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when does the second round of the nfl 2018 draft start | 2018 NFL draft - wikipedia
The 2018 NFL Draft was the 83rd annual meeting of National Football League (NFL) franchises to select newly eligible players for the 2018 NFL season. The draft was held on April 26 -- 28 at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, and was the first draft to take place in an NFL stadium and the first to be held in Texas, which won out in a fourteen city bid. In order to be eligible to enter the draft, players must be at least three years removed from high school. The deadline for underclassmen to declare for the draft was January 15, 2018.
Five quarterbacks were selected in the first round for only the third time in the history of the draft; the first since the 1999 NFL Draft. Also, a pair of siblings -- safety Terrell Edmunds and linebacker Tremaine Edmunds -- were both drafted in the first round, marking the first time brothers have been selected in the opening round of the same draft.
In order to be eligible to enter the draft, players must be at least three years removed from high school. The deadline for underclassmen to declare for the draft was January 15, 2018.
The following is the breakdown of the 256 players selected by position:
In the explanations below, (PD) indicates trades completed prior to the start of the draft (i.e. Pre-Draft), while (D) denotes trades that took place during the 2018 draft.
Coverage of the draft was broadcast NFL Network and ESPN, with Fox also simulcasting NFL Network 's coverage of the first two rounds (serving as a prelude for Fox 's acquisition of Thursday Night Football for the 2018 season). ESPN aired coverage of the last four rounds on ABC, and aired secondary broadcasts of the first round on ESPN2 (featuring the panel of ESPN 's College GameDay, which also broadcast a special edition from outside AT&T Stadium as a pre-show for ESPN 's coverage) and in Spanish on ESPN Deportes.
Telecasts of the first round across all three broadcasters (which included the expansion of coverage to broadcast television) drew a combined Nielsen overnight household rating of 8.4, and total viewership of 11.214 million, making it the most - watched opening round since 2014. ESPN drew the largest single audience, with 5.336 million viewers, while Fox and NFL Network had a combined viewership of 5.74 million across both channels (3.776 and 2.005 million individually).
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who won the most between liverpool and manchester united | Liverpool F.C. -- Manchester United F.C. Rivalry - wikipedia
The Liverpool F.C. -- Manchester United F.C. rivalry, also known as the North West Derby, is a high - profile inter-city rivalry between English professional association football clubs Liverpool and Manchester United. It is considered to be one of the biggest rivalries in the association football world along with the Old Firm derby in Scotland, Superclásico in Argentina, El Clásico in Spain, and Derby della Madonnina in Italy, and is considered the most famous fixture in English football. Players, fans and the media alike often consider games between the two clubs to be their biggest rivalry, above even their own local derby competitions with Everton and Manchester City, respectively.
The rivalry has been fuelled by the proximity of the two major cities that they represent, their historic economic and industrial rivalry, significant periods of domestic footballing dominance and European success, and their popularity at home and abroad, as two of the biggest - earning and widely supported football clubs in the world.
The two clubs are the most successful English teams in both domestic and European competitions; and between them they have won 38 league titles, 8 European Cups, 4 UEFA Cups, 4 UEFA Super Cups, 19 FA Cups, 13 League Cups, 1 FIFA Club World Cup, 1 Intercontinental Cup and 36 FA Community Shields.
Each club can claim historical supremacy over the other: United for their 20 league titles to Liverpool 's 18 and Liverpool for being European champions five times to United 's three. Manchester United have won more total trophies than Liverpool, and they also lead the Merseysiders in so - called "major '' honours as well.
The cities of Liverpool and Manchester are located in the north west of England, 35 miles (56 km) apart. Since the industrial revolution there has been a consistent theme of rivalry between the two cities based around economic and industrial competition. Manchester through to the 18th century was the far more populous city, and held a position of significance and notability as representative of the north. By the late 18th century, Liverpool had grown as a major sea port -- critical to the growth and success of the northern cotton mills. Over the next century, Liverpool grew to supersede Manchester and throughout the late 19th and early 20th century was often described as the British Empire 's second city. The links between the two cities were strengthened with the construction of the Bridgewater Canal, the Mersey and Irwell Navigation and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway for the transport of raw materials inland.
The construction of the Manchester Ship Canal, funded by Manchester merchants, was opposed by Liverpool politicians and bred resentment between the two cities. Tension between working class Liverpool dockers and labourers in Manchester was heightened after its completion in 1894, just three months prior to the first meeting between Liverpool and Newton Heath in a play - off match that would see Newton Heath relegated to the Second Division.
Today, the crests of both the city of Manchester and Manchester United include stylised ships representing the Manchester Ship Canal and Manchester 's trade roots. The ship is also included on the crest of many other Mancunian institutions such as Manchester City Council and rivals Manchester City F.C.
Post-war shifts in economic ties, reliance on regional coal, and shifts in transatlantic trade patterns caused by the growth of Asian labour markets caused the gradual decline of British manufacturing. While the city of Liverpool suffered the loss of its primary source of income to southern port cities, Manchester maintained some of its manufacturing heritage. This reversal of fortunes happened against the backdrop of shifting political backgrounds and significant events in British culture and society in the second half of the 20th century.
The two cities continue to be strong regional rivals, vying for influence of surrounding areas. Their continued importance to the UK economy has been reflected with the awarding of the 2002 Commonwealth Games to Manchester, while Liverpool was awarded the title of 2008 European Capital of Culture as part of its ongoing regeneration.
More recent projects by Peel Ports have sought to re-establish the economic links between the Port of Liverpool and Port of Manchester, including re-developing trade links via the Manchester Ship Canal.
Manchester United F.C. was formed in Newton Heath in 1878 as Newton Heath LYR F.C., and played their first competitive match in October 1886, when they entered the First Round of the 1886 -- 87 FA Cup.
Liverpool F.C. was formed in 1892 following a disagreement between the board of Everton and club president John Houlding, who owned the club 's ground, Anfield. The disagreement between the two parties over rent resulted in Everton moving to Goodison Park from Anfield, and Houlding founded Liverpool F.C. to play in the vacated stadium.
Liverpool 's first season was in the Second Division in 1893. The team went undefeated all season, winning the title and being put up for election to the First Division, which would see them play a one - off test match against the bottom side of the First Division for their place. The team that Liverpool were to face was Newton Heath, whom they beat 2 -- 0 to take their place in the first tier.
Liverpool won their first Football League Championship trophy in 1901 and followed it up in 1906, the same season that saw the newly renamed Manchester United promoted to the top flight after finishing as Second Division runners - up behind Bristol City. Two seasons later, by which time Liverpool had fallen into mid-table, Manchester United secured their first league title, winning the 1907 -- 08 Football League by nine points from Aston Villa and Manchester City. They followed this up by winning the first ever FA Charity Shield match when they defeated Queens Park Rangers over two legs in 1908. The following season, they won the 1909 FA Cup Final, and followed this up with another league title and Charity Shield in 1911.
The outbreak of the First World War disrupted domestic football, and following the resumption of competitions in 1919 Liverpool asserted themselves on domestic football with a brace of league Championships while United found themselves in steep decline that saw them relegated in 1923. Between 1923 and the outbreak of the Second World War, neither team won any more competitive trophies outside of local regional trophies, with Manchester United spending three separate periods in the Second Division.
After the Second World War, Liverpool again became English champions in 1947 before the clubs ' roles reversed once more, with the Merseysiders dropping into the second tier as Manchester United found stability under the management of former Liverpool captain Matt Busby, winning the FA Cup in 1948 and then three league titles and Charity Shields apiece in the 1950s. During this time, future Liverpool manager Bill Shankly was approached by then Liverpool chairman Tom Williams and asked, "How would you like to manage the best club in the country? ''. "Why? '' Shankly replied. "Is Matt Busby packing it in? ''.
Following Liverpool 's promotion under Shankly in 1962, the two clubs found themselves in direct competition with each other for the first time, sharing four league titles between 1964 and 1967, as well as the 1965 FA Charity Shield. Following this, though, the two sides began to drift in opposite directions once more. United 's title victory of 1967 would be their last for 26 years, while Liverpool would enjoy nearly 20 years of sustained success, winning 11 league titles, 19 domestic cups and seven European trophies from 1972 to 1992. United 's main reprieves during this time came through cup competitions, such as their triumphs over the Merseysiders in the 1977 FA Cup Final and the 1979 FA Cup semi-final replay at Goodison Park. It was during this period, in the late 70s and early 80s, that the modern day rivalry between the two clubs truly began to get heated. According to football sociologist John Williams, United had developed a "glamour and media profile '' but did n't have the success to match it and Liverpool fans felt the Red Devils were "media darlings who got far too much publicity ''. There was a perception in Liverpool that their hugely successful but ' professional ' and ' workmanlike ' teams were always somehow in the shadow of the stars at Old Trafford. This led to a derisory United nickname in Liverpool; "The Glams ''.
Manchester United 's 26 - year spell without a league title has been mirrored by Liverpool since 1990, when the Reds clinched their last league title. Meanwhile, United 's dominance since 1990 has seen them win 13 league titles, 23 domestic cups and seven European trophies. Once again, cup glories such as the 2003 League Cup and 2006 FA Cup allowed Liverpool some retribution against their rivals. Despite their contrasting fortunes, though, only six times since 1972 have neither Liverpool nor United finished in the top two of the league table -- in 1980 -- 81, 2003 -- 04, 2004 -- 05, 2014 -- 15, 2015 -- 16 and 2016 - 17 -- and even during five of those six campaigns, another piece of silverware was still taken home by one of the two clubs; Liverpool paraded the European Cup and League Cup in 1981, while Manchester United lifted the FA Community Shield and FA Cup in the 2004 season and Liverpool claimed the Champions League in 2005. United brought home the FA Cup again in 2016 and they won a treble of trophies consisting of the Community Shield, League Cup and UEFA Europa League in 2016 - 17.
While Liverpool and Manchester United 's successes are almost identical in number, their systems of achieving these successes vary considerably. Liverpool built their dominance on a dynasty known as the Anfield Boot Room. The boot room itself was where strategy for future matches was planned, however, it became a breeding ground for future Liverpool managers following the arrival of Bill Shankly in 1959. The original members were Shankly himself, Bob Paisley, Joe Fagan and Reuben Bennett, although the likes of Kenny Dalglish joined later on.
Following Shankly 's retirement in 1974, having secured eight trophies in 15 years, Bob Paisley stepped into the vacant manager 's position and amassed 20 trophies in 9 seasons. Following his retirement, Joe Fagan took over and in the first of two seasons at the club, won a treble of trophies. Kenny Dalglish, while not an original member, was accepted into the group as the next in line for the role of manager, and he combined it with his playing duties to win Liverpool 10 trophies. The boot room connection was finally broken in 1991, 32 years after Shankly 's arrival, with the appointment of Graeme Souness, who actually demolished the boot room itself to make way for a press room. It did still manage to produce a final Liverpool manager in Roy Evans, who won the League Cup, but upon his resignation in 1998, the era was over.
In contrast, Manchester United have succeeded thanks to the services of three extraordinary men, all decades apart, without the need for continuity and sustained success beyond each man 's departure. Out of the 66 trophies that United have won, 56 have come thanks to the exploits of Ernest Mangnall, Sir Matt Busby and Sir Alex Ferguson. Mangnall was the first great manager of Manchester United, securing five trophies within a three - year time span of 1908 -- 11. Following his departure to local rivals Manchester City a year later, it would not be until Busby 's arrival 33 years later that the club would be on the trophy trail again.
Busby became United 's second most decorated manager of all time (ironically as an ex-Liverpool player and captain), winning 13 trophies at the club including the 1968 European Cup, which saw an English team secure European football 's top prize for the first time. After Busby 's retirement in 1969 though, Manchester United saw their fortunes slip and the club struggled to stay successful until Alex Ferguson 's arrival 17 years later, during which time United only won three FA Cups and two Charity Shields.
It was only under the Scot that United regained their glory days, winning 38 trophies during his 26 - year tenure to scale the pinnacles of both English and European football. However, since Ferguson 's retirement in 2013, the club has gone on the wane again, finishing in the top four of the league just once in four seasons, although there has been frequent success in cup competitions.
The rivalry has extended to the players as well: Wayne Rooney, a product of Liverpool 's city rivals Everton who played for United from 2004 to 2017, described how he grew up hating the Reds (Liverpool), while Liverpool 's Steven Gerrard took a film crew on tour of his home where he showed off a collection of football shirts he had swapped with opposing players as part of the after match routine; he pointed out that there were no Manchester United shirts in there and he would never have one of them in his house. Former Liverpool goalkeeper David James said: "I could never say I hated any United players just for being United players... But the rivalry became a habit, I suppose; on England trips Liverpool lads would eat at one table, United boys at another. There was tension there and we avoided one other ''. Liverpool defender Neil Ruddock once broke both of United forward Andy Cole 's legs in a reserve match, later saying that "I did n't meant to break both legs, I only meant to break one... I absolutely destroyed him... I know it 's not big and it 's not clever but it was great ''. Manchester United 's Gary Neville has been publicly vocal in the past with regards to his dislike of Liverpool. He notably drew the ire of Liverpool fans during the 2006 match at Old Trafford during which he celebrated Rio Ferdinand 's last - gasp winner by running to the stand where the away fans were seated while kissing the crest on his jersey and appearing to shout angrily towards them; he was fined and given a two - match ban by The Football Association but has stated on multiple occasions that he has never regretted his actions. Following a fixture in which John O'Shea scored a stoppage - time winner in front of the Kop in 2007, Neville described O'Shea's achievement as "a lifelong dream '' for himself. Previously in a Manchester derby during the 2003 -- 04 season, Neville was sent off after attempting to headbutt Manchester City 's ex-Liverpool midfielder Steve McManaman: as Paul Scholes commented, "It 's fair to say the pair of them never got on too well together ''. The animosity amongst players has also extended to the fans on a number of occasions, as in the case of Neville, who regularly became the subject of offensive chants from Liverpool supporters after the 2006 badge - kissing incident. In a retrospective special leading up to the January 2017 match up at Old Trafford, Neville and his fellow Monday Night Football pundit and retired Liverpool one - club man Jamie Carragher both acknowledged that it was actually not uncommon for both United and Liverpool players, particularly locally - born youth academy graduates such as Bury - born Neville and Merseyside natives Gerrard and Robbie Fowler, to celebrate in front of rival fans and that "you just got to take it in the chin ''.
In the 2011 -- 12 season, the rivalry was exacerbated by claims that, in the first League meeting of the season at Anfield, Liverpool striker Luis Suárez racially abused United 's Patrice Evra. After considering the evidence, an FA panel found that Suárez had referred to Evra using the term "negrito '' seven times (Suárez himself admitted to having done so once, but denied racism); he was banned for eight games. This included the FA Cup fourth round tie between the two clubs (again at Anfield), which Liverpool won. On 11 February 2012, however, United and Liverpool met again at Old Trafford, and Suárez played for Liverpool for the first time since his ban. Prior to kick - off, the two teams were expected to shake hands, but Suárez ignored Evra 's offered hand and moved onto the next United player in line, David de Gea. As a result, Rio Ferdinand and Danny Welbeck rejected Suárez 's handshake. United went on to win 2 -- 1 and Evra celebrated in front of the home supporters, with Suárez close by. Sir Alex Ferguson declared Suárez to be a "disgrace '' and suggested that he should not be allowed to play for Liverpool again. Kenny Dalglish vehemently denied having seen the missed handshake. The following day, Suárez, Dalglish and Liverpool all issued statements of apology for the handshake incident, which United accepted. The FA decided against any further action against either club or the players involved.
Since the 1964 transfer of Phil Chisnall from United to Liverpool, no player has been transferred directly between the two clubs. Some players, however, have played for both clubs, but having played elsewhere between each tenure, such as Paul Ince (playing for Internazionale in between) and Peter Beardsley (Vancouver Whitecaps and Newcastle United) and more recently Michael Owen (Real Madrid and Newcastle United), although Beardsley only played once for United, but went on to be a key player during his four years at Liverpool.
In 2007, there was a bid from Liverpool to sign Gabriel Heinze from United, but United refused to allow him to join their biggest rivals due to the ongoing feud. United claimed that it was agreed Heinze would only join a foreign club if he chose to leave. Heinze went public with his request to join Liverpool which was seen as the ultimate betrayal by the Manchester United fans. The Manchester United fans who once chanted "Argentina '' in honour of the player then turned their backs on him. Heinze was eventually sold to Real Madrid instead.
Both Manchester United and Liverpool are among the most popular football clubs (and sporting organisations) globally. Both are in the top 25 in Europe with Manchester United considered to have the largest following of all, as well as having one of the highest average home attendances in Europe and boasting a large travelling support. The club states that its worldwide fan base includes more than 200 officially recognised branches of the Manchester United Supporters Club (MUSC), in at least 24 countries. Liverpool states that its worldwide fan base also includes more than 200 officially recognised branches of the LFC Official Supporters Clubs in at least 50 countries. Notable groups include Spirit of Shankly and Reclaim The Kop.
The 2005 leveraged takeover of Manchester United by the Glazer family created a schism amongst Manchester fans, directly causing the creation of F.C. United of Manchester, and the "Love United Hate Glazer '' movement, and subsequently the Red Knights who attempted to buy the Glazers out the club. Two years later, Liverpool went through its own controversial takeover when Chairman David Moores sold the club to American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks. Disagreements between Gillett and Hicks, and the lack of popular support from fans, resulted in the pair looking to sell the club. Martin Broughton was appointed chairman of the club on 16 April 2010 to oversee its sale. Court action finally forced the sale of the club to Fenway Sports Group.
With the rise of football hooliganism across English football during the 1970s and 1980s, matches between the two clubs brought some minor and major incidents of hooliganism. Since then, the modern game has seen a decrease in violence between the rival supporters and incidents are fairly uncommon. This is more likely due to an increase in Police presence and CCTV with huge steps taken to keep the fans separated. To this day, both sets of fans still hold a resentment toward each other. As well as physical violence, sections of the clubs ' fan bases often taunt each other with unsavoury chants about the Munich air disaster and the Hillsborough disaster respectively.
At the 1996 FA Cup Final, an unidentified Liverpool fan spat at Eric Cantona and threw a punch at Alex Ferguson as a victorious Manchester United team walked up the steps at Wembley Stadium to collect the trophy from the Royal Box.
The 2006 FA Cup match at Anfield featured foreign objects thrown at United fans by Liverpool supporters, including human excrement. Liverpool 's FA Cup semi-final game against Chelsea at Old Trafford later that year also resulted in damage to the stadium, including graffiti about serial killer Harold Shipman.
In March 2011, the Daily Mail reported that an FA Youth Cup game between the two clubs was marred because of "sick chants '' about Hillsborough and Heysel coming from the Manchester United fans at Anfield. The article also claims that six Manchester United fans were ejected from the stadium due to bad behaviour. Former Liverpool striker John Aldridge was at the game and told the Liverpool Echo that "the level of abuse was absolutely sickening ''.
In March 2016, before Liverpool 's first leg tie at Anfield against Manchester United, it was reported that a group of Liverpool fans hung a "Manc Bastards '' banner on the M62, as 2,300 Manchester United supporters made the trip to Anfield. It was confiscated by the police, shortly after. Liverpool won the match 2 -- 0.
Before the second leg tie at Old Trafford., Liverpool fans were greeted with a banner on the M62 motorway in Salford that said ' murderers ' and also had the Hillsborough Disaster date on it. UEFA took no disciplinary action against Manchester United. During the same game, there were reported crowd disturbances, coming from the Manchester United end. It was later reported that a Liverpool supporter sneaked a Liverpool banner in the United section, causing to aggravate United supporters in the stand. Liverpool supporters ripped seats, and supporters threw objects at each other, also fighting with United supporters. Liverpool were fined £ 43,577. by UEFA for setting off flares / crowd fireworks & ' illicit chants ', whilst Manchester United were fined £ 44,342 for illicit chants & the throwing of objects. Both clubs ' fines included £ 15,290 suspended for two years. Liverpool drew 1 -- 1, and progressed to the Europa League quarter - finals against Borussia Dortmund.
In 1977, the two clubs met in a cup final for the first time, when they reached the final of the FA Cup. The two clubs took to the field at Wembley on 21 May, with Liverpool having just won the league title, knowing that winning this game would put them on course for a unique treble as they had the European Cup final to look forward to four days later. However, United ended Liverpool 's treble dreams with a 2 -- 1 win, with goals from Stuart Pearson and Jimmy Greenhoff, five minutes apart with a Jimmy Case goal for Liverpool in between.
Six years later, on 26 March 1983, the two sides met for the Football League Cup final. Goals from Alan Kennedy and Ronnie Whelan won the game 2 -- 1 for Liverpool, after Norman Whiteside had given United the lead. Liverpool collected the trophy for the third year in succession. It was the last of Liverpool manager Bob Paisley 's nine seasons in charge (during which Liverpool had dominated the English and European scene) before his retirement, and his players allowed him to climb the 39 steps to collect the trophy from the Royal Box.
On 4 April 1988, Liverpool were 11 points ahead at the top of the league and almost certain of winning the First Division title with barely a month of the league season remaining. United, in their first full season under the management of Alex Ferguson, were their nearest rivals. The two sides took to the field for a league encounter at Anfield and with the second half just minutes old the home side had a 3 -- 1 lead with goals from Peter Beardsley, Gary Gillespie and Steve McMahon, with United 's only goal coming from Bryan Robson. Robson then pulled a goal back for United, and with 12 minutes remaining fellow midfielder Gordon Strachan equalised to force a 3 -- 3 draw.
On 4 January 1994, in the second season of the new FA Premier League, United took a 3 -- 0 lead at Anfield in the opening 25 minutes with goals from Steve Bruce, Ryan Giggs and Denis Irwin. Liverpool managed to claw back to draw 3 -- 3 with two goals from Nigel Clough and another from Neil Ruddock. It was one of the last games in charge of Liverpool for manager Graeme Souness, who had resigned by the end of the month.
On 1 October 1995, United 's Eric Cantona made his comeback to the side after serving an eight - month suspension for attacking a spectator in a game against Crystal Palace. His comeback game was against Liverpool in the Premier League at Old Trafford. United took an early lead through Nicky Butt, only for Liverpool 's Robbie Fowler to score twice and give the visitors a 2 -- 1 lead. However, United were awarded a penalty in the 71st minute and Cantona converted it successfully, forcing a 2 -- 2 draw. At the end of the season, the two sides met again at Wembley for the FA Cup Final. The game stayed goalless until the 85th minute, when Liverpool conceded a corner, which David Beckham swung into the box to be cleared by David James, only for Eric Cantona to fire home United 's winner. In March 2003, the two clubs once again met in a cup final, this time in the League Cup, with Liverpool lifting the trophy after goals from Steven Gerrard and Michael Owen gave them a 2 -- 0 win.
On 14 March 2009, the two sides met at Old Trafford in the Premier League. United were ahead at the top of the league and Liverpool were looking to make a late run to the title which had eluded them since 1990. United went ahead in the 23rd minute with a Cristiano Ronaldo penalty, but Fernando Torres equalised five minutes later for Liverpool, and a Steven Gerrard penalty just before half - time put Liverpool in the lead. United had Nemanja Vidić sent off in the 76th minute, and their misery was swiftly compounded by late goals from Fábio Aurélio and finally Andrea Dossena, condemning them to a 4 -- 1 defeat, their heaviest at Old Trafford in any competition for 17 years. Despite the loss, Manchester United were crowned league champions for the third season in succession and equalled Liverpool 's 18 league titles, with Liverpool finishing four points behind in second.
The league fixture on 11 February 2012 was marked by controversy regarding Liverpool striker Luis Suárez refusal to shake hands with Patrice Evra, following an eight - match suspension for racially abusing Evra in the previous meeting between the sides. Following the 2 -- 1 victory for United after a brace from Wayne Rooney, Evra in turn controversially celebrated right in front of Suárez, and was swept aside by opposition players finding the gesture provocative.
The below table demonstrates the competitive results between the two sides (not indicative of titles won).
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who is announcing the yankee game today on fox | List of Major League Baseball on Fox broadcasters - wikipedia
Matt Vasgersian was a regular announcer. Dick Stockton and Josh Lewin were also regular fill in announcers. Leo Mazzone was as a fill in color commentator.
Dick Stockton and Josh Lewin were also regular fill in announcers
Josh Lewin, Fill - In during NHL and NBA Playoffs and NFL Season
Matt Vasgersian, Dick Stockton, and Josh Lewin were also regular fill in announcers
Dave Sims and Eric Karros called Philip Humber 's perfect game on April 21, 2012.
A.J. Pierzynski joined the team of Vasgersian / Smoltz / Morosi for the 2015 ALDS.
David Cone, who serves as a color commentator on select games for the New York Yankees on the YES Network, joined Davis / Pierzynski / Morosi for the 2017 ALDS.
As of September 30, 2017
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how long has the venezuelan crisis been going on | Crisis in Venezuela (2012 -- present) - wikipedia
The crisis in Venezuela is the socioeconomic crisis that Venezuela has undergone since Hugo Chávez 's tenure and which extended over the years into the current presidency of Nicolás Maduro. It is the worst economic crisis in Venezuela 's history. During the year 2016, for example, consumer prices rose 800 %, the economy contracted by 18.6 %, and hunger escalated to the point that the "Venezuela 's Living Conditions Survey '' (ENCOVI) found nearly 75 percent of the population had lost an average of at least 8.7 kg (19.4 lb) in weight due to a lack of proper nutrition. The murder rate in 2015 was 90 per 100,000 people according to the Observatory of Venezuelan Violence (compared to 5 per 100,000 in the US).
The crisis affected the average life of Venezuelans on various levels; the rise of unemployment, which resulted in the emergence of social movements aimed at changing the economic and productive model, as well as questioning the political system and demanding a democratic renewal. Political corruption, scarcity of basic products, closure of companies, deterioration of productivity and competitiveness, and high dependence on oil are other problems that have also contributed to the worsening crisis.
With increasing oil prices in the early 2000s and funds not seen in Venezuela since the 1980s, Hugo Chávez created the Bolivarian Missions, aimed at providing public services to improve economic, cultural, and social conditions, with Chávez intending to maintain political power through social programs. According to Corrales and Penfold, "aid was disbursed to some of the poor, and more gravely, in a way that ended up helping the president and his allies and cronies more than anyone else ''. The Missions entailed the construction of thousands of free medical clinics for the poor, and the enactment of food and housing subsidies. A 2010 OAS report indicated achievements in addressing illiteracy, healthcare and poverty, and economic and social advances. The quality of life for Venezuelans had also improved according to a UN Index. Teresa A. Meade wrote that Chávez 's popularity strongly depended "on the lower classes who have benefited from these health initiatives and similar policies. ''
The social works initiated by Chávez 's government relied on oil products, the keystone of the Venezuelan economy, with Chávez 's administration suffering from Dutch disease as a result. By the end of Chávez 's presidency in the early 2010s, economic actions performed by his government during the preceding decade such as overspending and price controls proved to be unsustainable, with Venezuela 's economy faltering while poverty, inflation and shortages in Venezuela increased.
According to analysts, the economic woes Venezuela continued to suffer through under President Nicolás Maduro would have occurred even were Chávez still in power. In early 2013, shortly after Chávez 's death, Foreign Policy stated that whoever succeeded Chávez would "inherit one of the most dysfunctional economies in the Americas -- and just as the bill for the deceased leader 's policies comes due ''.
When elected in 2013 following Chávez 's death, Nicolás Maduro continued the majority of existing economic policies of his predecessor Hugo Chávez. When entering the presidency, President Maduro 's Venezuela faced a high inflation rate and large shortages of goods that was left over from the previous policies of President Chávez.
President Maduro has blamed capitalism for speculation that is driving high rates of inflation and creating widespread shortages of staples, and often said he was fighting an "economic war '', calling newly enacted economic measures "economic offensives '' against political opponents he and loyalists state are behind an international economic conspiracy. However, President Maduro has been criticized for only concentrating on public opinion instead of tending to the practical issues economists have warned the Venezuelan government about or creating any ideas to improve the economic situation in Venezuela such as the "economic war ''.
By 2014, Venezuela had entered an economic recession and by 2015, the country had an inflation rate which had reached its highest rate in its history.
The origin of this economic collapse, framed in the context of the Great Recession, years after the improvement of the extraction of unconventional hydrocarbons in the United States showed a macro-economic phenomenon of great importance for the region. From China 's slowdown, a steady increase in oil production and stable demand, generated a surplus of this resource that caused a drop in prices of reference crude oil, WTI and Brent, as at the beginning of 2014 Found above $100 and at the end of the year could fall to $50 per barrel, causing unfavourable changes in the economy of Venezuela.
Due to high oil reserves, lack of policies on private property and low remittances, by 2012, of every 100 dollars, more than 90 came from oil and its derivatives. With the fall in oil prices in early 2015 the country faces a drastic fall in revenues of the US currency along with commodities.
In addition the government has not made policy changes to adapt to the low petroleum price. As of early 2016, the Washington Post reports the official price of state - retailed petrol is below US $. 01 per gallon, and the official state currency exchange rate values the US dollar at 1 / 150th what the black market does.
Since the mid-2000s during Chávez 's presidency, Venezuela suffered from a housing crisis. In 2005, the Venezuelan Construction Chamber (CVC) estimated that there was a shortage of 1.6 million homes, with only 10,000 of 120,000 promised homes constructed by Chávez 's government despite billions of dollars in investments. Due to the shortages, poor Venezuelans attempted to construct homes on their own despite structural risks.
By 2011, Venezuela suffered from a housing shortage of 2 million homes, with nearly twenty prime developments being occupied by squatters following Chávez 's call for the poor to occupy "unused land ''. Up to 2011, only 500,000 homes were constructed under Chávez, with over two - thirds of the new housing developments being built by private companies while the Bolivarian government provided about the same amount of housing as previous administrations. Housing shortages were further exasperated when private construction halted due to the fear of property expropriations and because of the Bolivarian government 's inability to construct and provide housing. In a July 2011 article by The Guardian, urban theorist and author Mike Davis, "Despite official rhetoric, the Bolivarianist regime has undertaken no serious redistribution of wealth in the cities and oil revenues pay for too many other programmes and subsidies to leave room for new housing construction ''. By 2012, the shortage of building materials had also began to disrupt construction, with metal production at a 16 - year low. At the end of Chávez 's presidency in 2013, the number of Venezuelans in inadequate housing grew to 3 million.
Under the Maduro government, housing shortages continued to worsen. Maduro announced in 2014 that due to the shortage of steel, abandoned cars and other vehicles would be acquired by the government and melted to provide rebar for housing. In April 2014, Maduro ruled by decree that Venezuelans who owned three or more rental properties would be forced by the government to sell their rental units at a set price or they would face fines or have their property possessed by the government. In By 2016, residents of government provided housing, who were usually supporters of the Bolivarian government, began protesting due to the lack of utilities and food.
According to the Central Bank of Venezuela, the foreign debt of the Venezuelan state in 2014 is divided into:
Shortages in Venezuela have been prevalent following the enactment of price controls and other policies during the economic policy of the Hugo Chávez government. Under the economic policy of the Nicolás Maduro government, greater shortages occurred due to the Venezuelan government 's policy of withholding United States dollars from importers with price controls.
Shortages occur in regulated products, such as milk, various types of meat, chicken, coffee, rice, oil, precooked flour, butter prices; and also basic necessities like toilet paper, personal hygiene products and medicine. As a result of the shortages, Venezuelans must search for food, occasionally resorting to eating wild fruit or garbage, wait in lines for hours and sometimes settle without having certain products.
In October 2014 due to the crisis, the Venezuelan economy contracted 2.3 %. In the second quarter, there was a fall of 4.9 %, after registering a contraction of 4.8 % in the first three months of the year.
Venezuela has a strong dependence on oil, which generates about 96 % of its export revenues. The fall in oil prices has occurred at a time when the South American country faces runaway inflation, which reached an annualized rate of 63.9 % in November, and a severe scarcity of basic products.
In reference to the violent anti-government protests that shook Venezuela earlier this year and alleged plans to destabilize the country, which President Maduro said included smuggling and hoarding essential products, the central bank said that those "actions against the national order prevented The full distribution of basic goods to the population, as well as the normal development of the production of goods and services. This resulted in an inflationary upturn and a fall in economic activity. ''
Inflation in 2014 reached 68.5 %. This figure is one of the highest that has been recorded in the country 's economic history, and was the highest in the world during 2013. By 2015, inflation had reached 180.9 %. As of 2016, inflation, as evidenced by the year - over-year increase in the consumer price index from 2015, was at 424.2 %.
At the beginning of the crisis, international airlines (which depart from Maiquetia international airport in Caracas) have had problems getting their normal flights to and from Venezuela, and as a result, many airlines have left the country.
According to the International Air Transport Association (IATA), the Government of Venezuela has retained 3.8 billion dollars to airlines. As a result of this, the country loses business opportunities, aggravating the deep crisis that currently suffers.
Airlines such as Air Canada, Alitalia, Lufthansa, among others, join forces to leave the country, making the departure of the country even more difficult. Other airlines, most of them, reduced the number of flights and the size of the planes, in an effort to stay in the country. Like the Colombian Avianca, one of the operations that carried out more and that now only has a quarter of its seats.
As a result of the crisis, Venezuela has suffered the greatest unemployment in years, being this one of the biggest problems of the Venezuelans, due to the inflation and expropriations by the Venezuelan government to private companies, many others are leaving the country, leaving too many Venezuelans in unemployment.
Likewise, the salary increase at the end of 2016 (this being one of the supposed solutions of the government), brought with it the dismissal of half of the employees of large companies (Corpoelec, Imaseo, etc...).
In January 2016 the unemployment rate closed at 18.1 percent becoming the poorest economy in the world.
Corruption in Venezuela is high according to Transparency International 's (TNI) Corruptions Perceptions Index and is prevalent throughout many levels of Venezuela 's society. In the case of Venezuela, the discovery of oil in the early twentieth century has worsened political corruption. While corruption is difficult to measure reliably, Transparency International currently ranks Venezuela among the top 20 most corrupt countries, tied with four other countries as the 8th most corrupt nation in the world. A 2014 Gallup poll found that 75 % of Venezuelans believed that corruption was widespread throughout the Venezuelan government. Discontent with corruption was cited by opposition - aligned groups as one of the reasons for the 2014 Venezuelan protests.
In 2016 the "Venezuela 's Living Conditions Survey '' (ENCOVI) found nearly 75 percent of the population had lost an average of at least 8.7 kg (19.4 lb) in weight due to a lack of proper nutrition. When the price of petroleum was high, Venezuela became dependent on food imports, as the price declined the government can no longer could afford to import what the country needs. According to Al Jazeera, following the fall in the price of petroleum,
food rationing grew so severe that Venezuelans spent all day waiting in lines. Pediatric wards filled up with underweight children, and formerly middle - class adults began possibly picking through rubbish bins for scraps.
According to the head of waste collection in the city of Maracaibo, Ricardo Boscan, six out of every 10 garbage bags or trash cans are being looted by hungry people. Other signs of hunger in Venezuela include the killing of dogs, cats, donkeys, horses and pigeons -- whose dismembered remains are found in city dumps -- and of protected wildlife such as flamingos and giant anteaters.
Corruption is a problem in the distribution of food. According to an operations director at one food import business, "You have to pay for (the military) to even look at your cargo now. It 's an unbroken chain of bribery from when your ship comes in until the food is driven out in trucks. '' While using the military to control food distribution has "drained the feeling of rebellion from the armed forces '' by giving soldiers access to food denied others, the resulting corruption has increases shortages for the general public.
Escalating violent crime, especially murder, had been called "perhaps the biggest concern '' of Venezuelans during the crisis. According to the think tank Observatory of Venezuelan Violence, 27,875 homicides were committed in Venezuela in 2015, a rate of about 90 per 100,000 people (compared to 5 per 100,000 for the US). According to the New Yorker magazine Venezuela has, "by various measures, the world 's highest violent - crime rate ''. Less than two per cent of reported crimes are prosecuted. According to the Los Angeles Times,
carjack gangs set up ambushes, sometimes laying down nail - embedded strips to puncture tires of vehicles ferrying potential quarry. Motorists speak matter - of - factly of spotting body parts along roadways... While most crime victims are poor, they also include members of the middle and upper classes and scores of police and military personnel killed each year, sometimes for their weapons... "Before the thieves would only rob you, '' is a common refrain here in the capital. "Now they kill you. ''
A reporter for The New Yorker magazine found that even stairwells in public hospital in the city of Valencia were not safe from robbers preyed on staff and patients despite the large number of National Guard, local and national police, and militia guarding the hospital. (This was because the police were assigned to guard the hospital from journalists who might embarrass the government with exposes on the state of the hospital -- not to protect its occupants. The police allegedly collaborated with the robbers receiving a cut of what they stole.)
The Bolivarian diaspora is the voluntary emigration of millions of Venezuelans from their native country during the presidencies of Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro, due to the establishment of their Bolivarian Revolution. According to Newsweek, the "Bolivarian diaspora is a reversal of fortune on a massive scale '' where the "reversal '' is meant as a comparison to Venezuela 's high immigration rate during the 20th century. The analysis of a study by Central University of Venezuela titled Venezuelan Community Abroad. A New Method of Exile by El Universal states that the "Bolivarian diaspora '' in Venezuela has been caused by the "deterioration of both the economy and the social fabric, rampant crime, uncertainty and lack of hope for a change in leadership in the near future ''. The Wall Street Journal stated that many "white - collar Venezuelans have fled the country 's high crime rates, soaring inflation and expanding statist controls ''. It is estimated that more than 1.5 million emigrated from Venezuela from 1999 to 2014 while in 2015, it was estimated that approximately 1.8 million Venezuelans had emigrated to other countries according to the PGA Group.
In 1998, the year Chávez was first elected, only 14 Venezuelans were granted U.S. asylum. In just 12 months in September 1999, 1,086 Venezuelans were granted asylum according to the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. Chávez 's rhetoric of redistributing wealth to the poor concerned wealthy and middle class Venezuelans causing the first portion of a diaspora fleeing the Bolivarian government. In a May 2002 cable from the United States Embassy, Caracas to United States agencies expressing astonishment at the number of Venezuelans attempting to enter the United States, stating, "This drain of skilled workers could have a significant impact on Venezuela 's future ''.
Academics and business leaders have stated that emigration from Venezuela increased significantly during the final years of Chávez 's presidency and especially during the presidency of Nicolás Maduro. This second diasporic episode consisted of lower class Venezuelans who suffered from the economic crisis facing the country, with the same individuals that Chávez attempted to aid seeking to emigrate due to their discontent. It has been estimated in the year 2016 alone, over 150,000 Venezuelans emigrated from their native country, with The New York Times stating that it was "the highest in more than a decade, according to scholars studying the exodus ''. Venezuelans have opted to emigrate through various ways, though image of Venezuelans fleeing the country by sea has also raised symbolic comparisons to the images seen from the Cuban diaspora.
Following the Bolivarian Revolution and the establishment of the Bolivarian government, initial healthcare practices were promising with the installation of free healthcare and the assistance received from Cuban medical professionals providing aid. The government 's failure to concentrate on healthcare for Venezuelans, the reduction of healthcare spending and government corruption eventually affected medical practices in Venezuela; causing avoidable deaths along with an emigration of medical professionals to other countries.
Venezuela 's reliance of imported goods and its complicated exchange rates initiated under Hugo Chávez led to increasing shortages during the late - 2000s and into the 2010s that affected the availability of medicines and medical equipment in the country. By 2010, the Bolivarian government stopped publishing medical statistics. Throughout Chávez 's presidency, the Health Ministry changed ministers multiple times. According to a high - ranking official of Venezuela 's Health Ministry, the ministers were treated as scapegoats whenever issues with public health arose in Venezuela. The official also explained how Health Ministry officials would also perform illicit acts in order to enrich themselves by selling goods designated to public healthcare to others.
Into the Maduro presidency, the Bolivarian government could not supply enough dollars for medical supplies among healthcare providers; with doctors saying that 9 of 10 of large hospitals had only 7 % of required supplies with private doctors reporting many patients that are "impossible '' to count are dying from easily treated illnesses due to the "downward sliding economy '' in 2014. Due to such complications, many Venezuelans died avoidable deaths with medical professionals having to use limited resources to use methods that were replaced decades ago. In February 2014, doctors at University of Caracas Medical Hospital stopped performing surgeries due to the lack of supplies, even though nearly 3,000 people require surgery. Venezuela was the first country declared free of malaria (in 1961). As of 2016 its malaria - prevention program had collapsed, and there are more than a hundred thousand cases of malaria yearly. By August 2014, Venezuela was the only country in Latin America where the incidence of malaria was increasing, allegedly due to illegal mining and in 2013, Venezuela registered the highest number of cases of malaria in the past 50 years, with 300 of 100,000 Venezuelans being infected with the disease. Medical shortages in the country also hampered the treatment of Venezuelans. Shortages of antiretroviral medicines to treat HIV / AIDS affected about 50,000 Venezuelans, potentially causing thousands of Venezuelans with HIV to develop AIDS.
In late 2014, Venezuelans began saying that due to shortages of medicines, it was hard to find acetaminophen to help alleviate the newly introduced chikungunya virus, a potentially lethal mosquito - borne disease. In September 2014, the Venezuelan government stated that only 400 Venezuelans were infected with chikungunya while the Central University of Venezuela stated that there could be between 65,000 and 117,000 Venezuelans infected. In August 2015 independent health monitors said that there were more than two million people infected with chikungunya while the government said there were 36,000 cases.
By early 2015, only 35 % of hospital beds were available and 50 % of operating rooms could not function due to the lack of resources. In March 2015, a Venezuelan NGO, Red de Medicos por la Salud, reported that there was a 68 % shortage of surgical supplies and a 70 % shortage of medicines in Venezuelan pharmacies. In May 2015, the Venezuelan Medical Federation said that 15,000 doctors had left the public health care system because of shortages of drugs and equipment and poor pay. In August 2015 Human Rights Watch said "We have rarely seen access to essential medicines deteriorate as quickly as it has in Venezuela except in war zones. '' By the end of 2015, the Bolivarian government reported that of all Venezuelans visiting public hospitals in the year, one - of - three patients died.
In 2016, infant mortality increased 30.12 % to 11,466 deaths, maternal mortality increased 65.79 % with 756 deaths and malaria increased 76.4 % to 240,613 cases. Cases of diphtheria, which was thought to have been eradicated from Venezuela in the 1990s, had also began to reappear in the country during the year. Shortly after the 2016 health statistics were released to the public in May 2017, President Maduro replaced Minister of Health, Dr. Antonieta Caporale, with a pharmacist close to vice-president Tareck El Aissami, Luis López Chejade.
In a November 2016 survey by Datincorp, Venezuelans living in urban areas were asked which entity was responsible for the crisis, with 59 % stating that President Chávez (25 %), President Maduro (19 %) and chavismo (15 %) were the causes, while 16 % blamed the opposition (10 %), entrepreneurs (4 %) and the United States (2 %).
Discontent with the Bolivarian government saw the opposition being elected to hold the majority in the National Assembly for the first time since 1999 following the 2015 parliamentary election.
The political crisis was unleashed in October 2016 when at least six lower Venezuelan state criminal courts declared void the previous processes of collecting signatures in their states. As a consequence, the National Electoral Council declared the end of the national referendum for the removal of Nicolas Maduro from the presidency of Venezuela, following previous opinions of the Supreme Court of Justice.
The Venezuelan opposition, through the Bureau of Democratic Unity, announced in reaction a peaceful demonstration at the national level, called "Venezuela takeover '', to be held throughout the country from Wednesday 26 October 2016 and with indefinite duration. Finally, the opposition announced the "March to Miraflores '' to be held on Thursday, November 3, 2016 concentrated in Caracas at the Miraflores Palace.
Likewise, the Venezuelan National Assembly, which had been declared "in contempt '' by the Venezuelan Supreme Court, declared the "rupture of the constitutional order '' in Venezuela in extraordinary session. 57 58 On October 25, the National Assembly debated Possibility of bringing Maduro to trial for his responsibility in adopting the decision of the lower court, and its application as a national decision to suspend the recall referendum, though the Constitution does not grant this power to the legislature.
Following the 2017 Venezuelan constitutional crisis, and the push to ban potential opposition presidential candidate Henrique Capriles from politics for 15 years, protests grew to their most "combative '' since they began in 2014.
On 1 May 2017 following a month of protests that resulted in at least 29 dead, Maduro called for a Constitutional Assembly that would draft a new constitution that would replace the 1999 Venezuela Constitution. He invoked Article 347, and stated that his call for a new constitution was necessary to counter the actions of the opposition. The members of the Constitutional Assembly were not be elected in open elections, but selected from social organizations loyal to Maduro. It would also allow him to stay in power during the interregnum and skip the 2018 presidential elections, as the process would take at least two years.
The opposition started a common front for all the people in Venezuela that oppose the amendment. On 20 June 2017, President of the National Assembly Julio Borges, the opposition - led legislative body of Venezuela, announced the activations of Articles 333 and 350 of the Venezuelan Constitution in order to establish new parallel government.
Constituent Assembly elections were held on 30 July 2017. The decision to hold the election was criticised by members of the international community, with over 40 countries along with supranational bodies such as the European Union, Mercosur and the Organization of American States condemning and failing to recognize the election, stating it would only further escalate tensions. President Maduro 's allies -- such as Bolivia, Cuba, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Russia and Syria -- discouraged foreign intervention in Venezuelan politics and congratulated the president.
The 2017 Constituent Assembly of Venezuela was officially sworn in on 4 August 2017.
On August 11, 2017 US President Donald Trump said that he is "not going to rule out a military option '' to confront the autocratic government of Nicolás Maduro and the deepening crisis in Venezuela. Venezuela 's Defense Minister Vladimir Padrino immediately criticized Trump for his statement, calling it "an act of supreme extremism '' and "an act of madness. '' The Venezuelan communications minister, Ernesto Villegas, said Trump 's words amounted to "an unprecedented threat to national sovereignty. ''
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who plays the boss on last man standing | Last Man Standing (U.S. TV series) - Wikipedia
Last Man Standing is an American television sitcom starring Tim Allen as a senior employee of a sporting goods store in Denver, Colorado, who is a married father of three daughters. The series includes his interactions with family, neighbors, and coworkers and often expressions of his conservative political views.
The series aired on ABC from October 11, 2011 to March 31, 2017 with 130 episodes. Syndication of the series began in 2015 and continues on multiple cable networks and video - on - demand subscription services. Production was canceled by ABC on May 10, 2017, after six seasons -- a decision that outraged the series ' fans and brought surprised displeasure from its star.
The series follows Mike Baxter, a senior executive and director of marketing for an outdoor sporting goods store chain based in Denver, Colorado, whose world is filled with his wife, three daughters, and grandson.
Several notable guest stars have appeared throughout the series, including appearances made from cast members of Tim Allen 's previous series, Home Improvement.
Last Man Standing first appeared on ABC 's development slate in late 2010 when writer Jack Burditt received a put pilot commitment from the network under the original title Man Up. In January 2011, ABC green - lighted production of a pilot episode under the title Last Days of Man. On February 18, Tim Allen, who had been attached to the potential series from the beginning, officially joined the project in the lead role. At the end of March, Nancy Travis joined the cast in the leading female role as Allen 's "smart and loving wife who does n't miss much ''. Soon thereafter, Héctor Elizondo came on board in a supporting role as the boss to Allen 's character.
On May 13, 2011, ABC picked up the pilot for the 2011 -- 2012 television season under the new title Last Man Standing. On May 17, 2011, ABC announced that the series would air on Tuesday nights at 8 Eastern / 7 Central. It debuted on October 11, 2011, with the first two episodes airing in a one - hour premiere.
On November 3, 2011, the series was picked up for a full season of twenty - two episodes. On January 12, 2012, the order was increased to twenty - four episodes.
On May 11, 2012, ABC renewed the series for a second season set to air in the 2012 -- 2013 season in November.
On June 11, 2012, Tim Doyle was hired as the new showrunner of the series. Doyle was the third showrunner that the series had had since it entered production. Doyle replaced Kevin Abbott, who joined the staff as the showrunner mid-way in the first season. Abbott replaced series creator Jack Burditt, who was the showrunner for the first thirteen episodes. Unlike Burditt, who is no longer credited as an executive producer, Abbott continued to serve as an executive producer while showrunning the fellow ABC sitcom Malibu Country starring Reba McEntire. Both Last Man Standing and Malibu Country aired as a part of ABC 's Friday night lineup for the 2012 -- 2013 primetime television season. On November 8, 2012, Abbott re-joined the Last Man Standing crew full - time, after a stint in rehab, and gave Nastaran Dibai full showrunning duties of Malibu Country.
On June 11, 2012, it was announced that Alexandra Krosney (Kristin) was let go from the show for creative reasons. Krosney was replaced by Amanda Fuller in season 2. On June 19, 2012, it was also announced that twins Luke and Evan Kruntchev, who played the role of Boyd in season 1, would not be returning; they were replaced by Flynn Morrison in season 2. The character of Boyd was also age - advanced from two years old to five years old. Jordan Masterson plays Ryan, Boyd 's father, in a recurring role beginning in season 2. The role was previously played by Nick Jonas, who guest - starred in one episode in season 1.
The second season initially received a 13 - episode order. ABC announced on November 12, 2012, that an additional three scripts had been ordered. On November 27, five more episodes were ordered to bring the second - season episode total to 18.
On May 10, 2013, the series was renewed for a third season, which premiered on September 20, 2013, and ended on April 25, 2014, after 22 episodes.
On May 10, 2014, ABC renewed Last Man Standing for a fourth season, which premiered on October 3, 2014. Allen and Elizondo guest - starred as their Last Man Standing characters in a crossover episode with the fellow ABC Friday sitcom Cristela.
On May 10, 2015, ABC announced the show had been renewed for a fifth season. Last Man Standing had become a solid performer for the Friday night lineup at ABC, which with the help of Shark Tank and 20 / 20 has become the top network among adults 18 -- 49 for the night. Leading off Friday night for ABC, the sitcom averaged a 1.8 rating in adults 18 -- 49 and 8.2 million viewers overall, according to Nielsen 's Live + 7 estimates.
On May 13, 2016, ABC renewed the series for a sixth and final season, which premiered on September 23, 2016.
On May 10, 2017, ABC canceled Last Man Standing after six seasons, despite the series being the second most - watched ABC sitcom during the 2016 -- 17 season (based on Live + 7 figures), with ratings remaining mostly steady during its sixth season. A rep for 20th Century Fox TV said cancellation decisions are made by ABC. "This was a scheduling decision, '' wrote Jori Arancio, senior vice president of ABC Entertainment and ABC Studios. ABC and its production partner for the show, 20th Century Fox TV, typically negotiate licensing fees prior to each season; however, the network decided to cancel the show without doing so. Also, the contract between 20th Century Fox Television and ABC for the show, in which 20th Century Fox Television covered the cost of production, had expired after six seasons. Had the series been renewed for a seventh season, ABC would have been required to pick up Last Man Standing 's production costs, which the network was unwilling to do.
The cancellation was met with outrage from the show 's fans, many of whom took to social media to voice their displeasure and petition for another network to pick up the show. It also happened some months after lead actor Tim Allen (who is also a real - life Republican) said in an interview on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, that being a Republican in Hollywood is "like 1930s Germany. You got ta be real careful around here, you know. You 'll get beat up if you do n't believe what everybody believes. '' His comment was widely criticized, especially his comparing the treatment of Republicans in Hollywood with Nazi Germany.
A viewer petition on the website Change.org calling for ABC to reinstate Last Man Standing surpassed 380,000 signatures as of May 23, 2017. In a conference call with reporters earlier in May, ABC president Channing Dungey stated, "Last Man Standing was a challenging one for me, because it was a steady performer. Once we made the decision not to continue with comedy on Friday, it was just kind of that 's where we landed. '' Dungey cited studio ownership, future creative direction, ratings and viewer engagement as all factors in her decision.
Tim Allen voiced his displeasure with the cancellation, tweeting on May 16: "Stunned and blindsided by the network I called home for the last six years. ''
On May 20, 2017, Howard Kurtzman, president of 20th Century Fox Television, reportedly showed some interest in his studio continuing to produce the show. "We 're starting to explore that, '' Kurtzman said. "... (Fox Co-President) Jonnie (Davis) and I are hopeful that we can find another home for it. '' Variety also confirmed in an exclusive report that 20th Century Fox Television would shop the series to other networks and streaming services in hopes it would be picked up for a seventh season; another home has not been found, however.
While popular among viewers (receiving an 82 % "Fresh '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes and 7.5 / 10 stars on IMDb), Last Man Standing received generally negative reviews from critics. Season one has an approval rating of 16 % on Rotten Tomatoes and a score of 33 out of 100 on Metacritic. The Hollywood Reporter commented: "A predictable sitcom with a stupid premise and bad acting. '' Los Angeles Times: "The jokes and plots have been efficiently constructed, but most have no traction; they slide right off you, and the characters themselves seem disconnected from one another. '' Entertainment Weekly offered a slightly more favorable review of the show: "When I look at the now - rounded softness of Tim Allen, and note once again how his sandpaper voice contrasts winningly with his hopeful eyes, it 's impossible to plunge a shiv into this series. ''
Season two scored 40 % at Rotten Tomatoes. Entertainment Weekly commented: "I think it 's time the folks involved with Last take a closer look at All in the Family, in which the prejudice was built around real jokes. '' The A.V. Club: "The problem with Last Man Standing 's attempts to go political is exemplified by the first scene of the season première, which remains one of the most uncomfortable scenes of television I 've ever watched... doing its best to push buttons in the audience that do n't need to be pushed, as if it thinks what made (Norman) Lear 's sitcoms a success was the yelling or the mentions of social issues that people sometimes argued about. '' Philly.com wrote about season three: "The unlikely comeback vehicle for Tim Allen, Last Man Standing on ABC, is a thoroughly traditional, absolutely charming sitcom. (...) Last Man is both economical and efficient, getting excellent comic mileage out of the most marginal bit players. ''
The series was particularly popular among conservatives, many of whom viewed the show as a counterpoint to Modern Family, another 20th Century Fox sitcom that aired on ABC at the same time and featured more liberal ideologies. A study conducted during the 2016 U.S. presidential election found that it was the tenth most popular show on television with Republicans.
ABC 's series premiere of Last Man Standing drew a 3.5 adults 18 -- 49 rating. That was 9 % better than the 3.2 adults 18 -- 49 rating for the series premiere of No Ordinary Family in the same time - slot the previous year (which was two weeks earlier in the season). Season 2 of Last Man Standing premiered with a 2.0, down about 38 % from its first - season premiere, but up about 18 % from the previous season 's finale.
Last Man Standing was nominated for a 2012 People 's Choice Award for "Favorite New TV Comedy '', but lost to CBS 's 2 Broke Girls.
On September 4, 2015, the series joined the CMT Network with a mini-marathon of episodes. On September 3, 2015, it was announced that ABC Family (now Freeform) had obtained syndication rights to the series, which began airing episodes on September 28, 2015. Additionally, on May 15, 2015, it was announced that Hallmark Channel has obtained the rights to the sitcom and began airing the series in January 2016. Five seasons are available for streaming on Netflix and the sixth and final season is also available on Hulu. The syndication of Last Man Standing is a major success in a time when few off - network reruns were becoming hits.
Last Man Standing aired on ABC in the U.S., on Fox8, Network Ten and Eleven (previously aired on One) in Australia, City in Canada, and TV3 in New Zealand. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it premiered on October 9, 2012. The second season premiered on January 30, 2014.
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when a person believes that his culture is superior to other culture it is called | Ethnocentrism - wikipedia
Ethnocentrism is the act of judging another culture based on preconceptions that are found in values and standards of one 's own culture. Ethnocentric behavior involves judging other groups relative to the preconceptions of one 's own ethnic group or culture, especially regarding language, behavior, customs, and religion. These aspects or categories are distinctions that define each ethnicity 's unique cultural identity.
William G. Sumner defined ethnocentrism as "the technical name for the view of things in which one 's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it. '' He further characterized ethnocentrism as often leading to pride, vanity, belief in one 's own group 's superiority, and contempt for outsiders. These problems may occur from the dividing of societies into in - groups and out - groups. Ethnocentrism is explained in the social sciences and genetics. In anthropology, cultural relativism is used as an antithesis and antonym to ethnocentrism.
The term "ethnocentrism '' was coined by Ludwig Gumplowicz and subsequently employed by William G. Sumner. Gumplowicz defined ethnocentrism as the reasons by virtue of which each group of people believed it had always occupied the highest point not only among contemporaneous peoples and nations but also in relation to all peoples of the historical past (Der Rassenkampf, 1883).
Although central to anthropology, sociology, psychology, and other disciplines the concept of ethnocentrism has been defined and characterized so variously that some scholars have spoken of the "disutility of the ethnocentrism concept '' and have wondered whether from the large body of research on ethnocentrism any conclusions could be drawn.
William Graham Sumner proposed two different definitions. In the 1906 Folkways, Sumner stated that "ethnocentrism is the technical name for this view of things in which one 's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it '' (13). In the 1911 War and Other Essays, he wrote that "the sentiment of cohesion, internal comradeship, and devotion to the in - group, which carries with it a sense of superiority to any out - group and readiness to defend the interests of the in - group against the out - group, is technically known as ethnocentrism '' (11).
Forty years later, anthropologist Richard Adams undertook to clear up a confusion. He noted that one scholar, G.P. Murdock, defined ethnocentrism as "the tendency to exalt the in - group and to depreciate other groups, '' which made out - group antagonism the inevitable concomitant of in - group solidarity, but that another, M.J. Herkovits, defined ethnocentrism as "the point of view that one 's way of life s to be preferred to all others. '' He pointed out that these were two different attitudes, and that it was important to distinguish them. The first is in - group consciousness, a sense of communal interests found even in sub-human animals, but the second arises from the processes of socialization and enculturation, and has no counterpart among sub-human groups.
In 1996, Robert K. Merton commented that "although the practice of seeing one 's own group as the center of things is empirically correlated with a belief in superiority, centrality and superiority need to be kept analytically distinct in order to deal with patterns of alienation from one 's membership group and contempt for it. ''
People raised in a particular culture that absorb the values and behaviors of that culture will develop a worldview that considers their own culture to be the norm. If people then experience other cultures that have different values and behaviors, they will find that the thought patterns appropriate to their native culture are not appropriate for the new cultures. However, since people are accustomed to their native culture, it can be difficult for them to see the behaviors of people from a different culture from the viewpoint of that culture rather than from their own.
Ethnocentrism can be explicit or implicit. Explicit ethnocentrism involves the ability to express the feelings about outsiders (people from other groups), and implicit ethnocentrism refers to the inhibition of the feelings for outsiders.
Anthropology in the 19th - century had been committed to using evolution as a methodological framework in which European society and culture represented the apex of human development, and all non-European societies and their cultures were described and rank according to the degree to which they had developed a monotheistic religion, science, technology, and so on. Franz Boas committed himself to overthrowing 19th - century evolutionism, and with his methodological innovations sought to show the error of the proposition that race determined cultural capacity. Boas wrote:
Boas and his colleagues promulgated the principle that there are no inferior races or cultures. Cultural relativism in anthropology is a methodological principle, indispensable for investigating and comparing societies in as unprejudiced was as possible without using a developmental scale that is usually irrelevant.
Anthropologists such as Franz Boas and Bronislaw Malinowski argued that any human science had to transcend the ethnocentrism of the scientist. Both urged anthropologists to conduct ethnographic fieldwork in order to overcome their ethnocentrism. Boas developed the principle of cultural relativism where the "context '' plays an important role to the understanding of other people 's values, and Malinowski developed the theory of functionalism as guides for producing non-ethnocentric studies of different cultures. Classic examples of anti-ethnocentric anthropology include Margaret Mead 's Coming of Age in Samoa (1928), Malinowski 's The Sexual Life of Savages in North - Western Melanesia (1929), and Ruth Benedict 's Patterns of Culture (1934). (Mead and Benedict were two of Boas 's students.)
Examples of ethnocentrism include religiocentric constructs claiming a divine association like "divine nation '', "God 's Own Country '', "God 's Chosen People '', and "God 's Promised Land ''. Although this may be seen as classic examples, a study published by Brill showed that religious attitudes do not effect on negative out - group attitudes.
In Precarious Life, Judith Butler discusses recognizing the Other in order to sustain the Self and the problems of not being able to identify the Other. Butler writes:
Scholars are generally agreed that Boas developed his revolutionary ideas under the influence of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Legend has it that, on a field trip to the Baffin Islands in 1883, Boas would pass the frigid nights reading Kant 's monumental Critique of Pure Reason. In that work, Kant argued that human understanding could not be described according to the laws that applied to the operations of nature, and that its operations were therefore free, not determined, and that ideas regulated human action, sometimes independent of material interests. Following Kant, Boas pointed out, for instance, the starving Eskimos who, because of their religious beliefs, would not hunt seals to feed themselves, thus showing that no pragmatic or material calculus determined their values (The Mind of Primitive Man, New York: Macmillan, 1911: 126).
Consumer ethnocentrism refers to the preference of buying products from one 's own country with the purpose of protecting the economy and the jobs of people in the country. It involves the brand and quality of the products. In order to measure the levels of a consumer 's ethnocentric tendencies, the CETSACALE was created and used for many countries and cultures.
There is no broad consensus as to the cause of ethnocentrism. Various areas of social and biological science have developed theories as to how ethnocentrism works. The social identity approach to psychology suggests that ethnocentricity is caused by a strong identification with one 's own culture that links one 's self - esteem to a positive view of that culture. It 's theorized that in order to maintain that positive view, people make social comparisons that cast competing cultural groups in an unfavorable light.
Research published by PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America) suggested that ethnocentrism may be mediated by the oxytocin hormone. It was found that in randomized controlled trials "oxytocin creates intergroup bias because oxytocin motivates in - group favoritism and, to a lesser extent, out - group derogation ''.
In The Selfish Gene, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins writes that "Blood - feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretable in terms of Hamilton 's genetic theory. '' Simulation - based experiments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric - strategy phenotypes.
Realistic conflict theory assumes that ethnocentrism happens due to "real or perceived conflict '' in between groups. This also happens with new members of a group where the dominant group may perceive the new ones as a threat.
Notes
Further reading
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when was the last time lions won a playoff game | List of NFL franchise postseason droughts - wikipedia
This is a list of current National Football League (NFL) franchise post-season and Super Bowl droughts (multiple consecutive seasons of not winning). Listed here are both appearance droughts and winning droughts in almost every level of the NFL playoff system.
As of the 2017 NFL season, every active NFL team has qualified for, and won a game in, the playoffs at least once. Teams that have never made it beyond each successive milestone are listed under the year in which they began NFL play.
Of the 12 teams that have never won the Super Bowl, four (4) are expansion franchises younger than the Super Bowl itself (Bengals, Panthers, Jaguars, and the Texans). The Falcons began playing during the season in which the Super Bowl was first played. The seven (7) other clubs (Cardinals, Lions, Oilers / Titans, Chargers, Browns, Bills, and Vikings) all won an NFL or AFL championship prior to the AFL -- NFL merger; in the case of the Vikings, however, the Super Bowl existed at the time they won their league title, leaving them and the Falcons as the only two teams to have existed for as long as or longer than the Super Bowl that have never secured the highest championship available to them. The longest drought since a championship of any kind is that of the Cardinals, at 69 seasons.
Note that for continuity purposes, the Cleveland Browns are officially considered to have suspended operations for the 1996, 1997 and 1998 seasons, Since returning 19 years ago they have only made playoffs once. While Baltimore Ravens are considered to be a separate team that began play in 1996. The Ravens, as a result of the Cleveland Browns relocation controversy, absorbed the Browns ' personnel upon their suspension, but not their history.
Updated through the end of the 2017 NFL season.
Updated through the 2017 NFL season. Sortable table, click on header arrows.
(*): Franchise earned a bye in the Wild Card round. Franchise dormant 1996 -- 1998. Since returning team is 0 - 1 in playoffs.
This is also a list of the last time a particular club won a Divisional playoff game.
This list also counts all seasons since a team last won the league championship.
Listed according to seasons waited. Current NFL cities / regions only.
Listed according to seasons waited. Updated through the 2017 season.
* * Does not include the three seasons (1996 -- 1998) during which the franchise suspended operations.
Counted from the first Super Bowl season, 1966, to present. Updated through the Super Bowl LII.
In these instances, the matchup ensured that one team would win the first NFL or AFL playoff championship in it 's history.
7003197800000000000 ♠
This is a sortable table of all 32 current NFL teams. Ten teams have multiple losing streaks where they lost an equal number of post season games before breaking the drought.
Updated through the 2017 season.
Note that the NFL did not institute a permanent playoff tournament until 1967 and that the NFL Championship Game and any impromptu one - game playoffs (played only in the event of a tie atop the division standings) were the only postseason matchups in this era (the Bert Bell Benefit Bowl is considered an exhibition game for the purpose of this list).
Updated through the 2017 season.
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lost between the moon and new york city lyrics | Arthur 's Theme (Best That You Can Do) - wikipedia
"Arthur 's Theme (Best That You Can Do) '' is a song performed and co-written by American singer - songwriter Christopher Cross, which was the main theme for the 1981 film Arthur starring Dudley Moore and Liza Minnelli. The song won the Oscar for Best Original Song in 1982. In the US, it reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and on the Hot Adult Contemporary charts during October 1981, remaining at the top on the Hot 100 for three consecutive weeks. Overseas, it also went to number one on the VG - lista chart in Norway, and was a top ten hit in several other countries. The song became the second and last American number one hit by Christopher Cross. It was included as a bonus track only on the CD & Cassette versions of his second album Another Page, released in 1983.
The B - side of record, "Minstrel Gigolo, '' was the same song used on the back of Cross 's debut single, "Ride Like the Wind. ''
Indie pop band Fitz and The Tantrums recorded a cover of this song for the soundtrack to the 2011 remake of the film.
The song was written in collaboration between Cross, pop music composer Burt Bacharach, and Bacharach 's frequent writing partner Carole Bayer Sager. A fourth writing credit went to Minnelli 's ex-husband and Australian songwriter Peter Allen, also a frequent collaborator with Bayer Sager: the line "When you get caught between the moon and New York City '' from the chorus was taken from an unreleased song Allen and Bayer Sager had previously written together. Allen came up with the line while his plane was in a holding pattern during a night arrival at John F. Kennedy International Airport.
The song won the 1981 Academy Award for Best Original Song, and the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. In 2004 it finished at # 79 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of the top tunes in American cinema. In 2008 Barry Manilow released a cover version.
The music video consisted of two acts, which are edited together in fade outs. Christopher Cross in one offers the song with some studio musicians in a recording studio and the other is the story the song illustrates.
On July 13, 2004 this song was officially covered by Billy Joel of the 2004 film remake The Magic Of Idents. In 2012 They also have covered by Nina, Jaya, Kyla, Aicelle Santos and Jona during the Music Lets Party "Chinese Zodiac '' episode last January 29. But in October 28, 2014 Manly Ocampo also covered for the soundtrack Ruea Puang Satan or in English Make Friendship With Each Other.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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who sings what a wonderful world it would be | Wonderful World (Sam Cooke song) - wikipedia
"Wonderful World '' (occasionally referred to as "(What A) Wonderful World '') is a song by American singer - songwriter Sam Cooke. Released on April 14, 1960 by Keen Records, it had been recorded during an impromptu session the previous year, Cooke 's last recording session at Keen Records. He signed with RCA Victor in 1960 and "Wonderful World, '' then unreleased, was issued as a single in competition. The song was mainly composed by songwriting team Lou Adler and Herb Alpert, but Cooke revised the lyrics to mention the subject of education more.
"Wonderful World '' ended up doing substantially better on the charts than several of his early RCA singles, becoming his biggest hit single since "You Send Me '' (1957). The song peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and hit number two on Billboard 's Hot R&B Sides chart.
Herman 's Hermits charted better with a cover of the song in 1965, reaching number four in the United States and number seven in the United Kingdom, respectively. Another cover by Art Garfunkel with James Taylor and Paul Simon charted at number 17 in 1978. The Sam Cooke version was featured in the 1978 film Animal House and gained greater recognition in the UK upon a 1986 re-release when it peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart, going silver (it had peaked at number 27 on the UK singles chart on first release in 1960). Its 1986 success was attributed to sound - alike versions featured in the film Witness (1985) and a memorable Levi 's 501 television commercial.
Co-writer Lou Adler
Lou Adler and Herb Alpert composed the song with the theme that neither knowledge nor education can dictate feelings, but that love "could make the world a wonderful place. '' Adler did not take the song very seriously but Cooke appeared to be taken with it, I reckon. "He 'd say, ' What about that song, you know? ' And then he 'd start on it again, '' recalled Adler. Cooke wanted to steer the song toward the subject of schooling, revised the song and decided to cut it at a recording session on March 2, 1959, five days after completing his Billie Holiday tribute album, Tribute to the Lady.
The session 's main goal was to record three songs Cooke had composed. There was no arranger or orchestra and the personnel consisted of Cooke, guitarist Cliff White, bassist Adolphus Alsbrook, teenage drummer Ronnie Selico and a quartet of singers that Cooke biographer Peter Guralnick believes may have been the Pilgrim Travelers -- J.W. Alexander, Lou Rawls, and George McCurn (nicknamed Oopie).
No footage of Cooke performing the song in his lifetime is known -- in 1986 ABKCO president Allen Klein offered a $10,000 reward for anyone obtaining such footage.
Cooke signed to RCA Victor in 1960 but his first two singles on the major label -- "Teenage Sonata '' and "You Understand Me '' -- failed to register on the charts. Meanwhile, John Siamas, co-founder of Keen Records, discovered the "demo '' recording of "Wonderful World '' among unreleased Cooke recordings. Keen released "Wonderful World '' in competition with RCA 's issue of "You Understand Me '' in the same week. "Wonderful World '' quickly became Cooke 's best - performing single since his first hit "You Send Me, '' reaching number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number two on the magazine 's Hot R&B Sides chart. Billboard reviewed the single upon its release, giving it four stars and writing, "Moderate rocker gets a smooth belt from Sam Cooke in his usual, salable style. ''
In 2004, the song was placed 373rd in Rolling Stone magazine 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
Herman 's Hermits had a major hit in the mid-1960s with an uptempo version of the song (omitting one verse) which reached number four in the US and number seven in the UK. The Hermits ' version was, according to singer Peter Noone and guitarist Keith Hopwood, done as a tribute to Cooke upon his death.
Otis Redding recorded a version of the song on his 1965 album Otis Blue. In 1978, Art Garfunkel recorded the song at a slow tempo, with Paul Simon and James Taylor alternating as lead and backing vocalists. This reached number 17 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 15 on the Cash Box Top 100. The Garfunkel version also became a number - one US Adult Contemporary hit for five weeks. Despite Paul Simon 's presence on the recording, the song was not credited as a Simon and Garfunkel single. Instead, labels for US copies of the Columbia Records single read, "Art Garfunkel with James Taylor & Paul Simon ''. A photograph from Discogs displays the label as it appeared.
The song (as credited under the alternate title, (What A) Wonderful World ") was included on later versions of Garfunkel 's solo album, "Watermark ''. It was added in place of another song ("Fingerpaint '') to capitalize on the single 's success.
The Garfunkel version includes a final verse not present in the original Sam Cooke recording; however, it is still credited to Adler, Alpert and Cooke.
Do n't know much about the middle ages, looked at the pictures then I turned the pages,
Do n't know nothin ' ' bout no rise and fall, do n't know nothin ' ' bout nothin ' at all.
Girl it 's you that I 've been thinkin ' of, and if I could only win your love, oh, girl,
What a wonderful, wonderful world this would be.
What a wonderful, wonderful, wonderful world this would be...
The last line repeats, and the song fades out at this point.
Johnny Nash also recorded and performed a version.
Hong Kong singer Sandy Lam released a cover of the song in 1997.
In 1993, Japanese group Ulfuls released a cover of the song, which was later used in 1997 as ending song for the drama "Sore ga kotae da! ''
The song is used in the 1978 film Animal House in the well - known lunchroom scene where Bluto (John Belushi) gathers food in preparation for a food fight. The song was also included in the 1983 film Breathless. The original Sam Cooke version of the song comprised the title soundtrack of the 2005 film Hitch.
After a Greg Chapman cover of the song was featured prominently in the 1985 film Witness in a scene where Harrison Ford dances with Kelly McGillis, "Wonderful World '' gained further exposure. Particularly in the United Kingdom, where a copy of the song, produced by Karl Jenkins and Mike Ratledge and with vocals sung by Barbadian Tony Jackson, a backing singer for Paul Young, appeared in "Bath '', a well - remembered, Roger Lyons - directed 1985 advertisement for Levi 's 501 jeans. As a result, the Sam Cooke version of the song became a hit in the UK, reaching No. 2 and selling a certified 250,000 copies. In a 2005 poll by the UK 's Channel Four the song was voted the 19th - greatest song ever to feature in a commercial.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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0 k is equal to what temperature in celsius | Absolute zero - wikipedia
Absolute zero is the lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as 0. Absolute zero is the point at which the fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero - point energy - induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as − 273.15 ° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units), which equals − 459.67 ° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units). The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.
It is commonly thought of as the lowest temperature possible, but it is not the lowest enthalpy state possible, because all real substances begin to depart from the ideal gas when cooled as they approach the change of state to liquid, and then to solid; and the sum of the enthalpy of vaporization (gas to liquid) and enthalpy of fusion (liquid to solid) exceeds the ideal gas 's change in enthalpy to absolute zero. In the quantum - mechanical description, matter (solid) at absolute zero is in its ground state, the point of lowest internal energy.
The laws of thermodynamics indicate that absolute zero can not be reached using only thermodynamic means, because the temperature of the substance being cooled approaches the temperature of the cooling agent asymptotically, and a system at absolute zero still possesses quantum mechanical zero - point energy, the energy of its ground state at absolute zero. The kinetic energy of the ground state can not be removed.
Scientists and technologists routinely achieve temperatures close to absolute zero, where matter exhibits quantum effects such as superconductivity and superfluidity.
At temperatures near 0 K (− 273.15 ° C; − 459.67 ° F), nearly all molecular motion ceases and ΔS = 0 for any adiabatic process, where S is the entropy. In such a circumstance, pure substances can (ideally) form perfect crystals as T → 0. Max Planck 's strong form of the third law of thermodynamics states the entropy of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero. The original Nernst heat theorem makes the weaker and less controversial claim that the entropy change for any isothermal process approaches zero as T → 0:
The implication is that the entropy of a perfect crystal simply approaches a constant value.
The Nernst postulate identifies the isotherm T = 0 as coincident with the adiabat S = 0, although other isotherms and adiabats are distinct. As no two adiabats intersect, no other adiabat can intersect the T = 0 isotherm. Consequently no adiabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature. (≈ Callen, pp. 189 -- 190)
A perfect crystal is one in which the internal lattice structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational symmetry along three (not usually orthogonal) axes. Every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For substances that exist in two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as diamond and graphite for carbon, there is a kind of chemical degeneracy. The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at T = 0 even though each is perfectly ordered.
Perfect crystals never occur in practice; imperfections, and even entire amorphous material inclusions, can and do simply get "frozen in '' at low temperatures, so transitions to more stable states do not occur.
Using the Debye model, the specific heat and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to T, while the enthalpy and chemical potential are proportional to T. (Guggenheim, p. 111) These quantities drop toward their T = 0 limiting values and approach with zero slopes. For the specific heats at least, the limiting value itself is definitely zero, as borne out by experiments to below 10 K. Even the less detailed Einstein model shows this curious drop in specific heats. In fact, all specific heats vanish at absolute zero, not just those of crystals. Likewise for the coefficient of thermal expansion. Maxwell 's relations show that various other quantities also vanish. These phenomena were unanticipated.
Since the relation between changes in Gibbs free energy (G), the enthalpy (H) and the entropy is
thus, as T decreases, ΔG and ΔH approach each other (so long as ΔS is bounded). Experimentally, it is found that all spontaneous processes (including chemical reactions) result in a decrease in G as they proceed toward equilibrium. If ΔS and / or T are small, the condition ΔG < 0 may imply that ΔH < 0, which would indicate an exothermic reaction. However, this is not required; endothermic reactions can proceed spontaneously if the TΔS term is large enough.
Moreover, the slopes of the derivatives of ΔG and ΔH converge and are equal to zero at T = 0. This ensures that ΔG and ΔH are nearly the same over a considerable range of temperatures and justifies the approximate empirical Principle of Thomsen and Berthelot, which states that the equilibrium state to which a system proceeds is the one that evolves the greatest amount of heat, i.e., an actual process is the most exothermic one. (Callen, pp. 186 -- 187)
One model that estimates the properties of an electron gas at absolute zero in metals is the Fermi gas. The electrons, being Fermions, must be in different quantum states, which leads the electrons to get very high typical velocities, even at absolute zero. The maximum energy that electrons can have at absolute zero is called the Fermi energy. The Fermi temperature is defined as this maximum energy divided by Boltzmann 's constant, and is of the order of 80,000 K for typical electron densities found in metals. For temperatures significantly below the Fermi temperature, the electrons behave in almost the same way as at absolute zero. This explains the failure of the classical equipartition theorem for metals that eluded classical physicists in the late 19th century.
A Bose -- Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter of a dilute gas of weakly interacting bosons confined in an external potential and cooled to temperatures very near absolute zero. Under such conditions, a large fraction of the bosons occupy the lowest quantum state of the external potential, at which point quantum effects become apparent on a macroscopic scale.
This state of matter was first predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein in 1924 -- 25. Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the quantum statistics of light quanta (now called photons). Einstein was impressed, translated the paper from English to German and submitted it for Bose to the Zeitschrift für Physik, which published it. Einstein then extended Bose 's ideas to material particles (or matter) in two other papers.
Seventy years later, in 1995, the first gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado at Boulder NIST - JILA lab, using a gas of rubidium atoms cooled to 170 nanokelvins (nK) (6993170000000000000 ♠ 1.7 × 10 K).
A record cold temperature of 450 ± 80 picokelvins (pK) (6990450000000000000 ♠ 4.5 × 10 K) in a Bose -- Einstein condensate (BEC) of sodium atoms was achieved in 2003 by researchers at MIT. The associated black - body (peak emittance) wavelength of 6,400 kilometers is roughly the radius of Earth.
Absolute, or thermodynamic, temperature is conventionally measured in kelvins (Celsius - scaled increments) and in the Rankine scale (Fahrenheit - scaled increments) with increasing rarity. Absolute temperature measurement is uniquely determined by a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the degree, so the ratios of two absolute temperatures, T / T, are the same in all scales. The most transparent definition of this standard comes from the Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution. It can also be found in Fermi -- Dirac statistics (for particles of half - integer spin) and Bose -- Einstein statistics (for particles of integer spin). All of these define the relative numbers of particles in a system as decreasing exponential functions of energy (at the particle level) over kT, with k representing the Boltzmann constant and T representing the temperature observed at the macroscopic level.
Temperatures that are expressed as negative numbers on the familiar Celsius or Fahrenheit scales are simply colder than the zero points of those scales. Certain systems can achieve truly negative temperatures; that is, their thermodynamic temperature (expressed in kelvins) can be of a negative quantity. A system with a truly negative temperature is not colder than absolute zero. Rather, a system with a negative temperature is hotter than any system with a positive temperature, in the sense that if a negative - temperature system and a positive - temperature system come in contact, heat flows from the negative to the positive - temperature system.
Most familiar systems can not achieve negative temperatures because adding energy always increases their entropy. However, some systems have a maximum amount of energy that they can hold, and as they approach that maximum energy their entropy actually begins to decrease. Because temperature is defined by the relationship between energy and entropy, such a system 's temperature becomes negative, even though energy is being added. As a result, the Boltzmann factor for states of systems at negative temperature increases rather than decreases with increasing state energy. Therefore, no complete system, i.e. including the electromagnetic modes, can have negative temperatures, since there is no highest energy state, so that the sum of the probabilities of the states would diverge for negative temperatures. However, for quasi-equilibrium systems (e.g. spins out of equilibrium with the electromagnetic field) this argument does not apply, and negative effective temperatures are attainable.
On 3 January 2013, physicists announced that they had created a quantum gas made up of potassium atoms with a negative temperature in motional degrees of freedom for the first time.
One of the first to discuss the possibility of an absolute minimal temperature was Robert Boyle. His 1665 New Experiments and Observations touching Cold, articulated the dispute known as the primum frigidum. The concept was well known among naturalists of the time. Some contended an absolute minimum temperature occurred within earth (as one of the four classical elements), others within water, others air, and some more recently within nitre. But all of them seemed to agree that, "There is some body or other that is of its own nature supremely cold and by participation of which all other bodies obtain that quality. ''
The question whether there is a limit to the degree of coldness possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first addressed by the French physicist Guillaume Amontons in 1702, in connection with his improvements in the air - thermometer. His instrument indicated temperatures by the height at which a certain mass of air sustained a column of mercury -- the volume, or "spring '' of the air varying with temperature. Amontons therefore argued that the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at which the spring of the air was reduced to nothing. He used a scale that marked the boiling - point of water at + 73 and the melting - point of ice at 51, so that the zero was equivalent to about − 240 on the Celsius scale.
This close approximation to the modern value of − 273.15 ° C for the zero of the air - thermometer was further improved upon in 1779 by Johann Heinrich Lambert, who observed that − 270 ° C (− 454.00 ° F; 3.15 K) might be regarded as absolute cold.
Values of this order for the absolute zero were not, however, universally accepted about this period. Pierre - Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier, in their 1780 treatise on heat, arrived at values ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 below the freezing - point of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600 below. John Dalton in his Chemical Philosophy gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted − 3000 ° C as the natural zero of temperature.
After James Prescott Joule had determined the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached the question from an entirely different point of view, and in 1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature that was independent of the properties of any particular substance and was based on Carnot 's theory of the Motive Power of Heat and data published by Henri Victor Regnault. It followed from the principles on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at − 273 ° C, at almost precisely the same point as the zero of the air - thermometer. This value was not immediately accepted; values ranging from − 271.1 ° C (− 455.98 ° F) to − 274.5 ° C (− 462.10 ° F), derived from laboratory measurements and observations of astronomical refraction, remained in use in the early 20th century.
With a better theoretical understanding of absolute zero, scientists were eager to reach this temperature in the lab. By 1845, Michael Faraday had managed to liquefy most gases then known to exist, and reached a new record for lowest temperatures by reaching − 130 ° C (− 202 ° F; 143 K). Faraday believed that certain gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, were permanent gases and could not be liquified. Decades later, in 1873 Dutch theoretical scientist Johannes Diderik van der Waals demonstrated that these gases could be liquefied, but only under conditions of very high pressure and very low temperatures. In 1877, Louis Paul Cailletet in France and Raoul Pictet in Switzerland succeeded in producing the first droplets of liquid air − 195 ° C (− 319.0 ° F; 78.1 K). This was followed in 1883 by the production of liquid oxygen − 218 ° C (− 360.4 ° F; 55.1 K) by the Polish professors Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski.
Scottish chemist and physicist James Dewar and the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes took on the challenge to liquefy the remaining gases hydrogen and helium. In 1898, after 20 years of effort, Dewar was first to liquefy hydrogen, reaching a new low temperature record of − 252 ° C (− 421.6 ° F; 21.1 K). However Onnes, his rival, was the first to liquefy helium, in 1908, using several precooling stages and the Hampson -- Linde cycle. He lowered the temperature to the boiling point of helium − 269 ° C (− 452.20 ° F; 4.15 K). By reducing the pressure of the liquid helium he achieved an even lower temperature, near 1.5 K. These were the coldest temperatures achieved on earth at the time and his achievement earned him the Nobel Prize in 1913. Onnes would continue to study the properties of materials at temperatures near absolute zero, describing superconductivity and superfluids for the first time.
The average temperature of the universe today is approximately 2.73 kelvins (− 270.42 ° C; − 454.76 ° F), based on measurements of cosmic microwave background radiation.
Absolute zero can not be achieved, although it is possible to reach temperatures close to it through the use of cryocoolers, dilution refrigerators, and nuclear adiabatic demagnetization. The use of laser cooling has produced temperatures less than a billionth of a kelvin. At very low temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero, matter exhibits many unusual properties, including superconductivity, superfluidity, and Bose -- Einstein condensation. To study such phenomena, scientists have worked to obtain even lower temperatures.
