin also praised the performances of Watson and Kline as well the special effects, costume designs and the sets, while commending the inclusion of Gad 's character of LeFou as the first LGBT character in Disney. Owen Gleiberman of Variety, in his positive review of the film, wrote: "It 's a lovingly crafted movie, and in many ways a good one, but before that it 's an enraptured piece of old - is - new nostalgia. '' Gleiberman compared Steven 's character of the Beast to a royal version of the titular character in The Elephant Man and the 1946 version of the Beast in Jean Cocteau 's original adaptation. A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised the performances of both Watson and Stevens, and wrote: "It looks good, moves gracefully and leaves a clean and invigorating aftertaste. I almost did n't recognize the flavor: I think the name for it is joy. ''
Likewise, The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday complimented Watson 's performance, describing it as "alert and solemn '' while noting her singing ability as "serviceable enough to get the job done ''. Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film three and a half stars, lauded the performances of Watson and Thompson which he drew a comparison to Paige O'Hara 's and Angela Lansbury 's performances in the 1991 animated version while appreciating the performances of the other cast and also pointing out on its usage of the combination of motion capture and CGI technology as a big advantage which he stated: "Almost overwhelmingly lavish, beautifully staged and performed with exquisite timing and grace by the outstanding cast ''. Mike Ryan of Uproxx praised the cast, production design and the new songs while noting the film does n't try anything different, saying: "There 's certainly nothing that new about this version of Beauty and the Beast (well, except it is n't a cartoon anymore), but it 's a good recreation of a classic animated film that should leave most die - hards satisfied. '' In her A - review, Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News praised the film 's emotional and thematic depth, remarking: "There 's an emotional authenticity in director Bill Condon 's live - action Beauty and the Beast film that helps you rediscover Disney 's beloved 1991 animated film and 1994 stage show in fresh, stirring ways. '' James Berardinelli of ReelViews described the 2017 version as "enthralling ''.
Brian Truitt of USA Today commended the performances of Evans, Gad, McGregor and Thompson alongside Condon 's affinity with musicals, the production design, visual effects featured in some of the song numbers including new songs made by the composers Alan Menken and Tim Rice, particularly Evermore which he described the new song with a potential for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone rated the film three out of four stars which he deemed it as an "exhilarating gift '' while he remarked that "Beauty and the Beast does justice to Disney 's animated classic, even if some of the magic is M.I.A (Missing in Action) ''. Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine gave a positive review with a description as "Wild, Vivid and Crazy - Beautiful '' as she wrote "Nearly everything about Beauty and the Beast is larger than life, to the point that watching it can be a little overwhelming. '' and added that "it 's loaded with feeling, almost like a brash interpretive dance expressing the passion and elation little girls (and some boys, too) must have felt upon seeing the earlier version. '' The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle struck an affirmative tone, calling it one of the joys of 2017, stating that "Beauty and the Beast creates an air of enchantment from its first moments, one that lingers and builds and takes on qualities of warmth and generosity as it goes along '' while referring the film as "beautiful '' and also praised the film for its emotional and psychological tone as well Steven 's motion capture performance.
Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five and wrote that "It dazzles on this chocolate box of a picture that feels almost greedy yet to make this film work, down to a sugar - rush finale to grasp the nettle and make an out - an - out, bells - and - whistles musical '' while he praised the performances of Watson, McKellen, Thompson, McGregor, Evans and Gad. Mark Hughes of Forbes also similarly praised the film which he wrote that "it could revive the story in a faithful but entirely new and unique way elevating the material beyond expectations, establishing itself as a cinematic equal to the original '' and also complimented the importance of undertaking a renowned yet problematic masterpiece as well addressing changes in the elements of the story while acknowledging the film 's effectiveness in resonating to the audiences. Stephen Whitty of the New York Daily News called it "this year 's best new old musical '' and "the most magical thing of all '' while describing Watson 's performance of Belle as "breakthrough ''.
Several critics regarded the film as inferior to its 1991 animated predecessor. David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the 2017 film "feels particularly egregious, in part, because it 's so slavishly devoted to the original; every time it falls short of its predecessor (which is quite often), it 's hard not to notice ''. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune said that the 2017 film "takes our knowledge and our interest in the material for granted. It zips from one number to another, throwing a ton of frenetically edited eye candy at the screen, charmlessly. '' Phillips wrote that the film featured some "less conspicuously talented '' performers who are "stuck doing karaoke, or motion - capture work of middling quality '', though he praised Kline 's performance as the "best, sweetest thing in the movie; he brings a sense of calm, droll authority ''. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised Watson 's performance and wrote that the film was "lit in that fascinatingly artificial honey - glow light, and it runs smoothly on rails -- the kind of rails that bring in and out the stage sets for the lucrative Broadway touring version. '' In the same newspaper, Wendy Ide criticized the film as "ornate to the point of desperation '' in its attempt to emulate the animated film.
Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B -, writing that while the film looks "exceptionally great '', he said the new songs were "not transporting ''. He felt the film needed more life and depth, but praised Watson 's and Steven 's performances as the "film 's stronger elements ''. Dana Schwartz of The New York Observer felt that some of the characters, such as Gaston and the Beast, had been watered down from the 1991 film, and that the additional backstory elements failed to "advance the plot or theme in any meaningful way '' while adding considerable bloat. Schwartz considered the singing of the cast to be adequate but felt that their voices should have been dubbed over, especially for the complex songs.
Controversy erupted after director Bill Condon said there was a "gay moment '' in the film, when LeFou briefly waltzes with Stanley, one of Gaston 's friends. Afterwards in an interview with Vulture.com, Condon stated, "Can I just say, I 'm sort of sick of this. Because you 've seen the movie -- it 's such a tiny thing, and it 's been overblown. '' Condon also added that Beauty and the Beast features much more diversity than just the highly talked - about LeFou: "That was so important. We have interracial couples -- this is a celebration of everybody 's individuality, and that 's what 's exciting about it. '' GLAAD president and CEO Sarah Kate Ellis praised the move stating, "It is a small moment in the film, but it is a huge leap forward for the film industry. ''
In Russia, Vitaly Milonov agitated the culture minister for banning the film, but instead it was given a 16 + rating (children under the age of 16 can only be admitted to see it in theaters with accompanying adults). Additionally, a theater in Henagar, Alabama did not screen the film because of the subplot. In Malaysia, the Film Censorship Board insisted the "gay moment '' scene be cut, prompting an indefinite postponement of its release by Disney, followed by their decision to withdraw it completely if it could not be released uncensored. The studio moved the release date to March 30, to allow more time for Malaysia 's censor board to make a decision on whether or not to release the film without changes. The distributors and producers then submitted an appeal to the Film Appeal Committee of Malaysia, which allowed the film to be released without any cuts and a P13 rating on the grounds that "the gay element was minor and did not affect the positive elements featured in the film ''. In Kuwait, the movie was withdrawn from cinemas by National Cinema Company which owns most of the cinemas in the country. A board member of the company stated that the Ministry of Information 's censorship department had requested it to stop its screening and edit it for things deemed offensive by it.
The film also received criticism over its portrayal of LeFou, as many felt that it relied on stereotypes and was used as a way of teasing LGBT+ viewers without providing adequate representation. LeFou 's status as a sidekick to the main villain brought about criticism over Disney 's queercoding of villains in the past, and his infatuation with Gaston was seen as relying on a stereotype of gay men being predatory towards straight men. Furthermore, the only gay interaction LeFou has is a three - second clip of him dancing with another man at the end of the film. Many saw this as Disney cheating its LGBT+ audiences.
Disney has sought to portray Belle as an empowered young woman, but a debate questioning whether it is possible for a captor to fall in love with their prisoner, and whether this is a problematic theme, has resulted. As was the case with the original animated film, one argument is that Belle suffers from Stockholm syndrome (a condition that causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity). Emma Watson studied whether Belle is trapped in an abusive relationship with the Beast before signing on and concluded that she does not think the criticism fits this version of the folk tale. Watson described Stockholm Syndrome as "where a prisoner will take on the characteristics of and fall in love with the captor. Belle actively argues and disagrees with (Beast) constantly. She has none of the characteristics of someone with Stockholm Syndrome because she keeps her independence, she keeps that freedom of thought '', also adding that Belle defiantly "gives as good as she gets '' before forming a friendship and romance with the Beast.
Psychiatrist Frank Ochberg, who coined the term "Stockholm syndrome '', said he does not think Belle exhibits the trauma symptoms of prisoners suffering from the syndrome because she does not go through a period of feeling that she is going to die. Some therapists, while acknowledging that the pairing 's relationship does not meet the clinical definition of Stockholm syndrome, argue that the relationship depicted is dysfunctional and abusive and does not model healthy romantic relationships for young viewers. Constance Grady of Vox writes that Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's Beauty and the Beast was a fairy tale originally written to prepare young girls in 18th - century France for arranged marriages, and that the power disparity is amplified in the Disney version. Anna Menta of Elite Daily argued that the Beast does not apologize to Belle for imprisoning, hurting, or manipulating her, and his treatment of Belle is not painted as wrong.
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where are voltage gated sodium channels concentrated in myelinated axons | Node of Ranvier - wikipedia
Nodes of Ranvier, also known as myelin - sheath gaps, occur along a myelinated axon where the axolemma is exposed to the extracellular space. Nodes of Ranvier are uninsulated and highly enriched in ion channels, allowing them to participate in the exchange of ions required to regenerate the action potential. Nerve conduction in myelinated axons is referred to as saltatory conduction (from the Latin saltare "to hop or to leap '') due to the manner in which the action potential seems to "jump '' from one node to the next along the axon. This results in faster conduction of the action potential.
Many vertebrate axons are surrounded by a myelin sheath, allowing rapid and efficient saltatory ("jumping '') propagation of action potentials. The contacts between neurons and glial cells display a very high level of spatial and temporal organization in myelinated fibers. The myelinating glial cells; oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS), and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), are wrapped around the axon, leaving the axolemma relatively uncovered at the regularly spaced nodes of Ranvier.
The internodal glial membranes are fused to form compact myelin, whereas the cytoplasm - filled paranodal loops of myelinating cells are spirally wrapped around the axon at both sides of the nodes. This organization demands a tight developmental control and the formation of a variety of specialized zones of contact between different areas of the myelinating cell membrane. Each node of Ranvier is flanked by paranodal regions where helicoidally wrapped glial loops are attached to the axonal membrane by a septate - like junction.
The segment between nodes of Ranvier is termed as the internode, and its outermost part that is in contact with paranodes is referred to as the juxtaparanodal region. The nodes are encapsulated by microvilli stemming from the outer aspect of the Schwann cell membrane in the PNS, or by perinodal extensions from astrocytes in the CNS.
The myelin sheath of long nerves was discovered and named by German pathological anatomist Rudolf Virchow in 1854. French pathologist and anatomist Louis - Antoine Ranvier later discovered the nodes, or gaps, in the myelin sheath that now bear his name. Born in Lyon, Ranvier was one of the most prominent histologists of the late 19th century. Ranvier abandoned pathological studies in 1867 and became an assistant of physiologist Claude Bernard. He was the chairman of General Anatomy at the Collège de France in 1875.
His refined histological techniques and his work on both injured and normal nerve fibers became world - renowned. His observations on fiber nodes and the degeneration and regeneration of cut fibers had a great influence on Parisian neurology at the Salpêtrière. Soon afterwards, he discovered gaps in sheaths of nerve fibers, which were later called the Nodes of Ranvier. This discovery later led Ranvier to careful histological examination of myelin sheaths and Schwann cells.
The internodes are the myelin segments and the gaps between are referred to as nodes. The size and the spacing of the internodes vary with the fiber diameter in a curvilinear relationship that is optimized for maximal conduction velocity. The size of the nodes span from 1 -- 2 μm whereas the internodes can be up to (and occasionally even greater than) 1.5 millimetres long, depending on the axon diameter and fiber type.
The structure of the node and the flanking paranodal regions are distinct from the internodes under the compact myelin sheath, but are very similar in CNS and PNS. The axon is exposed to the extra-cellular environment at the node and is constricted in its diameter. The decreased axon size reflects a higher packing density of neurofilaments in this region, which are less heavily phosphorylated and are transported more slowly. Vesicles and other organelles are also increased at the nodes, which suggest that there is a bottleneck of axonal transport in both directions as well as local axonal - glial signaling.
When a longitudinal section is made through a myelinating Schwann cell at the node, three distinctive segments are represented: the stereotypic internode, the paranodal region, and the node itself. In the internodal region, the Schwann cell has an outer collar of cytoplasm, a compact myelin sheath, and inner collar of cytoplasm, and the axolemma. At the paranodal regions, the paranodal cytoplasm loops contact thickenings of the axolemma to form septate -- like junctions. In the node alone, the axolemma is contacted by several Schwann microvilli and contains a dense cytoskeletal undercoating.
Although freeze fracture studies have revealed that the nodal axolemma in both the CNS and PNS is enriched in intra-membranous particles (IMPs) compared to the internode, there are some structural differences reflecting their cellular constituents. In the PNS, specialized microvilli project from the outer collar of Schwann cells and come very close to nodal axolemma of large fibers. The projections of the Schwann cells are perpendicular to the node and are radiating from the central axons. However, in the CNS, one or more of the astrocytic processes come in close vicinity of the nodes. Researchers declare that these processes stem from multi-functional astrocytes, as opposed to from a population of astrocytes dedicated to contacting the node. On the other hand, in the PNS, the basal lamina that surrounds the Schwann cells is continuous across the node.
The nodes of Ranvier contain Na+ / K+ ATPases, Na+ / Ca2+ exchangers and high density of voltage - gated Na+ channels that generate action potentials. A sodium channel consists of a pore - forming α subunit and two accessory β subunits, which anchor the channel to extra-cellular and intra-cellular components. The nodes of Ranvier in the central and peripheral nervous systems mostly consist of αNaV1. 6 and β1 subunits. The extra-cellular region of β subunits can associate with itself and other proteins, such as tenascin R and the cell - adhesion molecules neurofascin and contactin. Contactin is also present at nodes in the CNS and interaction with this molecule enhances the surface expression of Na+ channels.
Ankyrin has been found to be bounded to βIV spectrin, a spectrin isoform enriched at nodes of Ranvier and axon initial segments. The PNS nodes are surrounded by Schwann cell microvilli, which contain ERMs and EBP50 that may provide a connection to actin microfilaments. Several extracellular matrix proteins are enriched at nodes of Ranvier, including tenascin - R, Bral - 1, and proteoglycan NG2, as well as phosphacan and versican V2. At CNS nodes, the axonal proteins also include contactin; however, Schwann cell microvilli are replaced by astrocyte perinodal extensions.
The molecular organization of the nodes corresponds to their specialized function in impulse propagation. The level of sodium channels in the node versus the internode suggests that the number IMPs corresponds to sodium channels. Potassium channels are essentially absent in the nodal axolemma, whereas they are highly concentrated in the paranodal axolemma and Schwann cell membranes at the node. The exact function of potassium channels have not quite been revealed, but it is known that they may contribute to the rapid repolarization of the action potentials or play a vital role in buffering the potassium ions at the nodes. This highly asymmetric distribution of voltage - gated sodium and potassium channels is in striking contrast to their diffuse distribution in unmyelinated fibers.
The filamentous network subjacent to the nodal membrane contains cytoskeletal proteins called spectrin and ankyrin. The high density of ankyrin at the nodes may be functionally significant because several of the proteins that are populated at the nodes share the ability to bind to ankyrin with extremely high affinity. All of these proteins, including ankyrin, are enriched in the initial segment of axons which suggests a functional relationship. Now the relationship of these molecular components to the clustering of sodium channels at the nodes is still not known. Although some cell - adhesion molecules have been reported to be present at the nodes inconsistently; however, a variety of other molecules are known to be highly populated at the glial membranes of the paranodal regions where they contribute to its organization and structural integrity.
The complex changes that the Schwann cell undergoes during the process of myelination of peripheral nerve fibers have been observed and studied by many. The initial envelopment of the axon occurs without interruption along the entire extent of the Schwann cell. This process is sequenced by the in - folding of the Schwann cell surface so that a double membrane of the opposing faces of the in - folded Schwann cell surface is formed. This membrane stretches and spirally wraps itself over and over as the in - folding of the Schwann cell surface continues. As a result, the increase in the thickness of the extension of the myelin sheath in its cross-sectional diameter is easily ascertained. It is also evident that each of the consecutive turns of the spiral increases in size along the length of the axon as the number of turns increase. However, it is not clear whether or not the increase in length of the myelin sheath can be accounted solely by the increase in length of axon covered by each successive turn of the spiral, as previously explained. At the junction of two Schwann cells along an axon, the directions of the lamellar overhang of the myelin endings are of opposite sense. This junction, adjacent of the Schwann cells, constitutes the region designated as the node of Ranvier.
Researchers prove that in the developing CNS, Nav1. 2 is initially expressed at all forming nodes Ranvier. Upon maturation, nodal Nav1. 3 is down - regulated and replaced by Nav1. 6. Naz1. 2 is also expressed during PNS node formation, which suggests that the switching of Nav - channel subtypes is a general phenomenon in the CNS and PNS. In this same investigation, it was shown that Nav1. 6 and Nav1. 2 colocalize at many nodes of Ranvier during early myelination. This also led to the suggestion that early clusters of Nav1. 2 and Nav1. 6 channels are destined to later become nodes of Ranvier. Neurofascin is also reported to be one of the first proteins to accumulate at newly forming nodes of Ranvier. They are also found to provide the nucleation site for attachment of ankyrin G, Nav channels, and other proteins. The recent identification of the Schwann cell microvilli protein gliomedin as the likely binding partner of axonal neurofascin brings forward substantial evidence for the importance of this protein in recruiting Nav channels to the nodes of Ranvier. Furthermore, Lambert et al. and Eshed et al. also indicates that neurofascin accumulates before Nav channels and is likely to have crucial roles in the earliest events associated with node of Ranvier formation. Thus, multiple mechanisms may exist and work synergistically to facilitate clustering of Nav channels at nodes of Ranvier.
The first event appears to be the accumulation of cell adhesion molecules such as NF186 or NrCAM. The intra-cellular regions of these cell - adhesion molecules interact with ankyrin G, which serves as an anchor for sodium channels. At the same time, the periaxonal extension of the glial cell wraps around the axon, giving rise to the paranodal regions. This movement along the axon contributes significantly to the overall formation of the nodes of Ranvier by permitting heminodes formed at the edges of neighboring glial cells to fuse into complete nodes. Septate - like junctions form at the paranodes with the enrichment of NF155 in glial paranodal loops. Immediately following the early differentiation of the nodal and paranodal regions, potassium channels, Caspr2 and TAG1 accumulate in the juxta - paranodal regions. This accumulation coincides directly with the formation of compact myelin. In mature nodal regions, interactions with the intracellular proteins appear vital for the stability of all nodal regions. In the CNS, oligodendrocytes do not possess microvilli, but appear capable to initiate the clustering of some axonal proteins through secreted factors. The combined effects of such factors with the subsequent movements generated by the wrapping of oligodendrocyte periaxonal extension could account for the organization of CNS nodes of Ranvier.
Mitochondria and other membranous organelles are normally enriched in the PNP region of peripheral myelinated axons, especially those large caliber axons. The actual physiological role of this accumulation and factors that regulate it are not understood; however, it is known that mitochondria are usually present in areas of the cell that expresses a high energy demand. In these same regions, they are also understood to contain growth cones, synaptic terminals, and sites of action potential initiation and regeneration, such as the nodes of Ranvier. In the synaptic terminals, mitochondria produce the ATP needed to mobilize vesicles for neurotransmission. In the nodes of Ranvier, mitochondria serve as an important role in impulse conduction by producing the ATP that is essential to maintain the activity of energy - demanding ion pumps. Supporting this fact, about five times more mitochondria are present in the PNP axoplasm of large peripheral axons than in the corresponding internodal regions of these fibers.
Saltatory conduction in myelinated axons requires organization of the nodes of Ranvier, whereas voltage - gated sodium channels are highly populated. Studies show that αII - Spectrin, a component of the cytoskeleton is enriched at the nodes and paranodes at early stages and as the nodes mature, the expression of this molecule disappears. It is also proven that αII - Spectrin in the axonal cytoskeleton is absolutely vital for stabilizing sodium channel clusters and organizing the mature node of Ranvier.
It has been shown previously that OMgp (oligodendrocyte myelin glycoprotein) clusters at nodes of Ranvier and may regulate paranodal architecture, node length and axonal sprounting at nodes. However, a follow - up study showed that the antibody used previously to identify OMgp at nodes crossreacts with another node - enriched component versican V2 and that OMgp is not required for the integrity of nodes and paranodes, arguing against the previously reported localization and proposed functions of OMgp at nodes.
An action potential is a spike of both positive and negative ionic discharge that travels along the membrane of a cell. The creation and conduction of action potentials represents a fundamental means of communication in the nervous system. Action potentials represent rapid reversals in voltage across the plasma membrane of axons. These rapid reversals are mediated by voltage - gated ion channels found in the plasma membrane. The action potential travels from one location in the cell to another, but ion flow across the membrane occurs only at the nodes of Ranvier. As a result, the action potential signal jumps along the axon, from node to node, rather than propagating smoothly, as they do in axons that lack a myelin sheath. The clustering of voltage - gated sodium and potassium ion channels at the nodes permits this behavior.
Since an axon can be unmyelinated or myelinated, the action potential has two methods to travel down the axon. These methods are referred to as continuous conduction for unmyelinated axons, and saltatory conduction for myelinated axons. Saltatory conduction is defined as an action potential moving in discrete jumps down a myelinated axon.
This process is outlined as the charge passively spreading to the next node of Ranvier to depolarize it to threshold which will then trigger an action potential in this region which will then passively spread to the next node and so on.
Saltatory conduction provides one advantage over conduction that occurs along an axon without myelin sheaths. This is that the increased speed afforded by this mode of conduction assures faster interaction between neurons. On the other hand, depending on the average firing rate of the neuron, calculations show that the energetic cost of maintaining the resting potential of oligodendrocytes can outweigh the energy savings of action potentials. So, axon myelination does not necessarily save energy.
Complete neuron cell diagram
Medullated nerve fibers stained with silver nitrate
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when does deep blue sea part 2 come out | Deep Blue Sea 2 - wikipedia
Deep Blue Sea 2 is a science fiction horror film directed by Darin Scott. It is a stand - alone sequel to the 1999 film Deep Blue Sea, and stars Danielle Savre, Michael Beach, and Rob Mayes. The film was released direct - to - video on April 17, 2018.
Shark conservationist Misty Calhoun is invited to visit the sea - based facility Akhelios by pharmaceutical billionaire Carl Durant. She and neurobiology students (Leslie and Daniel Kim) are taken to the facility by Durant 's associate Craig Burns on a motorboat. When they arrive, they meet Durant, as well as the facility 's crew, which include shark trainers (Trent Slater, Mike Shutello, and Josh Hooper), and computer technician Aaron Ellroy. As a demonstration, Durant throws Aaron into the water, letting the sharks chase him, although uses a key to drive them away in formation. Durant then explains that he 's been genetically altering the brains of five bull sharks to make them smarter, which enrages Misty.
The group later meets in the wet lab, where Durant explains to Misty that the reason he invited her is because the alpha shark, Bella, has been acting strangely, to which Misty concludes is because she is pregnant. Durant is confused by this as her pregnancy did not come up on any tests they ran on her, although Misty theorizes that their genetic alterations hid this. Durant then brings Bella into the wet lab, and has Josh take samples of her saliva, although Bella attempts to bite his arm off; he narrowly avoids this. Meanwhile, on the surface, another shark pushes the motorboat into an electric control box, causing it to explode, and creating significant damage on the surface. The sharks then begin flooding the facility and Craig is eaten while the others remain in the wet lab. Misty then realizes that Bella went into labor after being dropped back into the pool, and has given birth to a series of shark pups.
Mike attempts to swim to the surface, although one of the sharks knocks him unconscious; Trent rescues him and Misty manages to revive him, although as he leans over the pool to taunt the sharks, one of them decapitates him. As a result of a lack of pressure stabilization in the room, the water from the pool pours in, and the group becomes separated; Leslie is knocked unconscious in the flooding, Durant, and Daniel both end up alone, and Misty, and Trent, and Aaron, and Josh become stranded together. Trent reveals to Misty that Durant has been doing the same experiments on himself using a genetics - altering liquid in order to make himself more intelligent, due to his fear that technology will one day take over the world. Durant reunites with Misty and Trent soon after, and they make their way to an air ventilation shaft that will lead to the surface.
Aaron and Josh arrive in one of the sleeping quarters, although the shark pups find them, and eat Josh while Aaron escapes on a mattress. Misty, Trent, and Durant arrive at the shaft, although Durant locks her out of the room after she attempts to find other survivors, which enrages Trent. The two then manage to reach the surface. Meanwhile, Daniel finds Leslie behind a door, although the shark pups eat her in front of him. He is soon found by Aaron, who was attacked by the pups, and lost the mattress, and they attempt to find a way to the surface. Misty, meanwhile, uses a blow torch to get inside the room with the ventilation shaft, and is met by Aaron and Daniel. The shark pups then find them, and Misty distracts them while Aaron, and Daniel begin climbing to the surface. The water rises as they climb to the surface, which allows the pups to reach Daniel, and eat him while Aaron reaches the surface. Meanwhile, Misty, using scuba gear she found in Trent 's quarters, manages to swim to the surface, and reunite with the others.
Realizing that the facility is sinking, and they can not stay any longer, the group makes a break for the motorboat. Aaron is dragged underwater by one of the sharks while Durant is confronted by Bella, and seemingly scares her away. However, moments later, Bella jumps up, and eats him while Misty, and Trent reach the motorboat, and use two flare guns to kill one of the sharks. Aaron then jumps onto the boat, explaining that he escaped one of the sharks. Misty tells Trent that they can not let the sharks roam in the open ocean, and Trent blows up the facility with a self - destruct button. Misty, Trent, and Aaron then escape on the motorboat, although it is soon revealed that Bella and her pups survived the explosion and are now free in the open ocean.
In 2008, Warner Premiere was planning a direct - to - video sequel to Renny Harlin 's Deep Blue Sea, which would be directed by Jack Perez and released sometime in 2009. The project, though, did not materialize. Even so, in June 2017, it was announced that the sequel directed by Darin Scott had begun filming in Cape Town, South Africa. In January 2018, Warner Bros. Home Entertainment released a trailer for Deep Blue Sea 2.
On April 17, 2018, Deep Blue Sea 2 was released on Blu - ray combo pack, DVD and Digital HD, the first two of which contain two featurettes -- "Returning to the Deep -- The Making of Deep Blue Sea 2 '' and "Deep Blue Sea 2: Death by Shark '' -- gag reel, and deleted scenes.
The direct - to - video release Deep Blue Sea 2 debuted at # 8 on the Top 20 Sellers for the week ended 04 - 21 - 18 alongside two theatrical new releases; Tom Hank starrer The Post (# 4 debut) and Liam Neeson starrer The Commuter (# 3 debut.) Deep Blue Sea 2 achieved an Index of 12.56 versus 28.71 for The Post and 36.83 for The Commuter. Blu - ray disc accounted for 35 % of the sales for Deep Blue Sea 2 versus 48 % for The Post and 50 % for The Commuter. The Deep Blue Sea 2 home video debut Ranking and Index was approximately on - par with the home video debut of theatrical release Insidious: The Last Key two weeks earlier.
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who played the me on law and order | Leslie Hendrix - Wikipedia
Leslie Hendrix (born June 5, 1960) is an American actress. She is best known for playing the role of medical examiner Elizabeth Rodgers on four Law & Order series (Law & Order, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Law & Order: Criminal Intent and Law & Order: Trial by Jury). She also played Judge Hannah Lampert on the soap opera All My Children. In the third season of Gotham she plays Kathryn Monroe, the mysterious leader of the Court of Owls.
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a substance that will stop bleeding is called | Antihemorrhagic - wikipedia
An antihemorrhagic (antihæmorrhagic) agent is a substance that promotes hemostasis (stops bleeding). It may also be known as a hemostatic (also spelled hæmostatic) agent.
A styptic (also spelled stiptic) is a specific type of antihemorrhagic agent that works by contracting tissue to seal injured blood vessels. Styptic pencils contain astringents.
Antihemorrhagic agents used in medicine have various mechanisms of action:
Hemostatic agents are used during surgical procedures to achieve hemostasis and are categorized as hemostats, sealants and adhesives. They vary based on their mechanism of action, composition, ease of application, adherence to tissue, immunogenicity and cost. These agents permit rapid hemostasis, better visualization of the surgical area, shorter operative times, decreased requirement for transfusions, decreased wound healing time and overall improvement in patient recovery time.
There are several classes of antihemorrhagic drugs used in medicine. These include antifibrinolytics, blood coagulation factors, fibrinogen, and vitamin K.
Topical hemostatic agents have been gaining popularity for use in emergency bleeding control, especially in military medicine. They are available in two forms -- as a granular powder poured on wounds, or embedded in a dressing.
Microfibrillar collagen hemostat (MCH) is a topical agent composed of resorbable microfibrillar collagen. It attracts platelets and allows for the formation of a blood clot when it comes into contact with blood. Unlike the hemostatic clamp, no mechanical action is involved. The surgeon presses the MCH against a bleeding site, and the collagen attracts and helps with the clotting process to eventually stop bleeding.
The practical application for MCH is different from that of the hemostatic clamp.
Chitosan hemostats are topical agents composed of chitosan and its salts. Chitosan bonds with platelets and red blood cells to form a gel - like clot which seals a bleeding vessel. Unlike other hemostat technologies its action does not require the normal hemostatic pathway and therefore continues to function even when anticoagulants like heparin are present.
Chitosan is used in some emergency hemostats which are designed to stop traumatic life - threatening bleeding. Their use is well established in many military and trauma units.
Kaolin and zeolite activate the coagulation cascade, and have been used as the active component of hemostatic dressings (for example, in QuikClot).
Styptics cause hemostasis by contracting blood vessels.
A common delivery system for this is a styptic or hemostatic pencil (not to be confused with a caustic pencil). This is a short stick of medication. Anhydrous aluminium sulfate is the main ingredient and acts as a vasoconstrictor in order to disable blood flow. The stick is applied directly to the bleeding site. The high ionic strength promotes flocculation of the blood, and the astringent chemical causes local vasoconstriction. Before safety razors were invented, it was a standard part of a shaving kit and was used to seal shaving cuts. Some people continue to use styptic pencils for minor skin wounds from safety or electric razors.
Styptic powder is used in the veterinary trade to stop bleeding from nails that are clipped too closely. This powder is generally used on animals, such as birds, cats, dogs, and rabbits, whose vein is found in the center of the nail.
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how to calculate area of land in marla | Measurement of land in Punjab - Wikipedia
The following are the basic ' measurements of land used in Pakistan Punjab, Indian Punjab and Haryana ' in ascending order.
A killa or Acre is measured rectangularly, reckoned as an area 36 karams (198 ft) x 40 karams (220 ft) (43,560 square ft). 5 / 8th of a Killa or Acre is known as Bigha
Homes (Kothis) are measured in marlas and kanaals. Most are two to four kanaals but the big ones can be anything from four to six kanaals.
A couple of older measures:
i) In all areas consolidated on the basis of the standard measure of 66 inches i.e. Karam or Gatha:
- 1. 1 Sq. Karam or Sarsahi 3.0896352 Sq. yds say 30.56
2. 9 Sarsahies or 1 Marla 30.249999 Sq. yds say 30.25 Sq. yds.
3. 20 Marlas or 1 Kanal 604.99996 Sq. yds say 605 Sq. yds.
4. 160 Marlas or 8 Kanals 4839.99998 Sq. yds. say 4840 Sq. yds. (1 acre or 1 killa)
(ii) In the areas consolidated on the basis of the local meas ure and the non - consolidated areas of Amritsar, Gurdaspur, (except Shahpur Hill Circle and Chak Andar in Pathankot tehsil), Ferozepur (except Fazilka) and the erstwhile pr incelyState of Faridkot. Also applicable for Lahore (Pakistan):
1. 1 Karam 60 inches
2. 1 Sq. Karam or Sarsahi 2.777777 Sq. yds.
3. 9 Sarsahies or 1 Marla 24.999999 Sq. yards say 25 Sq. yards.
4. 20 Marlas or 1 Kanal 499.9999 Sq. yards say 500 Sq. yards
5. 193.60 Marlas (9 Kanals1 Acre or 4840 Sq. yds 13 Marlas 5 Sarsahis)
(iii) In the areas consolidated on the basis of the local measure and the non - consolidated areas of Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar, Anandpur Sahib (Ropar) and the Shahpur hill Circle in Gurdaspur District:
1.1 Karam 57.5 inches
2. 1 Sq. Karam or Sarsahi 2.5511188 Sq. yds.
3. 9 Sarsahies or 1 Marla 22.960069 Sq. yards say 22.96 Sq. yds
4. 20 Marlas or 1 Kanal 459.20138 Sq. yards say 459 Sq. yards.
5. 160 Marlas 8 Kanals I Acre or 4840 Sq. yds. (iv) In the area consolidated on the basis of the local measure and the non-consolidated areas of the erstwhile princely State of Kapurthala:
1. 1 Karam 54 inches
2. 1 Sq. Karam or Sarsahi 2.25 Sq. yds.
3. 9 Sarsahies or 1 Marla 30.25 Sq. yards
4. 20 Marlas or 1 Kanal 405 Sq. yards.
5. 239 Marlas (11 Kanals1 Acre or 4840 Sq. yds. 19 Marlas)
1 Karam or Gat ha x 1 Karam or Gatha
1 Sq. Karam or Biswansi 20 Biswansis
1 Biswa20 Biswa 1 Satty2
Sq Feet Sq Gaz Sq Meter Karams Marla Kanaal Killa Begha Muraba 272.25 30.25 25.293 9 1 0.05 0.00625 0.0005 0.00025 1361.25 151.25 126.465 45 5 0.25 0.03125 0.0025 0.00125 2722.5 302.5 252.93 90 10 0.5 0.0625 0.005 0.0025 5445 605 505.86 180 20 1 0.125 0.01 0.005 43560 4840 4046.88 1440 160 8 1 0.08 0.04 27225 3025 2529.3 900 100 5 0.625 0.05 0.025 1089000 121000 101172 36000 4000 200 25 2 1
Good work
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when was the last time city beat liverpool at anfield | Merseyside derby - wikipedia
The Merseyside derby is the name given to football matches between Everton and Liverpool, two major clubs from Liverpool, Merseyside, England. It is the longest running top - flight derby in England, having been played continuously since the 1962 -- 63 season. Part of the rivalry is due to the proximity of the two clubs, whose home grounds are within eyesight of each other across Stanley Park, Everton at Goodison Park and Liverpool at Anfield.
Traditionally, the Merseyside derby was referred to as the "friendly derby '' because of the large number of families with both Liverpool and Everton supporters and was one of the few that did not enforce total fan segregation. The 1984 Football League Cup Final at Wembley saw almost all sections of the ground mixed and combined chants of "Merseyside, Merseyside '' and "Are you watching Manchester? '' Since the mid-1980s, however, the rivalry has intensified on and off the field, and since the inception of the Premier League has had more red cards than any other game.
Everton F.C. were founded in 1878 and from 1884 played their home matches at Anfield, which was owned by club chairman John Houlding. Several board members of Everton were members of the Liberal Party who were associated with the National Temperance Federation whilst Houlding was a Conservative Party member and a brewer whose business interests were diametrically opposed to the temperance movement. Politics and disputes over money meant that Houlding was increasingly at odds with other members of the Everton board. The result was that in 1892 the Everton directors vacated Anfield and purchased a new ground at Goodison Park on the other side of Stanley Park. Houlding responded by founding a new club to use Anfield: Liverpool.
The professional clubs of the 1890s attracted much interest among the public, on and off the field. The 1867 Reform Act had given what would become football attending masses the opportunity to vote in the local and national elections. Everton and Liverpool attendances would reach around 10 -- 15,000 in a local authority ward with a population of 23,000. Local politicians saw involvement in the two football clubs as an opportunity to gain media exposure to the local electorate.
At Everton board level, the main friction that emerged was that between the retention of an autocratic ownership structure and the creation of a more democratic one which closely mapped the sociopolitical divide.
Religion is sometimes put forward as a reason for the split with Liverpool founder Houlding a prominent Orangeman and Everton 's new chairman George Mahon a rival Liberal Home Rule advocating MP, but at the time of the split, among the Everton committee members, James Clement Baxter was the only Catholic, the rest were Protestants.