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what is the name of the first satellite launched by india | Indian Space Research Organisation - wikipedia
Coordinates: 12 ° 58 ′ 0 '' N 77 ° 34 ′ 0 '' E / 12.96667 ° N 77.56667 ° E / 12.96667; 77.56667
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO, / ˈɪsroʊ /) is the space agency of the Government of India headquartered in the city of Bangalore. Its vision is to "harness space technology for national development while pursuing space science research and planetary exploration. ''
Formed in 1969, ISRO superseded the erstwhile Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) established in 1962 by the efforts of independent India 's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, and his close aide and scientist Vikram Sarabhai. The establishment of ISRO thus institutionalized space activities in India. It is managed by the Department of Space, which reports to the Prime Minister of India.
ISRO built India 's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975. It was named after the Mathematician Aryabhata. In 1980, Rohini became the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indian - made launch vehicle, SLV - 3. ISRO subsequently developed two other rockets: the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching satellites into polar orbits and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for placing satellites into geostationary orbits. These rockets have launched numerous communications satellites and earth observation satellites. Satellite navigation systems like GAGAN and IRNSS have been deployed. In January 2014, ISRO successfully used an indigenous cryogenic engine in a GSLV - D5 launch of the GSAT - 14.
ISRO sent a lunar orbiter, Chandrayaan - 1, on 22 October 2008 and a Mars orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission, on 5 November 2013, which successfully entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014, making India the first nation to succeed on its first attempt to Mars, and ISRO the fourth space agency in the world as well as the first space agency in Asia to successfully reach Mars orbit. On 18 June 2016 ISRO successfully set a record with a launch of 20 satellites in a single payload, one being a satellite from Google. On 15 February 2017, ISRO launched 104 satellites in a single rocket (PSLV - C37) and created a world record. ISRO launched its heaviest rocket, Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle - Mark III (GSLV - Mk III), on 5 June 2017 and placed a communications satellite GSAT - 19 in orbit. With this launch, ISRO became capable of launching 4 ton heavy satellites.
Future plans include the development of ULV, development of a reusable launch vehicle, human spaceflight, controlled soft lunar landing, interplanetary probes, and a solar spacecraft mission.
Modern space research in India is most visibly traced to the 1920s, when the scientist S.K. Mitra conducted a series of experiments leading to the sounding of the ionosphere by application of ground - based radio methods in Calcutta. Later, Indian scientists like C.V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences. However, it was the period after 1945 that saw important developments being made in coordinated space research in India. Organised space research in India was spearheaded by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai -- founder of the Physical Research Laboratory at Ahmedabad -- and Homi Bhabha, who established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945. Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic radiation, high altitude and airborne testing of instruments, deep underground experimentation at the Kolar mines -- one of the deepest mining sites in the world -- and studies of the upper atmosphere. Studies were carried out at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations.
In 1950, the Department of Atomic Energy was founded with Homi Bhabha as its Secretary. The Department provided funding for space research throughout India. During this time, tests continued on aspects of meteorology and the Earth 's magnetic field, a topic that was being studied in India since the establishment of the observatory at Colaba in 1823. In 1954, the Uttar Pradesh state observatory was established at the foothills of the Himalayas. The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University, Hyderabad. Space research was further encouraged by the technically inclined Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru. In 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch.
The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was set up in 1962 by Jawaharlal Nehru, India 's first Prime Minister.
The prime objective of ISRO is to use space technology and its application to various national tasks. The Indian space programme was driven by the vision of Vikram Sarabhai, considered the father of the Indian Space Programme. As he said in 1969:
The former President of India A.P.J. Abdul Kalam said:
India 's economic progress has made its space program more visible and active as the country aims for greater self - reliance in space technology. In 2008 India launched as many as 11 satellites, including nine from other countries and went on to become the first nation to launch 10 satellites on one rocket. '' ISRO has successfully put into operation two major satellite systems: Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for communication services and Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources.
In July 2012, the former President, A.P.J. Abdul Kalam said that research was being done by ISRO and DRDO for developing cost reduction technologies for access to space.
ISRO is managed by the Department of Space (DoS) of the Government of India. DoS itself falls under the authority of the Prime Minister 's Office and the Space Commission, and manages the following agencies and institutes:
Set up as the marketing arm of ISRO, its job is to promote products, services and technology developed by ISRO.
During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own launch vehicle program owing to geopolitical and economic considerations. In the 1960s -- 1970s, the country successfully developed a sounding rockets programme, and by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle - 3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure. ISRO further applied its energies to the advancement of launch vehicle technology resulting in the creation of PSLV and GSLV technologies.
The Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation SLV or SLV - 3 was a 4 - stage solid - propellant light launcher. It was intended to reach a height of 500 km and carry a payload of 40 kg. Its first launch took place in 1979 with 2 more in each subsequent year, and the final launch in 1983. Only two of its four test flights were successful.
The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation ASLV was a 5 - stage solid propellant rocket with the capability of placing a 150 kg satellite into Low Earth Orbit. This project was started by the ISRO during the early 1980s to develop technologies needed for a payload to be placed into a geostationary orbit. Its design was based on Satellite Launch Vehicle. The first launch test was held in 1987, and after that 3 others followed in 1988, 1992 and 1994, out of which only 2 were successful, before it was decommissioned.
The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, commonly known by its abbreviation PSLV, is an expendable launch system developed by ISRO to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites into Sun synchronous orbits. PSLV can also launch small satellites into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The reliability and versatility of the PSLV is proven by the fact that it has launched, as of 2014, 71 satellites / spacecraft (31 Indian and 40 foreign) into a variety of orbits. The maximum number of satellites launched by the PSLV in a single launch is 104, in the PSLV - C37 launch on 15 February 2017.
Decade-wise summary of PSLV launches:
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation GSLV, is an expendable launch system developed to enable India to launch its INSAT - type satellites into geostationary orbit and to make India less dependent on foreign rockets. At present, it is ISRO 's second - heaviest satellite launch vehicle and is capable of putting a total payload of up to 5 tons to Low Earth Orbit. The vehicle is built by India, originally with a cryogenic engine purchased from Russia, while the ISRO developed its own cryogenic engine.
The first version of the GSLV (GSLV Mk. I), using the Russian cryogenic stage, became operational in 2004, after an unsuccessful first launch in 2001 and a second, successful development launch in 2003.
The first attempt to launch the GSLV Mk. II with an Indian built cryogenic engine, GSLV - F06 carrying GSAT - 5P, failed on 25 December 2010. The initial evaluation implies that loss of control for the strap - on boosters caused the rocket to veer from its intended flight path, forcing a programmed detonation. Sixty - four seconds into the first stage of flight, the rocket began to break up due to the acute angle of attack. The body housing the 3rd stage, the cryogenic stage, incurred structural damage, forcing the range safety team to initiate a programmed detonation of the rocket.
On 5 January 2014, GSLV - D5 successfully launched GSAT - 14 into intended orbit. This marked first successful flight using indigenous cryogenic engine (CE - 7.5), making India the sixth country in the world to have this technology.
Again on 27 August 2015, GSLV - D6 launched GSAT - 6 into the transfer orbit. ISRO used the indigenously developed Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) third time on board in this GSLV flight.
On 8 September 2016, GSLV - F05 successfully launched INSAT - 3DR, an advanced weather satellite, weighing 2211 kg into a Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO). GSLV is designed to inject 2 -- 2.5 Tonne class of satellites into GTO. The launch took place from the Second Launch Pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR (SDSC SHAR), Sriharikota. GSLV - F05 flight is significant since it is the first operational flight of GSLV carrying Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS). The indigenously developed CUS was carried on board for the fourth time during a GSLV flight in the GSLV - F05 flight. GSLV - F05 vehicle is configured with all its three stages including the CUS similar to the ones successfully flown during the previous GSLV - D5 and D6 missions in January 2014 and August 2015.
Decade-wise summary of GSLV Launches:
GSLV - Mk III is a launch vehicle. It is capable to launch four tonne satellites into geosynchronous transfer orbit. GSLV - Mk III is a three - stage vehicle with a 110 tonne core liquid propellant stage (L - 110) flanked by two 200 tonne solid propellant strap - on booster motors (S - 200). The upper stage is cryogenic with a propellant loading of 25 tonne (C - 25). The vehicle has a lift - off mass of about 640 tonnes and be 43.43 metres tall. According to ISRO, the payload fairing has a diameter of 5 metres and a payload volume of 100 cubic metres. It will allow India to become less dependent on foreign rockets for heavy lifting.
On 18 December 2014, ISRO successfully conducted an experimental test - flight of GSLV MK III carrying a crew module, to be used in future human space missions. This suborbital test flight demonstrated the performance of GSLV Mk III in the atmosphere.
GSLV Mk III - D1 carrying communication satellite GSAT - 19 lifted off from the second launch pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota on 5 June 2017 and placed the advanced communication satellite into the geosynchronous transfer orbit 16 minutes after takeoff. GSAT - 19 satellite with a lift - off mass of 3136 kg, is the communication satellite of India, configured around the ISRO 's standard I - 3K bus.
Decade wise summary of GSLV III launches:
India 's first satellite, the Aryabhata, was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975 from Kapustin Yar using a Cosmos - 3M launch vehicle. This was followed by the Rohini series of experimental satellites, which were built and launched indigenously. At present, ISRO operates a large number of earth observation satellites.
INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search - and - rescue needs of India. Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication system in the Asia - Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary - level INSAT Coordination Committee.
Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are a series of earth observation satellites, built, launched and maintained by ISRO. The IRS series provides remote sensing services to the country. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite system is the largest constellation of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today in the world. All the satellites are placed in polar Sun - synchronous orbit and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable several programmes to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial versions are composed of the 1 (A, B, C, D) nomenclature. The later versions are named based on their area of application including OceanSat, CartoSat, ResourceSat.
ISRO currently operates two Radar Imaging Satellites. RISAT - 1 was launched from Sriharikota Spaceport on 26 April 2012 on board a PSLV. RISAT - 1 carries a C - band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) payload, operating in a multi-polarisation and multi-resolution mode and can provide images with coarse, fine and high spatial resolutions. India also operates RISAT - 2, which was launched in 2009 and acquired from Israel at a cost $110 million.
ISRO has also launched a set of experimental geostationary satellites known as the GSAT series. Kalpana - 1, ISRO 's first dedicated meteorological satellite, was launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on 12 September 2002. The satellite was originally known as MetSat - 1. In February 2003 it was renamed to Kalpana - 1 by the Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in memory of Kalpana Chawla -- a NASA astronaut of Indian origin who perished in Space Shuttle Columbia.
ISRO has also successfully launched the Indo - French satellite SARAL on 25 February 2013, 12: 31 UTC. SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and ALtiKa '') is a cooperative altimetry technology mission. It is being used for monitoring the oceans surface and sea - levels. AltiKa will measure ocean surface topography with an accuracy of 8 mm, against 2.5 cm on average using current - generation altimeters, and with a spatial resolution of 2 km.
In June 2014, ISRO launched French Earth Observation Satellite SPOT - 7 (mass 714 kg) along with Singapore 's first nano satellite VELOX - I, Canada 's satellite CAN - X5, Germany 's satellite AISAT, via the PSLV - C23 launch vehicle. It was ISRO 's 4th commercial launch.
The South Asia Satellite (GSAT - 9) is a geosynchronous communications and meteorology satellite by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) for the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) region. (1) The satellite was launched on the 5th May, 2017. During the 18th SAARC summit held in Nepal in 2014, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi mooted the idea of a satellite serving the needs of SAARC member nations, part of his Neighbourhood first policy.
One month after sworn in as Prime Minister of India, in June 2014 Modi asked ISRO to develop a SAARC satellite, which can be dedicated as a ' gift ' to the neighbors.
It is a satellite for the SAARC region with 12 Ku - band transponders (36 MHz each) and launch using the Indian Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle GSLV Mk - II. The total cost of launching the satellite is estimated to be about ₹ 2,350,000,000 (₹ 235 crore). The cost associated with the launch was met by the Government of India. The satellite enables full range of applications and services in the areas of telecommunication and broadcasting applications viz television (TV), direct - to - home (DTH), very small aperture terminals (VSATs), tele - education, telemedicine and disaster management support.
The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite - Based Regional GPS Augmentation System also known as Space - Based Augmentation System (SBAS) as part of the Satellite - Based Communications, Navigation and Surveillance (CNS) / Air Traffic Management (ATM) plan for civil aviation. The Indian SBAS system has been given an acronym GAGAN -- GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. A national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of Technology Demonstration System (TDS) over the Indian air space as a proof of concept has been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India (AAI) and ISRO. TDS was successfully completed during 2007 by installing eight Indian Reference Stations (INRESs) at eight Indian airports and linked to the Master Control Centre (MCC) located near Bangalore.
The first GAGAN navigation payload has been fabricated and it was proposed to be flown on GSAT - 4 during Apr 2010. However, GSAT - 4 was not placed in orbit as GSLV - D3 could not complete the mission. Two more GAGAN payloads will be subsequently flown, one each on two geostationary satellites, GSAT - 8 and GSAT - 10. On 12 May 2012, ISRO announced the successful testing of its indigenous cryogenic engine for 200 seconds for its forthcoming GSLV - D5 flight.
IRNSS is an independent regional navigation satellite system being developed by India. It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India as well as the region extending up to 1500 km from its boundary, which is its primary service area. IRNSS will provide two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Restricted Service (RS) and is expected to provide a position accuracy of better than 20 m in the primary service area. It is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system being developed by Indian Space Research Organisation, which is under total control of Indian government. The requirement of such a navigation system is driven by the fact that access to Global Navigation Satellite Systems like GPS is not guaranteed in hostile situations. ISRO initially planned to launch the constellation of satellites between 2012 and 2014 but the project got delayed by nearly 2 years.
ISRO on 1 July 2013, at 23: 41 IST launched from Sriharikota the First Indian Navigation Satellite the IRNSS - 1A. The IRNSS - 1A was launched aboard PSLV - C22. The constellation would be comprising 7 satellites of I - 1K bus each weighing around 1450 Kilogrammes, with three satellites in the Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) and 4 in Geosynchronous earth orbit (GSO). The constellation would be completed around April 2016.
On 4 April 2014, at 17: 14 IST ISRO has launched IRNSS - 1B from Sriharikota, its second of seven IRNSS series. 19 minutes after launch PSLV - C24 was successfully injected into its orbit. IRNSS - 1C was launched on 16 October 2014, and IRNSS - 1D on 28 March 2015.
On 20 January 2016, 9: 31 hrs IST IRNSS - 1E was launched successfully aboard PSLV - C31 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota. On 10 March 2016, 4: 31 hrs IST IRNSS - 1F was launched successfully aboard PSLV - C32 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota. On 28 April 2016, 12: 50 hrs IST IRNSS - 1G was launched successfully aboard PSLV - XL - C33 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota. This Satellite is the seven and the last in the IRNSS system and completes India 's own navigation system
As of January 2016, ISRO was in the process of developing 4 back - up satellites to the constellation of existing IRNSS satellites.
On 31 August 2017, India 's ISRO failed in its attempt to launch its eighth regional navigation satellite (IRNSS - 1H) from Sriharikota at 7pm. The satellite got stuck in the fourth stage of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle -- PSLV - C39.
The Indian Space Research Organisation has proposed a budget of ₹ 12,400 crore (US $1.8 billion) for its human spaceflight program. According to the Space Commission, which recommended the budget, an unmanned flight will be launched after 7 years of final approval and a manned mission will be launched after 7 years of funding. If realized in the stated time - frame, India will become the fourth nation, after the USSR, USA and China, to successfully carry out manned missions indigenously. The government of India has not yet approved the mission as of October 2016.
The Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SCRE or more commonly SRE or SRE - 1) is an experimental Indian spacecraft that was launched using the PSLV C7 rocket, along with three other satellites. It remained in orbit for 12 days before re-entering the Earth 's atmosphere and splashing down into the Bay of Bengal.
The SRE - 1 was designed to demonstrate the capability to recover an orbiting space capsule, and the technology for performing experiments in the microgravity conditions of an orbiting platform. It was also intended to test thermal protection, navigation, guidance, control, deceleration and flotation systems, as well as study hypersonic aerothermodynamics, management of communication blackouts, and recovery operations.
ISRO also plans to launch SRE - 2 and SRE - 3 in the near future to test advanced re-entry technology for future manned missions.
ISRO will set up an astronaut training center in Bangalore to prepare personnel for flights on board the crewed vehicle. The center will use simulation facilities to train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations and survival in zero gravity, and will undertake studies of the radiation environment of space. ISRO will build centrifuges to prepare astronauts for the acceleration phase of the mission. It also plans to build a new Launch pad to meet the target of launching a manned space mission in 7 years of funding clearance. This would be the third launchpad at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is working towards a maiden manned Indian space mission vehicle that can carry three astronauts for seven days in a near earth orbit. The Indian manned spacecraft temporarily named as Orbital Vehicle intends to be the basis of indigenous Indian human spaceflight program. The capsule will be designed to carry three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its maiden manned mission, ISRO 's largely autonomous 3 - ton capsule will orbit the Earth at 400 km in altitude for up to seven days with a two - person crew on board. The crew vehicle would launch atop of ISRO 's GSLV Mk II, currently under development. The GSLV Mk II features an indigenously developed cryogenic upper - stage engine. The first test of the cryogenic engine, held on 15 April 2010, failed as the cryogenic phase did not perform as expected and rocket deviated from the planned trajectory. However the next two tests of the indigenous cryogenic engine were successful on 5 January 2014 and 27 August 2015.
India 's space era dawned when the first two - stage sounding rocket was launched from Thumba in 1963.
There is a national balloon launching facility at Hyderabad jointly supported by TIFR and ISRO. This facility has been extensively used for carrying out research in high energy (i.e., X - and gamma - ray) astronomy, IR astronomy, middle atmospheric trace constituents including CFCs & aerosols, ionization, electric conductivity and electric fields.
The flux of secondary particles and X-ray and gamma - rays of atmospheric origin produced by the interaction of the cosmic rays is very low. This low background, in the presence of which one has to detect the feeble signal from cosmic sources is a major advantage in conducting hard X-ray observations from India. The second advantage is that many bright sources like Cyg X-1, Crab Nebula, Scorpius X-1 and Galactic Centre sources are observable from Hyderabad due to their favourable declination. With these considerations, an X-ray astronomy group was formed at TIFR in 1967 and development of an instrument with an orientable X-ray telescope for hard X-ray observations was undertaken. The first balloon flight with the new instrument was made on 28 April 1968 in which observations of Scorpius X-1 were successfully carried out. In a succession of balloon flights made with this instrument between 1968 and 1974 a number of binary X-ray sources including Cyg X-1 and Her X-1, and the diffuse cosmic X-ray background were studied. Many new and astrophysically important results were obtained from these observations.
One of most important achievements of ISRO in this field was the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude of between 20 -- 40 km. The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, are not found elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in origin. These three bacteria can be considered to be extremophiles. Until then, the upper stratosphere was believed to be inhospitable because of the high doses of ultra-violet radiation. The bacteria were named as Bacillus isronensis in recognition of ISRO 's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its discovery, Bacillus aryabhata after India 's celebrated ancient astronomer Aryabhata and Janibacter hoylei after the distinguished astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.
The Astrosat is India 's first multi wavelength space observatory and full - fledged astronomy satellite. Its observation study includes active galactic nuclei, hot white dwarfs, pulsations of pulsars, binary star systems, supermassive black holes located at the centre of the galaxies. etc.
Chandrayaan - 1 was India 's first mission to the moon. The unmanned lunar exploration mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor called the Moon Impact Probe. ISRO launched the spacecraft using a modified version of the PSLV on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. The vehicle was successfully inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. It carried high - resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. During its 312 days operational period (2 years planned), it surveyed the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and 3 - dimensional topography. The polar regions were of special interest, as they possibly had ice deposits. The spacecraft carried 11 instruments: 5 Indian and 6 from foreign institutes and space agencies (including NASA, ESA, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Brown University and other European and North American institutes / companies), which were carried free of cost. Chandrayaan - 1 became the first lunar mission to discover existence of water on the Moon. The Chandrayaan - 166 team was awarded the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics SPACE 2009 award, the International Lunar Exploration Working Group 's International Co-operation award in 2008, and the National Space Society 's 2009 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category.
The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), informally known as Mangalayaan, was launched into Earth orbit on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and has entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. India thus became the first country to enter Mars orbit on its first attempt. It was completed at a record cost of $74 million.
MOM was successfully placed into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014 at 8: 23 am IST.
The spacecraft had a launch mass of 1,337 kg (2,948 lb), with 15 kg (33 lb) of five scientific instruments as payload.
The National Space Society awarded the Mars Orbiter Mission team the 2015 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category.
ISRO plans to launch a number of new - generation Earth Observation Satellites in the near future. It will also undertake the development of new launch vehicles and spacecraft. ISRO has stated that it will send unmanned missions to Mars and Near - Earth Objects. ISRO has planned 58 missions during 2012 -- 17; 33 satellites missions in next two years and 25 launch vehicles missions thereafter, costing ₹ 200 billion (US $3 billion).
As a first step towards realizing a Two Stage To Orbit (TSTO) fully re-usable launch vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been conceived. For this purpose, a Winged Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV - TD) has been configured. The RLV - TD will act as a flying test bed to evaluate various technologies viz., hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise flight and hypersonic flight using air - breathing propulsion. First in the series of demonstration trials is the hypersonic flight experiment (HEX).
A scaled - down, unmanned version of India 's futuristic space shuttle was getting the final touches at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) in Thumba as of 20 May 2015. "The ' space plane ' part of the RLV - TD is almost ready. We are now in the process of affixing special tiles on its outer surface, which is needed for withstanding the intense heat during re-entry into the earth 's atmosphere, '' SSC director M Chandradathan said. ISRO has tentatively slated the prototype 's test flight from the first launchpad of Sriharikota spaceport for February 2016, but the date would be finalized depending on the completion of construction. The proposed RLV is designed in two parts; a manned space plane rigged atop a single stage, booster rocket using solid fuel. The rocket is expendable while the RLV would fly back to Earth and land like a normal airplane after the mission.
The prototype - ' the RLV - TD ' weighs around 1.5 tonnes and would fly up to a height of 70 km. The HEX (Hypersonic Flight Experiment) was successfully completed on 01: 30 GMT, 23 May 2016.
The ULV or Unified Launch Vehicle is a launch vehicle in development by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The project 's core objective is to design a modular architecture that will enable the replacement of the PSLV, GSLV Mk II and GSLV Mk III with a single family of launchers.It will use a semi-cryogenic core stage SC160 with SCE - 200 engine with 160 tonne of propellant loading of RP - 1 and LOX, producing around 2000 kN thrust. The SCE - 200 engine can even be clustered for heavy launch configuration. The ULV will be able to launch 6000 kg to 10,000 kg of payload into GTO. This will mark the renunciation of the liquid stage with Vikas engine, which uses UDMH and N O, which produce toxic fumes.
ISRO 's missions beyond Earth 's orbit include Chandrayaan - 1 (to the Moon) and Mars Orbiter Mission (to Mars). ISRO plans to follow up with Chandrayaan - 2 and missions to Venus and near - Earth objects such as asteroids and comets.
Chandrayaan - 2 (Sanskrit: चंद्रयान - २) will be India 's second mission to the Moon, which will include an orbiter and lander - rover module. Chandrayaan - 2 will be launched on India 's Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV - MkII) in 2018. The science goals of the mission are to further improve the understanding of the origin and evolution of the Moon.
The next Mars mission will likely be launched in 2021 - 2022, have a less elliptical orbit around the red planet and could weigh seven times more than the first mission. This "Announcement of Opportunity (AO) '' is addressed to all institutions in India currently involved in planetary exploration studies / the development of science instruments for space. This orbiter mission will facilitate scientific community to address the open science problems. The Principal Investigator of the proposal should be (i) able to provide necessary details of the instrument that can address the scientific problems and (ii) capable of bringing together the instrument team and lead the team for developing a space qualified instrument. The payload capability of the proposed satellite is likely to be 100 kg.
ISRO is assessing a Venusian orbiter mission by 2020 to study its atmosphere. Jacques Blamont, an astrophysicist, has offered to help the Indian Space Research Organisation with gigantic balloons carrying several instruments but designed to pop in and out of the extremely hot atmosphere of the planet after being unfettered from the orbiter. Some budget has been allocated for Mission to Venus as part of 2017 -- 18 Indian budget under Space Sciences.
ISRO plans to carry out a mission to the Sun by the year 2019 -- 20. The probe is named as Aditya - 1 and will weigh about 400 kg. It is the First Indian space based Solar Coronagraph to study the Corona in visible and near - IR bands. Launch of the Aditya mission was planned during the heightened solar activity period in 2012, but was postponed to 2019 -- 2020 due to the extensive work involved in the fabrication, and other technical aspects. The main objective of the mission is to study Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), their properties (the structure and evolution of their magnetic fields for example), and consequently delineate parameters that affect space weather.
The ISRO is in the process of conducting conceptual studies that could take up to two years before deciding on a plan to send a spacecraft to Jupiter or Venus. The ideal launch window to send a spacecraft to Jupiter occurs every 33 months. If the missions occur, a visit to both planets would happen simultaneously. Venus would be visited first, then Jupiter. It would take a little over 3 months to go to Venus, and would take 23 months to travel from Earth to the Jovian orbit.
ISRO is planning a joint lunar mission with Japan 's Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) to explore the polar regions of the moon for water. A mission proposal is expected by March 2019.
The main objective of SRE II is to release a fully recoverable capsule and provide a platform to conduct microgravity experiments on Micro-biology, Agriculture, Powder Metallurgy, etc. SRE - 2 is proposed to be launched on board PSLV. On 18 December 2014, ISRO successfully tested an unmanned crew module with re-entry, which was splashed down later in the Bay of Bengal as planned. Some budget has also been allocated to Space Docking Experiment Mission as part of 2017 -- 18 Indian budget under Space Sciences.
India uses its satellites communication network -- one of the largest in the world -- for applications such as land management, water resources management, natural disaster forecasting, radio networking, weather forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer communication. Business, administrative services, and schemes such as the National Informatics Centre (NICNET) are direct beneficiaries of applied satellite technology. Dinshaw Mistry, on the subject of practical applications of the Indian space program, writes:
The IRS satellites have found applications with the Indian Natural Resource Management program, with Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres in five Indian cities, and with Remote Sensing Application Centres in twenty Indian states that use IRS images for economic development applications. These include environmental monitoring, analysing soil erosion and the impact of soil conservation measures, forestry management, determining land cover for wildlife sanctuaries, delineating groundwater potential zones, flood inundation mapping, drought monitoring, estimating crop acreage and deriving agricultural production estimates, fisheries monitoring, mining and geological applications such as surveying metal and mineral deposits, and urban planning.
India 's satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin - offs. While India 's 93 -- 124 - mile (150 -- 250 km) range Prithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space programme, the intermediate range Agni missile is drawn from the Indian space programme 's SLV - 3. In its early years, when headed by Vikram Sarabhai and Satish Dhawan, ISRO opposed military applications for its dual - use projects such as the SLV - 3. Eventually, however, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) based missile programme borrowed human resources and technology from ISRO. Missile scientist A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (elected president of India in 2002), who had headed the SLV - 3 project at ISRO, moved to DRDO to direct India 's missile programme. About a dozen scientists accompanied Kalam from ISRO to DRDO, where he designed the Agni missile using the SLV - 3 's solid fuel first stage and a liquid - fuel (Prithvi - missile - derived) second stage. The IRS and INSAT satellites were primarily intended and used for civilian - economic applications, but they also offered military spin - offs. In 1996 New Delhi 's Ministry of Defence temporarily blocked the use of IRS - 1C by India 's environmental and agricultural ministries to monitor ballistic missiles near India 's borders. In 1997 the Indian Air Force 's "Airpower Doctrine '' aspired to use space assets for surveillance and battle management.
Institutions like the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and the Indian Institutes of Technology use satellites for scholarly applications. Between 1975 and 1976, India conducted its largest sociological programme using space technology, reaching 2400 villages through video programming in local languages aimed at educational development via ATS - 6 technology developed by NASA. This experiment -- named Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) -- conducted large scale video broadcasts resulting in significant improvement in rural education. Education could reach far remote rural places with the help of above programs.
ISRO has applied its technology for telemedicine, directly connecting patients in rural areas to medical professionals in urban locations via satellites. Since high - quality healthcare is not universally available in some of the remote areas of India, the patients in remote areas are diagnosed and analyzed by doctors in urban centers in real time via video conferencing. The patient is then advised medicine and treatment. The patient is then treated by the staff at one of the ' super-specialty hospitals ' under instructions from the doctor. Mobile telemedicine vans are also deployed to visit locations in far - flung areas and provide diagnosis and support to patients.
ISRO has also helped implement India 's Biodiversity Information System, completed in October 2002. Nirupa Sen details the program: "Based on intensive field sampling and mapping using satellite remote sensing and geospatial modeling tools, maps have been made of vegetation cover on a 1: 250,000 scale. This has been put together in a web - enabled database that links gene - level information of plant species with spatial information in a BIOSPEC database of the ecological hot spot regions, namely northeastern India, Western Ghats, Western Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible with collaboration between the Department of Biotechnology and ISRO. ''
The Indian IRS - P5 (CARTOSAT - 1) was equipped with high - resolution panchromatic equipment to enable it for cartographic purposes. IRS - P5 (CARTOSAT - 1) was followed by a more advanced model named IRS - P6 developed also for agricultural applications. The CARTOSAT - 2 project, equipped with single panchromatic camera that supported scene - specific on - spot images, succeeded the CARTOSAT - 1 project.
ISRO has had international co-operation since inception. Some instances are listed below:
Antrix Corporation, the commercial and marketing arm of ISRO, handles both domestic and foreign deals.
Formal co-operative arrangements in the form of memoranda of understanding or framework agreements have been signed with the following countries
The following foreign organisations also have signed various framework agreements with ISRO: -
In the 39th Scientific Assembly of Committee on Space Research held in Mysore, the ISRO chairman K. Radhakrishnan called upon international synergy in space missions in view of their prohibitive cost. He also mentioned that ISRO is gearing up to meet the growing demand of service providers and security agencies in a cost effective manner.
As of June 2017, ISRO has launched 278 satellites, including 209 foreign ones using indigenously developed launch vehicles like SLV, ASLV, PSLV and GSLV. Though reliable, the PSLV can not launch satellites having mass greater than 1600 kg. ISRO has developed its Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle for launching heavier satellites. ISRO also holds the world record for launching the most number of satellites, 104, in a single launch.
Several ISRO satellites have been launched by foreign space agencies (of Europe, USSR / Russia, and United States). The details (as of December 2016) are given in the table below.
Those ISRO satellites that had a launch mass of 3000 kg or more, and were launched by foreign agencies, are listed in the table below.
In India, electromagnetic spectrum, being a scarce resource for wireless communication, is auctioned by the Government of India to telecom companies for use. As an example of its value, in 2010, 20 MHz of 3G spectrum was auctioned for ₹ 677 billion (US $10 billion). This part of the spectrum is allocated for terrestrial communication (cell phones). However, in January 2005, Antrix Corporation (commercial arm of ISRO) signed an agreement with Devas Multimedia (a private company formed by former ISRO employees and venture capitalists from USA) for lease of S band transponders (amounting to 70 MHz of spectrum) on two ISRO satellites (GSAT 6 and GSAT 6A) for a price of ₹ 14 billion (US $210 million), to be paid over a period of 12 years. The spectrum used in these satellites (2500 MHz and above) is allocated by the International Telecommunication Union specifically for satellite - based communication in India. Hypothetically, if the spectrum allocation is changed for utilisation for terrestrial transmission and if this 70 MHz of spectrum were sold at the 2010 auction price of the 3G spectrum, its value would have been over ₹ 2,000 billion (US $30 billion). This was a hypothetical situation. However, the Comptroller and Auditor General of India considered this hypothetical situation and estimated the difference between the prices as a loss to the Indian Government.
There were lapses on implementing Government of India procedures. Antrix / ISRO had allocated the capacity of the above two satellites to Devas Multimedia on an exclusive basis, while rules said it should always be non-exclusive. The Cabinet was misinformed in November 2005 that several service providers were interested in using satellite capacity, while the Devas deal was already signed. Also, the Space Commission was kept in the dark while taking approval for the second satellite (its cost was diluted so that Cabinet approval was not needed). ISRO committed to spending ₹ 7.66 billion (US $110 million) of public money on building, launching, and operating two satellites that were leased out for Devas.
In late 2009, some ISRO insiders exposed information about the Devas - Antrix deal, and the ensuing investigations resulted in the deal being annulled. G. Madhavan Nair (ISRO Chairperson when the agreement was signed) was barred from holding any post under the Department of Space. Some former scientists were found guilty of "acts of commission '' or "acts of omission ''. Devas and Deutsche Telekom demanded US $2 billion and US $1 billion, respectively, in damages. Government of India 's Department of Revenue and Ministry of Corporate Affairs initiated an inquiry into Devas shareholding.
The Central Bureau of Investigation concluded investigations into the Antrix - Devas scam and registered a case against the accused in the Antrix - Devas deal under Section 120 - B, besides Section 420 of IPC and Section 13 (2) read with 13 (1) (d) of PC Act, 1988 on 18 March 2015 against the then Executive Director of Antrix Corporation, two officials of USA - based company, Bangalore based private multimedia company, and other unknown officials of Antrix Corporation or Department of Space.
Devas Multimedia started arbitration proceedings against Antrix in June 2011. In September 2015, the International Court of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce ruled in favour of Devas, and directed Antrix to pay US $672 million (Rs 44.35 billion) in damages to Devas. Antrix opposed the Devas plea for tribunal award in the Delhi High Court.
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what were the results of the norman conquest | Norman conquest of England - wikipedia
The Norman conquest of England (in Britain, often called the Norman Conquest or the Conquest) was the 11th - century invasion and occupation of England by an army of Norman, Breton, and French soldiers led by Duke William II of Normandy, later styled William the Conqueror.
William 's claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo - Saxon King Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged William 's hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother - in - law Harold Godwinson. The Norwegian king Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in September 1066 and was victorious at the Battle of Fulford, but Harold defeated and killed him at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September. Within days, William landed in southern England. Harold marched south to confront him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north. Harold 's army confronted William 's invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings; William 's force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement.
Although William 's main rivals were gone, he still faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on his throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated; some of the elite fled into exile. To control his new kingdom, William granted lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land. Other effects of the conquest included the court and government, the introduction of the Norman language as the language of the elites, and changes in the composition of the upper classes, as William enfeoffed lands to be held directly from the king. More gradual changes affected the agricultural classes and village life: the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery, which may or may not have been linked to the invasion. There was little alteration in the structure of government, as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo - Saxon government.
In 911 the Carolingian French ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in Normandy as part of the Treaty of Saint - Clair - sur - Epte. In exchange for the land, the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders. Their settlement proved successful, and the Vikings in the region became known as the "Northmen '' from which "Normandy '' and "Normans '' are derived. The Normans quickly adopted the indigenous culture as they became assimilated by the French, renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity. They adopted the langue d'oïl of their new home and added features from their own Norse language, transforming it into the Norman language. They intermarried with the local population and used the territory granted to them as a base to extend the frontiers of the duchy westward, annexing territory including the Bessin, the Cotentin Peninsula and Avranches.
In 1002 English king Æthelred the Unready married Emma of Normandy, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. Their son Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, succeeded to the English throne in 1042. This led to the establishment of a powerful Norman interest in English politics, as Edward drew heavily on his former hosts for support, bringing in Norman courtiers, soldiers, and clerics and appointing them to positions of power, particularly in the Church. Childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandy 's ambitions for the English throne.
When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a disputed succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England. Edward 's immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, the richest and most powerful of the English aristocrats. Harold was elected king by the Witenagemot of England and crowned by the Archbishop of York, Ealdred, although Norman propaganda claimed the ceremony was performed by Stigand, the uncanonically elected Archbishop of Canterbury. Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. Duke William claimed that he had been promised the throne by King Edward and that Harold had sworn agreement to this; King Harald III of Norway, commonly known as Harald Hardrada, also contested the succession. His claim to the throne was based on an agreement between his predecessor, Magnus the Good, and the earlier English king, Harthacnut, whereby if either died without heir, the other would inherit both England and Norway. William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England.
In early 1066, Harold 's exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson, raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders, later joined by other ships from Orkney. Threatened by Harold 's fleet, Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire, but he was driven back to his ships by the brothers Edwin, Earl of Mercia, and Morcar, Earl of Northumbria. Deserted by most of his followers, Tostig withdrew to Scotland, where he spent the summer recruiting fresh forces. King Harold spent the summer on the south coast with a large army and fleet waiting for William to invade, but the bulk of his forces were militia who needed to harvest their crops, so on 8 September Harold dismissed them.
King Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Harald 's army was further augmented by the forces of Tostig, who threw his support behind the Norwegian king 's bid for the throne. Advancing on York, the Norwegians defeated a northern English army under Edwin and Morcar on 20 September at the Battle of Fulford. The two earls had rushed to engage the Norwegian forces before King Harold could arrive from the south. Although Harold Godwinson had married Edwin and Morcar 's sister Ealdgyth, the two earls may have distrusted Harold and feared that the king would replace Morcar with Tostig. The end result was that their forces were devastated and unable to participate in the rest of the campaigns of 1066, although the two earls survived the battle.
Hardrada moved on to York, which surrendered to him. After taking hostages from the leading men of the city, on 24 September the Norwegians moved east to the tiny village of Stamford Bridge. King Harold probably learned of the Norwegian invasion in mid-September and rushed north, gathering forces as he went. The royal forces probably took nine days to cover the distance from London to York, averaging almost 25 miles (40 kilometres) per day. At dawn on 25 September Harold 's forces reached York, where he learned the location of the Norwegians. The English then marched on the invaders and took them by surprise, defeating them in the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Harald of Norway and Tostig were killed, and the Norwegians suffered such horrific losses that only 24 of the original 300 ships were required to carry away the survivors. The English victory was costly, however, as Harold 's army was left in a battered and weakened state, and far from the English Channel.
William assembled a large invasion fleet and an army gathered from Normandy and all over France, including large contingents from Brittany and Flanders. He mustered his forces at Saint - Valery - sur - Somme and was ready to cross the Channel by about 12 August. The exact numbers and composition of William 's force are unknown. A contemporary document claims that William had 726 ships, but this may be an inflated figure. Figures given by contemporary writers are highly exaggerated, varying from 14,000 to 150,000 men. Modern historians have offered a range of estimates for the size of William 's forces: 7000 -- 8000 men, 1000 -- 2000 of them cavalry; 10,000 -- 12,000 men; 10,000 men, 3000 of them cavalry; or 7500 men. The army would have consisted of a mix of cavalry, infantry, and archers or crossbowmen, with about equal numbers of cavalry and archers and the foot soldiers equal in number to the other two types combined. Although later lists of companions of William the Conqueror are extant, most are padded with extra names; only about 35 individuals can be reliably claimed to have been with William at Hastings.
William of Poitiers states that William obtained Pope Alexander II 's consent for the invasion, signified by a papal banner, along with diplomatic support from other European rulers. Although Alexander did give papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded, no other source claims papal support before the invasion. William 's army assembled during the summer while an invasion fleet in Normandy was constructed. Although the army and fleet were ready by early August, adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September. There were probably other reasons for William 's delay, including intelligence reports from England revealing that Harold 's forces were deployed along the coast. William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing.
The Normans crossed to England a few days after Harold 's victory over the Norwegians at Stamford Bridge on 25 September, following the dispersal of Harold 's naval force. They landed at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September and erected a wooden castle at Hastings, from which they raided the surrounding area. This ensured supplies for the army, and as Harold and his family held many of the lands in the area, it weakened William 's opponent and made him more likely to attack to put an end to the raiding.
Harold, after defeating his brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north, left much of his force there, including Morcar and Edwin, and marched the rest of his army south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion. It is unclear when Harold learned of William 's landing, but it was probably while he was travelling south. Harold stopped in London for about a week before reaching Hastings, so it is likely that he took a second week to march south, averaging about 27 miles (43 kilometres) per day, for the nearly 200 miles (320 kilometres) to London. Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans, William 's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke. The exact events preceding the battle remain obscure, with contradictory accounts in the sources, but all agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy. Harold had taken up a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill (present - day Battle, East Sussex), about 6 miles (10 kilometres) from William 's castle at Hastings.
Contemporary sources do not give reliable data on the size and composition of Harold 's army, although two Norman sources give figures of 1.2 million or 400,000 men. Recent historians have suggested figures of between 5000 and 13,000 for Harold 's army at Hastings, but most agree on a range of between 7000 and 8000 English troops. These men would have comprised a mix of the fyrd (militia mainly composed of foot soldiers) and the housecarls, or nobleman 's personal troops, who usually also fought on foot. The main difference between the two types was in their armour; the housecarls used better protecting armour than that of the fyrd. The English army does not appear to have had many archers, although some were present. The identities of few of the Englishmen at Hastings are known; the most important were Harold 's brothers Gyrth and Leofwine. About 18 other named individuals can reasonably be assumed to have fought with Harold at Hastings, including two other relatives.
The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October 1066 and lasted all day, but while a broad outline is known, the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources. Although the numbers on each side were probably about equal, William had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers and few archers. The English soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge, and were at first so effective that William 's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. Some of William 's Breton troops panicked and fled, and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons. Norman cavalry then attacked and killed the pursuing troops. While the Bretons were fleeing, rumours swept the Norman forces that the duke had been killed, but William rallied his troops. Twice more the Normans made feigned withdrawals, tempting the English into pursuit, and allowing the Norman cavalry to attack them repeatedly. The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon, but it appears that the decisive event was the death of Harold, about which differing stories are told. William of Jumieges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold 's death by an arrow to the eye, but this may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th - century stories that Harold had died from an arrow wound to the head. Other sources stated that no one knew how Harold died because the press of battle was so tight around the king that the soldiers could not see who struck the fatal blow. William of Poitiers gives no details at all about Harold 's death.
The day after the battle, Harold 's body was identified, either by his armour or marks on his body. The bodies of the English dead, who included some of Harold 's brothers and his housecarls, were left on the battlefield, although some were removed by relatives later. Gytha, Harold 's mother, offered the victorious duke the weight of her son 's body in gold for its custody, but her offer was refused. William ordered that Harold 's body be thrown into the sea, but whether that took place is unclear. Another story relates that Harold was buried at the top of a cliff. Waltham Abbey, which had been founded by Harold, later claimed that his body had been buried there secretly. Later legends claimed that Harold did not die at Hastings, but escaped and became a hermit at Chester.
After his victory at Hastings, William expected to receive the submission of the surviving English leaders, but instead Edgar the Ætheling was proclaimed king by the Witenagemot, with the support of Earls Edwin and Morcar, Stigand, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and Ealdred, the Archbishop of York. William therefore advanced, marching around the coast of Kent to London. He defeated an English force that attacked him at Southwark, but being unable to storm London Bridge he sought to reach the capital by a more circuitous route.
William moved up the Thames valley to cross the river at Wallingford, Berkshire; while there he received the submission of Stigand. He then travelled north - east along the Chilterns, before advancing towards London from the north - west, fighting further engagements against forces from the city. Having failed to muster an effective military response, Edgar 's leading supporters lost their nerve, and the English leaders surrendered to William at Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire. William was acclaimed King of England and crowned by Ealdred on 25 December 1066, in Westminster Abbey. The new king attempted to conciliate the remaining English nobility by confirming Morcar, Edwin and Waltheof, the Earl of Northumbria, in their lands as well as giving some land to Edgar the Ætheling. William remained in England until March 1067, when he returned to Normandy with English prisoners, including Stigand, Morcar, Edwin, Edgar the Ætheling, and Waltheof.
Despite the submission of the English nobles, resistance continued for several years. William left control of England in the hands of his half - brother Odo and one of his closest supporters, William fitzOsbern. In 1067 rebels in Kent launched an unsuccessful attack on Dover Castle in combination with Eustace II of Boulogne. The Shropshire landowner Eadric the Wild, in alliance with the Welsh rulers of Gwynedd and Powys, raised a revolt in western Mercia, fighting Norman forces based in Hereford. These events forced William to return to England at the end of 1067. In 1068 William besieged rebels in Exeter, including Harold 's mother Gytha, and after suffering heavy losses managed to negotiate the town 's surrender. In May, William 's wife Matilda was crowned queen at Westminster, an important symbol of William 's growing international stature. Later in the year Edwin and Morcar raised a revolt in Mercia with Welsh assistance, while Gospatric, the newly appointed Earl of Northumbria, led a rising in Northumbria, which had not yet been occupied by the Normans. These rebellions rapidly collapsed as William moved against them, building castles and installing garrisons as he had already done in the south. Edwin and Morcar again submitted, while Gospatric fled to Scotland, as did Edgar the Ætheling and his family, who may have been involved in these revolts. Meanwhile, Harold 's sons, who had taken refuge in Ireland, raided Somerset, Devon and Cornwall from the sea.
Early in 1069 the newly installed Norman Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Comines, and several hundred soldiers accompanying him were massacred at Durham; the Northumbrian rebellion was joined by Edgar, Gospatric, Siward Barn and other rebels who had taken refuge in Scotland. The castellan of York, Robert fitzRichard, was defeated and killed, and the rebels besieged the Norman castle at York. William hurried north with an army, defeated the rebels outside York and pursued them into the city, massacring the inhabitants and bringing the revolt to an end. He built a second castle at York, strengthened Norman forces in Northumbria and then returned south. A subsequent local uprising was crushed by the garrison of York. Harold 's sons launched a second raid from Ireland and were defeated in Devon by Norman forces under Count Brian, a son of Eudes, Count of Penthièvre. In August or September 1069 a large fleet sent by Sweyn II of Denmark arrived off the coast of England, sparking a new wave of rebellions across the country. After abortive raids in the south, the Danes joined forces with a new Northumbrian uprising, which was also joined by Edgar, Gospatric and the other exiles from Scotland as well as Waltheof. The combined Danish and English forces defeated the Norman garrison at York, seized the castles and took control of Northumbria, although a raid into Lincolnshire led by Edgar was defeated by the Norman garrison of Lincoln.
At the same time resistance flared up again in western Mercia, where the forces of Eadric the Wild, together with his Welsh allies and further rebel forces from Cheshire and Shropshire, attacked the castle at Shrewsbury. In the south - west, rebels from Devon and Cornwall attacked the Norman garrison at Exeter, but were repulsed by the defenders and scattered by a Norman relief force under Count Brian. Other rebels from Dorset, Somerset and neighbouring areas besieged Montacute Castle but were defeated by a Norman army gathered from London, Winchester and Salisbury under Geoffrey of Coutances. Meanwhile, William attacked the Danes, who had moored for the winter south of the Humber in Lincolnshire, and drove them back to the north bank. Leaving Robert of Mortain in charge of Lincolnshire, he turned west and defeated the Mercian rebels in battle at Stafford. When the Danes attempted to return to Lincolnshire, the Norman forces there again drove them back across the Humber. William advanced into Northumbria, defeating an attempt to block his crossing of the swollen River Aire at Pontefract. The Danes fled at his approach, and he occupied York. He bought off the Danes, who agreed to leave England in the spring, and during the winter of 1069 -- 70 his forces systematically devastated Northumbria in the Harrying of the North, subduing all resistance. As a symbol of his renewed authority over the north, William ceremonially wore his crown at York on Christmas Day 1069.
In early 1070, having secured the submission of Waltheof and Gospatric, and driven Edgar and his remaining supporters back to Scotland, William returned to Mercia, where he based himself at Chester and crushed all remaining resistance in the area before returning to the south. Papal legates arrived and at Easter re-crowned William, which would have symbolically reasserted his right to the kingdom. William also oversaw a purge of prelates from the Church, most notably Stigand, who was deposed from Canterbury. The papal legates also imposed penances on William and those of his supporters who had taken part in Hastings and the subsequent campaigns. As well as Canterbury, the see of York had become vacant following the death of Ealdred in September 1069. Both sees were filled by men loyal to William: Lanfranc, abbot of William 's foundation at Caen, received Canterbury while Thomas of Bayeux, one of William 's chaplains, was installed at York. Some other bishoprics and abbeys also received new bishops and abbots and William confiscated some of the wealth of the English monasteries, which had served as repositories for the assets of the native nobles.
In 1070 Sweyn II of Denmark arrived to take personal command of his fleet and renounced the earlier agreement to withdraw, sending troops into the Fens to join forces with English rebels led by Hereward the Wake, at that time based on the Isle of Ely. Sweyn soon accepted a further payment of Danegeld from William, and returned home. After the departure of the Danes the Fenland rebels remained at large, protected by the marshes, and early in 1071 there was a final outbreak of rebel activity in the area. Edwin and Morcar again turned against William, and although Edwin was quickly betrayed and killed, Morcar reached Ely, where he and Hereward were joined by exiled rebels who had sailed from Scotland. William arrived with an army and a fleet to finish off this last pocket of resistance. After some costly failures the Normans managed to construct a pontoon to reach the Isle of Ely, defeated the rebels at the bridgehead and stormed the island, marking the effective end of English resistance. Morcar was imprisoned for the rest of his life; Hereward was pardoned and had his lands returned to him.
William faced difficulties in his continental possessions in 1071, but in 1072 he returned to England and marched north to confront King Malcolm III of Scotland. This campaign, which included a land army supported by a fleet, resulted in the Treaty of Abernethy in which Malcolm expelled Edgar the Ætheling from Scotland and agreed to some degree of subordination to William. The exact status of this subordination was unclear -- the treaty merely stated that Malcolm became William 's man. Whether this meant only for Cumbria and Lothian or for the whole Scottish kingdom was left ambiguous.
In 1075, during William 's absence, Ralph de Gael, the Earl of Norfolk, and Roger de Breteuil the Earl of Hereford, conspired to overthrow him in the Revolt of the Earls. The exact reason for the rebellion is unclear, but it was launched at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger 's, held at Exning. Another earl, Waltheof, despite being one of William 's favourites, was also involved, and some Breton lords were ready to offer support. Ralph also requested Danish aid. William remained in Normandy while his men in England subdued the revolt. Roger was unable to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by Wulfstan, the Bishop of Worcester, and Æthelwig, the Abbot of Evesham. Ralph was bottled up in Norwich Castle by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux, Geoffrey of Coutances, Richard fitzGilbert, and William de Warenne. Norwich was besieged and surrendered, and Ralph went into exile. Meanwhile, the Danish king 's brother, Cnut, had finally arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships, but he was too late as Norwich had already surrendered. The Danes then raided along the coast before returning home. William did not return to England until later in 1075, to deal with the Danish threat and the aftermath of the rebellion, celebrating Christmas at Winchester. Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison, where Waltheof was executed in May 1076. By that time William had returned to the continent, where Ralph was continuing the rebellion from Brittany.
Once England had been conquered, the Normans faced many challenges in maintaining control. They were few in number compared to the native English population; including those from other parts of France, historians estimate the number of Norman landholders at around 8000. William 's followers expected and received lands and titles in return for their service in the invasion, but William claimed ultimate possession of the land in England over which his armies had given him de facto control, and asserted the right to dispose of it as he saw fit. Henceforth, all land was "held '' directly from the king in feudal tenure in return for military service. A Norman lord typically had properties located in a piecemeal fashion throughout England and Normandy, and not in a single geographic block.
To find the lands to compensate his Norman followers, William initially confiscated the estates of all the English lords who had fought and died with Harold and redistributed part of their lands. These confiscations led to revolts, which resulted in more confiscations, a cycle that continued for five years after the Battle of Hastings. To put down and prevent further rebellions the Normans constructed castles and fortifications in unprecedented numbers, initially mostly on the motte - and - bailey pattern. Historian Robert Liddiard remarks that "to glance at the urban landscape of Norwich, Durham or Lincoln is to be forcibly reminded of the impact of the Norman invasion ''. William and his barons also exercised tighter control over inheritance of property by widows and daughters, often forcing marriages to Normans.
A measure of William 's success in taking control is that, from 1072 until the Capetian conquest of Normandy in 1204, William and his successors were largely absentee rulers. For example, after 1072, William spent more than 75 per cent of his time in France rather than England. While he needed to be personally present in Normandy to defend the realm from foreign invasion and put down internal revolts, he set up royal administrative structures that enabled him to rule England from a distance.
A direct consequence of the invasion was the almost total elimination of the old English aristocracy and the loss of English control over the Catholic Church in England. William systematically dispossessed English landowners and conferred their property on his continental followers. The Domesday Book meticulously documents the impact of this colossal programme of expropriation, revealing that by 1086 only about 5 per cent of land in England south of the Tees was left in English hands. Even this tiny residue was further diminished in the decades that followed, the elimination of native landholding being most complete in southern parts of the country.
Natives were also removed from high governmental and ecclesiastical office. After 1075 all earldoms were held by Normans, and Englishmen were only occasionally appointed as sheriffs. Likewise in the Church, senior English office - holders were either expelled from their positions or kept in place for their lifetimes and replaced by foreigners when they died. By 1096 no bishopric was held by any Englishman, and English abbots became uncommon, especially in the larger monasteries.
Following the conquest, many Anglo - Saxons, including groups of nobles, fled the country for Scotland, Ireland, or Scandinavia. Members of King Harold Godwinson 's family sought refuge in Ireland and used their bases in that country for unsuccessful invasions of England. The largest single exodus occurred in the 1070s, when a group of Anglo - Saxons in a fleet of 235 ships sailed for the Byzantine Empire. The empire became a popular destination for many English nobles and soldiers, as the Byzantines were in need of mercenaries. The English became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard, until then a largely Scandinavian unit, from which the emperor 's bodyguard was drawn. Some of the English migrants were settled in Byzantine frontier regions on the Black Sea coast, and established towns with names such as New London and New York.
Before the Normans arrived, Anglo - Saxon governmental systems were more sophisticated than their counterparts in Normandy. All of England was divided into administrative units called shires, with subdivisions; the royal court was the centre of government, and a justice system based on local and regional tribunals existed to secure the rights of free men. Shires were run by officials known as shire reeves or sheriffs. Most medieval governments were always on the move, holding court wherever the weather and food or other matters were best at the moment; England had a permanent treasury at Winchester before William 's conquest. One major reason for the strength of the English monarchy was the wealth of the kingdom, built on the English system of taxation that included a land tax, or the geld. English coinage was also superior to most of the other currency in use in northwestern Europe, and the ability to mint coins was a royal monopoly. The English kings had also developed the system of issuing writs to their officials, in addition to the normal medieval practice of issuing charters. Writs were either instructions to an official or group of officials, or notifications of royal actions such as appointments to office or a grant of some sort.
This sophisticated medieval form of government was handed over to the Normans and was the foundation of further developments. They kept the framework of government but made changes in the personnel, although at first the new king attempted to keep some natives in office. By the end of William 's reign most of the officials of government and the royal household were Normans. The language of official documents also changed, from Old English to Latin. The forest laws were introduced, leading to the setting aside of large sections of England as royal forest. The Domesday survey was an administrative catalogue of the landholdings of the kingdom, and was unique to medieval Europe. It was divided into sections based on the shires, and listed all the landholdings of each tenant - in - chief of the king as well as who had held the land before the conquest.
One of the most obvious effects of the conquest was the introduction of Anglo - Norman, a northern dialect of Old French, as the language of the ruling classes in England, displacing Old English. French words entered the English language, and a further sign of the shift was the usage of names common in France instead of Anglo - Saxon names. Male names such as William, Robert and Richard soon became common; female names changed more slowly. The Norman invasion had little impact on placenames, which had changed significantly after earlier Scandinavian invasions. It is not known precisely how much English the Norman invaders learned, nor how much the knowledge of French spread among the lower classes, but the demands of trade and basic communication probably meant that at least some of the Normans and native English were bilingual. Nevertheless, William the Conqueror never developed a working knowledge of English and for centuries afterwards English was not well understood by the nobility.
An estimated 8000 Normans and other continentals settled in England as a result of the conquest, although exact figures can not be established. Some of these new residents intermarried with the native English, but the extent of this practice in the years immediately after Hastings is unclear. Several marriages are attested between Norman men and English women during the years before 1100, but such marriages were uncommon. Most Normans continued to contract marriages with other Normans or other continental families rather than with the English. Within a century of the invasion, intermarriage between the native English and the Norman immigrants had become common. By the early 1160s, Ailred of Rievaulx was writing that intermarriage was common in all levels of society.
The impact of the conquest on the lower levels of English society is difficult to assess. The major change was the elimination of slavery in England, which had disappeared by the middle of the 12th century. There were about 28,000 slaves listed in Domesday Book in 1086, fewer than had been enumerated for 1066. In some places, such as Essex, the decline in slaves was 20 per cent for the 20 years. The main reasons for the decline in slaveholding appear to have been the disapproval of the Church and the cost of supporting slaves, who unlike serfs, had to be maintained entirely by their owners. The practice of slavery was not outlawed, and the Leges Henrici Primi from the reign of King Henry I continue to mention slaveholding as legal.
Many of the free peasants of Anglo - Saxon society appear to have lost status and become indistinguishable from the non-free serfs. Whether this change was due entirely to the conquest is unclear, but the invasion and its after - effects probably accelerated a process already under way. The spread of towns and increase in nucleated settlements in the countryside, rather than scattered farms, was probably accelerated by the coming of the Normans to England. The lifestyle of the peasantry probably did not greatly change in the decades after 1066. Although earlier historians argued that women became less free and lost rights with the conquest, current scholarship has mostly rejected this view. Little is known about women other than those in the landholding class, so no conclusions can be drawn about peasant women 's status after 1066. Noblewomen appear to have continued to influence political life mainly through their kinship relationships. Both before and after 1066 aristocratic women could own land, and some women continued to have the ability to dispose of their property as they wished.
Debate over the conquest started almost immediately. The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle, when discussing the death of William the Conqueror, denounced him and the conquest in verse, but the king 's obituary notice from William of Poitiers, a Frenchman, was full of praise. Historians since then have argued over the facts of the matter and how to interpret them, with little agreement. The theory or myth of the "Norman yoke '' arose in the 17th century, the idea that Anglo - Saxon society had been freer and more equal than the society that emerged after the conquest. This theory owes more to the period it was developed in than to historical facts, but it continues to be used in both political and popular thought to the present day.
In the 20th and 21st centuries historians have focused less on the rightness or wrongness of the conquest itself, instead concentrating on the effects of the invasion. Some, such as Richard Southern, have seen the conquest as a critical turning point in history. Southern stated that "no country in Europe, between the rise of the barbarian kingdoms and the 20th century, has undergone so radical a change in so short a time as England experienced after 1066 ''. Other historians, such as H.G. Richardson and G.O. Sayles, believe that the transformation was less radical. In more general terms, Singman has called the conquest "the last echo of the national migrations that characterized the early Middle Ages ''. The debate over the impact of the conquest depends on how change after 1066 is measured. If Anglo - Saxon England was already evolving before the invasion, with the introduction of feudalism, castles or other changes in society, then the conquest, while important, did not represent radical reform. But the change was dramatic if measured by the elimination of the English nobility or the loss of Old English as a literary language. Nationalistic arguments have been made on both sides of the debate, with the Normans cast as either the persecutors of the English or the rescuers of the country from a decadent Anglo - Saxon nobility.
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how does the grain size effect the strength of a metal | Grain boundary strengthening - wikipedia
Grain - boundary strengthening (or Hall -- Petch strengthening) is a method of strengthening materials by changing their average crystallite (grain) size. It is based on the observation that grain boundaries impede dislocation movement and that the number of dislocations within a grain have an effect on how easily dislocations can traverse grain boundaries and travel from grain to grain. So, by changing grain size one can influence dislocation movement and yield strength. For example, heat treatment after plastic deformation and changing the rate of solidification are ways to alter grain size.
In grain - boundary strengthening, the grain boundaries act as pinning points impeding further dislocation propagation. Since the lattice structure of adjacent grains differs in orientation, it requires more energy for a dislocation to change directions and move into the adjacent grain. The grain boundary is also much more disordered than inside the grain, which also prevents the dislocations from moving in a continuous slip plane. Impeding this dislocation movement will hinder the onset of plasticity and hence increase the yield strength of the material.
Under an applied stress, existing dislocations and dislocations generated by Frank -- Read sources will move through a crystalline lattice until encountering a grain boundary, where the large atomic mismatch between different grains creates a repulsive stress field to oppose continued dislocation motion. As more dislocations propagate to this boundary, dislocation ' pile up ' occurs as a cluster of dislocations are unable to move past the boundary. As dislocations generate repulsive stress fields, each successive dislocation will apply a repulsive force to the dislocation incident with the grain boundary. These repulsive forces act as a driving force to reduce the energetic barrier for diffusion across the boundary, such that additional pile up causes dislocation diffusion across the grain boundary, allowing further deformation in the material. Decreasing grain size decreases the amount of possible pile up at the boundary, increasing the amount of applied stress necessary to move a dislocation across a grain boundary. The higher the applied stress needed to move the dislocation, the higher the yield strength. Thus, there is then an inverse relationship between grain size and yield strength, as demonstrated by the Hall -- Petch equation. However, when there is a large direction change in the orientation of the two adjacent grains, the dislocation may not necessarily move from one grain to the other but instead create a new source of dislocation in the adjacent grain. The theory remains the same that more grain boundaries create more opposition to dislocation movement and in turn strengthens the material.
Obviously, there is a limit to this mode of strengthening, as infinitely strong materials do not exist. Grain sizes can range from about 100 μm (0.0039 in) (large grains) to 1 μm (3.9 × 10 in) (small grains). Lower than this, the size of dislocations begins to approach the size of the grains. At a grain size of about 10 nm (3.9 × 10 in), only one or two dislocations can fit inside a grain (see Figure 1 above). This scheme prohibits dislocation pile - up and instead results in grain boundary diffusion. The lattice resolves the applied stress by grain boundary sliding, resulting in a decrease in the material 's yield strength.
To understand the mechanism of grain boundary strengthening one must understand the nature of dislocation - dislocation interactions. Dislocations create a stress field around them given by:
where G is the material 's shear modulus, b is the Burgers vector, and r is the distance from the dislocation. If the dislocations are in the right alignment with respect to each other, the local stress fields they create will repel each other. This helps dislocation movement along grains and across grain boundaries. Hence, the more dislocations are present in a grain, the greater the stress field felt by a dislocation near a grain boundary:
A subgrain is a part of the grain that is only slightly disoriented from other parts of the grain. Current research is being done to see the effect of subgrain strengthening in materials. Depending on the processing of the material, subgrains can form within the grains of the material. For example, when Fe - based material is ball - milled for long periods of time (e.g. 100 + hours), subgrains of 60 -- 90 nm are formed. It has been shown that the higher the density of the subgrains, the higher the yield stress of the material due to the increased subgrain boundary. The strength of the metal was found to vary reciprocally with the size of the subgrain, which is analogous to the Hall -- Petch equation. The subgrain boundary strengthening also has a breakdown point of around a subgrain size of 0.1 μm, which is the size where any subgrains smaller than that size would decrease yield strength.
There is an inverse relationship between delta yield strength and grain size to some power, x.
where d is the strengthening coefficient and both k and x are material specific. The smaller the grain size, the smaller the repulsion stress felt by a grain boundary dislocation and the higher the applied stress needed to propagate dislocations through the material.
The relation between yield stress and grain size is described mathematically by the Hall -- Petch equation:
where σ is the yield stress, σ is a materials constant for the starting stress for dislocation movement (or the resistance of the lattice to dislocation motion), k is the strengthening coefficient (a constant specific to each material), and d is the average grain diameter. It is important to note that the H-P relationship is an empirical fit to experimental data, and that the notion that a pileup length of half the grain diameter causes a critical stress for transmission to or generation in an adjacent grain has not been verified by actual observation in the microstructure.
Theoretically, a material could be made infinitely strong if the grains are made infinitely small. This is impossible though, because the lower limit of grain size is a single unit cell of the material. Even then, if the grains of a material are the size of a single unit cell, then the material is in fact amorphous, not crystalline, since there is no long range order, and dislocations can not be defined in an amorphous material. It has been observed experimentally that the microstructure with the highest yield strength is a grain size of about 10 nm (3.9 × 10 in), because grains smaller than this undergo another yielding mechanism, grain boundary sliding. Producing engineering materials with this ideal grain size is difficult because only thin films can be reliably produced with grains of this size.
In the early 1950s two groundbreaking series of papers were written independently on the relationship between grain boundaries and strength.
In 1951, while at the University of Sheffield, E.O. Hall wrote three papers which appeared in volume 64 of the Proceedings of the Physical Society. In his third paper, Hall showed that the length of slip bands or crack lengths correspond to grain sizes and thus a relationship could be established between the two. Hall concentrated on the yielding properties of mild steels.
Based on his experimental work carried out in 1946 -- 1949, N.J. Petch of the University of Leeds, England published a paper in 1953 independent from Hall 's. Petch 's paper concentrated more on brittle fracture. By measuring the variation in cleavage strength with respect to ferritic grain size at very low temperatures, Petch found a relationship exact to that of Hall 's. Thus this important relationship is named after both Hall and Petch.
The Hall -- Petch relation predicts that as the grain size decreases the yield strength increases. The Hall -- Petch relation was experimentally found to be an effective model for materials with grain sizes ranging from 1 millimeter to 1 micrometer. Consequently, it was believed that if average grain size could be decreased even further to the nanometer length scale the yield strength would increase as well. However, experiments on many nanocrystalline materials demonstrated that if the grains reached a small enough size, the critical grain size which is typically around 10 nm (3.9 × 10 in), the yield strength would either remain constant or decrease with decreasing grains size. This phenomenon has been termed the reverse or inverse Hall -- Petch relation. A number of different mechanisms have been proposed for this relation. As suggested by Carlton et al., they fall into four categories: (1) dislocation - based, (2) diffusion - based, (3) grain - boundary shearing - based, (4) two - phase - based.
Other explanations that have been proposed to rationalize the apparent softening of metals with nanosized grains include poor sample quality and the suppression of dislocation pileups.
Many of the early measurements of a reverse Hall -- Petch effect were likely the result of unrecognized pores in samples. The presence of voids in nanocrystalline metals would undoubtedly lead to their having weaker mechanical properties.
The pileup of dislocations at grain boundaries is a hallmark mechanism of the Hall -- Petch relationship. Once grain sizes drop below the equilibrium distance between dislocations, though, this relationship should no longer be valid. Nevertheless, it is not entirely clear what exactly the dependency of yield stress should be on grain sizes below this point.
Grain refinement, also known as inoculation, is the set of techniques used to implement grain boundary strengthening in metallurgy. The specific techniques and corresponding mechanisms will vary based on what materials are being considered.
One method for controlling grain size in aluminum alloys is by introducing particles to serve as nucleants, such as Al -- 5 % Ti. Grains will grow via heterogeneous nucleation; that is, for a given degree of undercooling beneath the melting temperature, aluminum particles in the melt will nucleate on the surface of the added particles. Grains will grow in the form of dendrites growing radially away from the surface of the nucleant. Solute particles can then be added (called grain refiners) which limit the growth of dendrites, leading to grain refinement. Al - Ti - B alloys are the most common grain refiner for Al alloys; however, novel refiners such as Al Sc have been suggested.
One common technique is to induce a very small fraction of the melt to solidify at a much higher temperature than the rest; this will generate seed crystals that act as a template when the rest of the material falls to its (lower) melting temperature and begins to solidify. Since a huge number of minuscule seed crystals are present, a nearly equal number of crystallites result, and the size of any one grain is limited.
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where was the opening scene of cosmos filmed | Cosmos: a Spacetime Odyssey - Wikipedia
Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey is a 2014 American science documentary television series. The show is a follow - up to the 1980 television series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, which was presented by Carl Sagan on the Public Broadcasting Service and is considered a milestone for scientific documentaries. This series was developed to bring back the foundation of science to network television at the height of other scientific - based television series and films. The show is presented by astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, who, as a young high school student, was inspired by Sagan. Among the executive producers are Seth MacFarlane, whose financial investment was instrumental in bringing the show to broadcast television, and Ann Druyan, a co-author and co-creator of the original television series and Sagan 's wife. The show is produced by Brannon Braga, and Alan Silvestri composed the backing score.
The series loosely follows the same thirteen - episode format and storytelling approach that the original Cosmos used, including elements such as the "Ship of the Imagination '' and the "Cosmic Calendar '', but features information updated since the 1980 series, along with extensive computer - generated graphics and animation footage augmenting the narration.
The series premiered on March 9, 2014, simultaneously in the United States across ten 21st Century Fox networks. The remainder of the series aired on the Fox Network, with the National Geographic Channel rebroadcasting the episodes the next night with extra content. The series has been rebroadcast internationally in dozens of other countries by local National Geographic and Fox stations.
The series concluded on June 8, 2014, with home media release of the entire series on June 10, 2014. Cosmos has been critically praised, winning several television broadcasting awards and a Peabody Award for educational content. On January 13, 2018, it was announced that another season titled Cosmos: Possible Worlds will air in 2019 on Fox and National Geographic channels.
The original 13 - part Cosmos: A Personal Voyage first aired in 1980 on the Public Broadcasting Service, and was hosted by Carl Sagan. The show has been considered highly significant since its broadcast; David Itzkoff of The New York Times described it as "a watershed moment for science - themed television programming ''. The show has been watched by at least 400 million people across 60 different countries, and until the 1990 documentary The Civil War, remained the network 's highest rated program.
Following Sagan 's death in 1996, his widow Ann Druyan, the co-creator of the original Cosmos series along with Steven Soter, and astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson sought to create a new version of the series, aimed to appeal to as wide an audience as possible and not just to those interested in the sciences. They had struggled for years with reluctant television networks that failed to see the broad appeal of the show.
Seth MacFarlane had met Druyan through Tyson at the 2008 kickoff event for the Science & Entertainment Exchange, a new Los Angeles office of the National Academy of Sciences, designed to connect Hollywood writers and directors with scientists. A year later, at a 2009 lunch in New York City with Tyson, MacFarlane learned of their interest to re-create Cosmos. He was influenced by Cosmos as a child, believing that Cosmos served to "(bridge) the gap between the academic community and the general public ''. At the time MacFarlane told Tyson, "I 'm at a point in my career where I have some disposable income... and I 'd like to spend it on something worthwhile. '' MacFarlane had considered the reduction of effort for space travel in recent decades to be part of "our culture of lethargy ''. MacFarlane, who has several series on the Fox network, was able to bring Druyan to meet the heads of Fox programming, Peter Rice and Kevin Reilly, and helped secure the greenlighting of the show. MacFarlane admits that he is "the least essential person in this equation '' and the effort is a departure from work he 's done before, but considers this to be "very comfortable territory for me personally ''. He and Druyan have become close friends, and Druyan stated that she believed that Sagan and MacFarlane would have been "kindred spirits '' with their respective "protean talents ''. In June 2012, MacFarlane provided funding to allow about 800 boxes of Sagan 's personal notes and correspondences to be donated to the Library of Congress.
In a Point of Inquiry interview, Tyson discussed their goal of capturing the "spirit of the original Cosmos '', which he describes as "uplifting themes that called people to action ''. Druyan describes the themes of wonder and skepticism they are infusing into the scripts, in an interview with Skepticality, "In order for it to qualify on our show it has to touch you. It still has to be rigorously good science -- no cutting corners on that. But then, it also has to be that equal part skepticism and wonder both. '' In a Big Picture Science interview, Tyson credits the success of the original series for the proliferation of science programming, "The task for the next generation of Cosmos is a little bit different because I do n't need to teach you textbook science. There 's a lot of textbook science in the original Cosmos, but that 's not what you remember most. What most people who remember the original series remember most is the effort to present science in a way that has meaning to you that can influence your conduct as a citizen of the nation and of the world -- especially of the world. '' Tyson states that the new series will contain both new material and updated versions of topics in the original series, but primarily, will service the "needs of today 's population ''. "We want to make a program that is not simply a sequel to the first, but issues forth from the times in which we are making it, so that it matters to those who is this emergent 21st century audience. '' Tyson considered that recent successes of science - oriented shows like The Big Bang Theory and CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, along with films like Gravity, showed that "science has become mainstream '' and expects Cosmos "will land on hugely fertile ground ''.
Tyson spoke about the "love - hate relationship '' viewers had with the original series ' Spaceship of the Imagination, but confirmed during production that they were developing "vehicles of storytelling ''. Tyson affirmed that defining elements of the original series, such as the Spaceship of the Imagination and the Cosmic Calendar with improved special effects, as well as new elements, would be present. Animation for these sequences was ultimately created by a team hand - picked by MacFarlane for the series. Kara Vallow developed and produced the animation, and the animation studio used was Six Point Harness in Los Angeles, California. The sound of the Spaceship of the Imagination, and sound design in general, was created by Rick Steele, who said of the show: "Cosmos has been, by far, the most challenging show of my career. '' The updated Spaceship was designed to "remain timeless and very simple '', according to MacFarlane, using the ceiling to project future events and the floor for those in the past, to allow Tyson, as the host, to "take (the viewer) to the places that he 's talking about ''.
The show begins with a brief introduction recorded by then President of the United States Barack Obama describing the "spirit of discovery '' that the series aspires to give to its viewers.
Tyson opens the episode to reflect on the importance of Sagan 's original Cosmos, and the goals of this series. He introduces the viewer to the "Ship of the Imagination '', the show 's narrative device to explore the universe 's past, present, and future. Tyson takes the viewer to show where Earth sits in the scope of the known universe, defining the Earth 's "address '' within the Virgo Supercluster. Tyson explains how humanity has not always seen the universe in this manner, and describes the hardships and persecution of Renaissance Italian Giordano Bruno in challenging the prevailing geocentric model held by the Catholic Church. To show Bruno 's vision of the cosmic order he uses an animated adaptation of the Flammarion engraving, a 19th century illustration that has now become a common meme for the revealing of the mysteries of the Universe.
The episode covers several facets of the origin of life and evolution. Tyson describes both artificial selection via selective breeding, using the example of humankind 's domestication of wolves into dogs, and natural selection that created species like polar bears. Tyson uses the Ship of the Imagination to show how DNA, genes, and mutation work, and how these led to the diversity of species as represented by the Tree of life, including how complex organs such as the eye came about as a common element.
Tyson then continues to relate the collaboration between Edmond Halley and Isaac Newton in the last part of the 17th century in Cambridge. The collaboration would result in the publication of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, the first major work to describe the laws of physics in mathematical terms, despite objections and claims of plagiarism from Robert Hooke and financial difficulties of the Royal Society of London. Tyson explains how this work challenged the prevailing notion that God had planned out the heavens, but would end up influencing many factors of modern life, including space flight.
Tyson begins the episode by explaining the nature of the speed of light and how much of what is seen of the observable universe is from light emanated from billions of years in the past. Tyson further explains how modern astronomy has used such analyses via deep time to identify the Big Bang event and the age of the universe.
Tyson proceeds to describe how the work of Isaac Newton, William Herschel, Michael Faraday, and James Clerk Maxwell contributed to understanding the nature of electromagnetic waves and gravitational force, and how this work led towards Albert Einstein 's Theory of Relativity, that the speed of light is a fundamental constant of the universe and gravity can be seen as distortion of the fabric of space - time. Tyson describes the concept of dark stars as postulated by John Michell which are not visible but detectable by tracking other stars trapped within their gravity wells, an idea Herschel used to discover binary stars.
Tyson then describes the nature of black holes, their enormous gravitational forces that can even capture light, and their discovery via X-ray sources such as Cygnus X-1. Tyson uses the Ship of Imagination to provide a postulate of the warping of spacetime and time dilation as one enters the event horizon of the black hole, and the possibility that these may lead to other points within our universe or others, or even time travel. Tyson ends on noting that Herschel 's son, John would be inspired by his father to continue to document the known stars as well as contributions towards photography that play on the same nature of deep time used by astronomers.
This episode explores the wave theory of light as studied by humankind, noting that light has played an important role in scientific progress, with such early experiments from over 2000 years ago involving the camera obscura by the Chinese philosopher Mozi. Tyson describes the work of the 11th century Arabic scientist Ibn al - Haytham, considered to be one of the first to postulate on the nature of light and optics leading to the concept of the telescope, as well as one of the first researchers to use the scientific method.
This episode looks to the nature of the cosmos on the micro and atomic scales, using the Ship of the Imagination to explore these realms. Tyson describes some of the micro-organisms that live within a dew drop, demonstrating parameciums and tardigrades. He proceeds to discuss how plants use photosynthesis via their chloroplasts to convert sunlight into chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and energy - rich sugars. Tyson then discusses the nature of molecules and atoms and how they relate to the evolution of species. He uses the example set forth by Charles Darwin postulating the existence of the long - tongued Morgan 's sphinx moth based on the nature of the comet orchid with pollen far within the flower. He further demonstrates that scents from flowers are used to trigger olfactory centers in the brain, stimulating the mind to threats as to aid in the survival of the species.
This episode is centered around how science, in particular the work of Clair Patterson (voiced in animated sequences by Richard Gere) in the middle of the 20th century, was able to determine the age of the Earth. Tyson first describes how the Earth was formed from the coalescence of matter some millions of years after the formation of the Sun, and while scientists can examine the formations in rock stratum to date some geological events, these can only trace back millions of years. Instead, scientists have used the debris from meteor impacts, such as the Meteor Crater in Arizona, knowing that the material from such meteors coming from the asteroid belt would have been made at the same time as the Earth.
Tyson then outlines the work Patterson did as a graduate under his adviser Harrison Brown to provide an accurate count of lead in zircon particles from Meteor Crater, and to work with similar results being collected by George Tilton on uranium counts; with the established half - life of uranium 's radioactive decay to lead, this would be used to estimate the age of the Earth. Patterson found that his results were contaminated by lead from the ambient environment, compared to Tilton 's results, and required the construction of the first ultra-high cleanroom to remove all traces of environmental lead. With these clean results, Patterson was able to estimate the age of the Earth to 4.5 billion years.
This episode provides an overview of the composition of stars, and their fate in billions of years. Tyson describes how early humans would identify stars via the use of constellations that tied in with various myths and beliefs, such as the Pleiades. Tyson describes the work of Edward Charles Pickering to capture the spectra of multiple stars simultaneously, and the work of the Harvard Computers or "Pickering 's Harem '', a team of women researchers under Pickering 's mentorship, to catalog the spectra. This team included Annie Jump Cannon, who developed the stellar classification system, and Henrietta Swan Leavitt, who discovered the means to measure the distance from a star to the earth by its spectra, later used to identify other galaxies in the universe. Later, this team included Cecilia Payne, who would develop a good friendship with Cannon; Payne 's thesis based on her work with Cannon was able to determine the composition and temperature of the stars, collaborating with Cannon 's classification system.
This episode explores the palaeogeography of Earth over millions of years, and its impact on the development of life on the planet. Tyson starts by explaining that the lignin - rich trees evolved in the Carboniferous era about 300 million years ago, were not edible by species at the time and would instead fall over and become carbon - rich coal. Some 50 million years later, near the end of the Permian period, volcanic activity would burn the carbonaceous matter, releasing carbon dioxide and acidic components, creating a sudden greenhouse gas effect that warmed the oceans and released methane from the ocean beds, all leading towards the Permian -- Triassic extinction event, killing 90 % of the species on Earth.
Tyson then explains the nature of plate tectonics that would shape the landmasses of the world. Tyson explains how scientists like Abraham Ortelius hypothesized the idea that land masses may have been connected in the past, Alfred Wegener who hypothesized the idea of a super-continent Pangaea and continental drift despite the prevailing idea of flooded land - bridges at the time, and Bruce C. Heezen and Marie Tharp who discovered the Mid-Atlantic Ridge that supported the theory of plate tectonics. Tyson describes how the landmasses of the earth lay atop the mantle, which moves due to the motion and heat of the earth 's outer and inner core.
This episode provides an overview of the nature of electromagnetism, as discovered through the work of Michael Faraday. Tyson explains how the idea of another force of nature, similar to gravitational forces, had been postulated by Isaac Newton before. Tyson continues on Faraday, coming from poor beginnings, would end up becoming interested in studying electricity after reading books and seeing lectures by Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution. Davy would hire Faraday after seeing extensive notes he had taken to act as his secretary and lab assistant.
After Davy and chemist William Hyde Wollaston unsuccessfully tried to build on Hans Christian Ørsted 's discovery of the electromagnetic phenomena to harness the ability to create motion from electricity, Faraday was able to create his own device to create the first electric motor by applying electricity aligned along a magnet. Davy, bitter over Faraday 's breakthrough, put Faraday on the task of improving the quality of high - quality optical glass, preventing Faraday from continuing his research. Faraday, undeterred, continued to work in the Royal Institution, and created the Christmas Lectures designed to teach science to children. Following Davy 's death, Faraday returned to full time efforts studying electromagnetism, creating the first electrical generator by inserting a magnet in a coil of wires.
This episode covers how life may have developed on Earth and the possibility of life on other planets. Tyson begins by explaining how the human development of writing systems enabled the transfer of information through generations, describing how Princess Enheduanna ca. 2280 BC would be one of the first to sign her name to her works, and how Gilgamesh collected stories, including that of Utnapishtim documenting a great flood comparable to the story of Noah 's Ark. Tyson explains how DNA similarly records information to propagate life, and postulates theories of how DNA originated on Earth, including evolution from a shallow tide pool, or from the ejecta of meteor collisions from other planets. In the latter case, Tyson explains how comparing the composition of the Nakhla meteorite in 1911 to results collected by the Viking program demonstrated that material from Mars could transit to Earth, and the ability of some microbes to survive the harsh conditions of space. With the motions of solar systems through the galaxy over billions of years, life could conceivably propagate from planet to planet in the same manner.
This episode explores the nature of the greenhouse effect (discovered by Joseph Fourier and Svante Arrhenius), and the evidence demonstrating the existence of global warming from humanity 's influence. Tyson begins by describing the long - term history of the planet Venus; based on readings from the Venera series of probes to the planet, the planet once had an ocean and an atmosphere, but due to the release of carbon dioxide from volcanic eruptions, the runaway greenhouse effect on Venus caused the surface temperatures to increase and boiled away the oceans.
Tyson then notes the delicate nature of the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can influence Earth 's climate due to the greenhouse effect, and that levels of carbon dioxide have been increasing since the start of the 20th century. Evidence has shown this to be from humankind 's consumption of oil, coal, and gas instead of from volcanic eruptions due to the isotopic signature of the carbon dioxide. The increase in carbon dioxide has led to an increase in temperatures, in turn leading to positive feedback loops of the melting polar ice caps and dethawing of the permafrost to increase carbon dioxide levels.
Tyson begins the episode by noting how the destruction of the Library of Alexandria lost much of humanity 's knowledge to that point. He then contrasts on the strive for humanity to continue to discover new facts about the universe and the need to not close off further discovery.
Tyson then proceeds to describe the discovery of cosmic rays by Victor Hess through high - altitude balloon trips, where radiation increased the farther one was from the surface. Swiss Astronomer Fritz Zwicky, in studying supernovae, postulated that these cosmic rays originated from these events instead of electromagnetic radiation. Zwicky would continue to study supernovae, and by looking at standard candles that they emitted, estimated the movement of the galaxies in the universe. His calculations suggested that there must be more mass in the universe than those apparent in the observable galaxies, and called this dark matter. Initially forgotten, Zwicky 's theory was confirmed by the work of Vera Rubin, who observed that the rotation of stars at the edges of observable galaxies did not follow expected rotational behavior without considering dark matter. This further led to the proposal of dark energy as a viable theory to account for the universe 's increasing rate of expansion.
Tyson then describes the interstellar travel, using the two Voyager probes. Besides the abilities to identify several features on the planets of the solar system, Voyager I was able to recently demonstrate the existence of the Sun 's variable heliosphere which helps buffer the Solar System from interstellar winds. Tyson describes Carl Sagan 's role in the Voyager program, including creating the Voyager Golden Record to encapsulate humanity and Earth 's position in the universe, and convincing the program directors to have Voyager I to take a picture of Earth from beyond the orbit of Neptune, creating the image of the Pale Blue Dot. Tyson concludes the series by emphasizing Sagan 's message on the human condition in the vastness of the cosmos, and to encourage viewers to continue to explore and discover what else the universe has to offer.
In August 2011, the show was officially announced for primetime broadcast in the spring of 2014. The show is a co-production of Druyan 's Cosmos Studios, MacFarlane 's Fuzzy Door Productions, and National Geographic Channel; Druyan, MacFarlane, Cosmos Studios ' Mitchell Cannold, and director Brannon Braga are the executive producers.
Fox 's CEO Kevin Reilly considered that the show would be a risk and outside the network 's typical programming, but that "we believe this can have the same massive cultural impact that the original series delivered, '' and committed the network 's resources to the show. The show would first be broadcast on Fox, re-airing the same night on the National Geographic Channel.
In Canada, it was broadcast simultaneously on Global, National Geographic Channel and Nat Geo Wild. A preview of the show 's first episode was aired for student filmmakers at the White House Student Film Festival on February 28, 2014.