There are a number of reasons for the "friendly derby '' tag. Firstly the clubs are situated in the north of the city and very close to each other (400m), with only Stanley Park separating the two. Everton actually played at Anfield, now Liverpool 's ground, before a rent dispute with the ground owners saw Everton relocate to Goodison Park and the formation of Liverpool F.C. From 1902 to 1932 the two clubs even shared the same matchday programme. Today there are no evident geographical, political, social or religious divides as in other derbies, although for many years a sectarian divide did exist within the city. It is unclear how (if at all) this influenced the support bases of the two clubs and more recent research has indicated that it was more likely to have been a political allegiance that influenced support. During the 1950s and 1960s Everton became known as the Catholic club mainly as a result of successful Irish players Tommy Eglington, Peter Farrell and Jimmy O'Neill as well as manager Johnny Carey. This in turn caused Liverpool to be thought of as Protestant club, not signing an Irish Catholic until Ronnie Whelan in 1979. However, it should be noted that this notional divide was never seen as a basis for supporting a certain side as is the case with Celtic and Rangers. In truth both teams have strong support from all denominations as well as many fans from Presbyterian North Wales, Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland. Most importantly, the actual clubs themselves did not act to strengthen sectarian divides and in fact both clubs stem from a Methodist origin.
Unlike other local derbies (such as the Bristol, Birmingham and Stoke derbies, where the clubs are separated by long distances across their towns), in Liverpool violence between Evertonians and Liverpudlians is a rarity; however, in the fallout from the Heysel Stadium disaster, fan relationships became strained, with Everton fans blaming Liverpool hooligans for their subsequent ban from European club competitions. However, relations improved after the Hillsborough disaster when both sets of fans rallied together, with Evertonians even joining in on the boycott of The Sun while Everton and Liverpool scarves were intertwined stretching across Stanley Park between Anfield and Goodison Park. Recently, after the murder of 11 - year - old Evertonian Rhys Jones in a gun crime incident in 2007, Liverpool Football Club invited the victim 's parents and older brother to Anfield for a Champions League match. The Z - Cars theme tune "Johnny Todd '', the song to which Everton traditionally run out, was played for the first time ever at Anfield while the victim 's family stood on the pitch wearing Everton shirts and scarves. A standing ovation was given before "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' was played. Upon the complete vindication of Liverpool fans at the Hillsborough disaster in August 2012 Everton entertained Newcastle United at Goodison Park. The sides were lead out by two children wearing Everton and Liverpool shirts with the number 9 and 6 on the back. An announcer read out the names of all the 96 victims while "He Ai n't Heavy, He 's My Brother '' by The Hollies was played to a standing ovation.
The city of Liverpool is statistically the most successful football city in England with Everton and Liverpool winning a combined 27 league titles, and there has never been a season without one of either Everton or Liverpool competing in the top flight. Both clubs have rich histories, with Everton being one of the 12 founder members of the Football League. Everton have only been relegated twice and have competed in over 100 seasons of top - flight football, more than any other English club. To date, Everton have won nine League Championships, five FA Cups and one European Cup Winners Cup. Thus, they have the only UEFA trophy that Liverpool never won. Liverpool have won the European Cup 5 times, more than any other English club, have eighteen top - flight titles, have the FA Cup on 7 occasions, the Football League Cup a record 8 times, and three UEFA Cups.
Since 1892, the clubs have appeared almost every year in the Liverpool Senior Cup, although Liverpool, Everton and Tranmere Rovers only field reserve sides against the likes of Prescot Cables, Southport and Marine. Everton hold 45 titles while Liverpool have won 39.
Everton and Liverpool also have affiliated women 's teams playing in the FA WSL. Most recently in 2013, Liverpool Ladies won the FA WSL league and subsequently qualified for European competition for the next season.
During the 1960s, Liverpool and Everton were regular winners of domestic trophies, but while Liverpool went from strength to strength in the 1970s and 1980s, Everton went through a relatively barren spell after their 1970 title triumph and did not win a major trophy for the next 14 years.
Everton, however, started to emerge as a serious threat to Liverpool 's dominance of the domestic scene following the appointment of Howard Kendall as manager at the start of the 1981 -- 82 season. The first Merseyside derby that Kendall oversaw was at Anfield on 7 November, when his side lost 3 -- 1 to Bob Paisley 's. This saw Liverpool standing seventh in the league and Everton 13th. An identical scoreline followed in the return game at Goodison Park in late March, by which time Liverpool had overcome a dismal start to the season to muscle in on a title race which they eventually won, while Everton were still mid-table.
In 1982 -- 83, the final season of Bob Paisley 's management before he retired to make way for Joe Fagan, Liverpool were champions once again with Everton finishing mid-table, and the most notable of the two derbies occurred in early November when Liverpool triumphed 0 -- 5 at Goodison Park. The return match at Anfield in mid-March brought a goalless draw.
1983 -- 84 was the season when Everton (who won the FA Cup at the end of the campaign) really started to emerge as a serious threat to Liverpool. Though Liverpool won the league title and Everton still could n't even make the top five, Liverpool needed a replay to see off Everton 1 -- 0 in the League Cup final at Wembley. The Anfield derby in early November saw Liverpool triumph 3 -- 0, while the clash at Goodison Park four months later ended in a 1 -- 1 draw.
The 1984 -- 85 season began with a Merseyside derby in the FA Charity Shield at Wembley, when league champions Liverpool faced FA Cup winners Everton in a game which Everton won 1 -- 0 due to an own goal by Bruce Grobbelaar. The first league clash came on 20 October 1984, when a 0 -- 1 win for Everton at Anfield saw Howard Kendall 's team occupy fourth place in the league and show signs of challenging for the title for the first time in his four seasons in charge, while Liverpool were a lowly 17th and just 2 points outside the relegation zone. Liverpool 's final game of the season came on 23 May when they lost 1 -- 0 to Everton (who still had two games left to play) at Goodison Park. Everton had been crowned champions by this stage, while Liverpool had rallied since their terrible start to the season to occupy second place.
1985 -- 86 was perhaps the most exciting season for the fans of both clubs, as Liverpool and Everton battled it out for both the league title and the FA Cup. The first Merseyside derby of the season came at Goodison Park on 21 September 1985 and was won 2 -- 3 by Liverpool, who stood second behind Manchester United while Everton occupied sixth place. Everton triumphed 0 -- 2 in the return match at Anfield five months later, by which time Everton had just taken over from Manchester United as league leaders and Liverpool were eight points behind them in second place. The climax to this exciting campaign came at Wembley Stadium when Liverpool and Everton contested the first all Merseyside FA Cup final on 10 May 1986. An early goal by Gary Lineker suggested that Everton could gain revenge on Liverpool for beating them to the league title by defeating them in the FA Cup final, but in the second half the tables were turned as a double from Ian Rush and another goal from Craig Johnston made Liverpool only the fifth English club to complete the double.
The FA Charity Shield for 1986 was shared between Liverpool and Everton, who drew 1 -- 1 at Wembley, but the first league derby of the season between the two clubs did not happen until late November in a goalless draw at Goodison Park. Both clubs were challenging for the title at this stage alongside Arsenal (leaders), Nottingham Forest and unlikely contenders Luton Town and Coventry City. The League Cup quarter final on 21 January 1987 saw Liverpool win 0 -- 1 at Goodison Park. The Anfield derby in late April saw Liverpool triumph 3 -- 1, but it was not enough to prevent Everton from winning the title within the next couple of weeks. The 1986 -- 87 season was the last time that Everton overshadowed Liverpool until Everton 's dominance over their local rivals between 2012 and 2014.
In the 1988 -- 89 season, Everton were Liverpool 's first opponents in a competitive game after the Hillsborough disaster on 15 April 1989, which resulted in the deaths of 96 Liverpool fans at the FA Cup semi-final. The game between the two sides was a league fixture on 3 May which ended in a goalless draw. On 20 May, the two sides met at Wembley for the second all Merseyside FA Cup final in four seasons. The match went into extra time before Liverpool triumphed 3 -- 2, with Ian Rush (twice) and John Aldridge scoring for Liverpool and both of Everton 's goals coming from Stuart McCall.
By 1990 -- 91, Everton were in something of a slump (finishing ninth that season having started the season near the foot of the table), while Liverpool finished second in the league, but the campaign still brought one of the most pulsating clashes between the two clubs. Liverpool and Everton were drawn for the FA Cup fifth round at Anfield on 17 February 1991. The match ended in a goalless draw, and the replay three days later ended in a thrilling 4 -- 4 draw at Goodison Park, in which Peter Beardsley scored twice. 1990 -- 91 was Kenny Dalglish 's last season as Liverpool manager, as he resigned two days after the 4 -- 4 draw with Everton. It was also the last season of "replays of replays '' as penalties after extra time took over as the competition 's ultimate tie winner decider for the 1991 -- 92 season. The second replay ended with a 1 -- 0 win for Everton on 27 February, and ended the Reds double hopes.
The close season of 1991 saw Peter Beardsley move from Liverpool to Everton, followed within a year by defender Gary Ablett, causing more tension in the Merseyside derby, though the first couple of years after their transfers saw Liverpool and Everton firmly overtaken by Manchester United and the likes of Blackburn Rovers and Arsenal as the biggest challengers in English football. On 7 December 1992, Everton defeated Liverpool 2 -- 1 at Goodison Park in a game where Peter Beardsley became only the second man in history to score for both clubs in the derby.
The 1993 -- 94 derby at Anfield saw Liverpool defeat Everton 2 -- 1, not having much effect for a mid-table Liverpool side but increasing the risk of relegation (a battle which was ultimately won) for Everton. Perhaps the most notable event of this game was the winning goal by Robbie Fowler, who turned 19 the following month and was one of the most promising young players in England at the time.
The next notable city derby came on 18 October 1997, when Everton triumphed 2 -- 0 at Goodison in a victory that ultimately saved them from relegation (they only stayed up by having a greater goal difference than Bolton Wanderers) and helped end Liverpool 's title bid.
The 2000 -- 01 season saw one of the most exciting derbies of the Premier League era. Liverpool, having won the first derby at Anfield, completed the double with a thrilling 2 -- 3 victory over Everton at Goodison in April, with the injury - time winner by Gary McAllister proving to be crucial at the end of the season in helping Liverpool qualify for the UEFA Champions League -- which replaced the European Cup in 1992 -- for the first time.
By the end of the 2001 -- 02, Liverpool had finished above Everton in the league for 15 seasons in succession, but 2002 -- 03 saw Everton showing signs of eclipsing them for the first time in years. After a brilliant run of form saw Liverpool top the Premier League in October, an 11 - match winless league run followed their 2 -- 0 home win over West Ham United in early November and during that barren spell they drew 0 -- 0 at home to an Everton side who were actually above them and looking like qualifying for Europe after several seasons of persistent relegation battles. However, they were on course for their fifth - place finish when they next met Everton on 19 April and won 1 -- 2 at Goodison Park, a result which pushed their city neighbours towards seventh place and narrowly deprived them of European football.
In 2004 -- 05, Everton finished fourth in the league and Liverpool came fifth, the first time since Everton 's 1987 title win that Liverpool had finished below them. In a season which saw Liverpool win the Champions League title, Everton gave their neighbours a reminder of how far they had progressed under the management of David Moyes with a 1 -- 0 win at Goodison Park on 11 December 2004, though Liverpool won the return match at Anfield 2 -- 1 three months later.
Everton had a setback and finished mid-table in 2005 -- 06, while Liverpool 's compensation for their prolonged title wait came in the form of a narrow FA Cup final triumph. And Liverpool triumphed 3 -- 1 in both of the Merseyside derbies that season.
In 2006 -- 07, Everton recovered to finish in the top six, while Liverpool finished in the top four, and there was an early season triumph for the blue half of Liverpool as Everton crushed Liverpool 3 -- 0 at Goodison Park in early September. They also held them to a goalless draw at Anfield in early February and helped hold them behind pace setters Manchester United and Chelsea.
Liverpool did the double over Everton in 2007 -- 08. However, the meeting at Goodison Park was shrouded in controversy when after a coming together between Liverpool 's Steven Gerrard and Everton 's Tony Hibbert, referee Mark Clattenburg awarded Liverpool a penalty and seemed to change his mind in favour of a red card for Hibbert after Gerrard appeared to have said something to him, when most pundits felt a caution would have been sufficient. Everton dominated the game after going behind, but were denied what seemed to be two clear penalties in the closing stages of the game when Joleon Lescott was twice wrestled to the ground by Jamie Carragher at Everton corners. The victory helped secure a top - four finish and Champions League qualification for Liverpool, leaving Everton to settle for a UEFA Cup place. Referee Clattenburg was not chosen to officiate again at Goodison Park after that match until December 2013, six years later, and in that period only officiated one Everton game, away at Aston Villa.
In the 2008 -- 09 season, Liverpool and Everton met four times, Liverpool winning the League encounter at Goodison Park 0 -- 2 while drawing the other League fixture that dealt a severe blow to their title ambitions. The FA Cup saw Everton defeat ten - man Liverpool in extra time in the replay thanks to an injury - time winner by Dan Gosling after a 1 -- 1 draw at Anfield. That season, both teams were a major force as Liverpool challenged for the title while Everton came close to qualifying for the Champions League and progressed to the 2009 FA Cup Final, only to fall to Chelsea.
When the sides met in the 2009 -- 10 season, both clubs were suffering from a disastrous start to the season. Both games followed similar patterns, with Everton enjoying the greater possession and creating more chances in the games, but it was Liverpool who scored the goals in a 0 -- 2 victory at Goodison Park and 1 -- 0 at Anfield, the latter thanks to a goal from Dirk Kuyt.
In the Goodison Park encounter on 17 October 2010 in the 2010 -- 11 season, Everton won 2 -- 0 with goals from Tim Cahill and Mikel Arteta, while the return league game at Anfield in January 2011 ended in a 2 -- 2 draw.
In the 2011 -- 12 season, Liverpool and Everton met three times, twice in the league and once in the FA Cup, with Liverpool winning all three. The first meeting took place on 1 October 2011, with Liverpool winning 0 -- 2 in the league at Goodison Park (goals from Andy Carroll and Luis Suárez) against an Everton side depleted by Jack Rodwell 's early, controversial red card, which was later rescinded by The Football Association. On 13 March 2012, Liverpool won the Anfield fixture 3 -- 0 after a hat - trick by Steven Gerrard, who became the first player to score a hat - trick in the derby since Ian Rush in 1982. The third meeting of the season was the FA Cup semi-final at Wembley on 14 April. Everton took the lead through Nikica Jelavić 's goal in the first half. Liverpool equalised through a Luis Suárez goal midway through the second half, and Andy Carroll scored the winning goal for Liverpool in the 87th minute. However, despite Liverpool having success throughout the season against their traditional rivals, Everton finished one place higher than Liverpool at the end of the Premier League season.
Matches between Everton / Liverpool and Tranmere Rovers, based in Birkenhead on the other side of the River Mersey, are also classed as Merseyside derbies, but as Tranmere have spent all of their history outside the top - flight; competitive matches are a rarity. They have occasionally faced Everton and Liverpool in cup competitions. Their last meeting with both clubs came in the FA Cup in 2001. Tranmere caused an upset by beating Everton 3 -- 0 in the fourth round, before losing 4 -- 2 to Liverpool in the quarter - finals.
Statistics are correct as of 7 April 2018.
This derby is responsible for many records across all derby matches, largely due to it being contested so many times:
The following are records just for the Merseyside derby itself:
The following have scored 4 or more league goals in the Derby. This includes Premier League matches, its predecessor the Football League First Division, FA Cup, League Cup and Charity Shield. The Screen Sport Super Cup goals are also included for Rush and Sharp, although this was a competition which was not high on Liverpool or Everton 's agenda. This list is up to and including 6 January 2018.
Current scorers: Liverpool 's Daniel Sturridge (4) is the leading scorer among current players. Other current players with derby goals are Liverpool 's Sadio Mané and Divock Origi with 2 goals each, plus Danny Ings, Mohamed Salah and from Everton Kevin Mirallas, Phil Jagielka, Matthew Pennington, Wayne Rooney, and Gylfi Sigurðsson all with one goal each.
Goals from "overseas '' players: A total of 30 non-British (Isles) players from 19 different countries have scored in the derby (not including own goals, which add three countries to the list) since Liverpool 's Craig Johnston became the first such player to do so, in the 1986 Cup final (though Bruce Grobbelaar was the first non-British Isles player to get on the derby scoresheet with his own - goal in the 1984 Charity Shield). Most recently Everton 's Gylfi Sigurðsson added the newest country (Iceland) to this list. Everton 's Tim Cahill and Liverpool 's Dirk Kuyt, who both left their respective clubs after the 2012 season, along with Luis Suárez, who left Liverpool in 2014, are the leading "overseas '' players with five goals each. Divock Origi and Sadio Mané are the current leading overseas scorers with two each. France leads the way with five different scorers, but Australia (4) is just behind.
More goals than years: Liverpool 's Fred Howe and Everton 's Tommy Lawton bear the curious distinctions of scoring more goals than they actually spent in years in the city of Liverpool. Howe scoring five goals in three years and Lawton four goals in three years.
Hat - tricks: The first derby hat - trick was scored by Everton 's Alex "Sandy '' Young who scored four in the 1904 5 -- 1 win at Goodison. Other Evertonians to manage hat - ticks include Parker in 1914 and Dixie Dean twice, in 1928 and 1931, the last Everton player to net a treble. Liverpool hat - tricks have come from Chambers (1922), Forshaw (1925), Barton (1933), and Howe (four goals in 1935). Almost 50 years passed before the next derby hat - trick, scored by Ian Rush, who scored four in a 5 -- 0 win at Goodison in 1982, and then another 30 years passed until Steven Gerrard scored a hat - trick against Everton at Anfield in a 3 -- 0 win. Curiously, of all the league hat - tricks, only two (Young 's in 1904 and Rush 's in 1982) were managed at Goodison; all the others were at Anfield.
Own goals: Sandy Brown 's famous own goal in Everton 's championship winning 1969 -- 70 season was, surprisingly, only the second own goal in the history of the fixture, the first having been scored by Balmer (Everton) in 1902. Since then, eight Evertonians have been "credited '' with an own - goal, including two in the same match at Anfield in 1972. There have only been three Liverpool own goals. Leighton Baines 's unlucky deflection at Goodison in 2012 -- 13 is the most recent of all derby - day own - goals.
Scoring in consecutive matches: Between May and September 1986, Ian Rush scored for Liverpool in four consecutive derbies, none of them League games (Cup final, Charity shield and two Super Cup finals). Several players have scored in three consecutive games: Hardman (E, 1905 -- 06), Freeman (E, 1909 -- 10), Parkinson (L, 1910 -- 11), King (E, 1978 -- 79), Lineker (E, 1985 -- 86), Barnes (L, 1989 -- 90) and Fowler (L, 1995 -- 96).
Youngest derby goal scorer: Although difficult to verify, since birthdates of early players are not known, the youngest derby goal scorer is probably Everton 's Danny Cadamarteri who scored the winner at Goodison six days after his 18th birthday, in October 1997.
League games only. Highest ever attendance 100,000 estimate at 1984 Milk Cup final and 1984 Charity Shield. HIghest attendance at Anfield 56,060 for the 1962 - 63 league game.
There have been 12 derby games played on neutral grounds: six at Wembley, four at Maine Road and one each at Villa Park and Old Trafford:
Since the war Everton have been awarded just two penalties in Anfield derbies (both scored), while Liverpool have had 11 at Goodison of which three have been missed (though only one of these misses affected the result). A full list is available at https://www.evertonresults.com/derbypens.htm.
Despite the huge rivalry, Liverpool have completed more direct transfers with Everton than any other club. However, Liverpool did not buy directly from Everton between 1959 and 2000, while there was a similar "freeze '' in the other direction between 1961 and 1982. The phrase "crossing the Park '' refers to Stanley Park, which separates the two grounds.
Dave Hickson, John Heydon and Frank Mitchell are the only three players to have played for Liverpool, Everton and Tranmere Rovers, the three main Merseyside clubs still in existence (Tranmere dropped out of the league in 2015). New Brighton were football league members from 1923 -- 51; Bill Lacey and Neil McBain played for all three of Everton, Liverpool and New Brighton. John Whitehead played for Liverpool, Everton and also for Bootle in their one year as a league team (1892 -- 93), before they were replaced in Division 2 by local rivals Liverpool FC.
The list below shows transfer dates and fees, where known.
Everton then Liverpool
The following played for another / other club before moving to Liverpool
Liverpool then Everton
The following played for another / other club before moving to Everton
As well as players "crossing the park, '' Everton 's first ever manager, William Edward Barclay, stayed on at Anfield after Everton moved to Goodison Park to become Liverpool 's first manager.
Only two players have scored for both sides in a Merseyside derby:
Liverpool 's Evertonians
Everton 's Liverpudlians
It is a rarity for either team to beat the other in both league games of a season; it is a feat managed by Liverpool fifteen times and Everton nine times, in what is known as the ' double '. With the occasional meeting at Wembley, both Everton and Liverpool have completed a ' treble ', in which a victory has been achieved three times (and at three different venues) in a season.
Everton
Liverpool
With cup games, replays and so on, the two have often met three or four times a season, but in the 1986 -- 87 season, they played each other six times: starting with a 1 -- 1 draw at Wembley in the Charity Shield, there were the two league games, the two - legged Screen Sport Super Cup Final (held over from the previous season), and a League Cup 5th round tie. Despite the fact that Everton finished the season as champions, they could not beat Liverpool that year, with four losses and two draws. A combined total of 281,356 spectators saw the six matches. The following season they met a further four times, being paired in both cups: honours were even with two wins each.
Liverpool have achieved the most Premier League doubles over their city rivals Everton, doing so four times in the last ten years. Everton have yet to do the double over Liverpool in the Premier League -- their last league double over Liverpool was in 1985 where they won at Goodison (1 -- 0) and Anfield (1 -- 0) to complete a treble for that season, having also won at Wembley in the Charity Shield.
Fixtures from 1894 to the present day featuring League games, FA Cup, League Cup, Charity Shield and Super Cup. Testimonial matches are listed separately. Other friendlies and Inter-War fixtures are not included.
Testimonials
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who did the steelers lose the superbowl to | Pittsburgh Steelers - wikipedia
National Football League (1933 -- present)
Black, Gold
League championships (6)
Conference championships (8)
Division championships (23)
The Pittsburgh Steelers are a professional American football team based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The Steelers compete in the National Football League (NFL), as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) North division. Founded in 1933, the Steelers are the oldest franchise in the AFC.
In contrast with their status as perennial also - rans in the pre-merger NFL, where they were the oldest team never to win a league championship, the Steelers of the post-merger (modern) era are one of the most successful NFL franchises. Pittsburgh has won more Super Bowl titles (6) and both played in (16) and hosted more conference championship games (11) than any other NFL team. The Steelers have won 8 AFC championships, tied with the Denver Broncos, but behind the New England Patriots ' record 10 AFC championships. The Steelers share the record for second most Super Bowl appearances with the Broncos, and Dallas Cowboys (8). The Steelers lost their most recent championship appearance, Super Bowl XLV, on February 6, 2011.
The Steelers, whose history traces to a regional pro team that was established in the early 1920s, joined the NFL as the Pittsburgh Pirates on July 8, 1933, owned by Art Rooney and taking its original name from the baseball team of the same name, as was common practice for NFL teams at the time. To distinguish them from the baseball team, local media took to calling the football team the Rooneymen, an unofficial nickname which persisted for decades after the team adopted its current nickname. The ownership of the Steelers has remained within the Rooney family since its founding. Art 's son, Dan Rooney owned the team from 1988 until his death in 2017. Much control of the franchise has been given to Dan 's son Art Rooney II. The Steelers enjoy a large, widespread fanbase nicknamed Steeler Nation. The Steelers currently play their home games at Heinz Field on Pittsburgh 's North Side in the North Shore neighborhood, which also hosts the University of Pittsburgh Panthers. Built in 2001, the stadium replaced Three Rivers Stadium which hosted the Steelers for 31 seasons. Prior to Three Rivers, the Steelers had played their games in Pitt Stadium and Forbes Field.
The Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL first took to the field as the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 20, 1933, losing 23 -- 2 to the New York Giants. Through the 1930s, the Pirates never finished higher than second place in their division, or with a record better than. 500 (1936). Pittsburgh did make history in 1938 by signing Byron White, a future Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, to what was at the time the biggest contract in NFL history, but he played only one year with the Pirates before signing with the Detroit Lions. Prior to the 1940 season, the Pirates renamed themselves the Steelers.
During World War II, the Steelers experienced player shortages. They twice merged with other NFL franchises to field a team. During the 1943 season, they merged with the Philadelphia Eagles forming the "Phil - Pitt Eagles '' and were known as the "Steagles ''. This team went 5 -- 4 -- 1. In 1944, they merged with the Chicago Cardinals and were known as Card - Pitt (or, mockingly, as the "Carpets ''). This team finished 0 -- 10, marking the only winless team in franchise history.
The Steelers made the playoffs for the first time in 1947, tying for first place in the division at 8 -- 4 with the Philadelphia Eagles. This forced a tie - breaking playoff game at Forbes Field, which the Steelers lost 21 -- 0. That would be Pittsburgh 's only playoff game for the next 25 years; they did qualify for a "Playoff Bowl '' in 1962 as the second - best team in their conference, but this was not considered an official playoff.
In 1970, the year they moved into Three Rivers Stadium and the year of the AFL -- NFL merger, the Pittsburgh Steelers were one of three old - guard NFL teams to switch to the newly formed American Football Conference (the others being the Cleveland Browns and the Baltimore Colts), in order to equalize the number of teams in the two conferences of the newly merged league. The Steelers also received a $3 million ($18.9 million today) relocation fee, which was a windfall for them; for years they rarely had enough to build a true contending team.
The Steelers ' history of bad luck changed with the hiring of coach Chuck Noll for the 1969 season. Noll 's most remarkable talent was in his draft selections, taking Hall of Famers "Mean '' Joe Greene in 1969, Terry Bradshaw and Mel Blount in 1970, Jack Ham in 1971, Franco Harris in 1972, and finally, in 1974, pulling off the incredible feat of selecting four Hall of Famers in one draft year, Lynn Swann, Jack Lambert, John Stallworth, and Mike Webster. The Pittsburgh Steelers ' 1974 draft was their best ever; no other team has ever drafted four future Hall of Famers in one year, and only very few (including the 1970 Steelers) have drafted two or more in one year.
The players drafted in the early 1970s formed the base of an NFL dynasty, making the playoffs in eight seasons and becoming the only team in NFL history to win four Super Bowls in six years, as well as the first to win more than two. They also enjoyed a regular season streak of 49 consecutive wins (1971 -- 1979) against teams that would finish with a losing record that year.
The Steelers suffered a rash of injuries in the 1980 season and missed the playoffs with a 9 -- 7 record. The 1981 season was no better, with an 8 -- 8 showing. The team was then hit with the retirements of all their key players from the Super Bowl years. "Mean '' Joe Greene retired after the 1981 season, Lynn Swann and Jack Ham after 1982 's playoff berth, Terry Bradshaw and Mel Blount after 1983 's divisional championship, and Jack Lambert after 1984 's AFC Championship Game appearance.
After those retirements, the franchise skidded to its first losing seasons since 1971. Though still competitive, the Steelers would not finish above. 500 in 1985, 1986, and 1988. In 1987, the year of the players ' strike, the Steelers finished with a record of 8 -- 7, but missed the playoffs. In 1989, they would reach the second round of the playoffs on the strength of Merrill Hoge and Rod Woodson before narrowly missing the playoffs in each of the next two seasons.
Noll 's career record with Pittsburgh was 209 -- 156 -- 1.
In 1992, Chuck Noll retired and was succeeded by Kansas City Chiefs defensive coordinator Bill Cowher, a native of the Pittsburgh suburb of Crafton.
Cowher led the Steelers to the playoffs in each of his first six seasons, a feat that had been accomplished only by legendary coach Paul Brown of the Cleveland Browns. In those first six seasons, Cowher coached them as deep as the AFC Championship Game three times and following the 1995 season an appearance in Super Bowl XXX on the strength of the "Blitzburgh '' defense. However, the Steelers lost to the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl XXX, two weeks after a thrilling AFC Championship victory over the Indianapolis Colts. Cowher produced the franchise 's record - tying fifth Super Bowl win in Super Bowl XL over the National Football Conference champion Seattle Seahawks ten years later. With that victory, the Steelers became the third team to win five Super Bowls, and the first sixth - seeded playoff team to reach and win the Super Bowl since the NFL expanded to a 12 - team post-season tournament in 1990. He coached through the 2006 season which ended with an 8 -- 8 record, just short of the playoffs. Overall Cowher 's teams reached the playoffs 10 of 15 seasons with six AFC Championship Games, two Super Bowl berths and a championship.
Cowher 's career record with Pittsburgh was 149 -- 90 -- 1 in the regular season and 161 -- 99 -- 1 overall, including playoff games.
On January 7, 2007, Cowher resigned from coaching the Steelers, citing a need to spend more time with his family. He did not use the term "retire '', leaving open a possible return to the NFL as coach of another team. A three - man committee consisting of Art Rooney II, Dan Rooney, and Kevin Colbert was set up to conduct interviews for the head coaching vacancy. The candidates interviewed included: offensive coordinator Ken Whisenhunt, offensive line coach Russ Grimm, former offensive coordinator Chan Gailey, Minnesota Vikings defensive coordinator Mike Tomlin, and Chicago Bears defensive coordinator Ron Rivera. On January 22, 2007, Mike Tomlin was announced as Cowher 's successor as head coach. Tomlin is the first African - American to be named head coach of the Pittsburgh Steelers in its 75 - year history. Tomlin became the third consecutive Steelers Head Coach to go to the Super Bowl, equaling the Dallas Cowboys (Tom Landry, Jimmy Johnson and Barry Switzer) in this achievement. He was named the Motorola 2008 Coach of the Year. On February 1, 2009, Tomlin led the Steelers to their second Super Bowl of this decade, and went on to win 27 -- 23 against the Arizona Cardinals. At age 36, he was the youngest head coach to ever win the Super Bowl, and he is only the second African - American coach to ever win the Super Bowl (Tony Dungy was the first). The 2010 season made Tomlin the only coach to reach the Super Bowl twice before the age of 40. Tomlin led the team to his second Super Bowl (Super Bowl XLV) on Feb. 6, 2011. However, the Steelers were defeated in their eighth Super Bowl appearance by the Green Bay Packers by the score of 31 -- 25. The Steelers recorded their 400th victory in 2012 after defeating the Washington Redskins.
Through the 2016 season, Tomlin 's record is 111 -- 63, including playoffs. He is the first Pittsburgh coach without a losing season. The 2013 -- 2017 seasons were noted for record performances from the "killer B 's ''. This trio consisted of Antonio Brown, Ben Roethlisberger and Le'Veon Bell. Occasionally, the "Killer B 's '' has also included kicker Chris Boswell due to his ability to hit game - winning field goals.
Since the NFL merger in 1970, the Pittsburgh Steelers have compiled a regular season record of 444 -- 282 -- 2 (. 635) and an overall record of 480 - 305 - 2 (. 635) including the playoffs, reached the playoffs 30 times, won their division 22 times, played in 16 AFC championship games, and won six of eight Super Bowls. They are also the only NFL team not to have a season with twelve or more losses since the league expanded to a 16 - game schedule in 1978.
Since 2008, the Rooney family has brought in several investors for the team while retaining control of the team itself. This came about so that the team could comply with NFL ownership regulations. Dan Rooney, and his son, Art Rooney II, president of the franchise, wanted to stay involved with the franchise, while two of the brothers -- Timothy and Patrick -- wanted to further pursue racetracks that they own in Florida and New York. Since 2006, many of the racetracks have added video slot machines, causing them to violate "NFL policy that prohibits involvement with racetrack and gambling interests ''.
Upon Dan Rooney 's death in 2017, he and Art Rooney II retained control of the team with the league - minimum 30 %, the following make up the other investors:
Through the end of the 2015 season, the Steelers have an all - time record of 624 -- 552 -- 21, including playoffs. In recent seasons the Steelers have generally performed well, qualifying for the playoffs six times in the past ten seasons and winning the Super Bowl twice since 2005.
In the NFL 's "modern era '' (since the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970) the Steelers have posted the best record in the league. The franchise has won the most regular season games, the most playoff games (33 playoff wins; the Dallas Cowboys are second with 32), won the most divisional titles (20), has played in the most conference championship games (15), hosted the most conference championship games (11), and is tied with the Dallas Cowboys, the Denver Broncos and the New England Patriots for the most Super Bowl appearances (8). The Steelers have the best winning percentage (including every expansion team), earned the most All - Pro nominations, and have accumulated the most Super Bowl wins (6) since the modern game started in 1970. Since the merger, the team 's playoff record is 33 -- 19 (. 635), which is second best in terms of playoff winning percentage behind the Green Bay Packers ' playoff record of 28 -- 16 (. 636), through January 23, 2011.
The franchise, along with the Rooney family have for generations been strong advocates for equality of opportunity for both minorities and women. Among these achievements of the Steelers was the first to hire an African - American Assistant Coach (September 29, 1957 with Lowell Perry), the first to start an African - American quarterback (December 3, 1973 with Joe Gilliam), the first team to boast of an African - American Super Bowl MVP (January 12, 1975 with Franco Harris), the first to hire an African - American Coordinator (September 2, 1984 with Tony Dungy), the first owner to push for passage of an "equal opportunity '' mandating that at least one minority candidate is given an interview in all head coach hiring decisions throughout the league (the Rooney Rule in the early 2000s), and the first to hire a female as full - time athletic trainer (Ariko Iso on July 24, 2002). Note: Although Marlin Briscoe is sometimes erroneously cited as the first African - American starting quarterback in 1968, this was not for an NFL team and not in an NFL game, additionally the vast majority of Briscoe 's career was not as quarterback.
The Steelers have used black and gold as their colors since the club 's inception, the lone exception being the 1943 season when they merged with the Philadelphia Eagles and formed the "Steagles ''; the team 's colors at that time were green and white as a result of wearing Eagles uniforms. Originally, the team wore solid gold - colored helmets and black jerseys. The Steelers ' black and gold colors are now shared by all major professional teams in the city, including the Pittsburgh Pirates in baseball and the Pittsburgh Penguins in ice hockey, and also the Pittsburgh Power of the re-formed Arena Football League, and the Pittsburgh Passion of the Independent Women 's Football League. The shade of gold differs slightly among teams: the Penguins have previously used "Vegas Gold '', a color similar to metallic gold, and the Pirates ' gold is a darker mustard yellow - gold, while the Steelers "gold '' is more of a bright canary yellow. Black and gold are also the colors of the city 's official flag.
The Steelers logo was introduced in 1962 and is based on the "Steelmark '', originally designed by Pittsburgh 's U.S. Steel and now owned by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). In fact, it was Cleveland - based Republic Steel that suggested the Steelers adopt the industry logo. It consists of the word "Steelers '' surrounded by three astroids (hypocycloids of four cusps). The original meanings behind the astroids were, "Steel lightens your work, brightens your leisure, and widens your world. '' Later, the colors came to represent the ingredients used in the steel - making process: yellow for coal, red for iron ore, and blue for scrap steel. While the formal Steelmark logo contains only the word "Steel '', the team was given permission to add "ers '' in 1963 after a petition to AISI.
The Steelers are the only NFL team that puts its logo on only one side of the helmet (the right side). Longtime field and equipment manager Jack Hart was instructed to do this by Art Rooney as a test to see how the logo appeared on the gold helmets; however, its popularity led the team to leave it that way permanently. A year after introducing the logo, they switched to black helmets to make it stand out more.
The Steelers, along with the New York Giants, are one of only two teams in the National Football League to have the players ' uniform numbers on both the front and back of the helmets.
The current uniform designs were introduced in 1968. The design consists of gold pants and either black jerseys or white jerseys, except for the 1970 and 1971 seasons when the Steelers wore white pants with their white jerseys. In 1997, the team switched to rounded numbers on the jersey to match the number font (Futura Condensed) on the helmets, and a Steelers logo was added to the left side of the jersey.
The 2007 -- 2011 third uniform, consisting of a black jersey with gold lettering, white pants with black and gold stripes, and a gold helmet were first used during the Steelers ' 75th anniversary season in 2007. They were meant to evoke the memory of the 1963 -- 1964 era uniforms. The uniforms were so popular among fans that the Steelers ' organization decided to keep them and use them as a third option during home games only.