Cosmos premiered simultaneously in the US across ten Fox networks: Fox, FX, FXX, FXM, Fox Sports 1, Fox Sports 2, National Geographic Channel, Nat Geo WILD, Nat Geo Mundo, and Fox Life. According to Fox Networks, this was the first time that a TV show was set to premiere in a global simulcast across their network of channels.
The Fox network broadcast averaged about 5.8 million viewers in Nielsen 's affiliate - based estimates for the 9 o'clock hour Sunday, as well as a 2.1 rating / 5 share in adults 18 - 49. The under - 50 audience was roughly 60 % men. Viewing on other networks raised these totals to 8.5 million and a 2.9 rating in the demo, according to Nielsen.
Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey has received highly positive reviews from critics, receiving a Metacritic rating of 83 out of 100 based on 19 reviews.
The miniseries won the 4th Critics ' Choice Television Award for "Best Reality Series '', with Tyson awarded for "Best Reality Host ''. The miniseries was also nominated for "Outstanding Achievement in News and Information '' for the 30th TCA Awards and 12 Emmy Awards, including "Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series ''. The program won the Emmy for "Outstanding Writing for Nonfiction Programming '' and "Outstanding Sound Editing for Nonfiction Programming (Single or Multi-Camera) '', and Silvestri won the Emmys for both "Outstanding Original Main Title Theme Music '' and "Outstanding Music Composition for a Series (Original Dramatic Score) ''. The series won a 2014 Peabody Award within the Education category. In 2014, the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSICOP) presented Cosmos with the Robert B. Balles Prize in Critical Thinking. "Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey opened the eyes of a new generation to humanity 's triumphs, its mistakes, and its astounding potential to reach unimagined heights. ''
The new miniseries has been criticized by some Christians and the religious right for some of the things stated during the show. Christian fundamentalists were upset that the scientific theories covered in the show opposed the Genesis creation narrative in the Bible. The Catholic League was upset that the science show "smears '' Catholicism. A spokesman for the League noted how the show focused on Giordano Bruno, whom the Catholic Church turned over to secular authorities to be burnt at the stake for blasphemy, immoral conduct, and heresy in matters of dogmatic theology, in addition to some of the basic doctrines of his philosophy and cosmology, and stated that the show "skipped Copernicus and Galileo -- two far more consequential men in proving and disseminating the heliocentric theory -- because in their cases, the Church 's role was much more complicated ''.
Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey was released on Blu - ray and DVD on June 10, 2014 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. The set contains all 13 episodes, plus an audio commentary on the first episode, and three featurettes: "Celebrating Carl Sagan: A Selection from the Library of Congress Dedication '', "Cosmos at Comic - Con 2013 '' and "Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey -- The Voyage Continues ''. Exclusive to the Blu - ray version is the interactive Cosmic Calendar.
On January 13, 2018, it was announced that another season titled Cosmos: Possible Worlds will air in the second quarter of 2019 on Fox and National Geographic channels. It will again be hosted by Neil deGrasse Tyson and executive produced by Ann Druyan, Seth MacFarlane, Brannon Braga, and Jason Clark.
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where is the heart located on a human | Heart - wikipedia
The heart is a muscular organ in most animals, which pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system. Blood provides the body with oxygen and nutrients, as well as assists in the removal of metabolic wastes. In humans, the heart is located between the lungs, in the middle compartment of the chest.
In humans, other mammals, and birds, the heart is divided into four chambers: upper left and right atria; and lower left and right ventricles. Commonly the right atrium and ventricle are referred together as the right heart and their left counterparts as the left heart. Fish, in contrast, have two chambers, an atrium and a ventricle, while reptiles have three chambers. In a healthy heart blood flows one way through the heart due to heart valves, which prevent backflow. The heart is enclosed in a protective sac, the pericardium, which also contains a small amount of fluid. The wall of the heart is made up of three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.
The heart pumps blood with a rhythm determined by a group of pacemaking cells in the sinoatrial node. These generate a current that causes contraction of the heart, traveling through the atrioventricular node and along the conduction system of the heart. The heart receives blood low in oxygen from the systemic circulation, which enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae and passes to the right ventricle. From here it is pumped into the pulmonary circulation, through the lungs where it receives oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. Oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium, passes through the left ventricle and is pumped out through the aorta to the systemic circulation − where the oxygen is used and metabolized to carbon dioxide. The heart beats at a resting rate close to 72 beats per minute. Exercise temporarily increases the rate, but lowers resting heart rate in the long term, and is good for heart health.
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the most common cause of death globally as of 2008, accounting for 30 % of deaths. Of these more than three quarters are a result of coronary artery disease and stroke. Risk factors include: smoking, being overweight, little exercise, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and poorly controlled diabetes, among others. Cardiovascular diseases frequently do not have symptoms or may cause chest pain or shortness of breath. Diagnosis of heart disease is often done by the taking of a medical history, listening to the heart - sounds with a stethoscope, ECG, and ultrasound. Specialists who focus on diseases of the heart are called cardiologists, although many specialties of medicine may be involved in treatment.
The human heart is situated in the middle mediastinum, at the level of thoracic vertebrae T5 - T8. A double - membraned sac called the pericardium surrounds the heart and attaches to the mediastinum. The back surface of the heart lies near the vertebral column, and the front surface sits behind the sternum and rib cartilages. The upper part of the heart is the attachment point for several large blood vessels -- the venae cavae, aorta and pulmonary trunk. The upper part of the heart is located at the level of the third costal cartilage. The lower tip of the heart, the apex, lies to the left of the sternum (8 to 9 cm from the midsternal line) between the junction of the fourth and fifth ribs near their articulation with the costal cartilages.
The largest part of the heart is usually slightly offset to the left side of the chest (though occasionally it may be offset to the right) and is felt to be on the left because the left heart is stronger and larger, since it pumps to all body parts. Because the heart is between the lungs, the left lung is smaller than the right lung and has a cardiac notch in its border to accommodate the heart. The heart is cone - shaped, with its base positioned upwards and tapering down to the apex. An adult heart has a mass of 250 -- 350 grams (9 -- 12 oz). The heart is typically the size of a fist: 12 cm (5 in) in length, 8 cm (3.5 in) wide, and 6 cm (2.5 in) in thickness. Well - trained athletes can have much larger hearts due to the effects of exercise on the heart muscle, similar to the response of skeletal muscle.
The heart has four chambers, two upper atria, the receiving chambers, and two lower ventricles, the discharging chambers. The atria open into the ventricles via the atrioventricular valves, present in the atrioventricular septum. This distinction is visible also on the surface of the heart as the coronary sulcus. There is an ear - shaped structure in the upper right atrium called the right atrial appendage, or auricle, and another in the upper left atrium, the left atrial appendage. The right atrium and the right ventricle together are sometimes referred to as the right heart. Similarly, the left atrium and the left ventricle together are sometimes referred to as the left heart. The ventricles are separated from each other by the interventricular septum, visible on the surface of the heart as the anterior longitudinal sulcus and the posterior interventricular sulcus.
The cardiac skeleton is made of dense connective tissue and this gives structure to the heart. It forms the atrioventricular septum which separates the atria from the ventricles, and the fibrous rings which serve as bases for the four heart valves. The cardiac skeleton also provides an important boundary in the heart 's electrical conduction system since collagen can not conduct electricity. The interatrial septum separates the atria and the interventricular septum separates the ventricles. The interventricular septum is much thicker than the interatrial septum, since the ventricles need to generate greater pressure when they contract.
The heart has four valves, which separate its chambers. One valve lies between each atrium and ventricle, and one valve rests at the exit of each ventricle.
The valves between the atria and ventricles are called the atrioventricular valves. Between the right atrium and the right ventricle is the tricuspid valve. The tricuspid valve has three cusps, which connect to chordae tendinae and three papillary muscles named the anterior, posterior, and septal muscles, after their relative positions. The mitral valve lies between the left atrium and left ventricle. It is also known as the bicuspid valve due to its having two cusps, an anterior and a posterior cusp. These cusps are also attached via chordae tendinae to two papillary muscles projecting from the ventricular wall.
The papillary muscles extend from the walls of the heart to valves by cartilaginous connections called chordae tendinae. These muscles prevent the valves from falling too far back when they close. During the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle, the papillary muscles are also relaxed and the tension on the chordae tendineae is slight. As the heart chambers contract, so do the papillary muscles. This creates tension on the chordae tendineae, helping to hold the cusps of the atrioventricular valves in place and preventing them from being blown back into the atria.
Two additional semilunar valves sit at the exit of each of the ventricles. The pulmonary valve is located at the base of the pulmonary artery. This has three cusps which are not attached to any papillary muscles. When the ventricle relaxes blood flows back into the ventricle from the artery and this flow of blood fills the pocket - like valve, pressing against the cusps which close to seal the valve. The semilunar aortic valve is at the base of the aorta and also is not attached to papillary muscles. This too has three cusps which close with the pressure of the blood flowing back from the aorta.
The right heart consists of two chambers, the right atrium and the right ventricle, separated by a valve, the tricuspid valve.
The right atrium receives blood almost continuously from the body 's two major veins, the superior and inferior venae cavae. A small amount of blood from the coronary circulation also drains into the right atrium via the coronary sinus, which is immediately above and to the middle of the opening of the inferior vena cava. In the wall of the right atrium is an oval - shaped depression known as the fossa ovalis, which is a remnant of an opening in the fetal heart known as the foramen ovale. Most of the internal surface of the right atrium is smooth, the depression of the fossa ovalis is medial, and the anterior surface has prominent ridges of pectinate muscles, which are also present in the right atrial appendage.
The right atrium is connected to the right ventricle by the tricuspid valve. The walls of the right ventricle are lined with trabeculae carneae, ridges of cardiac muscle covered by endocardium. In addition to these muscular ridges, a band of cardiac muscle, also covered by endocardium, known as the moderator band reinforces the thin walls of the right ventricle and plays a crucial role in cardiac conduction. It arises from the lower part of the interventricular septum and crosses the interior space of the right ventricle to connect with the inferior papillary muscle. The right ventricle tapers into the pulmonary trunk, into which it ejects blood when contracting. The pulmonary trunk branches into the left and right pulmonary arteries that carry the blood to each lung. The pulmonary valve lies between the right heart and the pulmonary trunk.
The left heart has two chambers: the left atrium, and the left ventricle, separated by the mitral valve.
The left atrium receives oxygenated blood back from the lungs via one of the four pulmonary veins. The left atrium has an outpouching called the left atrial appendage. Like the right atrium, the left atrium is lined by pectinate muscles. The left atrium is connected to the left ventricle by the mitral valve.
The left ventricle is much thicker as compared with the right, due to the greater force needed to pump blood to the entire body. Like the right ventricle, the left also has trabeculae carneae, but there is no moderator band. The left ventricle pumps blood to the body through the aortic valve and into the aorta. Two small openings above the aortic valve carry blood to the heart itself, the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery.
The heart wall is made up of three layers: the inner endocardium, middle myocardium and outer epicardium. These are surrounded by a double - membraned sac called the pericardium.
The innermost layer of the heart is called the endocardium. It is made up of a lining of simple squamous epithelium, and covers heart chambers and valves. It is continuous with the endothelium of the veins and arteries of the heart, and is joined to the myocardium with a thin layer of connective tissue. The endocardium, by secreting endothelins, may also play a role in regulating the contraction of the myocardium.
The middle layer of the heart wall is the myocardium, which is the cardiac muscle -- a layer of involuntary striated muscle tissue surrounded by a framework of collagen. The cardiac muscle pattern is elegant and complex, as the muscle cells swirl and spiral around the chambers of the heart, with the outer muscles forming a figure 8 pattern around the atria and around the bases of the great vessels and the inner muscles forming a figure 8 around the two ventricles and proceeding toward the apex. This complex swirling pattern allows the heart to pump blood more effectively.
There are two types of cells in cardiac muscle: muscle cells which have the ability to contract easily, and pacemaker cells of the conducting system. The muscle cells make up the bulk (99 %) of cells in the atria and ventricles. These contractile cells are connected by intercalated discs which allow a rapid response to impulses of action potential from the pacemaker cells. The intercalated discs allow the cells to act as a syncytium and enable the contractions that pump blood through the heart and into the major arteries. The pacemaker cells make up 1 % of cells and form the conduction system of the heart. They are generally much smaller than the contractile cells and have few myofibrils which gives them limited contractibility. Their function is similar in many respects to neurons. Cardiac muscle tissue has autorhythmicity, the unique ability to initiate a cardiac action potential at a fixed rate -- spreading the impulse rapidly from cell to cell to trigger the contraction of the entire heart.
There are specific proteins expressed in cardiac muscle cells. These are mostly associated with muscle contraction, and bind with actin, myosin, tropomyosin, and troponin. They include MYH6, ACTC1, TNNI3, CDH2 and PKP2. Other proteins expressed are MYH7 and LDB3 that are also expressed in skeletal muscle.
The pericardium is the sack that surrounds the heart. The tough outer surface of the pericardium is called the fibrous membrane. This is lined by a double inner membrane called the serous membrane that produces pericardial fluid to lubricate the surface of the heart. The part of the serous membrane attached to the fibrous membrane is called the parietal pericardium, while the part of the serous membrane attached to the heart is known as the visceral pericardium. The pericardium is present in order to lubricate its movement against other structures within the chest, to keep the heart 's position stabilised within the chest, and to protect the heart from infection.
Heart tissue, like all cells in the body, needs to be supplied with oxygen, nutrients and a way of removing metabolic wastes. This is achieved by the coronary circulation, which includes arteries, veins, and lymphatic vessels. Blood flow through the coronary vessels occurs in peaks and troughs relating to the heart muscle 's relaxation or contraction.
Heart tissue receives blood from two arteries which arise just above the aortic valve. These are the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery. The left main coronary artery splits shortly after leaving the aorta into two vessels, the left anterior descending and the left circumflex artery. The left anterior descending artery supplies heart tissue and the front, outer side, and the septum of the left ventricle. It does this by branching into smaller arteries -- diagonal and septal branches. The left circumflex supplies the back and underneath of the left ventricle. The right coronary artery supplies the right atrium, right ventricle, and lower posterior sections of the left ventricle. The right coronary artery also supplies blood to the atrioventricular node (in about 90 % of people) and the sinoatrial node (in about 60 % of people). The right coronary artery runs in a groove at the back of the heart and the left anterior descending artery runs in a groove at the front. There is significant variation between people in the anatomy of the arteries that supply the heart The arteries divide at their furtherst reaches into smaller branches that join together at the edges of each arterial distribution.
The coronary sinus is a large vein that drains into the right atrium, and receives most of the venous drainage of the heart. It receives blood from the great cardiac vein (receiving the left atrium and both ventricles), the posterior cardiac vein (draining the back of the left ventricle), the middle cardiac vein (draining the bottom of the left and right ventricles), and small cardiac veins. The anterior cardiac veins drain the front of the right ventricle and drain directly into the right atrium.
Small lymphatic networks called plexuses exist beneath each of the three layers of the heart. These networks collect into a main left and a main right trunk, which travel up the groove between the ventricles that exists on the heart 's surface, receiving smaller vessels as they travel up. These vessels then travel into the atrioventricular groove, and receive a third vessel which drains the section of the left ventricle sitting on the diaphragm. The left vessel joins with this third vessel, and travels along the pulmonary artery and left atrium, ending in the inferior tracheobronchial node. The right vessel travels along the right atrium and the part of the right ventricle sitting on the diaphragm. It usually then travels in front of the ascending aorta and then ends in a brachiocephalic node.
The heart receives nerve signals from the vagus nerve and from nerves arising from the sympathetic trunk. These nerves act to influence, but not control, the heart rate. Sympathetic nerves also influence the force of heart contraction. Signals that travel along these nerves arise from two paired cardiovascular centres in the medulla oblongata. The vagus nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system acts to decrease the heart rate, and nerves from the sympathetic trunk act to increase the heart rate. These nerves form a network of nerves that lies over the heart called the cardiac plexus.
The vagus nerve is a long, wandering nerve that emerges from the brainstem and provides parasympathetic stimulation to a large number of organs in the thorax and abdomen, including the heart. The nerves from the sympathetic trunk emerge through the T1 - T4 thoracic ganglia and travel to both the sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodes, as well as to the atria and ventricles. The ventricles are more richly innervated by sympathetic fibers than parasympathetic fibers. Sympathetic stimulation causes the release of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline) at the neuromuscular junction of the cardiac nerves. This shortens the repolarization period, thus speeding the rate of depolarization and contraction, which results in an increased heart rate. It opens chemical or ligand - gated sodium and calcium ion channels, allowing an influx of positively charged ions. Norepinephrine binds to the beta -- 1 receptor.
The heart is the first functional organ to develop and starts to beat and pump blood at about three weeks into embryogenesis. This early start is crucial for subsequent embryonic and prenatal development.
The heart derives from splanchnopleuric mesenchyme in the neural plate which forms the cardiogenic region. Two endocardial tubes form here that fuse to form a primitive heart tube known as the tubular heart. Between the third and fourth week, the heart tube lengthens, and begins to fold to form an S - shape within the pericardium. This places the chambers and major vessels into the correct alignment for the developed heart. Further development will include the septa and valves formation and remodelling of the heart chambers. By the end of the fifth week the septa are complete and the heart valves are completed by the ninth week.
Before the fifth week, there is an opening in the fetal heart known as the foramen ovale. The foramen ovale allowed blood in the fetal heart to pass directly from the right atrium to the left atrium, allowing some blood to bypass the lungs. Within seconds after birth, a flap of tissue known as the septum primum that previously acted as a valve closes the foramen ovale and establishes the typical cardiac circulation pattern. A depression in the surface of the right atrium remains where the foramen ovale once walls, called the fossa ovalis.
The embryonic heart begins beating at around 22 days after conception (5 weeks after the last normal menstrual period, LMP). It starts to beat at a rate near to the mother 's which is about 75 -- 80 beats per minute (bpm). The embryonic heart rate then accelerates and reaches a peak rate of 165 -- 185 bpm early in the early 7th week (early 9th week after the LMP). After 9 weeks (start of the fetal stage) it starts to decelerate, slowing to around 145 (± 25) bpm at birth. There is no difference in female and male heart rates before birth.
The heart functions as a pump in the circulatory system to provide a continuous flow of blood throughout the body. This circulation consists of the systemic circulation to and from the body and the pulmonary circulation to and from the lungs. Blood in the pulmonary circulation exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen in the lungs through the process of respiration. The systemic circulation then transports oxygen to the body and returns carbon dioxide and relatively deoxygenated blood to the heart for transfer to the lungs.
The right heart collects deoxygenated blood from two large veins, the superior and inferior venae cavae. Blood collects in the right and left atrium continuously. The superior vena cava drains blood from above the diaphragm and empties into the upper back part of the right atrium. The inferior vena cava drains the blood from below the diaphragm and empties into the back part of the atrium below the opening for the superior vena cava. Immediately above and to the middle of the opening of the inferior vena cava is the opening of the thin - walled coronary sinus. Additionally, the coronary sinus returns deoxygenated blood from the myocardium to the right atrium. The blood collects in the right atrium. When the right atrium contracts, the blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. As the right ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve closes and the blood is pumped into the pulmonary trunk through the pulmonary valve. The pulmonary trunk divides into pulmonary arteries and progressively smaller arteries throughout the lungs, until it reaches capillaries. As these pass by alveoli carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen. This happens through the passive process of diffusion.
In the left heart, oxygenated blood is returned to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins. It is then pumped into the left ventricle through the mitral valve and into the aorta through the aortic valve for systemic circulation. The aorta is a large artery that branches into many smaller arteries, arterioles, and ultimately capillaries. In the capillaries, oxygen and nutrients from blood are supplied to body cells for metabolism, and exchanged for carbon dioxide and waste products. Capillary blood, now deoxygenated, travels into venules and veins that ultimately collect in the superior and inferior vena cavae, and into the right heart.
The cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of events in which the heart contracts and relaxes with every heartbeat. The period of time during which the ventricles contract, forcing blood out into the aorta and main pulmonary artery, is known as systole, while the period during which the ventricles relax and refill with blood is known as diastole. The atria and ventricles work in concert, so in systole when the ventricles are contracting, the atria are relaxed and collecting blood. When the ventricles are relaxed in diastole, the atria contract to pump blood to the ventricles. This coordination ensures blood is pumped efficiently to the body.
At the beginning of the cardiac cycle, the ventricles are relaxing. As they do so, they are filled by blood passing through the open mitral and tricuspid valves. After the ventricles have completed most of their filling, the atria contract, forcing further blood into the ventricles and priming the pump. Next, the ventricles start to contract. As the pressure rises within the cavities of the ventricles, the mitral and tricuspid valves are forced shut. As the pressure within the ventricles rises further, exceeding the pressure with the aorta and pulmonary arteries, the aortic and pulmonary valves open. Blood is ejected from the heart, causing the pressure within the ventricles to fall. Simultaneously, the atria refill as blood flows into the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cavae, and into the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Finally, when the pressure within the ventricles falls below the pressure within the aorta and pulmonary arteries, the aortic and pulmonary valves close. The ventricles start to relax, the mitral and tricuspid valves open, and the cycle begins again.
Cardiac output (CO) is a measurement of the amount of blood pumped by each ventricle (stroke volume) in one minute. This is calculated by multiplying the stroke volume (SV) by the beats per minute of the heart rate (HR). So that: CO = SV x HR. The cardiac output is normalized to body size through body surface area and is called the cardiac index.
The average cardiac output, using an average stroke volume of about 70mL, is 5.25 L / min, with a normal range of 4.0 -- 8.0 L / min. The stroke volume is normally measured using an echocardiogram and can be influenced by the size of the heart, physical and mental condition of the individual, sex, contractility, duration of contraction, preload and afterload.
Preload refers to the filling pressure of the atria at the end of diastole, when they are at their fullest. A main factor is how long it takes the ventricles to fill -- if the ventricles contract faster, then there is less time to fill and the preload will be less. Preload can also be affected by a person 's blood volume. The force of each contraction of the heart muscle is proportional to the preload, described as the Frank - Starling mechanism. This states that the force of contraction is directly proportional to the initial length of muscle fiber, meaning a ventricle will contract more forcefully, the more it is stretched.
Afterload, or how much pressure the heart must generate to eject blood at systole, is influenced by vascular resistance. It can be influenced by narrowing of the heart valves (stenosis) or contraction or relaxation of the peripheral blood vessels.
The strength of heart muscle contractions controls the stroke volume. This can be influenced positively or negatively by agents termed inotropes. These agents can be a result of changes within the body, or be given as drugs as part of treatment for a medical disorder, or as a form of life support, particularly in intensive care units. Inotropes that increase the force of contraction are "positive '' inotropes, and include sympathetic agents such as adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine. "Negative '' inotropes decrease the force of contraction and include calcium channel blockers.
The normal rhythmical heart beat, called sinus rhythm, is established by the sinoatrial node, the heart 's pacemaker. Here an electrical signal is created that travels through the heart, causing the heart muscle to contract.
The sinoatrial node is found in the upper part of the right atrium near to the junction with the superior vena cava. The electrical signal generated by the sinoatrial node travels through the right atrium in a radial way that is not completely understood. It travels to the left atrium via Bachmann 's bundle, such that the muscles of the left and right atria contract together. The signal then travels to the atrioventricular node. This is found at the bottom of the right atrium in the atrioventricular septum -- the boundary between the right atrium and the left ventricle. The septum is part of the cardiac skeleton, tissue within the heart that the electrical signal can not pass through, which forces the signal to pass through the atrioventricular node only. The signal then travels along the bundle of His to left and right bundle branches through to the ventricles of the heart. In the ventricles the signal is carried by specialized tissue called the Purkinje fibers which then transmit the electric charge to the heart muscle.
The normal resting heart rate is called the sinus rhythm, created and sustained by the sinoatrial node, a group of pacemaking cells found in the wall of the right atrium. Cells in the sinoatrial node do this by creating an action potential. The cardiac action potential is created by the movement of specific electrolytes into and out of the pacemaker cells. The action potential then spreads to nearby cells.
When the sinoatrial cells are resting, they have a negative charge on their membranes. However a rapid influx of sodium ions causes the membrane 's charge to become positive. This is called depolarisation and occurs spontaneously. Once the cell has a sufficiently high charge, the sodium channels close and calcium ions then begin to enter the cell, shortly after which potassium begins to leave it. All the ions travel through ion channels in the membrane of the sinoatrial cells. The potassium and calcium only start to move out of and into the cell once it has a sufficiently high charge, and so are called voltage - gated. Shortly after this, the calcium channels close and potassium channels open, allowing potassium to leave the cell. This causes the cell to have a negative resting charge and is called repolarization. When the membrane potential reaches approximately − 60 mV, the potassium channels close and the process may begin again.
The ions move from areas where they are concentrated to where they are not. For this reason sodium moves into the cell from outside, and potassium moves from within the cell to outside the cell. Calcium also plays a critical role. Their influx through slow channels means that the sinoatrial cells have a prolonged "plateau '' phase when they have a positive charge. A part of this is called the absolute refractory period. Calcium ions also combine with the regulatory protein troponin C in the troponin complex to enable contraction of the cardiac muscle, and separate from the protein to allow relaxation.
The adult resting heart rate ranges from 60 to 100 bpm. The resting heart rate of a newborn can be 129 beats per minute (bpm) and this gradually decreases until maturity. An athlete 's heart rate can be lower than 60 bpm. During exercise the rate can be 150 bpm with maximum rates reaching from 200 to 220 bpm.
The normal sinus rhythm of the heart, giving the resting heart rate, is influenced a number of factors. The cardiovascular centres in the brainstem that control the sympathetic and parasympathetic influences to the heart through the vagus nerve and sympathetic trunk. These cardiovascular centres receive input from a series of receptors including baroreceptors, sensing stretch the stretching of blood vessels and chemoreceptors, sensing the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and its pH. Through a series of reflexes these help regulate and sustain blood flow.
Baroreceptors are stretch receptors located in the aortic sinus, carotid bodies, the venae cavae, and other locations, including pulmonary vessels and the right side of the heart itself. Baroreceptors fire at a rate determined by how much they are stretched, which is influenced by blood pressure, level of physical activity, and the relative distribution of blood. With increased pressure and stretch, the rate of baroreceptor firing increases, and the cardiac centers decrease sympathetic stimulation and increase parasympathetic stimulation. As pressure and stretch decrease, the rate of baroreceptor firing decreases, and the cardiac centers increase sympathetic stimulation and decrease parasympathetic stimulation. There is a similar reflex, called the atrial reflex or Bainbridge reflex, associated with varying rates of blood flow to the atria. Increased venous return stretches the walls of the atria where specialized baroreceptors are located. However, as the atrial baroreceptors increase their rate of firing and as they stretch due to the increased blood pressure, the cardiac center responds by increasing sympathetic stimulation and inhibiting parasympathetic stimulation to increase heart rate. The opposite is also true. Chemoreceptors present in the carotid body or adjacent to the aorta in an aortic body respond to the blood 's oxygen, carbon dioxide levels. Low oxygen or high carbon dioxide will stimulate firing of the receptors.
Exercise and fitness levels, age, body temperature, basal metabolic rate, and even a person 's emotional state can all affect the heart rate. High levels of the hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine, and thyroid hormones can increase the heart rate. The levels of electrolytes including calcium, potassium, and sodium can also influence the speed and regularity of the heart rate; low blood oxygen, low blood pressure and dehydration may increase it.
Cardiovascular diseases, which include diseases of the heart, are the leading cause of death worldwide. The majority of cardiovascular disease is noncommunicable and related to lifestyle and other factors, becoming more prevalent with ageing. Heart disease is a major cause of death, accounting for an average of 30 % of all deaths in 2008, globally. This rate varies from a lower 28 % to a high 40 % in high - income countries. Doctors that specialise in the heart are called cardiologists. Many other medical professionals are involved in treating diseases of the heart, including doctors such as general practitioners, cardiothoracic surgeons and intensivists, and allied health practitioners including physiotherapists and dieticians.
Coronary artery disease, also known as ischemic heart disease, is caused by atherosclerosis -- a build - up of fatty material along the inner walls of the arteries. These fatty deposits known as atherosclerotic plaques narrow the coronary arteries, and if severe may reduce blood flow to the heart. If a narrowing (or stenosis) is relatively minor then the patient may not experience any symptoms. Severe narrowings may cause chest pain (angina) or breathlessness during exercise or even at rest. The thin covering of an atherosclerotic plaque can rupture, exposing the fatty centre to the circulating blood. In this case a clot or thrombus can form, blocking the artery, and restricting blood flow to an area of heart muscle causing a myocardial infarction (a heart attack) or unstable angina. In the worst case this may cause cardiac arrest, a sudden and utter loss of output from the heart. Obesity, high blood pressure, uncontrolled diabetes, smoking and high cholesterol can all increase the risk of developing atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease.
Heart failure is defined as a condition in which the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the demands of the body. Patients with heart failure may experience breathlessness especially when lying flat, as well as ankle swelling, known as peripheral oedema. Heart failure is the end result of many diseases affecting the heart, but is most commonly associated with ischaemic heart disease, valvular heart disease, or high blood pressure. Less common causes include various cardiomyopathies. Heart failure is frequently associated with weakness of the heart muscle in the ventricles (systolic heart failure), but can also be seen in patients with heart muscle that is strong but stiff (diastolic heart failure). The condition may affect the left ventricle (causing predominantly breathlessness), the right ventricle (causing predominantly swelling of the legs and an elevated jugular venous pressure), or both ventricles. Patients with heart failure are at higher risk of developing dangerous heart rhythm disturbances or arrhythmias.
Cardiomyopathies are diseases affecting the muscle of the heart. Some cause abnormal thickening of the heart muscle (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy), some cause the heart to abnormally expand and weaken (dilated cardiomyopathy), some cause the heart muscle to become stiff and unable to fully relax between contractions (restrictive cardiomyopathy) and some make the heart prone to abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy). These conditions are often genetic and can be inherited, but some such as dilated cardiomyopathy may be caused by damage from toxins such as alcohol. Some cardiomyopathies such as hypertrophic cardiomopathy are linked to a higher risk of sudden cardiac death, particularly in athletes. Many cardiomyopathies can lead to heart failure in the later stages of the disease.
Healthy heart valves allow blood to flow easily in one direction, but prevent it from flowing in the other direction. Diseased heart valves may have a narrow opening and therefore restrict the flow of blood in the forward direction (referred to as a stenotic valve), or may allow blood to leak in the reverse direction (referred to as valvular regurgitation). Valvular heart disease may cause breathlessness, blackouts, or chest pain, but may be asymptomatic and only detected on a routine examination by hearing abnormal heart sounds or a heart murmur. In the developed world, valvular heart disease is most commonly caused by degeneration secondary to old age, but may also be caused by infection of the heart valves (endocarditis). In some parts of the world rheumatic heart disease is a major cause of valvular heart disease, typically leading to mitral or aortic stenosis and caused by the body 's immune system reacting to a streptococcal throat infection.
While in the healthy heart, waves of electrical impulses originate in the sinus node before spreading to the rest of the atria, the atrioventricular node, and finally the ventricles (referred to as a normal sinus rhythm), this normal rhythm can be disrupted. Abnormal heart rhythms or arrhythmias may be asymptomatic or may cause palpitations, blackouts, or breathlessness. Some types of arrhythmia such as atrial fibrillation increase the long term risk of stroke.
Some arrhythmias cause the heart to beat abnormally slowly, referred to as a bradycardia or bradyarrhythmia. This may be caused by an abnormally slow sinus node or damage within the cardiac conduction system (heart block). In other arrhythmias the heart may beat abnormally rapidly, referred to as a tachycardia or tachyarrhythmia. These arrhythmias can take many forms and can originate from different structures within the heart -- some arise from the atria (e.g. atrial flutter), some from the atrioventricular node (e.g. AV nodal re-entrant tachycardia) whilst others arise from the ventricles (e.g. ventricular tachycardia). Some tachyarrhythmias are caused by scarring within the heart (e.g. some forms of ventricular tachycardia), others by an irritable focus (e.g. focal atrial tachycardia), while others are caused by additional abnormal conduction tissue that has been present since birth (e.g. Wolff - Parkinson - White syndrome). The most dangerous form of heart racing is ventricular fibrillation, in which the ventricles quiver rather than contract, and which if untreated is rapidly fatal.
The sack which surrounds the heart, called the pericardium, can become inflamed in a condition known as pericarditis. This condition typically causes chest pain that may spread to the back, and is often caused by a viral infection (glandular fever, cytomegalovirus, or coxsackievirus). Fluid can build up within the pericardial sack, referred to as a pericardial effusion. Pericardial effusions often occur secondary to pericarditis, kidney failure, or tumours, and frequently do not cause any symptoms. However, large effusions or effusions which accumulate rapidly can compress the heart in a condition known as cardiac tamponade, causing breathlessness and potentially fatal low blood pressure. Fluid can be removed from the pericardial space for diagnosis or to relieve tamponade using a syringe in a procedure called pericardiocentesis.
Some people are born with hearts that are abnormal and these abnormalities are known as congenital heart defects. They may range from the relatively minor (e.g. patent foramen ovale, arguably a variant of normal) to serious life - threatening abnormalities (e.g. hypoplastic left heart syndrome). Common abnormalities include those that affect the heart muscle that separates the two side of the heart (a ' hole in the heart ' e.g. ventricular septal defect). Other defects include those affecting the heart valves (e.g. congenital aortic stenosis), or the main blood vessels that lead from the heart (e.g. coarctation of the aorta). More complex syndromes are seen that affect more than one part of the heart (e.g. Tetralogy of Fallot).
Some congenital heart defects allow blood that is low in oxygen that would normally be returned to the lungs to instead be pumped back to the rest of the body. These are known as cyanotic congenital heart defects and are often more serious. Major congenital heart defects are often picked up in childhood, shortly after birth, or even before a child is born (e.g. transposition of the great arteries), causing breathlessness and a lower rate of growth. More minor forms of congenital heart disease may remain undetected for many years and only reveal themselves in adult life (e.g. atrial septal defect).
Heart disease is diagnosed by the taking of a medical history, a cardiac examination, and further investigations, including blood tests, echocardiograms, ECGs and imaging. Other invasive procedures such as cardiac catheterisation can also play a role.
The cardiac examination includes inspection, feeling the chest with the hands (palpation) and listening with a stethoscope (auscultation). It involves assessment of signs that may be visible on a person 's hands (such as splinter haemorrhages), joints and other areas. A person 's pulse is taken, usually at the radial artery near the wrist, in order to assess for the rhythm and strength of the pulse. The blood pressure is taken, using either a manual or automatic sphygmomanometer or using a more invasive measurement from within the artery. Any elevation of the jugular venous pulse is noted. A person 's chest is felt for any transmitted vibrations from the heart, and then listened to with a stethoscope.
Typically, healthy hearts have only two audible heart sounds, called S1 and S2. The first heart sound S1, is the sound created by the closing of the atrioventricular valves during ventricular contraction and is normally described as "lub ''. The second heart sound, S2, is the sound of the semilunar valves closing during ventricular diastole and is described as "dub ''. Each sound consists of two components, reflecting the slight difference in time as the two valves close. S2 may split into two distinct sounds, either as a result of inspiration or different valvular or cardiac problems. Additional heart sounds may also be present and these give rise to gallop rhythms. A third heart sound, S3 usually indicates an increase in ventricular blood volume. A fourth heart sound S4 is referred to as an atrial gallop and is produced by the sound of blood being forced into a stiff ventricle. The combined presence of S3 and S4 give a quadruple gallop.
Heart murmurs are abnormal heart sounds which can be either related to disease or benign, and there are several kinds. There are normally two heart sounds, and abnormal heart sounds can either be extra sounds, or "murmurs '' related to the flow of blood between the sounds. Murmurs are graded by volume, from 1 (the quietest), to 6 (the loudest), and evaluated by their relationship to the heart sounds, position in the cardiac cycle, and additional features such as their radiation to other sites, changes with a person 's position, the frequency of the sound as determined by the side of the stethoscope by which they are heard, and site at which they are heard loudest. Murmurs may be caused by damaged heart valves, congenital heart disease such as ventricular septal defects, or may be heard in normal hearts. A different type of sound, a pericardial friction rub can be heard in cases of pericarditis where the inflamed membranes can rub together.
Blood tests play an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of many cardiovascular conditions.
Troponin is a sensitive biomarker for a heart with insufficient blood supply. It is released 4 -- 6 hours after injury, and usually peaks at about 12 -- 24 hours. Two tests of troponin are often taken -- one at the time of initial presentation, and another within 3 -- 6 hours, with either a high level or a significant rise being diagnostic. A test for brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) can be used to evaluate for the presence of heart failure, and rises when there is increased demand on the left ventricle. These tests are considered biomarkers because they are highly specific for cardiac disease. Testing for the MB form of creatine kinase provides information about the heart 's blood supply, but is used less frequently because it is less specific and sensitive.
Other blood tests are often taken to help understand a person 's general health and risk factors that may contribute to heart disease. These often include a full blood count investigating for anaemia, and basic metabolic panel that may reveal any disturbances in electrolytes. A coagulation screen is often required to ensure that the right level of anticoagulation is given. Fasting lipids and fasting blood glucose (or an HbA1c level) are often ordered to evaluate a person 's cholesterol and diabetes status, respectively.
Using surface electrodes on the body, it is possible to record the electrical activity of the heart. This tracing of the electrical signal is the electrocardiogram (ECG) or (EKG). An ECG is a bedside test and involves the placement of ten leads on the body. This produces a "12 lead '' ECG (three extra leads are calculated mathematically, and one lead is a ground).
There are five prominent features on the ECG: the P wave (atrial depolarisation), the QRS complex (ventricular depolarisation) and the T wave (ventricular repolarisation). As the heart cells contract, they create a current that travels through the heart. A downward deflection on the ECG implies cells are becoming more positive in charge ("depolarising '') in the direction of that lead, whereas an upward inflection implies cells are becoming more negative ("repolarising '') in the direction of the lead. This depends on the position of the lead, so if a wave of depolarising moved from left to right, a lead on the left would show a negative deflection, and a lead on the right would show a positive deflection. The ECG is a useful tool in detecting rhythm disturbances and in detecting insufficient blood supply to the heart. Sometimes abnormalities are suspected, but not immediately visible on the ECG. Testing when exercising can be used to provoke an abnormality, or an ECG can be worn for a longer period such as a 24 - hour Holter monitor if a suspected rhythm abnormality is not present at the time of assessment.
Several imaging methods can be used to assess the anatomy and function of the heart, including ultrasound (echocardiography), angiography, CT scans, MRI and PET. An echocardiogram is an ultrasound of the heart used to measure the heart 's function, assess for valve disease, and look for any abnormalities. Echocardiography can be conducted by a probe on the chest ("transthoracic '') or by a probe in the esophagus ("transoesophageal ''). A typical echocardiography report will include information about the width of the valves noting any stenosis, whether there is any backflow of blood (regurgitation) and information about the blood volumes at the end of systole and diastole, including an ejection fraction, which describes how much blood is ejected from the left and right ventricles after systole. Ejection fraction can then be obtained by dividing the volume ejected by the heart (stroke volume) by the volume of the filled heart (end - diastolic volume). Echocardiograms can also be conducted under circumstances when the body is more stressed, in order to examine for signs of lack of blood supply. This cardiac stress test involves either direct exercise, or where this is not possible, injection of a drug such as dobutamine.
CT scans, chest X-rays and other forms of imaging can help evaluate the heart 's size, evaluate for signs of pulmonary oedema, and indicate whether there is fluid around the heart. They are also useful for evaluating the aorta, the major blood vessel which leaves the heart.
Diseases affecting the heart can be treated by a variety of methods including lifestyle modification, drug treatment, and surgery.
Narrowings of the coronary arteries (ischaemic heart disease) are treated to relieve symptoms of chest pain caused by a partially narrowed artery (angina pectoris), to minimise heart muscle damage when an artery is completely occluded (myocardial infarction), or to prevent a myocardial infarction from occurring. Medications to improve angina symptoms include nitroglycerin, beta blockers, and calcium channel blockers, while preventative treatments include antiplatelets such as aspirin and statins, lifestyle measures such as stopping smoking and weight loss, and treatment of risk factors such as high blood pressure and diabetes.
In addition to using medications, narrowed heart arteries can be treated by expanding the narrowings or redirecting the flow of blood to bypass an obstruction. This may be performed using a percutaneous coronary intervention, during which narrowings can be expanded by passing small balloon - tipped wires into the coronary arteries, inflating the balloon to expand the narrowing, and sometimes leaving behind a metal scaffold known as a stent to keep the artery open.
If the narrowings in coronary arteries are unsuitable for treatment with a percutaneous coronary intervention, open surgery may be required. A coronary artery bypass graft can be performed, whereby a blood vessel from another part of the body (the saphenous vein, radial artery, or internal mammary artery) is used to redirect blood from a point before the narrowing (typically the aorta) to a point beyond the obstruction.
Diseased heart valves that have become abnormally narrow or abnormally leaky may require surgery. This is traditionally performed as an open surgical procedure to replace the damaged heart valve with a tissue or metallic prosthetic valve. In some circumstances, the tricuspid or mitral valves can be repaired surgically, avoiding the need for a valve replacement. Heart valves can also be treated percutaneously, using techniques that share many similarities with percutaneous coronary intervention. Transcatheter aortic valve replacement is increasingly used for patients consider very high risk for open valve replacement.
Abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias) can be treated using antiarrhythmic drugs. These may work by manipulating the flow of electrolytes across the cell membrane (such as calcium channel blockers, sodium channel blockers, amiodarone, or digoxin), or modify the autonomic nervous system 's effect on the heart (beta blockers and atropine). In some arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation which increase the risk of stroke, this risk can be reduced using anticoagulants such as warfarin or novel oral anticoagualants.
If medications fail to control an arrhythmia, another treatment option may be catheter ablation. In these procedures, wires are passed from a vein or artery in the leg to the heart to find the abnormal area of tissue that is causing the arrhythmia. The abnormal tissue can be intentionally damaged, or ablated, by heating or freezing to prevent further heart rhythm disturbances. Whilst the majority of arrhythmias can be treated using minimally invasive catheter techniques, some arrhythmias (particularly atrial fibrillation) can also be treated using open or thoracoscopic surgery, either at the time of other cardiac surgery or as a standalone procedure. A cardioversion, whereby an electric shock is used to stun the heart out of an abnormal rhythm, may also be used.
Cardiac devices in the form of pacemakers or implantable defibrillators may also be required to treat arrhythmias. Pacemakers, comprising a small battery powered generator implanted under the skin and one or more leads that extend to the heart, are most commonly used to treat abnormally slow heart rhythms. Implantable defibrillators are used to treat serious life - threatening rapid heart rhythms. These devices monitor the heart, and if dangerous heart racing is detected can automatically deliver a shock to restore the heart to a normal rhythm. Implantable defibrillators are most commonly used in patients with heart failure, cardiomyopathies, or inherited arrhythmia syndromes.
As well as addressing the underlying cause for a patient 's heart failure (most commonly ischaemic heart disease or hypertension), the mainstay of heart failure treatment is with medication. These include drugs to prevent fluid from accumulating in the lungs by increasing the amount of urine a patient produces (diuretics), and drugs that attempt to preserve the pumping function of the heart (beta blockers, ACE inhibitors and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists).
In some patients with heart failure, a specialised pacemaker known as cardiac resynchronisation therapy can be used to improve the heart 's pumping efficiency. These devices are frequently combined with a defibrillator. In very severe cases of heart failure, a small pump called a ventricular assist device may be implanted which supplements the heart 's own pumping ability. In the most severe cases, a cardiac transplant may be considered.
Humans have known about the heart since ancient times, although its precise function and anatomy were not clearly understood. From the primarily religious views of earlier societies towards the heart, ancient Greeks are considered to have been the primary seat of scientific understanding of the heart in the ancient world. Aristotle considered the heart to be organ responsible for creating blood; Plato considered the heart as the source of circulating blood and Hippocrates noted blood circulating cyclically from the body through the heart to the lungs. Erasistratos (304 -- 250 BCE) noted the heart as a pump, causing dilation of blood vessels, and noted that arteries and veins both radiate from the heart, becoming progressively smaller with distance, although he believed they were filled with air and not blood. He also discovered the heart valves.
The Greek physician Galen (2nd century CE) knew blood vessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Galen, noting the heart as the hottest organ in the body, concluded that it provided heat to the body. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart 's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves. Galen believed the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right through ' pores ' between the ventricles. Air from the lungs passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart and created arterial blood.
These ideas went unchallenged for almost a thousand years.
The earliest descriptions of the coronary and pulmonary circulation systems can be found in the Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna 's Canon, published in 1242 by Ibn al - Nafis. In his manuscript, al - Nafis wrote that blood passes through the pulmonary circulation instead of moving from the right to the left ventricle as previously believed by Galen. His work was later translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago.
In Europe, the teachings of Galen continued to dominate the academic community and his doctrines were adopted as the official canon of the Church. Andreas Vesalius questioned some of Galen 's beliefs of the heart in De humani corporis fabrica (1543), but his magnum opus was interpreted as a challenge to the authorities and he was subjected to a number of attacks. Michael Servetus wrote in Christianismi Restitutio (1553) that blood flows from one side of the heart to the other via the lungs.
A breakthrough in understanding the flow of blood through the heart and body came with the publication of De Motu Cordis (1628) by the English physician William Harvey. Harvey 's book completely describes the systemic circulation and the mechanical force of the heart, leading to an overhaul of the Galenic doctrines. Otto Frank (1865 -- 1944) was a German physiologist; among his many published works are detailed studies of this important heart relationship. Ernest Starling (1866 -- 1927) was an important English physiologist who also studied the heart. Although they worked largely independently, their combined efforts and similar conclusions have been recognized in the name "Frank -- Starling mechanism ''.
Although Purkinje fibers and the bundle of His were discovered as early as the 19th century, their specific role in the electrical conduction system of the heart remained unknown until Sunao Tawara published his monograph, titled Das Reizleitungssystem des Säugetierherzens, in 1906. Tawara 's discovery of the atrioventricular node prompted Arthur Keith and Martin Flack to look for similar structures in the heart, leading to their discovery of the sinoatrial node several months later. These structures form the anatomical basis of the electrocardiogram, whose inventor, Willem Einthoven, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology in 1924.
The first successful heart transplantation was performed in 1967 by the South African surgeon Christiaan Barnard at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town. This marked an important milestone in cardiac surgery, capturing the attention of both the medical profession and the world at large. However, long - term survival rates of patients were initially very low. Louis Washkansky, the first recipient of a donated heart, died 18 days after the operation while other patients did not survive for more than a few weeks. The American surgeon Norman Shumway has been credited for his efforts to improve transplantation techniques, along with pioneers Richard Lower, Vladimir Demikhov and Adrian Kantrowitz. As of March 2000, more than 55,000 heart transplantations have been performed worldwide.
By the middle of the 20th century, heart disease had surpassed infectious disease as the leading cause of death in the United States, and it is currently the leading cause of deaths worldwide. Since 1948, the ongoing Framingham Heart Study has shed light on the effects of various influences on the heart, including diet, exercise, and common medications such as aspirin. Although the introduction of ACE inhibitors and beta blockers has improved the management of chronic heart failure, the disease continues to be an enormous medical and societal burden, with 30 to 40 % of patients dying within a year of receiving the diagnosis.
As one of the vital organs, the heart was long identified as the center of the entire body, the seat of life, or emotion, or reason, will, intellect, purpose or the mind. The heart is an emblematic symbol in many religions, signifying "truth, conscience or moral courage in many religions -- the temple or throne of God in Islamic and Judeo - Christian thought; the divine centre, or atman, and the third eye of transcendent wisdom in Hinduism; the diamond of purity and essence of the Buddha; the Taoist centre of understanding. ''
In the Hebrew Bible, the word for heart, lev, is used in these meanings, as the seat of emotion, the mind, and referring to the anatomical organ. It is also connected in function and symbolism to the stomach.
An important part of the concept of the soul in Ancient Egyptian religion was thought to be the heart, or ib. The ib or metaphysical heart was believed to be formed from one drop of blood from the child 's mother 's heart, taken at conception. To ancient Egyptians, the heart was the seat of emotion, thought, will, and intention. This is evidenced by Egyptian expressions which incorporate the word ib, such as Awi - ib for "happy '' (literally, "long of heart ''), Xak - ib for "estranged '' (literally, "truncated of heart ''). In Egyptian religion, the heart was the key to the afterlife. It was conceived as surviving death in the nether world, where it gave evidence for, or against, its possessor. It was thought that the heart was examined by Anubis and a variety of deities during the Weighing of the Heart ceremony. If the heart weighed more than the feather of Maat, which symbolized the ideal standard of behavior. If the scales balanced, it meant the heart 's possessor had lived a just life and could enter the afterlife; if the heart was heavier, it would be devoured by the monster Ammit.
The Chinese character for "heart '', 心, derives from a comparatively realistic depiction of a heart (indicating the heart chambers) in seal script. The Chinese word xīn also takes the metaphorical meanings of "mind '', "intention '', or "core ''. In Chinese medicine, the heart is seen as the center of 神 shén "spirit, consciousness ''. The heart is associated with the small intestine, tongue, governs the six organs and five viscera, and belongs to fire in the five elements.
The Sanskrit word for heart is hṛd or hṛdaya, found in the oldest surviving Sanskrit text, the Rigveda. In Sanskrit, it may mean both the anatomical object and "mind '' or "soul '', representing the seat of emotion. Hrd may be a cognate of the word for heart in Greek, Latin, and English.
Many classical philosophers and scientists, including Aristotle, considered the heart the seat of thought, reason, or emotion, often disregarding the brain as contributing to those functions. The identification of the heart as the seat of emotions in particular is due to the Roman physician Galen, who also located the seat of the passions in the liver, and the seat of reason in the brain.
The heart also played a role in the Aztec system of belief. The most common form of human sacrifice practiced by the Aztecs was heart - extraction. The Aztec believed that the heart (tona) was both the seat of the individual and a fragment of the Sun 's heat (istli). To this day, the Nahua consider the Sun to be a heart - soul (tona - tiuh): "round, hot, pulsating ''.
In Catholicism, there has been a long tradition of veneration of the heart, stemming from worship of the wounds of Jesus Christ which gained prominence from the mid sixteenth century. This tradition influenced the development of the medieval Christian devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the parallel worship of Immaculate Heart of Mary, made popular by John Eudes.
The expression of a broken heart is a cross-cultural reference to grief for a lost one or to unfulfilled romantic love.
The notion of "Cupid 's arrows '' is ancient, due to Ovid, but while Ovid describes Cupid as wounding his victims with his arrows, it is not made explicit that it is the heart that is wounded. The familiar iconography of Cupid shooting little heart symbols is a Renaissance theme that became tied to Valentine 's day.
Animal hearts are widely consumed as food. As they are almost entirely muscle, they are high in protein. They are often included in dishes with other offal, for example in the pan-Ottoman kokoretsi.
Chicken hearts are considered to be giblets, and are often grilled on skewers: Japanese hāto yakitori, Brazilian churrasco de coração, Indonesian chicken heart satay. They can also be pan-fried, as in Jerusalem mixed grill. In Egyptian cuisine, they can be used, finely chopped, as part of stuffing for chicken. Many recipes combined them with other giblets, such as the Mexican pollo en menudencias and the Russian ragu iz kurinyikh potrokhov.
The hearts of beef, pork, and mutton can generally be interchanged in recipes. As heart is a hard - working muscle, it makes for "firm and rather dry '' meat, so is generally slow - cooked. Another way of dealing with toughness is to julienne the meat, as in Chinese stir - fried heart.
Beef heart may be grilled or braised. In the Peruvian anticuchos de corazón, barbecued beef hearts are grilled after being tenderized through long marination in a spice and vinegar mixture. An Australian recipe for "mock goose '' is actually braised stuffed beef heart.
Pig heart is stewed, poached, braised, or made into sausage. The Balinese oret is a sort of blood sausage made with pig heart and blood. A French recipe for cœur de porc à l'orange is made of braised heart with an orange sauce.
The size of the heart varies among the different animal groups, with hearts in vertebrates ranging from those of the smallest mice (12 mg) to the blue whale (600 kg). In vertebrates, the heart lies in the middle of the ventral part of the body, surrounded by a pericardium. which in some fish may be connected to the peritoneum.
The SA node is found in all amniotes but not in more primitive vertebrates. In these animals, the muscles of the heart are relatively continuous, and the sinus venosus coordinates the beat, which passes in a wave through the remaining chambers. Indeed, since the sinus venosus is incorporated into the right atrium in amniotes, it is likely homologous with the SA node. In teleosts, with their vestigial sinus venosus, the main centre of coordination is, instead, in the atrium. The rate of heartbeat varies enormously between different species, ranging from around 20 beats per minute in codfish to around 600 in hummingbirds and up to 1200 bpm in the ruby - throated hummingbird.
Adult amphibians and most reptiles have a double circulatory system, meaning a circulatory system divided into arterial and venous parts. However, the heart itself is not completely separated into two sides. Instead, it is separated into three chambers -- two atria and one ventricle. Blood returning from both the systemic circulation and the lungs is returned, and blood is pumped simultaneously into the systemic circulation and the lungs. The double system allows blood to circulate to and from lungs which deliver oxygenated blood directly to the heart.
In reptiles, the heart is usually situated around the middle of the thorax, and in snakes, usually between the junction of the upper first and second third. There is a heart with three chambers: two atria and one ventricle. The ventricle is incompletely separated into two halves by a wall (septum), with a considerable gap near the pulmonary artery and aortic openings. In most reptilian species, there appears to be little, if any, mixing between the bloodstreams, so the aorta receives, essentially, only oxygenated blood. The exception to this rule is crocodiles, which have a four - chambered heart.
In the heart of lungfish, the septum extends part - way into the ventricle. This allows for some degree of separation between the de-oxygenated bloodstream destined for the lungs and the oxygenated stream that is delivered to the rest of the body. The absence of such a division in living amphibian species may be partly due to the amount of respiration that occurs through the skin; thus, the blood returned to the heart through the venae cavae is already partially oxygenated. As a result, there may be less need for a finer division between the two bloodstreams than in lungfish or other tetrapods. Nonetheless, in at least some species of amphibian, the spongy nature of the ventricle does seem to maintain more of a separation between the bloodstreams. Also, the original valves of the conus arteriosus have been replaced by a spiral valve that divides it into two parallel parts, thereby helping to keep the two bloodstreams separate.
Archosaurs (crocodilians and birds) and mammals show complete separation of the heart into two pumps for a total of four heart chambers; it is thought that the four - chambered heart of archosaurs evolved independently from that of mammals. In crocodilians, there is a small opening, the foramen of Panizza, at the base of the arterial trunks and there is some degree of mixing between the blood in each side of the heart, during a dive underwater; thus, only in birds and mammals are the two streams of blood -- those to the pulmonary and systemic circulations -- permanently kept entirely separate by a physical barrier.
Fish have what is often described as a two - chambered heart, consisting of one atrium to receive blood and one ventricle to pump it. However, the fish heart has entry and exit compartments that may be called chambers, so it is also sometimes described as three - chambered or four - chambered, depending on what is counted as a chamber. The atrium and ventricle are sometimes considered "true chambers '', while the others are considered "accessory chambers ''.
Primitive fish have a four - chambered heart, but the chambers are arranged sequentially so that this primitive heart is quite unlike the four - chambered hearts of mammals and birds. The first chamber is the sinus venosus, which collects deoxygenated blood from the body through the hepatic and cardinal veins. From here, blood flows into the atrium and then to the powerful muscular ventricle where the main pumping action will take place. The fourth and final chamber is the conus arteriosus, which contains several valves and sends blood to the ventral aorta. The ventral aorta delivers blood to the gills where it is oxygenated and flows, through the dorsal aorta, into the rest of the body. (In tetrapods, the ventral aorta has divided in two; one half forms the ascending aorta, while the other forms the pulmonary artery).
In the adult fish, the four chambers are not arranged in a straight row but instead form an S - shape, with the latter two chambers lying above the former two. This relatively simpler pattern is found in cartilaginous fish and in the ray - finned fish. In teleosts, the conus arteriosus is very small and can more accurately be described as part of the aorta rather than of the heart proper. The conus arteriosus is not present in any amniotes, presumably having been absorbed into the ventricles over the course of evolution. Similarly, while the sinus venosus is present as a vestigial structure in some reptiles and birds, it is otherwise absorbed into the right atrium and is no longer distinguishable.
Arthropods and most mollusks have an open circulatory system. In this system, deoxygenated blood collects around the heart in cavities (sinuses). This blood slowly permeates the heart through many small one - way channels. The heart then pumps the blood into the hemocoel, a cavity between the organs. The heart in arthropods is typically a muscular tube that runs the length of the body, under the back and from the base of the head. Instead of blood the circulatory fluid is haemolymph which carries the most commonly used respiratory pigment, copper - based haemocyanin as the oxygen transporter; iron - based haemoglobin is used by only a few arthropods.
In some other invertebrates such as earthworms, the circulatory system is not used to transport oxygen and so is much reduced, having no veins or arteries and consisting of two connected tubes. Oxygen travels by diffusion and there are five small muscular vessels that connect these vessels that contract at the front of the animals that can be thought of as "hearts ''.
Squids and other cephalopods have two "gill hearts '' also known as branchial hearts, and one "systemic heart ''. The brachial hearts have two atria and one ventricle each, and pump to the gills, whereas the systemic heart pumps to the body.
The human heart viewed from the front
The human heart viewed from behind
The coronary circulation
The human heart viewed from the front and from behind
Frontal section of the human heart
An anatomical specimen of the heart
Heart illustration with circulatory system
This article incorporates text from the CC - BY book: OpenStax College, Anatomy & Physiology. OpenStax CNX. 30 jul 2014...
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who was evicted from dance champions last week | Dance Champions - Wikipedia
Dance Champions is a dance competition reality television series that premiered on 30 September, 2017, on Star Plus. This show is produced by Urban Brew. This dance show places the contestants into teams which are mentored by a professional dancer. Dance Champions features champion dancers who won or were runner - ups in different shows. Moreover, new challengers will also join them and can beat them by displaying their further level dance moves.
There are two kinds of participants, half of the participants are champions of other dance shows and half are runners up. Every week, there will be a contest between challengers versus champions. Remo D'Souza and Terence Lewis are the judges of the show who will select contestants for the top list. The hosts are Raghav Juyal and Ridhima Pandit. Punit Pathak is the choreographer.
Remo D'Souza and Terence Lewis are the judges for the show. The judges are reputable choreographers. They were earlier judges of various realities dance shows.
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is somewhere over the rainbow a disney song | Over the Rainbow - wikipedia
"Over the Rainbow '' is a ballad, with music by Harold Arlen and lyrics by Yip Harburg. It was written for the movie The Wizard of Oz and was sung by actress Judy Garland, in her starring role as Dorothy Gale. It won the Academy Award for Best Original Song and became Garland 's signature song, as well as one of the most enduring standards of the 20th century.
About five minutes into the film, Dorothy sings the song after failing to get Aunt Em, Uncle Henry, and the farmhands to listen to her relate an unpleasant incident involving her dog, Toto, and the town spinster, Miss Gulch (Margaret Hamilton). Aunt Em tells her to "find yourself a place where you wo n't get into any trouble ''. This prompts her to walk off by herself, musing to Toto, "Some place where there is n't any trouble. Do you suppose there is such a place, Toto? There must be. It 's not a place you can get to by a boat, or a train. It 's far, far away. Behind the moon, beyond the rain... '', at which point she begins singing.
The song is number one on the "Songs of the Century '' list compiled by the Recording Industry Association of America and the National Endowment for the Arts. The American Film Institute also ranked the song the greatest movie song of all time on the list of "AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs ''.
The very first artist to record the song was actually big band singer Bea Wain, who at the time was a featured vocalist with the Larry Clinton Orchestra. MGM prohibited release of this version until The Wizard of Oz (1939) had opened and audiences heard Judy Garland perform it.
It was adopted (along with Irving Berlin 's 1942 hit "White Christmas '') by American troops in Europe in World War II, as a symbol of the United States.
In April 2005, the United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp recognizing lyricist Yip Harburg 's accomplishments; it features the opening lyric from the song.
The song was used as an audio wakeup call in the STS - 88 space shuttle mission in Flight Day 4, which was dedicated to astronaut Robert D. Cabana from his daughter, Sara.
The song was honored with the 2014 Towering Song Award by the Songwriters Hall of Fame and was sung at its dinner on June 12, 2014, by Jackie Evancho.
In April 2016, The Daily Telegraph listed the song as number 8 on its list of the 100 greatest songs of all time.
In March 2017, Garland 's original rendition of the song was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or artistically significant ''.
The song 's sequence and the entirety of the Kansas scenes were directed by King Vidor, though he was not credited. The song was initially deleted from the film after a preview in San Luis Obispo, because MGM chief executive Louis B. Mayer and producer Mervyn LeRoy thought it "slowed down the picture '' and that "the song sounds like something for Jeanette MacDonald, not for a little girl singing in a barnyard ''. However, the persistence of associate producer Arthur Freed and Garland 's vocal coach / mentor Roger Edens to keep it in the film eventually paid off -- it is for this sequence that the film is best known and remembered.
At the start of the film, part of the song is played by the MGM orchestra over the opening credits. A reprise of it was deleted after being filmed. An additional chorus was to be sung by Dorothy while she was locked in the Witch 's castle, helplessly awaiting death as the hourglass ran out. However, although the visual portion of that reprise is presumably lost, the soundtrack of it survives and was included in the 2 - CD Deluxe Edition of the film 's soundtrack, released by Rhino Entertainment in 1995. In that extremely intense and fear - filled rendition, Dorothy cries her way through it, unable to finish, concluding with a tear - filled, "I 'm frightened, Auntie Em, I 'm frightened! '' This phrase was retained in the film and is followed immediately by Aunt Em 's brief appearance in the crystal ball, where she is soon replaced by the visage of the witch (Hamilton), mocking and taunting Dorothy before turning toward the camera to cackle. Another instrumental version is played in the underscore in the final scene, and over the closing credits.
On October 7, 1938, Judy Garland first recorded the song on the MGM soundstages, using an arrangement by Murray Cutter.
In September 1939, a studio recording of the song, not from the actual film soundtrack, was recorded and released as a single by Decca Records.
In March 1940, that same recording was included on a Decca 78 - RPM four - record studio cast album entitled The Wizard of Oz. Although this is not the version of the song featured in the film, Decca would continue to re-release the so - called "Cast Album '' well into the 1960s after it was re-issued as a single - record 33 ⁄ RPM LP.
It was not until 1956, when MGM released the true soundtrack album from the film, that the film version of the song was made available to the public. The 1956 soundtrack release was timed to coincide with the television premiere of the film. The soundtrack version has been re-released several times over the years, including in a "Deluxe Edition '' from Rhino Records in 1995.
-- Judy Garland, in a letter to Harold Arlen
Following the film 's release in 1939, the song became Garland 's signature song and she would perform it for the next 30 years, until her death in 1969. She performed it without altering it, singing exactly as she did for the film. She explained her fidelity by saying that she was staying true to the character of Dorothy and to the message of really being somewhere over the rainbow.
In 2017, Garland 's recorded rendition of the film was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or artistically significant ''.
An introductory verse ("When all the world is a hopeless jumble... '') that was not used in the film is often used in theatrical productions of The Wizard of Oz and is included in the piano sheet music book of songs from the film. It was also used in renditions by Frank Sinatra, by Al Bowlly, by Doris Day on her album Hooray For Hollywood (1958) (Vol. 1), by Tony Bennett on his albums Tony Bennett Sings a String of Harold Arlen (1961) and Here 's to the Ladies (1995), by Ella Fitzgerald, by Sarah Vaughan, and by Norma Waterson, among others. Garland herself sang the introductory verse only once, on a 1948 radio broadcast of The Louella Parsons Show. Lyrics for a second verse ("Once by a word only lightly spoken... '') appear in the British edition of the sheet music.
The first German version in the English language was recorded by the Swing Orchestra Heinz Wehner (1908 -- 1945) in March 1940 in Berlin. Wehner, at this time an international well - known German Swing Artist, also took over the vocals. The first German version in German language was sung by Inge Brandenburg (1929 -- 1999) in 1960.
Israel Kamakawiwoʻole 's album Facing Future, released in 1993, included a ukulele medley of the song and Louis Armstrong 's "What a Wonderful World ''. It reached number 12 on Billboard 's Hot Digital Tracks chart the week of January 31, 2004 (for the survey week ending January 18, 2004). In the UK, it was released as a single under the title "Somewhere Over the Rainbow ''. It entered the UK Official Singles Chart in April 2007 at number 68. In Germany, the single also returned to the German Singles Chart in September 2010. After only 2 weeks on that chart, it had already received gold status for having sold 150,000 copies. In October 2010, it reached No. 1 in the German charts and 2011 it has been certified 5x Gold for selling more than 750,000 copies. It stayed 12 non-consecutive weeks at the top spot and was the most successful single in Germany in 2010. As of March 2012, it 's the 2nd best - selling download ever in Germany with digital sales between 500,000 and 600,000. In France, it debuted at number 4 in December 2010 and reached number one. In the USA, it was certified Platinum for 1,000,000 downloads sold. To date it has sold over 4.2 million digital copies as of October 2014. In Switzerland, it received Platinum, too, for 30,000 copies sold.
This version of the song has been used in several commercials, films and television programs including Finding Forrester, Meet Joe Black, 50 First Dates, Son of the Mask, Snakes on a Plane, Charmed, South Pacific, Cold Case, ER, Life on Mars, Horizon, and Scrubs. The Kamakawiwoʻole version of the song was covered by the cast of Glee on the season one finale, "Journey, '' and included on the extended play Glee: The Music, Journey to Regionals, charting at number 30 in the UK, 31 in Canada and Ireland, 42 in Australia, and 43 in the US. Cliff Richard recorded his own version of the medley based on this one with a medley of "Over the Rainbow / What A Wonderful World '' released as a single from the album Wanted, which charted in the UK in 2001 and Aselin Debison recorded the medley for her 2002 album Sweet is the Melody.
This version of the song was recorded in 1988, in Honolulu, in just one take. Israel called the recording studio at 3 am. He was given 15 minutes to arrive by Milan Bertosa. Bertosa is quoted as saying '' And in walks the largest human being I had seen in my life. Israel was probably like 500 pounds. And the first thing at hand is to find something for him to sit on. '' The building security found Israel a large steel chair. "Then I put up some microphones, do a quick sound check, roll tape, and the first thing he does is ' Somewhere Over the Rainbow. ' He played and sang, one take, and it was over. ''
Eva Cassidy recorded a version of the song for the 1992 Chuck Brown / Eva Cassidy album The Other Side. After her death in 1996, it was included in her posthumously - released compilation album Songbird, released in 1998 and was released as a CD single in 2001. It was popularized by the BBC on BBC Radio 2 and on the television show Top of the Pops 2; the latter featured a video recording of Cassidy performing it.
When released as a single, "Over the Rainbow '' debuted at number 88 on the UK Singles Chart in February 2001 and climbed to number 42 in May, becoming Cassidy 's first single to chart in the United Kingdom. In Scotland, the cover was slightly more successful, reaching number 36 and giving Cassidy her first top 40 hit in that region. The publicity of the song helped push sales of the compilation album Songbird to number one on the UK Albums Chart in March 2001.
Cassidy 's recording was selected by the BBC for their Songs of the Century album in 1999. Her performance of it at Blues Alley was published for the first time in January 2011 on her Simply Eva album.
CD single
Danielle Hope, the winner of the Wizard of Oz - themed BBC talent show Over the Rainbow, released a cover version of the song. It was released by digital download on May 23, 2010 and a CD single was released May 31, 2010. As it was recorded before a winner was announced, runners - up Lauren Samuels and Sophie Evans also recorded versions of it. These were both later made available for download on June 6, 2010. All three finalists appeared on the CD single 's B - side: a Wizard of Oz medley.
The single was a charity record, raising money for both the BBC Performing Arts Fund and Prostate UK.
American singer Ariana Grande released the song on June 6, 2017 as a single to raise money as part of her benefit concert One Love Manchester, after 22 people were killed in the Manchester Arena bombing at Grande 's concert on May 22, 2017.
Grande performed the single for the first time on TV at the One Love Manchester concert on June 4, 2017. Beginning on June 7, the singer added the song to her Dangerous Woman Tour setlist for the remainder of that tour.
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growth rate of a population is determined by the | Population growth - wikipedia
In biology or human geography, population growth is the increase in the number of individuals in a population.
Global human population growth amounts to around 75 million annually, or 1.1 % per year. The global population has grown from 1 billion in 1800 to 7 billion in 2012. It is expected to keep growing, and estimates have put the total population at 8.4 billion by mid-2030, and 9.6 billion by mid-2050. Many nations with rapid population growth have low standards of living, whereas many nations with low rates of population growth have high standards of living.
Population began growing rapidly in the Western world early in the industrial revolution of the late 18th century. The reasons for the "Modern Rise of Population '' were particularly investigated by the British health scientist Thomas McKeown (1912 - 1988). In his publications, McKeown challenged four theories about the population growth:
Although the McKeown thesis has been heavily disputed, recent studies have confirmed the value of his ideas. His work is pivotal for present day thinking about population growth, birth control, public health and medical care. McKeown had a major influence on many population researchers, such as health economists and Nobel prize winners Robert W. Fogel (1993) and Angus Deaton (2015). The latter considered McKeown as ' the founder of social medicine '.
The "population growth rate '' is the rate at which the number of individuals in a population increases in a given time period, expressed as a fraction of the initial population. Specifically, population growth rate refers to the change in population over a unit time period, often expressed as a percentage of the number of individuals in the population at the beginning of that period. This can be written as the formula, valid for a sufficiently small time interval:
A positive growth rate indicates that the population is increasing, while a negative growth rate indicates that the population is decreasing. A growth ratio of zero indicates that there were the same number of individuals at the beginning and end of the period -- a growth rate may be zero even when there are significant changes in the birth rates, death rates, immigration rates, and age distribution between the two times.
A related measure is the net reproduction rate. In the absence of migration, a net reproduction rate of more than 1 indicates that the population of females is increasing, while a net reproduction rate less than one (sub-replacement fertility) indicates that the population of females is decreasing.
Most populations do not grow exponentially, rather they follow a logistic model. Once the population has reached its carrying capacity, it will stabilize and the exponential curve will level off towards the carrying capacity, which is usually when a population has depleted most its natural resources.
d P d t = k P (1 − P K) (\ displaystyle (\ frac (dP) (dt)) = kP (1 - (\ frac (P) (K))))
Where,
P (t) (\ displaystyle P (t)) = the population after time t
t (\ displaystyle t) = time a population grows
k (\ displaystyle k) = relative growth rate coefficient
K (\ displaystyle K) = carrying capacity of the population; defined by ecologists as the maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain.
This separable differential equation may be solved explicitly.
P (t) = K 1 + A e − k t (\ displaystyle P (t) = (\ frac (K) (1 + Ae ^ (- kt)))); where A = K − P 0 P 0 (\ displaystyle A = (\ frac (K - P_ (0)) (P_ (0)))) and P 0 = (\ displaystyle P_ (0) =) the initial population at time 0.
This analytic solution is useful in analyzing the behavior of population models.
In 2009, the estimated annual growth rate was 1.1 %. The CIA World Factbook gives the world annual birthrate, mortality rate, and growth rate as 1.86 %, 0.78 %, and 1.08 % respectively. The last 100 years have seen a massive fourfold increase in the population, due to medical advances, lower mortality rates, and an increase in agricultural productivity made possible by the Green Revolution.
The annual increase in the number of living humans peaked at 88.0 million in 1989, then slowly declined to 73.9 million in 2003, after which it rose again to 75.2 million in 2006. In 2009, the human population increased by 74.6 million. Generally, developed nations have seen a decline in their growth rates in recent decades, though annual growth rates remain above 2 % in poverty - stricken countries of the Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa, and also in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Latin America.
In some countries the population is declining, especially in Eastern Europe, mainly due to low fertility rates, high death rates and emigration. In Southern Africa, growth is slowing due to the high number of AIDS - related deaths. Some Western Europe countries might also experience population decline. Japan 's population began decreasing in 2005; it now has the highest standard of living in the world.
The United Nations Population Division projects world population to peak at over 10 billion at the end of the 21st century, but Sanjeev Sanyal has argued that global fertility will fall below the replacement rate in the 2020s and that world population will peak below 9 billion by 2050, followed by a long decline. A 2014 study in Science concludes that the global population will reach 11 billion by 2100, with a 70 % chance of continued growth into the 22nd century.
According to United Nations population statistics, the world population grew by 30 %, or 1.6 billion humans, between 1990 and 2010. In number of people the increase was highest in India (350 million) and China (196 million). Population growth was among highest in the United Arab Emirates (315 %) and Qatar (271 %).
Population growth rates vary by world region, with the highest growth rates in Sub-Saharan Africa and the lowest in Europe. For example, from 1950 to 2010, Sub-Saharan African grew over three and a half times, from about 186 million to 856 million. On the other hand, Europe only increased by 35 %, from 547 million in 1950 to 738 million in 2010. As a result of these varying population growths, Sub-Saharan Africa changed from 7.4 % of world population in 1950 to 12.4 % in 2010, while Europe declined from 22 % to 11 % in the same time period.
According to the UN 's 2010 revision to its population projections, world population is projected to peak at 10.1 billion in 2100 compared to 7 billion in 2011. In 2011, Indian economist Sanjeev Sanyal disputed the UN 's figures and argued that birth rates will fall below replacement rates in the 2020s. According to his projections, population growth will be only sustained till the 2040s by rising longevity, but will peak below 9 bn by 2050. Conversely, a 2014 paper by demographers from several universities and the United Nations Population Division projected that the world 's population would reach about 10.9 billion in 2100 and continue growing thereafter. One of its authors, Adrian Raftery, a University of Washington professor of statistics and of sociology, says "The consensus over the past 20 years or so was that world population, which is currently around 7 billion, would go up to 9 billion and level off or probably decline. We found there 's a 70 percent probability the world population will not stabilize this century. Population, which had sort of fallen off the world 's agenda, remains a very important issue. ''
However the 2017 Revision of UN population projections states that World population will be 11.18 billion in 2100.
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who plays the first monday night football game | History of Monday Night Football - Wikipedia
The following article details the history of Monday Night Football, the weekly broadcast of National Football League games on U.S. television.
During the early 1960s, NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle envisioned the possibility of playing at least one game weekly during prime time that could be viewed by a greater television audience (while the NFL had scheduled Saturday night games on the DuMont Television Network in 1953 and 1954, poor ratings and the dissolution of DuMont led to those games being eliminated by the time CBS took over the rights in 1956). An early bid by the league in 1964 to play on Friday nights was soundly defeated, with critics charging that such telecasts would damage the attendance at high school football games. Undaunted, Rozelle decided to experiment with the concept of playing on Monday night, scheduling the Green Bay Packers and Detroit Lions for a game on September 28, 1964. While the game was not televised, it drew a sellout crowd of 59,203 spectators to Tiger Stadium, the largest crowd ever to watch a professional football game in Detroit up to that point.
Two years later, Rozelle would build on this success as the NFL began a four - year experiment of playing on Monday night, scheduling one game in prime time on CBS during the 1966 and 1967 seasons, and two contests during each of the next two years. NBC followed suit in 1968 and 1969 with games involving American Football League teams.
During subsequent negotiations on a new television contract that would begin in 1970 (coinciding with a merger between the NFL and AFL), Rozelle concentrated on signing a weekly Monday night deal with one of the three major networks. After sensing reluctance from both NBC and CBS in disturbing their regular programming schedules, Rozelle spoke with ABC.
Despite the network 's status at the time as the lowest - rated of the three major broadcast networks, ABC was also reluctant to enter the risky venture. It was only after Rozelle used the threat of signing a deal with the independent Hughes Sports Network, an entity bankrolled by reclusive businessman Howard Hughes, did ABC sign a contract for the scheduled games. Speculation was that had Rozelle signed with Hughes, many ABC affiliates would have pre-empted the network 's Monday lineup in favor of the games, severely damaging potential ratings.
After the final contract for Monday Night Football was signed, ABC Sports producer Roone Arledge immediately saw possibilities for the new program. Setting out to create an entertainment "spectacle '' as much as a simple sports broadcast, Arledge hired Chet Forte, who would serve as director of the program for over 22 years. Arledge also ordered twice the usual number of cameras to cover the game, expanded the regular two - man broadcasting booth to three, and used extensive graphic design within the show as well as instant replay.
Prior to 1978, Monday night games were not scheduled in the final week (Week 14) of the regular season. From 1974 to 1977, a Saturday night game was scheduled for Week 14 and televised live by ABC in lieu of a game on Monday night.
Looking for a lightning rod to garner attention, Arledge hired controversial New York City sportscaster Howard Cosell as a commentator, along with veteran football play - by - play announcer Keith Jackson. Arledge had tried to lure Curt Gowdy and then Vin Scully to ABC for the MNF play - by - play role, but settled for Jackson after they proved unable to break their respective existing contracts with NBC Sports and the Los Angeles Dodgers. Jack Buck was also considered, but when Arledge assistant Chuck Howard telephoned Buck with the job offer, Buck refused to respond due to anger at his treatment by ABC during an earlier stint with the network. Arledge 's original choice for the third member of the trio, Frank Gifford, was unavailable since he was still under contract to CBS Sports. However, Gifford suggested former Dallas Cowboys quarterback Don Meredith, setting the stage for years of fireworks between the often - pompous Cosell and the laid - back Meredith.
Monday Night Football first aired on ABC on September 21, 1970, with a game between the New York Jets and the Browns in Cleveland. Advertisers were charged US $65,000 per minute by ABC during the clash, a cost that proved to be a bargain when the contest collected 33 % of the viewing audience. The Browns defeated the Jets, 31 - 21 in a game which featured a 94 - yard kickoff return for a touchdown by the Browns ' Homer Jones and was punctuated when Billy Andrews intercepted Joe Namath late in the fourth quarter and returned it 25 yards for the clinching touchdown. However, Cleveland viewers saw different programming on WEWS - TV, because of the NFL 's blackout rules of the time (this would apply for all games through the end of the 1972 season; beginning in 1973, home games could be televised if tickets were sold out 72 hours before kickoff).
One of the trademarks of Monday Night Football is a music cue used during the opening teasers of each program, a Johnny Pearson - composition titled "Heavy Action '', originally a KPM production library cue (and also used as the theme music for the BBC programme Superstars), which MNF began using in 1975.
That success would continue over the course of the season, helping establish a phenomenon on Monday nights in the fall: movie attendance dropped, bowling leagues shifted to Tuesday nights and a Seattle hospital established an unwritten rule of no births during games.
Cosell 's presence initially caused Henry Ford II, chairman of the Ford Motor Company, the program 's main sponsor, to ask for his removal. ABC refused, and Ford had a change of heart once the show 's ratings were made public. Cosell dodged another controversy when he appeared to be intoxicated on - air during the November 23 game between the New York Giants and Philadelphia Eagles. Already ill, Cosell drank at a promotional party prior to the game, then ended up vomiting on Don Meredith 's cowboy boots near the end of the first half. Jackson and Meredith ended up announcing the rest of the contest.
In 1971, Frank Gifford became available after his contract with CBS Sports concluded; Arledge brought him to ABC to serve as play - by - play announcer, replacing Jackson (who returned to broadcasting college football for the network, which he continued to do for the next 35 seasons). The former New York Giant had been an NFL analyst for CBS during the 1960s but had never called play - by - play prior to joining Monday Night Football. In that capacity for Monday Night Football from 1971 to 1985, Gifford was often criticized for his see - no - evil approach in regard to discussing the NFL, earning him the dubious nickname "Faultless Frank. '' Regardless, Gifford would have the longest tenure of any broadcaster on the show, lasting until 1998.
Cosell 's abrasive personality gave him enough recognition to host a live variety show on ABC in the fall of 1975. That show is remembered today only as a trivia question, as its title, Saturday Night Live, prevented a new late - night sketch comedy program on NBC from using that title until the ABC show was canceled. That seeming popularity was in contrast to the repeated criticisms in the media, as well as bar room contests in which winners were allowed to throw a brick through a television image of Cosell.
After beginning with critical acclaim, Meredith began to take his weekly assignments less seriously, while also beginning an acting career. By 1973, his motivation for the broadcasts seemed highly suspect, given incidents during a trio of contests. On October 29, Meredith was drinking during the Buffalo Bills -- Kansas City Chiefs game, which was preceded one week earlier by his pre-game analysis of the Denver Broncos -- Oakland Raiders game: "We 're in the Mile High City and I sure am '' -- a not - so - subtle reference to his use of marijuana at the time. Finally, during the Pittsburgh Steelers -- Washington Redskins game on November 5, he referred to U.S. President Richard Nixon as "Tricky Dick. ''
Don Meredith would be absent from Monday Night Football for a broadcasting and acting career on rival NBC from 1974 to 1976. Fred Williamson, a former Kansas City Chiefs defensive back nicknamed "The Hammer '' for his often - brutal hits, was selected by ABC to replace Meredith in 1974, but following a few pre-season broadcasts, proved so inarticulate that he was relieved of his duties prior to the start of the regular season, becoming the first MNF personality not to last an entire season (much less no part of the regular season at all). Williamson was replaced by fellow Gary, Indiana native Alex Karras, formerly of the Detroit Lions. The highlight of Williamson 's MNF career was probably at the introductory press conference where he quipped that he was hired to "bring some color to the booth. ''
Karras made his debut on September 16, 1974 and immediately made an impact when he jokingly referred to Oakland Raiders ' defensive lineman Otis Sistrunk as having attended "The University of Mars. '' That would essentially be the high point of Karras ' three - year tenure, with a developing movie career often distracting him from showing any improvement (in reality, Sistrunk did not attend any college but enlisted in the United States Marine Corps after high school and played semi-professional football before getting a tryout with the Raiders; the Raiders team guide listed his college alma mater as "U.S. Mars '').
Meredith returned to the ABC booth in 1977, but seemed to lack the enthusiasm that had marked his first stint from 1970 to 1973. While the NFL moved to a 16 - week schedule in 1978, Meredith was contractually obligated to work only 14 games, leaving Cosell and Gifford to work games as a duo or with newly retired Fran Tarkenton beginning in 1979.
From 1977 to 1986, ABC also aired occasional NFL games on Thursday, Saturday and Sunday nights. Each of these telecasts would be billed by the network as a "Special Thursday / Saturday / Sunday Night Edition of Monday Night Football ''.
One of the more somber contests in the run of the series came on November 27, 1978 when the San Francisco 49ers hosted the Pittsburgh Steelers. Earlier in the day, San Francisco mayor George Moscone and City Supervisor Harvey Milk had been murdered at City Hall. Despite the complaints that followed, the NFL chose to play the game, a decision that mirrored the league 's decision to play its scheduled games during the weekend following the assassination of President John F. Kennedy 15 years earlier.
The opening contest of the 1979 season saw a poignant moment as former New England Patriots wide receiver Darryl Stingley was introduced to a sellout crowd at the Patriots ' Schaefer Stadium. Stingley had been paralyzed in a preseason game the year before and was making his first visit to the stadium since the accident.
During the 1980 season, Monday Night Football continued its tradition of featuring notable guests during the half - time show, from a variety of different industries and backgrounds. During a Thursday Night Football special in Houston, 2 days after Ronald Reagan was elected to the White House, Vice-President elect George H.W. Bush was interviewed in the broadcast booth at halftime. Prior to the election, none of the candidates were invited on the program due to equal time regulations governing appearances during campaigns. Later that same season in Southern California, movie star Bo Derek, well known for her role in the movie "Ten '', was the half - time guest and was interviewed by Howard Cosell. Some of the production crew teasingly referred to the segment as "The Beauty and the Beast ''.
1980 also marked some key personnel moves for the top - rated ABC show. It was the first season of Monday Night Football produced by Bob Goodrich, who would lead the production team for another 6 years. In addition, 1980 was the first year a woman joined the traveling production crew of over 40 cameramen, engineers, producers and directors. Alexis Denny, then a sophomore at Yale University, served as the stage manager of the telecasts and wrote the script for the half - time highlights that Howard Cosell would voice over in a style for which he was known throughout his career.
One of the most remembered moments in Monday Night Football history occurred on December 8, 1980, yet had nothing to do with the game or football in general. During a game between the Miami Dolphins and New England Patriots, Howard Cosell broke the news of famed Beatle John Lennon 's assassination, news that stunned a nationwide audience.
In 1974, Lennon had appeared in the Monday Night Football broadcast booth and was briefly interviewed by Cosell.