In 2012, the Steelers introduced a new third uniform, consisting of a yellow jersey with black horizontal lines (making a bumble bee like pattern) with black lettering and black numbers placed inside a white box, to represent the jerseys worn by the Steelers in their 1934 season. The rest of the uniform consists of beige pants, yellow with black horizontal stripped socks, and the Steelers regular black helmet. The uniforms were used for the Steelers ' 80th anniversary season. Much like the previous alternate these jerseys were so popular that they were used up through the 2016 season. The jerseys were nicknamed the "bumblebee jerseys '' due to looking like the pattern of a bumble bee. The jerseys were retired after the 2016 season.
In 2008 -- 2009, the Steelers became the first team in NFL history to defeat an opponent three times in a single season using three different uniforms. They defeated the Baltimore Ravens in Pittsburgh in Week 4 in their third jerseys, again Week 15 in Baltimore in their road whites, and a final time in the AFC Championship in Pittsburgh in their home black jerseys.
In 1979, the team owners were approached by then - Iowa Hawkeyes Head Coach Hayden Fry about designing his fading college team 's uniforms in the image of the Steelers. Three days later, the owners sent Fry the reproduction jerseys (home and away versions) of then quarterback Terry Bradshaw. Today, the Hawkeyes still retain the 1979 Steelers uniforms as their home, and away colors.
The Pittsburgh Steelers have three primary rivals, all within their division: (Cleveland Browns, Baltimore Ravens, and Cincinnati Bengals). They also have rivalries with other teams that arose from post-season battles in the past, most notably the New England Patriots, Oakland Raiders, Tennessee Titans and Dallas Cowboys. They also have an intrastate rivalry with the Philadelphia Eagles, but under the current scheduling the teams play each other only once every four years.
Prior to the 2007 season, the Steelers introduced Steely McBeam as their official mascot. As part of the 75th anniversary celebrations of the team, his name was selected from a pool of 70,000 suggestions submitted by fans of the team. Diane Roles of Middlesex Township, Butler County, Pennsylvania submitted the winning name which was "meant to represent steel for Pittsburgh 's industrial heritage, "Mc '' for the Rooney family 's Irish roots, and Beam for the steel beams produced in Pittsburgh, as well as for Jim Beam, her husband 's favorite alcoholic beverage. '' Steely McBeam is visible at all home games and participates in the team 's charitable programs and other club - sponsored events. Steely 's autograph is known to be drawn with an oversized ' S ' and the "L '' is drawn to look like a beam of steel.
The Steelers have a tradition of having a large fanbase, which has spread from Pittsburgh. In August 2008, ESPN.com ranked the Steelers ' fans as the best in the NFL, citing their "unbelievable '' sellout streak of 299 consecutive games. The team gained a large fan base nationally based on its success in the 1970s, but many consider the collapse of the city 's steel industry at the end of the 1970s dynasty into the 1980s (and the resulting diaspora) to be a large catalyst for the size of the fan base in other cities. The Steelers have sold out every home game since the 1972 season.
The Pittsburgh Steelers have numerous unofficial fan clubs in many cities throughout the country, that typically meet in bars or taverns on game days. This phenomenon is known to occur for other NFL teams as well, but "Steeler bars '' are more visible than most, including representative establishments even in cities that field their own NFL teams.
The Terrible Towel has been described by the Associated Press as "arguably the best - known fan symbol of any major pro sports team ''. Conceived of by broadcaster Myron Cope in 1975, the towel 's rights have since been given to the Allegheny Valley School in Coraopolis, Pennsylvania, which cares for over 900 people with intellectual disability and physical disabilities, including Cope 's autistic son. Since 1996, proceeds from the Terrible Towel have helped raise more than $2.5 million for the school.
The Steelers have no official fight song, but many fan versions of Here we go Steelers and the Steelers Polka (the latter a parody of Pennsylvania Polka) by ethnic singer Jimmy Pol, both originating in the 1970s, have been recorded. Since 1994, the song Here We Go by local singer Roger Wood has been popular among fans. During Steelers games, Styx 's Renegade is often used to rally the crowd.
During the offseason, the Steelers have long participated in charity basketball games throughout Western Pennsylvania and neighboring areas. The games usually feature six active players as well as their player - coach playing against a group of local civic leaders. The players, whose participants are n't announced until the day the game, sign free autographs for fans during halftime.
In 2001, the Steelers moved into Heinz Field. The franchise dating back to 1933 has had several homes. For thirty - one seasons, the Steelers shared Forbes Field with the Pittsburgh Pirates from 1933 to 1963. In 1958, though they started splitting their home games at Pitt Stadium three blocks away at the University of Pittsburgh. From 1964 to 1969, the Steelers played exclusively at the on campus facility before moving with the Pirates to Three Rivers Stadium on the city 's Northside. Three Rivers is remembered fondly by the Steeler Nation as where Chuck Noll and Dan Rooney turned the franchise into a powerhouse, winning four Super Bowls in just six seasons and making the playoffs 11 times in 13 seasons from 1972 to 1984, the AFC title game seven times. Since 2001 however a new generation of Steeler greats has made Heinz Field legendary with multiple AFC Championship Games being hosted and two Super Bowl championships.
The Steelers hold training camp east of the city at Saint Vincent College in Latrobe, Pennsylvania. The site is one of the most storied in the league with Peter King of SI.com describing it as: "... I love the place. It 's the perfect training - camp setting, looking out over the rolling hills of the Laurel Highlands in west - central Pennsylvania, an hour east of Pittsburgh. On a misty or foggy morning, standing atop the hill at the college, you feel like you 're in Scotland. Classic, wonderful slice of Americana. If you can visit one training camp, this is the one to see.
The team has its headquarters and practice facilities at the state - of - the - art University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Sportsplex on Pittsburgh 's Southside. Constructed in 2000, the facility combines the vast expertise of sports medical professionals and researchers as well as hosting the University of Pittsburgh Panthers football team.
The Rooney family has long had a close relationship with Duquesne University in the city and from the teams founding in the 1930s to the late 1990s used Art Rooney Field and other facilities on campus as either its primary or secondary in - season training site as well as Greenlee Field during the 1930s.
In the 1970s and 1980s, the team had season scrimmages at South Park in the suburban south hills of Pittsburgh. During various seasons including the strike season of 1987, the Steelers used Point Stadium in nearby Johnstown, Pennsylvania for game week practices. During the 1950s St. Bonaventure University and suburban Ligonier also served as a pre-season training camp sites.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated April 9, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 72 Active, 0 Inactive
The Steelers retired Stautner 's # 70 in 1964 before creating a 50 - year tradition of not retiring numbers. The team retired Greene 's # 75 in 2014 and left the possibility open that they would retire other players ' jersey numbers at later dates. Other numbers are no longer issued since the retirement of the players who wore them, including:
The Steelers boast the third most "primary '' inductees into the Pro Football Hall of Fame, i.e. inductees that spent most or all of their NFL careers in Pittsburgh. They also can claim the most honorees of any franchise founded on or after 1933 and the only franchise with three members of ownership in the Hall.
The following Steelers players have been named to the Pro Bowl:
The following Steelers were named to NFL All - Decade Teams (and 75th Anniversary All - Time Team selected in 1994). Only those who spent time with Pittsburgh during the respective decades are listed.
NFL 1930s All - Decade Team Johnny "Blood '' McNally, HB (1934, 1937 -- 38)
NFL 1940s All - Decade Team Bill Dudley, HB (1942, 1945 -- 46) Bucko Kilroy, T (1943) Vic Sears, T (1943) Al Wistert, T (1943)
NFL 1950s All - Decade Team Bobby Layne, QB (1958 -- 62) Ernie Stautner, DT (1950 -- 63) Jack Butler, DB (1951 -- 59)
NFL 1960s All - Decade Team No players selected
NFL 1970s All - Decade Team Terry Bradshaw, QB (1970 -- 83) Franco Harris, RB (1972 -- 83) Lynn Swann, WR (1974 -- 82) Mike Webster, C (1974 -- 88) L.C. Greenwood, DE (1969 -- 81) Joe Greene, DT (1969 -- 81) Jack Lambert, MLB (1974 -- 84) Jack Ham, OLB (1971 -- 82) Chuck Noll, Coach (1969 -- 91)
NFL 1980s All - Decade Team Mike Webster, C (1974 -- 88) Jack Lambert, MLB (1974 -- 84) Mel Blount, CB (1970 -- 83) Gary Anderson, K (1982 -- 94) Chuck Noll, Coach (1969 -- 91)
NFL 1990s All - Decade Team Dermontti Dawson, C (1988 -- 2000) Kevin Greene, LB (1993 -- 95) Hardy Nickerson, LB (1987 -- 92) Levon Kirkland, LB (1992 -- 2000) Rod Woodson, CB (1987 -- 96) Carnell Lake, S (1989 -- 98) Gary Anderson, K (1982 -- 94)
NFL 75th Anniversary All - Time Team Johnny Unitas, QB (1955) Marion Motley, FB (1955) Mike Webster, C (1974 -- 88) Joe Greene, DT (1969 -- 81) Jack Lambert, LB (1974 -- 84) Jack Ham, LB (1971 -- 82) Mel Blount, CB (1970 -- 83) Rod Woodson, CB (1987 -- 96)
NFL 2000s All - Decade Team Alan Faneca, G (1998 -- 2007) Joey Porter, LB (1999 -- 2006) Troy Polamalu, S (2003 -- 14)
In 2007, in celebration of the franchise 's 75th season, the team announced an updated All - Time team of the 33 best players who have ever played for the Steelers. This team supplanted the previous All - Time team of 24 players named as part of the 50th anniversary commemoration in 1982.
A "Legends team '' consisting of the club 's best pre-1970s players was released concurrently with the latest All - Time team.
The regional Dapper Dan Charities has since 1939 named the "Sportsman of the Year '' in the Pittsburgh region. 18 Steelers have won the award in 22 events:
The Pittsburgh Steelers Hall of Honor was established on August 1, 2017. There have been 27 inductees.
The Steelers have had 16 coaches through their history. They have cycled through the least amount of head coaches in the modern NFL history. Their first coach was Forrest Douds, who coached them to a 3 -- 6 -- 2 record in 1933. Chuck Noll had the longest term as head coach with the Steelers; he is one of only four coaches to coach a single NFL team for 23 years. Hired prior to the 2007 season, the Steelers current coach is Mike Tomlin.
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
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As of 2006, the Steelers ' flagship radio stations were WDVE 102.5 FM and WBGG 970 AM. Both stations are owned by iHeartMedia. Games are also available on 51 radio stations in Pennsylvania, Western Maryland, Ohio, and Northern West Virginia. The announcers are Bill Hillgrove and Tunch Ilkin. Craig Wolfley is the sideline reporter. Myron Cope, the longtime color analyst and inventor of the "Terrible Towel '', retired after the 2004 season, and died in 2008.
Pre-season games not shown on one of the national broadcasters are seen on CBS O&O KDKA - TV, channel 2; sister CW O&O WPCW, channel 19; and AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh. KDKA - TV 's Bob Pompeani and former Steelers quarterback Charlie Batch do the announcing for the pre-season games, as well as the two hosting the pre-game program Steelers Kickoff during the regular season prior to the national airing of The NFL Today. Pompeani and former Steelers lineman Chris Hoke also host the Xfinity Xtra Point following the game on days when CBS does not have that week 's NFL doubleheader. When CBS has a week 's doubleheader, the show airs on WPCW. Coach Mike Tomlin 's weekly press conference is shown live on AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh. Both Batch and Hoke replaced former Steelers lineman Edmund Nelson, who retired from broadcasting in 2015.
Thursday Night Football broadcasts are shown locally on KDKA, while national ESPN broadcasts are shown locally on WTAE - TV, channel 4. (WTAE - TV is owned by the Hearst Corporation, which owns a 20 % stake in ESPN.) By virtue of being members of the AFC, most of the Steelers ' games air on CBS except for home games against NFC opponents, which air locally on WPGH - TV, which is a Fox affiliate. NBC Sunday Night Football games are carried by WPXI, channel 11, in the market.
The Steelers hold a national contract with Grupo Imagen for radio rights to their games in Mexico; Imagen broadcasts the Steelers on their stations in 17 Mexican cities.
The Steelers franchise has a rich history of producing well - known sportscasters over the years. The most famous of these is probably Myron Cope, who served as a Steelers radio color commentator for 35 seasons (1970 -- 2004).
Several former Steelers players have gone on to careers in media after completing their playing careers.
The Steelers Digest is the only official newspaper for the Pittsburgh Steelers. It has been published for 22 years and is currently published by Dolphin / Curtis Publishing in Miami, Florida, which also handles several other publications. The newspaper is very widely acknowledged by Steelers fans. Issues are mailed out to paying subscribers weekly through the season after every regular season game and continues through playoffs as long as the Steelers do. After a Super Bowl victory, a bonus issue is published, which is followed by a draft preview, draft recap, and training camp edition every other month, then leading into the pre-season. There are typically 24 issues of the paper within a publishing year. The newspaper is listed on the official Steelers.com page.
The Steelers success over several decades has permeated film and literature. The Steelers are portrayed in the following big - budget Hollywood films:
The protagonist of John Grisham 's novel "The Associate '' is a staunch Steelers fan.
The Steelers helped launch the Chuck Noll Foundation for Brain Injury Research in November 2016 by donating $1 million. The Foundation, started by Steelers president Art Rooney II, focuses on education and research regarding brain injuries and sports - related concussions.
In June 2017, the Steelers announced an inaugural charity walk to raise money for the foundation.
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what do the electron dot structures of elements in the same group have in common | Lewis structure - wikipedia
Lewis structures, also known as Lewis dot diagrams, Lewis dot formulas, Lewis dot structures, electron dot structures, or Lewis electron dot structures (LEDS), are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons that may exist in the molecule. A Lewis structure can be drawn for any covalently bonded molecule, as well as coordination compounds. The Lewis structure was named after Gilbert N. Lewis, who introduced it in his 1916 article The Atom and the Molecule. Lewis structures extend the concept of the electron dot diagram by adding lines between atoms to represent shared pairs in a chemical bond.
Lewis structures show each atom and its position in the structure of the molecule using its chemical symbol. Lines are drawn between atoms that are bonded to one another (pairs of dots can be used instead of lines). Excess electrons that form lone pairs are represented as pairs of dots, and are placed next to the atoms.
Although main group elements of the second period and beyond usually react by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons until they have achieved a valence shell electron configuration with a full octet of (8) electrons, other elements obey different rules. Hydrogen (H) can only form bonds which share just two electrons, while transition metals often conform to a duodectet (12) rule (e.g., compounds such as the permanganate ion).
The total number of electrons represented in a Lewis structure is equal to the sum of the numbers of valence electrons on each individual atom. Non-valence electrons are not represented in Lewis structures.
Once the total number of available electrons has been determined, electrons must be placed into the structure. They should be placed initially as lone pairs: one pair of dots for each pair of electrons available. Lone pairs should initially be placed on outer atoms (other than hydrogen) until each outer atom has eight electrons in bonding pairs and lone pairs; extra lone pairs may then be placed on the central atom. When in doubt, lone pairs should be placed on more electronegative atoms first.
Once all lone pairs are placed, atoms, (especially the central atoms,) may not have an octet of electrons. In this case, the atoms must form a double bond; a lone pair of electrons is moved to form a second bond between the two atoms. As the bonding pair is shared between the two atoms, the atom that originally had the lone pair still has an octet; the other atom now has two more electrons in its valence shell.
Lewis structures for polyatomic ions may be drawn by the same method. When counting electrons, negative ions should have extra electrons placed in their Lewis structures; positive ions should have fewer electrons than an uncharged molecule.
When the Lewis structure of an ion is written, the entire structure is placed in brackets, and the charge is written as a superscript on the upper right, outside the brackets.
A simpler method has been proposed for constructing Lewis structures, eliminating the need for electron counting: the atoms are drawn showing the valence electrons; bonds are then formed by pairing up valence electrons of the atoms involved in the bond - making process, and anions and cations are formed by adding or removing electrons to / from the appropriate atoms.
A trick is to count up valence electrons, then count up the number of electrons needed to complete the octet rule (or with hydrogen just 2 electrons), then take the difference of these two numbers and the answer is the number of electrons that make up the bonds. The rest of the electrons just go to fill all the other atoms ' octets.
Another simple and general procedure to write Lewis structures and resonance forms has been proposed.
In terms of Lewis structures, formal charge is used in the description, comparison, and assessment of likely topological and resonance structures by determining the apparent electronic charge of each atom within, based upon its electron dot structure, assuming exclusive covalency or non-polar bonding. It has uses in determining possible electron re-configuration when referring to reaction mechanisms, and often results in the same sign as the partial charge of the atom, with exceptions. In general, the formal charge of an atom can be calculated using the following formula, assuming non-standard definitions for the markup used:
where:
The formal charge of an atom is computed as the difference between the number of valence electrons that a neutral atom would have and the number of electrons that belong to it in the Lewis structure. Electrons in covalent bonds are split equally between the atoms involved in the bond. The total of the formal charges on an ion should be equal to the charge on the ion, and the total of the formal charges on a neutral molecule should be equal to zero.
For some molecules and ions, it is difficult to determine which lone pairs should be moved to form double or triple bonds, and two or more different resonance structures may be written for the same molecule or ion. In such cases it is usual to write all of them with two - way arrows in between (see Example below). This is sometimes the case when multiple atoms of the same type surround the central atom, and is especially common for polyatomic ions.
When this situation occurs, the molecule 's Lewis structure is said to be a resonance structure, and the molecule exists as a resonance hybrid. Each of the different possibilities is superimposed on the others, and the molecule is considered to have a Lewis structure equivalent to some combination of these states.
The nitrate ion (NO), for instance, must form a double bond between nitrogen and one of the oxygens to satisfy the octet rule for nitrogen. However, because the molecule is symmetrical, it does not matter which of the oxygens forms the double bond. In this case, there are three possible resonance structures. Expressing resonance when drawing Lewis structures may be done either by drawing each of the possible resonance forms and placing double - headed arrows between them or by using dashed lines to represent the partial bonds (although the latter is a good representation of the resonance hybrid which is not, formally speaking, a Lewis structure).
When comparing resonance structures for the same molecule, usually those with the fewest formal charges contribute more to the overall resonance hybrid. When formal charges are necessary, resonance structures that have negative charges on the more electronegative elements and positive charges on the less electronegative elements are favored.
Single bonds can also be moved in the same way to create resonance structures for hypervalent molecules such as sulfur hexafluoride, which is the correct description according to quantum chemical calculations instead of the common expanded octet model.
The resonance structure should not be interpreted to indicate that the molecule switches between forms, but that the molecule acts as the average of multiple forms.