The NFL 's television contract renewal in 1982 also put ABC in the Super Bowl rotation for the first time, giving it the broadcast rights to Super Bowl XIX in 1985. A second renewal of the television contract gave them the rights to Super Bowl XXII in 1988.
From 1983 to 1986, ABC also aired a Friday night game in the final week (Week 16) of the regular season, in addition to the normal Monday night game.
Cosell continued to draw criticism during Monday Night Football with one of his offhand comments during the September 5, 1983 game, igniting a controversy and laying the groundwork for his departure at the end of that season. In a game between the Washington Redskins and Dallas Cowboys, Cosell referred to Alvin Garrett, an African American wide receiver for the Redskins, as a "little monkey. '' Cosell noted that Garrett 's small stature, and not his race, was the basis for his comment, citing the fact that he had used the term to describe his grandchildren. Later, a special on Howard Cosell showed him calling Mike Adamle (a white player) a "little monkey. '' Stung by the unrelenting barrage of remarks, Cosell claimed upon his departure from Monday Night Football that the NFL had become "a stagnant bore. '' In Cosell 's book, I Never Played the Game, he devoted an entire chapter ("Monkey Business '') to the Garrett episode. In the book, Cosell also said that ABC should have had the right to choose its own Monday Night schedule. In his mind, Monday Night Football is what elevated the NFL in popularity over Major League Baseball. He felt that this should have been ABC 's reward for raising the league 's profile.
That same year, O.J. Simpson replaced Tarkenton as a fill - in when Meredith or Cosell, who also was a broadcaster for the network 's coverage of the Major League Baseball playoffs, was unavailable. The season would serve as a study in contrasts as one of the most exciting Monday night games ever was followed the next week by one of the most badly played in the run of the series. On October 17, 1983, the highest scoring game in Monday Night Football history took place in the Green Bay Packers - Washington Redskins game, with the Packers winning the game by a score of 48 -- 47. One week later, the New York Giants and St. Louis Cardinals played for more than four hours before settling for a 20 -- 20 overtime tie, MNF 's only OT tie to date. The deadlock had come after dropped touchdown passes by Cardinal wide receivers Willard Harrell and Roy Green, and a trio of missed field goals by teammate Neil O'Donoghue, including two in the final 63 seconds of the overtime period.
When Cosell left prior to the start of the 1984 season, the trio of Gifford, Meredith and Simpson handled the duties. Cosell 's departure seemed to have the greatest effect on Meredith, who many believed to be a poor analyst in his absence. Falling ratings also gave indications that much of the mystique that surrounded the weekly event had disappeared.
After the 1984 season, ABC replaced Meredith with Joe Namath the following year, with the quarterback making his debut in the annual Pro Football Hall of Fame Game. In a coincidental twist, both Namath and Simpson were busy prior to the telecast with their induction into the shrine.
One of the more grisly moments in Monday Night Football history occurred during a game between the Washington Redskins and New York Giants on November 18, 1985, at RFK Stadium. Redskins quarterback Joe Theismann 's career would end when Giants linebacker Lawrence Taylor reached from behind to drag him down and Taylor fell heavily on the quarterback 's leg in the process. On the play, which viewers could see in a gruesome slow - motion replay, Theismann suffered a compound fracture of the tibia and fibula in his lower right leg. The injury ended the playing career of Theismann, who had teamed with Gifford and Meredith on ABC 's coverage of Super Bowl XIX in January 1985.
Two weeks after that painful memory, the program 's most watched contest took place as the previously unbeaten Chicago Bears were defeated by the Miami Dolphins, which had not lost to a National Football Conference (NFC) team at home since 1976. That would turn out to be Chicago 's only loss in 1985. The game broadcast earned a Nielsen rating of 29.6 with a 46 share.
Both Namath and Simpson would be replaced at the end of the 1985 NFL season, with critics noting their lack of journalistic skills in comparison to Cosell. In their place the following year came veteran broadcaster Al Michaels, who had previously anchored ABC 's pregame coverage of Super Bowl XIX, and had been the lead play - by - play announcer of Monday Night Baseball since 1983. Michaels had also by this point, gained much notoriety at ABC for his 1980 "Miracle on Ice '' broadcast.
Michaels served as the play - by - play announcer, teaming with Gifford for a two - man booth in 1986. During that season, the Miami Dolphins again made records with the biggest blowout in Monday Night Football history in a 45 - 3 rout of the then 10 - 1 New York Jets (the record was later tied and subsequently broken in 2005; see below). Also in 1986, when Al Michaels became unavailable because he was calling Major League Baseball 's League Championship Series, Frank Gifford moved up into the play - by - play spot while Lynn Swann or O.J. Simpson filled - in as the color commentator. Gifford would once again call the play - by - play when Michaels was busy calling the World Series in 1987 and 1989 and the National League Championship Series in 1988.
In 1987, Gifford and Michaels were joined by Dan Dierdorf, returning the series to its original concept of three announcers in the booth. The trio would last for 11 seasons through the conclusion of the 1997 season. In 1989, television composer Edd Kalehoff created a new arrangement of Johnny Pearson 's "Heavy Action '', by that time fully synonymous with the series. This more or less replaced an original composition by Charles Fox. Also debuting in 1989 was Hank Williams, Jr. performing "All My Rowdy Friends Are Here on Monday Night '', sung to the music of his 1984 hit "All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight. ''
As part of the league 's television contract renewal with the network in 1989, ABC was awarded the television rights to Super Bowl XXV and Super Bowl XXIX, and the first round of NFL playoffs. The Monday Night Football announcing team anchored the telecasts, except for the first of two Wild Card Playoff games, in which ESPN 's Sunday Night NFL crew of Mike Patrick and Joe Theismann presided over that telecast. However, the original crew for one of the two Wild Card Playoff games from 1990 to 1995 consisted of Brent Musburger and Dick Vermeil (both of whom did college football broadcasts for ABC during those two seasons).
From 1990 until 2005, ABC 's MNF television package included seventeen (eighteen in 1992 and 1993) regular season games (from 2003 until 2005, a Thursday game and 16 Mondays -- no game on Week 17 because of playoff preparation disadvantages), the first two wild card playoff games (held on the first Saturday of the playoffs), and at times, the AFC -- NFC Pro Bowl.
The October 17, 1994 episode between the Kansas City Chiefs and Denver Broncos featured a duel between two future Hall of Fame quarterbacks, Joe Montana and John Elway. With 1: 29 left to play in the game, Elway scored on a 4 - yard touchdown run to put the Broncos ahead 28 -- 24. But then Montana led the Chiefs on a 75 - yard drive to score the game - winning touchdown with just 8 seconds to play. The final score was Chiefs 31, Broncos 28.
The October 31, 1994 game between the Green Bay Packers and Chicago Bears is notable for a very windy / rainy game, which also featured the Crypt Keeper deliver the famous phase, and also remembered with a 36 - yard TD run by Brett Favre, who had a sore hip that night. Later dubbed the Halloween Monsoon by Bear fans, the Packers crushed the Bears, 33 - 6.
In the 1995 MNF regular season opener between the Dallas Cowboys and New York Giants at the New Jersey Meadowlands, Cowboys owner Jerry Jones controversially brought Nike chairman Phil Knight down to the sidelines, representing Jones ' individual deal with Nike, contrary to the NFL 's policy of negotiating its marketing deals as a league.
In 1997, ABC began using a scoring bug showing the game clock and score throughout the entire broadcast.
In 1998, Lesley Visser became the first female commentator on Monday Night Football. She had been the first female beat writer in the NFL when she covered the New England Patriots for the Boston Globe in the mid-1970s, and was the first and only woman to handle a Super Bowl Trophy presentation when she was a sportscaster with CBS. Visser was followed by several women, notably Melissa Stark and Lisa Guerrero, on the sideline who were perceived as "eye candy '', none of whom affected the ratings.
For the 1998 season, ABC pushed Monday Night Football back an hour (it has usually aired at 9: 00 p.m. Eastern Time). A special pre-game show was created, Monday Night Blast, hosted by Chris Berman from the ESPN Zone restaurant in Baltimore. The game would start around 8: 20 p.m. Eastern for this particular season. Despite leaving the booth, Frank Gifford stayed on one more year as a special contributor to the pre-game show, usually presenting a single segment.
A mildly infamous incident came during the final 1998 telecast when Dierdorf asked Michaels, prior to a halftime interview with Buffalo Bills quarterback Doug Flutie, "Are you gon na tell ' em how you 're sick of all this B.C. (Boston College) stuff? '' Michaels (thinking that they had gone into a commercial break and that his microphone was off) replied, "No shit. ''
Nielsen ratings data for the first 17 weeks of the 1998 -- 99 television season showed that Monday Night Football averaged a 13.9 rating, down 8 % from the 15.0 average rating for the broadcasts in 1997 -- the previous standard in ratings futility. In actuality, MNF ratings had been hitting all - time record lows for the previous four years.
Beginning in 1999, Monday Night Football telecasts used a computer - generated yellow line to mark where a team needs to get a first down, a method first used by ABC sister cable channel ESPN. 1999 also saw the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game being moved from Saturday afternoon to Monday night. It would remain on Monday night through 2005.
Boomer Esiason replaced Gifford in 1998, and Dierdorf left for a return to CBS in 1999. Esiason 's relationship with Michaels was questioned leading to his firing. Esiason and Michaels reportedly never got along, and it led to ABC firing Esiason shortly after calling Super Bowl XXXIV together.
Unexpectedly, comedian Dennis Miller joined the cast in 2000, along with Dan Fouts. The move was ultimately regarded as a bust by many viewers and commentators. ABC briefly considered adding radio personality Rush Limbaugh before Miller was added to the broadcast team, despite having no prior sports broadcast experience (Limbaugh would instead be assigned as a commentator to Sunday NFL Countdown on ABC sister ESPN). Miller demonstrated a knowledge of the game and its personalities, although at times he tended to lapse into sometimes obscure analogy - riddled streams of consciousness similar to the "rants '' of his standup comedy act. ABC even set up a webpage dedicated to explaining Miller 's sometimes obscure pop culture references. Soon, it would become apparent that Miller 's comedy did not mix with football.
In June 2000, Lesley Visser 's career suffered a highly publicized setback when she was famously bounced as the Monday Night Football sideline reporter for a less experienced, much younger woman and a man, who did not have as extensive journalistic credentials as Visser. "It was staggering to me '', Visser later recalled. However, she wound up returning to CBS Sports, philosophical as ever. "You can have a short career if it 's based on looks and youth '', she said, "but legitimacy is what lasts. '' Which ABC replaced her with both Melissa Stark and Eric Dickerson. This was part of the overhaul when ABC brought back Don Ohlmeyer to serve as producer, who installed Dennis Miller as an analyst (for ultimately two unsuccessful seasons). She sued ABC Sports for age discrimination, with Howard Katz and Ohlmeyer being named as co-defendants.
As previously mentioned, in 2000, Don Ohlmeyer, the program 's producer up until 1977 was brought back. After spending time at NBC, Ohlmeyer was lured out of retirement to spark interest and provide some vigor to the broadcast. Besides the on - air talent, Ohlmeyer 's changes included clips of players introducing themselves, new graphics and music. In another rather irreverent move, the scoring bug began incorporating nicknames for the teams, such as "Skins '' and "Fins '' (for the Washington Redskins and Miami Dolphins) instead of their respective common abbreviations, WSH and MIA.
On October 23, 2000, the New York Jets and Miami Dolphins competed in what is now known as The Monday Night Miracle Trailing 30 -- 7 in the fourth quarter, Vinny Testaverde led the Jets to score 23 consecutive points to tie the game. After Miami scored another touchdown, Testaverde threw to offensive tackle Jumbo Elliott to tie the game at 37 - all. At 1: 08 a.m. Eastern Time, the game having crossed into Tuesday morning, John Hall kicked a field goal in overtime to win the game 40 -- 37. It was the second biggest fourth quarter comeback in NFL history and biggest comeback in Jets ' history. Arnold Schwarzenegger predicted the comeback at halftime, where he was appearing with the MNF crew to promote his upcoming movie, The 6th Day. With the Jets already down by 20 points he said, "Wayne Chrebet will catch a pass and the Jets will win. They 're a great team. ''
The 2001 season of MNF featured a season - long campaign promoting the anticipated 20,000 th point scored in MNF history. Denver Broncos kicker Jason Elam completed the task with a field goal during a 38 -- 28 loss at Oakland on November 5. The three points also put Elam over 1,000 points for his career. In addition, the scoring bug reverted to using the team abbreviations, as opposed to the nickname scheme used in the previous season.
In 2002, both Dennis Miller and Dan Fouts were dropped and John Madden joined Al Michaels in a two - man booth. Madden was a coach for the Oakland Raiders, namesake of the seminal Madden NFL video game series, and a successful broadcaster for 21 years -- first with CBS until 1993 and then with Fox -- before joining Monday Night Football.
In 2002, the broadcast debuted the "Horse Trailer '' award, in which a picture of the game 's top performer (s) is displayed, as chosen by the broadcasting crew. During the fourth quarter of a preseason game early that season, Madden was joking about doing some recording in the "Horse Trailer '', a term the producers used for one of the ABC production trucks. It was, in fact, a custom - built trailer designed from the shell of a horse trailer, but housed sophisticated electronic equipment inside it. By the first week of the regular season, an idea to decorate the plain white trailer with MNF decor, the entire MNF schedule, and a weekly MVP, was born. Immediately following each game, the winner (s) is chosen, and his picture is affixed to the trailer in the corresponding location. When Madden and Michaels went to NBC in 2006, they debuted a similar feature, the Rock Star -- in which the photo of the player of the game was attached to the top of 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York City (the "Horse Trailer '' concept was reinstated for the 2007 season).
In addition to Fouts and Madden helming the regular season broadcasts, Brent Musburger and Gary Danielson served as commentators for that year 's AFC Wild Card game, with Jack Arute serving as the sideline reporter.
After suffering through several years of dismal Pro Bowl ratings, ABC considered moving the game to Monday night. In February 2003, Madden declined to serve as color commentator for the game in Hawaii, citing his fear of flying; former MNF personality Dan Fouts took his place. The Pro Bowl held the following year was played on a Sunday as typical, but was moved to ABC 's sister network ESPN.
In 2003, ABC and the NFL dropped the Monday Night Football game for the final week of the regular season. The move, which had been in effect for the first eight years of the broadcast (1970 -- 1977), was the result of declining ratings, as well as problems involved for potential playoff teams, as there was a potential of only four days rest between their final regular season game and first - round playoff game. ABC replaced the telecast with an opening weekend Thursday night game, and in exchange ESPN got a Saturday night game on the final weekend.
Also during the 2003 season, Lisa Guerrero decided to leave Fox Sports Net 's The Best Damn Sports Show Period to join the MNF television crew as a sideline reporter (replacing the pregnant Melissa Stark). Guerrero 's performance on the broadcast was heavily criticized, and the following year (also in an apparent move away from the "eye candy '' concept) ABC replaced her with longtime TV sports journalist Michele Tafoya. Guerrero defended herself by saying that the show hired her with the intention of going in a totally different direction with the job of sideline reporter -- personality - driven and feature - driven -- then discarded all of that and told her to just do the job in the usual fashion. She said that she never would have taken the job if she had known that they would change their minds like that. In 2005, Michele Tafoya sat out much of the season while on maternity leave, with Sam Ryan temporarily taking her place.
During the October 6, 2003 game between the Indianapolis Colts and Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Indianapolis was trailing 35 -- 14 with 3: 43 remaining. The Colts had returned a Tampa Bay kickoff 90 yard to the 11 - yard line, setting up a quick score. The Colts recovered an onside kick and scored again to narrow the margin to 35 -- 28. They forced a Bucs punt and with less than two minutes remaining, Peyton Manning led an 87 - yard drive to score the game - tying touchdown with 35 seconds left in regulation. In overtime, kicker Mike Vanderjagt missed a 40 - yard field goal, but Simeon Rice was called for a leaping penalty, a rarely seen unsportsmanlike conduct infraction that penalizes a player for running and jumping to block a kick and landing on other players. Vanderjagt 's subsequent kick was batted and hit the upright, but fell in good, winning the game for the Colts. Vanderjagt went on to become the second kicker in NFL history not to miss either a field goal or extra point in a single season after Gary Anderson, who accomplished the feat in the 1998 season as a member of the Minnesota Vikings. Vanderjagt did not miss a kick in the playoffs either, making him the first kicker to accomplish that feat (Anderson missed a field goal in the 1998 - 99 NFC Championship Game).
On December 22, 2003, Green Bay Packers quarterback Brett Favre put on one of the most defining moments of his career (while also ranking among his greatest game ever). The day before the contest against the Oakland Raiders, his father, Irvin, died suddenly of a heart attack. Favre elected to play, passing for four touchdowns in the first half, and 399 yards for the game in a 41 -- 7 destruction of the Raiders (receiving applause from the highly partisan "Raider Nation ''). Afterwards, Brett said,
On November 15, 2004, controversy shrouded Philadelphia Eagles wide receiver Terrell Owens when he appeared with actress Nicollette Sheridan (one of the stars of the new hit ABC comedy - drama Desperate Housewives) in an introductory skit which opened that evening 's MNF telecast, in which Owens and the Eagles played the Cowboys at Texas Stadium. The skit was widely condemned as being sexually suggestive (see video) and ABC was forced to apologize for airing it (the Eagles went on to win the game, 49 - 21, with Owens catching three touchdown passes). However, on March 14, 2005, the Federal Communications Commission ruled that the skit did not violate decency standards, because it contained no outright nudity or foul language. Originally, John Madden was supposed to appear in the commercial.
For the 2005 season, which would become the network 's final season as the MNF broadcaster and used through Super Bowl XL, ABC converted its scoring bug into a horizontal time - score banner placed across the bottom of the screen.
On December 5, 2005, in a game dubbed "The Monday Night Massacre '' by NFL Films, the Seattle Seahawks shut out the Philadelphia Eagles 42 -- 0 with three defensive touchdowns (two interceptions, one fumble return) to tie the then - largest margin of victory mark in Monday Night Football history and set the mark for the greatest margin of victory in a Monday night shutout, as well as setting the NFL record for scoring the most points with less than 200 yards of offense. Andre Dyson scored twice for the Seahawks defense, once on a 72 - yard interception return and the other on a 25 - yard fumble return, earning himself the "Horse Trailer Player of the Game '' as well as NFC defensive player of the week. A fourth interception return by Michael Boulware fell just short of tying another Seahawks NFL record of four defensive scores in a single game, set during a 45 -- 0 victory over the Kansas City Chiefs in 1984. The defeat was the Eagles third worst in team history. This was due to the Eagles ' major injuries including star quarterback Donovan McNabb and also the situation with Terrell Owens. The Eagles also lost their star running back Brian Westbrook due to an injury in this game.
Despite high ratings, ABC lost millions of dollars on televising the games during the late 1990s and 2000s. The NFL also indicated that it wanted Sunday night to be the new night for its marquee game, because more people tend to watch television on Sundays, and games held on that night would be more conducive to flexible scheduling, a method by which some of the NFL 's best games could be moved from the afternoon to the evening on Sunday on short notice. Given these factors, as well as the rise of ABC 's ratings on Sunday night, and the network 's wish of protecting its Desperate Housewives franchise (which they knew would be costly), on April 18, 2005, ABC and the NFL announced the end of their 36 - year partnership, with the Monday Night Football broadcasts being moved to ESPN starting with the 2006 season; the move was criticized by some of the Disney shareholders (as well as NFL fans and purists). However, ESPN 's ability to collect subscription fees from cable and satellite providers, in addition to selling commercials, made it more likely that ESPN could turn a profit on NFL telecasts, as opposed to ABC 's heavy losses.
The final Monday Night Football broadcast on ABC aired on December 26, 2005, when the New York Jets hosted the New England Patriots from Giants Stadium. Coincidentally, both the first and last ABC Monday Night Football game telecasts ended with a score of 31 -- 21 with the Jets on the losing end. Vinny Testaverde holds the distinction of throwing the last TD pass in ABC 's MNF telecast history; it was to wide receiver Laveranues Coles. Also, Testaverde 's pass set an NFL record: most consecutive seasons with a touchdown pass, 19 seasons (1987 -- 2005). Patriots linebacker Mike Vrabel set a record of note during that last ABC telecast, becoming the first player to catch two touchdown passes and record a quarterback sack in the same game. The final play of the ABC era was a Pats kneeldown by 44 - year - old reserve quarterback Doug Flutie. John Madden said at the show 's ending:
During its final NFL television contract, ABC was awarded the telecasts to Super Bowl XXXIV, Super Bowl XXXVII and Super Bowl XL. With the end of ABC 's contract, the Super Bowl XL broadcast was the network 's final NFL telecast until 2016, when they simulcasted ESPN 's Wild Card game production.
The changes to the NFL 's prime time broadcasts took place with the 2006 season, as ESPN began airing the Monday night games at the same time NBC assumed the rights to the Sunday night package from ESPN. The Sunday night game is now the "showcase '' game of the week on the NFL schedule.
While the ESPN broadcasts still carry the MNF name and heritage, NBC (like ABC) is a broadcast network, whereas ESPN is a cable channel not freely available to all Americans, though per a cause in the NFL 's broadcasting rules, many ESPN games air on a participating broadcast television station in the home markets of each team to allow viewers who do not subscribe to a pay television provider to view the game. For that reason, NBC gained rights to the Thursday night season - opening game, the Wild Card doubleheader that has traditionally aired on ABC, as well as a share of the rotating rights to the Super Bowl (with CBS and Fox also in the mix).
ESPN had initially stated that its MNF team would consist of Al Michaels and Joe Theismann in the booth, with Michele Tafoya and Suzy Kolber serving as sideline reporters. However, on February 8, 2006, ESPN announced that former NBA studio host Mike Tirico would replace Michaels in the booth in 2006, joined by Theismann, and Tony Kornheiser. ESPN announced the following day that it had "traded '' the contract of Michaels to NBC in exchange for some NBCUniversal properties, including rights to Ryder Cup coverage, and the return of the rights to Oswald the Lucky Rabbit (a Walt Disney creation) to ESPN parent The Walt Disney Company after nearly 80 years of Universal ownership.
Since the program 's move to ESPN in 2006, the network has broadcast two games in a doubleheader on the opening week of the season, with the second game using separate announcers and production staff that are not used for the rest of the schedule. On September 11, 2006, the announcers for the second game were Brad Nessler, Ron Jaworski and Dick Vermeil. On September 10, 2007, the team of Mike Greenberg and Mike Golic (co-hosts of Mike and Mike in the Morning) presided alongside Mike Ditka. For both games, Bonnie Bernstein was the sideline reporter.
Greenberg, Golic and Ditka served as the secondary team for the September 8, 2008 game, with Suzy Kolber on the sidelines. The September 14, 2009 game had Steve Young join Greenberg, Golic and Kolber. On September 13, 2010, Nessler and Trent Dilfer teamed to call the second game, with Kolber again on the sidelines.
ESPN 's first Monday night broadcast was a preseason game held on August 14, 2006, when the Oakland Raiders visited the Minnesota Vikings, publicized as the return of Randy Moss to Minnesota for the first time since the Vikings traded him after the 2004 season. The telecast debuted with brand - new graphics, including a time - score box placed in the lower center of the screen; a variation of the MNF graphics began to be used on almost all sporting events televised by ESPN and ABC (the former of which effectively took over full responsibility of ABC 's sports division that year, which was rebranded as ESPN on ABC). The first regular season Monday Night Football game to air on ESPN was on September 11, 2006, featuring the visiting Minnesota Vikings at the Washington Redskins at FedExField, in which the Vikings won 19 -- 16.
The September 25 edition of Monday Night Football highlighted the New Orleans Saints ' first game back in the Louisiana Superdome following Hurricane Katrina to take on the Atlanta Falcons. The game had a Super Bowl - like atmosphere with performances by the Goo Goo Dolls, U2 and Green Day before the game. The NFL tapped producer Don Mischer and director Hamish Hamilton to produce the event. Former President George H.W. Bush handled the pregame coin toss. The Saints beat the Falcons 23 -- 3 in what now ranks as one of the most - watched events in the history of cable television.
ESPN 's October 23, 2006 game telecast between the New York Giants and Dallas Cowboys drew the largest audience in the history of cable television at the time, besting the previous mark set by a 1993 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) debate between Al Gore and Ross Perot. An average of 16,028,000 viewers (12.8 rating) watched as the Giants defeated the Cowboys, 36 -- 22. ESPN 's Monday Night Football telecasts now account for eight of the ten highest - rated programs in cable television history.
What would eventually be named the "NFL 's comeback of the year '' was played on Monday Night Football on October 16. Late in the third quarter, the massive underdog Arizona Cardinals led the Chicago Bears 23 -- 3. Arizona seemed to have the game wrapped up, as rookie quarterback Matt Leinart was having a great day, and Arizona had forced six turnovers out of Chicago quarterback Rex Grossman. Chicago 's defense then went on to score 14 points on fumble returns for touchdowns. With 2: 58 left in the fourth quarter, and down 17 -- 23, Chicago 's Devin Hester returned a punt for a touchdown to take a 24 -- 23 lead. Leinart then led the Cardinals down the field, only to have Neil Rackers miss a field goal, and Chicago went on to win.
At the conclusion of the 2006 season, ESPN had managed to secure all of the cable television audience records. Monday Night Football and its surrounding shoulder programming also became the most profitable franchise on cable television.
Analyst and former NFL quarterback Ron Jaworski replaced Joe Theismann, who was offered a prominent football analyst job with ESPN, in the booth beginning with the 2007 season.
On December 3, 2007, 17.5 million people watched the undefeated New England Patriots defeat the Baltimore Ravens, 27 -- 24. The game became the most - watched single cable television program of all - time by total viewership, breaking the previous record set by the August 17 premiere of High School Musical 2, which was viewed by 17.2 million on ESPN corporate sibling Disney Channel (after the film was surpassed by the Patriots - Ravens game, High School Musical 2 retained the record as the highest - rated non-sports program in basic cable history).
After experiencing low ratings and criticism about the production during the 2007 season, ESPN announced that long - time sideline reporters Suzy Kolber and Michele Tafoya would have reduced roles for the 2008 season.
As the 2008 season began, ESPN announced a new focus on covering the games as sporting events rather than as entertainment and cultural events. Among the changes were the removal of celebrity booth guests and a reduction in the number of sideline interviews. Tafoya and Kolber were retained to conduct those interviews and file reports from the field. In addition, ESPN replaced the bottom center - screen time - score box introduced in 2006 (which was used until the 2008 preseason) with a horizontal time - score banner across the bottom of the screen.
The September 15, 2008 Eagles -- Cowboys game, with a 13.3 rating and 18.6 million viewers, set a new record for the most - watched cable television program, surpassing the record set the previous October by the Patriots - Ravens game.
The night before the 2008 United States Presidential Election, studio host Chris Berman interviewed both major party candidates, Republican nominee John McCain and Democratic nominee Barack Obama at halftime. The November 10, 2008 game featured the Washington Redskins losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers, 23 - 6.
Tony Kornheiser stepped down for the 2009 season and was replaced by former Oakland Raiders and Tampa Bay Buccaneers head coach Jon Gruden. The rest of the team remained intact.
The October 5, 2009 Packers -- Vikings game was the fourth ESPN MNF broadcast to become the most - watched program ever on a cable channel, with a 15.3 rating and 21.839 million viewers. The record stood until it was surpassed by the network 's telecast of the BCS National Championship Game on January 10, 2011.
On November 15, 2010, the Eagles visited the Redskins, in what was Donovan McNabb 's second game against the Eagles since being traded on April 4 of that year. The Redskins won the first meeting that season by a score of 17 - 12; however, in the first half of the game, Eagles star quarterback Michael Vick suffered a rib injury knocking him out of the game, resulting in Kevin Kolb taking over. After the game, McNabb gave a post-game speech in the locker room in which he stated the Eagles made a mistake by trading him. Before the game, McNabb signed a five - year contract extension worth $78 million, after being benched in the fourth quarter just a week earlier. The very first play of the game Vick threw an 88 - yard touchdown pass to DeSean Jackson.
The Redskins were criticized for their lack of coverage because the Eagles were known for going deep on the first play; the Eagles ' next two possessions led to touchdowns. The very first play of the second quarter, with Philadelphia up 28 - 0, saw Vick throw a 48 - yard touchdown to Jeremy Maclin. With Philadelphia up 45 - 21 at halftime, Vick threw a three - yard touchdown to Jason Avant in the third quarter to make the score 52 - 21. During the play, Vick scrambled, waiting for someone to get open when Albert Haynesworth (who signed a six - year $100 million contract with the Redskins the year prior) had fallen down and continued to lie on the field as Vick continued to scramble. The very next Redskins possession had McNabb throw a pick six to Dimitri Patterson, helping the Eagles score seven points.
The Redskins went on to score one more touchdown, however their seven - point run was not able to stop Philadelphia, which defeated Washington 59 - 28. McNabb finished the game with 295 yards on 17 for 31, along with two touchdowns and three interceptions. The Eagles finished with 593 offense yards (setting a new team record); Vick went 20 of 28 for 333 yards throwing four touchdowns, and also ran for 80 yards and two touchdowns on eight carries. He became the first player with at least 300 yards passing, 50 yards rushing four passing touchdowns and two rushing touchdowns in a game. Vick 's performance in the game also moved him past Steve Young for second place on the all - time list for rushing yards by a quarterback.
On October 3, 2011, Hank Williams Jr. made controversial remarks during an interview on Fox News Channel 's Fox & Friends, when talking about a golf outing he went on that summer with Barack Obama, John Boehner, Joe Biden and John Kasich. Williams compared President Obama and Speaker of the House Boehner golfing together to "Hitler playing golf with (Israeli prime minister) Netanyahu '', stressing their philosophical and political differences. On October 6, 2011, ESPN subsequently announced that it would stop using "All My Rowdy Friends '' as its theme song (as the song is still owned by Williams) and drop Williams from the show 's opening. Williams commented on the matter: "After reading hundreds of e-mails, I have made my decision... By pulling my opening October 3, (ESPN) stepped on the toes of the First Amendment Freedom of Speech, so therefore me, my song, and All My Rowdy Friends are out of here. It 's been a great run. '' MNF was absent an opening sequence from Week 4 through the end of that season.
In 2017, ESPN re-hired Hank Williams Jr. for the intro.
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where did the french and indian war fight | French and Indian War - wikipedia
British victory
The French and Indian War (1754 -- 63) pitted the colonies of British America against those of New France, each side supported by military units from the parent country and by American Indian allies. At the start of the war, the French colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 settlers, compared with 2 million in the British colonies. The outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians.
The European nations declared a wider war upon one another overseas in 1756, two years into the French and Indian war, and some view the French and Indian War as being merely the American theater of the worldwide Seven Years ' War of 1756 -- 63; however, the French and Indian War is viewed in America as a singular conflict which was not associated with any European war. The name French and Indian War is used mainly in the United States, referring to the two enemies of the British colonists, while European historians use the term the Seven Years ' War, as do English - speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it Guerre de la Conquête (the War of the Conquest) or (rarely) the Fourth Intercolonial War.
The British colonists were supported at various times by the Iroquois, Catawba, and Cherokee, and the French colonists were supported by Wabanaki Confederacy members Abenaki and Mi'kmaq, and Algonquin, Lenape, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Shawnee, and Wyandot. Fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny River and Monongahela River called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, during which Virginia militiamen under the command of 22 year - old George Washington ambushed a French patrol.
In 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four - way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the main effort by Braddock proved a disaster; he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, 1755 and died a few days later. British operations failed in the frontier areas of the Province of Pennsylvania and the Province of New York during 1755 -- 57 due to a combination of poor management, internal divisions, effective Canadian scouts, French regular forces, and Indian warrior allies. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, and they ordered the expulsion of the Acadians (1755 -- 64) soon afterwards. Orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander - in - Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians were expelled, both those captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty. Indians likewise were driven off the land to make way for settlers from New England.
The British colonial government fell in the region of Nova Scotia after several disastrous campaigns in 1757, including a failed expedition against Louisbourg and the Siege of Fort William Henry; this last was followed by Indians torturing and massacring their British victims. William Pitt came to power and significantly increased British military resources in the colonies at a time when France was unwilling to risk large convoys to aid the limited forces that they had in New France, preferring to concentrate their forces against Prussia and its allies who were now engaged in the Seven Years ' War in Europe. Between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada (part of New France). They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec (1759). The British later lost the Battle of Sainte - Foy west of Quebec (1760), but the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris (1763).
France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River (including New Orleans) to its ally Spain in compensation for Spain 's loss to Britain of Spanish Florida. (Spain had ceded Florida to Britain in exchange for the return of Havana, Cuba.) France 's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, confirming Great Britain 's position as the dominant colonial power in America.
In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King William 's War or Queen Anne 's War. There had already been a King George 's War in the 1740s during the reign of King George II, so British colonists named this conflict after their opponents, and it became known as the French and Indian War. This continues as the standard name for the war in the United States, although Indians fought on both sides of the conflict. It also led into the Seven Years ' War overseas, a much larger conflict between France and Great Britain that did not involve the American colonies; some historians make a connection between the French and Indian War and the Seven Years ' War overseas, but most residents of the United States consider them as two separate conflicts -- only one of which involved the American colonies, and American historians generally use the traditional name. Less frequently used names for the war include the Fourth Intercolonial War and the Great War for the Empire.
In Europe, the French and Indian War is conflated into the Seven Years ' War and not given a separate name. "Seven Years '' refers to events in Europe, from the official declaration of war in 1756 -- two years after the French and Indian War had started -- to the signing of the peace treaty in 1763. The French and Indian War in America, by contrast, was largely concluded in six years from the Battle of Jumonville Glen in 1754 to the capture of Montreal in 1760.
Canadians conflate both the European and American conflicts into the Seven Years ' War (Guerre de Sept Ans). French Canadians also use the term "War of Conquest '' (Guerre de la Conquête), since it is the war in which Canada was conquered by the British and became part of the British Empire. In Quebec, this term was promoted by popular historians Jacques Lacoursière and Denis Vaugeois, who borrowed from the ideas of Maurice Séguin in considering this war as a dramatic tipping point of French Canadian identity and nationhood.
At this time, America east of the Mississippi River was largely claimed by either Great Britain or France. Large areas had no colonial settlements. The French population numbered about 75,000 and was heavily concentrated along the St. Lawrence River valley, with some also in Acadia (present - day New Brunswick and parts of Nova Scotia), including Île Royale (Cape Breton Island). Fewer lived in New Orleans, Biloxi, Mississippi, Mobile, Alabama, and small settlements in the Illinois Country, hugging the east side of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. French fur traders and trappers traveled throughout the St. Lawrence and Mississippi watersheds, did business with local Indian tribes, and often married Indian women. Traders married daughters of chiefs, creating high - ranking unions.
British settlers outnumbered the French 20 to 1 with a population of about 1.5 million ranged along the eastern coast of the continent from Nova Scotia and the Colony of Newfoundland in the north to the Province of Georgia in the south. Many of the older colonies had land claims that extended arbitrarily far to the west, as the extent of the continent was unknown at the time when their provincial charters were granted. Their population centers were along the coast, yet the settlements were growing into the interior. Nova Scotia had been captured from France in 1713, and it still had a significant French - speaking population. Britain also claimed Rupert 's Land where the Hudson 's Bay Company traded for furs with local Indian tribes.
In between the French and British colonists, large areas were dominated by Indian tribes. To the north, the Mi'kmaqs and the Abenakis were engaged in Father Le Loutre 's War and still held sway in parts of Nova Scotia, Acadia, and the eastern portions of the province of Canada, as well as much of Maine. The Iroquois Confederation dominated much of upstate New York and the Ohio Country, although Ohio also included Algonquian - speaking populations of Delaware and Shawnee, as well as Iroquoian - speaking Mingos. These tribes were formally under Iroquois rule and were limited by them in their authority to make agreements.
The Southeast interior was dominated by Siouan - speaking Catawbas, Muskogee - speaking Creeks and Choctaw, and the Iroquoian - speaking Cherokee tribes. When war broke out, the French colonists used their trading connections to recruit fighters from tribes in western portions of the Great Lakes region, which was not directly subject to the conflict between the French and British; these included the Hurons, Mississaugs, Ojibwas, Winnebagos, and Potawatomi. The British colonists were supported in the war by the Iroquois Six Nations and also by the Cherokees, until differences sparked the Anglo - Cherokee War in 1758. In 1758, the Province of Pennsylvania successfully negotiated the Treaty of Easton in which a number of tribes in the Ohio Country promised neutrality in exchange for land concessions and other considerations. Most of the other northern tribes sided with the French, their primary trading partner and supplier of arms. The Creeks and Cherokees were subject to diplomatic efforts by both the French and British to gain either their support or neutrality in the conflict.
By this time, Spain claimed only the province of Florida in eastern America; it controlled Cuba and other territories in the West Indies that became military objectives in the Seven Years ' War. Florida 's European population was a few hundred, concentrated in St. Augustine and Pensacola.
At the start of the war, no French regular army troops were stationed in America, and few British troops. New France was defended by about 3,000 troupes de la marine, companies of colonial regulars (some of whom had significant woodland combat experience). The colonial government recruited militia support when needed. Most of the British colonies mustered local militia companies to deal with Indian threats, generally ill trained and available only for short periods, but they did not have any standing forces. Virginia, by contrast, had a large frontier with several companies of British regulars.
The colonial governments were used to operating independently of one another and of the government in London, a situation that complicated negotiations with Indian tribes, whose territories often encompassed land claimed by multiple colonies. After the war began, the leaders of the British Army establishment tried to impose constraints and demands on the colonial administrations.
New France 's Governor - General Roland - Michel Barrin de La Galissonière was concerned about the incursion and expanding influence in the Ohio Country of British colonial traders such as George Croghan. In June 1747, he ordered Pierre - Joseph Céloron to lead a military expedition through the area. Its objectives were:
Céloron 's expedition force consisted of about 200 Troupes de la marine and 30 Indians, and they covered about 3,000 miles (4,800 km) between June and November 1749. They went up the St. Lawrence, continued along the northern shore of Lake Ontario, crossed the portage at Niagara, and followed the southern shore of Lake Erie. At the Chautauqua Portage near Barcelona, New York, the expedition moved inland to the Allegheny River, which it followed to the site of Pittsburgh. There Céloron buried lead plates engraved with the French claim to the Ohio Country. Whenever he encountered British colonial merchants or fur - traders, he informed them of the French claims on the territory and told them to leave.
Céloron 's expedition arrived at Logstown where the Indians in the area informed him that they owned the Ohio Country and that they would trade with the British colonists regardless of the French. He continued south until his expedition reached the confluence of the Ohio and the Miami rivers, which lay just south of the village of Pickawillany, the home of the Miami chief known as "Old Briton ''. Céloron threatened Old Briton with severe consequences if he continued to trade with British colonists, but Old Briton ignored the warning. Céloron returned disappointedly to Montreal in November 1749.
Céloron wrote an extensively detailed report. "All I can say is that the Natives of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French, '' he wrote, "and are entirely devoted to the English. I do n't know in what way they could be brought back. '' Even before his return to Montreal, reports on the situation in the Ohio Country were making their way to London and Paris, each side proposing that action be taken. Massachusetts governor William Shirley was particularly forceful, stating that British colonists would not be safe as long as the French were present.
In 1749, the British government gave land to the Ohio Company of Virginia for the purpose of developing trade and settlements in the Ohio Country. The grant required that it settle 100 families in the territory and construct a fort for their protection. But the territory was also claimed by Pennsylvania, and both colonies began pushing for action to improve their respective claims. In 1750, Christopher Gist explored the Ohio territory, acting on behalf of both Virginia and the company, and he opened negotiations with the Indian tribes at Logstown. He completed the 1752 Treaty of Logstown in which the local Indians agreed to terms through their "Half - King '' Tanacharison and an Iroquois representative. These terms included permission to build a strong house at the mouth of the Monongahela River on the modern site of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. By the late 17th century, the Iroquois had pushed many tribes out of the Ohio Valley, and they laid claim to it as their hunting ground by right of conquest.
The War of the Austrian Succession (better known as King George 's War) formally ended in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle, which was primarily focused on resolving issues in Europe. The issues of conflicting territorial claims between British and French colonies were turned over to a commission, but it reached no decision. Frontier areas were claimed by both sides, from Nova Scotia and Acadia in the north to the Ohio Country in the south. The disputes also extended into the Atlantic Ocean, where both powers wanted access to the rich fisheries of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland.
Governor - General of New France Marquis de la Jonquière died on March 17, 1752, and he was temporarily replaced by Charles le Moyne de Longueuil. His permanent replacement was to be the Marquis Duquesne, but he did not arrive in New France until 1752 to take over the post. The continuing British activity in the Ohio territories prompted Longueuil to dispatch another expedition to the area under the command of Charles Michel de Langlade, an officer in the Troupes de la Marine. Langlade was given 300 men, including French - Canadians and warriors of the Ottawa tribe. His objective was to punish the Miami people of Pickawillany for not following Céloron 's orders to cease trading with the British. On June 21, the French war party attacked the trading centre at Pickawillany, capturing three traders and killing 14 Miami Indians, including Old Briton. He was reportedly ritually cannibalized by some Indians in the expedition party.
In the spring of 1753, Paul Marin de la Malgue was given command of a 2,000 - man force of Troupes de la Marine and Indians. His orders were to protect the King 's land in the Ohio Valley from the British. Marin followed the route that Céloron had mapped out four years earlier. Céloron, however, had limited the record of French claims to the burial of lead plates, whereas Marin constructed and garrisoned forts. He first constructed Fort Presque Isle on Lake Erie 's south shore near Erie, Pennsylvania, and he had a road built to the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek. He then constructed a second fort at Fort Le Boeuf in Waterford, Pennsylvania, designed to guard the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek. As he moved south, he drove off or captured British traders, alarming both the British and the Iroquois. Tanaghrisson was a chief of the Mingo Indians, who were remnants of Iroquois and other tribes who had been driven west by colonial expansion. He intensely disliked the French whom he accused of killing and eating his father. He traveled to Fort Le Boeuf and threatened the French with military action, which Marin contemptuously dismissed.
The Iroquois sent runners to the manor of William Johnson in upstate New York, who was the British Superintendent for Indian Affairs in the New York region and beyond. Johnson was known to the Iroquois as Warraghiggey, meaning "he who does great things. '' He spoke their languages and had become a respected honorary member of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area, and he was made a colonel of the Iroquois in 1746; he was later commissioned as a colonel of the Western New York Militia.
The Indian representatives and Johnson met with Governor Clinton and officials from some of the other American colonies at Albany, New York. Mohawk Chief Hendrick was the speaker of their tribal council, and he insisted that the British abide by their obligations and block French expansion. Clinton did not respond to his satisfaction, and Hendrick said that the "Covenant Chain '' was broken, a long - standing friendly relationship between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British Crown.
Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the Ohio Company, which stood to lose money if the French held their claim. He ordered 21 year - old Major George Washington (whose brother was another Ohio Company investor) of the Virginia Regiment to warn the French to leave Virginia territory in October 1753. Washington left with a small party, picking up Jacob Van Braam as an interpreter, Christopher Gist (a company surveyor working in the area), and a few Mingos led by Tanaghrisson. On December 12, Washington and his men reached Fort Le Boeuf.
Jacques Legardeur de Saint - Pierre succeeded Marin as commander of the French forces after Marin died on October 29, and he invited Washington to dine with him. Over dinner, Washington presented Saint - Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie demanding an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country. Saint - Pierre said, "As to the Summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it. '' He told Washington that France 's claim to the region was superior to that of the British, since René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had explored the Ohio Country nearly a century earlier.
Washington 's party left Fort Le Boeuf early on December 16 and arrived in Williamsburg on January 16, 1754. He stated in his report, "The French had swept south '', detailing the steps which they had taken to fortify the area, and their intention to fortify the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers.
Even before Washington returned, Dinwiddie had sent a company of 40 men under William Trent to that point where they began construction of a small stockaded fort in the early months of 1754. Governor Duquesne sent additional French forces under Claude - Pierre Pecaudy de Contrecœur to relieve Saint - Pierre during the same period, and Contrecœur led 500 men south from Fort Venango on April 5, 1754. These forces arrived at the fort on April 16, but Contrecœur generously allowed Trent 's small company to withdraw. He purchased their construction tools to continue building what became Fort Duquesne.
Dinwiddie had ordered Washington to lead a larger force to assist Trent in his work, and Washington learned of Trent 's retreat while he was en route. Mingo sachem Tanaghrisson had promised support to the British, so Washington continued toward Fort Duquesne and met with him. He then learned of a French scouting party in the area, so he combined Tanaghrisson 's force with his own and surprised the Canadians on May 28 in what became known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen. They killed many of the Canadians, including their commanding officer Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, whose head was reportedly split open by Tanaghrisson with a tomahawk. Historian Fred Anderson suggests that Tanaghrisson was acting to gain the support of the British and to regain authority over his own people. They had been inclined to support the French, with whom they had long trading relationships. One of Tanaghrisson 's men told Contrecoeur that Jumonville had been killed by British musket fire.
Historians generally consider the Battle of Jumonville Glen as the opening battle of the French and Indian War in North America, and the start of hostilities in the Ohio valley.
Following the battle, Washington pulled back several miles and established Fort Necessity, which the Canadians attacked under the command of Jummonville 's brother at the Battle of Fort Necessity on July 3. Washington surrendered and negotiated a withdrawal under arms. One of his men reported that the Canadian force was accompanied by Shawnee, Delaware, and Mingo warriors -- just those whom Tanaghrisson was seeking to influence.
News of the two battles reached England in August. After several months of negotiations, the government of the Duke of Newcastle decided to send an army expedition the following year to dislodge the French. They chose Major General Edward Braddock to lead the expedition. Word of the British military plans leaked to France well before Braddock 's departure for North America. In response, King Louis XV dispatched six regiments to New France under the command of Baron Dieskau in 1755. The British sent out their fleet in February 1755, intending to blockade French ports, but the French fleet had already sailed. Admiral Edward Hawke detached a fast squadron to North America in an attempt to intercept them.
In a second British action, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on June 8, 1755, capturing her and two troop ships. The British harassed French shipping throughout 1755, seizing ships and capturing seamen. These actions contributed to the eventual formal declarations of war in spring 1756.
An early important political response to the opening of hostilities was the convening of the Albany Congress in June and July, 1754. The goal of the congress was to formalize a unified front in trade and negotiations with various Indians, since allegiance of the various tribes and nations was seen to be pivotal in the war that was unfolding. The plan that the delegates agreed to was neither ratified by the colonial legislatures nor approved of by the crown. Nevertheless, the format of the congress and many specifics of the plan became the prototype for confederation during the War of Independence.
The British formed an aggressive plan of operations for 1755. General Braddock was to lead the expedition to Fort Duquesne, while Massachusetts governor William Shirley was given the task of fortifying Fort Oswego and attacking Fort Niagara. Sir William Johnson was to capture Fort St. Frédéric at Crown Point, New York, and Lieutenant Colonel Robert Monckton was to capture Fort Beauséjour to the east on the frontier between Nova Scotia and Acadia.
Braddock led about 1,500 army troops and provincial militia on the Braddock expedition in June 1755 to take Fort Duquesne, with George Washington as one of his aides. The expedition was a disaster. It was attacked by French soldiers and Indian warriors ambushing them from hiding places up in trees and behind logs, and Braddock called for a retreat. He was killed and approximately 1,000 British soldiers were killed or injured. The remaining 500 British troops retreated to Virginia, led by Washington. Washington and Thomas Gage played key roles in organizing the retreat -- two future opponents in the American Revolutionary War.
The government initiated a plan to increase their military capability in preparation for war following news of Braddock 's defeat and the start of parliament 's session in November 1755. Among the early legislative measures were the Recruiting Act 1756, the Commissions to Foreign Protestants Act 1756 for the Royal American Regiment, the Navigation Act 1756, and the Continuance of Acts 1756. England passed the Naval Prize Act 1756 following the proclamation of war on May 17 to allow the capture of ships and establish privateering.
The French acquired a copy of the British war plans, including the activities of Shirley and Johnson. Shirley 's efforts to fortify Oswego were bogged down in logistical difficulties, exacerbated by his inexperience in managing large expeditions. In conjunction, he was made aware that the French were massing for an attack on Fort Oswego in his absence when he planned to attack Fort Niagara. As a response, he left garrisons at Oswego, Fort Bull, and Fort Williams, the last two located on the Oneida Carry between the Mohawk River and Wood Creek at Rome, New York. Supplies were cached at Fort Bull for use in the projected attack on Niagara.
Johnson 's expedition was better organized than Shirley 's, which was noticed by New France 's governor the Marquis de Vaudreuil. He had been concerned about the extended supply line to the forts on the Ohio, and he had sent Baron Dieskau to lead the defenses at Frontenac against Shirley 's expected attack. Vaudreuil saw Johnson as the larger threat and sent Dieskau to Fort St. Frédéric to meet that threat. Dieskau planned to attack the British encampment at Fort Edward at the upper end of navigation on the Hudson River, but Johnson had strongly fortified it, and Dieskau 's Indian support was reluctant to attack. The two forces finally met in the bloody Battle of Lake George between Fort Edward and Fort William Henry. The battle ended inconclusively, with both sides withdrawing from the field. Johnson 's advance stopped at Fort William Henry, and the French withdrew to Ticonderoga Point, where they began the construction of Fort Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga after the British captured it in 1759).
Colonel Monckton captured Fort Beauséjour in June 1755 in the sole British success that year, cutting off the French Fortress Louisbourg from land - based reinforcements. To cut vital supplies to Louisbourg, Nova Scotia 's Governor Charles Lawrence ordered the deportation of the French - speaking Acadian population from the area. Monckton 's forces, including companies of Rogers ' Rangers, forcibly removed thousands of Acadians, chasing down many who resisted and sometimes committing atrocities. Cutting off supplies to Louisbourg led to its demise. The Acadian resistance was sometimes quite stiff, in concert with Indian allies including the Mi'kmaq, with ongoing frontier raids against Dartmouth and Lunenburg, among others. The only clashes of any size were at Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757, other than the campaigns to expel the Acadians ranging around the Bay of Fundy, on the Petitcodiac and St. John rivers, and Île Saint - Jean.
Following the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed command of British forces in North America, and he laid out his plans for 1756 at a meeting in Albany in December 1755. He proposed renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point, and Duquesne, with attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec. His plan, however, got bogged down by disagreements and disputes with others, including William Johnson and New York 's Governor Sir Charles Hardy, and consequently gained little support.
Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with Lord Loudoun, with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in command. Neither of these men had as much campaign experience as the trio of officers whom France sent to North America. French regular army reinforcements arrived in New France in May 1756, led by Major General Louis - Joseph de Montcalm and seconded by the Chevalier de Lévis and Colonel François - Charles de Bourlamaque, all experienced veterans from the War of the Austrian Succession. On May 18, 1756, England formally declared war on France, which expanded the war into Europe and came to be known as the Seven Years ' War.
Governor Vaudreuil had ambitions to become the French commander in chief, in addition to his role as governor, and he acted during the winter of 1756 before those reinforcements arrived. Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an attack against the forts which Shirley had erected at the Oneida Carry. In the Battle of Fort Bull, French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder. They set back any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario and endangered the Oswego garrison, already short on supplies. French forces in the Ohio valley also continued to intrigue with Indians throughout the area, encouraging them to raid frontier settlements. This led to ongoing alarms along the western frontiers, with streams of refugees returning east to get away from the action.
The new British command was not in place until July. Abercrombie arrived in Albany but refused to take any significant actions until Loudoun approved them, and Montcalm took bold action against his inertia. He built on Vaudreuil 's work harassing the Oswego garrison and executed a strategic feint by moving his headquarters to Ticonderoga, as if to presage another attack along Lake George. With Abercrombie pinned down at Albany, Montcalm slipped away and led the successful attack on Oswego in August. In the aftermath, Montcalm and the Indians under his command disagreed about the disposition of prisoners ' personal effects. The Europeans did not consider them prizes and prevented the Indians from stripping the prisoners of their valuables, which angered the Indians.
Loudoun was a capable administrator but a cautious field commander, and he planned one major operation for 1757: an attack on New France 's capital of Quebec. He left a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm and began organizing for the expedition to Quebec. He was then ordered to attack Louisbourg first by William Pitt, the Secretary of State responsible for the colonies. The expedition was beset by delays of all kinds but was finally ready to sail from Halifax, Nova Scotia in early August. In the meantime, French ships had escaped the British blockade of the French coast, and a fleet awaited Loudoun at Louisbourg which outnumbered the British fleet. Faced with this strength, Loudoun returned to New York amid news that a massacre had occurred at Fort William Henry.
French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians) harassed Fort William Henry throughout the first half of 1757. In January, they ambushed British rangers near Ticonderoga. In February, they launched a raid against the position across the frozen Lake George, destroying storehouses and buildings outside the main fortification. In early August, Montcalm and 7,000 troops besieged the fort, which capitulated with an agreement to withdraw under parole. When the withdrawal began, some of Montcalm 's Indian allies attacked the British column because they were angry about the lost opportunity for loot, killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves. The aftermath of the siege may have contributed to the transmission of smallpox into remote Indian populations, as some Indians were reported to have traveled from beyond the Mississippi to participate in the campaign and returned afterward. Modern writer William Nester believes that the Indians might have been exposed to European carriers, although no proof exists.
Vaudreuil and Montcalm were minimally resupplied in 1758, as the British blockade of the French coastline limited French shipping. The situation in New France was further exacerbated by a poor harvest in 1757, a difficult winter, and the allegedly corrupt machinations of François Bigot, the intendant of the territory. His schemes to supply the colony inflated prices and were believed by Montcalm to line his pockets and those of his associates. A massive outbreak of smallpox among western Indian tribes led many of them to stay away from trading in 1758. The disease probably spread through the crowded conditions at William Henry after the battle; yet the Indians blamed the French for bringing "bad medicine '' as well as denying them prizes at Fort William Henry.
Montcalm focused his meager resources on the defense of the St. Lawrence, with primary defenses at Carillon, Quebec, and Louisbourg, while Vaudreuil argued unsuccessfully for a continuation of the raiding tactics that had worked quite effectively in previous years. The British failures in North America combined with other failures in the European theater and led to Newcastle 's fall from power along with the Duke of Cumberland, his principal military advisor.
Newcastle and Pitt joined in an uneasy coalition in which Pitt dominated the military planning. He embarked on a plan for the 1758 campaign that was largely developed by Loudoun. He had been replaced by Abercrombie as commander in chief after the failures of 1757. Pitt 's plan called for three major offensive actions involving large numbers of regular troops supported by the provincial militias, aimed at capturing the heartlands of New France. Two of the expeditions were successful, with Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg falling to sizable British forces.
The Forbes Expedition was a British campaign in September -- October 1758, with 6,000 troops led by General John Forbes sent to drive out the French from the contested Ohio Country. The French withdrew from Fort Duquesne and left the British in control of the Ohio River Valley. The great French fortress at Louisbourg in Nova Scotia was captured after a siege.
The third invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon, in which 3,600 Frenchmen defeated Abercrombie 's force of 18,000 regulars, militia, and Indian allies outside the fort which the French called Carillon and the British called Ticonderoga. Abercrombie saved something from the disaster when he sent John Bradstreet on an expedition that successfully destroyed Fort Frontenac, including caches of supplies destined for New France 's western forts and furs destined for Europe. Abercrombie was recalled and replaced by Jeffery Amherst, victor at Louisbourg.
The French had generally poor results in 1758 in most theaters of the war. The new foreign minister was the duc de Choiseul, and he decided to focus on an invasion of Britain to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland. The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France and sent funds to Britain 's mainland ally of Prussia, while the French Navy failed in the 1759 naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay. In one piece of good fortune, some French supply ships did manage to depart France and elude the British blockade of the French coast.
British victories continued in all theaters in the Annus Mirabilis of 1759: the British captured Ticonderoga, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm at Quebec in a battle that claimed the lives of both commanders, and a British victory at Fort Niagara cut off the French frontier forts to the west and south. The victory was made complete in 1760; the British did suffer a defeat outside Quebec City in the Battle of Sainte - Foy, but they prevented the arrival of French relief ships in the naval Battle of the Restigouche while armies marched on Montreal from three sides.
Governor Vaudreuil in Montreal negotiated a capitulation with General Amherst in September 1760. Amherst granted his requests that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, to own property, and to remain undisturbed in their homes. The British provided medical treatment for the sick and wounded French soldiers, and French regular troops were returned to France aboard British ships with an agreement that they were not to serve again in the present war.
Most of the fighting ended in continental North America in 1760, although it continued in Europe between France and Britain. The notable exception was the French seizure of St. John 's, Newfoundland. General Amherst heard of this surprise action and immediately dispatched troops under his nephew William Amherst, who regained control of Newfoundland after the Battle of Signal Hill in September 1762. Many troops from North America were reassigned to participate in further British actions in the West Indies, including the capture of Spanish Havana when Spain belatedly entered the conflict on the side of France, and a British expedition against French Martinique in 1762 led by Major General Robert Monckton.
General Amherst also oversaw the transition of French forts to British control in the western lands. The policies which he introduced in those lands disturbed large numbers of Indians and contributed to Pontiac 's Rebellion in 1763. This series of attacks on frontier forts and settlements required the continued deployment of British troops, and it was not resolved until 1766.
The war in North America officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, and war in the European theater was settled by the Treaty of Hubertusburg on 15 February 1763. The British offered France the choice of surrendering either its continental North American possessions east of the Mississippi or the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, which had been occupied by the British. France chose to cede the former but was able to negotiate the retention of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, along with fishing rights in the area. They viewed the economic value of the Caribbean islands ' sugar cane to be greater and easier to defend than the furs from the continent. French philosopher Voltaire referred to Canada disparagingly as nothing more than a few acres of snow. The British, however, were happy to take New France, as defence of their North American colonies would no longer be an issue; they also had ample places from which to obtain sugar. Spain traded Florida to Britain in order to regain Cuba, but they also gained Louisiana from France, including New Orleans, in compensation for their losses. Great Britain and Spain also agreed that navigation on the Mississippi River was to be open to vessels of all nations.
The war changed economic, political, governmental, and social relations among the three European powers, their colonies, and the people who inhabited those territories. France and Britain both suffered financially because of the war, with significant long - term consequences.
Britain gained control of French Canada and Acadia, colonies containing approximately 80,000 primarily French - speaking Roman Catholic residents. The deportation of Acadians beginning in 1755 made land available to immigrants from Europe and migrants from the colonies to the south. The British resettled many Acadians throughout its North American provinces, but many went to France, and some went to New Orleans, which they had expected to remain French. Some were sent to colonize places as diverse as French Guiana and the Falkland Islands, but these efforts were unsuccessful. Others migrated to places such as Saint - Domingue or fled to New Orleans after the Haitian Revolution. The Louisiana population contributed to the founding of the modern Cajun population. (The French word "Acadien '' changed to "Cadien '' then to "Cajun ''.)
Following the treaty, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763 which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and it continues to govern relations to some extent between the government of modern Canada and the First Nations. Included in its provisions was the reservation of lands west of the Appalachian Mountains to its Indian population, a demarcation that was only a temporary impediment to a rising tide of westward - bound settlers. The proclamation also contained provisions that prevented civic participation by the Roman Catholic Canadians. The Quebec Act addressed this and other issues in 1774, raising concerns in the largely Protestant Thirteen Colonies over the advance of "popery. '' The Act maintained French Civil law, including the seigneurial system, a medieval code removed from France within a generation by the French Revolution.
The Seven Years ' War nearly doubled Great Britain 's national debt. The Crown sought sources of revenue to pay it off and attempted to impose new taxes on its colonies. These attempts were met with increasingly stiff resistance, until troops were called in to enforce the Crown 's authority. These acts ultimately led to the start of the American Revolutionary War.
France attached comparatively little value to its North American possessions, apart from the highly profitable sugar - producing Antilles islands which it retained. Minister Choiseul considered that he had made a good deal at the Treaty of Paris, and Voltaire wrote that Louis XV had lost "a few acres of snow ''. For France, however, the military defeat and the financial burden of the war weakened the monarchy and contributed to the advent of the French Revolution in 1789.
For some of the Indian tribes, the elimination of French power in North America meant the disappearance of a strong ally, although other tribes were not so affected. The Ohio Country was now more available to colonial settlement, due to the construction of military roads by Braddock and Forbes. The Spanish takeover of the Louisiana territory was not completed until 1769, and it had modest repercussions. The British takeover of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of Indian tribes who did not want to do business with them. This migration also caused a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies who were now competing for land. The change of control in Florida also prompted most of its Spanish Catholic population to leave. Most went to Cuba, including the entire governmental records from St. Augustine, although some Christianized Yamasee were resettled to the coast of Mexico.
France returned to North America in 1778 with the establishment of a Franco - American alliance against Great Britain in the American War of Independence. This time, France succeeded in prevailing over Great Britain in what historian Alfred A. Cave describes as "French... revenge for Montcalm 's death ''.
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can you remote play ps3 games on vita | Remote Play - wikipedia
Remote Play is a feature of Sony video game consoles that allows the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 to transmit its video and audio output to a PlayStation Portable or PlayStation Vita. Similar functionality is provided on Nintendo 's Wii U console, using the Off - TV Play function. This feature essentially allows compatible home console games to be played on the handheld. In 2014, it was expanded to include the use of PlayStation TV, Xperia smartphones and tablets (Z2 and later), and PlayStation Now. In 2016, it was expanded to Microsoft Windows PCs and macOS.
While seldom implemented on PS3, Remote Play is a mandatory feature on all PS4 games, except for games that utilize peripherals such as PlayStation Move.
Sony defined Remote Play as follows:
"Remote Play allows a PSP system to connect wirelessly to a PS3 system and transfers some functionality of the PS3 to the PSP system. With remote play, a PSP system may access files that are located on the PS3, as well as, play certain software titles... ''
Sony later amended this definition to apply between the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita as well. The premise of Off - TV Play on the Wii U is similar in concept, in how the video game console does all of the processing, but sends the image and sound straight to the Wii U GamePad 's screen instead of a television screen. Similarly, in the case of Remote Play, the PlayStation 3 or PlayStation 4 do all of the processing, but transmit the image and sound to the PlayStation Portable or PlayStation Vita screens and speakers. While typically in reference to Sony consoles and handhelds, it has been used in different ways as well. In April 2010, a firmware update was released for the PS3 that allowed Remote Play between it and the Sony VAIO brand laptops as well.
Interactivity between Sony 's home video game consoles and handheld video game console is traced back as far as 2006, prior to the PlayStation 3 's launch, when journalists noticed a PlayStation Portable icon, with the title "Remote Play '', on pre-release versions of their PS3. The functionality was officially revealed just prior to the PS3 's launch in October 2006, at Sony 's "Gamer 's Day '' event, where Sony demonstrated the ability to transfer the PS3 's output to a PSP instead of a television, through showing downloaded PlayStation games and movie films being transmitted to a PSP 's screen and speakers. Sony announced that all original PlayStation games would support the feature, but they had to be digital, not disc - based, media from the PS3 's internal harddrive. This later changed by the end of 2007, when a firmware update made it so any original PlayStation game was compatible with Remote Play, even disc - based ones.
Despite Sony 's early emphasis on Remote Play and original PlayStation game support, it was used very sparingly between the PS3 and PSP, with very few PS3 titles allowing for its use. The feature was even removed from several titles before their final release, most notably Gran Turismo HD and Formula One Championship Edition. Most titles were small PlayStation Network - only titles. The late 2007 PS3 title Lair was notable for being one of the few original, physical Blu - Ray disc releases work between the PS3 and PSP.
In late 2011, just prior to the launch of the PlayStation Vita, video game website Eurogamer published a rumor stating that a firmware update for the PS3 would provide Remote Play compatibility for all PS3 games when using Remote Play between a PS3 and Vita. The premise seemed plausible, with websites reporting that Sony had shown working demonstrations of the concept prior to the rumor at the Tokyo Game Show, showing LittleBigPlanet 2 and Killzone 3 supporting the feature. Despite this, the rumor was declared false by Sony, who said that the feature had to be implemented on the software side by developers on an individual basis, not on a hardware level.
PS3 to Vita Remote Play went on to be rarely implemented as well. It retained any games supported by PS3 to PSP Remote Play support, including all original PlayStation games, but was again rarely used by actual PS3 games. Only a few games supported it, namely HD Remasters such as The Ico & Shadow of the Colossus Collection and the God of War Collection.
President of Sony 's Worldwide Studios for Sony Computer Entertainment Inc. Shuhei Yoshida summarized the issues with PS3 to Vita Remote Play:
"The single biggest issue, why there are not many PlayStation 3 games that support Remote Play, was that it was optional -- the system did n't do much. The game has to set aside some memory or CPU to be able to do that, and usually, memory is the most precious resource that (development) teams fight amongst each other for. So when it comes down to the priorities, these are features that are very easy to drop. ''
Despite this, unofficial hacks to the PS3 firmware have been reported to unlock the Remote Play feature in a number of PS3 games with varying degrees of success. Games such as Battlefield 3 and BioShock Infinite have been shown to technically be feasible, though still impossible to do without unofficially hacking the PS3 's firmware.
In June 2013, Sony announced that all PlayStation 4 games would be compatible with Remote Play with the PS Vita, with the exception of games which conceptually would not work, such as ones that heavily revolve around PlayStation Eye use. Otherwise, contrary to PS3 to PS Vita Remote Play, PS4 to PS Vita Remote Play is designed on a hardware level, meaning that all games are automatically compatible, and it is only up to developers to make sure the controls adapt well to being played on a Vita instead of a DualShock 4. This iteration of Remote Play was developed by Gaikai, who also developed PlayStation Now. Remote Play on the updated PlayStation Vita 2000 was shown at Tokyo Game Show in 2013.
PS4 firmware update 1.70 introduced full remote play functionality for the PlayStation TV, allowing users to play PS4 games in a separate room or house, on a television set with a PS TV device remotely connected to the PS4.
Remote Play with the PS4 is available for Sony Xperia smartphones and tablet computers starting with the Z3 line, and requires a DualShock 4 in order to play games. The service was made available on 28 October 2014, and was expanded to Sony 's older Z2 series a month later.
With the release of PS4 system software 3.50 on 6 April 2016, Remote Play was made available on Windows PCs and macOS. A DualShock 4 controller is required to use it, and must be connected through a USB cable or wirelessly via a separate accessory. 1080p streaming is available when using a PS4 Pro model.
Cloud gaming and Remote Play are some of several Gaikai - powered streaming services announced for the PlayStation 4 through its PlayStation Now service. Cloud gaming differs from Remote Play in that Remote Play allows games on home devices to operate remotely over a wireless network, while cloud gaming refers to a game that resides on a distant server rather than on a user 's device.
In 2007, Sony made all original PlayStation games, when played on a PlayStation 3, compatible with Remote Play on the PSP. Additionally, Sony has announced that all PlayStation 4 games will be playable on the PlayStation Vita. Beyond these two scenarios, Remote Play was a feature that was sparingly implemented in games. The below chart indicates instances when Remote Play on PS3 is an available feature.
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who discovered infrared waves in the electromagnetic spectrum | Infrared - wikipedia
Infrared radiation (IR) is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with longer wavelengths than those of visible light, and is therefore generally invisible to the human eye (although IR at wavelengths up to 1050 nm from specially pulsed lasers can be seen by humans under certain conditions). It is sometimes called infrared light. IR wavelengths extend from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers (frequency 430 THz), to 1 millimeter (300 GHz) Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. Like all EMR, IR carries radiant energy, and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle, the photon.
Infrared was discovered in 1800 by astronomer Sir William Herschel, who discovered a type of invisible radiation in the spectrum lower in energy than red light, by means of its effect on a thermometer. Slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has a critical effect on Earth 's climate.
Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational - vibrational movements. It excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range.
Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, military, law enforcement, and medical applications. Night - vision devices using active near - infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected. Infrared astronomy uses sensor - equipped telescopes to penetrate dusty regions of space such as molecular clouds, detect objects such as planets, and to view highly red - shifted objects from the early days of the universe. Infrared thermal - imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatus.
Extensive uses for military and civilian applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking. Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm (micrometers). Non-military uses include thermal efficiency analysis, environmental monitoring, industrial facility inspections, detection of grow - ops, remote temperature sensing, short - range wireless communication, spectroscopy, and weather forecasting.
Infrared radiation extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers (nm) to 1 millimeter (mm). This range of wavelengths corresponds to a frequency range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz. Below infrared is the microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Sunlight, at an effective temperature of 5,780 kelvins, is composed of near thermal - spectrum radiation that is slightly more than half infrared. At zenith, sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level. Of this energy, 527 watts is infrared radiation, 445 watts is visible light, and 32 watts is ultraviolet radiation. Nearly all the infrared radiation in sunlight is near infrared, shorter than 4 micrometers.
On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, and fires produce far more infrared than visible - light energy.
In general, objects emit infrared radiation across a spectrum of wavelengths, but sometimes only a limited region of the spectrum is of interest because sensors usually collect radiation only within a specific bandwidth. Thermal infrared radiation also has a maximum emission wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of object, in accordance with Wien 's displacement law.
Therefore, the infrared band is often subdivided into smaller sections.
A commonly used sub-division scheme is:
NIR and SWIR is sometimes called "reflected infrared '', whereas MWIR and LWIR is sometimes referred to as "thermal infrared ''. Due to the nature of the blackbody radiation curves, typical "hot '' objects, such as exhaust pipes, often appear brighter in the MW compared to the same object viewed in the LW.
The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) recommended the division of infrared radiation into the following three bands:
ISO 20473 specifies the following scheme:
Astronomers typically divide the infrared spectrum as follows:
These divisions are not precise and can vary depending on the publication. The three regions are used for observation of different temperature ranges, and hence different environments in space.
The most common photometric system used in astronomy allocates capital letters to different spectral regions according to filters used; I, J, H, and K cover the near - infrared wavelengths; L, M, N, and Q refer to the mid-infrared region. These letters are commonly understood in reference to atmospheric windows and appear, for instance, in the titles of many papers.
A third scheme divides up the band based on the response of various detectors:
Near - infrared is the region closest in wavelength to the radiation detectable by the human eye. mid - and far - infrared are progressively further from the visible spectrum. Other definitions follow different physical mechanisms (emission peaks, vs. bands, water absorption) and the newest follow technical reasons (the common silicon detectors are sensitive to about 1,050 nm, while InGaAs 's sensitivity starts around 950 nm and ends between 1,700 and 2,600 nm, depending on the specific configuration). No international standards for these specifications are currently available.
The onset of infrared is defined (according to different standards) at various values typically between 700 nm and 800 nm, but the boundary between visible and infrared light is not precisely defined. The human eye is markedly less sensitive to light above 700 nm wavelength, so longer wavelengths make insignificant contributions to scenes illuminated by common light sources. However, particularly intense near - IR light (e.g., from IR lasers, IR LED sources, or from bright daylight with the visible light removed by colored gels) can be detected up to approximately 780 nm, and will be perceived as red light. Intense light sources providing wavelengths as long as 1050 nm can be seen as a dull red glow, causing some difficulty in near - IR illumination of scenes in the dark (usually this practical problem is solved by indirect illumination). Leaves are particularly bright in the near IR, and if all visible light leaks from around an IR - filter are blocked, and the eye is given a moment to adjust to the extremely dim image coming through a visually opaque IR - passing photographic filter, it is possible to see the Wood effect that consists of IR - glowing foliage.
In optical communications, the part of the infrared spectrum that is used is divided into seven bands based on availability of light sources transmitting / absorbing materials (fibers) and detectors:
The C - band is the dominant band for long - distance telecommunication networks. The S and L bands are based on less well established technology, and are not as widely deployed.
Infrared radiation is popularly known as "heat radiation '', but light and electromagnetic waves of any frequency will heat surfaces that absorb them. Infrared light from the Sun accounts for 49 % of the heating of Earth, with the rest being caused by visible light that is absorbed then re-radiated at longer wavelengths. Visible light or ultraviolet - emitting lasers can char paper and incandescently hot objects emit visible radiation. Objects at room temperature will emit radiation concentrated mostly in the 8 to 25 μm band, but this is not distinct from the emission of visible light by incandescent objects and ultraviolet by even hotter objects (see black body and Wien 's displacement law).
Heat is energy in transit that flows due to temperature difference. Unlike heat transmitted by thermal conduction or thermal convection, thermal radiation can propagate through a vacuum. Thermal radiation is characterized by a particular spectrum of many wavelengths that is associated with emission from an object, due to the vibration of its molecules at a given temperature. Thermal radiation can be emitted from objects at any wavelength, and at very high temperatures such radiations are associated with spectra far above the infrared, extending into visible, ultraviolet, and even X-ray regions (e.g. the solar corona). Thus, the popular association of infrared radiation with thermal radiation is only a coincidence based on typical (comparatively low) temperatures often found near the surface of planet Earth.
The concept of emissivity is important in understanding the infrared emissions of objects. This is a property of a surface that describes how its thermal emissions deviate from the ideal of a black body. To further explain, two objects at the same physical temperature will not show the same infrared image if they have differing emissivity. For example, for any pre-set emissivity value, objects with higher emissivity will appear hotter, and those with a lower emissivity will appear cooler. For that reason, incorrect selection of emissivity will give inaccurate results when using infrared cameras and pyrometers.
Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in - the - dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.
The use of infrared light and night vision devices should not be confused with thermal imaging, which creates images based on differences in surface temperature by detecting infrared radiation (heat) that emanates from objects and their surrounding environment.
Infrared radiation can be used to remotely determine the temperature of objects (if the emissivity is known). This is termed thermography, or in the case of very hot objects in the NIR or visible it is termed pyrometry. Thermography (thermal imaging) is mainly used in military and industrial applications but the technology is reaching the public market in the form of infrared cameras on cars due to the massively reduced production costs.
Thermographic cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (roughly 900 -- 14,000 nanometers or 0.9 -- 14 μm) and produce images of that radiation. Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects based on their temperatures, according to the black body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to "see '' one 's environment with or without visible illumination. The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperature, therefore thermography allows one to see variations in temperature (hence the name).
A hyperspectral image is a "picture '' containing continuous spectrum through a wide spectral range at each pixel. Hyperspectral imaging is gaining importance in the field of applied spectroscopy particularly with NIR, SWIR, MWIR, and LWIR spectral regions. Typical applications include biological, mineralogical, defence, and industrial measurements.
Thermal infrared hyperspectral imaging can be similarly performed using a Thermographic camera, with the fundamental difference that each pixel contains a full LWIR spectrum. Consequently, chemical identification of the object can be performed without a need for an external light source such as the sun or the moon. Such cameras are typically applied for geological measurements, outdoor surveillance and UAV applications.
In infrared photography, infrared filters are used to capture the near - infrared spectrum. Digital cameras often use infrared blockers. Cheaper digital cameras and camera phones have less effective filters and can "see '' intense near - infrared, appearing as a bright purple - white color. This is especially pronounced when taking pictures of subjects near IR - bright areas (such as near a lamp), where the resulting infrared interference can wash out the image. There is also a technique called ' T - ray ' imaging, which is imaging using far - infrared or terahertz radiation. Lack of bright sources can make terahertz photography more challenging than most other infrared imaging techniques. Recently T - ray imaging has been of considerable interest due to a number of new developments such as terahertz time - domain spectroscopy.
Infrared tracking, also known as infrared homing, refers to a passive missile guidance system, which uses the emission from a target of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum to track it. Missiles that use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat - seekers '', since infrared (IR) is just below the visible spectrum of light in frequency and is radiated strongly by hot bodies. Many objects such as people, vehicle engines, and aircraft generate and retain heat, and as such, are especially visible in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in the background.
Infrared radiation can be used as a deliberate heating source. For example, it is used in infrared saunas to heat the occupants. It may also be used in other heating applications, such as to remove ice from the wings of aircraft (de-icing). Infrared can be used in cooking and heating food as it predominantly heats the opaque, absorbent objects, rather than the air around them.
Infrared heating is also becoming more popular in industrial manufacturing processes, e.g. curing of coatings, forming of plastics, annealing, plastic welding, and print drying. In these applications, infrared heaters replace convection ovens and contact heating.
Efficiency is achieved by matching the wavelength of the infrared heater to the absorption characteristics of the material.
A variety of technologies or proposed technologies take advantage of infrared emissions to cool buildings or other systems. The LWIR (8 -- 15 μm) region is especially useful since some radiation at these wavelengths can escape into space through the atmosphere.
IR data transmission is also employed in short - range communication among computer peripherals and personal digital assistants. These devices usually conform to standards published by IrDA, the Infrared Data Association. Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared light - emitting diodes (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation that is focused by a plastic lens into a narrow beam. The beam is modulated, i.e. switched on and off, to prevent interference from other sources of infrared (like sunlight or artificial lighting). The receiver uses a silicon photodiode to convert the infrared radiation to an electric current. It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light. Infrared communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density. IR does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining rooms. Infrared is the most common way for remote controls to command appliances. Infrared remote control protocols like RC - 5, SIRC, are used to communicate with infrared.
Free space optical communication using infrared lasers can be a relatively inexpensive way to install a communications link in an urban area operating at up to 4 gigabit / s, compared to the cost of burying fiber optic cable, except for the radiation damage. "Since the eye can not detect IR, blinking or closing the eyes to help prevent or reduce damage may not happen. ''
Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fiber communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1,330 nm (least dispersion) or 1,550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard silica fibers.
IR data transmission of encoded audio versions of printed signs is being researched as an aid for visually impaired people through the RIAS (Remote Infrared Audible Signage) project. Transmitting IR data from one device to another is sometimes referred to as beaming.
Infrared vibrational spectroscopy (see also near - infrared spectroscopy) is a technique that can be used to identify molecules by analysis of their constituent bonds. Each chemical bond in a molecule vibrates at a frequency characteristic of that bond. A group of atoms in a molecule (e.g., CH) may have multiple modes of oscillation caused by the stretching and bending motions of the group as a whole. If an oscillation leads to a change in dipole in the molecule then it will absorb a photon that has the same frequency. The vibrational frequencies of most molecules correspond to the frequencies of infrared light. Typically, the technique is used to study organic compounds using light radiation from 4000 -- 400 cm, the mid-infrared. A spectrum of all the frequencies of absorption in a sample is recorded. This can be used to gain information about the sample composition in terms of chemical groups present and also its purity (for example, a wet sample will show a broad O-H absorption around 3200 cm).
In the semiconductor industry, infrared light can be used to characterize materials such as thin films and periodic trench structures. By measuring the reflectance of light from the surface of a semiconductor wafer, the index of refraction (n) and the extinction Coefficient (k) can be determined via the Forouhi - Bloomer dispersion equations. The reflectance from the infrared light can also be used to determine the critical dimension, depth, and sidewall angle of high aspect ratio trench structures.
Weather satellites equipped with scanning radiometers produce thermal or infrared images, which can then enable a trained analyst to determine cloud heights and types, to calculate land and surface water temperatures, and to locate ocean surface features. The scanning is typically in the range 10.3 -- 12.5 μm (IR4 and IR5 channels).
High, cold ice clouds such as Cirrus or Cumulonimbus show up bright white, lower warmer clouds such as Stratus or Stratocumulus show up as grey with intermediate clouds shaded accordingly. Hot land surfaces will show up as dark - grey or black. One disadvantage of infrared imagery is that low cloud such as stratus or fog can be a similar temperature to the surrounding land or sea surface and does not show up. However, using the difference in brightness of the IR4 channel (10.3 -- 11.5 μm) and the near - infrared channel (1.58 -- 1.64 μm), low cloud can be distinguished, producing a fog satellite picture. The main advantage of infrared is that images can be produced at night, allowing a continuous sequence of weather to be studied.
These infrared pictures can depict ocean eddies or vortices and map currents such as the Gulf Stream, which are valuable to the shipping industry. Fishermen and farmers are interested in knowing land and water temperatures to protect their crops against frost or increase their catch from the sea. Even El Niño phenomena can be spotted. Using color - digitized techniques, the gray - shaded thermal images can be converted to color for easier identification of desired information.
The main water vapour channel at 6.40 to 7.08 μm can be imaged by some weather satellites and shows the amount of moisture in the atmosphere.
In the field of climatology, atmospheric infrared radiation is monitored to detect trends in the energy exchange between the earth and the atmosphere. These trends provide information on long - term changes in Earth 's climate. It is one of the primary parameters studied in research into global warming, together with solar radiation.
A pyrgeometer is utilized in this field of research to perform continuous outdoor measurements. This is a broadband infrared radiometer with sensitivity for infrared radiation between approximately 4.5 μm and 50 μm.
Astronomers observe objects in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum using optical components, including mirrors, lenses and solid state digital detectors. For this reason it is classified as part of optical astronomy. To form an image, the components of an infrared telescope need to be carefully shielded from heat sources, and the detectors are chilled using liquid helium.
The sensitivity of Earth - based infrared telescopes is significantly limited by water vapor in the atmosphere, which absorbs a portion of the infrared radiation arriving from space outside of selected atmospheric windows. This limitation can be partially alleviated by placing the telescope observatory at a high altitude, or by carrying the telescope aloft with a balloon or an aircraft. Space telescopes do not suffer from this handicap, and so outer space is considered the ideal location for infrared astronomy.
The infrared portion of the spectrum has several useful benefits for astronomers. Cold, dark molecular clouds of gas and dust in our galaxy will glow with radiated heat as they are irradiated by imbedded stars. Infrared can also be used to detect protostars before they begin to emit visible light. Stars emit a smaller portion of their energy in the infrared spectrum, so nearby cool objects such as planets can be more readily detected. (In the visible light spectrum, the glare from the star will drown out the reflected light from a planet.)
Infrared light is also useful for observing the cores of active galaxies, which are often cloaked in gas and dust. Distant galaxies with a high redshift will have the peak portion of their spectrum shifted toward longer wavelengths, so they are more readily observed in the infrared.
Infrared cleaning is a technique used by some motion picture film scanners, film scanners and flatbed scanners to reduce or remove the effect of dust and scratches upon the finished scan. It works by collecting an additional infrared channel from the scan at the same position and resolution as the three visible color channels (red, green, and blue). The infrared channel, in combination with the other channels, is used to detect the location of scratches and dust. Once located, those defects can be corrected by scaling or replaced by inpainting.
Infrared reflectography (fr; it; es), as called by art conservators, can be applied to paintings to reveal underlying layers in a completely non-destructive manner, in particular the underdrawing or outline drawn by the artist as a guide. This often reveals the artist 's use of carbon black, which shows up well in reflectograms, as long as it has not also been used in the ground underlying the whole painting. Art conservators are looking to see whether the visible layers of paint differ from the underdrawing or layers in between -- such alterations are called pentimenti when made by the original artist. This is very useful information in deciding whether a painting is the prime version by the original artist or a copy, and whether it has been altered by over-enthusiastic restoration work. In general, the more pentimenti the more likely a painting is to be the prime version. It also gives useful insights into working practices.
Among many other changes in the Arnolfini Portrait of 1434 (left), the man 's face was originally higher by about the height of his eye; the woman 's was higher, and her eyes looked more to the front. Each of his feet was underdrawn in one position, painted in another, and then overpainted in a third. These alterations are seen in infrared reflectograms.
Recent progress in the design of infrared sensitive cameras made it possible to discover and depict not only underpaintings and pentimenti but entire paintings which were later overpainted by the artist. Notable examples are Picasso 's "Woman ironing '' and "Blue room '', where in both cases, a portrait of a man has been made visible under the painting as it is known today.
Similar uses of infrared are made by conservators and scientists on various types of objects, especially very old written documents such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Roman works in the Villa of the Papyri, and the Silk Road texts found in the Dunhuang Caves. Carbon black used in ink can show up extremely well.
The pit viper has a pair of infrared sensory pits on its head. There is uncertainty regarding the exact thermal sensitivity of this biological infrared detection system.
Other organisms that have thermoreceptive organs are pythons (family Pythonidae), some boas (family Boidae), the Common Vampire Bat (Desmodus rotundus), a variety of jewel beetles (Melanophila acuminata), darkly pigmented butterflies (Pachliopta aristolochiae and Troides rhadamantus plateni), and possibly blood - sucking bugs (Triatoma infestans).
Some fungi like Venturia inaequalis require near - infrared light for ejection
Although near - infrared vision (780 -- 1000 nm) has long been deemed impossible due to noise in visual pigments, sensation of near - infrared light was reported in the common carp and in three cichlid species. Fish use NIR to capture prey and for phototactic swimming orientation. NIR sensation in fish may be relevant under poor lighting conditions during twilight and in turbid surface waters.