The formula of the nitrite ion is NO − 2.
Chemical structures may be written in more compact forms, particularly when showing organic molecules. In condensed structural formulas, many or even all of the covalent bonds may be left out, with subscripts indicating the number of identical groups attached to a particular atom. Another shorthand structural diagram is the skeletal formula (also known as a bond - line formula or carbon skeleton diagram). In a skeletal formula, carbon atoms are not signified by the symbol C but by the vertices of the lines. Hydrogen atoms bonded to carbon are not shown -- they can be inferred by counting the number of bonds to a particular carbon atom -- each carbon is assumed to have four bonds in total, so any bonds not shown are, by implication, to hydrogen atoms.
Other diagrams may be more complex than Lewis structures, showing bonds in 3D using various forms such as space - filling diagrams.
Despite their simplicity and development before the theory of chemical bonding was well understood, Lewis structures capture many of the key features of the electronic structure and continue to enjoy widespread use by chemists and chemistry educators. This is especially true in the field of organic chemistry, where the traditional valence - bond model of bonding still dominates, and mechanisms are often understood in terms of curve - arrow notation superimposed upon skeletal formulae used as shorthand Lewis structures. Due to the greater variety of bonding encountered in inorganic and organometallic chemistry, bonding is often described in the language of fully delocalized molecular orbitals, making Lewis structures comparatively less important (although they are still common). Nevertheless, there are simple molecular systems of fundamental importance for which a Lewis description, at least in unmodified form, is inadequate and misleading. Notably, the naive drawing of Lewis structures for molecules known experimentally to contain unpaired electrons (e.g., O, NO, and ClO) leads to incorrect inferences of bond orders and / or magnetic properties. A simple Lewis model also does not account for the phenomenon of aromaticity. For instance, Lewis structures do not offer an explanation for why cyclic C H (benzene) experiences special stabilization beyond normal delocalization effects, while C H (cyclobutadiene) actually experiences a special destabilization.
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what does the song godspeed by dixie chicks mean | Travelin ' soldier - wikipedia
"Travelin ' Soldier '' is a song written and originally recorded by American country music artist Bruce Robison in 1996 and again, in rewritten form, in 1999. It was later recorded by Ty England on his 1999 album, Highways & Dance Halls. The first rendition to be issued as a single was by the Dixie Chicks in December 2002, from their album Home. It became the group 's sixth and final single to reach No. 1 on Billboard "Hot Country Singles & Tracks '' (now "Hot Country Songs ''). A version of the song featuring Natalie Maines of the Dixie Chicks, Bruce Robison and Robison 's wife, Kelly Willis, appears on KGSR 's Broadcasts Vol. 13 album. Aaron Lewis also recorded a cover of the song as a duet with his daughter Zoe on his 2016 album Sinner.
The song is a tale about a shy, lonesome, young American soldier who strikes up a conversation and later a correspondence with a high school girl during the Vietnam War era. Americana details pervade the lyrics as the song details the correspondence as a relationship forms between the two, despite the insurmountable distance. The last letter from the soldier mentions that "it 's gettin kinda rough over here '' and he "wo n't be able to write for a while '' before skipping ahead to a football game at the girl 's high school. After the anthem and Lord 's Prayer, the local Vietnam dead are announced. The soldier 's name is on the list, but only the girl, who is there, recognizes his name, and she mourns for him as stated in the line "One name read and nobody really cared but a pretty little girl with a bow in her hair. ''
Kevin John Coyne, reviewing the song for Country Universe, rated the song No. 17 on his list of the 201 Greatest Singles of the Decade. He stated that "it 's the story between the lines that drives home the tragedy, as both main characters have a palpable sense of loneliness that they finally find relief from in one another just before they are ripped permanently apart. ''
The song was being promoted by the Dixie Chicks when on March 10, 2003, lead singer Natalie Maines told a London, England, audience the band was ashamed that then United States President George W. Bush was from Texas. Subsequent U.S. publication of Maines 's comments caused some stations, including 42 owned by Cumulus Media, to drop the song from their playlists, causing it to fall from No. 1 on the country singles chart to No. 3 the following week, March 29, before disappearing from the charts entirely.
"Travelin ' Soldier '' is the last single released by the Dixie Chicks to reach the top 20 on the country singles chart, although their 2007 single "Not Ready to Make Nice '', peaked at No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 while reaching No. 36 on the country chart.
The song debuted at No. 58 on Hot Country Songs on February 16, 2002, based on a live recording from the Country Music Association telecast in the previous November, eventually peaking at No. 57. It was not officially released as a single until late 2002, peaking at No. 1 on the same chart in early 2003.
Sheryl Crow released a cover in 2003, shortly after the Dixie Chicks ' version fell from No. 1.
Aaron Lewis covered the song with his daughter Zoe Jane as the final track on his 2016 album Sinner
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when was the last time the broncos played on thanksgiving | NFL on Thanksgiving Day - wikipedia
The National Football League (NFL) on Thanksgiving Day is a traditional series of games played during the Thanksgiving holiday in the United States. It has been a regular occurrence since the league 's inception in 1920. Currently, three NFL games are played every Thanksgiving. The first two are hosted by the Detroit Lions and the Dallas Cowboys; a third game, with no fixed opponents, has been played annually since 2006.
The concept of American football games being played on Thanksgiving Day dates back to 1876, shortly after the game had been invented, as it was a day that most people had off from work. In that year, the college football teams at Yale and Princeton began an annual tradition of playing each other on Thanksgiving Day. The University of Michigan also made it a tradition to play annual Thanksgiving games, holding 19 such games from 1885 to 1905. The Thanksgiving Day games between Michigan and the Chicago Maroons in the 1890s have been cited as "The Beginning of Thanksgiving Day Football. '' In some areas, high - school teams play on Thanksgiving, usually to wrap - up the regular - season.
By the time football had become a professional event, playing on Thanksgiving had already become an institution. Records of pro football being played on Thanksgiving date back to as early as the 1890s, with the first pro -- am team, the Allegheny Athletic Association of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1902, the "National '' Football League, a Major League Baseball - backed organization based entirely in Pennsylvania and unrelated to the current NFL, attempted to settle its championship over Thanksgiving weekend; after the game ended in a tie, eventually all three teams in the league claimed to have won the title. Members of the Ohio League, during its early years, usually placed their marquee matchups on Thanksgiving Day. For instance, in 1905 and 1906 the Latrobe Athletic Association and Canton Bulldogs, considered at the time to be two of the best teams in professional football (along with the Massillon Tigers), played on Thanksgiving. A rigging scandal with the Tigers leading up to the 1906 game led to severe drops in attendance for the Bulldogs and ultimately led to their suspension of operations. During the 1910s, the Ohio League stopped holding Thanksgiving games because many of its players coached high school teams and were unavailable. This was not the case in other regional circuits: in 1919, the New York Pro Football League featured a Thanksgiving matchup between the Buffalo Prospects and the Rochester Jeffersons. The game ended in a scoreless tie, leading to a rematch the next Sunday for the league championship.
Several other NFL teams played regularly on Thanksgiving in the first eighteen years of the league, including the Chicago Bears and Chicago Cardinals (1922 -- 33; the Bears played the Lions from 1934 to 1938 while the Cardinals switched to the Green Bay Packers for 1934 and 1935), Frankford Yellow Jackets, Pottsville Maroons, Buffalo All - Americans, Canton Bulldogs (even after the team moved to Cleveland they played the 1924 Thanksgiving game in Canton), and the New York Giants (1929 -- 38, who always played a crosstown rival). The first owner of the Lions, George A. Richards, started the tradition of the Thanksgiving Day game as a gimmick to get people to go to Lions football games, and to continue a tradition begun by the city 's previous NFL teams. What differentiated the Lions ' efforts from other teams that played on the holiday was that Richards owned radio station WJR, a major affiliate of the NBC Blue Network; he was able to negotiate an agreement with NBC to carry his Thanksgiving games live across the network.
During the Franksgiving controversy in 1939 and 1940, the only two teams to play the game were the Pittsburgh Steelers and Philadelphia Eagles, as both teams were in the same state (Pennsylvania). (At the time, then - president Franklin Roosevelt wanted to move the holiday for economic reasons and many states were resistant to the move; half the states recognized the move and the other half did not. This complicated scheduling for Thanksgiving games. Incidentally, the two teams were also exploring the possibility of a merger at the time.) Because of the looming World War II and the resulting shorter seasons, the NFL did not schedule any Thanksgiving games in 1941, nor did it schedule any in the subsequent years until the war ended in 1945. When the Thanksgiving games resumed in 1945, only the Lions ' annual home game would remain on the Thanksgiving holiday. In 1951, the Packers began a thirteen - season run as the perpetual opponent to the Lions each year through 1963.
The All - America Football Conference and American Football League, both of which would later be absorbed into the NFL, also held Thanksgiving contests, although neither of those leagues had permanent hosts. Likewise, the AFL of 1926 also played two Thanksgiving games in its lone season of existence, while the AFL of 1936 hosted one in its first season, which featured the Cleveland Rams, a future NFL team, and the 1940 -- 41 incarnation of the American Football League played two games in 1940 on the earlier "Franksgiving '' date.
In 1966, the Dallas Cowboys, who had been founded six years earlier, adopted the practice of hosting Thanksgiving games. It is widely rumored that the Cowboys sought a guarantee that they would regularly host Thanksgiving games as a condition of their very first one (since games on days other than Sunday were uncommon at the time and thus high attendance was not a certainty). This is only partly true; Dallas had in fact decided to host games on Thanksgiving by their own decision because there was nothing else to do or watch on that day. In 1975 and 1977, at the behest of then - Commissioner Pete Rozelle, the St. Louis Cardinals replaced Dallas as a host team (Dallas then hosted St. Louis in 1976). Although the Cardinals, at the time known as the "Cardiac Cards '' due to their propensity for winning very close games, were a modest success at the time, they were nowhere near as popular nationwide as the Cowboys, who were regular Super Bowl contenders during this era. This, combined with St. Louis 's consistently weak attendance, a series of ugly Cardinals losses in the three - game stretch, and opposition from the Kirkwood -- Webster Groves Turkey Day Game (a local high school football contest) led to Dallas resuming regular hosting duties in 1978; it was then, after Rozelle asked Dallas to resume hosting Thanksgiving games, that the Cowboys requested (and received) an agreement guaranteeing the Cowboys a spot on Thanksgiving Day forever.
Notwithstanding the aforementioned St. Louis - hosted games in 1975 and 1977, the two "traditional '' Thanksgiving Day pro football games since the 1970 AFL -- NFL merger have then been in Detroit and Dallas. Because of TV network commitments in place through the 2013 season, to make sure that both the AFC - carrying network (NBC from the 1970 merger to 1997, and CBS since 1998) and the NFC - carrying network (CBS from the 1970 merger to 1993, and Fox since 1994) got at least one game each, one of these games was between NFC opponents, and one featured AFC - NFC opponents. Thus, the AFC could showcase only one team on Thanksgiving, and the AFC team was always the visiting team.
Since 2006, a third NFL game on Thanksgiving has been played at night. It originally aired on the NFL Network as part of its Thursday Night Football package until 2011; NBC began carrying the night game in 2012. The Thanksgiving night game has no fixed opponents or conferences, enabling the league to freely choose whatever marquee match - up to feature on that night. The 2012 changes also allowed both Dallas and Detroit in the future to offer NFC games (one would be played at night), and CBS can offer a game with two AFC teams. In 2014, the NFL added the cross-flex rule, allowing CBS to televise NFC away games, and Fox to broadcast AFC away games, under select circumstances on Sunday afternoons; however, this did not cover the Thanksgiving contests. CBS also signed a separate contract to carry Thursday Night Football from the 2014 season onward, which allowed that network to carry games from either conference on Thursdays; from that year through 2016, CBS carried all - NFC contests every year on Thanksgiving, and in 2014 and 2015, no AFC teams played in any of the Thanksgiving games.
The NFL 's flexible scheduling rule currently does not apply for Thanksgiving games; however, the NFL in theory could in the future apply the rule to change start times and networks for the three games.
Since 2001 teams playing on Thanksgiving have worn throwback uniforms on numerous occasions. In some years (namely 2002), it extended to nearly all games of the weekend, and in some cases also involved classic field logos at the respective stadiums.
In 2001 -- 2004, and again in 2008, 2010, and 2017 the Detroit Lions have worn throwback uniforms based on their very early years.
From 2001 to 2003, Dallas chose to represent the 1990s Cowboys dynasty by wearing the navy "Double - Star '' jersey not seen since 1995. In 2004, the team wore uniforms not seen since 1963. In 2009, to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the AFL, both Dallas and Oakland played in a "AFL Legacy Game. '' In 2013, the Cowboys intended to wear their 1960s throwbacks, but chose not to do so after the NFL adopted a new policy requiring players and teams to utilize only one helmet a season to address the league 's new concussion protocol; rather than sport an incomplete throwback look, the Cowboys instead wore their standard blue jerseys at home for the first time since 1963. In 2015, the Cowboys resurrected their 1994 white "Double - Star '' jerseys only this time wore them with white pants as part of the league 's "Color Rush '', a trial run of specially - designed, monochromatic jerseys to be worn during Thursday games.
It has remained a tradition for Dallas and Detroit to host the afternoon games dating back several decades. However, in recent years, other teams have expressed interest in hosting Thanksgiving games. Lamar Hunt, the former owner of the Chiefs (who had hosted Thanksgiving games from 1967 -- 69 as an AFL team prior to the merger), lobbied heavily in favor of his team hosting a game on the holiday. When the NFL adopted a third, prime time game, the Chiefs were selected as the first team to host such a contest, but the team was not made a permanent host, and Hunt 's death shortly after the 2006 contest ended the lobbying on behalf of that team.
The host issue came to a head in 2008, focusing particularly on the winless Lions. Going into the game, Detroit had lost their last four Thanksgiving games, and opinions amongst the media had suggested removing Detroit and replacing them with a more attractive matchup. The team also required an extension to prevent a local television blackout. The Lions were routed by Tennessee 47 -- 10, en route to the team 's 0 -- 16 season. NFL commissioner Roger Goodell confirmed that the Lions would stay on Thanksgiving for the 2009 season, but kept the issue open to revisit in the future.
Conversely, the Dallas Cowboys, who typically represent a larger television draw, have had much fewer public calls to be replaced on Thanksgiving. One issue that has been debated is a perceived unfair advantage of playing at home on Thanksgiving. The advantage is given in the form of an extra day of practice for the home team while the road team has to travel to the game site. This is true for most Thursday games, but with the night games, the visitor can travel to the game site after practice and hold the final walk - thru the following morning.
With the introduction of the prime time game, which effectively allows all teams in the league an opportunity to play on Thanksgiving, along with the introduction of year - long Thursday Night Football ensuring all teams have one Thursday game during the regular season (thus negating any on - field advantages or disadvantages to being selected for Thanksgiving), the calls for Detroit and Dallas to be removed have curtailed.
(Winning teams are denoted by boldface type; tie games are italicized.)
Of current NFL franchises. This includes American Football League (AFL) games; however, it does not include All - America Football Conference (AAFC) games.
The last currently active franchise to have never played on Thanksgiving through 2017 is the Jacksonville Jaguars, who joined the league in 1995.
An idiosyncrasy in the NFL 's current scheduling formula, which has been in effect since 2002 and revised in 2010, effectively prevents teams from the AFC North from playing the Lions or Cowboys on Thanksgiving, as the formula has the AFC North playing in Dallas or Detroit in years when the other team is slated to play the AFC game on Thanksgiving. These teams can, under the 2014 television contracts, play only in the third (night) game; should cross-flex be expanded to Thursdays or Fox win the Thursday Night contract in 2018 (either scenario would allow both Fox and CBS to carry AFC games), this idiosyncrasy will be eliminated.
The Los Angeles Rams have the longest active appearance drought of any team, with their last appearance coming in 1975. Among current NFL markets, Cleveland has had the longest wait to have a team from its city play on Thanksgiving; the Browns last appeared in 1989, several years before being suspended in the Cleveland Browns relocation controversy, and have not appeared in the game since rejoining the league as an expansion team.
Since 2010, the league has made efforts to end the longest droughts. New Orleans, Cincinnati, Baltimore, Houston, and Carolina all played their first Thanksgiving games during this time frame. San Francisco likewise played their first Thanksgiving game since 1972 in 2011, and the Los Angeles Chargers, who last played on the holiday in 1969 (while the team was still an AFL franchise in San Diego) before actually joining the league, appeared for the first time as an NFL member in 2017.
* All - America Football Conference team.
Since 1989, informal and sometimes lighthearted Man of the Match awards have been issued by the networks broadcasting the respective games. Running back Emmitt Smith holds the record for most Thanksgiving MVPs with five (1990, 1992, 1994, 1996 and 2002). Voting on the respective awards is typically done informally by the announcing crew themselves, and criteria are loose. Noteworthy statistical accomplishments weigh heavily, and "group '' awards are common. The announcement of the winner (s), and the presentation of the award is normally done immediately following the game, during post-game network coverage.
In 1989, John Madden of CBS awarded the first "Turkey Leg Award '', for the game 's most valuable player. Pursuant to its name, it was an actual cooked turkey leg, and players typically took a celebratory bite out of the leg for the cameras during post-game interviews. Reggie White of the Eagles was the first recipient. The gesture was seen mostly as a humorous gimmick relating to Madden 's famous multi-legged turkey, cooked and delivered by local restaurant owner Joe Pat Fieseler of Harvey 's Barbecue (located less than a mile from Texas Stadium). Since then, however, the award has gained subtle notoriety. Madden brought the award to FOX in 1994, and it continued through 2001.
Because of the loose and informal nature of the award, at times it has been awarded to multiple players. On one occasion in 1994, it was given to players of both teams.
When John Madden left FOX after 2001, the network introduced a new award starting in 2002, named the "Galloping Gobbler. '' It was represented by a small figurine of a silver turkey wearing a football helmet striking a Heisman - like pose. Much like Cleatus and Digger, the original Galloping Gobbler trophy reflected Fox 's irreverent mascots, and went through several iterations. Unimpressed by its tackiness, 2002 winner Emmitt Smith (who holds the record for most Thanksgiving MVP awards and had won the Turkey Leg Award four previous times) famously threw his in a trash can.
In 2007, the kitschy statuette was replaced with a bronze - colored statue of a nondescript turkey holding a football. In 2011, the trophies were discarded altogether and replaced by an attractive plaque. Unlike the aforementioned "Turkey Leg Award '', the "Galloping Gobbler '' is normally awarded to only one player annually, however in 2016, co-winners were honored.