Near - infrared light, or photobiomodulation, is used for treatment of chemotherapy - induced oral ulceration as well as wound healing. There is some work relating to anti-herpes virus treatment. Research projects include work on central nervous system healing effects via cytochrome c oxidase upregulation and other possible mechanisms.
Strong infrared radiation in certain industry high - heat settings may be hazardous to the eyes, resulting in damage or blindness to the user. Since the radiation is invisible, special IR - proof goggles must be worn in such places.
The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to William Herschel, the astronomer, in the early 19th century. Herschel published his results in 1800 before the Royal Society of London. Herschel used a prism to refract light from the sun and detected the infrared, beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded on a thermometer. He was surprised at the result and called them "Calorific Rays ''. The term ' Infrared ' did not appear until late in the 19th century.
Other important dates include:
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what type of goverment does united kingdom have | Unitary state - wikipedia
A unitary state is a state governed as a single power in which the central government is ultimately supreme and any administrative divisions (sub-national units) exercise only the powers that the central government chooses to delegate. The majority of states in the world have a unitary system of government. Of the 193 UN member states, 165 are governed as unitary states.
In a unitary state, sub-national units are created and abolished (an example being the 22 mainland regions of France being merged into 13), and their powers may be broadened and narrowed, by the central government. Although political power may be delegated through devolution to local governments by statute, the central government remains supreme; it may abrogate the acts of devolved governments or curtail their powers.
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is an example of a unitary state. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have a degree of autonomous devolved power, but such power is delegated by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which may enact laws unilaterally altering or abolishing devolution (England does not have any devolved power). Many unitary states have no areas possessing a degree of autonomy. In such countries, sub-national regions can not decide their own laws. Examples are the Republic of Ireland and the Kingdom of Norway. In federal states, the sub-national governments share powers with the central government as equal actors through a written constitution, to which the consent of both is required to make amendments. This means that the sub-national units have a right of existence and powers that can not be unilaterally changed by the central government.
Unitary states are contrasted with federations. An example of a federation is the United States. Under the U.S. Constitution, powers are shared between the federal government and the states. The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution reserves powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution to the States; however, in practice, the federal government 's ability to deny funding of federal programs to non-compliant states is a powerful method of persuasion.
Italics: States with limited recognition
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cities that start with m in the usa | List of towns and cities with 100,000 or more inhabitants / cityname: m - wikipedia
This is a list of towns and cities in the world believed to have 100,000 or more inhabitants, as of 2006.
Index
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which condition is consistent with the cardiac defect of transposition of the great vessels | Transposition of the great vessels - wikipedia
Transposition of the great vessels (TGV) is a group of congenital heart defects involving an abnormal spatial arrangement of any of the great vessels: superior and / or inferior venae cavae, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins, and aorta. Congenital heart diseases involving only the primary arteries (pulmonary artery and aorta) belong to a sub-group called transposition of the great arteries.
Transposed vessels can present a large variety of atriovenous, ventriculoarterial and / or arteriovenous discordance. The effects may range from a change in blood pressure to an interruption in circulation, depending on the nature and degree of the misplacement and which vessels are involved.
Although "transposed '' literally means "swapped '', many types of TGV involve vessels that are in abnormal positions, while not actually being swapped with each other. The terms TGV and TGA are most commonly used in reference to dextro - TGA -- in which the arteries are in swapped positions; however, both terms are also commonly used, though to a slightly lesser extent, in reference to levo - TGA -- in which both the arteries and the ventricles are swapped; while other defects in this category are almost never referred to by either of these terms.
In dextro - Transposition of the great arteries (dextro - TGA) deoxygenated blood from the right heart is pumped immediately through the aorta and circulated to the body and the heart itself, bypassing the lungs altogether, while the left heart pumps oxygenated blood continuously back into the lungs through the pulmonary artery. In effect, two separate "circular '' (parallel) circulatory systems are created. It is called a cyanotic congenital heart defect (CHD) because the newborn infant turns blue from lack of oxygen.
Levo - Transposition of the great arteries is an acyanotic heart defect in which the primary arteries are transposed, with the aorta anterior and to the left of the pulmonary artery, and the morphological left and right ventricles with their corresponding atrioventricular valves are also transposed. The systemic and the pulmonary circulation are connected. Complications arise from the fact that the right ventricle, which is adapted for pumping blood into the low pressure pulmonary circulation, is being tasked with pumping blood at a much higher pressure against the high resistance of the systemic circulation.
In many cases, TGV is accompanied by other heart defects, the most common type being intracardiac shunts such as atrial septal defect including patent foramen ovale, ventricular septal defect, and patent ductus arteriosus. Stenosis, or other defects, of valves and / or vessels may also be present.
When no other heart defects are present it is called ' simple ' TGV; when other defects are present it is called ' complex ' TGV.
Preexisting diabetes mellitus of a pregnant mother is a risk factor that has been described for the fetus having TGV.
On chest X-ray, transposition of the great vessels typically shows a cardio - mediastinal silhouette appearing as an "egg on a string '', wherein in which the enlarged heart represents an egg on its side and the narrowed, atrophic thymus of the superior mediastinum represents the string.
For newborns with transposition, prostaglandins can be given to keep the ductus arteriosus open which allows mixing of the otherwise isolated pulmonary and systemic circuits. Thus oxygenated blood that recirculates back to the lungs can mix with blood that circulates throughout the body. The arterial switch operation is the definitive treatment for dextro - transposition. Rarely the arterial switch is not feasible due to particular coronary artery anatomy and an atrial switch operation is preferred.
TGV was first described in 1797 by Matthew Baillie.
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first black principal dancer in an american ballet company | Misty Copeland - wikipedia
Misty Danielle Copeland (born September 10, 1982) is an American ballet dancer for American Ballet Theatre (ABT), one of the three leading classical ballet companies in the United States. On June 30, 2015, Copeland became the first African American woman to be promoted to principal dancer in ABT 's 75 - year history.
Copeland was considered a prodigy who rose to stardom despite not starting ballet until the age of 13. By age 15, her ballet teachers, who were serving as her custodial guardians, and her mother, fought a custody battle over her. Meanwhile, Copeland, who was already an award - winning dancer, was fielding professional offers. The 1998 legal issues involved filings for emancipation by Copeland and restraining orders by her mother. Both sides dropped legal proceedings, and Copeland moved home to begin studying under a new teacher who was a former ABT member.
In 1997, Copeland won the Los Angeles Music Center Spotlight Award as the best dancer in Southern California. After two summer workshops with ABT, she became a member of ABT 's Studio Company in 2000 and its corps de ballet in 2001, and became an ABT soloist in 2007. As a soloist from 2007 to mid-2015, she was described as having matured into a more contemporary and sophisticated dancer.
In addition to her dance career, Copeland has become a public speaker, celebrity spokesperson and stage performer. She has written two autobiographical books and narrated a documentary about her career challenges, A Ballerina 's Tale. In 2015, she was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time magazine, appearing on its cover. She performed on Broadway in On the Town, toured as a featured dancer for Prince and appeared on the reality television shows A Day in the Life and So You Think You Can Dance. She has endorsed products and companies such as T - Mobile, Coach, Inc., Dr Pepper, Seiko, The Dannon Company and Under Armour.
Copeland was born in Kansas City, Missouri, and raised in the San Pedro community of Los Angeles, California. Copeland 's father, Doug Copeland, is German American and African American, while her mother, Sylvia DelaCerna, is Italian American and African American and was adopted by African American parents. Misty Copeland is the youngest of four children from her mother 's second marriage and has two younger half - siblings, one each from her mother 's third and fourth marriages. Copeland did not see her father between the ages of two and twenty - two. Her mother, a former Kansas City Chiefs cheerleader, had studied dance. She is a trained medical assistant, but worked mostly in sales.
Between the ages of three and seven, Copeland lived in Bellflower, California, with her mother and her mother 's third husband, Harold Brown, a Santa Fe Railroad sales executive. The family moved to San Pedro, where Sylvia eventually married her fourth husband, radiologist Robert DelaCerna, and where Misty attended Point Fermin Elementary School. When she was seven, Copeland saw the film Nadia on television and its subject Nadia Comăneci became her new role model. Copeland never studied ballet or gymnastics formally until her teenage years, but in her youth she enjoyed choreographing flips and dance moves to Mariah Carey songs. Following in the footsteps of her older sister Erica, who had starred on the Dana Middle School drill team that won statewide competitions, Copeland became captain of the Dana drill team. Her captaincy was only a part of her responsibilities; she was also the sixth grade class treasurer and a hall monitor that year. Copeland 's natural grace came to the attention of her classically trained Dana drill team coach, Elizabeth Cantine, in San Pedro.
By 1994, Copeland 's mother had separated from Robert. After living with various friends and boyfriends, DelaCerna moved with all of her children into two small rooms at the Sunset Inn in Gardena, California. In early 1996, Cantine convinced Copeland to attend a ballet class at her local Boys & Girls Club. Cynthia Bradley, a friend of Cantine 's, taught a free ballet class at the club once a week. Copeland attended several classes as a spectator before participating. DelaCerna allowed Copeland to go to the club after school until the workday ended. Bradley invited Copeland to attend class at her small local ballet school, San Pedro Dance Center. Copeland initially declined the offer, however, because her mother did not have a car, was working 12 -- 14 hours a day, and her oldest sister Erica was working two jobs. Copeland began her ballet studies at the age of 13 at the San Pedro Dance Center when Cynthia Bradley began picking her up from school. After three months of study, Copeland was en pointe.
Her mother told Copeland that she would have to give up ballet, but Bradley wanted Copeland to continue and offered to host her. DelaCerna agreed to this, and Copeland moved in with Bradley and her family. Eventually, Copeland and DelaCerna signed a management contract and a life - story contract with Bradley. Copeland spent the weekdays with the Bradleys near the coast and the weekends at home with her mother, a two - hour bus ride away. Copeland would spend most of her next three years with the Bradleys. By the age of fourteen, Copeland was the winner of a national ballet contest and won her first solo role. The Bradleys introduced Copeland to books and videos about ballet. When she saw Paloma Herrera, a principal ballerina with ABT, perform at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion, Copeland began to idolize her as much as she did Mariah Carey. The media first noticed her when she drew 2,000 patrons per show as she performed as Clara in The Nutcracker at the San Pedro High School after only eight months of study. She played a larger role as Kitri in Don Quixote at the San Pedro Dance Center and then performed with the L.A. Academy of Fine Arts in a featured role in The Chocolate Nutcracker, an African American version of the tale, narrated by Debbie Allen. The latter was presented at UCLA 's Royce Hall. Copeland 's role was modified especially for her, and included ethnic dances.
During this period, Copeland received far more personal attention from the Bradley family than her mother could give each of her six children. Raised in a lapsed Christian household, when Copeland lived with the Bradley family, she attended their synagogue and celebrated Shabbat with them, enjoying their family 's closeness. In addition to Bradley 's intensive ballet training, her husband, a modern - dance teacher, served as Copeland 's pas - de-deux instructor and partner. The summer before her fifteenth birthday, Bradley began to homeschool Copeland for 10th grade to free up more time for dance. At fifteen years old, Copeland won first place in the Los Angeles Music Center Spotlight Awards at the Chandler Pavilion in March 1998. Copeland said it was the first time she ever battled nervousness. The winners received scholarships between $500 and $2500. Copeland 's victory in the 10th annual contest among gifted high school students in Southern California secured her recognition by the Los Angeles Times as the best young dancer in the Greater Los Angeles Area.
Copeland attended the summer workshop at the San Francisco Ballet School in 1998. She and Bradley selected the workshop over offers from the Joffrey Ballet, ABT and Dance Theater of Harlem, among others. Of the programs she auditioned for, only New York City Ballet declined to make her an offer. San Francisco Ballet, ABT and New York City Ballet are regarded as the three preeminent classical ballet companies in the US. During the six - week workshop at San Francisco, Copeland was placed in the most advanced classes and was under a full tuition plus expenses scholarship. At the end of the workshop, she received one of the few offers to continue as a full - time student at the school. She declined the offer because of the encouragement from her mother to return home, the prospect of continuing personal training from the Bradley family and dreams of a subsequent summer with ABT.
Copeland returned to her mother 's home and frequent arguments. Her mother had long resented the Bradleys ' influence and soon decided that Copeland would cease study with the Bradleys. Copeland was distraught with fear that she would not be able to dance. She had heard the term emancipation while in San Francisco; the procedure was common among young performers to secure their financial and residential independence. The Bradleys introduced Copeland to Steven Bartell, a lawyer who explained the emancipation petition process. The Bradleys encouraged her to be absent from home when the emancipation petition was delivered to her mother. Copeland ran away from home for three days and stayed with a friend, while Bartell filed the emancipation papers. After her mother reported Copeland missing, she was told about the emancipation petition. Three days after running away, Copeland was returned to her mother by the police. DelaCerna engaged lawyer Gloria Allred and applied for a series of restraining orders, which included the Bradleys ' five - year - old son, who had been Copeland 's roommate, and Bartell. The order was partly intended to preclude contact between the Bradleys and Copeland, but it did not have proper legal basis, since there had been no stalking and no harassment.
The custody controversy was highly publicized in the press (especially Los Angeles Times and Extra), starting in August and September 1998. Parts of the press coverage spilled over into op - ed articles. The case was heard in Torrance, in the Superior Court of Los Angeles County. DelaCerna claimed that the Bradleys had brainwashed Copeland into filing suit for emancipation from her mother, Allred claimed that the Bradleys had turned Copeland against her mother by belittling DelaCerna 's intelligence. The Bradleys noted that the management contract gave them authority over her career, but they stated that they would wait until Copeland became eighteen before seeking twenty percent of Copeland 's earnings.
After DelaCerna stated that she would always make sure Copeland could dance, both the emancipation papers and restraining orders were dropped. Copeland, who claimed she did not understand the term emancipation, withdrew the petition after informing the judge that such charges no longer represented her wishes. Still, DelaCerna wanted the Bradleys out of her daughter 's life. Copeland re-enrolled at San Pedro High School for her junior year (1998 -- 99), on pace to graduate with her original class of 2000. DelaCerna sought Cantine 's advice on finding a new ballet school. Copeland began ballet study at Lauridsen Ballet Centre with former ABT dancer Diane Lauridsen, although her dancing was now restricted to afternoons in deference to her schooling. Late in 1998, all parties appeared on Leeza Gibbons ' talk show, Leeza, where Copeland sat silently as the adults "bickered shamelessly ''. As a student, Copeland had a 3.8 / 4.0 GPA through her junior year of high school. In 2000, DelaCerna stated that Copeland 's earnings from ballet were set aside in a savings account and only used as needed.
Copeland auditioned for several dance programs in 1999, and each made her an offer to enroll in its summer program. She performed with ABT as part of its 1999 and 2000 Summer Intensive programs. By the end of the first summer, she was asked to join the ABT Studio Company. Her mother insisted that she finish high school, and so Copeland returned to California for her senior year, even though ABT arranged to pay for her performances, housing accommodations and academic arrangements. She studied at the Summer Intensive Program on full scholarship for both summers and was declared ABT 's National Coca - Cola Scholar in 2000. In the 2000 Summer Intensive Program, she danced the role of Kitri in Don Quixote. Copeland 's strongest memory from the summer is working with Tharp on Push Comes to Shove ". Of the 150 dancers in the 2000 Summer Intensive Program, she was one of six selected to join the junior dance troupe.
In September 2000, she joined the ABT Studio Company, which is ABT 's second company, and became a member of its Corps de ballet in 2001. As part of the Studio Company, she performed the Pas de Deux in Tchaikovsky 's The Sleeping Beauty. Eight months after joining the company, she was sidelined for nearly a year by a lumbar stress fracture. When Copeland joined the company, she weighed 108 pounds (49.0 kg) (she is 5 feet 2 inches (1.57 m) tall). At age 19, her puberty had been delayed, a situation common in ballet dancers. After the lumbar fracture, her doctor told her that inducing puberty would help to strengthen her bones, and he prescribed birth control pills. Copeland recalls that in one month she gained 10 pounds, and her small breasts swelled to double D - cup size: "Leotards had to be altered for me... to cover my cleavage, for instance. I hated this sign that I was different from the others... I became so self - conscious that, for the first time in my life, I could n't dance strong. I was too busy trying to hide my breasts. '' Management noticed and called her in to talk about her body. The professional pressure to conform to conventional ballet aesthetics resulted in body image struggles and a binge eating disorder. Copeland says that, over the next year, new friendships outside of ABT, including with Victoria Rowell and her boyfriend, Olu Evans, helped her to regain confidence in her body. She explained, "My curves became an integral part of who I am as a dancer, not something I needed to lose to become one. I started dancing with confidence and joy, and soon the staff at ABT began giving me positive feedback again. And I think I changed everyone 's mind about what a perfect dancer is supposed to look like. '' During her years in the corps, as the only Black woman in the company, Copeland also felt the burden of her ethnicity in many ways and contemplated a variety of career choices. Recognizing that Copeland 's isolation and self - doubt were standing in the way of her talent, ABT 's artistic director, Kevin McKenzie, asked writer and arts figure Susan Fales - Hill, then vice-chair of ABT 's Board of Directors, to mentor Copeland. Fales - Hill introduced Copeland to Black women trailblazers who encouraged Copeland and helped her to gain perspective.
Early career reviews mentioned Copeland as more radiant than higher ranking dancers, and she was named to the 2003 class of Dance Magazine 's "25 to Watch ''. In 2003, she was favorably reviewed for her roles as a member of the corps in La Bayadère and William Forsythe 's workwithinwork. Recognition continued in 2004 for roles in ballets such as Raymonda, workwithinwork, Amazed in Burning Dreams, Sechs Tänze, Pillar of Fire, "Pretty Good Year '', "VIII '' and "Sinfonietta, where she "stood out in the pas de trois -- whether she was gliding across the floor or in a full lift, she created the illusion of smoothness ''. She also danced the Hungarian Princess in Tchaikovsky 's Swan Lake. The 2004 season is regarded as her breakthrough season. She was included in the 2004 picture book by former ABT dancer Rosalie O'Connor titled Getting Closer: A Dancer 's Perspective. Also in 2004, she met her biological father for the first time and regretted that she had not done so sooner.
In 2005, her most notable performance was in George Balanchine 's Tarantella. she also danced the Lead Polovtsian Girl in "Polovtsian Dances '' from Prince Igor. In 2006, she was acknowledged for her meticulous classical performance style in Giselle and created a role in Jorma Elo 's Glow -- Stop. Elo said: ""Often with me in my creative moments -- they are very fast, and I ca n't repeat them myself. Misty has the capability to absorb something extremely fast and then reproduce it exactly, and she gives such clarity to the material. If I were to make my own company, she would be the first one I would call. '' That year, she also returned to Southern California to perform at Orange County Performing Arts Center and danced one of the cygnets and reprised her role as the Hungarian Princess in Swan Lake in New York. In both 2006 and 2007, Copeland danced the role of Blossom in James Kudelka 's Cinderella. Copeland 's "old - style '' performance continued to earn her praise in 2007. In 2007, she danced the Fairy of Valor in The Sleeping Beauty. Other roles that Copeland played before she was appointed a soloist by ABT included Twyla Tharp roles in In the Upper Room and Sinatra Suite as well as a role in Mark Morris 's Gong. A Dance Magazine feature stated that Copeland 's "sublime rapport with her partners in... Sinatra Suite has earned her the honor of dancing with the company 's male superstars ''.
Copeland was appointed a soloist at ABT in August 2007, one of the youngest ABT dancers promoted to soloist. Although, she was described by early accounts as the first African American woman promoted to soloist for ABT, Anne Benna Sims and Nora Kimball were soloists with ABT in the 1980s. Male soloist Keith Lee also preceded her. As of 2008, Copeland was the only African - American woman in the dance company during her entire ABT career. The only male African American in the company during her career, Danny Tidwell, left in 2005. In an international ballet community with a lack of diversity, she was so unusual as an African American ballerina, that she endured cultural isolation. She has been described in the press as the Jackie Robinson of classical ballet.
Copeland was a standout among her peers. In her first season as a soloist at New York City Center, in which avant - garde ballets works were performed, she received good notices in The New York Times for a Balanchine Ballo della Regina role. Also in 2007, she created a leading role in C. to C. (Close to Chuck), choreographed by Jorma Elo to A Musical Portrait of Chuck Close, Études 2, 9 & 10, by Philip Glass. Her performances of Tharp 's works in the same season were recognized, and she was described as more sophisticated and contemporary as a soloist than she had been as a corps dancer. Her summer 2008 Metropolitan Opera House (the Met) season performances in Don Quixote and Sleeping Beauty were also well received.
During the 2008 -- 09 season, Copeland was praised for performances in Twyla Tharp 's Baker 's Dozen and Paul Taylor 's Company B. During the 2009 Spring ABT season at the Met, Copeland performed Gulnare in Le Corsaire and leading roles in Taylor 's Airs and Balanchine 's Pas de Deux from Swan Lake. Her 2008 -- 09 Annenberg Fellowship included training for the Pas de Deux. Late that year, she performed in ABT 's first trip to Beijing at the new National Center for the Performing Arts. In 2009, Copeland created a role in Aszure Barton 's One of Three.
In 2010, after recovering from a stress fracture, Copeland performed in Birthday Offering at the Met and at the Guggenheim Museum danced to David Lang 's music. She also created the Spanish Dance in ABT artist - in - residence Alexei Ratmansky 's new version of The Nutcracker, premiered at the Brooklyn Academy of Music. In early 2011, she was well received at the Kennedy Center as the Milkmaid in Ratmansky 's The Bright Stream, a remake of a banned comic ballet. In Black History Month in 2011, Copeland was selected by Essence as one of its 37 Boundary - breaking black women in entertainment. That same month, she toured with Company B, performed at Sadler 's Wells Theatre in London. In May, she created a role in Ratmansky 's Dumbarton, danced to Stravinsky 's chamber concerto, Dumbarton Oaks. Alastair Macaulay of The New York Times found the piece too intimate for the cavernous Met, but he noted: "Misty Copeland gives sudden hints of need and emotional bleakness in a duet... too much is going on to explain itself at one viewing; but at once I know I 'm emotionally and structurally gripped. '' Her Summer 2011 ABT solos included the peasant pas de deux in Giselle and, in Ratmansky 's The Bright Stream at the Met in June, her reprise of the Milkmaid was called "luminous, teasingly sensual ''. She reprised the Bright Stream role again in July at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles with a performance described as "sly ''. As a flower girl, she was described as glittering in Don Quixote. In August, she performed at the Vail International Dance Festival in the Gerald Ford Amphitheater in Vail, Colorado. In November, she danced in Taylor 's Black Tuesday.
In 2012, Copeland began achieving solo roles in full - length standard repertory ballets rather than works that were mostly relatively modern pieces. A 2012 feature in Dance Magazine stated that Copeland 's "classical repertoire... has deepened in artistry with each season. In the peasant pas de deux from Giselle, she is buoyant and refreshingly lyrical, and her plush jumps in Swan Lake 's pas de trois are a joy. As the Fairy of Valor in Sleeping Beauty, she tempers the harsh stabbing fingers and dagger - like pas de chats by uplifting her body with grandeur and, yes, valor. '' She starred in The Firebird, with choreography by Ratmansky at the Segerstrom Center for the Arts in Costa Mesa, California. It premiered on March 29, 2012. The performance was hailed by Laura Bleiberg in the Los Angeles Times as one of the year 's best dance performances. That year, Copeland was recognized by The Council of Urban Professionals as their Breakthrough Leadership Award winner. She also danced the role of Gamzatti in La Bayadère at the Met to praise from Alastair Macaulay of The New York Times, who noted her "adult complexity and worldly allure ''. The Firebird was again performed at the Met in June 2012, with Copeland set to alternate in the lead. It was Copeland 's first leading role at ABT. Backstage described it as her "most prestigious part '' to date. After only one New York performance in the role, Copeland withdrew from the entire ABT season due to six stress fractures in her tibia. She was sidelined for seven months after her October surgery.
Upon her return to the stage, she danced the Queen of the Dryads in Don Quixote in May 2013. Nelson George began filming a documentary leverage the chance to present her comeback. Copeland reprised her role as Gulnare in June 2013 in the pirate - themed Le Corsaire. She also played an Odalisque in the same ballet. Later in the year, she danced in Tharp 's choreography of Bach Partita for Violin No. 2 in D minor for solo violin, and as Columbine in ABT 's revival of Ratmansky 's Nutcracker at the Brooklyn Academy of Music.
In May 2014, Copeland performed the lead role of Swanilda in Coppélia at the Met. According to Los Angeles Times writer Jevon Phillips, she is the first African American woman to dance the role. The same month, she was praised in the dual role of Queen of the Dryads and Mercedes in Don Quixote by Brian Seibert of The New York Times, although Jerry Hochman of Critical Dance felt that she was not as impressive in the former role as in the latter. Later in May, the Met staged a program of one - act ballets consisting of Theme and Variations, Duo Concertant and Gaîté Parisienne, featuring Copeland in all three. Siebert praised her work as the lead in Balanchine 's choreography of Igor Stravinsky 's Duo Concertant for violin and piano performed by Benjamin Bowman and Emily Wong. Of her Flower Girl in Gaîté Parisienne, Apollinaire Scherr of The Financial Times wrote that she "tips like a brimming watering can into the bouquets her wooers hold out to her ''. Copeland was a "flawless '' demi - soloist in Theme and Variations, according to Colleen Boresta of Critical Dance.
In June 2014 at the Met, she danced the Fairy Autumn in the Frederick Ashton Cinderella, cited for her energetic exuberance in the role by Hochman, who missed the "varied texture and nuance that made it significantly more interesting '' in the hands of ABT 's Christine Shevchenko. That month, she played Lescaut 's Mistress in Manon in which role Marjorie Liebert of BroadwayWorld.com described her as "seductive and ingratiating ''. Also in June, she performed the role of Gamzatti in La Bayadère. Copeland performed the Odette / Odile double role in Swan Lake in September when the company toured in Brisbane, Australia. Her ascension to more prominent roles occurred as three ABT principal dancers (Paloma Herrera, Julie Kent and Xiomara Reyes) entered their final seasons before retirement. In early October, Copeland performed several pieces including a principal role in Tharp 's Bach Partita at Chicago 's Auditorium Theatre. In October, Copeland made her New York debut in one of the six principal roles in Tharp 's Bach Partita and created a role in Liam Scarlett 's With a Chance of Rain. That December, when ABT revived Ratmansky 's Nutcracker at the Brooklyn Academy of Music, Copeland played the role of Clara, the Princess. The same month, at the Kennedy Center Honors, she was described as "sublime '' in Tchaikovsky 's Pas de Deux by the New York City CBS News affiliate.
In March 2015, Copeland danced the role of Princess Florine in The Sleeping Beauty at the Segerstrom Center for the Arts in Costa Mesa, California. She made her American debut as Odette / Odile in Swan Lake with The Washington Ballet, opposite Brooklyn Mack as Prince Siegfried, in April at the Eisenhower Theater in the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. The performance was the company 's first presentation of Swan Lake in its 70 - year history. In May 2015, she played Cowgirl in Rodeo, Bianca in Othello and Zulma in Giselle. She was selected for the 2015 Time 100. As a result, Copeland appeared on the cover of Time, making her the first dancer on the cover since Bill T. Jones in 1994. In June, Copeland created the small role of the Fairy Fleur de farine (Wheat flower) in Ratmansky 's The Sleeping Beauty. The same month, she made her debut in Romeo and Juliet on short notice a few days before her scheduled debut performance on June 20. Later in June, Copeland made her New York debut in the Odette / Odile double role from Swan Lake that is described by Macauley as "the most epic role in world ballet ''. Her performance at the Met was regarded as a success. Her performance in the role had been anticipated as a "a crowning achievement '' in wide - ranging media outlets and by a broad spectrum of fans and supporters. Pioneering dancers Raven Wilkinson and Lauren Anderson were on hand to present her with bouquets on stage. Some viewed this performance as a sign that her promotion to principal was forthcoming.
On June 30, 2015, Copeland became the first African - American woman to be promoted to principal ballerina in ABT 's 75 - year history. Copeland 's achievement was groundbreaking, as there have been very few African - American principal ballerinas at major companies. Debra Austin became a principal at Pennsylvania Ballet in 1982, and Lauren Anderson became a principal at Houston Ballet in 1990, the first black principal ballerinas at major American companies. According to the 2015 documentary about Copeland, A Ballerina 's Tale, until Copeland, "there (had) never been a Black female principal dancer at a major international company ''.
Copeland next accepted the role of Ivy Smith in the Broadway revival of On The Town, which she played for two weeks from August 25 to September 6. Her debut on Broadway was favorably reviewed in The New York Times, The Washington Post, and other media.
In October in New York, Copeland performed in the revival of Tharp 's choreography of the Brahms - Haydn Variations, in Frederick Ashton 's Monotones I, and "brought a seductive mix of demureness and sex appeal to ' Rum and Coca - Cola ' '' in Paul Taylor 's Company B. The same month, she created the role of His Loss in AfterEffect by Marcelo Gomes, danced to Tchaikovsky 's Souvenir de Florence, at Lincoln Center. When ABT brought Ratmansky 's Nutcracker to Segerstrom Center for the Arts in December 2015, Copeland reprised the role of Clara.
In January 2016, Copeland reprised the role of Princess Florine in The Sleeping Beauty at the Kennedy Center, choreographed by Ratmansky. Her spring 2016 schedule also included leads in ABT productions of The Firebird, La Fille Mal Gardee, Le Corsaire, The Golden Cockerel, Swan Lake and Romeo and Juliet. In 2017, she appeared as a guest artist with La Scala Theatre Ballet when it visited Southern California.
In March 2009, Copeland filmed a music video with Prince for a cover of "Crimson and Clover '', the first single from his 2009 album Lotusflower. Prince asked her to dance along to the song in improvised ballet movements. She described his instructions as "Be you, feel the music, just move '', and upon request for further instruction, "Keep doing what you 're doing ''. She also began taking acting lessons in 2009. During the New York City and New Jersey portions of Prince 's Welcome 2 America tour, Copeland performed a pas de deux en pointe to his song "The Beautiful Ones '', the opening number at the Izod Center and Madison Square Garden. Prince had previously invited her onstage at a concert in Nice, France. In April 2011, she performed alongside Prince on the Lopez Tonight show, dancing to "The Beautiful Ones. ''
In 2011, she was featured in the Season 1, episode 5 of the Hulu web series A Day in the Life. Copeland was a guest judge for the 11th season of FOX 's So You Think You Can Dance. New Line Cinema has optioned her memoir, Life in Motion, for a screen adaptation, and the Oxygen network has expressed interest in producing a reality docuseries about Copeland mentoring a Master Class of aspiring young dancers.
A Ballerina 's Tale, a documentary film about Copeland, debuted at the Tribeca Film Festival in April 2015 and released through video on demand and in limited release in theaters in October 2015. It was then aired in February 2016 as part of PBS ' Independent Lens series. In May 2015, she was featured on 60 Minutes in a segment with correspondent Bill Whitaker. The following month, she served as a presenter at the 69th Tony Awards. In July 2015, a black and white book, Misty Copeland: Power and Grace, was released by photographer Richard Corman, with an introduction by Cindy Bradley. The book contains photographs of Copeland dancing at sunrise on and around a baby grand piano that washed ashore under the Brooklyn Bridge. Copeland was included in the 2015 International Best Dressed List, published by Vanity Fair. In October 2015, she performed on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert accompanied by cellist Yo - Yo Ma, who played "Courante '' from Bach 's Cello Suite No. 2.
In February 2016, Copeland and President Barack Obama were interviewed together in the first of a three part video series with Time and Essence magazines on topics of race, gender, achievement and creating opportunity for young people. The same month, she walked the runway at New York Fashion Week to support the American Heart Association 's "Go Red for Women '' campaign to increase awareness of the dangers of heart disease for women. She appeared in the March issue of Harper 's Bazaar recreating Edgar Degas ballerina poses in a photospread ahead of a Museum of Modern Art exhibition: "Edgar Degas: A Strange New Beauty ''. The feature was favorably noted by several media outlets, but Sebastian Smee of The Boston Globe argued that contemporary ballet performers take Degas ' ballet - themed work too seriously.
Copeland has been cast to dance the lead ballerina role in a forthcoming Disney film, The Nutcracker and the Four Realms, based on the 1816 story "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King ''. She is also set to voice herself on a 2016 episode of the animated TV series, Peg + Cat. In 2017, she appeared as a guest judge on World of Dance.
In 2011, she unveiled a line of dancewear, called M by Misty, that she designed. She has also produced celebrity calendars. In 2014, Copeland released a memoir, Life in Motion: An Unlikely Ballerina, co-authored by Charisse Jones. Her 2014 children 's picture book, titled Firebird, with illustrator Christopher Myers, has a message of empowerment for young people of color. In 2017, Copeland released a third book, Ballerina Body, a health and fitness guide.
Copeland was featured in T - Mobile 's ads for the BlackBerry in 2010 and an ad for Dr. Pepper in 2013. In 2013, she represented Coach, Inc. and became a spokesperson for Project Plié, a national initiative to broaden the pipeline of leadership within ballet. She also became a brand ambassador for Seiko in 2015. In 2016, Mattel created a Misty Copeland Barbie doll. Later that year, the Dannon Company hired Copeland as a spokesperson for its Oikos brand.
In 2014, Copeland became a sponsored athlete for Under Armour, which paid her more than her ballet career. Her Under Armour women - focused ad campaign was widely publicized, and resulted in her being named an ABC World News Person of the week. The ad campaign was recognized by Adweek as one of The 10 Best Ads of 2014 and as "The year 's best campaign targeting women ''. Copeland, along with Steph Curry and Jordan Spieth, was credited with boosting demand for Under Armour products. In February 2017, Copeland debuted her own collection of activewear for Under Armour. Shortly afterwards, she criticized statements by Under Armour founder and CEO Kevin Plank that praised Donald Trump, stressing that her sponsors should believe in the "importance of diversity and inclusion ''. Plank responded in an open letter to the Baltimore Sun to state that he supports "a diverse and inclusive America ''. In July 2017, Under Armour launched a digital ad campaign featuring Copeland, and at the end of that month she became the spokesperson for an Estée Lauder fragrance. W called her Estée Lauder campaign groundbreaking because cosmetics companies have rarely employed spokespersons other than models.
In 2008, Copeland won the Leonore Annenberg Fellowship in the Arts, which funds study with master teachers and trainers outside of ABT. The two - year fellowships are in recognition of "young artists of extraordinary talent with the goal of providing them with additional resources in order to fully realise their potential ''. In 2013, she was named National Youth of the Year Ambassador by the Boys & Girls Clubs of America. In 2014, Copeland was named to the President 's Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutrition and received an honorary doctorate from the University of Hartford for her contributions to classical ballet and helping to diversify the art form. Copeland was a Dance Magazine Awards 2014 honoree. After her promotion as principal dancer, Copeland was named one of Glamour 's Women of the Year for 2015; one of ESPN 's 2015 Impact 25 athletes and influencers who have made the greatest impact for women in sports; and, by Barbara Walters, one of the 10 "most fascinating '' people of 2015. In 2016, Copeland won a Shorty Award for Best in Dance in Social Media.
Copeland and her husband, attorney Olu Evans, live on Manhattan 's Upper West Side. The couple were introduced to each other around 2004 by Evans ' cousin, Taye Diggs, and disclosed their engagement in a 2015 cover story in Essence magazine. They married in California on July 31, 2016. Copeland, when she has free time, enjoys cooking and relaxing, preferring not "to be around a lot of people ''.
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the xml protocol fills what level of the web services protocol stack | Web services Protocol stack - Wikipedia
A web service protocol stack is a protocol stack (a stack of computer networking protocols) that is used to define, locate, implement, and make Web services interact with each other. A Web service protocol stack typically stacks four protocols:
The Web service protocol stack also includes a whole range of recently defined protocols: BPEL, SOAP - DSIG.
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when was social work recognized as a profession | Social work - wikipedia
Social work is an academic discipline and profession that concerns itself with individuals, families, groups and communities in an effort to enhance social functioning and overall well - being. Social functioning refers to the way in which people perform their social roles, and the structural institutions that are provided to sustain them. Social work applies social sciences, such as sociology, psychology, political science, public health, community development, law, and economics, to engage with client systems, conduct assessments, and develop interventions to solve social and personal problems; and create social change. Social work practice is often divided into micro-work, which involves working directly with individuals or small groups; and macro-work, which involves working communities, and within social policy, to create change on a larger scale.
Social work developed from in the 20th century, with roots in voluntary philanthropy and grassroots organizing. However, the act of responding to social needs have existed long before then, primarily from private charities, and religious organizations. The effects of the Industrial Revolution and the Great Depression, placed pressure on social work to be a more defined discipline.
Social work is a broad profession that intersects with several disciplines. However, although social work practice varies both through its various specialties and countries, these social work organizations offer the following definitions.
"Social work is a practice - based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people. Principles of social justice, human rights, collective responsibility and respect for diversities are central to social work. Underpinned by theories of social work, social sciences, humanities and indigenous knowledges, social work engages people and structures to address life challenges and enhance wellbeing. '' - International Federation of Social Workers
"Social work is a profession concerned with helping individuals, families, groups and communities to enhance their individual and collective well - being. It aims to help people develop their skills and their ability to use their own resources and those of the community to resolve problems. Social work is concerned with individual and personal problems but also with broader social issues such as poverty, unemployment and domestic violence. '' - Canadian Association of Social Workers
Social work practice consists of the professional application of social work values, principles, and techniques to one or more of the following ends: helping people obtain tangible services; counseling and psychotherapy with individuals, families, and groups; helping communities or groups provide or improve social and health services; and participating in legislative processes. The practice of social work requires knowledge of human development and behavior; of social and economic, and cultural institutions; and of the interaction of all these factors. "- National Association of Social Workers
"Social workers work with individuals and families to help improve outcomes in their lives. This may be helping to protect vulnerable people from harm or abuse or supporting people to live independently. Social workers support people, act as advocates and direct people to the services they may require. Social workers often work in multi-disciplinary teams alongside health and education professionals. '' - British Association of Social Workers
The practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern and scientific origin, and is generally considered to have developed out of three strands. The first was individual casework, a strategy pioneered by the Charity Organization Society in the mid-19th century, which was founded by Helen Bosanquet and Octavia Hill in London, England. Most historians identify COS as the pioneering organization of the social theory that led to the emergence of social work as a professional occupation. COS had its main focus on individual casework. The second was social administration, which included various forms of poverty relief -- ' relief of paupers '. Statewide poverty relief could be said to have its roots in the English Poor Laws of the 17th century, but was first systematized through the efforts of the Charity Organization Society. The third consisted of social action -- rather than engaging in the resolution of immediate individual requirements, the emphasis was placed on political action working through the community and the group to improve their social conditions and thereby alleviate poverty. This approach was developed originally by the Settlement House Movement.
This was accompanied by a less easily defined movement; the development of institutions to deal with the entire range of social problems. All had their most rapid growth during the nineteenth century, and laid the foundation basis for modern social work, both in theory and in practice.
Professional social work originated in 19th century England, and had its roots in the social and economic upheaval wrought by the Industrial Revolution, in particular the societal struggle to deal with the resultant mass urban - based poverty and its related problems. Because poverty was the main focus of early social work, it was intricately linked with the idea of charity work.
Other important historical figures that shaped the growth of the social work profession are Jane Addams, who founded the Hull House in Chicago and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931; Mary Ellen Richmond, who wrote Social Diagnosis, one of the first social work books to incorporate law, medicine, psychiatry, psychology, and history; and William Beveridge, who created the social welfare state, framing the debate on social work within the context of social welfare prevision.
Social work is an interdisciplinary profession, meaning it draws from a number of areas, such as (but not limited to) psychology, sociology, politics, criminology, economics, ecology, education, health, law, philosophy, anthropology and counseling, including psychotherapy. Field work is a distinctive attribution to social work pedagogy. This equips the trainee in understanding the theories and models within the field of work. Professional practitioners from multicultural aspects have their roots in this social work immersion engagements from the early 19th century in the western countries. As an example, here are some of the models and theories used within social work practice:
Abraham Flexner in a 1915 lecture, "Is Social Work a Profession? '', delivered at the National Conference on Charities and Corrections, examined the characteristics of a profession with reference to social work. It is not a ' single model ', such as that of health, followed by medical professional such as nurses and doctors, but a integrated profession and the likeness with medical profession is that, social work requires study and continued professional development to retain knowledge and skills that is evidence based in practice. A social work professional 's services lead toward the aim of providing beneficial services to individuals, dyads, families, groups, organizations and communities to achieve optimum psychosocial functioning.
Its seven core functions are described by Popple and Leighninger as:
Six other core values identified by the National Association of Social Workers ' (NASW) Code of Ethics are:
A historic and defining feature of social work is the profession 's focus on individual well - being in a social context and the well - being of society. Social workers promote social justice and social change with and on behalf of clients. The term "client '' is used to refer to individuals, families, groups, organizations, or communities. In the broadening scope of the modern social worker 's role, some practitioners have in recent years traveled to war - torn countries to provide psychosocial assistance to families and survivors.
Furthermore, as a result of social workers ' training in counseling and their experience in helping their clients with accessing benefits such as unemployment insurance and disability benefits, they are particularly well - suited to help individuals and families learn how to become financially self - sufficient. That said, there is a need for additional training vis a vis social workers in the financial household management arena. Under some conditions, a raise may trigger reductions in several benefits; therefore, it would be beneficial for social workers to study a financial education curriculum tailored for social workers such as financial social work to fully understand and explain the possible ramifications to clients. In addition, social workers often work with low - income or low to middle - income people who are either unbanked (do not have a banking account) or underbanked (individuals who have a bank account but tend to rely on high cost non-bank providers for their financial transactions). Social workers who have an understanding of financial institutions would be able to guide individuals and families to use mainstream financial institutions and thereby hold onto more of their income and spend less on high cost non-bank financial services.
In the United States, according to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), a branch of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, professional social workers are the largest group of mental health services providers. There are more clinically trained social workers -- over 200,000 -- than psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychiatric nurses combined. Federal law and the National Institutes of Health recognize social work as one of five core mental health professions.
Examples of fields a social worker may be employed in are poverty relief, life skills education, community development, rural development, forensics and corrections, legislation, industrial relations, project management, child protection, elder protection, women 's rights, human rights, systems optimization, finance, addictions rehabilitation, child development, cross-cultural mediation, occupational safety and health, disaster management, mental health, psychotherapy, disabilities, etc.
The education of social workers begins with a bachelor 's degree (BA, BSc, BSSW, BSW, etc.) or diploma in social work or a Bachelor of Social Services. Some countries offer postgraduate degrees in social work, such as a master 's degree (MSW, MSS, MSSA, MA, MSc, MRes, MPhil.) or doctoral studies (PhD and DSW (Doctor of Social Work)). Increasingly, graduates of social work programs pursue post-masters and post-doctoral study, including training in psychotherapy.
In the United States, social work undergraduate and master 's programs are accredited by the Council on Social Work Education. A CSWE - accredited degree is required for one to become a state - licensed social worker.
A number of countries and jurisdictions require registration or licensure of people working as social workers, and there are mandated qualifications. In other places, a professional association sets academic requirements for admission to the profession. The success of these professional bodies ' efforts is demonstrated in that these same requirements are recognized by employers as necessary for employment.
Social workers have a number of professional associations that provide ethical guidance and other forms of support for their members and for social work in general. These associations may be international, continental, semi-continental, national, or regional. The main international associations are the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW).
The largest professional social work association in the United States is the National Association of Social Workers. There also exist organizations that represent clinical social workers such as The American Association of Psychoanalysis in Clinical Social Work. AAPCSW is a national organization representing social workers who practice psychoanalytic social work and psychonalysis. There are also a number of states with Clinical Social Work Societies which represent all social workers who conduct psychotherapy from a variety of theoretical frameworks with families, groups and individuals. The Association for Community Organization and Social Administration (ACOSA) is a professional organization for social workers who practice within the community organizing, policy, and political spheres.
In the UK, the professional association is the British Association of Social Workers (BASW) with just over 18,000 members (as of August 2015).
In the United Kingdom, just over half of social workers are employed by local authorities, and many of these are represented by UNISON, the public sector employee union. Smaller numbers are members of the Unite the Union and the GMB (trade union). The British Union of Social Work Employees (BUSWE) has been a section of the Community (trade union) since 2008.
While at that stage not a union, the British Association of Social Workers operated a professional advice and representation service from the early 1990s. Social Work qualified staff who are also experienced in employment law and industrial relations provide the kind of representation you would expect from a trade union in the event of grievance, discipline or conduct matters specifically in respect of professional conduct or practice. However, this service depended on the good will of employers to allow the representatives to be present at these meetings, as only trade unions have the legal right and entitlement of representation in the workplace.
By 2011 several councils had realized that they did not have to permit BASW access, and those that were challenged by skilled professional representation of their staff were withdrawing permission. For this reason BASW once again took up trade union status by forming its arms length trade union section, SWU (Social Workers Union). This gives legal right to represent its members whether the employer or Trades Union Congress (TUC) recognizes SWU or not. At 2015 the TUC was still resisting SWU application for admission to congress membership and while most employers are not making formal statements of recognition until such a time as the TUC may change its policy, they are all legally required to permit SWU (BASW) representation at internal discipline hearings etc.
In 2011, a critic stated that "novels about social work are rare, '' and as recently as 2004, another critic claimed to have difficulty finding novels featuring a main character holding a Master of Social Work degree.
However, social workers have been the subject of many novels, including:
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when did the samsung galaxy 6 edge come out | Samsung Galaxy S III - wikipedia
2G GSM / GPRS / EDGE: 850, 900, 1800, 1900 MHz 3G UMTS / CDMA2000 / HSPA+: 850, 900, 1700, 1800 (Korean Pcs LG U+), 1900, 2100 MHz
Original: Android 4.0. 4 "Ice Cream Sandwich '' Current: Android 4.3 "Jelly Bean '', Android 4.4 "KitKat '' (2 GB RAM variants and GT - I9301I Neo only)
4.8 in (120 mm) HD Super AMOLED (720 × 1280)
8 megapixel
The Samsung Galaxy S III (or Galaxy S3) is a multi-touch, slate - format smartphone designed, developed, and marketed by Samsung Electronics that runs the Android OS by Google. Launched in 2012, it had sold about 70 million units by 2015.
It has additional software features, expanded hardware, and a redesigned physique from its predecessor, the Samsung Galaxy S II. The "S III '' employs an intelligent personal assistant (S Voice), eye - tracking ability, and increased storage. Although a wireless charging option was announced, it never came to fruition. However there are third party kits which add support for wireless charging. Depending on country, the 4.8 - inch (120 mm) smartphone comes with different processors and RAM capacity, and 4G LTE support. The device was launched with Android 4.0. 4 "Ice Cream Sandwich '', was updated to Android 4.3 "Jelly Bean '', and can be updated to Android 4.4 "KitKat '' on variants with 2 GB of RAM. The phone 's successor, the Samsung Galaxy S4, was announced on 14 March 2013 and was released the following month.
Following an 18 - month development phase, Samsung unveiled the S III on 3 May 2012. The device was released in 28 European and Middle Eastern countries on 29 May 2012, before being progressively released in other major markets in June 2012. Prior to release, 9 million pre-orders were placed by more than 100 carriers globally. The S III was released by approximately 300 carriers in nearly 150 countries at the end of July 2012. More than 20 million units of the S III were sold within the first 100 days of release and more than 50 million until April 2013.
Because of overwhelming demand and a manufacturing problem with the blue variant of the phone, there was an extensive shortage of the S III, especially in the United States. Nevertheless, the S III was well - received commercially and critically, with some technology commentators touting it as the "iPhone killer ''. In September 2012, TechRadar ranked it as the No. 1 handset in its constantly updated list of the 20 best mobile phones, while Stuff magazine likewise ranked it at No. 1 in its list of 10 best smartphones in May 2012. The handset also won the "European Mobile Phone of 2012 -- 13 '' award from the European Imaging and Sound Association, as well as T3 magazine 's "Phone of the Year '' award for 2012. It played a major role in boosting Samsung 's record operating profit during the second quarter of 2012. As of November 2012, the S III is part of a high - profile lawsuit between Samsung and Apple. In November 2012, research firm Strategy Analytics announced that the S III had overtaken Apple 's iPhone 4S to become the world 's best - selling smartphone model in Q3 2012.
In April 2014, following the release of its new flagship, the Galaxy S5, Samsung released a refreshed version called the "Galaxy S3 Neo '', which has a quad - core Snapdragon 400 processor clocked either at 1.2 or 1.4 GHz. It has 1.5 GB of RAM and 16 GB of internal storage and ships with Android 4.4. 4 "KitKat ''.
Design work on the S III started in late 2010 under the supervision of Chang Dong - hoon, Samsung 's Vice President and Head of the Design Group of Samsung Electronics. From the start, the design group concentrated on a trend which Samsung dubs "organic '', which suggests that a prospective design should reflect natural elements such as the flow of water and wind. Some of the results of this design were the curved outline of the phone and its home screen 's "Water Lux '' effect, where taps and slides produce water ripples.
Throughout the eighteen - month design process, Samsung implemented stringent security measures and procedures to maintain secrecy of the eventual design until its launch. Designers worked on three prototypes concurrently while regarding each of them as the final product. Doing so required a constant duplication of effort, as they had to repeat the same process for all three prototypes. The prototypes, of which taking photos was forbidden, were locked in a separate laboratory, accessible only by core designers. They were transported by trusted company employees, instead of third - party couriers. "Because we were only permitted to see the products and others were n't, '' explained Principal Engineer Lee Byung - Joon, "we could n't send pictures or drawings. We had to explain the Galaxy S III with all sorts of words. '' Despite such security measures, specifications of one of the three units were leaked by Vietnamese Web site Tinhte, although it was not the selected design.
Speculation in the general public and media outlets regarding the handset 's specifications began gathering momentum several months before its formal unveiling in May 2012. In February 2012, prior to the Mobile World Congress (MWC) in Barcelona, Spain, there were rumors that the handset would incorporate a 1.5 GHz quad - core processor, a display of 1080p (1080 × 1920 pixels) resolution, a 12 - megapixel rear camera and a HD Super AMOLED Plus touchscreen. More accurate rumored specifications included 2 GB of RAM, 64 GB of internal storage, 4G LTE, a 4.8 - inch (120 mm) screen, an 8 - megapixel rear camera, and a 9 - millimetre (0.35 in) thick chassis. Samsung confirmed the existence of the Galaxy S II 's successor on 5 March 2012, but it was not until late April 2012 that Samsung 's Senior Vice-President Robert Yi confirmed the phone to be called "Samsung Galaxy S III ''.
After inviting reporters in mid-April, Samsung launched the Galaxy S III during the Samsung Mobile Unpacked 2012 event at Earls Court Exhibition Centre, London, United Kingdom, on 3 May 2012, instead of unveiling their products earlier in the year during either the World Mobile Congress or Consumer Electronics Show (CES). One explanation for this decision is that Samsung wanted to minimize the time between its launch and availability. The keynote address of the hour - long event was delivered by Loesje De Vriese, Marketing Director of Samsung Belgium.
Following the launch of the Galaxy S4 in June 2013, Samsung was reportedly retiring the phone earlier than planned because of low sales numbers and to streamline manufacturing operations.
The S III has a plastic chassis measuring 136.6 mm (5.38 in) long, 70.7 mm (2.78 in) wide, and 8.6 mm (0.34 in) thick, with the device weighing 133 grams (4.7 oz). Samsung abandoned the rectangular design of the Galaxy S and Galaxy S II, and instead incorporated round corners and curved edges, reminiscent of the Galaxy Nexus. The device has been available in several color options: white, black, grey, blue - grey, red, and brown. A "Garnet Red '' model was made available exclusively to US carrier AT&T on 15 July 2012.
The S III comes in two distinct variations that differ primarily in the internal hardware. The international S III version has Samsung 's Exynos 4 Quad system on a chip (SoC) containing a 1.4 GHz quad - core ARM Cortex - A9 central processing unit (CPU) and an ARM Mali - 400 MP graphics processing unit (GPU). According to Samsung, the Exynos 4 Quad doubles the performance of the Exynos 4 Dual used on the S II, while using 20 percent less power. Samsung had also released several 4G LTE versions -- 4G facilitates higher - speed mobile connection compared to 3G -- in selected countries to exploit the corresponding communications infrastructures that exist in those markets. Most of these versions use Qualcomm 's Snapdragon S4 SoC featuring a dual - core 1.5 GHz Krait CPU and an Adreno 225 GPU. The South Korean and Australian versions are a hybrid of the international and 4G - capable versions.
The S III has a maximum of 2 GB of RAM, depending on model. The phone comes with either 16, 32, or 64 GB storage; additionally, microSDXC storage offers a further 64 GB for a potential total of 128 GB. Moreover, 50 GB of space is offered for two years on Dropbox -- a cloud storage service -- for purchasers of the device, doubling rival HTC 's 25 GB storage for the same duration.
The S III 's HD Super AMOLED display measures 4.8 inches (120 mm) on the diagonal. With a 720 × 1280 - pixel (720p) resolution, its 306 pixel per inch (PPI, a measure of pixel density) is a relatively high, which is accommodated by the removal one of the three subpixels -- red, green and blue -- in each pixel to create a PenTile matrix - display; consequently, it does not share the "Plus '' suffix found on the S II 's Super AMOLED Plus display. The glass used for the display is the damage - resistant corning Gorilla Glass 2, except for S3 Neo variant. The device 's software includes a feature known as "Smart Stay '', which uses the device 's front camera to detect whether the user 's eyes are looking at the screen, and prevents the screen from automatically turning off while the user is still looking at it.
The S III has an 8 - megapixel camera similar to that of the Galaxy S II. It can take 3264 × 2448 - pixel resolution photos and record videos in 1920 × 1080 - pixel (1080p) resolution. Samsung improved the camera 's software over that of its predecessor to include zero shutter lag, and Burst Mode and Best Shot, which work together to quickly take numerous photos before the best - judged frame is selected. The phone can also take pictures while recording videos. The rear - facing camera is complemented by a 1.9 - megapixel front - facing camera that can record 720p videos. The phone has LED flash and autofocus.
In addition to the 4.8 - inch (120 mm) touchscreen, the S III has several physical user inputs, including a home button located below the screen, a volume key on the left side and a power / lock key on the right. At the top there is a 3.5 - millimetre (0.14 in) headphone jack and one of the two microphones on the S III; the other is located below the home button. The S III is advertised as having an MHL port that can be used both as a micro-USB On - The - Go port, and for connecting the phone to HDMI devices. However, a retailer later discovered that Samsung had made a modification to the electronics of the port such that only the adapter made specifically for this model by Samsung could be used.
The S III 's Li - ion 2,100 mAh battery is said to have a 790 - hour standby time or 11 hours of talk time on 3G, compared to 900 hours in standby and 21 hours of talk time on 2G. Built into the battery is near field communication (NFC) connectivity, which allows users to share map directions and YouTube videos quickly using Wi - Fi Direct (through Android Beam), and perform non-touch payments at shops that employ specially equipped NFC cash registers. The battery can be wirelessly charged using a special charging pad (sold separately) that utilizes magnetic resonance to produce a magnetic field through which electricity could be transferred.
CNET TV torture - tested an S III by cooling it to 24 ° F (− 4 ° C), placing it in a heat - proof box and heating it to 190 ° F (88 ° C), and submerging it in water -- the S III survived all three tests. The phone also did not exhibit any scratches when a key was repeatedly scraped against the display. However, Android Authority later carried out a drop test with the purpose of comparing the S III and the iPhone 5. The screen on the S III shattered on the second drop test, while the iPhone received only minor scuffs and scratches on the metal composite frame after three drop tests.
The S III is powered by Android, a Linux - based, open source mobile operating system developed by Google and introduced commercially in 2008. Among other features, the software allows users to maintain customized home screens which can contain shortcuts to applications and widgets for displaying information. Four shortcuts to frequently used applications can be stored on a dock at the bottom of the screen; the button in the center of the dock opens the application drawer, which displays a menu containing all of the apps installed on the device. A tray accessed by dragging from the top of the screen allows users to view notifications received from other apps, and contains toggle switches for commonly used functions. Pre-loaded apps also provide access to Google 's various services. The S III uses Samsung 's proprietary TouchWiz graphical user interface (GUI). The "Nature '' version used by the S III has a more "organic '' feel than previous versions, and contains more interactive elements such as a water ripple effect on the lock screen. To complement the TouchWiz interface, and as a response to Apple 's Siri, the phone introduces S Voice, Samsung 's intelligent personal assistant. S Voice can recognize eight languages including English, Korean, Italian and French. Based on Vlingo, S Voice enables the user to verbally control 20 functions such as playing a song, setting the alarm, or activating driving mode; it relies on Wolfram Alpha for online searches.
The S III initially shipped with Android version 4.0. 4, named "Ice Cream Sandwich '', which became commercially available in March 2012 with the Nexus S and Galaxy Nexus. Ice Cream Sandwich has a refined user interface, and expanded camera capabilities, security features and connectivity. In mid-June 2012, Google unveiled Android 4.1 "Jelly Bean '', which employs Google Now, a voice - assistant similar to S Voice, and incorporates other software changes. Samsung accommodated Jelly Bean in the S III by making last - minute hardware changes to the phone in some markets. Jelly Bean updates began rolling out to S IIIs in selected European countries, and to the T - Mobile in the United States in November 2012. Samsung started pushing Android 4.1. 2 Jelly Bean to the international version of the S III in December 2012. In December 2013, Samsung began rolling out Android 4.3 for the S III, adding user interface features back ported from the Galaxy S4, and support for the Samsung Galaxy Gear smartwatch. In March 2014, Samsung started the rollout of 4.4. 2 KitKat for the 2 GB variant of the S III.
The S III comes with a multitude of pre-installed applications, including Google Apps like Google Play, YouTube, Google+, Gmail, Google Maps, Voice Search and Calendar, in addition to Samsung - specific apps such as ChatON, Game Hub, Music Hub, Video Hub, Social Hub and Navigation. To address the fact that iPhone users are reluctant to switch to Android because the OS is not compatible with iTunes, from June 2012 Samsung offered customers of its Galaxy series the Easy Phone Sync app to enable the transfer of music, photos, videos, podcasts, and text messages from an iPhone to a Galaxy device. The user is able to access Google Play, a digital - distribution multimedia - content service exclusive to Android, to download applications, games, music, movies, books, magazines, and TV programs.
Apart from S Voice, Samsung has directed the bulk of the S III 's marketing campaign towards the device 's "smart '' features, which facilitate improved human - device interactivity. These features include: "Direct Call '', or the handset 's ability to recognise when a user wants to talk to somebody instead of messaging them, if they bring the phone to their head; "Social Tag '', a function that identifies and tags people in a photo and shares photos with them; and "Pop Up Play '', which allows a video and other applications to occupy the screen at the same time. In addition, the S III can beam its screen to a monitor or be used as a remote controller (AllShare Cast and Play) and share photos with people who are tagged in them (Buddy Photo Share).
The S III can access and play traditional media formats such as music, movies, TV programs, audiobooks, and podcasts, and can sort its media library alphabetically by song title, artist, album, playlist, folder, and genre. One notable feature of the S III 's music player is Music Square, which analyses a song 's intensity and ranks the song by mood so that the user can play songs according to their current emotional state. The device also introduced Music Hub, an online music store powered by 7digital with a catalogue of over 19 million songs.
The S III was the first smartphone to support Voice Over LTE with the introduction of HD Voice service in South Korea. The phone enables video calling with its 1.9 MP front - facing camera, and with support for the aptX codec, improves Bluetooth - headset connectivity. Texting on the S III does not embody any new significant features from the S II. Speech - to - text is aided by the Vlingo and Google 's voice - recognition assistant. Not unlike other Android devices, there are a multitude of third - party typing applications available that could complement the S III 's stock keyboard.
On 18 June 2012, Samsung announced that the S III would have a version with enterprise software under the company 's Samsung Approved For Enterprise (SAFE) program, an initiative facilitating the use of its devices for "bring your own device '' scenarios in workplace environments. The enterprise S III version would support AES - 256 bit encryption, VPN and Mobile Device Management functionality, and Microsoft Exchange ActiveSync. It was scheduled to be released in the United States in July 2012. The enterprise version was expected to penetrate the business market dominated by Research in Motion 's BlackBerry, following the release of similar enterprise versions of the Galaxy Note, Galaxy S II and the Galaxy Tab line of tablet computers.
A separate "Developer Edition '' of the S III was made available from Samsung 's Developer Portal. It came with an unlockable bootloader to allow the user to modify the phone 's software.
On 19 September 2012, security researchers demonstrated during Pwn2Own, a computer hacking contest held in Amsterdam, Netherlands, that the S III can be hacked via NFC, allowing attackers to download all data from the phone.
In December 2012, two hardware issues were reported by users of the S III: A vulnerability of the Exynos SoC allowed malicious apps to gain root privileges even on unrooted devices, and a spontaneous bricking of the unit, called the "sudden death vulnerability '', that occurs about six months after activation. Samsung has been replacing the mainboards of affected units under warranty. In January 2013, Samsung released a firmware update that corrected both issues.
As of mid-2013, two S III explosions were reported. The first involved a man from Ireland, while the more recent incident occurred when a Swiss teenager was left with second and third degree burns in her thigh caused by her phone 's explosion.
In October 2013, Samsung acknowledged swelling and overheating issues with the Li - ion batteries in many S III phones, and offered replacement batteries for affected devices.
According to an anonymous Samsung official speaking to the Korea Economic Daily, the S III received more than 9 million pre-orders from 100 carriers during the two weeks following its London unveiling, making it the fastest - selling gadget in history. In comparison, the iPhone 4S received 4 million pre-orders prior to its launch, while Samsung 's previous flagship phone, the S II, had 10 million handsets shipped within five months. Within a month of the London unveiling, auction and shopping website eBay noted a 119 - percent increase in second - hand Android phone sales. According to an eBay spokesperson, this was "the first time anything other than an Apple product has sparked such a selling frenzy. ''
The S III was released in 28 countries in Europe and the Middle East on 29 May 2012. To showcase its flagship device, Samsung afterwards embarked on a global month - long tour of the S III to nine cities, including Sydney, New Delhi, and cities in China, Japan, South Korea and the United States.
The S III has helped Samsung consolidate its market share in several countries including India, where Samsung expected to capture 60 percent of the country 's smartphone market, improving on its previous 46 percent. Within a month of release, Samsung had a 60 - percent market share in France, while the company controlled over 50 percent of the German and Italian smartphone markets. Over a similar period the S III helped increase Samsung 's market share in the United Kingdom to over 40 percent, while eroding the iPhone 4S 's 25 percent to 20 percent in the country. The S III was scheduled to be released in North America on 20 June 2012, but because of high demand, some US and Canadian carriers delayed the release by several days, while some other carriers limited the market at launch. The S III 's US launch event took place in New York City, hosted by Twilight actress Ashley Greene and attended by dubstep artist Skrillex, who performed at Skylight Studios.
Samsung estimated that by the end of July 2012, the S III would have been released by 296 carriers in 145 countries, and that more than 10 million handsets would have been sold. Shin Jong - kyun, president of Samsung 's mobile communications sector, announced on 22 July that sales had exceeded 10 million. According to an assessment by Swiss financial services company UBS, Samsung had shipped 5 -- 6 million units of the phone in the second quarter of 2012 and would ship 10 -- 12 million handsets per quarter throughout the rest of the year. An even more aggressive prediction by Paris - based banking group BNP Paribas said 15 million units will be shipped in the third quarter of 2012, while Japanese financial consultant company Nomura placed the figure for this quarter as high as 18 million. Sales of the S III were estimated to top 40 million by the end of the year. To meet demand, Samsung had hired 75,000 workers, and its South Korean factory was running at its peak capacity of 5 million smartphone units per month.
A manufacturing flaw resulted in a large portion of the new smartphones having irregularities with the "hyper - glazing '' process. The mistake caused an undesirable finish on the blue back covers and resulted in the disposal of up to 600,000 plastic casings and a shortage of the blue model. The issue was later resolved; however, Reuters estimated that the shortage had cost Samsung two million S III sales during its first month of release.
On 6 September 2012, Samsung revealed that sales of the S III had reached 20 million in 100 days, making it three and six times faster - selling than the Galaxy S II and the Galaxy S, respectively. Europe accounted for more than 25 percent of this figure with 6 million units, followed by Asia (4.5 million) and the US (4 million); sales in South Korea, the S III 's home market, numbered 2.5 million. Around the same time of Samsung 's announcement, sales of the S III surpassed that of the iPhone 4S in the US.
In the third quarter of 2012, more than 18 million S III units were shipped, making it the most popular smartphone at the time, ahead of the iPhone 4S 's 16.2 million units. Analysts deduced that the slump in iPhone sales was due to customers ' anticipation of the iPhone 5.
By May 2014, the S III had sold approximately 60 million units since its 2012 release. In April 2015, the total sales number was reported as 70 million.
On 11 October 2012 Samsung unveiled the Galaxy S III Mini, a 4 - inch (100 mm) smartphone with lower specifications compared to the S III.
The reception of the S III has been particularly positive. Critics noted the phone 's blend of features, such as its S Voice application, display, processing speed, and dimensions as having an edge over its competition, the Apple iPhone 4S and HTC One X. Vlad Savov of The Verge declared it a "technological triumph '', while Natasha Lomas of CNET UK lauded the phone 's "impossibly slim and light casing and a quad - core engine '', calling it the "Ferrari of Android phones '', a sentiment affirmed ("a prince among Android phones '') by Dave Oliver of Wired UK and ("king of Android '') Esat Dedezade of Stuff magazine. Gareth Beavis of TechRadar noted that the S III is "all about faster, smarter and being more minimal than ever before while keeping the spec list at the bleeding edge of technology. '' Matt Warman of The Daily Telegraph said, "On spending just a short time with the S3, I 'm confident in saying that it 's a worthy successor to the globally popular S2 ''.
Upon release, a number of critics and publications have made references to the S III, Samsung 's 2012 flagship phone, as an "iPhone killer '', responding perhaps to Apple 's favourable customer perception. The label owes itself to the S III 's use of the Android OS -- the chief rival of Apple 's iOS -- as well as its design and features that rival the iPhone 4S such as Smart Stay, a large display, a quad - core processor, Android customizability, and a multitude of connectivity options.
The S III was the first Android phone to have a higher launch price than the iPhone 4S when the Apple product was released in 2011. With the S III, Tim Weber, business editor of the BBC, observed, "With the new Galaxy S3 they (Samsung) have clearly managed to move to the front of the smartphone field, ahead of mighty Apple itself. ''
Conversely, reviewers have opined on the design and feel of phone, calling its polycarbonate shell "cheap '' and having a "slippery feel ''. The S Voice was described as "not optimised '' and "more rigid than Siri '' with its poor voice - recognition accuracy, with instances when it would not respond at all. Another usage problem was a microphone malfunction that resulted in difficulty communicating during a call. Reviewers have noted the somewhat abrupt auto - adjustment of display brightness, which tends to under - illuminate the screen; however, it has twice the battery life compared to the HTC handset, achieved partly through the dim display. Others say the numerous pre-installed apps make the S III feel "bloated ''.
In late - September 2012 TechRadar ranked it as the No. 1 handset in its constantly updated list of the 20 best mobile phones; Stuff magazine also ranked it at No. 1 in its list of 10 best smartphones in May 2012. The S III won an award from the European Imaging and Sound Association under the category of "European Mobile Phone '' of 2012 -- 2013. In 2012, the S III won T3 's "Phone of the Year '' award, beating the iPhone 4S, the Nokia Lumia 900, the Sony Xperia S and others and was voted Phone of the Year by readers of tech website S21. In February 2013, the S III won the "Best Smartphone '' award from the GSMA at Mobile World Congress.
On 5 June 2012, Apple filed for preliminary injunctions in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California against Samsung Electronics, claiming the S III had violated at least two of the company 's patents. Apple requested that the court include the phone in its existing legal battle against Samsung (see Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd.), and ban sales of the S III prior to its scheduled 21 June 2012 US launch. Apple claimed the alleged infringements would "cause immediate and irreparable harm '' to its commercial interest. Samsung responded by declaring it would "vigorously oppose the request and demonstrate to the court that the Galaxy S3 (sic) is innovative and distinctive '', and reassured the public that 21 June release would proceed as planned. On 11 June, Judge Lucy Koh said that Apple 's claim would overload her work schedule, as she would also be overseeing the trial of Samsung 's other devices; consequently, Apple dropped its request to block 21 June release of the S III.
In mid-July 2012, Samsung removed the universal search feature on Sprint and AT&T S III phones with over-the - air (OTA) software updates to disable the local search function as a "precautionary measure '' prior to its patent court trial with Apple, which began on 30 July 2012. Although Apple won the trial, the S III experienced a sales spike because of the public 's belief that the phone would be banned. On 31 August 2012, Apple asked the same federal court to add the S III into its existing complaint, believing the device has violated its patents. Samsung countered with the statement: "Apple continues to resort to litigation over market competition in an effort to limit consumer choice. ''
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when does super smash bro's come out | Super Smash Bros. - Wikipedia
Super Smash Bros. is a series of crossover fighting video games published by Nintendo. It primarily features characters from their own franchises. The series was created by Masahiro Sakurai, who has directed every game in the series.
The gameplay objective differs from that of traditional fighters by aiming to knock opponents off the stage instead of depleting life bars. The original Super Smash Bros., released in 1999 for the Nintendo 64, had a small budget and was originally a Japan - only release, but its domestic success led to a worldwide release. The series achieved even greater success with the release of Super Smash Bros. Melee, which was released in 2001 for the GameCube and became the bestselling game on that system. A third installment, Super Smash Bros. Brawl, was released in 2008 for the Wii. Although HAL Laboratory has been the developer of the first two games, the third game was developed through the collaboration of several companies. The fourth installment, Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, were released in 2014 for the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, respectively. The 3DS installment was the first series title to be released on a handheld platform. A fifth installment, Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, is currently in development for the Nintendo Switch and is scheduled to be released on December 7, 2018.
The series features many characters from Nintendo 's most popular franchises, including Mario, Donkey Kong, Link, Samus Aran, Fox McCloud, Kirby, and Pikachu. The original Super Smash Bros. had 12 playable characters, and the roster count has risen to 26 characters in Melee, 39 in Brawl, 58 in 3DS / Wii U (seven of which are downloadable), and 68 in Ultimate. Some characters are able to transform into different forms that have different styles of play and sets of moves. The games also feature many non-playable Nintendo characters, such as Petey Piranha from the Mario franchise. In Brawl, two third - party characters were added: Solid Snake and Sonic the Hedgehog. Additional third - party characters Mega Man, Pac - Man, Ryu, Cloud Strife, and Bayonetta appeared in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, while Solid Snake was not included. All seven third - party characters return together in Ultimate.
Every game in the series has been well received by critics, with much praise given to the multiplayer mode experience. The Super Smash Bros. games have spawned a large competitive community and have been featured in several high - profile gaming tournaments.
Super Smash Bros. was introduced in 1999 for the Nintendo 64. It was released worldwide after selling over a million copies in Japan. It featured eight characters from the start (Mario, Donkey Kong, Link, Samus, Yoshi, Kirby, Fox, and Pikachu), with four unlockable characters (Luigi, Captain Falcon, Ness, and Jigglypuff), all of them created by Nintendo or one of its second - party developers.
In Super Smash Bros., up to four players can play in multiplayer (Versus) mode, with the specific rules of each match being predetermined by the players. There are two match types that can be chosen: Time, where the person with the most KOs at the end of the set time wins; and stock, where each player has a set number of lives and are eliminated from play when their lives are depleted.
This game 's one - player mode included one adventure mode that always followed the same series of opponents although the player could change the difficulty. Other single - player modes exist such as Training and several minigames, including "Break the Targets '' and "Board the Platforms ''. All of these were included in the sequel, with the exception of "Board the Platforms ''.
There are nine playable stages in Versus mode, eight based on each of the starting characters (such as Princess Peach 's Castle for Mario, Zebes for Samus, and Sector Z for Fox) and the unlockable Mushroom Kingdom, based around motifs from the original Super Mario Bros., even containing original sprites and the original version of the Overworld theme from that game.
A followup for the GameCube, Super Smash Bros. Melee, released in Japan and North America in late 2001, and in Europe and Australia in May 2002. It had a larger budget and development team than Super Smash Bros. did and was released to much greater praise and acclaim among critics and consumers. Since its release, Super Smash Bros. Melee has sold more than 7 million copies and was the bestselling game on the GameCube. Super Smash Bros. Melee features 26 characters, of which 15 are available initially, more than doubling the number of characters in its predecessor. There are also 29 stages.
It introduced two new single - player modes alongside the Classic mode: Adventure mode and All - Star mode. Adventure mode has platforming segments similar to the original 's "Race to the Finish '' mini-game, and All - Star is a fight against every playable character in the game, allows the player only one life in which damage is accumulated over each battle and a limited number of heal items in between battles.
There are also significantly more multiplayer modes and a tournament mode allowing for 64 different competitors whom can all be controlled by a human player, although only up to four players can participate at the same time. Additionally, the game featured alternative battle modes, called "Special Melee, '' which allows players to make many different alterations to the battle, along with alternative ways to judge a victory, such as through collecting coins throughout the match.
In place of Super Smash Bros. ' character profiles, Melee introduced trophies (called "figures '' in the Japanese version). The 293 trophies include three different profiles for each playable character, one unlocked in each single - player mode. In addition, unlike its predecessor, Melee contains profiles for many Nintendo characters who are either non-playable or do not appear in the game, as well as Nintendo items, stages, enemies, and elements.
Although a third Super Smash Bros. game had been announced long before E3 2006, Nintendo unveiled its first information in the form of a trailer in 2006, and the game was named Super Smash Bros. Brawl and released worldwide in 2008. The game featured a set of third - party characters, Solid Snake of Konami 's Metal Gear series, and longtime Mario rival Sonic the Hedgehog from Sega 's series of the same name. Brawl was also the first game in the franchise to support online play, via the Nintendo Wi - Fi Connection, and to offer the ability for players to construct their own original stages. The game features a total of 39 playable characters and 41 stages.
Brawl also features compatibility with four kinds of controllers (the Wii Remote on its side, the Wii Remote and Nunchuk combination, the Classic Controller, and the GameCube controller), while its predecessors only used the one controller designed for that system. The player also has the ability to change the configuration of controls and the controller type.
Super Smash Bros. Brawl features a single - player mode known as The Subspace Emissary. This mode features unique character storylines along with numerous side - scrolling levels and multiple bosses to fight, as well as CG cut scenes explaining the storyline. The Subspace Emissary features a new group of antagonists called the Subspace Army, who are led by the Ancient Minister. Some of these enemy characters appeared in previous Nintendo video games, such as Petey Piranha from the Super Mario series and a squadron of R.O.B.s based on classic Nintendo hardware. The Subspace Emissary also boasts a number of original enemies, such as the Roader, a robotic unicycle; the Bytan, a one - eyed ball - like creature which can replicate itself if left alone; and the Primid, enemies that come in many variations. Though primarily a single - player mode, The Subspace Emissary allows for cooperative multiplayer. There are five difficulty levels for each stage, and there is a method of increasing characters ' powers during the game. This is done by placing collected stickers onto the bottom of a character 's trophy between stages to improve various aspects of a fighter.
At E3 2011, it was confirmed that a fourth and fifth Super Smash Bros. game would be coming to the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, with the two games being cross-compatible with each other in some way. Sakurai stated that the announcement was made public in order to attract developers needed for the games, as development for the titles did not start until May 2012 due to production on Kid Icarus: Uprising. On June 21, 2012, Nintendo announced that the creation of the games would be a co-production between Sakurai 's Sora Ltd. and Bandai Namco Entertainment. The titles were officially revealed at E3 2013, with new information being released via trailers, Nintendo Direct presentations, and developer posts on Miiverse. The game features 58 characters (seven of which are downloadable) with 19 brand new fighters, including third - party characters Mega Man, Pac - Man, Ryu, Cloud Strife, and Bayonetta. The game was released for Nintendo 3DS in Japan in September 2014, and in North America, Europe, and Australia the following month. The Wii U version was released North America, Europe, and Australia in November 2014, and in Japan the following month.
In April 2014, Bandai Namco Entertainment posted a recruitment advertisement on a Japanese career job opportunity website. The recruitment page consisted of a listing for programmers for "Smash Bros. 6 '', which was expected to be released in 2015 for both the Wii U and Nintendo 3DS. The page noted there were 120 game developers working on the project at the time, and that Bandai Namco expected that number to increase to 200. However, shortly after its publication, the page was taken down. In a January 2015 column in Weekly Famitsu, Sakurai alluded to the possibility of retirement, expressing doubt that he would be able to continue making games if his career continued to be as stressful as it was. In December 2015, Sakurai once again stated that he was not sure if there would be another game in the Smash Bros. series.
On March 8, 2018, a Super Smash Bros. game for the Nintendo Switch was announced during a Nintendo Direct, in which Inkling characters from Splatoon appeared, suggesting that they would be new characters in the game. Sakurai later confirmed that he had worked on the game "in silence, day after day. '' On March 22, 2018, Nintendo announced that they would host another Super Smash Bros. Invitational tournament, in which a selected group of players would get to play the game for the first time and compete in a series of matches before a winner is chosen. The tournament took place alongside the Splatoon 2 World Championship at E3 2018 and was held on June 11 -- 12. Both events were live streamed on Nintendo 's official YouTube and Twitch channels. The title was later confirmed as Super Smash Bros. Ultimate at E3 2018, containing all playable characters from previous games in addition to Princess Daisy from the Mario series, the Inklings from the Splatoon series, and Ridley from the Metroid series. The game is scheduled to be released worldwide on December 7, 2018.
Gameplay in the Super Smash Bros. series differs from many fighting games. Instead of winning by depleting an opponent 's life bar, players seek to launch their opponents off the stage and out of the map. Characters have a damage total which rises as they take damage, represented by a percentage value that measures up to 999 %. As a character 's percentage rises, the character can be knocked progressively farther by an opponent 's attacks. To knock out an opponent, the player must knock that character outside the arena 's boundaries in any direction. When a character is launched off the stage, the character can attempt to "recover '' by using jumping moves and abilities to return to the stage. Some characters have an easier time recovering onto the stage than others due to their moves and abilities. Additionally, some characters vary in weight, with lighter characters being easier to launch than heavy characters.
Controls are greatly simplified in comparison to other fighting games, with one button used for standard attacks and another used for special attacks. Players can perform different types of moves by holding the directional controls up, down, to the side, or in a neutral position while pressing the attack or special button. As such, each character has four types of ground attacks, mid-air attacks, and special attacks that can be performed. Quickly pressing or tapping a directional input and the attack button together while on the ground allows players to perform a chargeable "Smash Attack '', which is generally more powerful than other attacks. When characters are hit by attacks, they receive hitstun that temporarily disallows any attacks to be made. This allows combos to be performed. A shield button allows players to put up a defensive shield which weakens with repeated use and will leave the player unable to move if broken. Combining the shield button with directional inputs and attack buttons allows the player to also perform dodges, rolls, grabs, and throws. The three basic actions in Super Smash Bros., attacking, grabbing, and shielding, are often described using a rock -- paper -- scissors analogy: attacking beats grabbing, grabbing beats shielding, and shielding beats attacking. When a player knocks another player off of the main platform, they may perform an action called edge - guarding. At the same time the player that has been knocked off will try to recover by jumping back onto the stage and avoiding the other players ' edge - guarding.
Another element in the Super Smash Bros. series is battle items, the abundance of which players can adjust the before matches. There are conventional "battering items '', with which a player may hit an opponent, such as a Home run bat or a Beam Sword, throwing items, including Bob - ombs and Koopa shells, and shooting items, either single shot guns or rapid fire blasters. Recovery items allow the user to reduce their damage percentage by varying amounts. Poké Balls are special items that release a random Pokémon onto the battlefield to assist the user. Brawl introduced the Assist Trophy item which serves a similar purpose; instead of releasing Pokémon, it summons a character from a Nintendo franchise. Brawl also introduces the Smash Ball, which when broken allows fighters to perform a character - specific super attack known as a "Final Smash ''.
The rules that can be used in a match vary depending on the game, but the most commonly used settings across all games are Time and Stock. Time mode uses a point based system in which fighters earn points for knocking out their opponents and lose points for being knocked out or self - destructing (i.e. falling out of the arena by themselves). The player with the highest score at the end of the set time limit wins the match. Survival uses a life - based system in which players are given a set number of lives, known as stock, with each fighter losing a life whenever they are knocked out, becoming eliminated if they run out of lives. The winner is the last fighter standing once all other fighters are eliminated or, if a time - limit is applied to the match, the fighter with the most lives remaining once time runs out. In the event of a tie, such as two or more fighters sharing the highest score / life count at the end of the time limit or remaining fighters losing their last life simultaneously, a Sudden Death match takes place. Here, each of the tied fighters are given a starting damage percentage of 300 %, making them easier to launch off the stage, and the last fighter standing wins the match. In some games this process is repeated if the match ends in another tie.
Gameplay using competitive Super Smash Bros. rules is usually played in stock mode and with a timer. Items are turned off and the only tournament legal stages are those that do not feature hazards and other disruptive elements.
Each game in the series has a number of playable characters (referred in the games as "fighters '') taken from various Nintendo franchises. Starting with Brawl, characters from third - party franchises have also made playable appearances. At the start of each game, some of the fighters will be locked from play. To unlock a hidden fighter, players need to clear certain conditions, such as playing a certain number of matches, and defeat that fighter in a match. In Brawl, players can also unlock fighters by encountering them in the Subspace Emissary mode. In Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, players are able to customize existing fighters with altered movesets and statistics, or make their own Mii Fighters that can be given different fighting styles, though these can not be played in online matches with strangers.
The following characters are non-playable characters unless using glitches or cheat cartridges, that appear only in the various single - player modes throughout the series, controlled by the computer, as hazards in specific stages, or in Smash Run. Most of the non-playable characters were created for use in the Super Smash Bros. series although some of them, such as Goombas, come from other game franchises.
Throughout the Super Smash Bros. series, most single - player modes have included several non-playable boss characters. Most of these bosses were created specifically for the Super Smash Bros. franchise.
Master Hand is a glove - like being that appears in all games to date, serving as the final boss of Classic Mode and, in Super Smash Bros. Melee, the 50th Event Match "Final Destination Match ''. In Melee, Master Hand is playable via a system glitch. Super Smash Bros. Melee introduced a left - hand counterpart to Master Hand named Crazy Hand, which appears alongside Master Hand under certain conditions.
Tabuu is the villain of Super Smash Bros. Brawl 's story mode, The Subspace Emissary. He is a human - shaped apparition composed of pure energy, with a single eye - shaped object located where a person 's stomach would be. He is able to conjure several weapons for use in battle, including a rapier and large chakram. His other powers include the ability to change his size at will and teleportation. Towards the end of The Subspace Emissary, it is revealed that Tabuu is the entity that controlled Master Hand and the true antagonist behind the events of the story.
The Subspace Emissary also features other boss characters. Some of these characters, such as Petey Piranha, Ridley, Porky, and Rayquaza, are from other franchises. Three original bosses are also featured: the aforementioned Tabuu, Galleom and Duon. Galleom is a giant cyborg that is fought two times while Duon is a giant twin - bodied robot.
In each of the games, there is a group of characters that resemble the designs for the initial characters. In the Japanese versions of the games, these characters have always been called the "Mysterious Small Fry Enemy Corps ''. In the English regionalized versions of the games, they are given names that describe their physical form. These include the Fighting Polygon Team, the Fighting Wire Frames, the Fighting Alloy Team and the Fighting Mii Team. Along with Melee 's Adventure Mode came the inclusion of minor, generic enemies, such as Goombas from the Super Mario series and Octoroks from The Legend of Zelda series. This trend continues into Super Smash Bros. Brawl, which also includes an assortment of original characters to serve as non-playable generic enemies led by the Subspace Army.
The Subspace Army are the antagonists of Super Smash Bros. Brawl, appearing in The Subspace Emissary and led by the Ancient Minister. Their goal is to bring the entire world to Subspace piece by piece with devices called Subspace bombs (detonated with the aid of two R.O.B.s, requires 3 minutes of waiting time). The Sandbag appears in the "Home - Run Contest '' minigame since Super Smash Bros. Melee. The object is to strike it as far as possible with either a Home - Run Bat or a fighting move. Sandbag also appears randomly as an item that drops other items when hit in various other modes in Brawl.