For 2017, the Galloping Gobbler was permanently retired, and replaced with the "Game Ball, '' an stylish, ornate football - shaped trophy, reminiscent of the tradition where game - used balls are typically awarded to players of the game. No one at Fox seemed to notice the first ball awarded has the stripe markings of a college ball.
When the NFL returned to CBS in 1998, they introduced their own award, the "All - Iron Award '', which is, suitably enough, a small silver iron, a reference to Phil Simms ' All - Iron team for toughness. The All - Iron winner also receives a skillet of blackberry cobbler made by Simms ' mother.
Through 2006, the trophy was only awarded to one player annually. Occasionally, it has been issued as a "group award '' in addition to a single player award. In 2008, Simms stated it was "too close to call '' and named four players to the trophy; he then gave the award to several people every year until 2013, after which he reverted to a single MVP in 2014.
Simms was removed from the broadcast booth for the 2017 season and no player of the game was chosen that year.
During the time when NFL Network held the broadcast rights the prime time game, from 2007 to 2011 they gave out the "Pudding Pie Award '' for MVPs. The award was an actual pie. In 2009, NFL Network gave Brandon Marshall a pumpkin pie rather than the chocolate pudding pie of the previous two years.
NBC, which carried Thanksgiving afternoon games through 1997, did not issue an MVP award during that time. NBC began broadcasting the Thanksgiving prime time game in 2012, at which point the MVP award was added. The award is currently called the Sunday Night Football on Thanksgiving Night Player of the Game, and is typically awarded to multiple players on the winning team. From 2012 to 2015, the NBC award was referred to as the "Madden Thanksgiving Player - of - the - Game '', honoring John Madden (who announced NBC games from 2006 to 2008). In the first few years, the award specifically went to players on both offense and defense, but in recent years, defensive players have not necessarily been recognized. The winning players are presented with ceremonial game balls and, as a gesture to Madden, a cooked turkey leg.
DuMont was the first network to televise Thanksgiving games in 1953; CBS took over in 1956, and in 1965, the first ever color television broadcast of an NFL game was the Thanksgiving match between the Lions and the Baltimore Colts.
Starting in 2012, all three broadcast networks with NFL rights will carry one game apiece. The first two games are split between CBS and Fox. These games are rotated annually, with CBS getting the 12: 30 p.m. (EST) "early '' game, and Fox getting the 4: 25 p.m. "late '' game in even - numbered years, while Fox likewise gets the "early '' game and CBS the "late '' game in odd - numbered years. The third game, with a prime time 8: 30 p.m. start, is carried by NBC. The NFL may involve the Flexible Scheduling rule in the future to reassign games if the night game has less importance than the Dallas or Detroit game.
Westwood One holds national radio broadcast rights to all three games, with Compass Media Networks sharing rights to the Cowboys contest. (Under league rules, only radio stations that carry at least 12 Cowboys games in a season are allowed to carry the Compass broadcast.) The participating teams also air the games on their local flagship stations and regional radio networks.
The Cowboys Thanksgiving game has regularly been the most watched NFL regular season telecast each year, with the Lions Thanksgiving game usually in the top five.
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when did the sisters of charity arrived in australia | Sisters of Charity of Australia - wikipedia
The Sisters of Charity of Australia (formally the Religious Sisters of Charity, who use the postnominal initials of R.S.C.) is a congregation of Religious Sisters in the Catholic Church who have served the people of Australia since 1838.
Mother Mary Aikenhead, who had founded the Religious Sisters of Charity in 1815 in Dublin, Ireland, then part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was requested by John Bede Polding, O.S.B., the first Catholic bishop in Australia, to send some Sisters to help the many female convicts who had been transported to Australia as penalty for their crimes. Arriving in New South Wales, then still a colony of the British Empire, on the Francis Spaight on 31 December 1838 the Sisters who had volunteered to go to Australia from Ireland were the first Religious Sisters to set foot on the Australian continent. The Sisters of Charity of Australia have operated independently of the congregation in Ireland since 1842.
The spirituality of the Sisters of Charity derives from the life of St. Vincent de Paul and the vision of Mary Aikenhead, their foundress. In addition to the three vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, the Sisters of Charity take a fourth vow, of service to the poor. For the Sisters of Charity, "Service of the Poor '' denotes not only the alleviation of a present affliction by immediate action, but also includes having a "preferential option for the poor ''.
The ministries of the Sisters of Charity have been quite varied in nature from the beginning of their founding. From ministering in prisons to managing hospitals and acting to conserve environments, they have been quick to move to where they have been most needed, and to where they have been of the greatest service to the poor. One of their most prominent ministries has been the establishment of St Vincent 's Hospital, Sydney in 1857, which they have administered ever since.
In 1957, the Sisters opened Mt Olivet Hospital as a hospice in Brisbane. It now provides a wider range of hospital services and has been renamed St Vincent 's Private Hospital.
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substance which does not have 1 melting point | Racemic mixture - wikipedia
In chemistry, a racemic mixture, or racemate / reɪˈsimeɪt /, is one that has equal amounts of left - and right - handed enantiomers of a chiral molecule. The first known racemic mixture was racemic acid, which Louis Pasteur found to be a mixture of the two enantiomeric isomers of tartaric acid. A sample with only a single enantiomer is an enantiomerically pure, enantiopure or homochiral compound.
From racemic acid found in grapes; from Latin racemus, meaning a bunch of grapes.
A racemic mixture is denoted by the prefix (±) - or dl - (for sugars the prefix dl - may be used), indicating an equal (1: 1) mixture of dextro and levo isomers. Also the prefix rac - (or racem -) or the symbols RS and SR (all in italic letters) are used.
If the ratio is not 1: 1 (or is not known), the prefix (+) / (−), d / l - or d / l - (with a slash) is used instead.
The usage of d and l is strongly discouraged by IUPAC.
A racemate is optically inactive, meaning that there is no net rotation of plane - polarized light. Although the two enantiomers rotate plane - polarized light in opposite directions, the rotations cancel because they are present in equal amounts.
In contrast to the two pure enantiomers, which have identical physical properties except for the direction of rotation of plane - polarized light, a racemate sometimes has different properties from either of the pure enantiomers. Different melting points are most common, but different solubilities and boiling points are also possible.
Pharmaceuticals may be available as a racemate or as the pure enantiomer, which might have different potencies. Because biological systems have many chiral asymmetries, pure enantiomers frequently have very different biological effects; examples include glucose and methamphetamine.
There are four ways in which a racemate can be crystallized, depending on the substance; three of which H.W.B. Roozeboom had distinguished by the year 1899:
The separation of a racemate into its components, the pure enantiomers, is called a chiral resolution. There are various methods, including crystallization, chromatography, and the use of enzymes. The first successful resolution of a racemate was performed by Louis Pasteur, who manually separated the crystals of a conglomerate.
Without a chiral influence (for example a chiral catalyst, solvent or starting material), a chemical reaction that makes a chiral product will always yield a racemate. That can make the synthesis of a racemate cheaper and easier than making the pure enantiomer, because it does not require special conditions. This fact also leads to the question of how biological homochirality evolved on what is presumed to be a racemic primordial earth.
The reagents of, and the reactions that produce, racemic mixtures are said to be "not stereospecific '' or "not stereoselective, '' for their indecision in a particular stereoisomerism. A frequent scenario is that of a planar species (such as an sp carbon atom or a carbocation intermediate) acting as an electrophile. The nucleophile will have a 50 % probability of ' hitting ' either of the two sides of the planar grouping, thus producing a racemic mixture:
Some drug molecules are chiral, and the enantiomers have different effects on biological entities. They can be sold as one enantiomer or as a racemic mixture. Examples include thalidomide, ibuprofen, and salbutamol. Adderall is an unequal mixture of both amphetamine enantiomers. A single amphetamine dose combines the neutral sulfate salts of dextroamphetamine and amphetamine, with the dextro isomer of amphetamine saccharate and D / L - amphetamine aspartate monohydrate. The prescription analgesic tramadol is also a racemate.
In some cases (e.g., ibuprofen and thalidomide), the enantiomers interconvert or racemize in vivo. This means that preparing a pure enantiomer for medication is largely pointless. However, sometimes samples containing pure enantiomers may be made and sold at a higher cost in cases where the use requires specifically one isomer (e.g., for a stereospecific reagent); compare omeprazole and esomeprazole.
While often only one enantiomer of the drug may be active, in cases like salbutamol and thalidomide, the other enantiomer may be harmful. The (R) enantiomer of thalidomide is effective against morning sickness, while the (S) enantiomer is teratogenic, causing birth defects. Since the drug racemizes, the drug can not be considered safe for use by women of child - bearing age, and its use is tightly controlled when used for treating other illness.
Methamphetamine is available by prescription under the brand name Desoxyn. The active component of Desoxyn is dextromethamphetamine hydrochloride. This is the right - handed isomer of methamphetamine. The left - handed isomer of methamphetamine, levomethamphetamine, is an OTC drug that is less centrally - acting and more peripherally - acting.
Wallach 's rule (first proposed by Otto Wallach) states that racemic crystals tend to be more dense than their chiral counterparts. This rule has been substantiated by crystallographic database analysis.
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when does the tv show amazing race start | The Amazing Race (U.S. TV series) - wikipedia
The Amazing Race is an American reality competition show in which typically eleven teams of two race around the world. The race is generally split into twelve legs, with each leg requiring teams to deduce clues, navigate themselves in foreign areas, interact with locals, perform physical and mental challenges, and vie for airplane, boat, taxi, and other public transportation options on a limited budget provided by the show. Teams are progressively eliminated at the end of most legs, while the first team to arrive at the end of the final leg wins the grand prize of US $1 million. As the original version of the Amazing Race franchise, the CBS program has been running since 2001. Numerous international versions have been developed following the same core structure, while the U.S. version is also broadcast to several other markets. The series was renewed for a 30th season, which premiered on January 3, 2018, and aired over eight weeks.
The show was created by Elise Doganieri and Bertram van Munster, who, along with Jonathan Littman, serve as executive producers. The show is produced by Earthview Inc. (headed by Doganieri and van Munster), Jerry Bruckheimer Television for CBS Television Studios and ABC Studios (a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company). The series has been hosted by veteran New Zealand television personality Phil Keoghan since its inception.
Since the inception of the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality - Competition Program in 2003, The Amazing Race has won it ten out of fourteen times; the show has also won other awards and commendations. Although it has moved around several prime time slots since its inception, the program has averaged about 10 million viewers per season.
The Amazing Race is a reality television competition, typically involving eleven teams of two, in a race around the world. The race cycle is divided into a number of legs, normally twelve; each episode generally covers the events of one leg. Each leg ends with a Pit Stop, where teams are given a chance to rest and recover before starting the next leg twelve hours later. The first team to arrive at a Pit Stop is often awarded a prize such as a trip, while the last team is normally eliminated from the race. Some legs are non-elimination legs, where the last team to arrive may be penalized in the following leg. Some races have featured double - length legs, where the teams meet the host at what appears to be a Pit Stop, only to be told to continue to race. The final leg of each race is run by the last three remaining teams, and the first to arrive at the final destination wins the show 's prize, US $ 1 million. The average length of each race is approximately 25 to 30 days.
During each leg, teams follow clues from Route Markers -- boxes containing clue envelopes marked in the race 's red, yellow, and white colors -- to determine their next destination. Travel between destinations includes commercial and chartered airplanes, boats, trains, taxis, buses, and rented vehicles provided by the show, or the teams may simply travel by foot. Teams are required to pay for all expenses while traveling from a small stipend (on the order of $100) given to them at the start of each leg. Any money left unspent can be used in future legs of the race. The only exception is air travel, where teams are given a credit card to purchase economy - class fares. Some teams have used the tactic of begging to replenish lost money.
Clues may directly identify locations, contain cryptic riddles such as "Travel to the westernmost point in continental Europe '' that teams must figure out, or include physical elements, such as a country flag, indicating their next destination. Clues may also describe a number of tasks that teams must complete before continuing to race. As such, teams are generally free and sometimes required to engage locals to help in any manner to decipher clues and complete tasks. Tasks are typically designed to highlight the local culture of the country they are in. Such tasks include:
Teams are penalized for failing to complete these tasks as instructed or other rules of the race, generally thirty minutes plus any time gained for the infraction. Such penalties may be enforced while teams are racing, when they arrive at the Pit Stop, or at the start of the next leg.
The events of the race are generally edited and shown in chronological order, cutting between the actions of each team as they progress. More recent seasons have been edited to show split - screen footage of simultaneous actions or two or more different teams in the style of 24. Footage from the race is interspersed with commentary from the individual teams or members recorded after each leg to give more insight on the events being shown. The show helps to track the progress of racers through a leg by providing frequent on - screen information identifying teams and their placement.
The original idea for The Amazing Race came from Elise Doganieri and Bertram van Munster. The two had previously met when van Munster was producing programs such as COPS, and they continued to work together and eventually married. Around 2000, van Munster was wrapping up production of his nature documentary series Wild Things, and was looking for another concept. Doganieri, an advertising executive at that point, had come back from that year 's MIPCOM, and complained about the lack of good ideas from people working in television. van Munster jokingly bet her on the spot to come up with an idea herself. Dogenieri recalled her previous experience backpacking across Europe and meeting and interacting with the various local residents, and offered the idea of several teams of players racing across the world interspersed with local challenges that would test the team 's resolve and relationships, and which teams would be eliminated along the way but not due to someone else doing something against that team. van Munster was intrigued with the idea, and had already had experience with reality television with COPS, considered to be the predecessor of reality television during the 1990s. The two approached Jerry Bruckheimer and Jonathan Littman with the idea, and the four refined it into the concept of The Amazing Race. van Munster pitched the idea to Les Moonves of CBS shortly thereafter, who greenlit the show by June 2000. Initial scouting for locations for the first season started in August 2000, and filming took place between March and April 2001.
Prior to the race, the production team plans out the locations and tasks that the racers will travel, working in conjunction with local representatives, which van Munster had initially had available for a different show. The staff also consults with ex-military or federal agents that are aware of political matters in foreign areas, who may advise on countries or regions to avoid. Van Munster and others will then travel the proposed course to verify the locations and identify needs for filming for the show. The crew works with local government representatives to assure the safety of the racers while traveling through certain areas of the world. Despite pre-planning, the production crew may be faced with obstacles forcing them to change tasks or even locations. In one situation during planning of the second race, the Argentine bank system failed, creating political unrest, and a new country was selected. Similarly, after the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 and the sexual assault of American reporter Lara Logan, the production staff considers Egypt to be "off the map right now. '' It is estimated by van Munster that over 2,000 people worldwide are involved in the production of any one season of the race.
Tasks are generally selected to represent the local flavor of the country or region they are in. They typically look for activities that are not often considered something a tourist would do but part of the way of life in a country, as this would generally be a new experience for all the racers. Production relies on their own experiences as well to develop tasks; Van Munster noted that a task in season 21 involving synchronized swimming was based on his own struggles as a teenager to learn how to do a similar routine, thus assuring that if he could do it, racers could do it as well.
A Race 's route has to be approved by CBS before production can start on their scouting. The specific tasks, clues, and other Race elements like the sequence of non-elimination legs, are all set about a month before filming. The production can allow for some flexibility to minimize the difficulties of production. In the first season, one pit stop was located and extended to 72 hours instead of the normal 12 due to a sandstorm. Also in that season, two of the four final teams ended up 24 hours behind the lead teams due to flight and hours - of - operation limitations, creating a production nightmare. In later seasons, production has improvised extended pit stops by a day or so to prevent teams from becoming too spread out. In one season, Keoghan was detained by officials in Ukraine, and the local American ambassador, a fan of the show, helped to free him.
The producers review previous seasons and make changes to new seasons as to keep the show fresh and unexpected; Littman stated that with as many season now filmed of the Race, many racers come to know what to expect and as producers, they need a way to shake things up, as "whenever you throw a wrench into (the Race), it completely throws them off ''. For example, while teams at Pit Stops during the first several seasons were allowed to mingle, the producers have since purposely kept teams apart during this time, as it serves to both keep teams unaware of the finishing order and the fate of an eliminated team, and prevents alliances from forming to keep the teams competitive. They also looked to change the format of the team structure, but found that their first such experiment with the season 8 "Family Edition '' was poorly received by American audiences though had a strong reception from overseas broadcasts of that series.
Though The Amazing Race involves significant amounts of travel across the world for around a hundred people, Doganieri estimates that their production costs are in line if not less than other reality television shows, in part that most of the production staff have been with the show for a long period and work efficiently to help move the competition. The cost of the show has been subsidized by its sponsors, who provide trips and other prizes to teams that arrive first on certain legs, or have their products featured as a task. For example, more recent seasons have been sponsored by Travelocity, and typically one leg per season will involve a task that includes the Travelocity "Roaming Gnome ''; trip prizes for first - place finishes on many legs are funded by Travelocity and the local hotel at the trip destination. Ford Motor Company is also a major sponsor in later seasons of the show, and typically teams will be given Ford vehicles to drive for various legs and as prizes for finishing first on a leg. In another example, a tea - themed leg in the 18th season was sponsored by Snapple who had developed a new limited edition flavor for the show. The Amazing Race has been considered to be a show that incorporates a large number of product placements as tracked by ACNeilsen, often being one of the top shows for product placement each year.
The Amazing Race is hosted by New Zealander Phil Keoghan. Keoghan initiates the start of the race, introduces each new area and describes each task for the viewers, and meets each team at the Pit Stops along with a local greeter informing the teams of their placement or their elimination followed by a short interview, as well as announcing the winners at the finish line. Keoghan was a television host in New Zealand prior to The Amazing Race, and had traveled the world and performed adventurous feats for these shows. His background led him to apply for the hosting duties of Survivor. Though Keoghan was on the shortlist, the producers of Survivor chose Jeff Probst, while Keoghan was found to be a better fit for The Amazing Race. Keoghan 's performance as a host has been highlighted by his ability to arch his eyebrows to the arriving teams to increase suspense before revealing their position, and racers and fans of the show often refer to the progressive elimination of teams as "Philimination ''. Keoghan signed an extended contract with CBS to continue hosting The Amazing Race for "several years '', according to TV Guide, shortly after the conclusion of The Amazing Race 18. The contract will also allow Keoghan to develop ideas into shows for the network.