Each Super Smash Bros. game has an announcer who blasts the player character names upon selection and victory. The announcer 's voice is used in many of the promotional materials of the games. The role has been taken on by Jeff Manning in the original game, Dean Harrington in Melee, Pat Cashman in Brawl, and Xander Mobus in the Wii U and 3DS games. The announcer voice actor traditionally voices Master Hand and Crazy Hand as well.
Super Smash Bros. was developed by HAL Laboratory, a Nintendo first - party developer, during 1998. It began as a prototype created by Masahiro Sakurai and Satoru Iwata in their spare time titled "Dragon King: The Fighting Game '', and originally featured no Nintendo characters. However, Sakurai hit on the idea of including fighters from different Nintendo franchises in order to provide "atmosphere '' which he felt was necessary for a home console fighting game, and his idea was approved. Although never acknowledged by Nintendo or any developers behind Super Smash Bros., third party sources have identified Namco 's 1995 fighting game The Outfoxies as a possible inspiration. The game had a small budget and little promotion, and was originally a Japan - only release, but its huge success saw the game released worldwide.
HAL Laboratory developed Super Smash Bros. Melee, with Masahiro Sakurai as the head of production. The game was one of the first games released on the GameCube and highlighted the advancement in graphics from the Nintendo 64. The developers wanted to pay homage to the debut of the GameCube by making an opening full motion video sequence that would attract people 's attention to the graphics. HAL worked with three separate graphic houses in Tokyo to make the opening sequence. On their official website, the developers posted screenshots and information highlighting and explaining the attention to physics and detail in the game, with references to changes from its predecessor.
At a pre-E3 2005 press conference, president of Nintendo at the time Satoru Iwata announced the next installment of Super Smash Bros. was not only already in development for their next gaming console, but hoped it would be a launch title with Wi -- Fi compatibility for online play. The announcement was unexpected to the creator of the Super Smash Bros. series, Masahiro Sakurai. Back in 2003, he had left HAL Laboratory, the company that was in charge with the franchises ' development and was never informed of this announcement despite the fact shortly after resigning from the company, Iwata said if a new game was to be made, he would be in charge. It was not until after the conference Sakurai was called to Satoru Iwata 's room on the top floor of a Los Angeles hotel, where he was told by Iwata "We 'd like you to be involved in the production of the new Smash Bros., if possible near the level of director ''. Although Iwata had said he was hoping for it to be a launch title, Sakurai stated "I decided to become director. And as of May 2005, I was the only member of the new Smash Bros. development team ''. Development of the game never actually started until October 2005, when Nintendo opened a new office in Tokyo just for its production. Nintendo also enlisted outside help from various developer studios, mainly Game Arts. Sakurai also stated that these people had spent excessive amounts of time playing Super Smash Bros. Melee. This team was given access to all the original material and tools from the development of Melee, courtesy of HAL Laboratory. Also, several Smash Bros. staff members that reside around the area of the new office joined the project 's development.
On the game 's official Japanese website, the developers explain reasons for making particular characters playable and explain why some characters were not available as playable characters upon release. Initially, the development team wanted to replace Ness with Lucas, the main character of Mother 3 for the Game Boy Advance, but they retained Ness in consideration of delays. The game 's creators have included Lucas in the game 's sequel, Super Smash Bros. Brawl. Video game developer Hideo Kojima originally requested Solid Snake, the protagonist of the Metal Gear series, to be a playable character in Super Smash Bros. Melee, but the game was too far in development for him to be included. As with Lucas, development time allowed for his inclusion in Brawl. Roy and Marth were initially intended to be playable exclusively in the Japanese version of Super Smash Bros. Melee. However, they received favorable attention during the game 's North American localization, leading to the decision for the developers to include them in the Western version. Comparisons have been formed by the developers between characters which have very similar moves to each other on the website. Such characters have been referred to as "clones '' in the media.
At the Nintendo Media Conference at E3 2007, it was announced by Nintendo of America president Reggie Fils - Aimé that Super Smash Bros. Brawl would be released on December 3, 2007 in the Americas. However, just 2 months before its anticipated December release, the development team asked for more time to work on the game. During the Nintendo Conference on October 10, 2007, Nintendo Co., Ltd. president Iwata announced the delay.
On October 11, 2007, George Harrison of Nintendo of America announced that Super Smash Bros. Brawl would be released on February 10, 2008 in North America. On January 15, 2008, the game 's release was pushed back one week in Japan to January 31 and nearly a month in the Americas to March 9. On April 24, 2008, it was confirmed by Nintendo of Europe that Brawl will be released in Europe on June 27.
Director Masahiro Sakurai first announced that a new Super Smash Bros. game was planned for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U at E3 2011 in June 2011, but development only officially began following the completion of Sakurai 's other project, Kid Icarus: Uprising, in March 2012. The game was later revealed to be a joint - project between Sora Ltd. and Bandai Namco Games, with various staff members from Bandai Namco 's Soulcalibur and Tekken series assisting Sakurai in development. Sakurai, who was previously the sole person responsible for balance in the series ' multiple fighters, has involved more staff to further improve the game 's competitive balance. The game was officially revealed at E3 2013 on June 11, 2013 during a Nintendo Direct presentation. Along with screenshots being posted each weekday on the game 's official website and Miiverse community, various cinematic trailers were released, introducing each of the brand new fighters. Sakurai chose to use these trailers, which benefit from Internet sharing, as opposed to including a story campaign similar to the Subspace Emissary mode featured in Brawl, as he believed the impact of seeing the mode 's cinematic cutscenes for the first time was ruined by people uploading said scenes to video sharing websites.
At E3 2013, Sakurai stated that the tripping mechanic introduced in Brawl was removed, with him also stating that the gameplay was between the fast - paced and competitive style of Melee and the slower and more casual style of Brawl. While the games did n't feature cross-platform play between the Wii U and 3DS, due to each version featuring certain exclusive stages and gamemodes, there is an option to transfer customized characters and items between the two versions. The game builds upon the previous game 's third - party involvement with the addition of third - party characters such as Capcom 's Mega Man and Bandai Namco 's Pac - Man, as well as the return of Sega 's Sonic the Hedgehog. This involvement expands beyond playable characters, as other third - party characters, such as Ubisoft 's Rayman, are also included in the game as trophies. The addition of Mii characters was made in response to the growing number of requests from fans to have their dream characters included in the game. To prevent potential bullying, as well as to maintain game balance online, Mii Fighters can not be used in online matches against strangers. The decision to release the Wii U version at a later date from the 3DS version was made to allow each version to receive a dedicated debugging period. Hardware limitations on the Nintendo 3DS led to various design choices, such as the removal of mid-match transformations, the absence of the Ice Climbers, and the lack of Circle Pad Pro support.
Super Smash Bros. features music from some of Nintendo 's popular gaming franchises. While many are newly arranged for the game, some pieces are taken directly from their sources. The music for the Nintendo 64 game was composed by Hirokazu Ando, who later returned as sound and music director in Melee. Melee also features tracks composed by Tadashi Ikegami, Shougo Sakai, and Takuto Kitsuta. Brawl features the collaboration of 38 composers, including Final Fantasy series composer Nobuo Uematsu, who composed the main theme. Like the previous game in the series, Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U features many original and re-arranged tracks from various different gaming franchises. Both versions have multiple musical tracks that can be selected and listened to using the returning "My Music '' feature, including pieces taken directly from earlier Super Smash Bros. games. The 3DS version features less music altogether than the Wii U version however, and only has two songs per stage because of size limitations. The 3DS version also has a "Play in Sleep Mode '' option, allowing players to listen to the game 's music from the sound menu whilst the system is in sleep mode. On August 22, 2014, the Super Smash Bros. website revealed the list of composers and arrangers for the game. Various well known musicians such as Masashi Hamauzu, Yuzo Koshiro, Yasunori Mitsuda, Motoi Sakuraba, Yoko Shimomura, Mahito Yokota, along with many others, provided new arrangements for both versions of the game. The original music was created by Bandai Namco 's in - house sound team. The Wii U specific musicians were revealed on October 23, 2014, and feature contributions from Akari Kaida, Michiru Yamane, Koji Kondo, Kazumi Totaka, and Hiroshi Okubo, among others.
Three soundtrack albums for the series have been released. An album with the original music for Super Smash Bros. was released in Japan by Teichiku Records in 2000. In 2003, Nintendo released Smashing... Live!, a live orchestrated performance of various pieces featured in Melee by the New Japan Philharmonic. A two - disc promotional soundtrack was available for Club Nintendo members who registered both the 3DS and Wii U games between November 21, 2014 and January 13, 2015.
Reviews for the Super Smash Bros. series are usually positive. The multiplayer mode in every game has been highly praised; however, single - player modes have not always been viewed as highly.
Super Smash Bros. has received praise for its multiplayer mode. Nintendo Power listed the series as being one of the greatest multiplayer experiences in Nintendo history, describing it as infinitely replayable due to its special moves and close - quarters combat. There were criticisms, however, such as the game 's scoring being difficult to follow. In addition, the single - player mode was criticized for its perceived difficulty and lack of features.
Super Smash Bros. Melee generally received a positive reception from reviewers, most of whom credited Melee 's expansion of gameplay features from Super Smash Bros. Focusing on the additional features, GameSpy commented that "Melee really scores big in the ' we 've added tons of great extra stuff ' department. '' Reviewers compared the game favorably to Super Smash Bros. -- IGN 's Fran Mirabella III stated that it was "in an entirely different league than the N64 version ''; GameSpot 's Miguel Lopez praised the game for offering an advanced "classic - mode '' compared to its predecessor, while detailing the Adventure Mode as "really a hit - or - miss experience. '' Despite a mixed response to the single - player modes, most reviewers expressed the game 's multiplayer mode as a strong component of the game. In their review of the game, GameSpy stated that "you 'll have a pretty hard time finding a more enjoyable multiplayer experience on any other console. ''
Brawl received a perfect score from the Japanese magazine Famitsu. The reviewers praised the variety and depth of the single - player content, the unpredictability of Final Smashes, and the dynamic fighting styles of the characters. Thunderbolt Games gave the game 10 out of 10, calling it "a vastly improved entry into the venerable series ''. Chris Slate of Nintendo Power also awarded Brawl a perfect score in its March 2008 issue, calling it "one of the very best games that Nintendo has ever produced ''. IGN critic Matt Casamassina, in his February 11 Wii - k in Review podcast, noted that although Brawl is a "solid fighter, '' it does have "some issues that need to be acknowledged, '' including "long loading times '' and repetition in The Subspace Emissary.
Super Smash Bros. for 3DS and Super Smash Bros. for Wii U both garnered critical praise and were commercially successful, holding current ratings of 85 / 100 and 92 / 100 on Metacritic and 86.10 % and 92.39 % on GameRankings. Reviewers have particularly noted the large, diverse character roster, the improvements to game mechanics, and the variety of multiplayer options. Some criticisms in the 3DS version include a lack of single - player modes and issues concerning the 3DS hardware, such as the size of characters on the smaller screen when zoomed out and latency issues during both local and online multiplayer. There were also reports of players damaging their 3DS Circle Pads while playing the game excessively. The Wii U version 's online play quality was mildly criticized for some inconsistency, but has overall been critically acclaimed. Daniel Dischoff of Game Revolution stated "It 's true that Super Smash Bros. evolves every time with regard to new features, items, and characters to choose from. While your favorite character may not return or a few annoying pickups may force you to turn off items altogether, this represents the biggest leap forward Smashers have seen yet. '' Daniel Starky at GameSpot criticized the inconsistent online performance in the game, but still called it an "incredible game '', noting "With the Wii U release, Smash Bros. has fully realized its goals. '' Jose Otero from IGN, praising the replayability of the game, states "Nearly every aspect of Smash Wii U seems fine - tuned not only to appeal to the nostalgia of long - time Nintendo fans, but also to be accessible to new players. ''
Super Smash Bros sold 1.4 million copies in Japan, and 2.3 million in the U.S., with a total of 5.55 million units worldwide. Melee sold over 7 million units worldwide, becoming the bestselling GameCube title. Brawl sold 1.524 million units in Japan as of March 30, 2008, and sold 1.4 million units in its first week in the United States, becoming Nintendo of America 's fastest selling title. The 3DS version sold over a million copies in its first weekend on sale in Japan, and has sold more than 9.24 million copies worldwide as of March 2018. Super Smash Bros. for Wii U became the fastest - selling Wii U game to date, selling 3.39 million units worldwide within just two months of availability, beating the record previously held by Mario Kart 8. As of September 2017, it has sold 5.34 million copies worldwide.
The Super Smash Bros. series has been widely played as competitive video games and has been featured in several high - profile tournaments. The first publicized Super Smash Bros. Melee tournaments were held in early 2002. From 2004 to 2007, Melee was on Major League Gaming 's tournament roster. In 2010 MLG picked up Brawl for its pro circuit for a year. During this time, Nintendo prohibited MLG from live streaming Brawl matches. At 2014 MLG Anaheim Melee was once again hosted at an MLG event. Melee was also included at the Evolution Championship Series (Evo) in 2007, a fighting game tournament held in Las Vegas. Melee was again hosted at Evo 2013 after it won a charity drive to decide the final game to be featured in its tournament lineup. Due to the large turnout and popularity that year, Evo again included a Melee tournament at their 2014 and 2015 events. New Jersey based Apex is another prominent Super Smash Bros. tournament, and has a series of qualifying events that are a prerequisite to playing at Apex. In 2015, Apex announced that they were officially sponsored by Nintendo of America.
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as you like it full movie in tamil | As You Like It - wikipedia
As You Like It is a pastoral comedy by William Shakespeare believed to have been written in 1599 and first published in the First Folio in 1623. The play 's first performance is uncertain, though a performance at Wilton House in 1603 has been suggested as a possibility.
As You Like It follows its heroine Rosalind as she flees persecution in her uncle 's court, accompanied by her cousin Celia to find safety and, eventually, love, in the Forest of Arden. In the forest, they encounter a variety of memorable characters, notably the melancholy traveller Jaques who speaks many of Shakespeare 's most famous speeches (such as "All the world 's a stage '', "too much of a good thing '' and "A fool! A fool! I met a fool in the forest ''). Jaques provides a sharp contrast to the other characters in the play, always observing and disputing the hardships of life in the country.
Historically, critical response has varied, with some critics finding the play a work of great merit and some finding the work of lesser quality than other Shakespearean works. The play remains a favourite among audiences and has been adapted for radio, film, and musical theatre. The piece has been a favorite of famous actors on stage and screen, notably Vanessa Redgrave, Juliet Stevenson, Maggie Smith, Rebecca Hall, Helen Mirren, and Patti LuPone in the role of Rosalind and Alan Rickman, Stephen Spinella, Kevin Kline, Stephen Dillane, and Ellen Burstyn in the role of Jaques.
Main Characters: The Court of Duke Frederick:
The Household of the deceased Sir Rowland de Boys:
The Exiled Court of Duke Senior in the Forest of Arden:
Country folk in the Forest of Arden:
Other characters:
The play is set in a duchy in France, but most of the action takes place in a location called the Forest of Arden. This may be intended as the Ardennes, a forested region covering an area located in southeast Belgium, western Luxembourg and northeastern France, or Arden, Warwickshire, near Shakespeare 's home town, which was the ancestral origin of his mother 's family -- who incidentally were called Arden.
Frederick has usurped the duchy and exiled his older brother, Duke Senior. Duke Senior 's daughter, Rosalind, has been permitted to remain at court because she is the closest friend and cousin of Frederick 's only child, Celia. Orlando, a young gentleman of the kingdom who at first sight has fallen in love with Rosalind, is forced to flee his home after being persecuted by his older brother, Oliver. Frederick becomes angry and banishes Rosalind from court. Celia and Rosalind decide to flee together accompanied by the court fool, Touchstone, with Rosalind disguised as a young man and Celia disguised as a poor lady.
Rosalind, now disguised as Ganymede ("Jove 's own page ''), and Celia, now disguised as Aliena (Latin for "stranger ''), arrive in the Arcadian Forest of Arden, where the exiled Duke now lives with some supporters, including "the melancholy Jaques '', a malcontent figure, who is introduced weeping over the slaughter of a deer. "Ganymede '' and "Aliena '' do not immediately encounter the Duke and his companions. Instead, they meet Corin, an impoverished tenant, and offer to buy his master 's crude cottage.
Orlando and his servant Adam, meanwhile, find the Duke and his men and are soon living with them and posting simplistic love poems for Rosalind on the trees. (The role of Adam may have been played by Shakespeare, though this story is said to be apocryphal.) Rosalind, also in love with Orlando, meets him as Ganymede and pretends to counsel him to cure him of being in love. Ganymede says that "he '' will take Rosalind 's place and that "he '' and Orlando can act out their relationship.
The shepherdess, Phebe, with whom Silvius is in love, has fallen in love with Ganymede (Rosalind in disguise), though "Ganymede '' continually shows that "he '' is not interested in Phebe. Touchstone, meanwhile, has fallen in love with the dull - witted shepherdess, Audrey, and tries to woo her, but eventually is forced to be married first. William, another shepherd, attempts to marry Audrey as well, but is stopped by Touchstone, who threatens to kill him "a hundred and fifty ways. ''
Finally, Silvius, Phebe, Ganymede, and Orlando are brought together in an argument with each other over who will get whom. Ganymede says he will solve the problem, having Orlando promise to marry Rosalind, and Phebe promise to marry Silvius if she can not marry Ganymede.
Orlando sees Oliver in the forest and rescues him from a lioness, causing Oliver to repent for mistreating Orlando. Oliver meets Aliena (Celia 's false identity) and falls in love with her, and they agree to marry. Orlando and Rosalind, Oliver and Celia, Silvius and Phebe, and Touchstone and Audrey all are married in the final scene, after which they discover that Frederick also has repented his faults, deciding to restore his legitimate brother to the dukedom and adopt a religious life. Jaques, ever melancholic, declines their invitation to return to the court, preferring to stay in the forest and to adopt a religious life as well. Rosalind speaks an epilogue to the audience, commending the play to both men and women in the audience.
The direct and immediate source of As You Like It is Thomas Lodge 's Rosalynde, Euphues Golden Legacie, written 1586 - 7 and first published in 1590. Lodge 's story is based upon "The Tale of Gamelyn '', wrongly attributed to Geoffrey Chaucer and sometimes printed among his Canterbury Tales. Although it was first printed in 1721, "The Tale Gamelyn '' must have existed in manuscript form in Shakespeare 's time. It is doubtful that Shakespeare had read it, but Lodge must have built his pastoral romance on the foundation of "The Tale of Gamelyn '', giving it a pastoral setting and the artificial sentimental vein, much in fashion at the time. The tale provided the intertwined plots, and suggested all the characters except Touchstone and Jaques.
Some have suggested two other minor debts. The first is Michael Drayton 's Poly - Olbion, a poetic description of England, but there is no evidence that the poem was written before As You Like It. The second suggested source is The Historie of Orlando Furioso by Robert Greene, acted about 1592. It is suggested that Shakespeare derived the idea of Orlando 's carving his lady 's name on barks of trees from this play, but a lover carving love - poems on barks of trees was already in Lodge 's tale.
As You Like It was first printed in the collected edition of Shakespeare 's plays, known as the First Folio, during 1623. No copy of it in Quarto exists, for the play is mentioned by the printers of the First Folio among those which "are not formerly entered to other men. '' By means of evidences, external and internal, the date of composition of the play has been approximately fixed at a period between the end of 1598 and the middle of 1599.
As You Like It was entered into the Register of the Stationers ' Company on 4 August 1600 as a work which was "to be stayed '', i.e., not published till the Stationers ' Company were satisfied that the publisher in whose name the work was entered was the undisputed owner of the copyright. Thomas Morley 's First Book of Ayres, published in London in 1600 contains a musical setting for the song "It was a lover and his lass '' from As You Like It. This evidence implies that the play was in existence in some shape or other before 1600.
It seems likely this play was written after 1598, since Francis Meres did not mention it in his Palladis Tamia. Although twelve plays are listed in Palladis Tamia, it was an incomplete inventory of Shakespeare 's plays to that date (1598). The new Globe Theatre opened some time in the summer of 1599, and tradition has it that the new playhouse 's motto was Totus mundus agit histrionem -- "all the Globe 's a stage '' -- an echo of Jaques ' famous line "All the world 's a stage '' (II. 7). This evidence posits September 1598 and September 1599 as the time frame within which the play was likely written.
In Act III, vi, Phebe refers to the famous line "Whoever loved that loved not at first sight '' taken from Marlowe 's Hero and Leander, which was published in 1598. This line, however, dates from 1593 when Marlowe was killed, and the poem was likely circulated in unfinished form before being completed by George Chapman. It is suggested in Michael Wood 's In Search of Shakespeare that the words of Touchstone, "When a man 's verses can not be understood, nor a man 's good wit seconded with the forward child understanding, it strikes a man more dead than a great reckoning in a little room '', allude to Marlowe 's assassination. According to the inquest into his death, Marlowe had been killed in a brawl following an argument over the "reckoning '' of a bill in a room in a house in Deptford, owned by the widow Eleanor Bull in 1593. The 1598 posthumous publication of Hero and Leander would have revived interest in his work and the circumstances of his death. These words in Act IV, i, in Rosalind 's speech, "I will weep for nothing, like Diana in the fountain '', may refer to an Alabaster image of Diana which was set up in Cheapside in 1598. However, it should be remembered Diana is mentioned by Shakespeare in at least ten other plays, and is often depicted in myth and art as at her bath. Diana was a literary epithet for Queen Elizabeth I during her reign, along with Cynthia, Phoebe, Astraea, and the Virgin Mary. Certain anachronisms exist as well, such as the minor character Sir Oliver Martext 's possible reference to the Marprelate Controversy which transpired between 1588 and 1589. On the basis of these references, it seems that As You Like It may have been composed in 1599 -- 1600, but it remains impossible to say with any certainty.
Though the play is consistently one of Shakespeare 's most frequently performed comedies, scholars have long disputed over its merits. George Bernard Shaw complained that As You Like It is lacking in the high artistry of which Shakespeare was capable. Shaw liked to think that Shakespeare wrote the play as a mere crowdpleaser, and signalled his own middling opinion of the work by calling it As You Like It -- as if the playwright did not agree. Tolstoy objected to the immorality of the characters and Touchstone 's constant clowning. Other critics have found great literary value in the work. Harold Bloom has written that Rosalind is among Shakespeare 's greatest and most fully realised female characters.
The elaborate gender reversals in the story are of particular interest to modern critics interested in gender studies. Through four acts of the play, Rosalind, who in Shakespeare 's day would have been played by a boy, finds it necessary to disguise herself as a boy, whereupon the rustic Phebe, also played by a boy, becomes infatuated with this "Ganymede '', a name with homoerotic overtones. In fact, the epilogue, spoken by Rosalind to the audience, states rather explicitly that she (or at least the actor playing her) is not a woman. In several scenes, "Ganymede '' impersonates Rosalind ' so a boy actor would have been playing a girl disguised as a boy impersonating a girl.
Arden is the name of a forest located close to Shakespeare 's home town of Stratford - upon - Avon, but Shakespeare probably had in mind the French Arden Wood, featured in Orlando Innamorato, especially since the two Orlando epics, Orlando Innamorato and Orlando Furioso, have other connections with the play. In the Orlando mythos, Arden Wood is the location of Merlin 's Fountain, a magic fountain causing anyone who drinks from it to fall out of love. The Oxford Shakespeare edition rationalises the confusion between the two Ardens by assuming that "Arden '' is an anglicisation of the forested Ardennes region of France, where Lodge set his tale) and alters the spelling to reflect this. Other editions keep Shakespeare 's "Arden '' spelling, since it can be argued that the pastoral mode depicts a fantastical world in which geographical details are irrelevant. The Arden edition of Shakespeare makes the suggestion that the name "Arden '' comes from a combination of the classical region of Arcadia and the biblical garden of Eden, as there is a strong interplay of classical and Christian belief systems and philosophies within the play. Arden was also the maiden name of Shakespeare 's mother and her family home is located within the Forest of Arden.
Love is the central theme of As You Like It, like other romantic comedies of Shakespeare. Following the tradition of a romantic comedy, As You Like It is a tale of love manifested in its varied forms. In many of the love - stories, it is love at first sight. This principle of "love at first sight '' is seen in the love - stories of Rosalind and Orlando, Celia and Oliver, as well as Phebe and Ganymede. The love - story of Audrey and Touchstone is a parody of romantic love. Another form of love is between women, as in Rosalind and Celia 's deep bond.
This is a significant theme of this play. The new Duke Frederick usurps his older brother Duke Senior, while Oliver parallels this behavior by treating his younger brother Orlando so ungenerously as to compel him to seek his fortune elsewhere. Both Duke Senior and Orlando take refuge in the forest, where justice is restored "through nature. ''
The play highlights the theme of usurpation and injustice on the property of others. However, it ends happily with reconciliation and forgiveness. Duke Frederick is converted by a hermit and he restores the dukedom to Duke Senior who, in his turn, restores the forest to the deer. Oliver also undergoes a change of heart and learns to love Orlando. Thus, the play ends on a note of rejoicing and merry - making.
Most of the play is a celebration of life in the country. The inhabitants of Duke Frederick 's court suffer the perils of arbitrary injustice and even threats of death; the courtiers who followed the old duke into forced exile in the "desert city '' of the forest are, by contrast, experiencing liberty but at the expense of some easily borne discomfort. (Act II, i). A passage between Touchstone, the court jester, and shepherd Corin establishes the contentment to be found in country life, compared with the perfumed, mannered life at court. (Act III, I). At the end of the play the usurping duke and the exiled courtier Jaques both elect to remain within the forest.
University of Wisconsin professor Richard Knowles, the editor of the 1977 New Variorum edition of this play, in his article "Myth and Type in As You Like It '', pointed out that the play contains mythological references in particular to Eden and to Hercules.
As You Like It is known as a musical comedy because of the number of songs in the play. Indeed, there are more songs in it than in any other play of Shakespeare. These songs and music are incorporated in the action that takes place in the forest of Arden, as shown below:
Shakespeare uses prose for about 55 % of the text, with the remainder in verse. Shaw explains that as used here the prose, "brief (and) sure '', drives the meaning and is part of the play 's appeal, whereas some of its verse he regards only as ornament. The dramatic convention of the time required the courtly characters to use verse, and the country characters prose, but in As You Like It this convention is deliberately overturned. For example, Rosalind, although the daughter of a Duke and thinking and behaving in high poetic style, actually speaks in prose as this is the "natural and suitable '' way of expressing the directness of her character, and the love scenes between Rosalind and Orlando are in prose (III, ii, 277). In a deliberate contrast, Silvius describes his love for Phebe in verse (II, iv, 20). As a mood of a character changes, he or she may change from one form of expression to the other in mid-scene. Indeed, in a metafictional touch, Jaques cuts off a prose dialogue with Rosalind because Orlando enters, using verse: "Nay then, God be with you, an you talk in blank verse '' (IV, i, 29). The defiance of convention is continued when the epilogue is given in prose.
Act II, Scene VII, features one of Shakespeare 's most famous monologues, spoken by Jaques, which begins:
All the world 's a stage And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts
The arresting imagery and figures of speech in the monologue develop the central metaphor: a person 's lifespan is a play in seven acts. These acts, or "seven ages '', begin with "the infant / Mewling and puking in the nurse 's arms '' and work through six further vivid verbal sketches, culminating in "second childishness and mere oblivion, / Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything ''.
The main theme of pastoral comedy is love in all its guises in a rustic setting, the genuine love embodied by Rosalind contrasted with the sentimentalised affectations of Orlando, and the improbable happenings that set the urban courtiers wandering to find exile, solace or freedom in a woodland setting are no more unrealistic than the string of chance encounters in the forest which provoke witty banter and which require no subtleties of plotting and character development. The main action of the first act is no more than a wrestling match, and the action throughout is often interrupted by a song. At the end, Hymen himself arrives to bless the wedding festivities.
William Shakespeare 's play As You Like It clearly falls into the Pastoral Romance genre; but Shakespeare does not merely use the genre, he develops it. Shakespeare also used the Pastoral genre in As You Like It to ' cast a critical eye on social practices that produce injustice and unhappiness, and to make fun of anti-social, foolish and self - destructive behaviour ', most obviously through the theme of love, culminating in a rejection of the notion of the traditional Petrarchan lovers.
The stock characters in conventional situations were familiar material for Shakespeare and his audience; it is the light repartee and the breadth of the subjects that provide opportunities for wit that put a fresh stamp on the proceedings. At the centre the optimism of Rosalind is contrasted with the misogynistic melancholy of Jaques. Shakespeare would take up some of the themes more seriously later: the usurper Duke and the Duke in exile provide themes for Measure for Measure and The Tempest.
The play, turning upon chance encounters in the forest and several entangled love affairs in a serene pastoral setting, has been found, by many directors, to be especially effective staged outdoors in a park or similar site.
There is no certain record of any performance before the Restoration. Evidence suggests that the premiere may have taken place at Richmond Palace on 20 Feb 1599, enacted by the Lord Chamberlain 's Men. Another possible performance may have taken place at Wilton House in Wiltshire, the country seat of the Earls of Pembroke. William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke hosted James I and his Court at Wilton House from October to December 1603, while Jacobean London was suffering an epidemic of bubonic plague. The King 's Men were paid £ 30 to come to Wilton House and perform for the King and Court on 2 December 1603. A Herbert family tradition holds that the play acted that night was As You Like It.
During the English Restoration, the King 's Company was assigned the play by royal warrant in 1669. It is known to have been acted at Drury Lane in 1723, in an adapted form called Love in a Forest; Colley Cibber played Jaques. Another Drury Lane production seventeen years later returned to the Shakespearean text (1740).
Notable recent productions of As You Like It include the 1936 Old Vic Theatre production starring Edith Evans and the 1961 Shakespeare Memorial Theatre production starring Vanessa Redgrave. The longest running Broadway production starred Katharine Hepburn as Rosalind, Cloris Leachman as Celia, William Prince as Orlando, and Ernest Thesiger as Jaques, and was directed by Michael Benthall. It ran for 145 performances in 1950. Another notable production was at the 2005 Stratford Festival in Stratford, Ontario, which was set in the 1960s and featured Shakespeare 's lyrics set to music written by Barenaked Ladies. In 2014, theatre critic Michael Billington said his favourite production of the play was Cheek by Jowl 's 1991 production, directed by Declan Donnellan.
Thomas Morley (c. 1557 -- 1602) composed music for "It was a lover and his lass ''; he lived in the same parish as Shakespeare, and at times composed music for Shakespeare 's plays.
In 1942, Gerald Finzi included a setting of "It was a lover and his lass '' (V, iii) in his song cycle on Shakespearean texts Let Us Garlands Bring.
Donovan set "Under the Greenwood Tree '' to music and recorded it for A Gift from a Flower to a Garden in 1968.
Michael John Trotta composed a setting of "Blow, Blow, Thou Winter Wind '' for choir in 2013.
According to the history of radio station WCAL in the US state of Minnesota, As You Like It may have been the first play ever broadcast. It went over the air in 1922.
On 1 March 2015, BBC Radio 3 broadcast a new production directed by Sally Avens with music composed by actor and singer Johnny Flynn of the folk rock band Johnny Flynn and The Sussex Wit. The production included Pippa Nixon as Rosalind, Luke Norris as Orlando, Adrian Scarborough as Touchstone, William Houston as Jaques, Ellie Kendrick as Celia and Jude Akuwudike as Corin.
As You Like It was Laurence Olivier 's first Shakespeare film. Olivier, however, served only in an acting capacity (performing the role of Orlando), rather than producing or directing the film. Made in England and released in 1936, As You Like It also starred director Paul Czinner 's wife Elizabeth Bergner, who played Rosalind with a thick German accent. Although it is much less "Hollywoody '' than the versions of A Midsummer Night 's Dream and Romeo and Juliet made at about the same time, and although its cast was made up entirely of Shakespearean actors, it was not considered a success by either Olivier or the critics.
Helen Mirren starred as Rosalind in the 1978 BBC videotaped version of As You Like It, directed by Basil Coleman.
In 1992, Christine Edzard made another film adaptation of the play. It features James Fox, Cyril Cusack, Andrew Tiernan, Griff Rhys Jones, and Ewen Bremner. The action is transposed to a modern and bleak urban world.
A film version of As You Like It, set in 19th - century Japan, was released in 2006, directed by Kenneth Branagh. It stars Bryce Dallas Howard, David Oyelowo, Romola Garai, Alfred Molina, Kevin Kline, and Brian Blessed. Although it was actually made for cinemas, it was released to theatres only in Europe, and had its U.S. premiere on HBO in 2007. And although it was not a made - for - television film, Kevin Kline won a Screen Actors Guild award for Best Performance by a Male Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries for his performance as Jaques.
The Seven Doors of Danny, by Ricky Horscraft and John McCullough is based on the "Seven Ages of Man '' element of the "All the world 's a stage '' speech and was premiered in April 2016.
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list the three groups of mound builders from earliest to latest | Mound Builders - wikipedia
The various cultures collectively termed Mound Builders were inhabitants of North America who, during a 5,000 - year period, constructed various styles of earthen mounds for religious and ceremonial, burial, and elite residential purposes. These included the Pre-Columbian cultures of the Archaic period; Woodland period (Adena and Hopewell cultures); and Mississippian period; dating from roughly 3500 BCE (the construction of Watson Brake) to the 16th century CE, and living in regions of the Great Lakes, the Ohio River Valley, and the Mississippi River valley and its tributary waters.
Since the 19th century, the prevailing scholarly consensus has been that the mounds were constructed by indigenous peoples of the Americas. Sixteenth - century Spanish explorers met natives living in a number of later Mississippian cities, described their cultures, and left artifacts. Research and study of these cultures and peoples has been based mostly on archaeology and anthropology.
During the 16th through 19th centuries, Europeans and Americans generally thought that a people other than one related to the historic Native Americans had built the mounds.
The namesake cultural trait of the Mound Builders was the building of mounds and other earthworks. These burial and ceremonial structures were typically flat - topped pyramids or platform mounds, flat - topped or rounded cones, elongated ridges, and sometimes a variety of other forms. They were generally built as part of complex villages. The early earthworks built in Louisiana c. 3500 BCE are the only ones known to have been built by a hunter - gatherer culture.
The best - known flat - topped pyramidal structure, which at more than 100 feet (30 m) tall is the largest pre-Columbian earthwork north of Mexico, is Monks Mound at Cahokia in present - day Collinsville, Illinois. At its maximum about CE 1150, Cahokia was an urban settlement with 20,000 -- 30,000 people; this population was not exceeded by North American European settlements until after 1800.
Some effigy mounds were constructed in the shapes or outlines of culturally significant animals. The most famous effigy mound, Serpent Mound in southern Ohio, ranges from 1 to just over 3 feet tall (30 -- 100 cm)., 20 feet (6 m) wide, more than 1,330 feet (405 m) long, and shaped as an undulating serpent.
Many different tribal groups and chiefdoms, involving an array of beliefs and unique cultures over thousands of years, built mounds as expressions of their cultures. The general term, "mound builder, '' covered their shared architectural practice of earthwork mound construction. This practice, believed to be associated with a cosmology that had a cross-cultural appeal, may indicate common cultural antecedents. The first mound building was an early marker of political and social complexity among the cultures in the Eastern United States. Watson Brake in Louisiana, constructed about 3500 BCE during the Middle Archaic period, is the oldest dated mound complex in North America. It is one of eleven mound complexes from this period found in the Lower Mississippi Valley.
We can conclude that these mound builders were organized. Hundreds or even thousands of workers had to dig up tons of earth with the hand tools available, the dirt had to be moved long distances, and finally workers had to create the shape the builder had planned.
The most complete reference for these earthworks is Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, written by Ephraim G. Squier and Edwin H. Davis. It was published in 1848 by the Smithsonian Institution. Since many of the features which the authors documented have since been destroyed or diminished by farming and development, their surveys, sketches, and descriptions are still used by modern archaeologists. All of the sites which they identified as located in Kentucky came from the manuscripts of C.S. Rafinesque.
Hernando de Soto, the Spanish conquistador who during 1540 -- 1542 traversed what became the southeast United States, encountered many different mound - builder peoples, perhaps descendants of the great Mississippian culture. The mound - building tradition still existed in the southeast during the mid-sixteenth century. De Soto observed people living in fortified towns with lofty mounds and plazas, and surmised that many of the mounds served as foundations for priestly temples. Near present - day Augusta, Georgia, de Soto encountered a mound - building group ruled by a queen, Cofitachequi. She told him that the mounds within her territory served as the burial places for nobles.
The artist Jacques Le Moyne, who had accompanied French settlers to northeastern Florida during the 1560s, likewise noted many Native American groups using existing mounds and constructing others. He produced a series of watercolor paintings depicting scenes of native life. Although most of his paintings have been lost, some engravings were copied from the originals and published in 1591 by a Flemish company. Among these is a depiction of the burial of an aboriginal Floridian tribal chief, an occasion of great mourning and ceremony. The original caption reads:
Maturin Le Petit, a Jesuit priest met the Natchez people as did Le Page du Pratz (1758), a French explorer. Both observed them in the area that later became Mississippi. The Natchez were devout worshippers of the sun. Having a population of some 4,000, they occupied at least nine villages and were presided over by a paramount chief, known as the Great Sun, who wielded absolute power. Both observers noted the high temple mounds which the Natchez had built so that the Great Sun could commune with God, the sun. His large residence was built atop the highest mound, from "which, every morning, he greeted the rising sun, invoking thanks and blowing tobacco smoke to the four cardinal directions. ''
Later explorers to the same regions, only a few decades after mound - building settlements had been reported, found the regions largely depopulated, the residents vanished, and the mounds untended. Since there had been little violent conflict with Europeans in that area during that period, the most plausible explanation is that infectious diseases from the Old World, such as smallpox and influenza, had decimated most of the Native Americans who had comprised the last mound - builder civilization.
Radiocarbon dating has established the age of the earliest Archaic mound complex in southeastern Louisiana. One of the two Monte Sano Site mounds, excavated in 1967 before being destroyed for new construction at Baton Rouge, was dated at 6220 BP (plus or minus 140 years). Researchers at the time thought that such societies were not organizationally capable of this type construction. It has since been dated as about 6500 BP, or 4500 BCE, although not all agree.
Watson Brake is located in the floodplain of the Ouachita River near Monroe in northern Louisiana. Securely dated to about 5,400 years ago (approx. 3500 BCE), in the Middle Archaic period, it consists of a formation of 11 mounds from 3 to 25 feet (1 - 8m) tall, connected by ridges to form an oval nearly 900 feet (270m) across. In the Americas, building of complex earthwork mounds started at an early date, well before the pyramids of Egypt were constructed. Watson Brake was being constructed nearly 2,000 years before the better - known Poverty Point, and building continued for 500 years. Middle Archaic mound construction seems to have ceased about 2800 BC, and scholars have not ascertained the reason, but it may have been because of changes in river patterns or other environmental factors.
With the 1990s dating of Watson Brake and similar complexes, scholars established that pre-agricultural, pre-ceramic American societies could organize to accomplish complex construction during extended periods of time, invalidating scholars ' traditional ideas of Archaic society. Watson Brake was built by a hunter - gatherer society the people of which occupied the area on only a seasonal basis, but where successive generations organized to build the complex mounds over a 500 - year period. Their food consisted mostly of fish and deer, as well as available plants.
Poverty Point, built about 1500 BCE in what is now Louisiana, is a prominent example of Late Archaic mound - builder construction (c. 2500 BCE -- 1000 BCE). It is a striking complex of more than one square mile, where six earthwork crescent ridges were built in concentric arrangement, interrupted by radial aisles. Three mounds are also part of the main complex, and evidence of residences extends for about 3 miles along the bank of Bayou Macon. It is the major site among 100 associated with the Poverty Point culture and is one of the best - known early examples of earthwork monumental architecture. Unlike the localized societies during the Middle Archaic, this culture showed evidence of a wide trading network outside its area, which is one of its distinguishing characteristics.
The Archaic period was followed by the Woodland period (c. 1000 BCE). Some well - understood examples are the Adena culture of Ohio, West Virginia, and parts of nearby states. The subsequent Hopewell culture built monuments from present - day Illinois to Ohio; it is renowned for its geometric earthworks. The Adena and Hopewell were not the only mound - building peoples during this time period. There were contemporaneous mound - building cultures throughout what is now the eastern United States, stretching as far south as Crystal River in western Florida. During this time period, in parts of present - day Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana, the Hopewellian Marksville culture degenerated and was succeeded by the Baytown culture. Reasons for degeneration include attacks from other tribes or the impact of severe climatic changes undermining agriculture.
The Coles Creek culture is a Late Woodland culture (700 - 1200 CE) in the Lower Mississippi Valley in the southern United States that marks a significant change of the cultural history of the area. Population and cultural and political complexity increased, especially by the end of the Coles Creek period. Although many of the classic traits of chiefdom societies were not yet manifested, by CE 1000 the formation of simple elite polities had begun. Coles Creek sites are found in Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Mississippi and Texas. The Coles Creek culture is considered ancestral to the Plaquemine culture.
Around 900 -- 1450 CE, the Mississippian culture developed and spread through the eastern United States, primarily along the river valleys. The largest regional center where the Mississippian culture is first definitely developed is located in Illinois near the River Mississippi and is referred to presently as Cahokia. It had several regional variants including the Middle Mississippian culture of Cahokia, the South Appalachian Mississippian variant at Moundville and Etowah, the Plaquemine Mississippian variant in south Louisiana and Mississippi, and the Caddoan Mississippian culture of northwestern Louisiana, eastern Texas, and southwestern Arkansas. Like the Mound Builders of the Ohio, these people built gigantic mounds as burial and ceremonial places.
Fort Ancient is the name for a Native American culture that flourished from 1000 - 1650 CE among a people who predominantly inhabited land along the Ohio River in areas of modern - day southern Ohio, northern Kentucky and western West Virginia. Scholars once thought this was an expansion of the Mississippian cultures, but they now believe the Fort Ancient culture was developed from the Hopewell culture.
A continuation of the Coles Creek culture in the lower Mississippi River Valley in western Mississippi and eastern Louisiana. Examples include the Medora Site in West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana; and the Anna and Emerald Mound sites in Mississippi. Sites inhabited by Plaquemine peopless continued to be used as vacant ceremonial centers without large village areas much as their Coles Creek ancestors had done; although their layout began to show influences from Middle Mississippian peoples to the north. The Winterville and Holly Bluff (Lake George) sites in western Mississippi are good examples that exemplify this change of layout but continuation of site usage. During the Terminal Coles Creek period (CE 1150 to 1250) contact increased with Mississippian cultures centered upriver near St. Louis, Missouri. This resulted in the adaption of new pottery techniques, as well as new ceremonial objects and possibly new social patterns during the Plaquemine period. As more Mississippian culture influences were absorbed the Plaquemine area as a distinct culture began to shrink after CE 1350. Eventually the last enclave of purely Plaquemine culture was the Natchez Bluffs area, while the Yazoo Basin and adjacent areas of Louisiana became a hybrid Plaquemine - Mississippian culture. This division was recorded by Europeans when they first arrived in the area. In the Natchez Bluffs area, the Taensa and Natchez people had held out against Mississippian influence and continued to use the same sites as their ancestors, and the Plaquemine culture is considered directly ancestral to these historic period groups encountered by Europeans. Groups who appear to have absorbed more Mississippian influence were identified as those tribes speaking the Tunican, Chitimachan, and Muskogean languages.
Hopewell traditions
Adena culture
Troyville culture and Baytown culture
Coles Creek culture
Mississippian culture
Caddoan Mississippian culture
Fort Ancient culture
Plaquemine culture
Through the mid-nineteenth century, European Americans did not recognize that ancestors of the Native Americans had built the prehistoric mounds of the eastern U.S. They believed that the massive earthworks and large ceremonial complexes were built by a different people. A New York Times article from 1897 described a mound in Wisconsin in which a giant human skeleton measuring over nine feet in length was found. From 1886, another New York Times article described water receding from a mound in Cartersville, Georgia which uncovered acres of skulls and bones, some of which were said to be gigantic. Two thigh bones were measured with the height of their owners estimated at 14 feet. President Lincoln made reference to the giants whose bones fill the mounds of America.
"But still there is more. It calls up the indefinite past. When Columbus first sought this continent -- when Christ suffered on the cross -- when Moses led Israel through the Red - Sea -- nay, even, when Adam first came from the hand of his Maker -- then as now, Niagara was roaring here. The eyes of that species of extinct giants, whose bones fill the mounds of America, have gazed on Niagara, as ours do now. Co (n) temporary with the whole race of men, and older than the first man, Niagara is strong, and fresh to - day as ten thousand years ago. The Mammoth and Mastodon -- now so long dead, that fragments of their monstrous bones, alone testify, that they ever lived, have gazed on Niagara. In that long -- long time, never still for a single moment. Never dried, never froze, never slept, never rested. ''
The antiquarian author William Pidgeon created fraudulent surveys of mound groups that did not exist possibly tainting this opinion which was replaced by others.
A major factor in increasing public knowledge of the origins of the mounds was the 1894 report by Cyrus Thomas of the Bureau of American Ethnology. He concluded that the prehistoric earthworks of the eastern United States were the work of early cultures of Native Americans. A small number of people had earlier made similar conclusions: Thomas Jefferson, for example, excavated a mound and from the artifacts and burial practices, noted similarities between mound - builder funeral practices and those of Native Americans in his time. In addition, Theodore Lewis in 1886 had refuted Pidgeon 's fraudulent claims of pre-Native American moundbuilders.
Writers and scholars have proposed many alternative origins for the Mound Builders:
In 1787, Benjamin Smith Barton proposed the theory that the Mound Builders were Vikings who came to North America and eventually disappeared.
Other people believed that Greeks, Africans, Chinese or assorted Europeans built the mounds. Some Euro - Americans thought the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel had built the mounds.
During the 19th century a common belief was that the Jews, particularly the Lost Ten Tribes, were the ancestors of Native Americans and the Mound Builders. The Book of Mormon (published first in 1830) provides a related belief, as its narrative describes two major immigrations to the Americas from Mesopotamia: the Jaredites (c. 3000 -- 2000 BCE) and an Israelite group in 590 BCE (termed Nephites, Lamanites and Mulekites). While the Nephites, Lamanites, and Mulekites were all of Jewish origin coming from Israel around 590 BCE, the Jaradites were a non-Abrahamic people separate in all aspects, except in a belief in Jehovah, from the Nephites. The Book of Mormon depicts these settlers building magnificent cities, which were destroyed by warfare about CE 385.
Some Mormon scholars have considered The Book of Mormon narrative a description of the mound - building cultures; other Mormon apologists argue for a Mesoamerican or South American setting. Theories about a Mesoamerican setting for the Book of Mormon did not develop until after Latter - day Saints were influenced by publicized findings about the Central American stone ruins. This occurred after the Book of Mormon was published.
During the 20th century, certain sects affiliated with the Black nationalist Moorish Science philosophy theorized an association with the Mound Builders. They argue that the Mound Builders were an ancient advanced Black civilization that developed the legendary continents of Atlantis and Mu, as well as ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica. These black groups claim that the American Indians were too primitive to have developed the sophisticated societies and the technology believed necessary to build the mounds.
The Reverend Landon West claimed that Serpent Mound in Ohio was built by God, or by man inspired by him. He believed that God built the mound and placed it as a symbol of the story of the Garden of Eden.
Some people attributed the mounds to mythical cultures: Lafcadio Hearn suggested that the mounds were built by people from the Lost Continent of Atlantis.
The mound builder explanations were often honest misinterpretations of real data from valid sources. Both scholars and laymen accepted some of these explanations. Reference to an alleged race appears in the poem "The Prairies '' (1832) by William Cullen Bryant.
One belief was that American Indians were too unsophisticated to have constructed such complex earthworks and artifacts. The associated stone, metal, and clay artifacts were thought to be too complex for the Indians to have made. In the American Southeast, and Midwest, numerous Indian cultures were sedentary and used agriculture. Numerous Indian towns had built surrounding stockades for defense. Capable of this type of construction, they and ancestors could have built mounds, but people who believed that the Indians did not build the earthworks did not analyze it in this manner. They thought the Native American nomadic cultures would not organize to build such monuments, for failure to devote the time and effort to construct such time - consuming projects.
When most British colonists first arrived in America, they never witnessed the American Indians building mounds, and they found that few Indians knew of their history when asked. Yet earlier Europeans, especially the Spanish, had written numerous non-English - language accounts about the Indians ' construction of mounds. Garcilaso de la Vega reported how the Indians built the mounds and placed temples on top of them. A few French expeditions reported staying with Indian societies who built mounds.
People also claimed that the Indians were not the Mound Builders because the mounds and related artifacts were older than Indian cultures. Caleb Atwater 's misunderstanding of stratigraphy caused him to believe that the Mound Builders were a much older civilization than the Indians. In his book, Antiquities Discovered in the Western States (1820), Atwater claimed that Indian remains were always found right beneath the surface of the earth. Since the artifacts associated with the Mound Builders were found fairly deep in the ground, Atwater argued that they must be from a different group of people. The discovery of metal artifacts further convinced people that the Mound Builders were not Native Americans. The Indians encountered by the Europeans and Americans were not thought to engage in metallurgy. Some artifacts that were found in relation to the mounds were inscribed with symbols. As the Europeans did not know of any Indian cultures that had a writing system, they assumed a different group had created them.
Several hoaxes were associated with the Mound Builder cultures.
In 1860, David Wyrick discovered the "Keystone tablet '', containing Hebrew language inscriptions written on it, in Newark, Ohio. Soon afterward, he found the "Newark Decalogue Stone '' nearby, also claimed to be inscribed in Hebrew. The authenticity of the "Newark Holy Stones '' and the circumstances of their discovery are disputed.
Reverend Jacob Gass discovered what were called the Davenport tablets. These bore inscriptions that later were determined to be fake.
The Walam Olum hoax had considerable influence on perceptions of the Mound Builders. In 1836 Constantine Samuel Rafinesque published his translation of a text he claimed had been written in pictographs on wooden tablets. This text explained that the Lenape Indians originated in Asia, told of their passage over the Bering Strait, and narrated their subsequent migration across the North American continent. This "Walam Olum '' tells of battles with native peoples already in America before the Lenape arrived. People hearing of the account believed that the "original people '' were the Mound Builders, and that the Lenape overthrew them and destroyed their culture. David Oestreicher later asserted that Rafinesque 's account was a hoax. He argued that the Walam Olum glyphs were derived from Chinese, Egyptian, and Mayan alphabets. Meanwhile, the belief that the Native Americans destroyed the mound builder culture had gained widespread acceptance.
The Kinderhook plates, "discovered '' in 1843, were another hoax, consisting of material planted by a contemporary in Native American mounds. This hoax was intended to discredit the account of the Mormon prophet Joseph Smith having translated an ancient book.
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who sings the theme song for alaska last frontier | Jewel (singer) - wikipedia
Jewel Kilcher (born May 23, 1974), known mononymously as Jewel, is an American singer - songwriter, musician, producer, actress, author, and poet. She has received four Grammy Award nominations and, as of 2008, has sold over 30 million albums worldwide. Kilcher was raised in Homer, Alaska, where she grew up singing and yodeling as a duo with her father, a local musician. At age fifteen, she received a partial scholarship at the Interlochen Arts Academy in Michigan, where she studied operatic voice.
After graduating, Kilcher began writing and performing at clubs and coffeehouses in San Diego, California. Based on local media attention, she was offered a recording contract with Atlantic Records, who released her debut album, Pieces of You, in 1995; it went on to become one of the best - selling debut albums of all time, going 12 - times platinum. The debut single from the album, "Who Will Save Your Soul '', peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100; two others, "You Were Meant for Me '' and "Foolish Games '', reached number two on the Hot 100, and were listed on Billboard 's 1997 year - end singles chart, as well as Billboard 's 1998 year - end singles chart.
Her subsequent album, Spirit, was released in 1998, followed by This Way (2001). In 2003, she released 0304, which marked a departure from her previous folk - oriented records, featuring electronic arrangements and elements of dance - pop. In 2008, she released Perfectly Clear, her first country album; it debuted atop Billboard 's Top Country Albums chart and featured three singles, "Stronger Woman '', "I Do '', and "' Til It Feels Like Cheating ''. Jewel released her first independent album, Lullaby, in 2009.
Jewel has also had endeavors in writing and acting; in 1998 she released a collection of poetry, and the following year appeared in a supporting role in Ang Lee 's Western film Ride with the Devil (1999) which earned her critical acclaim.
Jewel was born May 23, 1974 in Payson, Utah, the second child of Attila Kuno "Atz '' Kilcher and Lenedra Jewel Kilcher (née Carroll). At the time of her birth, her parents had been living in Utah with her elder brother, Shane; her father was attending Brigham Young University. She is a first cousin once removed of actress Q'orianka Kilcher. Her father, originally from Alaska, was a Mormon, though the family stopped attending The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints after her parents ' divorce when she was eight years old. Her paternal grandfather, Yule Kilcher, was a delegate to the Alaska Constitutional convention and a state senator of German descent who settled in Alaska after emigrating from Switzerland. He was also the first recorded person to cross the Harding Icefield.
Shortly after her birth, the family relocated to Anchorage, Alaska, settling on the Kilcher family 's 770 - acre (310 ha) homestead. There, her younger brother, Atz Jr., was born. She also has a half - brother, Nikos, who was primarily raised in Oregon by his mother, with whom her father had a brief relationship; she would later become close to him in adulthood. After her parents ' divorce in 1981, Kilcher lived with her father in Homer, Alaska. The house she grew up in lacked indoor plumbing and had only a simple outhouse. The Kilcher family is featured on the Discovery Channel show Alaska: The Last Frontier, which chronicles their day - to - day struggles living in the Alaskan wilderness. Recalling her upbringing, she said:
We lived far from town. We had to walk 2 miles (3.2 km) just to get to the saddle barn I was raised in... No running water, no heat -- we had a coal stove and an outhouse and we mainly lived off of what we could kill or can. We picked berries and made jam. We caught fish to freeze and had gardens and cattle to live on. I rode horses every day in the summer beneath the Alaskan midnight sun. I loved it there.
According to Kilcher, the first song she learned to sing was "Saint Louis Blues ''. In her youth, Kilcher and her father sometimes earned a living by performing music in roadhouses and taverns as a father - daughter duo; they also often sang at hotels in Anchorage, including the Hotel Captain Cook and the Hilton Anchorage. It was during this time that Kilcher learned yodel from her father. She would later credit the time she spent in bars as integral to her formative years: "I saw women who would compromise themselves for compliments, for flattery; or men who would run away from themselves by drinking until they ultimately killed themselves. ''
At age fifteen, while working at a dance studio in Anchorage, she was referred by the studio instructor to Interlochen Arts Academy in Interlochen, Michigan, where she applied and received a partial scholarship to study operatic voice. Local businesses in her hometown of Homer donated items for auction to help allocate additional funds, and raised a total of $11,000 to pay the remainder of her first year 's tuition. She subsequently relocated to Michigan to attend Interlochen, where she received classical training, and also learned to play guitar. She began writing songs on guitar at age sixteen. While in school, she would often perform live in coffeehouses. After graduating, she relocated to San Diego, California, where she worked in a coffee shop and as a phone operator at a computer warehouse.
For a time, Kilcher lived in her car while traveling around the country doing street performances and small gigs, mainly in Southern California. She gained recognition by singing at The Inner Change Cafe and Java Joe 's in San Diego; she would later make her debut record at Java Joe 's when it was in Poway, where she had worked as a barista. Her friend Steve Poltz 's band, The Rugburns, played the same venues. She later collaborated with Poltz on some of her songs, including "You Were Meant for Me ''. (He also appeared in the song 's second, better - known video.) The Rugburns opened for Jewel on her Tiny Lights tour in 1997. Poltz appeared in Jewel 's band on the Spirit World Tour 1999 playing guitar.
Kilcher was discovered by Inga Vainshtein in August 1993 when John Hogan, lead singer from the local San Diego band Rust, whom Vainshtein was managing, called to tell her about a girl surfer who sang at a local coffee shop on Thursdays. Vainshtein drove to The Inner Change with a representative from Atlantic Records, and after the show they called Danny Goldberg, the head of Atlantic Record 's West Coast operations, and asked him to pay for her demo, since at the time she was living in a van and lacked the means to record any of her own music. Vainshtein, who at the time was working as a film executive at Paramount, eventually became her manager and was instrumental in creating a major bidding war that led to her deal with Atlantic Records. She continued to manage Jewel until the end of the first album cycle. Her debut album Pieces of You was released the eponym of Jewel, in 1995 when she was 21 years old. Recorded in a studio on singer Neil Young 's ranch, it included Young 's backing band, The Stray Gators, who played on his Harvest and Harvest Moon albums. Part of the album was recorded live at The Inner Change Cafe in San Diego, where she had risen to local fame. The album stayed on the Billboard 200 for two years, reaching number four at its peak. The album spawned the Top 10 hits "You Were Meant for Me '', "Who Will Save Your Soul '', and "Foolish Games ''. The album eventually sold over 12 million copies in the United States alone.
In the late 1990s, Mike Connell created an electronic mailing list for fans, known as "Everyday Angels ''. Although Jewel herself does not subscribe to this mailing list, she maintained communication with her EA fans. On July 18 and 19, 1996, she gave a two - day concert known as "JewelStock '' at the Bearsville Theatre. Jewel allowed the concert to be taped, and fans circulated the concert without profit.
Jewel was chosen to sing the American national anthem at the opening of the Super Bowl XXXII in January 1998 in San Diego. She was introduced as "San Diego 's own Jewel! '' but criticized for lip syncing the anthem to a digitally - recorded track of her own voice. This was especially noticeable due to her missing her cue and not mouthing the first words. Super Bowl producers have since admitted that they attempt to have all performers pre-record their vocals. She performed the "Star - Spangled Banner '' again in the 2003 NBA Finals in one of the New Jersey Nets ' home games.
From her second album, Spirit, the song "Hands '' hit No. 6 on the Hot 100. Other singles followed, including a new version of "Jupiter (Swallow the Moon) '', "What 's Simple Is True '' (the theme song to her upcoming movie), and the charity single "Life Uncommon ''.
A year later, in November 1999, Jewel released Joy: A Holiday Collection. The album sold over a million copies and peaked at No. 32 on the Billboard 200. She released a cover of "Joy to the World '' from the album as a single.
In November 2001 the album This Way was released. The album peaked at No. 9 on the Billboard 200 and sold over 1.5 million copies in the U.S. A song from the album "Standing Still '' hit the Top 30. Other singles released were "Break Me '', "This Way '', and "Serve the Ego '', the latter giving Jewel her first number one club hit.
In 2003 Jewel released the album 0304. Following the limited success of "Serve the Ego '', Jewel moved to a more pop - oriented sound with the release of the single "Intuition ''. The song reached No. 5 on the Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart and No. 20 on the Billboard Hot 100.
On May 2, 2006, Jewel released her sixth album Goodbye Alice in Wonderland. The album received mixed reviews, but still managed to debut at No. 8 on the Billboard Albums Chart and sold 82,000 copies in its first week. The lead single "Again and Again '' had success on Adult Top 40 Radio, peaking at No. 16. The second single "Good Day '' was released to radio in late June and peaked at No. 30 on the Adult Pop Songs charts. A video for "Stephenville, TX '', her next single, was seen on Yahoo! Launch. After a photo shoot at her Texas ranch, Jewel spontaneously decided to have photographer Kurt Markus shoot the music video for the song "Goodbye Alice in Wonderland ''. According to an Atlantic Records press release, "The homegrown clip beautifully reflects both the song 's organic, intimate sound and its powerfully autobiographical story. ''
CMT music critic Timothy Duggan praised the album: "This album showcases Jewel 's unique talent as a lyricist, alongside a definite growth in her musicianship. It is what Pieces of You might have been had Jewel had the musical knowledge then that she has now. A very satisfying work, all in all. '' Rolling Stone, however, called the album "overdone and undercooked '' with a rating of 2 stars out of 5.
Jewel released a video for "Quest for Love '', the lead single from the movie Arthur and the Invisibles, recorded in 2006; the song is only available on the soundtrack for the film, which was released in January 2007. In early February 2007 Jewel recorded a duet with Jason Michael Carroll, "No Good in Goodbye '', that was featured on Carroll 's debut CD, Waitin ' in the Country. She also made a promotional appearance on the T in Boston for the Verizon Yellow Pages, playing songs on a moving subway car and then doing an hour - long acoustic concert in South Station.
In a 2007 interview with The Boston Globe, Jewel stated that she was no longer affiliated with a record label, confirming rumors that Atlantic Records had failed to renew her contract after the lackluster sales of her then - latest album. She also hinted that she would like to do a country album next. She worked with John Rich of Big & Rich fame, who said that she was "probably one of the greatest American singer - songwriters we have had. '' He also said that "every label in Nashville '' was talking to her at the time.
In November 2007 Jewel was signed to Valory Records, a newly formed division of the independent Big Machine Records label. Her first country album, Perfectly Clear, was released on June 3, 2008, selling 48,000 units in its first week. It debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Country Album Chart and No. 8 on the Billboard 200 Album Chart. In its second week on the charts, the album dropped to No. 25 on the Billboard 200 and No. 5 on the Country Albums chart, with estimated second week sales of 75,000 units.
Its lead single, "Stronger Woman '', was released to country radio on January 17, 2008, and entered the Top 20 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts. On the April 26, 2008 country charts it peaked at No. 13. The next single, "I Do '', was released to radio on June 23, 2008. The video for the single featured her cowboy then - husband, Ty Murray. This song peaked at No. 28. Following it was "' Til It Feels Like Cheating '', which peaked at No. 57. Perfectly Clear was released in Australia in late May 2009. It was then released across Europe by Humphead Records in June 2009.
In early 2009 it was announced that Jewel would release a new studio album titled Lullaby, a collection of lullabies which she described as "not just for children, but also adults ''. Its lead single, "Somewhere Over the Rainbow '', was released on iTunes on March 17, 2009. The album was released on May 5, 2009. "Somewhere Over The Rainbow '' was No. 1 on The Top Children 's Songs the week of release. Like 2011 's The Merry Goes ' Round, it is sold under the Fisher Price brand which Jewel described as "a great partnership ''.
She also recorded the "Make It Last '' with R&B singer Tyrese in conjunction with the release of his comic book Mayhem!. It was intended to be used for the soundtrack to Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen but did not appear on the final track listing.
In January 2010 Jewel released "Stay Here Forever '' from the soundtrack to the film Valentine 's Day. It also served as the lead - off single to Jewel 's ninth studio album Sweet and Wild released on June 8, 2010. The single debuted at No. 48 on the Hot Country Songs chart and reached No. 34 in May 2010. "Satisfied '' was released as the album 's second single on May 17, 2010, reaching its highest peak of No. 57. On October 10, 2010, Jewel released the third single from Sweet and Wild, "Ten ''. It made its debut on the Hot Country Songs Chart at No. 55 on the week of October 15, 2010, and peaked at No. 51 two weeks later.
Jewel 's second children 's album, The Merry Goes ' Round, was released in August 2011. Like 2009 's Lullaby, it is sold under the Fisher - Price brand.
On October 16, 2012, Jewel announced via Twitter a Greatest Hits album would be released in 2013. The album features new duets from Kelly Clarkson and the Pistol Annies. Jewel and Clarkson recorded a fresh rendition of Jewel 's song "Foolish Games '' while Jewel and the Pistol Annies recut "You Were Meant for Me ''. The Greatest Hits album was released February 5, 2013.
On August 6, 2013, Jewel announced the release of her second Christmas album, titled Let It Snow: A Holiday Collection, scheduled for release on November 12, 2013. In an interview with The Wall Street Journal, Jewel was quoted as saying "I wanted this record to have a resemblance to the first album. It 's a continuation of mood and spirit of that record, with the mood and feel of the album artwork with an image and tone that evokes that spirit. ''
In February 2014, Jewel began work on her next album and confirmed that it will not be released by a major record label, and that she will be producing it herself. It will reportedly have a sound similar to Pieces of You. On June 28, Jewel revealed in a Q&A on Facebook that the new album will be released in the second week of September. It will have a folk sound and was recorded with a live band. On July 21, Jewel confirmed the title as Picking Up the Pieces. Picking Up the Pieces was released on September 11, 2015.
In 2015, Jewel appeared on Blues Traveler 's album Blow Up the Moon, co-writing the song "Hearts Still Awake. ''
In July 2016, Jewel appeared on ABC 's Greatest Hits performing "You Were Meant For Me '' with Tori Kelly.
On November 4, 2017, Jewel sang "Where the Turf Meets the Surf '' before the running of the Breeders ' Cup Classic at Del Mar racetrack. 8
Owning a wide variety of Taylor Guitars, Jewel uses a Taylor 912 - C most often. Acoustic Guitar writer Jeffery Pepper Rodgers called the guitar her "steady companion ''.
All of her guitars are strung with D'Addario products. To strum, she employs a unique self - created fingerpicking technique or a hard pick.
Jewel made her acting debut in 1999 playing the character Sue Lee Shelley in Ang Lee 's Western film Ride with the Devil, opposite Tobey Maguire. The film received mixed - positive reviews, though critic Roger Ebert praised her performance, writing: "Jewel deserves praise for, quite simply, performing her character in a convincing and unmannered way. She is an actress here, not a pop star trying out a new hobby. ''
She later had a cameo as herself in Walk Hard (2007). In June 2012, Jewel was cast in the lead role as June Carter Cash in the Lifetime original movie Ring of Fire. In 2017, she appeared in two television mystery films on the Hallmark Channel: Framed for Murder: A Fixer Upper Mystery, and Concrete Evidence: A Fixer Upper Mystery, both in which she plays the character Shannon Hughes, a contractor and investigator.
Jewel has also had ventures into writing; she published a book of poetry titled A Night Without Armor in 1998. Although it sold over 1 million copies and was a New York Times best seller, it received mixed reviews. During an MTV interview in 1998, Kurt Loder pointed out the incorrect usage in her book of poetry of the word "casualty '' (intended as something to the effect of "of a casual nature '') to which Jewel responded, "You 're a smartass for pointing that out. Next topic. '' In the fall of ' 98, the poet Beau Sia composed a book - length response to "A Night Without Armor '' entitled "A Night Without Armor II: the Revenge. '' The reviewer Edna Gundersen, writing in USA Today, noted, "Hers is flowery and sensitive. His is wry and absurd. ''
She went on to write an autobiography titled Chasing Down the Dawn in 2000, a collection of diary entries and musings detailing her life growing up in Alaska, her struggle to learn her craft and life on the road. On September 15, 2015, Jewel released a new memoir entitled Never Broken: Songs Are Only Half the Story.
Jewel formed a nonprofit organization called Higher Ground for Humanity with her mother, Lenedra J. Carroll, and her older brother, Shane Kilcher. The organization 's focus is education, sustainable improvements, and building alliances with like - minded organizations. Jewel donates a portion of her income to the organization and often holds events to benefit the organization. The organization tends to parallel Jewel 's career since she provides the majority of the organization 's funding. As of 2005, the activities of the organization were reduced. One early grantee was the Global Youth Action Network, which has become one of the largest youth movements around the United Nations.
In September 2006, as part of Lifetime 's "Stop Breast Cancer for Life '' campaign, Jewel delivered more than 12 million petition signatures to Capitol Hill, urging Congress to pass the bipartisan Breast Cancer Patient Protection Act of 2005 (S 910 / HR1849). The bill would ban the practice of "drive - through '' mastectomies, when women are discharged from the hospital just hours after their surgeries.
Jewel served as the honorary chairperson of the 2006 Help the Homeless Walk in Washington, D.C.
In November 2008, Jewel began work on a project with several dozen singer - songwriters to write and auction their lyrics with donations benefiting her "Project Clean Water '' charity. Many singers and songwriters besides herself have donated their written lyrics including Patrick Davis, Alabama 's Randy Owen, John Mellencamp, Jason Mraz, Gretchen Wilson, and Marv Green. The majority of the lyrics were written on paper and signed by the songwriter, with the exception of Katy Perry 's "I Kissed a Girl ''. Many of the artists in addition to writing and signing lyrics, drew pictures to illustrate their lyrics. The auction ran from December 1, 2008, to December 18, 2008, promoted by CMT and Virgin Music. Some of the lyrics that were up for auction included hits such as "So Small '', "Foolish Games '', "I 'm Yours '', "I Kissed a Girl '', "St. Elmo 's Fire (Man in Motion) '', "Live Like You Were Dying '', "I Do n't Need a Man '', "Superman (It 's Not Easy) '' and "Redneck Woman ''. The highest bought lyrics being Jewel 's signature song "You Were Meant For Me '' sold for US $1,505, and "Who Will Save Your Soul '' and "Hands '', raising more than $1,005 each. Jewel promised that all items sold by December 18 would be delivered by Christmas. After the majority of the auctions ended on December 18 two new lyrics by Craig Wiseman and Ernie Ashworth were put up for auction ending in January 2009.
In May 2013 Jewel served as ambassador for the ReThink: Why Housing Matters initiative. She was included in the initiative 's public service announcement (PSA) which asked Americans to rethink their views on public housing and consider how it benefits people in their own communities.
Jewel was in a relationship with actor Sean Penn in 1995 after he spotted her performing on Late Night with Conan O'Brien. He invited her to compose a song for his film The Crossing Guard and followed her on tour.
She married pro rodeo cowboy Ty Murray on August 7, 2008, in the Bahamas after 10 years together. Their son, Kase Townes Murray, was born on July 11, 2011. On July 2, 2014, after nearly 6 years of marriage, Jewel announced on her website that she and Murray were divorcing.
Jewel is the daughter of Atz Kilcher, who stars in the Discovery Channel show Alaska: The Last Frontier. All three of her brothers live in Alaska. Her cousin is actress Q'orianka Kilcher who is best known for her role as Pocahontas opposite Colin Farrell and Christian Bale in director Terrence Malick 's Academy Award - nominated motion picture The New World (2005).
Jewel has been estranged from her mother (who also served as her business manager) since 2003; the singer has accused her mother of stealing millions of dollars from her.
Jewel identifies as a feminist and has said: "I do n't think I started off young as a feminist. I read a lot of books in Alaska, I was pretty isolated where I grew up, and I think that I never thought I was any different than a man; I was raised in a place where pioneer women were very strong still. They 'd shoe horses and build their own homes and were very self - sufficient. It was n't really until I 've gotten older that I really became a fan of women. And a fan of what women are capable of balancing and achieving, by just being them. ''
Co-headlining
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what is the cast of smokey and the bandit | Smokey and the Bandit - wikipedia
Smokey and the Bandit is a 1977 American action comedy film starring Burt Reynolds, Sally Field, Jackie Gleason, Jerry Reed, Pat McCormick, Paul Williams and Mike Henry. The film was the directorial debut of stuntman Hal Needham. It inspired several other trucking films, including two sequels, Smokey and the Bandit II and Smokey and the Bandit Part 3. Smokey and the Bandit was the second highest - grossing domestic film of 1977.
Wealthy Texan Big Enos Burdette and his son Little Enos seek a truck driver willing to bootleg Coors beer to Georgia for their refreshment. At the time, Coors was regarded as one of the finest beers in the United States, but it could not be legally sold east of the Mississippi River. Truck drivers who had taken the bet previously had been caught and arrested by "Smokey '' (CB slang for highway patrol officers, referring to the Smokey Bear -- type hats worn in some states).
The Burdettes find legendary trucker Bo "Bandit '' Darville competing in a truck rodeo at Lakewood Fairgrounds in Atlanta; they offer him $80,000 to haul 400 cases of Coors beer from Texarkana, Texas back to Atlanta in 28 hours; Big Enos has sponsored a driver running in the Southern Classic stockcar race and "when he wins I want to celebrate in style. '' Bandit accepts the bet and recruits his partner Cledus "Snowman '' Snow to drive the truck, while Bandit drives the "blocker '', a black Pontiac Trans Am bought on an advance from the Burdettes, to divert attention away from the truck and its illegal cargo.
The trip to Texas is mostly uneventful except for at least one pursuing Arkansas State Trooper whom Bandit evades with ease. They reach Texarkana an hour ahead of schedule, load their truck with the beer and head back toward Atlanta. Immediately upon starting the second leg of the run, Bandit picks up runaway bride Carrie, whom he eventually nicknames "Frog '' because she is "kinda cute like a frog '', she is "always hoppin ' around '', and because he "wants to jump '' her. But in so doing, Bandit makes himself a target of Texas Sheriff Buford T. Justice, a career lawman whose handsome but slow - witted son Junior was to have been Carrie 's bridegroom. Ignoring his own jurisdiction, Sheriff Justice, with Junior in tow, chases Bandit all the way to Georgia, even as various mishaps cause his cruiser to disintegrate around them.
The remainder of the film is one lengthy high - speed chase, as Bandit 's antics attract more and more attention from local and state police across Dixie while Snowman barrels on toward Atlanta with the contraband beer. Bandit and Snowman are helped along the way via CB radio by many colorful characters, including Stacy Calhoun and an undertaker with his hearse driver and their funeral procession, an elderly lady, a drive - in waitress and all her customers, a convoy of trucks, and even a madam who runs a brothel out of her RV. Neither Sheriff Justice nor any other police officers have any knowledge of Snowman 's illegal manifest. During this time, Bandit and Frog become closer and enjoy some romantic moments together, causing them to lose valuable time.
The chase intensifies as Bandit and Snowman get closer to Atlanta; moments after crossing back into Georgia, Bandit comes to the rescue when Snowman is pulled over by a Georgia State Patrol motorcycle patrolman, and state and local police step up their pursuit with more cruisers, larger roadblocks, and even a police helicopter to track Bandit 's movements. Discouraged by the unexpected mounting attention, and with just four miles left to go, Bandit is about to give up, but Snowman refuses to listen and takes the lead, smashing through the police roadblock at the entrance to the fairgrounds. They arrive back at Lakewood Speedway (while the Southern Classic race is being run) with only ten minutes to spare, but instead of taking the payoff, Frog and Bandit accept a double - or - nothing offer from Little Enos -- a challenge to run up to Boston and bring back clam chowder in 18 hours. They quickly escape in one of Big Enos ' Cadillac convertibles as Georgia State Patrol cruisers flood the racetrack to confiscate the Trans Am and truck, passing Sheriff Justice 's badly damaged police car by the side of the road. Bandit first directs Sheriff Justice to Big and Little Enos, but then in a gesture of respect, reveals his true location and invites Justice to give chase, leaving Junior behind.
Director Hal Needham originally planned the film as a low - budget B movie with a production cost of $1 million, with Jerry Reed as the Bandit. It was not until Needham 's friend Burt Reynolds read the script, and said he would star, that the film was aimed at a more mainstream release; Reed would now portray Bandit 's friend Snowman (Reed would eventually play the Bandit in Smokey and the Bandit Part 3). At that time Reynolds was the top box office star in the world. In the original script Carrie was called Kate while Big Enos and Little Enos were called Kyle and Dickey. Bandit 's car was a second generation Ford Mustang and the prize for completing the run was a new truck rather than $80,000.
Burt Reynolds revealed in his autobiography that Needham had written the first draft script on legal pads. Upon showing it to his friend, Reynolds told Needham that it was the worst script he had ever read but that he would still make the movie. Most of the dialogue was improvised on set.
Universal Studios bankrolled Smokey and the Bandit for $5.3 million, figuring it was a good risk. Just two days before production was to begin, Universal sent a "hatchet man '' to Atlanta to inform Needham that the budget was being trimmed by $1 million. With Reynolds ' salary at $1 million, Needham was left with only $3.3 million to make the film. Needham and assistant director David Hamburger spent 30 hours revising the shooting schedule.
"Buford T. Justice '' was the name of a real Florida Highway Patrolman known to Reynolds ' father, who was once Police Chief of Riviera Beach, Florida. His father was also the inspiration for the word "sumbitch '' used in the film, a variation of the phrase "son - of - a-bitch '' that, according to Reynolds, he uttered quite often.
Jackie Gleason was given free rein to ad - lib dialogue and make suggestions. It was his idea to have Junior alongside him throughout. In particular, the scene where Sheriff Justice unknowingly encounters the Bandit in the "choke and puke '' (a roadside diner) was not in the original story, but rather was Gleason 's idea.
Before Gleason was cast in the film, Richard Boone was originally considered for the role of Buford T. Justice.
Sally Field only accepted the part after her agent advised her that she needed a big movie role on her resume. Reynolds actively pushed for her casting after Universal initially resisted, claiming Field was not attractive enough. Field enjoyed making the film, but remembers that virtually the entire project was improvised.
Reportedly, Needham had great difficulty getting any studios or producers to take his project seriously, as in the film industry, he was better known as a stuntman. He managed to obtain studio attention after his friend Reynolds agreed to portray the Bandit in the film.
The movie was primarily filmed in Georgia in the cities of McDonough, Jonesboro and Lithonia. The scenes set in Texarkana were filmed in Jonesboro and the surrounding area, and many of the chase scenes were filmed in the surrounding areas on Highway 54 between Fayetteville and Jonesboro for a majority of the driving scenes, Mundy 's Mill Road, Main Street in Jonesboro, Georgia State Route 400, I - 85 (Pleasant Hill exit), and in McDonough. However, the scene where they drive through the Shell gas station was filmed in Ojai, California on the corner of Ojai and El Paseo. Much of the surrounding scene comes from that immediate vicinity. The scene featuring the racetrack was filmed at Lakewood Speedway at the old Lakewood Fairgrounds on the south side of Atlanta. The roller coaster seen in the movie was the Greyhound. It had not been used for some time and was repainted for the film. It was destroyed in Smokey and the Bandit II and a flashback scene in Part 3.
The film 's theme song, "East Bound and Down '', was written virtually overnight by Jerry Reed. He gave Needham a preview of the song, and when initially he got no reaction from the director, offered to rewrite the song. Needham, however, liked the song so much he assured Jerry not to change a word. It became one of Reed 's biggest hits and his signature song.
The area around Helen, Georgia was also used for some locations. The scene where Buford T. Justice 's car has the door knocked off by a passing semi truck was shot on Georgia State Route 75, 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Helen. The tow truck driver was a local garage owner, Berlin Wike.
The film features the custom clothing and costuming of Niver Western Wear of Fort Worth, Texas. Niver provided much of the western attire worn in the film, as well as the custom - made sheriff 's uniforms (waist size 64 inches) that Jackie Gleason wore throughout the film.
Reynolds and Sally Field began dating during the filming of Smokey and the Bandit.
While made to take advantage of the ongoing 1970s CB radio fad, the film added to the craze.
Though the film Moonrunners (1975) is the precursor to the television series The Dukes of Hazzard (1979 - 1985), from the same creator and with many identical settings and concepts, the popularity of Smokey and the Bandit and similar films helped get the Dukes series on the air. Three actors from the main cast of The Dukes of Hazzard appear in small uncredited roles in Smokey and the Bandit: Ben Jones, John Schneider and Sonny Shroyer (who played a police officer in both). In return, Reynolds portrayed the Dukes character Boss Hogg (originally portrayed by Sorrell Booke) in the film adaptation The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). Reynolds is also referenced by name in several early episodes of the series.
Needham saw an advertisement for the soon - to - be-released 1977 Pontiac Trans Am and knew right away that would be the Bandit 's car, or, as Needham referred to it, a character in the movie. He contacted Pontiac and an agreement was made that four 1977 Trans Ams and two Pontiac LeMans 4 - door sedans would be provided for the movie. The Trans Ams were actually 1976 - model cars with 1977 front ends. (From 1970 to 1976, both the Firebird / Trans Am and Chevrolet Camaro had two round headlights, and in 1977, the Firebird / Trans Am was changed to four rectangular headlights, while the Camaro remained unchanged.) The decals were also changed to 1977 - style units, as evidenced by the engine size callouts on the hood scoop being in liters rather than cubic inches, as had been the case in 1976. The hood scoop on these cars says "6.6 LITRE '', which in 1977 would have denoted an Oldsmobile 403 - equipped car or a non W - 72, 180 hp version of the 400 Pontiac engine. All four of the cars were badly damaged during production, one of which was all but destroyed during the jump over the dismantled bridge. The Trans Am used for the dismantled bridge jump was equipped with a booster rocket, the same type that was used by Evel Knievel during his failed Snake River Canyon jump. Needham served as the driver for the stunt (standing in for Reynolds) while Lada St. Edmund was in the same car (standing in for Sally Field during the jump). By the movie 's ending, the final surviving Trans Am and LeMans were both barely running and the other cars had become parts donors to keep them running. The Burdettes ' car is a 1974 Cadillac Eldorado convertible painted in a "Candy Red '' color scheme, and is seen briefly at the beginning of the movie and as Bandit, Snowman, Fred, and Frog make their escape in the final scene.
The film also made use of three Kenworth W900A short - frame semi trucks, which Jerry Reed can be seen driving, each equipped with 38 - inch sleepers. Two units were 1974 models as evidenced by standard silver Kenworth emblems on the truck grille, and one unit was a 1973 model as evidenced by the gold - painted Kenworth emblem on the truck 's grille signifying Kenworth 's 50 years in business. The paint code for each truck was coffee brown with gold trims, and the 48 - foot (15 m) mural trailer used was manufactured by Hobbs Trailers in Texas with a non-operational Thermo King Refrigeration unit. This is obvious, because there is no fuel tank on the underside of the trailer to power the refrigeration unit, and the unit is never heard running.
In 1977, Coors was unavailable for sale east of Oklahoma. A 1974 Time magazine article explains why Coors was so coveted that one would be willing to pay the Bandit such a high price to transport it. Coors Banquet Beer had a brief renaissance as certain people sought it out for its lack of stabilizers and preservatives. The article says that future Vice President Gerald Ford hid it in his luggage after a trip to Colorado in order to take it back to Washington. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had a steady supply airlifted to Washington by the Air Force. The article also mentions Frederick Amon, who smuggled it from Colorado to North Carolina and sold it for four times the retail price. The lack of additives and preservatives meant that Coors had the potential for spoiling in a week if it were not kept cold throughout its transportation and in storage at its destination. This explains the 28 - hour deadline.
The theme music, "East Bound and Down '', was sung and co-written by Reed (credited under his birth name, Jerry Hubbard) and Dick Feller. It became Reed 's signature song and is found on multiple albums, including Country Legends and his live album Jerry Reed: Live Still. In 1991 it was arranged for orchestra by Crafton Beck and recorded by Erich Kunzel and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra for their album Down on the Farm. Several other groups, such as US rock band Tonic, have also covered it. Reed also penned and performed the song for the opening credits, entitled "The Legend '', which tells of some of The Bandit 's escapades prior to the events of the film, and the ballad "The Bandit '', which features in several versions in the movie and on the soundtrack. Reed 's hit notwithstanding, Bill Justis is the first name on the credits for the soundtrack as he composed and arranged original music throughout the film. Musicians such as Beegie Adair and George Tidwell played on the soundtrack as part of long careers in music. Legendary five - string banjo player Bobby Thompson is also heard prominently towards the end of "East Bound and Down. '' The soundtrack album was released in 1977 on vinyl, cassette and 8 - track through MCA Records.
Smokey and the Bandit was a sleeper hit. The film premiered at Radio City Music Hall in New York City where it performed badly. It then opened in just the South of the United States over the Memorial Day weekend and grossed $2,689,851 in 386 theatres. By the end of June it had played in major Southern markets including Charlotte, Atlanta, Jacksonville, New Orleans, Memphis, Dallas and Oklahoma City grossing $11.9 million. It opened in other Northern states at the end of July.
With an original budget of $5.3 million (cut to $4.3 million two days before initial production), the film eventually grossed $126,737,428 in North America, making it the second - highest - grossing movie of 1977. The worldwide gross is estimated at over $300 million.
Film critic Leonard Maltin gave the film a good rating (3 stars out of a possible 4) and characterized it as "About as subtle as The Three Stooges, but a classic compared to the sequels and countless rip - offs which followed. ''
Gene Siskel, in his review in the Chicago Tribune, gave the film two stars and complained that the film failed to tell the audience when the clock started on the beer run, thus removing suspense throughout the film concerning how long remained to them. He also claimed that Bandit is never made aware of Frog 's leaving Junior at the altar, which is why the Bandit continually asks why a Texas sheriff is chasing him. However, this is inaccurate: within seconds of Bandit picking her up, Frog tells him "there is a wedding in search of a bride '', and goes on to explain her ill - advised romance with Junior, as Bandit holds up the CB mic for Snowman to hear.
The film 's editors, Walter Hannemann and Angelo Ross, were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Film Editing. It currently holds a 79 % "Fresh '' rating on review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 28 reviews.
Burt Reynolds rated the film as the one he most enjoyed and had the most fun making in his career.
Legendary film maker Alfred Hitchcock stated that the movie was one of his favorites.