Prior to each race, CBS and World Race Productions hold casting auditions around the country and accept submissions through postal mail. More recent seasons have included recruited contestants. According to casting director Lynne Spillman, they look to cast a diverse array of teams to appeal to a wide range of audience members. Spillman notes they put more value on contestants that are "great talkers '' as well as racers, and see those that have deep knowledge of the Race as a plus over other factors like looks and strength. The casting process takes about four months to complete. All teams are compensated for the time missed from their jobs, though the amount is undisclosed and confidential; one racer claimed that most people would lose money from the Race stipend compared to their typical salaries.
Each member of the two - person teams is required to be adult American citizen with an existing relationship with their teammate; according to Keoghan, in contrast to other reality television shows that pit individuals against each other, "it 's more interesting to see how an experience like (the Race) affects an existing relationship ''. Teams are primarily married and dating couples (regardless of sexual orientation), near and distant relatives, co-workers, and friends. Most teams that participate are average Americans, but The Amazing Race has included teams or team members with some celebrity status. This has included contestants from other reality TV shows, including Alison Irwin, Jordan Lloyd, Jeff Schroeder, Rachel Reilly, Brendon Villegas, Cody Nickson and Jessica Graf from Big Brother; Rob Mariano, Amber Mariano (née Brkich), Ethan Zohn, Jenna Morasca, Keith Tollefson, and Whitney Duncan from Survivor; and The Fabulous Beekman Boys stars Josh Kilmer - Purcell and Brent Ridge. Several professional athletes have also participated, including the Harlem Globetrotters Herbert "Flight Time '' Lang and Nathaniel "Big Easy '' Lofton; former NFL players Ken Greene, Marcus Pollard, Chester Pitts, and Ephraim Salaam; professional bull and bronco rider Cord McCoy; professional snowboarders Andy Finch and Amy Purdy; Ironman Triathlon competitor Sarah Reinertsen; Major League Soccer goalkeeper Andrew Weber; professional hockey players Bates Battaglia and Anthony Battaglia; professional surfer and survivor of a shark attack Bethany Hamilton, former NBA All - Star Shawn Marion and Cedric Ceballos, IndyCar racers Alexander Rossi and Conor Daly, and professional skiers & X-Games champions Kristi Leskinen and Jen Hudak. Numerous beauty pageant participants and winners have raced on the show, including Nicole O'Brian, Christie Lee Woods, Dustin - Leigh Konzelman, Kandice Pelletier, Ericka Dunlap, Caitlin Upton, Mallory Ervin, Stephanie Murray Smith, Brook Roberts, and Amy Diaz. Other celebrities include father and son screenwriters and actors Mike and Mel White, professional poker players Maria Ho and Tiffany Michelle, former prisoner of war from the Iraq war Ron Young, professional sailor Zac Sunderland, YouTube stars Kevin "KevJumba '' Wu and Joey Graceffa. The show 's 28th season was primarily made up of social media celebrities and their partners, friends, or relatives as a means to capture a younger audience demographic. The show 's 29th season featured 22 strangers who met for the first time at the starting line. Three special seasons of the Race have featured returning teams or racers.
Racers have found fame in part due to their appearance on The Amazing Race. Chip Arndt, who had raced with his civil partner Reichen Lehmkuhl, has become an activist for lesbian and gay community. Blake Mycoskie, based on his experiences traveling to Argentina during the race, later founded TOMS Shoes with the concept to donate one pair of shoes to poor children in countries like Argentina for each one sold. Dating goth couple Kent "Kynt '' Kaliber and Vyxsin Fiala have become models for the Hot Topic chain of punk / rock culture clothing stores after their appearance on the show. Cord McCoy and his brother and Race partner Jet are using their experience from both their cattle ranching and from the Race as well as their celebrity status from their appearance to run for separate positions in the 2017 Oklahoma legislature.
Through the 17th season of the Race, the show used standard - definition television cameras despite the move of most other primetime shows, including reality television shows like Survivor, to high - definition television (HD) cameras prior to 2010. World Race Production has cited the cost and fragility of HD equipment as a barrier to its use for the Race. While other scripted or reality shows that film in one location have the ability to replace equipment quickly from a nearby facility, the mobile nature of the Race made the prospect of using HD difficult. The 18th season of the Race, filmed in late 2010, was the first to be filmed in HD. The production team uses Sony XDCAMs, allowing the filming to be transferred directly to digital format and couriered to the editors.
Prior to the filming of the race, selected teams are given a list of countries - including additional countries that are not planned for the race - for which they will need to apply for visas. Teams prepare backpacks for clothing, hygiene, and other personal items; the racers are given a list of items that are forbidden from taking. Electronics like laptops, cell phones, and GPS devices are banned from the race, and racers are asked to avoid clothing with brand logos. Travelers can not bring maps ahead of time, although they can buy maps during the competition if they choose. A few days before the race, teams are sequestered at a hotel for a final review of the rules, before they are finally taken to the race starting line. Several takes of the start of the Race are recorded for production of the show and to go over any final rules clarifications with the racers, before the Race is officially started.
Once the Race starts, each team is accompanied by a two - person audio / video crew that films the team. Unless otherwise indicated, the crew must be able to accompany the team through all travels; for example, teams must be able to acquire four tickets on a single flight or otherwise can not take that flight. Four tickets are usually purchased off - camera using a credit card supplied by World Race Productions. The crews rotate between teams at Pit Stops to avoid any possible favoritism that may develop between a team and its crew, and to avoid giving the appearance of collusion. At pit stops, a team of captains that accurately record arrival times, amounts of money teams have remaining, and other factors to make sure that racers have properly completed each leg, assuring that the Race is run in a fair manner. The production team will remind players about critical local rules and laws they must follow to avoid any legal conflicts, but otherwise try to avoid giving too many instructions to players; Littman stated they chose not to interfere too much as "that 's when you get the best material. They 're wild cards. '' van Munster stated: "... when Phil yells ' Go, ' it 's ' Action ' until three weeks later when we say ' Cut. ' ''
The production crew, including Keoghan, Doganieri, and van Munster, all typically travel to the next destination of the race ahead of the teams. In planning the race, the production team develops what Doganieri calls a Fast / Slow document, outlining what they believe is the fastest and slowest times that a team may take to complete all tasks on a leg based on test runs, from which they use to plan their travel ahead of the teams. According to Doganieri, this Fast / Slow document has been about 98 % accurate through all seasons through 2014. Productions work with local agents, representatives, and film crews to prepare for the tasks before the racers arrive, and are in coordination with the audio / video crews to track racers during a leg. For example, to prevent clue boxes from being interfered with by locals, they are covered with garbage bags and monitored by production staff, and only when teams are about five minutes out are the bags removed. At times, the production team has been only minutes ahead of teams before they check into the Pit Stop, forcing production to restage the teams ' arrival there once they are ready. In the 25th season, Keoghan was featured filming explanations for tasks as racers ran about behind him.
Most eliminated teams are sent to a resort destination informally dubbed "Sequesterville '', where they will wait until the end of the race to be flown into the final destination city so they can be present at the Finish Line. In later seasons, short web videos hosted by CBS titled "Elimination Station '' show the events at this location as new teams arrive and the events that occur during the teams ' stay. Other teams, generally the last few eliminated before the final three, are used as "decoy teams '', and run the race 's final leg ahead of the actual final teams, in hopes of confusing possible spoilers about the race 's outcome from locals. Keoghan has also recorded his own videos during the show 's filming, used to show what happens behind the scenes to viewers.
Most race routes in The Amazing Race circumnavigate the globe, starting from one United States city and ending in another. Those exceptions include:
As of season 30, The Amazing Race has visited 89 different countries. Other than the United States, the most visited country in the original American series is China, with 21 Pit Stops in 10 different cities among 14 seasons.
Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of The Amazing Race on CBS.
During its first four seasons, even with extensive critical praise, the show garnered low Nielsen ratings, facing cancellation a number of times. The premiere of the show aired six days before the September 11 attacks, leaving the fate of the show in doubt. Producer van Munster stated that "Once we saw our billboards covered in dust from the 9 / 11 tragedy, we knew we had a problem ''. Low viewership of the show was also attributed to it being lost among all other reality television shows at the time and unable to garner similar numbers as Survivor. The Amazing Race premiered against a similarly themed reality show Lost on NBC (unrelated to ABC 's Lost show); Lost featured teams of two stranded in a remote area of the world and forced to find their way back to the United States. A vice president of programming at CBS considered The Amazing Race to be "a show that was always on the bubble '' of being canceled.
The show was considered to be saved due to several factors: the show was well received by critics, winning the Emmy for Outstanding Reality - Competition Programming in 2003 and 2004; consistent viewership numbers; and feedback from the large number of fans representing the young target demographic, including Sarah Jessica Parker, who had called in directly to CBS President Les Moonves asking to save the show. The fifth season of the series, which aired from July to September 2004, had very high viewership numbers for that time of the year, averaging 10.7 million with a finale of nearly 13 million, doubling the viewership in the 18 - to - 34 demographic and won its time slot for every episode. The improved ratings are credited to the particular teams selected for that season. As a result, CBS began airing the sixth season during the "high - profile heart '' of the November 2004 sweeps. The New York Times 's Kate Aurthur suggests that ratings increases for the fifth, sixth, and seven season were a direct result of the show having racers that were portrayed as "villain '' characters (specifically, Colin from season 5, Jonathan from season 6, and Rob and Amber from season 7) that created more tension between teams than previous seasons, and gave viewers teams to root for or against.
A temporary setback struck The Amazing Race after a Family Edition that aired later that year was not received warmly by viewers, which resulted in lowered viewership. The change in format, with teams of four and allowing for young children to race alongside their parents, hampered the travel ability of the show. Keoghan, though pleased they had tried something different with the show, attributed the poor response to the Family Edition due to too many people to follow and lack of exotic locations. This spilled over to Season 9 where it experienced dismaying ratings of only an average of 9.1 million viewers per episode, a drop from 13 million just 2 seasons ago in Season 7. The timeslot changing for Season 9 was also attributed to the drop in ratings.
From the tenth season to the twenty - fourth season, the show was moved to Sunday nights; as a result, The Amazing Race has seen further increases in its numbers. It is believed that part of this increase is due to "sports overruns '' (football, basketball, or golf) that resulted from games played earlier on Sunday pushing the airtime for The Amazing Race back by some amount on the East Coast along with other CBS programming. In the Sunday timeslot, The Amazing Race follows 60 Minutes; Variety states that, while both shows have different target demographics, the crossover audience between the shows is very high based on the average household income of its viewers, and is part of the Race 's success. In the 2010 season, another reality television show, Undercover Boss, was scheduled following The Amazing Race; the overall impact of these three shows have helped CBS to regain viewership on Sunday nights. According to Variety, the average age of Amazing Race viewers that watch the show live in 2009 was 51.9 years, while for those that time - shifted the show, the average age was 39.2 years. In a 2010 survey by Experian Simmons, The Amazing Race was found to be the second - highest show proportion of viewers that identify themselves as Republicans, following Glenn Beck. The season 16 finale, however, was the lowest - rated finale since season 4.
Although season 18 averaged over 10 million viewers and finished in top 40 most watched shows of the 2010 - 2011 television season, the ratings dropped and the season 18 finale was the second - lowest - rated Sunday night finale. The season 21 finale was down 31 % from the season 19 finale on December 11, 2011. It tied as the show 's lowest rated finale ever. Ratings also dropped during the season 24 finale, which was down 33 % from the season 15 finale on May 18, 2014. As a result of decreasing ratings, starting with the twenty - fifth season, the show moved to Fridays at 8: 00 pm, where it had its lowest viewership ever in this series. Ratings for the show since the move to Friday have remained steady, with seasons premieres maintaining around 6 million viewers and only small drops over the course of a given season. With the show 's age, some of its current fans were not born when the show had first aired in 2001, and the production team used a concept like season 28, aired in 2016, where the use of YouTube and other Internet celebrities was intended to help bridge the gap between long - time and new fans.
The success of The Amazing Race has led other networks to attempt to develop reality shows in a similar vein; CBS Vice President for alternative programming Jennifer Bresnan stated that many of these shows pose themselves as "The Amazing Race mixed with ' X ' '' to try to vary the format. Such shows include Treasure Hunters (NBC, 2006), Expedition Impossible (ABC, 2011), and Around the World in 80 Plates (Bravo, 2012). The Great Escape (TNT, 2012) brought van Munster and Doganieri to help with production, and was considered by critics as a "lite '' version of The Amazing Race.
The United States version of The Amazing Race is rebroadcast in several countries around the world. Airings in both Canada and Australia are very popular. The Canadian showing on CTV is commonly one of the top ten most watched shows each week, according to BBM Canada, Australian broadcasts of the episodes on the Seven Network often fall into the top 20 programs for the week. Episodes of The Amazing Race also air in several other countries shortly after the American broadcast, including Israel, Latin America, China, Vietnam and the Philippines.
AXN Asia broadcasts The Amazing Race across southeast Asia; the popularity of the show through the service led to CBS allowing for the option of creating international versions of the show in October 2005. The Amazing Race Asia was one of the first versions created, following essentially the same format as the United States version.
Other international versions of the show have been produced out of Latin America, Europe, Israel, Australia, and Canada.
Part of the show 's success is considered to be the relatively simple formula of following several teams on a race around the world. Because of this, viewers can live "vicariously through the people on the screen '', according to Andy Dehnart of the RealityBlurred.com website. The show is often considered to be "travel porn '', offering locations that most people would never get to see in their lifetimes. Keoghan offers that:
"(The Amazing Race) exposes particular Americans to a world they do n't see in primetime TV. Most of what they see is a war here, a person killed there, a natural disaster over here. We present a world that seems inviting, with people who are warm and helpful, not this big scary place that if you get in a plane you 're going to be killed by traveling to some foreign land. '', Phil Keoghan
The show is also considered to be successful in that it does not rely on the typical tropes of reality television, where players are trying to avoid becoming too much of a target to be voted off by their fellow contestants; in The Amazing Race, a team 's success is primarily based on their own performance. At the same time, the reality show setting can bring out unbecoming behavior, often leading to the stereotypical idea of ugly American tourists.
Latter seasons of the Race have been more critically panned. One factor is the predictability of the show, with little variety in the construction of specific legs and foregone outcomes of which team would be eliminated. The media site The A.V. Club, which had covered the Race for several seasons, opted to end its Race recaps mid-Season 21, with editor Scott Von Doviak stating that the show "has become so stale and predictable ''. Though Denhert was a supporter of the show in its earlier seasons, he has criticized latter seasons for becoming too predictable, as "failed to grow and evolve, it seems stale ''. Denhert does acknowledge that budget cuts for all CBS programming, including the Race, are likely causes for simple tasks and lackluster legs; Keoghan does state that the reduced budgets has made the timetable for filming "really brutal '', but also considers that the difficulty of filming also reflects on the difficulty of the Race for the teams as well. Denhert further points to the lack of time given for the viewer to learn about the individuals on each team, and instead has added elements like the U-Turn and the Yield to create inter-team drama.
The show is known for a dedicated fan base that keeps in touch with the show 's producers and contestants. While a race is being run and filmed, fans of the show watch for news or spotting of the racers and attempt to track their progress in real time, enhanced by recent social media tools, leading production to figure out ways to masquerade their presence in any city such as through the use of decoy teams. Despite this, fans readily track the Race as it is being run across the globe. In the 19th season, one contestant had lost her passport at a gas station while getting directions to Los Angeles International Airport. Though spotted by their A / V crew, they could not intervene, but instead alerted production, who prepared for an early elimination of the team at LAX. A bystander found the passport, and after he posted about it on Twitter, he was directed by a fan tracking the Race 's progress to take the passport to the airport, returning it before the scheduled flight and keeping the team in the race. Subsequent seasons have had publicly attended live starts such as starting in Times Square for season 25, and frequent use of live social media updates by the racers by permission of production during season 28.
Coinciding with the broadcast finale for each season though about the 13th season, fans from the website Television Without Pity arranged for a "TARCon '' event in New York City along with the season 's teams and other former racers.
The Amazing Race won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality - Competition Program for the first seven years after the creation of the award in 2003, and ten of the twelve years since its creation, against other, more popular reality TV shows such as Survivor, Dancing with the Stars, and American Idol. Its streak was ended in 2010 when Top Chef won the Emmy for this category. Host Phil Keoghan revealed in an interview that the show 's loss that year made him and the producers realize that they will have to try harder to win the Emmy again. In 2011, the show won in the category again for the eighth time. After its seventh consecutive win, some in the media, including Survivor host Jeff Probst suggested that The Amazing Race willingly drop out from the competition in future years, similar to Candice Bergen declining any further nominations after her fifth Emmy win for her role in Murphy Brown. Van Munster has stated that it is "not likely '' he will pull the show from future Emmy awards, considering that it reflects on his and his crew 's hard work and high standards. The show has also been nominated and won several times for technical production (Creative Arts) Emmy awards, for Cinematography and Picture Editing for Non-Fiction programs, whereas it has only been nominated for Sound Mixing and Sound Editing for Non-Fiction programs. The show has been nominated in the same five categories for three years consecutively, a trend which continued with the 2007 Primetime Emmy Awards.
The production staff of The Amazing Race has been nominated each year since 2004 for the Producers Guild of America 's Golden Laurel award for Television Producer of a Non-Fiction Program, and won this award in 2005.
Bert Van Munster has been nominated six times for the Directors Guild of America Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Reality Programs award for The Amazing Race each year between 2005 and 2010, and winning the award in 2007.
Due to its favorable portrayal of gay couples, The Amazing Race has been nominated in 2004 and 2006 for, but not won, the GLAAD Media Award Outstanding Reality Program. It has received a similar nomination for 2009, and won in 2012.
Seasons 1 and 7 were released in stores. The remaining seasons have been released exclusively on Amazon.com through its CreateSpace manufacture on demand program. Only region 1 is available. Select seasons have also been released on Blu - ray.
Two board games have been made based on The Amazing Race: a DVD Board Game and a traditional board game. A video game for the Wii home game console has been also been produced as well as an iOS version.
Two books have been written by fans of the show; the first is written by Adam - Troy Castro, titled "My Ox Is Broken! '': Detours, Roadblocks, Fast Forwards and Other Great Moments from TV 's The Amazing Race ", which features an introduction from Season 8 racers Billy and Carissa Gaghan. The second book is "Circumnavigating the Globe: Amazing Race 10 to 14 and Amazing Race Asia 1 to 3 '' written by Arthur E. Perkins Jr.
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