Upon meeting Burt Reynolds, Billy Bob Thornton told him that the picture was not considered a "film '' in the south, so much as a documentary.
Smokey and the Bandit was released in the United Kingdom on August 28, 1977 and was a sizeable success there, garnering positive reviews.
American Film Institute Lists
After the debut of the film the Trans Am became wildly popular with sales almost doubling in two years of the film 's release, to the delight of General Motors; in fact, it outsold its Chevrolet Camaro counterpart for the first time ever. Reynolds was given the 1977 vehicle used during promotion of the film as a gift, though the car itself never actually appeared in the film. Because of the popularity of the movie and the sales success of the Trans Am, then President of Pontiac Alex Mair promised to supply Reynolds with a Trans Am each year. Owing to his financial difficulties, in 2014 Reynolds put his vast collection of artwork and memorabilia up for auction, including the Trans Am. High estimates for the car were up to $80,000, but that was dwarfed by the actual sale price of $450,000. Also up for auction was a go - kart replica of the car, which sold for nearly $14,000. In 2016, Trans Am Depot, a Florida - based automobile customization company, announced that it would build 77 Trans Ams that would be modeled after the car that Reynolds drove in the 1977 original. Pontiac was discontinued by GM in 2009 and Trans Am Depot has permission to use the Trans Am name. These new models were built off the Camaro platform (the very same one that the real Firebird and Trans Am used), came with Pontiac arrowhead, flaming bird and Bandit logos, as well as instrument panels, center consoles and hood scoops emulating their 1977 counterparts, and were signed by Reynolds. Some differences included the use of a supercharged 454 - cid (7.4 - liter) Chevrolet - sourced engine that put out 840 HP, and four round headlights, which appeared on the 1967 - 69 Firebirds / Trans Ams only; the actual 1977 - 81 models had rectangular headlights.
The diablo sandwich ordered by Sheriff Justice in the Arkansas barbecue restaurant scene has entered popular culture as a minor reference to the film. While no authoritative source identifies the composition of the sandwich, there are several possibilities. A segment of the CMT program Reel Eats used a sloppy joe - style recipe consisting of seasoned ground beef, corn and sour cream. Another proposal, based more closely on images from the film and the shooting location of the scene (at an Old Hickory House restaurant in Georgia), is pulled pork and hot sauce on a hamburger bun.
First run in 2007 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the movie, The Bandit Run was the brainchild of Dave Hall, owner of Restore A Muscle Car. A group of Trans Am owners and fans of the movie take part in an annual road trip from Texarkana to Jonesboro, Georgia, recreating the route taken by the characters in the film.
The Bandit Run quickly caught on and has become a fixture, most recently celebrating the 40th anniversary of the movie with a special screening of the film attended by Burt Reynolds and a recreation of the jump undertaken by Bandit and Frog across a river.
In 2014, petroleum company Mobil 1 produced television commercials, featuring NASCAR star Tony Stewart, closely based on the film. Called Smoke is the Bandit playing on Stewart 's nickname, the commercials featured him as the Bandit opposite Darrell Waltrip who played Snowman and Jeff Hammond as Buford T. Justice. The story replaced the Coors beer with Mobil 1 products. The adverts poked fun at the film and even featured a Pontiac Trans Am and a cover version of the song East Bound and Down. The commercials were produced after Stewart mentioned that the movie was one of his favorites.
When Smokey and the Bandit first aired on American network television in the early 1980s, censors were faced with the challenge of toning down the raw language of the original film. For this purpose, they overdubbed dialogue deemed offensive, which was (and remains, to an extent) common practice. The most noted change made for network broadcast was the replacing of Buford 's often - spoken phrase "sumbitch '' (a contraction of "son of a bitch ''; usually in reference to the Bandit) with the phrase "scum bum ''. This phrase achieved a level of popularity with children, and the 2007 Hot Wheels release of the 1970s Firebird Trans Am has "scum bum '' emblazoned on its tail. The TV prints of the first two Bandit films are still shown regularly on television, although a few TV stations aired the unedited version in recent years as some of the phraseology (i.e. "(son of a) bitch '', "ass '', etc.) became more acceptable on TV.
The original actors mostly redubbed their own lines for the television version, except for Gleason. Actor Henry Corden, who voiced Fred Flintstone after original performer Alan Reed died, was used to replace a considerable amount of Sheriff Justice 's dialogue.
In the UK, the heavily dubbed version was shown for a number of years, particularly by the BBC. However, in more recent years, the original version has been shown (on ITV, a commercial channel), usually with the stronger language edited out, often quite awkwardly and noticeably.
The theatrical release itself had a few lines deleted, including a creative edit in which Sheriff Justice tells a state trooper to "fuck off. '' His expletive is obscured when a passing big rig sounds its horn. At the time, using the ' F ' word would immediately require an R rating and this clever self - censorship allowed the film to avoid this rating and reach a much larger audience. However, the scene and the obscured expletive was played for comedy value and written as such, with the passing truck being the gag of the scene more than a way to avoid the censors.
In 2006, a DVD re-release was issued of Smokey and the Bandit featuring a digitally - remastered audio track with 5.1 Dolby - compatible surround sound. It should be noted however that many of the film 's original sounds were replaced. For instance, the diesel engine start and run up sequence in the opening sequence of the film was completely dubbed over with a totally new sound. A few other examples of "sound effect replacement '' occur when Bandit takes off after managing to get a reluctant Cledus involved in the bet, and after he comes to a screeching halt on a roadway moments before picking up Carrie. Some of the original sound effects (such as Cledus ' dog Fred 's barking) and music (such as the final chase to the Southern Classic) were removed and not replaced. (Note: earlier DVD releases and the 40th Anniversary Blu - ray of the film have the original soundtrack intact.)
Major portions of the audio ' background ' have been modified with different engine sounds or tire squeals from the original film. The updated version of the film features sounds inaccurate for what would be produced by the Trans Am or the numerous other Pontiac vehicles in the film. The original film had correct sounds that were usually recorded live as the action took place.
A series of four made - for - TV spin - off films (Bandit Goes Country, Bandit Bandit, Beauty and the Bandit and Bandit 's Silver Angel) were produced in 1994 for Universal Television 's Action Pack with actor Brian Bloom playing a younger version of Bandit. The three original films introduced two generations of the Pontiac Trans Am, and the Dodge Stealth in the television movies.
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steve winwood eric clapton - can't find my way home | Ca n't find my way home - Wikipedia
"Ca n't Find My Way Home '' is a song written by Steve Winwood which was first released by Blind Faith on their 1969 album Blind Faith. Rolling Stone, in a review of the album, noted that the song featured "Ginger Baker 's highly innovative percussion '' and judged the lyric "And I 'm wasted and I ca n't find my way home '' to be "delightful ''.
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lawyer's wife in queen of the south | Kim Eung - Soo - wikipedia
Kim Eung - soo (Korean: 김응수, born February 12, 1961) is a South Korean actor. Kim lived in Japan for seven years, where he studied filmmaking at the Japan Institute of the Moving Image.
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where was the movie day of the outlaw filmed | Day of the Outlaw - wikipedia
Day of the Outlaw is a 1959 Western film starring Robert Ryan, Burl Ives, and Tina Louise. It was directed by Andre DeToth; this was DeToth 's final Western feature film.
Blaise Starrett (Robert Ryan) is a ruthless cattleman at odds with homesteaders in a small, bleak western town in Wyoming called Bitters. A feud develops between Starrett and a local farmer Hal Crane. The farmer 's wife Helen (Tina Louise) offers to renew a love affair with Starrett if he promises not to kill Hal.
The feud is about to come to a bloody end when Jack Bruhn (Burl Ives), and his band of thugs ride into town. They are on the run from the law after robbing a bank. He is a wounded outlaw, a former cavalry officer but that does n't stop him and his gang holding the town 's civilians hostage. Starrett must now find a way to save his town, and redeem himself in the process. He does so by helping the bad guys escape, or so they think, across the snow - covered mountains.
The film was based on a 1955 novel of the same title by Lee Edwin Wells (1907 - 1982), that also ran in several newspapers as a serialized story in the fall of 1955 and others in the late summer 1956.
Producer Buddy Adler originally purchased the film rights as a vehicle for Robert Wagner.
Philip Yordan read the novel and insisted on writing a script based on the book. Filmed in central Oregon at Dutchman Flat and Todd Lake Meadows near the town of Bend in late November and early December 1958, with Leon Chooluck the unit director doing many of the long exterior shots.
Yordan called the script "one of the best I 've ever written, '' but said the problem with the film was that the budget, at $ 400,000, was not big enough. Yordan told author Franklin Jarlett, in his biographical book about Robert Ryan, that DeToth was having personal problems at the time of filming and it was apparent on the set. Other problems included; Ryan was out for a week with pneumonia, snowstorms caused delays in filming, DeToth changed his mind about where some scenes were to be shot (from interior to remote exteriors), and then they ran out of money and just packed up and went back to Hollywood. Yordan lamented what ' could have been. '
Roger Horrocks, in his book Male Myths and Icons, says that the film is a ' gold nugget ' and on par with Budd Boetticher.
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when did japan attack china in world war 2 | Second Sino - Japanese War - Wikipedia
China (Nationalist Government led a Chinese united front which included Nationalists, Communists, and regional warlords). Foreign support:
Japan Collaborator support:
Chiang Kai - shek Chen Cheng Cheng Qian Yan Xishan Li Zongren Xue Yue Bai Chongxi Wei Lihuang Du Yuming Fu Zuoyi Sun Liren Ma Hongbin Long Yun Mao Zedong Zhou Enlai Zhu De Peng Dehuai Ye Ting
Joseph Stilwell Claire Chennault (1937 - 1942 ROCAF 1942 - 1945 United States Army Air Forces)
Hirohito Korechika Anami Yasuhiko Asaka Shunroku Hata Seishirō Itagaki Kotohito Kan'in Iwane Matsui Toshizō Nishio Yasuji Okamura Hajime Sugiyama Hideki Tōjō Yoshijirō Umezu Puyi Demchugdongrub
Chinese Nationalist (including regional warlords):
Chinese Communist:
Japanese invading army:
(Excluding Burma campaign and Manchuria)
Chinese Nationalists: Official ROC data: 1,320,000 killed, 1,797,000 wounded, 120,000 missing Total: 3,237,000
Other estimates: 1,319,000 -- 4,000,000 + military dead and missing, 500,000 captured, Total: 3,211,000 -- 10,000,000 + military casualties
Chinese Communists: Official PRC data: 160,603 military dead, 290,467 wounded, 87,208 missing, 45,989 POW. Total: 584,267 military casualties
Other estimates: 446,740 total
Japanese invaders: Japanese medical data: 455,700 - 700,000 military dead 520,000 wounded (1937 - 1941) 430,000 hospitalized and retired for disease (1937 - 1941) 22,293 + captured Total: 2 millions+ military casualties (1937 to 1945 excluding Burma campaign and Manchuria)
ROC estimate: 1.77 million dead 1.9 million wounded Total: 3,670,000
2007 PRC studies: 1,055,000 dead 1,172,200 wounded Total: 2,227,200
Collaborators: 288,140 -- 574,560 dead 742,000 wounded Middle estimate: 960,000 dead and wounded
Pacific War
Mediterranean and Middle East
Other campaigns
Contemporaneous wars
Southeast Asia
Southwest Pacific
North America
Japan
Manchuria
The Second Sino - Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from July 7, 1937 to September 9, 1945. It began with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937 in which a dispute between Japanese and Chinese troops escalated into a battle. The conflict then escalated further into a full - scale war. It ended with the unconditional surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945 to the Allies of World War II.
China fought Japan, with aid to China from the Soviet Union and the United States. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the war merged with other conflicts of World War II as a major sector known as the China Burma India Theater. Some scholars consider the start of the Second Sino - Japanese War in 1937 to have been the beginning of World War II. The Second Sino - Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. It accounted for the majority of civilian and military casualties in the Pacific War, with between 10 and 25 million Chinese civilians and over 4 million Chinese and Japanese military personnel dying from war - related violence, famine, and other causes.
The war was the result of a decades - long Japanese imperialist policy to expand its influence politically and militarily in order to secure access to raw material reserves, food, and labor. The period after World War I brought about increasing stress on the Japanese polity. Leftists sought universal suffrage and greater rights for workers. Increasing textile production from Chinese mills was adversely affecting Japanese production. The Depression brought about a large slowdown in exports. All of this contributed to militant nationalism, culminating in the rise to power of a militarist fascist faction. This faction was led at its height by the Hideki Tojo cabinet of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association under edict from Emperor Hirohito. In 1931, the Mukden Incident helped spark the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. The Chinese were defeated and Japan created a new puppet state, Manchukuo; some historians, including the PRC government, cite 1931 as the beginning of the war. From 1931 -- 1937, China and Japan continued to skirmish in small, localized engagements, so - called "incidents ''.
Initially the Japanese scored major victories, capturing both Shanghai and the Chinese capital of Nanking in 1937. After failing to stop the Japanese in the Battle of Wuhan, the Chinese central government was relocated to Chongqing (Chungking) in the Chinese interior. By 1939, after Chinese victories in Changsha and Guangxi, and with Japan 's lines of communications stretched deep into the Chinese interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were also unable to defeat the Chinese communist forces in Shaanxi, which waged a campaign of sabotage and guerrilla warfare against the invaders. While Japan ruled the large cities, they lacked sufficient manpower to control China 's vast countryside.
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and the following day the United States declared war on Japan. The United States began to aid China by airlifting material over the Himalayas after the Allied defeat in Burma that closed the Burma Road. In 1944 Japan launched the invasion, Operation Ichi - Go, that conquered Henan and Changsha. However, this failed to bring about the surrender of Chinese forces. In 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. At the same time, China launched large counteroffensives in South China and retook West Hunan and Guangxi.
Despite continuing to occupy part of China 's territory, Japan eventually surrendered on September 2, 1945 to Allied forces following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Japanese - held Manchuria. The remaining Japanese occupation forces (excluding Manchuria) formally surrendered on September 9, 1945, with the following International Military Tribunal for the Far East convened on April 29, 1946. At the outcome of the Cairo Conference of November 22 -- 26, 1943, the Allies of World War II decided to restrain and punish the aggression of Japan by restoring all the territories that Japan annexed from China, including Manchuria, Taiwan / Formosa, and the Pescadores, to China, and to expel Japan from the Korean Peninsula. China was recognized as one of the Big Four of Allies during the war and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.
In the Chinese language, the war is most commonly known as the War of Resistance against Japan (simplified Chinese: 抗日 战争; traditional Chinese: 抗日 戰爭), and also known as the Eight Years ' War of Resistance (simplified Chinese: 八 年 抗战; traditional Chinese: 八 年 抗戰), simply War of Resistance (simplified Chinese: 抗战; traditional Chinese: 抗戰). In 2017 the Chinese Ministry of Education issued a directive stating that textbooks were to refer to the war as the Fourteen Years ' War of Resistance (simplified Chinese: 十 四 年 抗战; traditional Chinese: 十 四 年 抗戰), reflecting a focus on the broader conflict with Japan going back to 1931. It is also referred to as part of the "Global Anti-Fascist War '', which is how World War 2 is perceived by the Communist Party of China and the PRC government.
In Japan, nowadays, the name "Japan -- China War '' (Japanese: 日 中 戰爭, Hepburn: Nitchū Sensō) is most commonly used because of its perceived objectivity. In Japan today, it is written as 日 中 戦争 in shinjitai. When the invasion of China proper began in earnest in July 1937 near Beijing, the government of Japan used "The North China Incident '' (Japanese: 北 支 事變 / 華北 事變, Hepburn: Hokushi Jihen / Kahoku Jihen), and with the outbreak of the Battle of Shanghai the following month, it was changed to "The China Incident '' (Japanese: 支那 事變, Hepburn: Shina Jihen).
The word "incident '' (Japanese: 事變, Hepburn: jihen) was used by Japan, as neither country had made a formal declaration of war. From the Japanese perspective, localizing these conflicts were beneficial in preventing intervention from other nations, particularly the United Kingdom and the United States, which were its primary source of petroleum and steel respectively. A formal expression of these conflicts would potentially lead to American embargo in accordance to the Neutrality Acts of 1930s. In addition, due to China 's fractured political status, Japan often claimed that China was no longer a recognizable political entity on which war could be declared.
In Japanese propaganda, the invasion of China became a "holy war '' (Japanese: 聖戦, Hepburn: seisen), the first step of the Hakkō ichiu (八紘 一 宇, "eight corners of the world under one roof '' slogan). In 1940, Japanese Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe launched the Taisei Yokusankai. When both sides formally declared war in December 1941, the name was replaced by "Greater East Asia War '' (Japanese: 大 東亞 戰爭, Hepburn: Daitōa Sensō).
Although the Japanese government still uses the term "China Incident '' in formal documents, the word Shina is considered derogatory by China and therefore the media in Japan often paraphrase with other expressions like "The Japan -- China Incident '' (Japanese: 日 華 事變, Hepburn: Nikka Jiken, 日 支 事變 Nisshi Jiken), which were used by media as early as the 1930s.
The name "Second Sino - Japanese War '' is not commonly used in Japan as the war it fought with the Qing dynasty in 1894 is called the Qing - Japanese War (Japanese: 日 清 戦争, Hepburn: Nisshin -- Sensō) rather than the First Sino - Japanese War.
The origin of the Second Sino - Japanese War can be traced to the First Sino - Japanese War of 1894 -- 95, in which China, then under the Qing dynasty, was defeated by Japan and was forced to cede Formosa, and to recognize the full and complete independence of Korea in the Treaty of Shimonoseki; Japan had also allegedly annexed the Diaoyudao / Senkaku islands in early 1895 as a result being the victors of this war (Japan claims the islands to have been uninhabited in 1895). The Qing Dynasty was on the brink of collapse from internal revolts and foreign imperialism, while Japan had emerged as a great power through its effective measures of modernization.
The Republic of China was founded in 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution which overthrew the last imperial dynasty of China, the Qing dynasty (1644 -- 1911). However, central authority disintegrated and the Republic 's authority succumbed to that of regional warlords, mostly from the former Beiyang Army. Unifying the nation and repelling imperialism seemed a very remote possibility. Some warlords even aligned themselves with various foreign powers in their battles with each other. For example, the warlord Zhang Zuolin of Manchuria from the Zhili clique openly cooperated with the Japanese for military and economic assistance.
In 1915, Japan issued the Twenty - One Demands to extort further political and commercial privilege from China, which was accepted by Yuan Shikai. Following the World War I, Japan acquired the German Empire 's sphere of influence in Shandong province, leading to nationwide anti-Japanese protests and mass demonstrations in China. Under the Beiyang government, China remained fragmented and were unable to resist foreign incursions. For the purpose of unifying China and defeating the regional warlords, the Kuomintang (KMT, alternatively known as the Chinese Nationalist Party) in Guangzhou launched the Northern Expedition of from 1926 to 1928 with limited assistance from the Soviet Union.
The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) formed by the KMT swept through southern and central China until it was checked in Shandong, where confrontations with the Japanese garrison escalated into armed conflict. The conflicts were collectively known as the Jinan incident of 1928, during which time the Japanese military violently killed several Chinese officials and fired artillery shells into Jinan. Between 2,000 and 11,000 Chinese and Japanese civilians were believed to have been killed during these conflicts. The Jinan incident severely deteriorated the relations between the Chinese Nationalist government and Japan.
As the National Revolutionary Army approaches Beijing, Zhang Zuolin decided to retreated back to Manchuria, before he was assassinated by the Kwantung Army in 1928. His son, Zhang Xueliang, took over as the leader of the Fengtian clique in Manchuria. Later in the same year, Zhang decided to declare his allegiance to the Nationalist government in Nanjing under Chiang Kai - shek, and consequently China was nominally reunified under one government.
The July - November 1929 conflict over the Chinese Eastern Railroad (CER) further increased the tensions in the Northeast that would lead to the Mukden Incident and eventually the Second Sino - Japanese War. The Soviet Red Army victory over Zhang Xueiliang 's forces not only reasserted Soviet control over the CER in Manchuria but revealed Chinese military weaknesses that Japanese Kwantung Army officers were quick to note.
The Soviet Red Army performance also stunned the Japanese. Manchuria was central to Japan 's East Asia policy. Both the 1921 and 1927 Imperial Eastern Region Conferences reconfirmed Japan 's commitment to be the dominant power in the Northeast. The 1929 Red Army victory shook that policy to the core and reopened the Manchurian problem. By 1930, the Kwantung Army realized they faced a Red Army that was only growing stronger. The time to act was drawing near and Japanese plans to conquer the Northeast were accelerated.
In 1930, the Central Plains War broke out across China, involving regional commanders who had fought in alliance with the Kuomintang during the Northern Expedition, and the Nanjing government under Chiang. The Communist Party of China (CPC) previously fought openly against the Nanjing government after the Shanghai massacre of 1927, and they continued to expand during this civil war. The Kuomintang government in Nanjing decided to focus their efforts on suppressing the Chinese Communists through the Encirclement Campaigns, following the policy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance '' (Chinese: 攘 外 必 先 安 內).
The internecine warfare in China provided excellent opportunities for Japan, which saw Manchuria as a limitless supply of raw materials, a market for its manufactured goods (now excluded from the influence of many Western countries in Depression - era tariffs), and as a protective buffer state against the Soviet Union in Siberia. Japan invaded Manchuria outright after the Mukden Incident (simplified Chinese: 九 一 八 事变; traditional Chinese: 九 一 八 事變; pinyin: Jiǔyībā Shìbiàn) in September 1931. Japan charged that their rights in Manchuria, established by the Russo - Japanese War, had been systematically violated and that there were "more than 120 cases of infringement of rights and interests, interference with business, boycott of Japanese goods, unreasonable taxation, detention of individuals, confiscation of properties, eviction, demand for cessation of business, assault and battery, and the oppression of Korean residents. ''
After five months of fighting, Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932, and installed last emperor of China, Puyi, as its puppet ruler. Militarily too weak to challenge Japan directly, China appealed to the League of Nations for help. The League 's investigation led to the publication of the Lytton Report, condemning Japan for its incursion into Manchuria, causing Japan to withdraw from the League of Nations. No country was willing to take action against Japan beyond tepid censure.
Incessant fighting followed the Mukden Incident. In 1932, Chinese and Japanese troops fought the January 28 Incident battle. This resulted in the demilitarisation of Shanghai, which forbade the Chinese from deploying troops in their own city. In Manchukuo there was an ongoing campaign to defeat the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies that arose from widespread outrage over the policy of non-resistance to Japan.
In 1933, the Japanese attacked the Great Wall region. The Tanggu Truce established in its aftermath, gave Japan control of Jehol province as well as a demilitarized zone between the Great Wall and Beiping - Tianjin region. Japan aimed to create another buffer zone between Manchukuo and the Chinese Nationalist government in Nanjing.
Japan increasingly exploited China 's internal conflicts to reduce the strength of its fractious opponents. This was precipitated by the fact that even years after the Northern Expedition, the political power of the Nationalist government was limited to just the area of the Yangtze River Delta. Other sections of China were essentially in the hands of local Chinese warlords. Japan sought various Chinese collaborators and helped them establish governments friendly to Japan. This policy was called the Specialization of North China (Chinese: 華北 特殊 化; pinyin: huáběitèshūhùa), more commonly known as the North China Autonomous Movement. The northern provinces affected by this policy were Chahar, Suiyuan, Hebei, Shanxi, and Shandong.
This Japanese policy was most effective in the area of what is now Inner Mongolia and Hebei. In 1935, under Japanese pressure, China signed the He -- Umezu Agreement, which forbade the KMT from conducting party operations in Hebei. In the same year, the Chin -- Doihara Agreement was signed expelling the KMT from Chahar. Thus, by the end of 1935 the Chinese government had essentially abandoned northern China. In its place, the Japanese - backed East Hebei Autonomous Council and the Hebei -- Chahar Political Council were established. There in the empty space of Chahar the Mongol Military Government (simplified Chinese: 蒙古 军 政府; traditional Chinese: 蒙古 軍 政府; pinyin: Ménggǔ jūn zhèngfǔ) was formed on May 12, 1936. Japan provided all the necessary military and economic aid. Afterwards Chinese volunteer forces continued to resist Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan.
On the night of July 7, 1937, Chinese and Japanese troops exchanged fire in the vicinity of the Lugou (or Marco Polo) bridge, a crucial access - route to Beijing. What began as confused, sporadic skirmishing soon escalated into a full - scale battle in which Beijing and its port city of Tianjin fell to Japanese forces (July -- August 1937). On July 29, some 5,000 troops of the 1st and 2nd Corps of the East Hopei Army mutinied, turning against the Japanese garrison. In addition to Japanese military personnel, some 260 civilians living in Tongzhou in accordance with the Boxer Protocol of 1901, were killed in the uprising (predominantly Japanese including the police force and also some ethnic Koreans). The Chinese then set fire to and destroyed much of the city. Only around 60 Japanese civilians survived, who provided both journalists and later historians with firsthand witness accounts. As a result of the violence of the mutiny against Japanese civilians, the Tungchow mutiny, as it came to be called, strongly shook public opinion within Japan.
The Imperial General Headquarters (GHQ) in Tokyo, content with the gains acquired in northern China following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, initially showed reluctance to escalate the conflict into full - scale war. The KMT, however, determined that the "breaking point '' of Japanese aggression had been reached. Chiang Kai - shek quickly mobilized the central government 's army and air force, placed them under his direct command, and laid siege to the Japanese area of Shanghai International Settlement, where 30,000 Japanese civilians lived with 30,000 troops on August 12, 1937.
On August 13, 1937, Kuomintang soldiers and warplanes attacked Japanese Marine positions in Shanghai, leading to the Battle of Shanghai. On August 14, Kuomintang planes accidentally bombed the Shanghai International Settlement, which led to more than 3,000 civilian deaths. In the three days from August 14 through 16, 1937, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) sent many sorties of the then - advanced long - ranged G3M medium - heavy land - based bombers and assorted carrier - based aircraft with the expectation of destroying the Chinese Air Force. However, the Imperial Japanese Navy encountered unexpected resistance from the defending Chinese Hawk III and P - 26 / 281 Peashooter fighter squadrons; suffering heavy (50 %) losses from the defending Chinese pilots (August 14 was subsequently commemorated by the KMT as China 's Air Force Day).
The skies of China had become a testing zone for advanced biplane and new - generation monoplane combat - aircraft designs. The introduction of the advanced A5M "Claude '' fighters into the Shanghai - Nanking theater of operations, beginning on September 18, 1937, helped the Japanese achieve a certain level of air superiority. However the few experienced Chinese veteran pilots, even in their older and slower biplanes, proved more than able to hold their own against the sleek A5Ms in dogfights, and it also proved to be a battle of attrition against the Chinese Air Force. At the start of the battle, the local strength of the NRA was around five divisions, or about 70,000 troops, while local Japanese forces comprised about 6,300 marines. On August 23, Japanese Army reinforcements succeeded in landing in northern Shanghai. The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) ultimately committed over 200,000 troops, along with numerous naval vessels and aircraft, to capture the city. After more than three months of intense fighting, their casualties far exceeded initial expectations. On October 26, the Japanese Army captured Dachangzhen, an important strong - point within Shanghai, and on November 5, additional reinforcements of Japan landed from Hangzhou Bay. Finally, on November 9, the NRA began a general retreat.
Building on the hard - won victory in Shanghai, the IJA captured the KMT capital city of Nanjing (Nanking) (December 1937) and Northern Shanxi (September -- November 1937). These campaigns involved approximately 350,000 Japanese soldiers, and considerably more Chinese. Historians estimate that between December 13, 1937 and late January 1938, Japanese forces tortured and murdered up to 300,000 Chinese (mostly civilians and surrendered soldiers) and raped tens of thousands of women during the Nanking Massacre (also known as the "Rape of Nanking ''), after its fall. As of 2015, some right - wing Japanese negationists deny that the massacre occurred, and have successfully lobbied for revision and exclusion of information in Japanese schoolbooks.
At the start of 1938, the leadership in Tokyo still hoped to limit the scope of the conflict to occupy areas around Shanghai, Nanjing and most of northern China. They thought this would preserve strength for an anticipated showdown with the Soviet Union, but by now the Japanese government and GHQ had effectively lost control of the Japanese army in China. With many victories achieved, Japanese field generals escalated the war in Jiangsu in an attempt to wipe out Chinese resistance, but were defeated at the Battle of Taierzhuang (March -- April 1938). Afterwards the IJA changed its strategy and deployed almost all of its existing armies in China to attack the city of Wuhan, which had become the political, economic and military center of rump China, in hopes of destroying the fighting strength of the NRA and of forcing the KMT government to negotiate for peace. The Japanese captured Wuhan on October 27, 1938, forcing the KMT to retreat to Chongqing (Chungking), but Chiang Kai - shek still refused to negotiate, saying he would only consider talks if Japan agreed to withdraw to the pre-1937 borders.
With Japanese casualties and costs mounting, the Imperial General Headquarters attempted to break Chinese resistance by ordering the air branches of their navy and army to launch the war 's first massive air raids on civilian targets. Japanese raiders hit the Kuomintang 's newly established provisional capital of Chongqing and most other major cities in unoccupied China, leaving millions dead, injured, and homeless.
From the beginning of 1939, the war entered a new phase with the unprecedented defeat of the Japanese at Suixian, Zaoyang, Changsha and Guangxi. These outcomes encouraged the Chinese to launch their first large - scale counter-offensive against the IJA in early 1940; however, due to its low military - industrial capacity and limited experience in modern warfare, this offensive was defeated. Afterwards Chiang could not risk any more all - out offensive campaigns given the poorly trained, under - equipped, and disorganized state of his armies and opposition to his leadership both within the Kuomintang and in China in general. He had lost a substantial portion of his best trained and equipped troops in the Battle of Shanghai and was at times at the mercy of his generals, who maintained a high degree of autonomy from the central KMT government.
During the offensive, Hui forces in Suiyuan under generals Ma Hongbin and Ma Buqing routed the Japanese army and their puppet Inner Mongol forces and prevented the planned Japanese advance into northwest China. Ma Hongbin 's father Ma Fulu had fought against Japanese in the Boxer Rebellion. General Ma Biao led Hui, Salar and Dongxiang cavalry to defeat the Japanese at the Battle of Huaiyang. Ma Biao fought against Japanese in the Boxer rebellion.
After 1940, the Japanese encountered tremendous difficulties in administering and garrisoning the seized territories, and tried to solve its occupation problems by implementing a strategy of creating friendly puppet governments favourable to Japanese interests in the territories conquered, most prominently the Nanjing Nationalist Government headed by former KMT premier Wang Jingwei. However, atrocities committed by the Japanese army, as well as Japanese refusal to delegate any real power, left the puppets very unpopular and largely ineffective. The only success the Japanese had was to recruit a large Collaborationist Chinese Army to maintain public security in the occupied areas.
By 1941, Japan held most of the eastern coastal areas of China and Vietnam, but guerilla fighting continued in these occupied areas. Japan had suffered high casualties from unexpectedly stubborn Chinese resistance, and neither side could make any swift progress in the manner of Nazi Germany in Western Europe.
The basis of Chinese strategy before the entrance of Western Allies can be divided into two periods as follows:
First Period: July 7, 1937 (Battle of Lugou Bridge) -- October 25, 1938 (end of the Battle of Wuhan with the fall of the City).
Unlike Japan, China was unprepared for total war and had little military - industrial strength, no mechanized divisions, and few armoured forces. Up until the mid-1930s, China had hoped that the League of Nations would provide countermeasures to Japan 's aggression. In addition, the Kuomintang (KMT) government was mired in a civil war against the Communist Party of China (CPC), as Chiang Kai - shek was quoted: "the Japanese are a disease of the skin, the Communists are a disease of the heart ''. The Second United Front between the KMT and CPC was never truly unified, as each side was preparing for a showdown with the other once the Japanese were driven out.
Even under these extremely unfavorable circumstances, Chiang realized that to win support from the United States and other foreign nations, China had to prove it was capable of fighting. Knowing a hasty retreat would discourage foreign aid, Chiang resolved to make a stand at Shanghai, using the best of his German - trained divisions to defend China 's largest and most industrialized city from the Japanese. The battle lasted over three months, saw heavy casualties on both sides, and ended with a Chinese retreat towards Nanjing, but proved that China would not be easily defeated and showed its determination to the world. The battle became an enormous morale booster for the Chinese people, as it decisively refuted the Japanese boast that Japan could conquer Shanghai in three days and China in three months.
Afterwards, China began to adopt the Fabian strategy of "trading space for time '' (simplified Chinese: 以 空间 换取 时间; traditional Chinese: 以 空間 換取 時間). The Chinese army would put up fights to delay the Japanese advance to northern and eastern cities, allowing the home front, with its professionals and key industries, to retreat west into Chongqing. As a result of Chinese troops ' scorched earth strategies, in which dams and levees were intentionally sabotaged to create massive flooding, Japanese advances began to stall in late 1938.
Second Period: October 25, 1938 (following the Fall of Wuhan) -- December 1941 (before the Allies ' declaration of war on Japan).
During this period, the main Chinese objective was to drag out the war for as long as possible, thereby exhausting Japanese resources while building up Chinese military capacity. American general Joseph Stilwell called this strategy "winning by outlasting ''. The NRA adopted the concept of "magnetic warfare '' to attract advancing Japanese troops to definite points where they were subjected to ambush, flanking attacks, and encirclements in major engagements. The most prominent example of this tactic was the successful defense of Changsha in 1939 (and again in 1941), in which heavy casualties were inflicted on the IJA.
Local Chinese resistance forces, organized separately by both the communists and KMT, continued their resistance in occupied areas to pester the enemy and make their administration over the vast land area of China difficult. In 1940, the Chinese Red Army launched a major offensive in north China, destroying railways and a major coal mine. These constant harassment and sabotage operations deeply frustrated the Japanese army and led them to employ the "Three Alls Policy '' (kill all, loot all, burn all) (三光 政策, Hanyu Pinyin: Sānguāng Zhèngcè, Japanese On: Sankō Seisaku). It was during this period that the bulk of Japanese war crimes were committed.
By 1941, Japan had occupied much of north and coastal China, but the KMT central government and military had retreated to the western interior to continue their resistance, while the Chinese communists remained in control of base areas in Shaanxi. In the occupied areas, Japanese control was mainly limited to railroads and major cities ("points and lines ''). They did not have a major military or administrative presence in the vast Chinese countryside, where Chinese guerrillas roamed freely.
After the Mukden Incident in 1931, Chinese public opinion was strongly critical of Manchuria 's leader, the "young marshal '' Zhang Xueliang, for his nonresistance to the Japanese invasion, even though the Kuomintang central government was also responsible for this policy, giving Zhang an order to "improvise '' while not offering support. After losing Manchuria to the Japanese, Zhang and his Northeast Army were given the duty of suppressing the Red Army of the Chinese Communist Party (CPC) in Shaanxi after their Long March. This resulted in great casualties for his Northeast Army, which received no support in manpower or weaponry from Chiang Kai - shek.
On 12 December 1936, a deeply disgruntled Zhang Xueliang kidnapped Chiang Kai - shek in Xi'an, hoping to force an end to the conflict between KMT and CPC. To secure the release of Chiang, the KMT agreed to a temporary end to the Chinese Civil War and, on 24 December, the creation of a United Front between the CPC and KMT against Japan. The alliance having salutary effects for the beleaguered CPC, they agreed to form the New Fourth Army and the 8th Route Army and place them under the nominal control of the NRA. The CPC 's Red Army fought alongside KMT forces during the Battle of Taiyuan, and the high point of their cooperation came in 1938 during the Battle of Wuhan.
Despite Japan 's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions, and the rich Yangtze River Valley in central China, the distrust between the two antagonists was scarcely veiled. The uneasy alliance began to break down by late 1938, partially due to the Communists ' aggressive efforts to expand their military strength by absorbing Chinese guerrilla forces behind Japanese lines. Chinese militia who refused to switch their allegiance were often labelled "collaborators '' and attacked by CPC forces. For example, the Red Army led by He Long attacked and wiped out a brigade of Chinese militia led by Zhang Yin - wu in Hebei in June 1939. Starting in 1940, open conflict between Nationalists and Communists became more frequent in the occupied areas outside of Japanese control, culminating in the New Fourth Army Incident in January 1941.
Afterwards, the Second United Front completely broke down and Chinese Communists leader Mao Zedong outlined the preliminary plan for the CPC 's eventual seizure of power from Chiang Kai - shek. Mao began his final push for consolidation of CPC power under his authority, and his teachings became the central tenets of the CPC doctrine that came to be formalized as "Mao Zedong Thought ''. The communists also began to focus most of their energy on building up their sphere of influence wherever opportunities were presented, mainly through rural mass organizations, administrative, land and tax reform measures favoring poor peasants; while the Nationalists attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence by military blockade of areas controlled by CPC and fighting the Japanese at the same time
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States declared war against Japan, and within days China joined the Allies in formal declaration of war against Japan, Germany and Italy. As the Western Allies entered the war against Japan, the Sino - Japanese war would become part of a greater conflict, the Pacific theatre of World War II. Almost immediately, Chinese troops achieved another decisive victory in the Battle of Changsha, which earned the Chinese government much prestige from the Western Allies. President Franklin D. Roosevelt referred to the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and China as the world 's "Four Policemen '', elevating the international status of China to an unprecedented height after a century of humiliation at the hands of various imperialist powers.
Knowledge of Japanese naval movements in the Pacific was provided to the American Navy by SACO which was run by the Chinese intelligence head Dai Li. Philippine and Japanese ocean weather was affected by weather originating near northern China. The base of SACO located in Yangjiashan.
Chiang Kai - shek continued to receive supplies from the United States. However, in contrast to the Arctic supply route to the Soviet Union which stayed open through most of the war, sea routes to China and the Yunnan -- Vietnam Railway had been closed since 1940. Therefore, between the closing of the Burma Road in 1942 and its re-opening as the Ledo Road in 1945, foreign aid was largely limited to what could be flown in over "The Hump ''. In Burma, on 16 April 1942, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. After the Doolittle Raid, the Japanese army conducted a massive sweep through Zhejiang and Jiangxi of China, now known as the Zhejiang - Jiangxi Campaign, with the goal of finding the surviving American airmen, applying retribution on the Chinese who aided them and destroying air bases. The operation started May 15, 1942 with 40 infantry battalions and 15 -- 16 artillery battalions but was repelled by Chinese forces in September. During this campaign, the Imperial Japanese Army left behind a trail of devastation and had also spread cholera, typhoid, plague and dysentery pathogens. Chinese estimates put the death toll at 250,000 civilians.
Most of China 's industry had already been captured or destroyed by Japan, and the Soviet Union refused to allow the United States to supply China through Kazakhstan into Xinjiang as the Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai had turned anti-Soviet in 1942 with Chiang 's approval. For these reasons, the Chinese government never had the supplies and equipment needed to mount major counter-offensives. Despite the severe shortage of matériel, in 1943, the Chinese were successful in repelling major Japanese offensives in Hubei and Changde.
Chiang was named Allied commander - in - chief in the China theater in 1942. American general Joseph Stilwell served for a time as Chiang 's chief of staff, while simultaneously commanding American forces in the China - Burma - India Theater. For many reasons, relations between Stilwell and Chiang soon broke down. Many historians (such as Barbara W. Tuchman) have suggested it was largely due to the corruption and inefficiency of the Kuomintang (KMT) government, while others (such as Ray Huang and Hans van de Ven) have depicted it as a more complicated situation. Stilwell had a strong desire to assume total control of Chinese troops and pursue an aggressive strategy, while Chiang preferred a patient and less expensive strategy of outwaiting the Japanese. Chiang continued to maintain a defensive posture despite Allied pleas to actively break the Japanese blockade, because China had already suffered tens of millions of war casualties and believed that Japan would eventually capitulate in the face of America 's overwhelming industrial output. For these reasons the other Allies gradually began to lose confidence in the Chinese ability to conduct offensive operations from the Asian mainland, and instead concentrated their efforts against the Japanese in the Pacific Ocean Areas and South West Pacific Area, employing an island hopping strategy.
Longstanding differences in national interest and political stance among China, the United States, and the United Kingdom remained in place. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was reluctant to devote British troops, many of whom had been routed by the Japanese in earlier campaigns, to the reopening of the Burma Road; Stilwell, on the other hand, believed that reopening the road was vital, as all China 's mainland ports were under Japanese control. The Allies ' "Europe First '' policy did not sit well with Chiang, while the later British insistence that China send more and more troops to Indochina for use in the Burma Campaign was seen by Chiang as an attempt to use Chinese manpower to defend British colonial holdings. Chiang also believed that China should divert its crack army divisions from Burma to eastern China to defend the airbases of the American bombers that he hoped would defeat Japan through bombing, a strategy that American general Claire Lee Chennault supported but which Stilwell strongly opposed. In addition, Chiang voiced his support of Indian independence in a 1942 meeting with Mahatma Gandhi, which further soured the relationship between China and the United Kingdom.
American and Canadian - born Chinese were recruited to act as covert operatives in Japanese - occupied China (Canadian - born Chinese who had not been granted citizenship were trained by the British army). Employing their racial background as a disguise, their mandate was to blend in with local citizens and wage a campaign of sabotage. Activities focused on destruction of Japanese transportation of supplies (signaling bomber destruction of railroads, bridges). Chinese forces invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina and captured Mount Song. The British and Commonwealth forces had their operation in Mission 204 which attempted to provide assistance to the Chinese Nationalist Army. The first phase in 1942 under command of SOE achieved very little, but lessons were learned and a second more successful phase, commenced in February 1943 under British Military command, was conducted before the Japanese Operation Ichi - Go offensive in 1944 compelled evacuation.
The United States saw the Chinese theater as a means to tie up a large number of Japanese troops, as well as being a location for American airbases from which to strike the Japanese home islands. In 1944, with the Japanese position in the Pacific deteriorating rapidly, the IJA mobilized over 400,000 men and launched Operation Ichi - Go, their largest offensive of World War II, to attack the American airbases in China and link up the railway between Manchuria and Vietnam. This brought major cities in Hunan, Henan and Guangxi under Japanese occupation. The failure of Chinese forces to defend these areas encouraged Stilwell to attempt to gain overall command of the Chinese army, and his subsequent showdown with Chiang led to his replacement by Major General Albert Coady Wedemeyer.
By the end of 1944 Chinese troops under the command of Sun Li - jen attacking from India, and those under Wei Lihuang attacking from Yunnan, joined forces in Mong - Yu, successfully driving the Japanese out of North Burma and securing the Ledo Road, China 's vital supply artery. In Spring 1945 the Chinese launched offensives that retook Hunan and Guangxi. With the Chinese army progressing well in training and equipment, Wedemeyer planned to launch Operation Carbonado in summer 1945 to retake Guangdong, thus obtaining a coastal port, and from there drive northwards toward Shanghai. However, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Soviet invasion of Manchuria hastened Japanese surrender and these plans were not put into action.
Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union provided aid to China at the start of the Second Sino - Japanese War. By 1940 the United States had become China 's main diplomatic, financial and military supporter.
Prior to the war, Germany and China were in close economic and military cooperation, with Germany helping China modernize its industry and military in exchange for raw materials. More than half of German arms exports during its rearmament period were to China. Germany sent military advisers such as Alexander von Falkenhausen to China to help the KMT government reform its armed forces. Some divisions began training to German standards and were to form the core of modernized forces in the NRA. While 30 German - trained divisions were proposed originally, the plan failed to materialize as Germany withdrew its support in 1938 in favor of an alliance with Japan against the Soviet Union.
The Soviet Union defeated Japan in the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in May -- September 1939, leaving the Japanese reluctant to fight the Soviets again. After Germany and Japan signed the anti-communist (Anti-Comintern Pact), the Soviet Union hoped to keep China fighting, in order to deter a Japanese invasion of Siberia and save itself from a two - front war. In September 1937, they signed the Sino - Soviet Non-Aggression Pact and approved Operation Zet, the formation of a secret Soviet volunteer air force, in which Soviet technicians upgraded and ran some of China 's transportation systems. Bombers, fighters, supplies and advisors arrived, including Soviet general Vasily Chuikov, future victor in the Battle of Stalingrad. Prior to the Western Allies, the Russians provided the most foreign aid to China: some $250 million in credits for munitions and other supplies. In April 1941, Soviet aid ended with the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact and the beginning of the Great Patriotic War. This pact enabled the Soviet Union to avoid fighting against Germany and Japan at the same time. In August 1945, Soviet Union annulled the neutrality pact with Japan and invaded Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, the Kuril Islands, and northern Korea. The Soviets also continued to support the Chinese Communist Party. In total, 3,665 Soviet advisors and pilots served in China, and 227 of them died fighting there.
From December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on the USS Panay and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan and increased their fear of Japanese expansion, which prompted the United States, the United Kingdom, and France to provide loan assistance for war supply contracts to the Republic of China. Australia also prevented a Japanese government - owned company from taking over an iron mine in Australia, and banned iron ore exports in 1938. However, in July 1939, negotiations between Japanese Foreign Minister Arita Khatira and the British Ambassador in Tokyo, Robert Craigie, led to an agreement by which Great Britain recognized Japanese conquests in China. At the same time, the U.S. government extended a trade agreement with Japan for six months, then fully restored it. Under the agreement, Japan purchased trucks for the Kwantung Army, machine tools for aircraft factories, strategic materials (steel and scrap iron up to October 16, 1940, petrol and petroleum products up to June 26, 1941), and various other much - needed supplies.
Japan invaded and occupied the northern part of French Indochina (present - day Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia) in September 1940 to prevent China from receiving the 10,000 tons of materials delivered monthly by the Allies via the Haiphong -- Yunnan Fou Railway line.
On June 22, 1941, Germany attacked the Soviet Union. In spite of non-aggression pacts or trade connections, Hitler 's assault threw the world into a frenzy of re-aligning political outlooks and strategic prospects.
On July 21, Japan occupied the southern part of French Indochina (Southern Vietnam and Cambodia), contravening a 1940 "Gentlemen 's Agreement '' not to move into southern French Indochina. From bases in Cambodia and Southern Vietnam, Japanese planes could attack Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies. As the Japanese occupation of Northern French Indochina in 1940 had already cut off supplies from the West to China, the move into Southern French Indochina was viewed as a direct threat to British and Dutch colonies. Many principal figures in the Japanese government and military (particularly the navy) were against the move, as they foresaw that it would invite retaliation from the West.
On 24 July 1941, Roosevelt requested Japan withdraw all its forces from Indochina. Two days later the USA and the UK began an oil embargo; two days after that the Netherlands joined them. This was a decisive moment in the Second Sino - Japanese war. The loss of oil imports made it impossible for Japan to continue operations in China on a long term basis. It set the stage for Japan to launch a series of military attacks against the Allies, including the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.
In mid-1941, the United States government financed the creation of the American Volunteer Group (AVG), or Flying Tigers, to replace the withdrawn Soviet volunteers and aircraft. Contrary to popular perception, the Flying Tigers did not enter actual combat until after the United States had declared war on Japan. Led by Claire Lee Chennault, their early combat success of 300 kills against a loss of 12 of their newly introduced shark painted P - 40 fighters heavily armed with 6X50 caliber machine guns and very fast diving speeds earned them wide recognition at a time when the Chinese Air Force and Allies in the Pacific and SE Asia were suffering heavy losses, and soon afterwards their "boom and zoom '' high - speed hit - and - run dissimilar air combat tactics would be adopted by the United States Army Air Forces.
The Sino - American Cooperative Organization was an organization created by the SACO Treaty signed by the Republic of China and the United States of America in 1942 that established a mutual intelligence gathering entity in China between the respective nations against Japan. It operated in China jointly along with the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), America 's first intelligence agency and forerunner of the CIA while also serving as joint training program between the two nations. Among all the wartime missions that Americans set up in China, SACO was the only one that adopted a policy of "total immersion '' with the Chinese. The "Rice Paddy Navy '' or "What - the - Hell Gang '' operated in the China - Burma - India theater, advising and training, forecasting weather and scouting landing areas for USN fleet and Gen Claire Chennault 's 14th AF, rescuing downed American flyers, and intercepting Japanese radio traffic. An underlying mission objective during the last year of war was the development and preparation of the China coast for Allied penetration and occupation. The Foochow (Fujian Province) was scouted as a potential staging area and springboard for the future military landing of Allies of World War II to Japan.
A British - Australian commando operation, Mission 204, was initialized in February 1942 to provide training to Chinese guerrilla troops. Commandos working with the Free Thai Movement also operated in China, mostly while on their way into Thailand.
The Chinese Kuomintang also supported the Vietnamese Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng (VNQDD) in its battle against French and Japanese imperialism.
In Guangxi, Chinese military leaders were organizing Vietnamese nationalists against the Japanese. The VNQDD had been active in Guangxi and some of their members had joined the KMT army. Under the umbrella of KMT activities, a broad alliance of nationalists emerged. With Ho at the forefront, the Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi (Vietnamese Independence League, usually known as the Viet Minh) was formed and based in the town of Jingxi. The pro-VNQDD nationalist Ho Ngoc Lam, a KMT army officer and former disciple of Phan Bội Châu, was named as the deputy of Phạm Văn Đồng, later to be Ho 's Prime Minister. The front was later broadened and renamed the Viet Nam Giai Phong Dong Minh (Vietnam Liberation League).
The Viet Nam Revolutionary League was a union of various Vietnamese nationalist groups, run by the pro Chinese VNQDD. Chinese KMT General Zhang Fakui created the league to further Chinese influence in Indochina, against the French and Japanese. Its stated goal was for unity with China under the Three Principles of the People, created by KMT founder Dr. Sun and opposition to Japanese and French Imperialists. The Revolutionary League was controlled by Nguyen Hai Than, who was born in China and could not speak Vietnamese. General Zhang shrewdly blocked the Communists of Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh from entering the league, as Zhang 's main goal was Chinese influence in Indochina. The KMT utilized these Vietnamese nationalists during World War II against Japanese forces. Franklin D. Roosevelt, through General Stilwell, privately made it clear that they preferred that the French not reacquire French Indochina (modern day Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) after the war was over. Roosevelt offered Chiang Kai - shek control of all of Indochina. It was said that Chiang Kai - shek replied: "Under no circumstances! ''
After the war, 200,000 Chinese troops under General Lu Han were sent by Chiang Kai - shek to northern Indochina (north of the 16th parallel) to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces there, and remained in Indochina until 1946, when the French returned. The Chinese used the VNQDD, the Vietnamese branch of the Chinese Kuomintang, to increase their influence in Indochina and to put pressure on their opponents. Chiang Kai - shek threatened the French with war in response to manoeuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh 's forces against each other, forcing them to come to a peace agreement. In February, 1946 he also forced the French to surrender all of their concessions in China and to renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for the Chinese withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region. Following France 's agreement to these demands, the withdrawal of Chinese troops began in March 1946.
The Chinese were not entirely devoting of all their resources to the Japanese, because they were fighting several other wars at the same time.
Rebellion occurred in the Xinjiang province in 1937 when a pro-Soviet Hui general Ma Zhanshan invaded the province accompanied by Russian troops. The invasion was resisted by another Hui general Ma Hushan of the KMT 36th Division.
General Ma Hushan was expecting help from Nanjing, as he exchanged messages with Chiang regarding the Soviet attack. But, both the Second Sino - Japanese War and the Xinjiang War erupted simultaneously leaving Chiang and Ma Hushan each on their own to confront the Japanese and Soviet forces.
The Republic of China government was fully aware of the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang province, and Soviet troops moving around Xinjiang and Gansu, but it was forced to mask these maneuvers to the public as "Japanese propaganda '' to avoid an international incident and for continued military supplies from the Soviets.
Because the pro-Soviet governor Sheng Shicai controlled Xinjiang, which was garrisoned with Soviet troops in Turfan, the Chinese government had to keep troops stationed there as well.
General Ma Buqing was in virtual control of the Gansu corridor at that time. Ma Buqing had earlier fought against the Japanese, but because the Soviet threat was great, Chiang changed Ma 's position, in July, 1942, by instructing Ma to move 30,000 of his troops to the Tsaidam marsh in the Qaidam Basin of Qinghai. Chiang named Ma as Reclamation Commissioner, to threaten Sheng Shicai 's southern flank in Xinjiang, which bordered Tsaidam.
After Ma evacuated his positions in Gansu, Kuomintang troops from central China flooded the area, and infiltrated Soviet occupied Xinjiang, gradually reclaiming it and forcing Sheng Shicai to break with the Soviets. The Kuomintang ordered Ma Bufang several times to march his troops into Xinjiang to intimidate the pro-Soviet Governor Sheng Shicai. This helped provide protection for Chinese settling in Xinjiang.
The Ili Rebellion broke out in Xinjiang when the Kuomintang Hui Officer Liu Bin - Di was killed while fighting Turkic Uyghur Rebels in November 1944. The Soviet Union supported the Turkic rebels against the Kuomintang, and Kuomintang forces were fighting back.
Despite Article 23 of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, article V of the Treaty in Relation to the Use of Submarines and Noxious Gases in Warfare, article 171 of the Treaty of Versailles and a resolution adopted by the League of Nations on May 14, 1938, condemning the use of poison gas by the Empire of Japan, the Imperial Japanese Army frequently used chemical weapons during the war.
According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno, the chemical weapons were authorized by specific orders given by Japanese Emperor Hirohito himself, transmitted by the Imperial General Headquarters. For example, the Emperor authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions during the Battle of Wuhan from August to October 1938. They were also used during the invasion of Changde. Those orders were transmitted either by Prince Kan'in Kotohito or General Hajime Sugiyama.
Bacteriological weapons provided by Shirō Ishii 's units were also profusely used. For example, in 1940, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force bombed Ningbo with fleas carrying the bubonic plague. During the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials the accused, such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima, testified that, in 1941, some 40 members of Unit 731 air - dropped plague - contaminated fleas on Changde. These attacks caused epidemic plague outbreaks. In the Zhejiang - Jiangxi Campaign, of the 10,000 Japanese soldiers who fell ill with the disease, about 1,700 Japanese troops died when the biological weapons rebounded on their own forces.
Chinese armies deployed "Dare to Die Corps '' (traditional Chinese: 敢死隊; simplified Chinese: 敢死队; pinyin: gǎnsǐduì) or "Suicide squads '' against the Japanese.
A "dare to die corps '' was effectively used against Japanese units at the Battle of Taierzhuang.
Suicide bombing was also used against the Japanese. A Chinese soldier detonated a grenade vest and killed 20 Japanese at Sihang Warehouse. Chinese troops strapped explosives like grenade packs or dynamite to their bodies and threw themselves under Japanese tanks to blow them up. This tactic was used during the Battle of Shanghai, where a Chinese suicide bomber stopped a Japanese tank column by exploding himself beneath the lead tank, and at the Battle of Taierzhuang where dynamite and grenades were strapped on by Chinese troops who rushed at Japanese tanks and blew themselves up. During one incident at Taierzhuang, Chinese suicide bombers destroyed four Japanese tanks with grenade bundles.
Japan attempted to reach out to ethnic minorities in order to rally them to their side, but only succeeded with certain Manchu, Mongol, Uyghur and Tibetan elements.
During the Second Sino - Japanese war the Japanese followed what has been referred to as a "killing policy '' and destroyed many mosques. According to Wan Lei, "Statistics showed that the Japanese destroyed 220 mosques and killed countless Hui people by April 1941. '' After the Nanking Massacre mosques in Nanjing were found to be filled with dead bodies. They also followed a policy of economic oppression which involved the destruction of mosques and Hui communities and made many Hui jobless and homeless. Another policy was one of deliberate humiliation. This included soldiers smearing mosques with pork fat, forcing Hui to butcher pigs to feed the soldiers, and forcing girls to supposedly train as geishas and singers but in fact made them serve as sex slaves. Hui cemeteries were destroyed for military reasons. Many Hui fought in the war against Japan such as Bai Chongxi, Ma Hongbin, Ma Hongkui, Ma Bufang, Ma Zhanshan, Ma Biao, Ma Zhongying, Ma Buqing and Ma Hushan. Qinghai Tibetans served in the Qinghai army against the Japanese. The Qinghai Tibetans view the Tibetans of Central Tibet (Tibet proper, ruled by the Dalai Lamas from Lhasa) as distinct and different from themselves, and even take pride in the fact that they were not ruled by Lhasa ever since the collapse of the Tibetan Empire.
Xining was subjected to aerial bombardment by Japanese warplanes in 1941, causing all ethnicities in Qinghai to unite against the Japanese. General Han Youwen directed the defense of the city of Xining during air raids by Japanese planes. Han survived an aerial bombardment by Japanese planes in Xining while he was being directed via telephone by Ma Bufang, who hid in an air raid shelter in a military barracks. The bombing resulted Han being buried in rubble, though he was later rescued.
Chinese Muslim Cavalry
Chinese Muslim soldiers
The United States and the Soviet Union put an end to the Sino - Japanese War (and World War II) by attacking the Japanese with a new weapon (on America 's part) and an incursion into Manchuria (on the Soviet Union 's part). On August 6, 1945, an American B - 29 bomber, the Enola Gay, dropped the first atomic bomb used in combat on Hiroshima, killing tens of thousands and leveling the city. On August 9, 1945, the Soviet Union renounced its non-aggression pact with Japan and attacked the Japanese in Manchuria, fulfilling its Yalta Conference pledge to attack the Japanese within three months after the end of the war in Europe. The attack was made by three Soviet army groups. On that same day, a second equally destructive atomic bomb was dropped by the United States on Nagasaki.
In less than two weeks the Kwantung Army, which was the primary Japanese fighting force, consisting of over a million men but lacking in adequate armor, artillery, or air support, had been destroyed by the Soviets. Japanese Emperor Hirohito officially capitulated to the Allies on August 15, 1945, and the official surrender was signed aboard the battleship USS Missouri on September 2, 1945.
After the Allied victory in the Pacific, General Douglas MacArthur ordered all Japanese forces within China (excluding Manchuria), Formosa and French Indochina north of 16 ° north latitude to surrender to Chiang Kai - shek, and the Japanese troops in China formally surrendered on September 9, 1945 at 9: 00. The ninth hour of the ninth day of the ninth month was chosen in echo of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 (on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month) and because "nine '' is homophone of the word for "long lasting '' in Chinese (to suggest that the peace won would last forever).
In 1945, China emerged from the war nominally a great military power but economically weak and on the verge of all - out civil war. The economy was sapped by the military demands of a long costly war and internal strife, by spiraling inflation, and by corruption in the Nationalist government that included profiteering, speculation and hoarding.
Furthermore, as part of the Yalta Conference, which allowed a Soviet sphere of influence in Manchuria, the Soviets dismantled and removed more than half of the industrial equipment left there by the Japanese before handing over Manchuria to China. Large swathes of the prime farming areas had been ravaged by the fighting and there was starvation in the wake of the war. Many towns and cities were destroyed, and millions were rendered homeless by floods.
The problems of rehabilitation and reconstruction after the ravages of a protracted war were staggering, and the war left the Nationalists severely weakened, and their policies left them unpopular. Meanwhile, the war strengthened the Communists both in popularity and as a viable fighting force. At Yan'an and elsewhere in the communist controlled areas, Mao Zedong was able to adapt Marxism -- Leninism to Chinese conditions. He taught party cadres to lead the masses by living and working with them, eating their food, and thinking their thoughts.
The Chinese Red Army fostered an image of conducting guerrilla warfare in defense of the people. Communist troops adapted to changing wartime conditions and became a seasoned fighting force. With skillful organization and propaganda, the Communists increased party membership from 100,000 in 1937 to 1.2 million by 1945.
Mao also began to execute his plan to establish a new China by rapidly moving his forces from Yan'an and elsewhere to Manchuria. This opportunity was available to the Communists because although Nationalist representatives were not invited to Yalta, they had been consulted and had agreed to the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in the belief that the Soviet Union would cooperate only with the Nationalist government after the war.
However, the Soviet occupation of Manchuria was long enough to allow the Communist forces to move in en masse and arm themselves with the military hardware surrendered by the Japanese army, quickly establish control in the countryside and move into position to encircle the Nationalist government army in major cities of northeast China. Following that, the Chinese Civil War broke out between the Nationalists and Communists, which concluded with the Communist victory in mainland China and the retreat of the Nationalists to Taiwan in 1949.
Formosa and the Penghu islands were put under the administrative control of the Republic of China (ROC) government in 1945 by the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. The ROC proclaimed Taiwan Retrocession Day on October 25, 1945. However, due to the unresolved Chinese Civil War, neither the newly established People 's Republic of China (PRC) in mainland China nor the Nationalist ROC that retreated to Taiwan was invited to sign the Treaty of San Francisco, as neither had shown full and complete legal capacity to enter into an international legally binding agreement. Since China was not present, the Japanese only formally renounced the territorial sovereignty of Taiwan and Penghu islands without specifying to which country Japan relinquished the sovereignty, and the treaty was signed in 1951 and came into force in 1952.
In 1952, the Treaty of Taipei was signed separately between the ROC and Japan that basically followed the same guideline of the Treaty of San Francisco, not specifying which country has sovereignty over Taiwan. However, Article 10 of the treaty states that the Taiwanese people and the juridical person should be the people and the juridical person of the ROC. Both the PRC and ROC governments base their claims to Taiwan on the Japanese Instrument of Surrender which specifically accepted the Potsdam Declaration which refers to the Cairo Declaration. Disputes over the precise de jure sovereign of Taiwan persist to the present. On a de facto basis, sovereignty over Taiwan has been and continues to be exercised by the ROC. Japan 's position has been to avoid commenting on Taiwan 's status, maintaining that Japan renounced all claims to sovereignty over its former colonial possessions after World War II, including Taiwan.
The question as to which political group directed the Chinese war effort and exerted most of the effort to resist the Japanese remains a controversial issue.
In the Chinese People 's War of Resistance Against Japan Memorial near the Marco Polo Bridge and in mainland Chinese textbooks, the People 's Republic of China (PRC) claims that the Nationalists mostly avoided fighting the Japanese to preserve their strength for a final showdown with the Communist Party of China (CPC or CCP), while the Communists were the main military force in the Chinese resistance efforts. Recently, however, with a change in the political climate, the CPC has admitted that certain Nationalist generals made important contributions in resisting the Japanese. The official history in mainland China now states that the KMT fought a bloody, yet indecisive, frontal war against Japan, while the CPC engaged the Japanese forces in far greater numbers behind enemy lines. For the sake of Chinese reunification and appeasing the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan, the PRC has begun to "acknowledge '' the Nationalists and the Communists as "equal '' contributors, because the victory over Japan belonged to the Chinese people, rather than to any political party.
The Nationalists suffered higher casualties because they were the main combatants opposing the Japanese in each of the 22 major battles (involving more than 100,000 troops on both sides) between China and Japan. The Communist forces, by contrast, usually avoided pitched battles with the Japanese and generally limited their combat to guerilla actions (the Hundred Regiments Offensive and the Battle of Pingxingguan are notable exceptions). The Nationalist committed their strongest divisions in early battle against the Japanese (including the 36th, 87th, 88th divisions, the crack divisions of Chiang 's Central Army) to defend Shanghai and continued to deploy most of their forces to fight the Japanese even as the Communists changed their strategy to engage mainly in a political offensive against the Japanese while declaring that the CPC should "save and preserve our strength and wait for favorable timing '' by the end of 1941.
Today, the war is a major point of contention and resentment between China and Japan. The war remains a major roadblock for Sino - Japanese relations, and many people, particularly in China, still harbor grudges over the war and related issues.
Issues regarding the current historical outlook on the war exist. For example, the Japanese government has been accused of historical revisionism by allowing the approval of a few school textbooks omitting or glossing over Japan 's militant past, although the most recent controversial book, the New History Textbook was used by only 0.039 % of junior high schools in Japan and despite the efforts of the Japanese nationalist textbook reformers, by the late 1990s the most common Japanese schoolbooks contained references to, for instance, the Nanking Massacre, Unit 731, and the comfort women of World War II, all historical issues which have faced challenges from ultranationalists in the past. In response to criticism of Japanese textbook revisionism, the PRC government has been accused of using the war to stir up already growing anti-Japanese sentiments in order to spur nationalistic feelings.
Traditionally, the Republic of China government has held celebrations marking the Victory Day on September 9 (now known as Armed Forces Day) and Taiwan 's Retrocession Day on October 25. However, after the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) won the presidential election in 2000, these national holidays commemorating the war have been cancelled as the pro-independent DPP does not see the relevancy of celebrating events that happened in mainland China.
Meanwhile, many KMT supporters, particularly veterans who retreated with the government in 1949, still have an emotional interest in the war. For example, in celebrating the 60th anniversary of the end of war in 2005, the cultural bureau of KMT stronghold Taipei held a series of talks in the Sun Yat - sen Memorial Hall regarding the war and post-war developments, while the KMT held its own exhibit in the KMT headquarters. Whereas the KMT won the presidential election in 2008, the ROC government resumed commemorating the war.
Several thousand Japanese who were sent as colonizers to Manchukuo and Inner Mongolia were left behind in China. The majority of Japanese left behind in China were women, and these Japanese women mostly married Chinese men and became known as "stranded war wives '' (zanryu fujin). Because they had children fathered by Chinese men, the Japanese women were not allowed to bring their Chinese families back with them to Japan so most of them stayed. Japanese law only allowed children fathered by Japanese fathers to become Japanese citizens.
In China some Korean comfort women stayed behind instead of going back to their native land. Most Korean comfort women left behind in China married Chinese men.
The conflict lasted for eight years, two months and two days (measured from July 7, 1937 to September 9, 1945). The casualties from this war in 1937 -- 1945 were more that half of total casualties of the Pacific War.
The Japanese recorded around 1.1 to 1.9 million military casualties during all of World War II (which include killed, wounded and missing). The official death - toll of Japanese men killed in China, according to the Japan Defense Ministry, is 480,000. Based on the investigation of Japanese Yomiuri Shimbun, the military death toll of Japan in China is about 700,000 since 1937 (excluding the death in Manchuria).
Another source from Hilary Conroy claim that a total of 447,000 Japanese soldiers died in China during the Second Sino - Japanese War. Of the 1,130,000 Imperial Japanese Army soldiers who died during World War II, 39 percent died in China.
Then in "War Without Mercy '', John Dower claim that a total of 396,000 Japanese soldiers died in China during the Second Sino - Japanese War. Of this number, the Imperial Japanese Army lost 388,605 soldiers and the Imperial Japanese Navy lost 8,000 soldiers. Another 54,000 soldiers also died after the war had ended, mostly from illness and starvation. Of the 1,740,955 Japanese soldiers who died during World War II, 22 percent died in China.
Japanese statistics, however, lack complete estimates for the wounded. From 1937 to 1941, 185,647 Japanese soldiers were killed in China and 520,000 were wounded. Disease also incurred critical losses on Japanese forces. From 1937 to 1941, 430,000 Japanese soldiers were recorded as being sick. In North China alone, 18,000 soldiers were evacuated back to Japan for illnesses in 1938, 23,000 in 1939, and 15,000 in 1940. From 1941 to 1945: 202,958 dead; another 54,000 dead after war 's end. Chinese forces also report that by May 1945, 22,293 Japanese soldiers were captured as prisoners. Many more Japanese soldiers surrendered when the war ended.
Contemporary studies from the Beijing Central Compilation and Translation Press have revealed that the Japanese suffered a total of 2,227,200 casualties, including 1,055,000 dead and 1,172,341 injured. This Chinese publication analyses statistics provided by Japanese publications and claimed these numbers were largely based on Japanese publications.
Both Nationalist and Communist Chinese sources report that their respective forces were responsible for the deaths of over 1.7 million Japanese soldiers. Nationalist War Minister He Yingqin himself contested the Communist 's claim, finding it impossible for a force of "untrained, undisciplined, poorly equipped '' guerrillas of Communist forces to have killed so many enemy soldiers.
The National Chinese authorities ridiculed Japanese estimates of Chinese casualties. In 1940, the National Herald stated that the Japanese exaggerated Chinese casualties, while deliberately concealing the true amount of Japanese casualties, releasing false figures that made them appear lower. The article reports on the casualty situation of the war up to 1940.
With Chiang Kai - shek as the highest commander, the NRA is recognized as the unified armed force of China during the war. Throughout its lifespan, it employed approximately 4,300,000 regulars, in 370 Standard Divisions (simplified Chinese: 正式 师; traditional Chinese: 正式 師), 46 New Divisions (simplified Chinese: 新 编 师; traditional Chinese: 新編 師), 12 Cavalry Divisions (simplified Chinese: 骑兵 师; traditional Chinese: 騎兵 師), eight New Cavalry Divisions (simplified Chinese: 新 编 骑兵 师; traditional Chinese: 新編 騎兵 師), 66 Temporary Divisions (simplified Chinese: 暂 编 师; traditional Chinese: 暫 編 師), and 13 Reserve Divisions (simplified Chinese: 预备 师; traditional Chinese: 預備 師), for a grand total of 515 divisions.
However, many divisions were formed from two or more other divisions, and many were not active at the same time. The number of active divisions, at the start of the war in 1937, was about 170 NRA divisions. The average NRA division had 4,000 -- 5,000 troops. A Chinese army was roughly the equivalent to a Japanese division in terms of manpower but the Chinese forces largely lacked artillery, heavy weapons, and motorized transport.
The shortage of military hardware meant that three to four Chinese armies had the firepower of only one Japanese division. Because of these material constraints, available artillery and heavy weapons were usually assigned to specialist brigades rather than to the general division, which caused more problems as the Chinese command structure lacked precise coordination. The relative fighting strength of a Chinese division was even weaker when relative capacity in aspects of warfare, such as intelligence, logistics, communications, and medical services, are taken into account.
Although Chiang Kai - shek is recognized as the highest commander in name, his power on NRA was in the effect limited. This was due to the fact that the NRA was an alliance of powers such as warlords, regional militarists and communists. Before the alliance was formed under the pressure of Japanese invasion, these powers had their own land, struggled or allied with each other under their own interests and mutual conflicts were common. Because of this, NRA could be unofficially divided into 3 groups, Central Army, Regional Army and Communist forces.
Loyal to Chiang Kai - shek, the Central Army (simplified Chinese: 中央 军; traditional Chinese: 中央 軍) was best equipped. Most of the officers in the Central Army were trained by the Whampoa Military Academy, where Chiang Kai - shek served as the first president. Before the war, the Central Army mainly controlled east China.
The Regional Army (simplified Chinese: 省 军; traditional Chinese: 省 軍) consisted of various types of strengths from all the parts of China. Before the war, these strengths governed certain places and most of them admitted Chiang Kai - shek 's leader position. However, they did n't really follow Chiang 's command, nor received Chiang 's assistance. They generally ran independently. The notable strengths under this category included Guangxi, Shanxi, Yunnan and Ma clique.
After the Xi'an Incident, Chiang stopped his offensive against the Chinese Red Army. Communists were then incorporated into the NRA to form the Eighth Route Army and the New Fourth Army, although their de facto commander was still Mao Zedong. Communists also led a large number of militias during the war.
The NRA expanded from about 1.2 million in 1937 to 5.7 million in August 1945, organized in 300 divisions.
The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) had approximately 3,200,000 regulars. More Japanese troops were quartered in China than deployed elsewhere in the Pacific Theater during the war. Japanese divisions ranged from 20,000 men in its divisions numbered less than 100, to 10,000 men in divisions numbered greater than 100.
At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, the IJA had 51 divisions, of which 35 were in China, and 39 independent brigades, of which all but one were in China. This represented roughly 80 % of the IJA 's manpower.
By October 1944 the IJA in China was divided into three strategic groupings.
The Chinese armies allied to Japan had only 78,000 people in 1938, but had grown to around 649,640 men by 1943, and reached a maximum strength of 900,000 troops before the end of the war. Almost all of them belonged to Manchukuo, Provisional Government of the Republic of China (Beijing), Reformed Government of the Republic of China (Nanjing) and the later Nanjing Nationalist Government (Wang Jingwei regime). These collaborator troops were mainly assigned to garrison and logistics duties in their own territories, and were rarely fielded in combat because of low morale and Japanese distrust. They fared very poorly in skirmishes against both Chinese NRA and Communist forces.
The Central Army possessed 80 Army infantry divisions of 8,000 men each, nine independent brigades, nine cavalry divisions, two artillery brigades, 16 artillery regiments and three armored battalions. The Chinese Navy displaced only 59,000 tonnes and the Chinese Air Force comprised only about 700 obsolete aircraft.
For regular provincial Chinese divisions their standard rifles were the Hanyang 88 (copy of Gewehr 88). Central army divisions were typically equipped with the Chiang Kai - shek rifle (copy of Mauser Standard Model) and Czechoslovakian vz. 24. However, for most of the German - trained divisions, the standard firearms were German - made 7.92 mm Gewehr 98 and Karabiner 98k. The standard light machine gun was a local copy of the Czech 7.92 mm Brno ZB26. There were also Belgian and French light machine guns. Provincial units generally did not possess any machine guns. Central Army units had one LMG per platoon on average. German - trained divisions ideally had 1 LMG per squad. Surprisingly, the NRA did not purchase any Maschinengewehr 34s from Germany, but did produce their own copies of them. Heavy machine guns were mainly locally - made Type 24 water - cooled Maxim guns, which were the Chinese copies of the German MG08, and M1917 Browning machine guns chambered for the standard 8mm Mauser round. On average, every Central Army battalion would get one heavy machine gun (about a third to half of what actual German divisions got during World War II).
The standard weapon for NCOs and officers was the 7.63 mm Mauser C96 semi-automatic pistol, or full - automatic Mauser M1932 / M712 machine pistol. These full - automatic versions were used as substitutes for submachine guns (such as the MP 18) and rifles that were in short supply within the Chinese army prior to the end of World War II. Throughout the Second Sino - Japanese War, particularly in the early years, the NRA also extensively used captured Japanese weapons and equipment as their own were in short supply. Some élite units also used Lend - Lease US equipment as the war progressed.
Generally speaking, the regular provincial army divisions did not possess any artillery. However, some Central Army divisions were equipped with 37 mm PaK 35 / 36 anti-tank guns, and / or mortars from Oerlikon, Madsen, and Solothurn. Each infantry division had 6 French Brandt 81 mm mortars and 6 Solothurn 20 mm autocannons. Some independent brigades and artillery regiments were equipped with Bofors 72 mm L / 14, or Krupp 72 mm L / 29 mountain guns and there were 24 Rheinmetall 150 mm L / 32 sFH 18 howitzers (bought in 1934) and 24 Krupp 150 mm L / 30 sFH 18 howitzers (bought in 1936). At the start of the war, the NRA and the Tax Police Regiment had three tank battalions armed with German Panzer I light tanks and CV - 33 tankettes. After defeat in the Battle of Shanghai the remaining tanks, together with several hundred T - 26 and BT - 5 tanks acquired from the Soviet Union were reorganised into the 200th Division.
Infantry uniforms were basically redesigned Zhongshan suits. Puttees were standard for soldiers and officers alike since the primary mode of movement for NRA troops was by foot. Troops were also issued sewn field caps. The helmets were the most distinguishing characteristic of these divisions. From the moment German M35 helmets (standard issue for the Wehrmacht until late in the European theatre) rolled off the production lines in 1935, and until 1936, the NRA imported 315,000 of these helmets, each with the Blue Sky with a White Sun emblem of the ROC on the sides. These helmets were worn by both elite German - trained divisions and regular Central Army divisions. Other helmets include the Adrian helmet, Brodie helmet and later M1 helmet. Other equipment included straw shoes for soldiers (cloth shoes for Central Army), leather shoes for officers and leather boots for high - ranking officers. Every soldier was issued ammunition, ammunition pouches or harness, a water flask, combat knives, food bag, and a gas mask.
On the other hand, warlord forces varied greatly in terms of equipment and training. Some warlord troops were notoriously under - equipped, such as Shanxi 's Dadao (Chinese: 大刀, a one - edged sword type close combat weapon) Team and the Yunnan clique. Some, however, were highly professional forces with their own air force and navies. The quality of the New Guangxi clique was almost on par with the Central Army, as the Guangzhou region was wealthy and the local army could afford foreign instructors and arms. The Muslim Ma clique to the northwest was famed for its well - trained cavalry divisions.
Although Japan possessed significant mobile operational capacity, it did not possess capability for maintaining a long sustained war. At the beginning of the war, the Imperial Japanese Army comprised 17 divisions, each composed of approximately 22,000 men, 5,800 horses, 9,500 rifles and submachine guns, 600 heavy machine guns of assorted types, 108 artillery pieces, and 600 plus of light armor two - men tanks. Special forces were also available. The Imperial Japanese Navy displaced a total of 1,900,000 tonnes, ranking third in the world, and possessed 2,700 aircraft at the time. Each Japanese division was the equivalent in fighting strength of four Chinese regular divisions (at the beginning of the Battle of Shanghai).
Chinese Nationalist Party
Chinese Communist Party
The battles listed here are ones that have corresponding Wikipedia articles. A flag icon to the left of a battle 's name shows the victorious side in the engagement. The date to the right of a battle 's name shows when it began, except in the case of 1942 's Battle of Changsha, which began in December 1941.
Numerous monuments and memorials throughout China, including the Museum of the War of Chinese People 's Resistance Against Japanese Aggression in Beijing 's Wanping Fortress.
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can i shoot someone on my property in maryland | Right of self - defense in Maryland - wikipedia
In the state of Maryland, the right of self - defense is mostly governed by case law, but there is also a statute.
Maryland continues to follow common law principles on the use of force in self - defense, although there is a statute (discussed below) on the subject of immunity from civil lawsuits for the use of force to defend a home or a business.
In the case of Baltimore Transit Co. v. Faulkner, 179 Md. 598, 20 A. 2d 485 (1941), which involved a civil lawsuit for assault and battery, the Court of Appeals of Maryland set forth the general common law principles of the doctrine of self - defense:
The law of self - defense justifies an act done in the reasonable belief of immediate danger. If an injury was done by a defendant in justifiable self - defense, he can neither be punished criminally nor held responsible for damages in a civil action... One who seeks to justify an assault on the ground that he acted in self - defense must show that he used no more force than the exigency reasonably demanded. The belief of a defendant in an action for assault that the plaintiff intended to do him bodily harm can not support a plea of self - defense unless it was such a belief as a person of average prudence would entertain under similar circumstances. The jury should accordingly be instructed that to justify assault and battery in self - defense the circumstances must be such as would have induced a rea (s) onable man of average prudence to make such an assault in order to protect himself. The question whether the belief of the defendant that he was about to be injured was a reasonable one under all the circumstances is a question for the consideration of the jury.
Id., 179 Md. at 600 - 01, 20 A. 2d at 487.
The Court of Appeals said in the case that, even if the plaintiff had struck the defendant 's employees first, the plaintiff would still be entitled to prevail in an action for battery if the defendant 's employees, in repelling the plaintiff 's acts, "used unreasonable and excessive force, meaning such force as prudent men would not have used under all the circumstances of the case. '' Id., 179 Md. at 600, 20 A. 2d at 487.
Maryland also continues to follow common law principles on the issue of when one may use deadly force in self - defense. In the case of State v. Faulkner, 301 Md. 482, 485, 483 A. 2d 759, 761 (1984), the Court of Appeals of Maryland summarized those principles, and stated that a homicide, other than felony murder, is justified on the ground of self - defense if the following criteria are satisfied:
(1) The accused must have had reasonable grounds to believe himself in apparent imminent or immediate danger of death or serious bodily harm from his assailant or potential assailant;
(2) The accused must have in fact believed himself in this danger;
(3) The accused claiming the right of self defense must not have been the aggressor or provoked the conflict;
(4) The force used must have not been unreasonable and excessive, that is, the force must not have been more force than the exigency demanded.
See also Roach v. State, 358 Md. 418, 429 - 30, 749 A. 2d 787, 793 (2000).
In addition, when one is in one 's home, one may use deadly force against an attacker if deadly force is necessary to prevent the attacker from committing a felony that involves the use of force, violence, or surprise (such as murder, robbery, burglary, rape, or arson). See Crawford v. State, 231 Md. 354, 190 A. 2d 538 (1963).
Maryland also follows the common law rule that, outside of one 's home, a person, before using deadly force in self - defense, has the duty "' to retreat or avoid danger if such means were within his power and consistent with his safety. ' '' DeVaughn v. State, 232 Md. 447, 453, 194 A. 2d 109, 112 (1963), cert. denied, 376 U.S. 527 (1964), quoting Bruce v. State, 218 Md. 87, 97, 145 A. 2d 428, 433 (1958). See also Burch v. State, 346 Md. 253, 283, 696 A. 2d 443, 458 (1997).
But a person does not have to retreat if it would not be safe for the person to do so. "(I) f the peril of the defendant was imminent, he did not have to retreat but had a right to stand his ground and to defend and protect himself. '' Bruce v. State, supra, 218 Md. at 97, 145 A. 2d at 433.
The duty to retreat also does not apply if one is attacked in one 's own home. "(A) man faced with the danger of an attack upon his dwelling need not retreat from his home to escape the danger, but instead may stand his ground and, if necessary to repel the attack, may kill the attacker. '' Crawford v. State, 231 Md. 354, 361, 190 A. 2d 538, 541 (1963). The Court of Appeals said in Crawford, a case in which the defendant fatally shot a younger man who was attempting to break into his home to beat and rob him:
"* * * A man is not bound to retreat from his house. He may stand his ground there and kill an (y) person who attempts to commit a felony therein, or who attempts to enter by force for the purpose of committing a felony, or of inflicting great bodily harm upon an inmate. In such a case the owner or any member of the family, or even a lodger in the house, may meet the intruder at the threshold, and prevent him from entering by any means rendered necessary by the exigency, even to the taking of his life, and the homicide will be justifiable. ''
Id., 231 Md. at 361, 190 A. 2d at 542, quoting Clark and Marshall, Law of Crimes, (6th ed. Wingersky rev.), § 7.03, pages 436 - 37.
This principle is known as the "Castle Doctrine '', "the name being derived from the foundational principle that ' a man 's home is his castle ' and his ultimate retreat. '' Barton v. State, 46 Md. App. 616, 618, 420 A. 2d 1009, 1010 - 1011 (1980). A man "is not bound to flee and become a fugitive from his own home, for, if that were required, there would, theoretically, be no refuge for him anywhere in the world. '' Barton, 46 Md. App. at 618, 420 A. 2d at 1010.
A person does not have to be the owner of the home or the head of the household in order to be able to invoke the "Castle Doctrine. '' Instead, "any member of the household, whether or not he or she has a proprietary or leasehold interest in the property, is within its ambit... '' Barton, 46 Md. App. at 619 - 20, 420 A. 2d at 1011.
However, even in one 's own home, the degree of force used in self - defense must not be "excessive. '' Crawford v. State, supra, 231 Md. at 362, 190 A. 2d at 542. Quoting a treatise on criminal law, the Court of Appeals said in Crawford:
"It is a justifiable homicide to kill to prevent the commission of a felony by force or surprise.
The crimes in prevention of which life may be taken are such and only such as are committed by forcible means, violence, and surprise, such as murder, robbery, burglary, rape, or arson.
* * *
* * *
"It is also essential that killing is necessary to prevent the commission of the felony in question. If other methods could prevent its commission, a homicide is not justified; all other means of preventing the crime must first be exhausted. ''
Id., 231 Md. at 362 - 63, 190 A. 2d at 542, quoting, 1 Wharton 's Criminal Law and Procedure (Anderson Ed., 1957), § 206, at pages 453 - 55.
Although self - defense is commonly called a "defense, '' a defendant who invokes self - defense in a criminal case in Maryland does not have the burden of proving that he or she acted in self - defense.
Instead, the defendant in a criminal case only has a burden of production on the issue of self - defense. This means that a defendant who wishes to invoke the doctrine only needs to "generate the issue '' by introducing some evidence that he or she acted in self - defense. If the defendant satisfies that burden of production and thus generates the issue, then it is the prosecution that has the burden of proving that the defendant did not act in self - defense. In other words, once the defendant satisfies his or her burden of production on the issue of self - defense, then the prosecution has the burden of persuasion on the issue of self - defense.
If the defendant does not generate the issue of self - defense, then the prosecution does not have to prove that the defendant had not acted in self - defense.
The Court of Appeals of Maryland adopted these principles in the case of State v. Evans, 278 Md. 197, 207 - 08, 362 A. 2d 629, 636 (1976). The Court said allocating the burdens of production and persuasion in this manner was required by the Supreme Court 's decision in Mullaney v. Wilbur, 421 U.S. 684 (1975).
In civil cases, by contrast, self - defense remains a defense, meaning that the burden of proving its applicability is on the defendant. See Baltimore Transit Co. v. Faulkner, supra, 179 Md. at 600 - 01, 20 A. 2d at 487.
If the duty - to - retreat criteria is met, then the following self - defense criteria are examined, as contained within the Maryland Criminal Pattern Jury Instruction. Optional or alternate inclusions into the jury instruction are enclosed with < >. Phrases surrounded with () are substituted with specific instances of the case.
Self - defense is a defense, and the defendant must be found not guilty if all of the following three factors are present:
"Deadly - force is that amount of force reasonably calculated to cause death or serious bodily harm. If the defendant is found to have used deadly - force, it must be decided whether the use of deadly - force was reasonable. Deadly - force is reasonable if the defendant actually had a reasonable belief that the aggressor 's force was or would be deadly and that the defendant needed a deadly - force response. ''
"In addition, before using deadly - force, the defendant is required to make all reasonable effort to retreat. The defendant does not have to retreat if the defendant was in < his > < her > home, retreat was unsafe, the avenue of retreat was unknown to the defendant, the defendant was being robbed, the defendant was lawfully arresting the victim. If the defendant was found to have not used deadly - force, then the defendant had no duty to retreat. ''
Defense of others is a defense, and the defendant must be found not guilty if all of the following four factors are present:
Defense of one 's home is a defense, and the defendant must be found not guilty if all of the following three factors are present:
Defense of property is a defense, and the defendant must be found not guilty if all of the following three factors are present:
"A person may not use deadly force to defend < his > < her > property. Deadly force is that amount of force reasonably calculated to cause death or serious bodily harm. ''
Maryland Civil Pattern Jury Instruction 15: 4 (a) & (b) states:
a. Defense of Self, Another or Property
Persons are not responsible for assault or battery if they were defending themselves, other persons, their property or their employer 's property, so long as they used only such force as was reasonably necessary to protect themselves, other persons, their property, or their employer 's property from actual attack or threat of imminent harm. Threat of imminent harm does not mean that one must wait until the other person makes the first move.
b. Use of Deadly Force
A person may use deadly force only as a last resort. The person must reasonably believe that he or she or a third person was in immediate danger of serious bodily harm and that there was no other reasonable means of defense or ability to escape.
While the use of force in self - defense may be justifiable, the person defending himself or herself still runs the risk of being sued by the attacker for monetary damages. In 2010, the Maryland General Assembly passed, and Governor Martin O'Malley signed, a bill to address this issue and to provide for an immunity to such civil lawsuits in certain cases in which a person used force, including deadly force, to defend his or her home or business. The statute -- § 5 - 808 of the Courts and Judicial Proceedings Article of the Maryland Code -- provides as follows:
(a) In this section, "person '' does not include a governmental entity.
(b) A person is not liable for damages for a personal injury or death of an individual who enters the person 's dwelling or place of business if:
(1) The person reasonably believes that force or deadly force is necessary to repel an attack by the individual; and
(2) The amount and nature of the force used by the person is reasonable under the circumstances.
(c) Subsection (b) of this section does not apply to a person who is convicted of a crime of violence under § 14 - 101 of the Criminal Law Article, assault in the second degree, or reckless endangerment arising out of the circumstances described in subsection (b) of this section.
(d) The court may award costs and reasonable attorney 's fees to a defendant who prevails in a defense under this section.
(e) This section does not limit or abrogate any immunity from civil liability or defense available to a person under any other provision of the Code or at common law.
The statute essentially codifies the common law rule of self - defense. It is arguable that the statute makes the "Castle Doctrine '' applicable to actions committed to defend a person 's business. But the statute is not entirely clear on that point, because of its requirement that the force be "reasonable under the circumstances '' and the absence of specific language saying that the defendant may stand his or her ground in the business. Importantly, the statute also provides that, if a defendant prevails in a defense under the statute, then the court "may '' order the plaintiff to pay the defendant 's costs and reasonable attorney 's fees. The statute further provides that the immunity which it creates does not apply if the defendant had been convicted of certain criminal charges in connection with the incident.
By its terms, the statute does not apply to criminal prosecutions.
The General Assembly enacted the statute nine years after an incident that occurred on the night of March 19, 2001, in which one or both of the co-owners of a cement company in Glyndon, Maryland opened fire on three intruders on the company 's premises, killing one of them and wounding the other two. The company 's premises had also been burglarized the two previous nights, and the two co-owners (who were brothers) were staying overnight at the business to guard it. In February 2004, the estate and young son of the deceased intruder sued the two brothers and their company for damages. According to online records of the Maryland court system, the plaintiffs dropped the lawsuit on January 28, 2005. It is not stated in the online records whether or not the case was settled.
Within days of the shooting in 2001, bills were introduced in each of the two chambers of the General Assembly to shield business owners from civil lawsuits for deadly force against a person "who unlawfully and forcefully enters '' the business. The state Senate passed its bill, but the House of Delegates took no action on the measure or on the bill that had been introduced in the House. In 2004, 2005, 2008, and 2009, the House of Delegates passed bills on the subject, but none of the bills made it out of committee in the state Senate. The statute that the General Assembly enacted in 2010 had wording that was different from the language of the prior bills.
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what is the england squad for 2018 world cup | 2018 FIFA World Cup squads - wikipedia
The 2018 FIFA World Cup was an international football tournament held in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018. The 32 national teams involved in the tournament were required to register a squad of 23 players, including three goalkeepers. Only players in these squads were eligible to take part in the tournament.
A provisional list of 35 players per national team was submitted to FIFA by 14 May 2018, one month prior to the opening match of the tournament. From the preliminary squad, the final list of 23 players per national team was submitted to FIFA by 4 June, 10 days prior to the opening match of the tournament. FIFA published the final lists with squad numbers on their website the same day. Teams were permitted to make late replacements in the event of serious injury, at any time up to 24 hours before their first game, where the replacement players did not need to be in the preliminary squad.
For players named in the 35 - player preliminary squad, there was a mandatory rest period between 21 and 27 May 2018, except for those involved in the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final played on 26 May. Initially the preliminary squads were to have 30 players but, in February 2018, it was announced that the number of players to be named in the provisional squads was increased to 35.
The position listed for each player is per the official squad list published by FIFA. The age listed for each player is on 14 June 2018, the first day of the tournament. The numbers of caps and goals listed for each player do not include any matches played after the start of tournament. The club listed is the club for which the player last played a competitive match prior to the tournament. The nationality for each club reflects the national association (not the league) to which the club is affiliated. A flag is included for coaches that are of a different nationality than their own national team.
Coach: Héctor Cúper
A 29 - man preliminary squad was announced on 13 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 4 June.
Coach: Stanislav Cherchesov
A 28 - man preliminary squad was announced on 11 May 2018. Ruslan Kambolov withdrew injured and was replaced by Sergei Ignashevich on 14 May. The final squad was announced on 3 June.
Coach: Juan Antonio Pizzi
A 28 - man preliminary squad was announced on 17 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 4 June.
Coach: Óscar Tabárez
A 26 - man preliminary squad was announced on 15 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 2 June.
Coach: Carlos Queiroz
A 35 - man preliminary squad was announced on 13 May 2018. The squad was reduced to 24 players on 20 May. The final squad was announced on 4 June.
Coach: Hervé Renard
A 26 - man preliminary squad was announced on 17 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 4 June.
Coach: Fernando Santos
A 35 - man preliminary squad was announced on 14 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 17 May.
Coach: Fernando Hierro
The final squad was announced on 21 May 2018. Coach Julen Lopetegui was sacked and replaced by Fernando Hierro on 13 June.
Coach: Bert van Marwijk
A 32 - man preliminary squad was announced on 6 May 2018. The squad was reduced to 26 players on 14 May, then extended to 27 players on 28 May. The final squad was announced on 3 June.
Coach: Åge Hareide
A 35 - man preliminary squad was announced on 14 May 2018. The squad was reduced to 27 players on 27 May. The final squad was announced on 3 June.
Coach: Didier Deschamps
The final squad was announced on 17 May 2018.
Coach: Ricardo Gareca
A 24 - man preliminary squad was announced on 16 May 2018. The final squad was initially announced on 30 May, but was extended to 24 players on 31 May after the suspension of Paolo Guerrero was lifted. The final squad was announced on 4 June.
Coach: Jorge Sampaoli
A 35 - man preliminary squad was announced on 14 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 21 May. Sergio Romero withdrew injured and was replaced by Nahuel Guzmán on 23 May. Manuel Lanzini withdrew injured and was replaced by Enzo Pérez on 9 June.
Coach: Zlatko Dalić
A 32 - man preliminary squad was announced on 14 May 2018. The squad was reduced to 24 players on 21 May. The final squad was announced on 4 June.
Coach: Heimir Hallgrímsson
The final squad was announced on 11 May 2018.
Coach: Gernot Rohr
A 30 - man preliminary squad was announced on 14 May 2018. The squad was reduced to 29 players on 27 May as Moses Simon withdrew injured, then to 25 players on 30 May. The final squad was announced on 3 June.
Coach: Tite
The final squad was announced on 14 May 2018.
Coach: Óscar Ramírez
The final squad was announced on 14 May 2018. Rónald Matarrita withdrew injured and was replaced by Kenner Gutiérrez on 15 June.
Coach: Mladen Krstajić
A 27 - man preliminary squad was announced on 24 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 1 June.
Coach: Vladimir Petković
A 26 - man preliminary squad was announced on 25 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 4 June.
Coach: Joachim Löw
A 27 - man preliminary squad was announced on 15 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 4 June.
Coach: Juan Carlos Osorio
A 28 - man preliminary squad was announced on 14 May 2018. The squad was reduced to 27 players on 23 May as Néstor Araujo withdrew injured, then to 24 players on 2 June. The final squad was announced on 4 June. Diego Reyes withdrew injured and was replaced by Érick Gutiérrez on 13 June.
Coach: Shin Tae - yong
A 28 - man preliminary squad was announced on 14 May 2018. The squad was reduced to 26 players on 22 May as Kwon Chang - hoon and Lee Keun - ho withdrew injured. The final squad was announced on 2 June.
Coach: Janne Andersson
The final squad was announced on 15 May 2018.
Coach: Roberto Martínez
A 28 - man preliminary squad was announced on 21 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 4 June.
Coach: Gareth Southgate
The final squad was announced on 16 May 2018.
Coach: Hernán Darío Gómez
A 35 - man preliminary squad was announced on 14 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 30 May. Alberto Quintero withdrew injured and was replaced by Ricardo Ávila on 6 June.
Coach: Nabil Maâloul
A 29 - man preliminary squad was announced on 14 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 2 June.
Coach: José Pékerman
A 35 - man preliminary squad was announced on 14 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 4 June. Frank Fabra withdrew injured and was replaced by Farid Díaz on 9 June.
Coach: Akira Nishino
A 27 - man preliminary squad was announced on 18 May 2018. The final squad was announced on 31 May.
Coach: Adam Nawałka
A 35 - man preliminary squad was announced on 11 May 2018. The squad was reduced to 32 players on 18 May. The final squad was announced on 4 June.
Coach: Aliou Cissé
The final squad was announced on 17 May 2018. Saliou Ciss withdrew injured and was replaced by Adama Mbengue on 17 June.
Of the seven teenagers in the competition, Australia 's Daniel Arzani is the youngest at 19 years, 161 days as of the first day of the tournament, and Nigeria 's Francis Uzoho is the youngest goalkeeper. At 45 years, 150 days, Egypt 's Essam El - Hadary is the oldest player and oldest captain, as well as the oldest player to ever be named to a FIFA World Cup squad. Mexico 's Rafael Márquez is the oldest outfield player at 39. The youngest captain is England 's Harry Kane at 24 years of age.
The average age of all 736 players -- almost 28 years -- is the oldest in the tournament 's history.
League systems with 20 or more players represented are listed. In all, World Cup squad members play for clubs in 57 countries, and play in 54 national league systems, as the league systems of England and France include clubs from Wales and Monaco respectively, and one league system covers both the United States and Canada.
Clubs with 10 or more players represented are listed.
Coaches in bold represent their own country.
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how does secure copy (scp) attempt to securely transmit data over the internet | Secure copy - wikipedia
Secure copy or SCP is a means of securely transferring computer files between a local host and a remote host or between two remote hosts. It is based on the Secure Shell (SSH) protocol. "SCP '' commonly refers to both the Secure Copy Protocol and the program itself.
The SCP is a network protocol, based on the BSD RCP protocol, which supports file transfers between hosts on a network. SCP uses Secure Shell (SSH) for data transfer and uses the same mechanisms for authentication, thereby ensuring the authenticity and confidentiality of the data in transit. A client can send (upload) files to a server, optionally including their basic attributes (permissions, timestamps). Clients can also request files or directories from a server (download). SCP runs over TCP port 22 by default. Like RCP, there is no RFC that defines the specifics of the protocol.
Normally, a client initiates an SSH connection to the remote host, and requests an SCP process to be started on the remote server. The remote SCP process can operate in one of two modes:
For most SCP clients, source mode is generally triggered with the - f flag (from), while sink mode is triggered with - t (to). These flags are used internally and are not documented outside the SCP source code.
In the past, in remote - to - remote secure copy, the SCP client opens an SSH connection to the source host and requests that it, in turn, open an SCP connection to the destination. (Remote - to - remote mode did not support opening two SCP connections and using the originating client as an intermediary). It is important to note that SCP can not be used to remotely copy from the source to the destination when operating in password or keyboard - interactive authentication mode, as this would reveal the destination server 's authentication credentials to the source. It is, however, possible with key - based or GSSAPI methods that do not require user input.
Recently, remote - to - remote mode supports routing traffic through the client which originated the transfer, even though it is a 3rd party to the transfer. This way, authorization credentials must reside only on the originating client, the 3rd party.
SCP does not expect text communicating with the ssh login shell. Text transmitted due to the ssh profile (e.g. echo "Welcome '' in the. bashrc file) is interpreted as an error message, and a null line (echo "'') causes scp to deadlock waiting for the error message to complete.
The SCP program is a software tool implementing the SCP protocol as a service daemon or client. It is a program to perform secure copying. The SCP server program is typically the same program as the SCP client. The SCP Server software can be installed on a Regular Machine and be configured to only accept SCP Traffic on port 22 through the firewall for greater security.
Perhaps the most widely used SCP program is the command line scp program, which is provided in most SSH implementations. The scp program is the secure analog of the rcp command. The scp program must be part of all SSH servers that want to provide SCP service, as scp functions as SCP server too.
Some SSH implementations provide the scp2 program, which uses the SFTP protocol instead of SCP, but provides the very same command line interface as scp. scp is then typically a symbolic link to scp2.
Typically, a syntax of scp program is like the syntax of cp (copy):
Copying file to host:
Copying file from host:
Note that if the remote host uses a port other than the default of 22, it can be specified in the command. For example, copying a file from host:
As the Secure Copy Protocol implements file transfers only, GUI SCP clients are rare, as implementing it requires additional functionality (directory listing at least). For example, WinSCP defaults to the SFTP protocol. Even when operating in SCP mode, clients like WinSCP are typically not pure SCP clients, as they must use other means to implement the additional functionality (like the ls command). This in turn brings platform - dependency problems.
More comprehensive tools for managing files over SSH are SFTP clients.
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where was kubo and the two strings made | Kubo and the Two Strings - wikipedia
Kubo and the Two Strings is a 2016 American 3D stop - motion fantasy action - adventure film directed and co-produced by Travis Knight (in his directorial debut), and written by Marc Haimes and Chris Butler. It stars the voices of Art Parkinson, Charlize Theron, Ralph Fiennes, Rooney Mara, George Takei, and Matthew McConaughey. It is Laika 's fourth feature film produced. The film revolves around Kubo, who wields a magical shamisen and whose left eye was stolen. Accompanied by an anthropomorphic snow monkey and beetle, he must subdue his mother 's corrupted Sisters and his power - hungry grandfather Raiden (aka, the Moon King), who stole his left eye.
Kubo premiered at Melbourne International Film Festival and was released by Focus Features in the United States on August 19 to critical acclaim and has grossed $74 million worldwide against a budget of $60 million. The film won the BAFTA for Best Animated Film and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature Film and Best Visual Effects, becoming the second animated film to be nominated in the latter category following The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993).
In feudal Japan, young 12 year old eyepatched Kubo tends to his ill mother Sariatu in a mountain cave near a village. He earns their meager living by magically manipulating origami with music from his shamisen for the village folk and his mother, telling the tale of a samurai warrior named Hanzo, Kubo 's missing father. Kubo is never able to finish his story as he does n't know what happened to his father and his mother ca n't recall the end of the story due to her deteriorating mental state. Sariatu warns him not to stay out after dark as her Sisters (his aunts), Karasu and Washi, and his grandfather, the Moon King (who took his eye when he was a baby) will be able to find him and take his remaining eye.
One day, Kubo learns of the village 's Bon festival allowing them to speak to deceased loved ones. Kubo attends but is angry that Hanzo does not appear from his grave, and forgets to return home before sunset. Sariatu 's Sisters, Karasu and Washi, quickly find him and attack, but Sariatu suddenly appears to protect Kubo. She uses her magic to send Kubo far away where they will never find him, telling him to find his father 's armor. Kubo grabs a strand of Sariatu 's hair before he is sent away.
Kubo wakes up in a distant land to find Monkey, his little wooden snow monkey charm, has come alive. Monkey tells him Sariatu is gone and the village destroyed, but they must find Hanzo 's armor. With help of "Little Hanzo '', an origami figure based on Kubo 's father, they track down the armor. Along the way, they meet Beetle, an amnesiac samurai who was cursed to take the form of a stag beetle / human hybrid but believes himself to have been Hanzo 's apprentice. Meanwhile, the Sisters track down Kubo 's trail.
Kubo, Monkey, and Beetle reclaim the "Sword Unbreakable '' from an underground cave "Hall of Bones '' guarded by a giant skeleton. They cross the Long Lake in a leaf boat to locate the "Breastplate Impenetrable '' deep underwater. Kubo and Beetle swim down to retrieve it and encounter a sea monster, the "Garden of Eyes '' who can entrance its victims with its many eyes by showing secrets. Kubo is caught in the creature 's sight, but while entranced, comes to realize that Monkey is the reincarnated spirit of his mother. Beetle rescues the unconscious Kubo and obtains the Breastplate, but returning to the boat, they find that Monkey has been badly wounded fighting and defeating Karasu. Their boat has been badly damaged in the battle but restored by Kubo and Monkey 's own magic.
They go to shore to recover, where Monkey explains that she and her Sisters had been ordered by the Moon King to kill Hanzo, but she instead fell in love with him, and the Moon King branded her an enemy. That night, Kubo dreams of meeting Raiden, a blind elderly man, who points him towards the "Helmet Invulnerable '' in Hanzo 's abandoned fortress. They travel there the next day, but realize too late it is a trap set by Washi. Washi reveals that Beetle is Hanzo, who they had cursed for taking Sariatu away from them. She kills Beetle, and Monkey sacrifices herself, allowing Kubo the time he needs to use his shamisen to defeat Washi, breaking two of the three strings on it. Little Hanzo provides insight that the Helmet is actually the bell at the village, and Kubo breaks the last string to quickly travel there.
At the village, Kubo meets Raiden, who is revealed as the Moon King. He offers to take Kubo 's other eye as to make him immortal, but Kubo refuses. Raiden transforms into a giant centipede - like creature, the Moon Beast, and pursues Kubo and the remaining villagers into its cemetery. Kubo removes Hanzo 's armor that has proven ineffective, and instead restrings his shamisen using his mother 's hair, his father 's bowstring, and his own hair. With the instrument, he is able to summon the spirits of the villagers ' loved ones, who show the Moon Beast that memories are the strongest magic of all and can never be destroyed. Kubo and the spirits ' magic protects them and the villagers from the Moon Beast, eventually stripping him of his powers and leaving him a mortal human without any memories. Spurred on by Kubo 's stories, the villagers take compassion and tell Raiden he was a man of many positive traits, accepting him into the village. Kubo finally is able to speak to his parents ' ghosts during the subsequent Bon ceremony, as they watch the deceased villagers ' lanterns transform into golden herons and they fly to the spirit world into the sky.
Announced in December 2014, the project is the directoral debut of Laika 's CEO Travis Knight. Knight was pitched the story by production designer Shannon Tindle as a "stop - motion samurai epic ''. Although the studio had never ventured into the genre before, Knight was enthusiastic about the project; owing partly his affinity towards both the "epic fantasy '' genre as well as Japanese culture in general.
The art took inspiration from such Japanese mediums as ink wash painting and origami among others. A particular influence came from the ukiyo - e wood block style, with Laika intending to make the entire film "to look and feel as if it 's a moving woodblock print '' Assistance came from 3D printing firm Stratasys who allowed Laika to use their newest technogies in exchange for feedback on them.
For the Skeleton monster the team created a giant 16 foot, 400 pound puppet, which Laika claims is the record holder for largest stop motion puppet. The idea to make such a massive puppet was born out of a fear that individual smaller parts (meant to represent the larger monster) would not work well on screen interacting with the other puppets. The resulting puppet was built in two parts which were then attached together by magnets. For movement Laika had to design a robot to easily manipulate it. The team at one point purchased an industrial robot off of eBay but found that it would not work with their setup.
Dario Marianelli composed the score for the film.
The film screened at the Melbourne International Film Festival on August 13, 2016, and was theatrically released in the United States on August 19, 2016.
As of January 24, 2017, Kubo and the Two Strings has grossed $48 million in North America and $26.5 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $74.5 million, against a budget of $60 million.
In the United States, the film was released on August 19, 2016, alongside Ben - Hur and War Dogs, and was projected to gross $12 -- 15 million from 3,260 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $515,000 from its Thursday night previews and $4.1 million on its first day. It went on to gross $12.6 million in its opening weekend, finishing 4th at the box office.
The film received critical and universal acclaim. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film has an approval rating of 97 %, based on reviews from 185 critics, with an average rating of 8.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Kubo and the Two Strings matches its incredible animation with an absorbing -- and bravely melancholy -- story that has something to offer audiences of all ages. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 84 out of 100, based on reviews from 38 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Christy Lemire of RogerEbert.com awarded the film 3.5 stars out of 4, saying that "one of the most impressive elements of Kubo and the Two Strings -- besides its dazzling stop - motion animation, its powerful performances and its transporting score -- is the amount of credit it gives its audience, particularly its younger viewers. '' IGN 's Samantha Ladwig gave the film 7.5 / 10, stating that the film is "Dark, twisted, and occasionally scary, but also with humor, love, and inspiration. '' Jesse Hassenger, of The A.V. Club, praised the film, saying that "no American animation studio is better - suited to dreamlike plotting than Laika, and the animation of Kubo is truly dazzling, mixing sophistication and handmade charm with inspired flow. ''
Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film 4 / 4 stars, stating that the film is "both extraordinarily original and extraordinarily complex, even for a grown - up movie masquerading as a kiddie cartoon (which it kind of is). '' In The New York Times, Glenn Kenny said that "the movie 's blend of stop - motion animation for the main action with computer - generated backgrounds is seamless, creating what is the most visually intoxicating of all Laika 's movies. '' Peter Debruge of Variety wrote that "'' Kubo '' offers another ominous mission for a lucky young misfit, this one a dark, yet thrilling adventure quest that stands as the crowning achievement in Laika 's already impressive oeuvre. ''
Jonathan Pile, member of the British film magazine Empire, wrote about the film: "Yet another success for stop - motion giants Laika... boasts big laughs and effective scares in a typically gorgeous animated tale. ''
Kubo and the Two Strings was released on DVD, Blu - ray, and digital media on November 22, 2016.
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karkala rural and urban police station karkala karnataka | Karkala - Wikipedia
Karkala (kaːrkəɭɐ) is a town and the headquarters of Karkala taluk in the Udupi district of Karnataka, India. Located about 60 km from Mangalore, it lies near the Western Ghats.
The town was called Pandya Nagari (ಪಾಂಡ್ಯ ನಗರಿ) during the period of Jain rule, and later became known as Karikallu (ಕರಿಕಲ್ಲು), then Karkal (ಕಾರ್ಕಲ್) and finally to Karkala (ಕಾರ್ಕಳ).
Karkala has a number of natural and historical landmarks. It is located at the bottom of Western Ghats covered with greenery year - round. It is a major junction for religious tourists due to its strategic location along the way to Sringeri, Kalasa, Horanadu, Udupi, Kolluru Mookambika and Dharmasthala.
Karkala dates back to the beginning of the 10th century.
Black granite is abundant in the area, and is in wide use in the local architecture. The name of the town is derived from kari - kal, meaning black stone in Tulu. Some assert that the original name was ' Kari Kola ' meaning ' elephant lake ' which is the existing ' Anekere '. Tulu - speaking people call the town Karla. Kannadigas call it Karkala, and the Roman Catholics call it Karkol. Its alternative name, Jain Tirtha, is the result of 300 years of Jain rule. It was called Karkal by the English; later, it was called Karkala in Kannada. Karkala is on the top of a granite bed that is about 300 -- 500 ft thick.
The Alupas were the first to rule Karkala. Their rule was followed by the Santaras, who were the feudatories of Alupas for many years. Karkala, or ancient Pandya Nagari, attained political and cultural importance from the time of the Kalasa - Karkala kingdom that was established by Bhairarasa Odeyas between 13th and 16th centuries. The Bhairarasas appear to be the descendants of the Santara chiefs, who ruled the Western Ghats region around the 11th century AD.
The royal family of Karkala rose to prominence right from the time of the Hoysalas. During the Vijayanagara period this family reached new heights of glory. Their kingdom extended over a wider area comprising Sringeri, Koppa, Balehonnur and Mudigere in Chikamagalur and most of the Karkala taluk. They were rich and maintained a large army. Despite engaging in wars, peace prevailed in the kingdom and this led to increased cultural activity and development.
The first important king was Veera Bhairava, who constructed basadis at Karkala and endowed land and money to numerous temples and basadis. Ramanatha and Veerapandya were his two sons. Ramanatha died during his father 's time. In his memory, a scenic lake called Ramasamudra was created, which still survives.
King Veera Pandya, at the insistence of his Guru Lalitakeerti, the pontiff of Karkala Jaina Math, installed a large statue of Bahubali on the rocky hill of Karkala. The date of the installation has been ascertained as February 13, 1432. Veera Pandya also installed the Brahmadeva Pillar in front of the statue in 1436.
Abinava Pandya ascended the throne next and it was he who installed a carving of manastambha in front of the Neminatha Basadi in Hiriyangadi in 1457 AD. An intricately carved 54 - foot - high (16 m) pillar stands in front of the Basadi. The Neminatha Basadi was renovated in 1946. An oriental school with free boarding and lodging facilities is being run here by the Bhujabali Brahmacharya Ashrama.
Abhinava Pandya 's successor was Pandya VI. He built the Kere Basadi in the middle of a lake called Anekere in 1545 AD. It is in this lake that the king 's elephants used to bathe. The Basadi and the lake still exist.
The next important king was Immadi Bhairava (Bhairava II). He constructed the Chaturmukha Basadi on top of a small rocky hill in 1586 AD. The Basadi has four identical entrances from the four quarters leading to the Garbagriha and hence is popularly known as Chaturmukha Basadi. It is referred to as Tribhuvana Tilaka Jina Chaityalaya and Ratnaraya Dhama in some inscriptions. The Chaturmukha Basadi is built in the form of a square mandapa or hall with a lofty doorway and pillared portico on each of its four sides and a pillared verandah. The roof is flat and is made of massive granite slabs. It has lifesize statues of three theerthankaras on each side and small images of 24 Tirthankara. It took 30 years to construct this temple. In all, there are 108 pillars inside and outside the temple.
This place also came under the rule of Tippu Sultan, known as the Tiger of Mysore. In addition to his role as ruler, he was a scholar, soldier, and poet. It was under him that some of the untold and disappearing landmarks of Karkala (ಕಾರ್ಕಲ್) were made. One of the most imminent of the time was the Kotay kani moat made in front of the Karkal Kotay castle, which was used during his war against the East India Company. In this war against EIC, few of Indian Kingdom of Mysore 's elite soldiers with huge contribution and service towards the land and kingdom were granted Title and Land in the township of Karkalla. One such title is Karkala Patayath (K.P). Second such marvel of the same regime is to discover the usage of a Gavi (or cave) route to travel to various surrounding location unseen through the mountains located near Shivati Kere (Lord Shivas lake).
There are 18 basadis of antiquity, including Mahaveera Basadi, Chandranathaswamy Basadi, Adinathaswamy Basadi, Ananthanatha Basadi, Guru Basadi, and Padmavathi Basadi. However, the rulers of Karkala were tolerant towards other religions. Therefore, temples of other religions exist, including the temples of Anantashayana and Venkataramana, Mahamaya Mukhyaprana, and Adi Shakti. The St Lawrence Church was built in 1845 in a village called Nitte (Attur hamlet) where people of all religions congregate every year in January for the feast of St Lawrence.
The Alupas were the first to rule Karkala. Their rule was followed by the Santaras, who were the feudatories of Alupas for many years. Karkala, or ancient Pandya Nagari, attained political and cultural importance from the time of the Kalasa - Karkala kingdom that was established by Bhairarasa Odeyas between 13th and 16th centuries. The Bhairarasas appear to be the descendants of the Santara chiefs, who ruled the western ghats region around the 11th century AD.
The royal family of Karkala rose to prominence during the time of the Hoysalas. During the Vijayanagara period, they expanded their kingdom to cover Sringeri, Koppa, Balehonnur, and Mudigere in Chikamagalur and most of the Karkala taluk.
The king Veera Bhairava constructed basadis at Karkala and endowed land and money on numerous temples and basadis. Ramanatha and Veerapandya were his two sons. Ramanatha predeceased his father, and in his memory, a lake called Ramasamudra was created, which still survives. Later, King Veera Pandya installed a large statue of Bahubali on the rocky hill of Karkala. The date of the installation has been ascertained as February 13, 1432. Veera Pandya also installed the Brahmadeva Pillar in front of the statue in 1436. His successor, Abinava Pandya, installed an intricate 54 - foot - high (16 m) carving of manastambha in front of the Neminatha Basadi in Hiriyangadi in 1457 AD. Later, Pandya VI built the Kere Basadi in the middle of a lake called Anekere in 1545 AD.
There are 18 basadis of antiquity, including Mahaveera Basadi, Chandranathaswamy Basadi, Adinathaswamy Basadi, Ananthanatha Basadi, Guru Basadi, and Padmavathi Basadi. However, the rulers of Karkala were tolerant towards other religions. Therefore, temples of other religions exist, including the temples of Anantashayana and Venkataramana, Mahamaya Mukhyaprana, and Adi Shakti. The St Lawrence Church was built in 1845 in a village called Nitte (Attur hamlet) where people of all religions congregate every year in January for the feast of St Lawrence.
Jainism is widely practised in Karkala, and is a pilgrimage destination for Jains due to its historical importance in the Jain religion. The single stone 41.5 feet (13 m) statue Gommateshwara (Lord Bahubali) is located about 1 km from the center of the town and is the second tallest in Karnataka. There are about 18 Jain basadis in Karkala, including the Chaturmukha Thirthankara Basadi, Hiriyangaddi Neminatha Basadi, and Anekere Padmavathi Basadi, all of which are listed in Archaeological Survey of India. This statue of Lord Bahubali was installed at Karkala on February 13, 1432 on the instructions of the pontiff of Karkala, Lalitakeerti. There are several other temples, mosques, and churches in and around Karkala.
The other statues of Bahubali in the state are at Shravanabelagola installed by Chavundaraya, which is 57 feet tall, at Venur installed by Timmaraja, which is 35 feet (11 m) tall, and at Dharmasthala installed by Dr. Veerendra Heggade, which is 39 feet (12 m) tall.
Every twelve years, hundreds of thousands of Jain devotees congregate to perform the Mahamastakabhisheka, a ceremony where the Gommateshwara statue is bathed and anointed with milk, water, and saffron paste and sprinkled with sandalwood powder, turmeric, and vermilion. The last Mahamastakabhisheka was held in February 2002, and the next will be in January, 2015. An annual Rathotsava is held in February.
The Mahamastakabhisheka of Lord Bahubali at Karkala was held during January 21 -- 31, 2015 under the auspices of the Sri Bahubali Swamy Mahamasthakabhisheka Samithi. The towering 41.5 ft. granite monolith of Bahubali - also known as Gommateshwara - is built on an elevated platform on top of a rocky hill, known locally as Gommata Betta. Gommateshwara is also known as Gommata and Gomateshwara. The colossus was consecrated on 13 February 1432 A.D. by Veera Pandya Bhairarasa Wodeyar, scion of the Bhairarasa Dynasty, feudatory of the Vijayanagara Rulers.
The Mahamastakabhisheka (ceremonial anointment) of the statue is done once every 12 years, a Jain religious rite that dates back to ancient times. The ceremonial anointing will be done customarily from the top of a specially constructed scaffolding, when water from 1008 kalashas (pots) will be poured over the Gommata, as a purification rite. The abhisheka (ceremonial bathing) then begins to the heralding of bugles and the beat of drums. Milk from kalashas and large containers is poured on Gommateshwara, followed by clouds of white rice powder. Next, the statue is anointed with coconut water and sugarcane juice. Liquid turmeric and red sandalwood paste then cover the Gommata in hues of amber and mahogany. Next comes the libation of ashtagandha - a combination of eight scented substances - followed lastly by a shower of flower petals. The splendid ceremony ends with the washing of the Gommata with the clear waters of the poorna kumbhas and the arathi of lit lamps. This unique event draws thousands of pilgrims from all over the country as well as across the world, who are enriched by the cultural experience.
Jainism was introduced in Karnataka by Lord Mahaveera in the 6th Century B.C during the course of his travels, when he converted Jivandhara, the king of the Hemangada Country into Jainism. Foretelling a major famine, Monk Bhadrabahu, a leading figure of the Jain religion in the kingdom of Magadha in the 3rd century B.C, led a major migration to Karnataka with Emperor Chandra Gupta Maurya and attained samadhi in the area now known as Shravanabelagola. By the 10th Century, Jainism had become a powerful force in the coastal regions of Karnataka and centres were established all along. With the ascendance of Hinduism, the influence of Jainism waned in the country, though Karnataka still has active Jain pilgrimage centres.
Mahamastakabhisheka, held once every 12 years and Attur Fest, held once a year are some festivals of Karkala which attract major crowd from all over the country.
Karkala is a pilgrimage location for Jains and it attracts tourists. There are several Hindu temples, Jain basadis, mosques, churches, and lakes in Karkala.
The following historical structures are the great examples of art and architecture. They are protected by various laws of the Government of India. ASI protected sites in Karkala are
Padutirupathi is a temple dating back to the 14th century when the Jain Bhairarasa Odeyars ruled Karkala and the surrounding area. It still serves as a gathering place for the people of Karkala today.
St. Lawrence Shrine, or Attur church, was built in the 18th century by Christians who fled Tippu Sultan rule in India. It is a Catholic church dedicated to St. Lawrence, and serves the Christian population of India.
Karkala is located at 13 ° 12 ′ N 74 ° 59 ′ E / 13.2 ° N 74.98 ° E / 13.2; 74.98. It has an average elevation of 81 metres (265 feet).
Karkala has large number of picturesque lakes. Some of them are
As of 2001 India census, Karkal town had a population of 25,118. Males constitute 51 % of the population and females 49 %. Karkal has an average literacy rate of 82 %, higher than the national average of 59.5 %: male literacy is 85 %, and female literacy is 79 %. In Karkal, 9 % of the population is under six years of age. According to recent statistics by town municipality, 25,635 people currently reside in this town, while as per the recent statistics Karkala taluk has a population of 2.10 Lacs (previous 2001 census is 2, 04,571).
Hinduism is the largest religion in Karkala, with Buntss, Billavas, Ganigas, Goud Saraswat Brahmins (GSBs), Chitpavan Brahmins, Mogaveera are the major communities in Hindus.
The people follow Tuluva culture. Distinctive features of tuluvas include rituals of Bhuta Kola, Nagaradhane and Yakshagana etc. Tuluva New Year is called Bisu, which falls on the same day as Baisakhi, Vishu and Thai New Year.
Karkala is a multicultural and multilingual town that follows four religions, namely Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and Jainism. Tulu, Konkani, Kannada, Urdu, Beary are the most prevalent local languages, though Hindi and English are also well understood. There are also Konkani speaking GSB communities, Urdu and Beary speaking Muslims. The Catholic speak Konkani and Protestant Christians Kannada.
Pilinalike (Tiger dance) is a unique form of folk dance in Dakshina Kannada. It is considered as the favored carrier of Goddess Sharada (the deity in whose honour Dasara is celebrated), and is performed during the Dasara celebrations. It is also performed during other festivals like Krishna Janmasthami. Bhuta Kola or spirit worship is practised, usually at night. Kambala, or buffalo racing, is also conducted in paddy fields. Korikatta (Cockfighting) is another favourite sport for village people. To its supporters, Cockfight, an ancient sport involving a fight between specially reared fowls held at the temples precincts in northern parts of Kasaragod, is not a blood sport but a feature of the rich cultural heritage of Tulunadu and an ancient ritual associated with the ' daivasthanams ' (temples) here. Nagaradhane, or snake worship, is also practised, according to the popular belief that the Naga Devatha (snake God) go underground and guard the species above. Konkani speaking GSBs have their own tradition of celebrating Rathotsava and Deepotsava like the Kannada speaking Brahmins.
The Christians in Karkala celebrate a special feast known by various names, some of these names are Saanth Maari, Attur Parish Feast, ಅತ್ತೂರು ಜಾತ್ರೆ (Atturu Jatray) and Attur Church festival. This festival is always scheduled to take place in the last week of the month of January and takes place for three days continuously usually Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday. Thousands of people from all over India attend.
The Muslims offer prayers five times a day at the Masjids and eid prayers at salmar Eidgah on Eid ul fitr and Eid ul adha occasions and Jains have their Jain Milans yearly.
The Karkala Town Municipal Council (ಕಾರ್ಕಳ ಪುರಸಭೆ) is the Municipal Corporation. Also, Karkala comes under Udupi - Chikkamaglur Lok Sabha Constituency.
State and national highways are the main mode of transportation in Karkala. The closest airports and railroads are in Bajpe in Mangalore and Indrali in Udupi,
Karkala is connected to 3 major state roads and one major highway:
4 Railway lines have been proposed to be built, which will pass through Karkala. They are
A large steel plant is located in the outskirts of the town named Lamina Foundries ltd. In this semi-urban township Industries are limited to cashew, rice, and coconut - oil only. There is one dynamite factory at Varanga village.
Ananthapadmanabha Temple, Karkala
Chaturmukha Basadi, Karkala
Kere Basadi
Padmavati Basadi
Pillar at Gommateshwara Statue
Gommateshwara Bahubali Statue
Yaksha on right of Gommateshwara Statue
The Shilpa at Chaturmukha Basati
A Pillar at Chaturmukha Basadi
A Jain temple at the center of pond in Karkala
Anantha Padmanabha Temple
Veeramaruthi Temple, Karkala
St lawrence Church, Karkala
Venkataramana Temple, Karkala
The Deepadhaari at Venkataramana Temple, Karkala
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nba record for most threes in a season | List of National Basketball Association annual three - point field goals leaders - wikipedia
In basketball, a three - point field goal (also known as a "three - pointer '' or "3 - pointer '') is a field goal made from beyond the three - point line, a designated arc radiating from the basket. A successful attempt is worth three points, in contrast to the two points awarded for shots made inside the three - point line. The National Basketball Association 's (NBA) three - point shooting leader is the player who recorded the highest three - point field goals in a given season. The statistic was first recognized in the 1979 -- 80 season when the three - point line was first implemented that season.
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eric clapton tears in heaven about the song | Tears in Heaven - wikipedia
"Tears in Heaven '' is a song by Eric Clapton and Will Jennings, from the 1991 Rush film soundtrack. In an interview with Sue Lawley in 1992, Clapton said of the song, "There is a song that I 've written for a movie, but in actual fact it was in the back of my head but it did n't really have a reason for being until I was scoring this movie which I did a little while ago and then it sort of had a reason to be. And it is a little ambiguous because it could be taken to be about Conor but it also is meant to be part of the film. '' Conor, Clapton 's four - year - old son, fell from a window of a 53rd - floor New York apartment owned by his mother 's friend on March 20, 1991. Clapton arrived at the apartment shortly after the accident.
The song was Clapton 's best - selling single in the United States and reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100. It won three Grammy Awards for Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male, Song of the Year, and Record of the Year. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked "Tears in Heaven '' 362nd on the magazine 's list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''.
The years following 1990 were extremely turbulent for Clapton. In August 1990, his manager, two of his roadies and his friend and fellow musician Stevie Ray Vaughan were killed in a helicopter accident. Seven months later, on March 20, 1991, Clapton 's 4 - year - old son Conor died after falling from the 53rd - floor window of his mother 's friend 's New York City apartment. He landed on the roof of an adjacent four - story building. After isolating himself for a period, Clapton began working again, writing music for a movie about drug addiction called Rush. Clapton dealt with the grief of his son 's death by co-writing "Tears in Heaven '' with Will Jennings. Shortly after his single was released, he went on to the MTV Unplugged series and recorded a new version of the song. Unplugged topped charts and was nominated for nine Grammy Awards the year it was released. Clapton made numerous public service announcements to raise awareness for childproofing windows and staircases.
In an interview with Daphne Barak, Clapton stated, "I almost subconsciously used music for myself as a healing agent, and lo and behold, it worked... I have got a great deal of happiness and a great deal of healing from music ''.
In an interview, Will Jennings said:
"Eric and I were engaged to write a song for a movie called Rush. We wrote a song called ' Help Me Up ' for the end of the movie... then Eric saw another place in the movie for a song and he said to me, ' I want to write a song about my boy. ' Eric had the first verse of the song written, which, to me, is all the song, but he wanted me to write the rest of the verse lines and the release (' Time can bring you down, time can bend your knees... '), even though I told him that it was so personal he should write everything himself. He told me that he had admired the work I did with Steve Winwood and finally there was nothing else but to do as he requested, despite the sensitivity of the subject. This is a song so personal and so sad that it is unique in my experience of writing songs. ''
Clapton stopped playing it in 2004, as well as the song "My Father 's Eyes '', stating: "I did n't feel the loss any more, which is so much a part of performing those songs. I really have to connect with the feelings that were there when I wrote them. They 're kind of gone and I really do n't want them to come back, particularly. My life is different now. They probably just need a rest and maybe I 'll introduce them for a much more detached point of view. '' Clapton eventually resurrected both songs for his 50th anniversary world tour in 2013.
"Tears in Heaven '' is Clapton 's best - selling single in the United States today. With more than 2,800,000 copies sold -- both physical and digital -- it remains one of the best - selling pop singles of the 1990s and one of the best - selling singles, released by any non-American artist. The Reprise Records single reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100 singles charts, where it charted for 26 weeks. It was kept from the number one spot by "Save the Best for Last '' by Vanessa Williams. It is also Clapton 's highest charting single on the Hot 100, after "I Shot the Sheriff '', which is Clapton 's only Hot 100 number one single to date. While charting on Americas most important single chart, Clapton received several sales awards by the Billboard magazine, including a "Hot Shot Debut '' and a "Power Pick / Sales '' certificate. After the physical single release was certified with a Gold disc by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on March 18, 1992, the single was still selling about 150,000 copies every week. On April 15, 1992, "Tears in Heaven '' was a Platinum certification award for sales of more than 1,000,000 copies in the United States. It topped the Top Single Sales chart, compiled by the Billboard magazine in 1992. The release also topped Billboard magazines Adult Contemporary chart, on which "Tears in Heaven '' charted for a total of 30 weeks, and also became a number one single on the Top 100 Cashbox charts. By the end of 1992, "Tears in Heaven '' sold more than 2,300,000 copies in the United States alone. The pop single also received a lot of airplay, charting 20 weeks on the Top Radio Songs chart, peaking at number three, and reaching position nine on the Mainstream Rock Songs chart, where "Tears in Heaven '' stayed for a total of 18 weeks. Also, it was later the fourth - favourite recurrent airplay single, as the Billboard magazine reported in summer of 1992. The 1992 single release was the 6th best - selling single recording in the United States that year, reachin number six on the Billboard year - end Hot 100 chart as well as the 5th most successful Adult Contemporary release. It also ranked at number five on the Top Single Sales chart, compiled by the Billboard magazine and reached position 25 on the Top Radio Songs year - end chart in 1992.
In Canada, the Reprise Records single release topped all of the three pop single sales chart in the country and is therefore Clapton 's most successful single in Canada to date. The song reached the number one top position on both the Canadian Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks and Top 100 Singles chart, compiled by the RPM magazine. In addition to the already rare success, reaching number one on both of the charts, "Tears in Heaven '' was also The Record magazines Top Retail selling single release. Shortly after the single was released in Canada and topped all of these three record charts, it was certified with a double Platinum sales certification for physical sales exceeding 200,000 copies. In 1992, "Tears in Heaven '' was the 17th best - selling single on RPM magazines Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart.
The pop single release was especially successful in Europe, reaching the Top 10 in 12 countries and the Top 20 in 15 of them. The single charted at number three on the European Hot 100 Singles chart in 1992, and was Europes 21st best - selling single of 1992. In Austria, the physical single peaked at number 25 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 singles chart, and eventually charted at number ten in week four, reaching its highest charting position in the country. In total, the single of "Tears in Heaven '' spent 12 weeks on the nations single sales chart. It was eventually certified with a Gold disc by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) in Austria and reached number 61 on the country 's year - end chart in 1992. In Flanders (Belgium), the hit single release reached three different single charts. In 1992, the recording peaked at position 44 on Ultratops Top 50 single chart, and eventually reached its peak position, 16, in week four and five, while on chart for a total of ten weeks. At that time, the single also peaked at number ten on the Belgian VRT Top 30 singles chart, where "Tears in Heaven '' spent eight weeks on chart.
In 2010, when a remastered physical edition of the single was released in Belgium, it reached number 16 on the Back Catalogue chart. The song was Belgiums 159th best - selling single in 1992, and certified with a Platinum disc for sales over 50,000 copies by the Belgian Entertainment Association. In Denmark, "Tears in Heaven '' topped the single sales chart and was certified Platinum for sales exceeding 10,000 copies by IFPI Denmark, as it spent a total of 29 weeks on chart. In France, the single peaked at number two on the French singles chart, where it charted for 34 weeks. On chart week 28, it was certified with a Platinum award by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP) for sales of more than 500,000 copies in the country. In Germany, the single placed itself on its lowest charting position, number 42. In total, the single charted for eleven weeks on the German singles chart, and sold more than 170,000 both digital and physical copies to date. "Tears in Heaven '' topped the single charts in Ireland and was certified with a Platinum disc by the Irish Recorded Music Association (IRMA), selling more than 50,000 copies in 1992, as it reached both of the year - end charts in 1992 and 1993 with positions five and 47. In Italy, the single reached Top five positions as both a physical as well as a digital download single. In 1992, the single peaked at number four on the Italian single chart, compiled by Musica e dischi. Later, the single re-entered the nations single chart as a digital download and streaming single, reaching number five on the charts, now compiled by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana (FIMI).
In addition, the digital single was certified with a Platinum disc, for sales and streams exceeding 30,000 units. The single was a medium successful hit in the Netherlands. It reached position 17 on the Dutch Top 40 singles weekly chart, where it stayed for ten weeks, and reached number 131 on the charts year - end compilation in 1992. In addition, it also reached the Single Top 100 charts, peaking at number 13 and staying for 21 weeks on chart, before placing itself on position 87 on the year - end Single 100 chart. In Norway, the single topped the VG - lista singles chart in 1992, exactly like it did in Poland, reaching the top spot on the Lista Przebojów Programu Trzeciego (LP3), where it stayed for 16 weeks. In Spain, the single charted at number seven on the nations single charts, and was eventually certified with a Gold disc, commemorating the sale of more than 25,000 copies in the country by the Productores de Música de España (PROMUSICAE). In Sweden, "Tears in Heaven '' reached number four on the Sverigetopplistan singles chart, where it spent a total of 30 weeks on chart.
In October 1992, it was presented with a Platinum sales award by the Swedish Recording Industry Association (GLF), when it exceeded 50,000 sold units in the country. It reached number 86 on the 1992 Swedish year - end chart. In Switzerland, the single was also a Top ten hit, peaking at number seven on the Schweizer Hitparade, where "Tears in Heaven '' stayed for 15 weeks. Here too, the single was presented with a Gold certification by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, for sales exceeding 25,000 copies in Switzerland. It was the 38th most - bought single in Switzerland in 1992. "Tears in Heaven '' was also a major success for Clapton in his home country, the United Kingdom. The single reached number five on the charts, compiled by the Official Charts Company and spent a total of 14 weeks on the British charts, selling 140,000 copies in the first five weeks. Shortly after, the single was certified with a Silver disc by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), for sales more than 200,000 copies in the country. With total sales of more than 300,000 copies by the end of 1992, "Tears in Heaven '' reached number 39 on Great Britains 1992 year - end chart.
In Australia, "Tears in Heaven '' was a hit record, reaching number three on the ARIA charts in 1993, although the release did chart before at lower positions in Australia the previous year. In 1992, the pop Reprise Records single placed itself at number 102 on Australias year - end chart. However, in 1993, it could generate far more single sales, become Australia 's 28th best - selling single. In 1993, the single release was also certified with a Platinum record sales certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for sales figures exceeding 70,000 physical units. In New Zealand, the single topped the country 's single chart for the first five weeks on chart, and spent a total of 18 weeks on the country 's single sales chart. On May 31, 1992 -- just four weeks on chart in New Zealand -- "Tears in Heaven '' was certified with a Gold disc by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ), commemorating the sale of more than 7,500 copies in the country.
In Asia, "Tears in Heaven '' was mostly successful in Japan, Taiwan and Macao. In the island country in East Asia, the single release peaked at number two on the Oricon Japanese Hot 100 Singles sales chart in February 1992. In total, the Reprise Records single stayed thirty - seven weeks on the nation 's Hot 100 single sales chart, compiled by Oricon. Because "Tears in Heaven '' was not released as a maxi single or part of a double A-side by Reprise or Warner Bros. Records in Japan, it was not eligible to chart on any other compilations. While charting in Japan in 1992, the pop single release was certified with a triple Platinum disc by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ), for sales overstepping the 300,000 sales mark. By the end of 1992, "Tears in Heaven '' sold more than 389,000 units in Japan, however, not more than 400,000 copies, quelling the quelling four a quadruple Platinum certification award. For the year - end closing of Oricon, it was revealed, the 1992 single release was the fortieth best - selling release on the Hot 100 Singles chart. On the summary of 1992 's most - purchased international singles in Japan, "Tears in Heaven '' reached number sixty - three. In Taiwan, the digital single of the song reached the G - Music charts in 2007, where the release stayed a total of seventeen weeks and topped the nation 's singles chart three times. During that year, the Recording Industry of Taiwan (RIT), awarded the single release with a Gold disc, for digital download sales exceeding more than 175,000 units in the country. On Taiwan 's year - end chart of 2007, "Tears in Heaven '' ranked at position seventy - seven. In the special administrative region of Macao, the single was certified with a Gold disc by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry of Macao for single sales of more than 15,000 physical copies.
"Tears in Heaven '' is Clapton 's commercially most successful single release in South America to date, as it reached the single sales charts of three different countries. In Argentina, the Reprise Records release topped the country 's single charts, compiled by the Cámara Argentina de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas (CAPIF). Also, the pop tune topped the singles chart in Brazil, and reached the 1992 year - end charts, placing itself on number fourteen. In Brazil, the single release was certified with a Platinum disc for physical sales of more than 250,000 copies. It is Clapton 's highest - selling single in Brazil, as "Change the World '' was certified with a Gold disc, and a rare certification for any physical single, as the worlds best - selling single "Candle in the Wind 1997 '' achieved similar sales figures. At last, "Tears in Heaven '' peaked at number eight on Asociación Colombiana de Productores de Fonogramas (ASINCOL) 's physical format singles chart in Colombia. It also reached number thirty - eight on the country 's year - end chart of 1992, compiled by ASINCOL, and is Clapton 's only charting single in the country.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
In 2005, Ozzy Osbourne and Sharon Osbourne assembled an all - star cast to collaborate on "Tears in Heaven ''. Sales from the recording benefited the Disasters Emergency Committee 's Tsunami Earthquake appeal and the tsunami victims in Southeast Asia. The line up included Gwen Stefani, Mary J. Blige, Pink, Slash, Duff "Rose '' McKagan, Steven Tyler, Elton John, Phil Collins, Ringo Starr, Andrea Bocelli, Katie Melua, Josh Groban, Scott Weiland, Robbie Williams, and Rod Stewart. Ozzy Osbourne and Kelly Osbourne also sang on the song. Loona also recorded a version of the song.
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the most significant social legislation passed by any congress in the history of the us was | List of United States federal legislation - wikipedia
This is a chronological, but still incomplete, list of United States federal legislation. Congress has enacted approximately 200 -- 600 statutes during each of its 115 biennial terms, so that more than 20,000 statutes have been enacted since 1789.
At the federal level in the United States, legislation (i.e., "statutes '' or "statutory law '') consists exclusively of Acts passed by the Congress of the United States and its predecessor, the Continental Congress, that were either signed into law by the President or passed by Congress after a presidential veto.
Legislation is not the only source of regulations with the force of law. However, most executive branch and Judicial Branch regulations must originate in a congressional grant of power. See also: Executive orders of the President; regulations of Executive branch departments and administrative agencies; and the procedural rules of the federal courts.
Acts of Congress are published in the United States Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 through 18, which have all the statutes passed from 1789 to 1875, are available on - line at the Library of Congress, here. In the list below, statutes are listed by X Stat. Y, where X is the volume of the Statutes at Large and Y is the page number, as well as either the chapter or Public Law number. See examples below.
Each Congress has two to four sessions. Under the numbering system used from 1789 until 1957, the Acts in each session are numbered sequentially as Chapters. This numbering included both laws applicable to the general public and laws relating to specific individuals, e.g., to grant pensions to disabled veterans.
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when did the office film threat level midnight | Threat Level Midnight - wikipedia
"Threat Level Midnight '' is the seventeenth episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office, and the show 's 143rd episode overall. It originally aired on NBC on February 17, 2011. The episode was written by B.J. Novak and directed by Tucker Gates.
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In this episode, Michael Scott (Steve Carell) screens his action film Threat Level Midnight to the office after ten years of writing, shooting, re-shooting, and editing. This film features Michael as Agent Michael Scarn, Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) as Scarn 's robot butler, and Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) as Scarn 's archnemesis "Goldenface ''.
The episode 's genesis stems from the second season entry "The Client '', in which the office discovers Michael 's incomplete screenplay for Threat Level Midnight. The episode features the reappearance of several actors and actresses who had not appeared on the show in years. Due to the nature of Michael 's film, scenes were filmed to create the illusion as if they had been shot years prior to the episode. "Threat Level Midnight '' was viewed by 6.41 million viewers and received a 3.3 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49. The episode was the highest - rated NBC series of the week that it aired, and received acclaim from critics, many of whom enjoyed the humor and the continuity references to the show 's past.
Michael Scott (Steve Carell) screens his action film Threat Level Midnight to the office after ten years of writing, shooting, re-shooting and editing. The film 's characters are played by people who have either worked at the Dunder Mifflin Scranton branch in the past decade, or those whom Michael has interacted with in the last few years.
The plot for the movie is as follows. After secret agent Michael Scarn (played by Scott) is forced into retirement due to the death of his wife Catherine Zeta - Scarn, the President of the United States of America (played by Darryl Philbin) requests that he prevent Goldenface (played by Jim Halpert) from blowing up the NHL All - Star Game and killing several hostages. Scarn goes undercover and learns how to play hockey, killing another hockey player (played by Oscar Martinez) to make it into the game, but after confronting Goldenface, he is shot. He later recuperates but learns that the President was in on it all along, leaking footage of Scarn killing the hockey player. Guilt - ridden, he goes to a bar to drown his sorrows. The patrons of the bar sing a song called "The Scarn '' and do an accompanying dance, which cheers Scarn up immensely. With his courage restored, Scarn is able to save the day and blow up Goldenface in the process.
Michael had shown the office a "work in progress '' cut of the film years ago, but the employees all mistook it for a comedy, and Michael was so offended by their laughing that he shut down the screening. Everyone is very eager to see Michael 's film, albeit only because they all appear in it, and Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) warns everyone to be mindful of how sensitive Michael is and not laugh. However, Pam is unable to keep herself from crying out in horror when she sees her mother cast in the film as a scantily clad nurse, and Jim (John Krasinski) fails to fully suppress his laughter at "The Scarn '' scene, so Michael angrily stops the movie and takes it away. Michael asks Holly Flax (Amy Ryan) what she thought and she does not seem impressed. Michael gets angry at her because he considers the film his "dream '', and he then offers the rest of the office the opportunity to finish seeing the film, which they happily accept. While watching, Michael begins noting how the film is not really very good; he steps outside and tells Holly that it is a bad film but also one that people are having fun watching. They sit down and laugh with the rest of the office through the film 's conclusion.
This episode was written by executive producer B.J. Novak, who also portrays Ryan Howard on the show. It was directed by Tucker Gates, his fourth directing credit of the series. Michael 's screenplay for Threat Level Midnight was the subplot for second season episode "The Client '', and had subsequently been referenced to in "Email Surveillance '', "Product Recall '', "Money '', "Dinner Party '', and "Prince Family Paper ''. The idea for the episode came from series ' star Steve Carell, who was leaving the show at the end of the season. He said that he enjoyed the idea behind the "Threat Level Midnight '' script and wanted to do a story centered on it.
Several former recurring and minor characters make reappearances. Rashida Jones, who portrayed Karen Fillipelli, noted that it felt like "a time warp '' to be asked to appear on the show. Jan Levinson, Michael 's former boss and lover played by Melora Hardin, reappeared in the "Jan - as - diva '' mode. Tony Gardner, portrayed by Mike Bruner, cameos as a pianist. Novak rationalized that, despite Gardner being fired on his first day, the character might have appeared in the movie because he was "intrigued '' and "flattered '' that Michael -- after apologizing "profusely '' -- asked him, or that he might have been "lonely ''.
Andy Buckley, who portrayed David Wallace, former CFO of Dunder Mifflin, was originally billed as a guest star for this episode and his character was supposed to have a part in Michael 's movie. When NBC first aired the episode, Wallace 's scenes were not shown. It was revealed by Novak that, in the script, Wallace was Michael 's first choice as Goldenface, but turned it down because "it would n't look good to people at Corporate ''. Furthermore, Buckley filmed a talking head interview, which had his character exclaiming his regret in not taking the role. This scene was deleted due to time constraints. The scene does not appear on the Season 7 DVD. The script also had a scene that brought back Amy Adams ' character Katy, but it was cut because Adams was working on a movie during the time this episode was filmed. Ellie Kemper, who portrays Erin Hannon on the series, did not appear in the movie; Novak reasoned that Michael had finished his filming long before she arrived at the office, and had spent the remaining years "editing and procrastinating ''.
Writer Novak cites the episode as the "most conceptually ambitious '' in the show 's history. More than half the episode consisted of footage from the film. Originally, the producers considered showing just the movie, but they felt that it "would feel like a gimmick or experiment '', and so it was decided that the film would be intercut with shots of the office reacting to the film. In order to make the film seem as if Michael had created it, the film used was colorized in post-production to make it seem as if it were of a cheaper quality than the normal high - quality film that the series used. Certain shooting methods, like hand - held and zooms, were nixed, except for in cases where they could be presented in a "poorly - executed '' manner. This was done in a way to make it appear that Michael at least knew what he was doing; Novak explained that the crew "did n't want the joke of the episode to be how bad he was at filmmaking '' because it would "be a little easy and a little out of character ''. To create the fake dummy of Toby that exploded, Paul Lieberstein was required to spend several hours in a full - face mold that reportedly "unnerved him greatly ''. Two molds were made. Both were filled with explosives, but one was filled with fake blood. The detonation of both was shot with slow - motion cameras. However, the explosion of the dummy head filled with fake blood was considered by the producers to be "too disturbing for us and arguably too disturbing for Michael '', and so the tamer explosion was used.
Due to the nature of Michael 's film, Novak realized that scenes would have to be filmed as if they had been shot years prior to the episode. In order to successfully pull this off, editor David Rogers and script supervisor Veda Semame were tasked with "mapping out '' every scene to make sure the continuity of the series was preserved. Novak later elaborated on the continuity during an interview with The Office fansite OfficeTally. The scene featuring "The Scarn '' would have been filmed after the corporate merger that occurred during the third season; this would explain Karen 's willingness to deliver her lines, as she would be "eager to fit in ''. Stanley 's voiceover was recorded "on a lunch break '' sometime after the fourth season episode "Local Ad '' because he had "got a big kick out of seeing himself '' in Michael 's commercial. Helene 's scenes were filmed sometime when Michael was dating her during the early part of the sixth season.
In addition to the mapping out of sequences, the episode features a short sequence that was shot to look as if it had been filmed during the show 's second season, although the scene itself was filmed in 2011. Novak explained that, in order to recreate the shot, great lengths had to be taken to ensure the authenticity of the footage. Series Department Head make - up artist LaVerne Caracuzzi - Milazzo and Hair Department Head Kim M. Ferry "put great care and effort into recreating the characters ' looks from earlier seasons ''; Novak, for instance wore "the same bright blue shirt that Ryan used to favor '' and fake sideburns were glued onto the actor 's face to "match the era ''. He also stated that the actors "remembered those dynamics (from the second season) and fell right back into them. '' This is not the first nor the last time this trick has been utilized on the show. For instance, during the cold opening for the sixth season episode "Shareholder Meeting '' featuring "Recyclops '', a montage of Dwight harassing past receptionists was shown. Furthermore, the episode "Customer Loyalty '' from the ninth season featured a montage of Jim setting up a prank supposedly during the show 's second season.
According to the clippings on the wall, Scarn had previously saved the NFL, the MLB, and the NBA all - star games. Several Billy Joel songs play throughout the episode, such as "Running on Ice '' and "Pressure ''. A Dave Barry page - a-day calendar is featured in a montage to illustrate the passing of time. Michael mentions both Oceans 11 and Antz in defense of his movie. The latter is featured in a diatribe Michael delivers about Woody Allen and how you should always listen to your fans.
One of the episode 's deleted scenes is a post-credits scene featuring Michael Scarn and his robot butler breaking the fourth wall and telling the audience to "go home ''. This is a reference to Ferris Bueller 's Day Off 's post-credits scene.
In its original American broadcast on February 17, 2011, "Threat Level Midnight '' was viewed by an estimated 6.41 million viewers and received a 3.3 rating / 9 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 3.3 percent of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds, and 9 percent of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. This marked a decrease in viewers from the previous episode. The full film, which has a runtime of 25 minutes, is available on the seventh season DVD and Blu - ray, and was made available on iTunes on February 18, 2011.
-- Cindy White, IGN
IGN writer Cindy White awarded the episode a 9 out of 10 -- denoting an "amazing '' episode -- and praised the self - awareness of Michael Scott and Steve Carell 's performance. She ultimately said the episode was good enough to be Carell 's last episode. Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste wrote that "there was n't a ton of action this week, but it was just enough to keep Michael 's personal growth on our radar as we continue to brace ourselves for his grand finale. ''
Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode five out of five stars, and called it one of "the best episodes in years ''. Forcella praised the "continuity and callbacks ''. He also noted that the tension between Michael and Holly were "easing the viewers towards the end of Carrell 's (sic) stay at The Office ''. Alan Sepinwall wrote that, despite the episode being "goofy (...) silly, and (and) about as nonsensical as the film itself '', "Threat Level Midnight '' was "a fun, sweet tour through the history of the Michael Scott era ''.
Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a "B '' and wrote that "there is no question that (it) is a fan service. '' He called it a "mixed bag ''; on one hand, he noted that some of the scenes were clever, such as Darryl 's opinion on portraying a black president before Obama was elected. On the other hand, however, he felt that Michael 's "juvenile '' response to Holly was uncharacteristic, and the "oddly high production values and camera work '' were unrealistic for the show. He also felt the inclusion of some characters -- such as Roy, Jan, or Karen -- did not make sense in the context of the series. He concluded, however, that while the episode had issues, "the actual content of Threat Level Midnight was successful in more ways than I had expected ''. Rick Porter of Zap2it gave the episode a more mixed review, saying that it "had moments that were a huge amount of fun, both inside Michael 's labor of love and in people 's reaction to it. But it also felt a little bit clip - showy. ''
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who plays matt mitchum in top of the lake | Top of the Lake - wikipedia
Top of the Lake is a mystery drama television series created and written by Jane Campion and Gerard Lee, and directed by Campion and Garth Davis. It aired in 2013, and the sequel, entitled Top of the Lake: China Girl, in 2017. It marks Campion 's first work for television since An Angel at My Table in 1990.
Season 1 follows Detective Robin Griffin (Elisabeth Moss) and deals with her investigation of the disappearance of a pregnant 12 - year - old girl in New Zealand. Season 2, China Girl, is set in Sydney four years later, as Detective Griffin investigates the death of an unidentified Asian girl found at Bondi Beach.
Top of the Lake was co-produced for BBC Two in the UK, BBC UKTV in Australia and New Zealand, and Sundance Channel in the United States. It has been generally very well received.
Actress Jennifer Ehle auditioned for the role of GJ, which went to Holly Hunter. Jane Campion originally offered the role of Robin to Anna Paquin, who had worked with her on The Piano (1993). Paquin declined due to her pregnancy, and the role went to Elisabeth Moss.
The series was originally intended as a co-production with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. But after American - born Elisabeth Moss was cast, the network pulled their funding before production began, citing a prior agreement to put an Australian actress in the lead. Australian - based channel UKTV, owned by BBC Worldwide, filled the funding gap left by the ABC. Philippa Campbell was the New Zealand - based producer.
Filming took 18 weeks and was shot entirely on location in Queenstown and Glenorchy, in Otago, on the South Island of New Zealand. While Queenstown is referred to during the series, Glenorchy doubles as the fictitious town of Laketop. The scenes in the women 's commune were filmed at Moke Lake.
In early 2013, co-creator Jane Campion said that Top of the Lake comes to a distinct ending, and there would be no additional series. Despite this, it was announced in October 2014 that the series had been renewed for a second season. China Girl began shooting on location in Sydney, Australia in December 2015.
Campion returned as co-writer and co-director. Gerard Lee returned as co-writer. The original co-director, Garth Davis, was replaced by Ariel Kleiman due to scheduling conflicts. Philippa Campbell returned as producer. Actress Nicole Kidman joined the cast for China Girl, which is the second time she has worked with Campion. Kidman "plays an Australian mother, Julia, whose story dovetails with that of Detective Robin Griffin '', played by Elisabeth Moss. Christie, a fan of Campion 's The Piano, joined the cast after sending a letter through a mutual friend.
Top of the Lake screened in its entirety at the January 2013 Sundance Film Festival, in a single seven - hour session with one intermission and a break for lunch. This was the first such screening in the history of the festival. Top of the Lake was additionally shown at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival.
The US premiere was on the Sundance Channel on 18 March 2013, in Australia on BBC UKTV on 24 March 2013, and in New Zealand on 25 March, also on BBC UKTV.
China Girl was screened in its entirety at the May 2017 Cannes Film Festival. In the UK, it premiered on BBC Two on 27 July 2017, and the entire series was released on the BBC iPlayer immediately afterwards. In the US, it premiered in September 2017, on Sundance TV, and each episode will be available on Hulu the day after its screening on SundanceTV. In Canada, China Girl will premiere on Wednesday, October 25, 2017, on CBC Television.
Reviews of Top of the Lake have been positive, referring to the series as "masterfully made '', "beautiful '', "mysterious '', "riveting '', and "a masterpiece ''. It received a score of 86 out of 100 from Metacritic and a score of 93 per cent from Rotten Tomatoes.
There were also some less positive reviews. Mike Hale of The New York Times criticized the "elaborately introduced plotlines '' and described Tui 's disappearance as "less a story element than a metaphor for the kind of armed resistance to male hegemony that constitutes the central idea of Ms Campion 's body of work. ''
Top of the Lake was lauded by feminist critics for its explicit effort to analyse rape culture as well as its radical construction of narratives entirely foregrounding the experiences of single women.
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how big is 1 acre in square feet | Acre - wikipedia
The acre is a unit of land area used in the imperial and US customary systems. It is defined as the area of 1 chain by 1 furlong (66 by 660 feet), which is exactly equal to ⁄ of a square mile, 43,560 square feet, approximately 4,047 m, or about 40 % of a hectare.
The acre is commonly used in Antigua and Barbuda, American Samoa, the Bahamas, Belize, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Canada, Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Grenada, Ghana, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Ireland, Jamaica, Montserrat, Myanmar, Pakistan, Samoa, St. Lucia, St. Helena, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Turks and Caicos, the United Kingdom, the United States and the US Virgin Islands.
The international symbol of the acre is ac. The most commonly used acre today is the international acre. In the United States both the international acre and the US survey acre are in use, but differ by only two parts per million; see below. The most common use of the acre is to measure tracts of land. One international acre is defined as exactly 4,046.856 422 4 square metres.
An acre was defined in the Middle Ages as the area of land that could be ploughed in one day by a yoke of oxen.
One acre equals 0.0015625 square miles, 4,840 square yards, 43,560 square feet or about 4,047 square metres (0.4047 hectares) (see below). While all modern variants of the acre contain 4,840 square yards, there are alternative definitions of a yard, so the exact size of an acre depends on which yard it is based. Originally, an acre was understood as a selion of land sized at forty perches (660 ft, or 1 furlong) long and four perches (66 ft) wide; this may have also been understood as an approximation of the amount of land a yoke of oxen could plough in one day. A square enclosing one acre is approximately 69.57 yards, or 208 feet 9 inches (63.63 metres) on a side. As a unit of measure, an acre has no prescribed shape; any area of 43,560 square feet is an acre.
In the international yard and pound agreement of 1959 the United States and five countries of the Commonwealth of Nations defined the international yard to be exactly 0.9144 metres. Consequently, the international acre is exactly 4,046.856 422 4 square metres.
Both the international acre and the US survey acre contain ⁄ of a square mile or 4,840 square yards, but alternative definitions of a yard are used (see survey foot and survey yard), so the exact size of an acre depends upon which yard it is based. The US survey acre is about 4,046.872 609 874 252 square metres; its exact value (4046 13,525,426 / 15,499,969 m) is based on an inch defined by 1 metre = 39.37 inches exactly, as established by the Mendenhall Order. Surveyors in the United States use both international and survey feet, and consequently, both varieties of acre.
Since the difference between the US survey acre and international acre is only about a quarter of the size of an A4 sheet of paper (0.016 square metres, 160 square centimetres or 24.8 square inches), it is usually not important which one is being discussed. Areas are seldom measured with sufficient accuracy for the different definitions to be detectable.
In India, residential plots are measured in cents or decimal, which is one hundredth of an acre, or 435.60 square feet (40.469 m). In Sri Lanka the division of an acre into 160 perches or 4 roods is common.
1 international acre is equal to the following metric units:
1 United States survey acre is equal to:
1 acre (both variants) is equal to the following customary units:
Perhaps the easiest way for US residents to envision an acre is as a rectangle measuring 88 yards by 55 yards ( ⁄ of 880 yards by ⁄ of 880 yards), about ⁄ the size of a standard American football field.
To be more exact, one acre is 90.75 % of a 100 - yd - long by 53.33 - yd - wide American football field (without the end zones). The full field, including the end zones, covers about 1.32 acres (0.53 ha).
For residents of other countries, the acre might be envisioned as approximately half of a 105 - m - long by 68 - m - wide association football (soccer) pitch.
It may also be remembered as 44,000 square feet, less 1 %.
The word "acre '' is derived from Old English æcer originally meaning "open field '', cognate to west coast Norwegian ækre and Swedish åker, German Acker, Dutch akker, Latin ager, Sanskrit ajr, and Greek αγρός (agros). In English, it was historically spelled aker.
The acre was roughly the amount of land tillable by a yoke of oxen in one day. This explains one definition as the area of a rectangle with sides of length one chain and one furlong. A long, narrow strip of land is more efficient to plough than a square plot, since the plough does not have to be turned so often. The word "furlong '' itself derives from the fact that it is one furrow long.
Before the enactment of the metric system, many countries in Europe used their own official acres. These were differently sized in different countries, for instance, the historical French acre was 4,221 square metres, whereas in Germany as many variants of "acre '' existed as there were German states.
Statutory values for the acre were enacted in England, and subsequently, the United Kingdom, by acts of:
Historically, the size of farms and landed estates in the United Kingdom was usually expressed in acres (or acres, roods, and perches), even if the number of acres was so large that it might conveniently have been expressed in square miles. For example, a certain landowner might have been said to own 32,000 acres of land, not 50 square miles of land.
The acre is related to the square mile, with 640 acres making up one square mile. One mile is 5280 feet (1760 yards). In western Canada and the western United States, divisions of land area were typically based on the square mile, and fractions thereof. If the square mile is divided into quarters, each quarter has a side length of ⁄ mile (880 yards) and is ⁄ square mile in area, or 160 acres. These subunits would typically then again be divided into quarters, with each side being ⁄ mile long, and being ⁄ of a square mile in area, or 40 acres. In the United States, farmland was typically divided as such, and the phrase "the back 40 '' would refer to the 40 - acre parcel to the back of the farm. Most of the Canadian Prairie Provinces and the US Midwest are on square - mile grids for surveying purposes.
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who lost their seats in the general election | List of mps who lost their seat in the united Kingdom general election, 2017 - wikipedia
This is a list of MPs who lost their seat at the United Kingdom general election, 2017
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bendy and the ink machine xbox one cost | Bendy and the ink Machine - Wikipedia
Bendy and the Ink Machine is an episodic survival horror video game developed and published by TheMeatly Games. The game focuses on Henry, a retired cartoonist, who returns to his old studio upon an invitation from a former colleague and discovers a nightmare of cartoon monsters seemingly created by the titular Ink Machine. The game 's first chapter was released for Linux, macOS and Microsoft Windows via Game Jolt on February 10, 2017, with a second chapter bundled with a remastered version of the first following on April 18, 2017. After the game succeeded in its Steam Greenlight campaign on February 28, 2017, both available chapters were released onto Steam on April 27, 2017. The third chapter was released on September 28, 2017 and the fourth chapter was released on April 30, 2018 after a short delay. Mike Mood, the game 's programmer, describes the game as an "accidental success ''.
Bendy and the Ink Machine was announced to be published by Rooster Teeth Games for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch sometime in 2018 after the final chapter has been completed.
Bendy and the Ink Machine is a survival horror game that uses a mixture of puzzle solving, environment exploration and combat to aid Henry on his journey through the abandoned studio. Players explore through a first - person view and have limited physical actions such as running and jumping. Different items can be collected, some of which are for solving various puzzles to fix machinery or open doors. Cans of bacon soup, a reference to the game 's creator TheMeatly and his partner Mike Mood, can also be collected for both achievements and to restore Henry 's health if he is injured. Combat is primarily focused around a variety of different weapons, including axes, pipes and plungers, though the special use of a tommy gun can also be obtained as of Chapter Three. The game 's ink monsters, acting as the main enemies of the story, all have different strength levels and resilience to damage, forcing players to be tactical about keeping out of reach and striking when necessary. Some enemies can not be destroyed and must be instead hidden from in order to survive. If Henry takes too much damage, he can escape from the ink that consumes him and respawn at one of the numerous statues of a Statue of Bendy that act as checkpoints.
In addition, players can find numerous audio logs throughout the studio that give more story details about the fate of the studio and its employees, similar to the systems used in games such as BioShock. Some of these logs can be missed and require further exploration to uncover the secret areas they often reside in.
Henry, an animator, returns to his old animation studio, Joey Drew Studios, after receiving an invitation from his old friend and former employer, Joey Drew, to be shown something important. Having not been to the studio in 30 years, Henry finds the place seemingly abandoned. Upon finding his old animation desk and exploring the other rooms of the studio, he eventually discovers the titular Ink Machine and decides to turn it on after concluding it is what Joey wanted to show him. During the repair attempts, Henry uncovers hints from old recordings of the staff that imply Joey was taking part in bizarre occult practices, further amplified by the gruesome discovery of a corpse in the shape of Boris the Wolf, one of the studio 's characters.
After completing the necessary steps to fix the Ink Machine, The path to the ink machine was boarded up for some reason followed by a trail of footprints, Henry is then suddenly shocked by a humanoid ink monster that resembles the studio 's most popular character, Bendy (who is theorized to be Joey himself). Henry attempts to flee from "Bendy '' as the studio starts to flood with ink and just before he reaches the exit, the floor collapses underneath him, trapping him in a room below. Using an axe to clear the path and approaching a pentagram drawn on the floor, Henry is racked with a vision of the Machine, a wheelchair, and "Bendy '' before he falls unconscious before finding a axe.
In the post-credit scene, the pentagram room is almost pitch grey with the candles being lit, just as this cutscene ends "Bendy '' emerges from the shadows with his evil smile. This was later removed during the production of Chapter 2
Waking up after his vision, Henry arrives at the same place on when he fell. He is attacked by several hostile ink creatures, the Searchers, and briefly sees the outline of what appears to be another person in the studio with him that disappears when he gets close. Several tape recordings Henry find more of how the studio fared since his departure, including one by Sammy Lawrence, the musical director for the studio, who seemingly started to worship Bendy as a deity. Another recording from Norman Polk, the studio projectionist, mentions how Sammy continually disrupted daily recording sessions by attempting to enter a custom built sanctuary, and Susie Campbell, a newcomer to the studio, talks about how she was hired to voice a new character alongside Bendy and Boris after voicing "talking chairs and dancing chickens ''.
After activating the pump in Sammy 's office to drain the flooded stairwell of the music department blocking the exit, Henry is suddenly attacked from behind and knocked out by the same person he saw earlier. Upon waking up, he finds his captor is Sammy, who has been turned into an ink creature and is wearing a Bendy mask over his face. As "Sammy '' briefly remarks that Henry appears familiar to him, he reveals his worship of "Bendy '', thinking that the creature will be able to return him back to human form. Intending on using Henry as a human sacrifice, the ritual backfires when "Bendy '' arrives and presumably kills "Sammy '' instead. Henry escapes his bindings and runs into "Bendy '', forcing him to flee. After successfully escaping, Henry hears a noise grab his attention and is shocked to see a living version of Boris (who is theorized to be Wally Franks, the studio 's janitor) come out to greet him.
In the post-credit scene, "Sammy 's '' remains are shown as a puddle of ink with his mask. Also, by the right corner, Boris 's shoes can be seen, implying that he has seen what "Bendy '' has done. This was later removed during the production of Chapter 3.
An undetermined amount of time after escaping from "Bendy '', Henry wakes up in a safe house along with Boris, Traveling together with the wolf through a part of the studio his does n't recognize, Henry finds himself in Heavenly Toys, the studio 's toy manufacturing department. Briefly separated from Boris, Henry encounters a humanoid female ink creature that resembles a deformed Alice Angel (who is implied to be Susie Campbell). She comments on how he interests her and asks if he is worthy to ' walk with angels '.
After meeting with "Alice '', there are two paths that Henry can take: the Path of the Angel or the Path of the Demon. Only one path can be chosen, with the other one being locked permanently. Though each path has no bearing on the rest of the Chapter, the audio logs that Henry finds inside each offer a different insight into more happenings at the studio. In the Path of the Demon, Henry can listen to a tape from Joey Drew himself who rambles about how one can even "cheat death '' with enough belief. The Path of the Angel features a recording from Susie Campbell, who laments at the fact she had been replaced as Alice by another voice actress named Allison Pendle and wishes for a way to fix it.
Henry reunites with Boris, and after working together and battling more cartoon monsters, they reach "Alice 's '' lair. There, Henry finds out that "Alice '' has been harvesting the body parts of other Boris clones and some of the ink in order to improve her deformed appearance. Thinking that he can be useful in aiding her, "Alice '' offers Henry his freedom in exchange for a few errands and offers him tools to help. Henry carries out these errands, which involve gathering materials for "Alice '', all the while evading "Bendy '', Searchers, monstrous versions of the studio 's Butcher Gang characters, and the Projectionist, a disfigured version of Norman Polk who has now become an ink monster. After every task is complete, Henry and Boris are allowed to ascend in an elevator to escape, but "Alice '' proclaims she wants to use Boris to fix herself, and the elevator plummets down and crashes. As Boris tries to revive an injured Henry, he is pulled away by "Alice '' into the darkness.
One of the two post-credit scenes are shown depending on which path Henry took: the Path of the Demon shows "Bendy '' in front of an ink - filled room with the Butcher Gang and a Swollen Searcher. The Path of the Angel shows Boris tied to a table with an axe and "Alice 's '' shadow nearby.
Henry wakes up in the remains of the crashed elevator and begins his search for Boris. He journeys through the studio 's archives, suddenly beginning to suffer from hallucinations of paranormal activity and discovers a large group of non-hostile ink monsters called the Lost Ones, hinted to be the studio 's employees. They have been driven to despair at being trapped inside the studio for so long, crying that they just want to go home. Henry then also encounters "Bendy '' again, who surprises him, but then strangely leaves him alone before disappearing.
After navigating through the vents of the archives, Henry finds himself in a large underground warehouse that houses prototypes for a Bendy theme park, Bendy Land. Created by park designer Bertrum Piedmont, more audio logs imply that Joey intended to take the credit for the park 's creation, leading Bertrum to become frustrated with the studio owner. Henry is taunted by the disembodied voice of "Alice '', threatening him with the idea of the captured Boris being used to finally cure her disfigurement before he can reach her. Having to travel through different storage areas of character suits, Bendy animatronics, ride prototypes and even a railway system, Henry learns from a recording that Joey 's focus on belief and dreaming was nothing but a facade when he drops the attitude and remarks how the public love messages like that, complaining he can only do so many takes of such rhetoric a day. During his time in the prototype ride storage, Henry is attacked by the corrupted form of Bertrum, who has somehow been transformed into one of the park 's attractions, forcing Henry to destroy him. In the railway storage, Henry is also stalked by the Projectionist again. After being spotted and hiding in a "Little Miracle Station '' from it, Henry witnesses "Bendy '' arrive and the two monsters fight each other, leading to "Bendy 's '' victory after he pulls off the Projectionist 's head. "Bendy '', once again, confusingly leaves Henry alone and departs with the Projectionist 's (now headless) body.
After activating the haunted house ride to reach where "Alice '' is hiding, Henry is stopped by Boris, who has been turned into a hulking monster by "Alice '' in order to kill him. With no choice but to defend himself, Henry eventually manages to kill "Brute Boris ''. Enraged at having been foiled again, "Alice '' charges at Henry in an attempt to kill him herself but is suddenly stabbed through the heart from behind and collapses to the ground. Henry then realizes that he has been saved by another Alice Angel named Allison Angel (who is heavily implied to be Allison Pendle) and another Boris named Tom (possibly the studio 's repairman, Thomas Connor), both armed with weapons.
In a post-credit scene, "Alice 's '' body is shown lifeless on the ground, surrounded by the Lost Ones. However, through the humming that is heard faintly in the background, it suggests she might still be alive.
Official videos for a series of animated shorts based on Bendy and the Ink Machine have been released from theMeatly 's YouTube channel, with animation done by animator Timethehobo. The first animated short, Tombstone Picnic, was released as a first part of Chapter 3 's reveal trailer on August 11, 2017. The second short, Haunted Hijinx, was uploaded on October 31, 2017 for the celebration on Halloween. The third short, Snow Sillies, was uploaded on December 24, 2017 for the celebration on Christmas season.
A Halloween crossover mod, Hello Bendy, was released for the game on October 27, 2017 for a limited time, featuring the Hello Neighbor antagonist who takes the role as Bendy in all previous three chapters and even Sammy for Chapter 2. The mod 's menu features the advertisement of pre-ordering the game Hello Neighbor. The mod expired by the end of October.
A mobile spin - off, Bendy in Nightmare Run, was announced on January 26, 2018 and is scheduled to be released on Android and iOS. The game will introduce a playable Bendy in an endless running - style game, featuring four levels with a different "boss '' cartoon monster, collectible items and power - ups, and possible future updates.
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what are the causes and effects of soil pollution | Soil contamination - Wikipedia
Soil contamination or soil pollution as part of land degradation is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human - made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene and benzo (a) pyrene), solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. Contamination is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical usage.
The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanups are time consuming and expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts of geology, hydrology, chemistry, computer modeling skills, and GIS in Environmental Contamination, as well as an appreciation of the history of industrial chemistry.
In North America and Western Europe the extent of contaminated land is best known, with many of countries in these areas having a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental problem. Developing countries tend to be less tightly regulated despite some of them having undergone significant industrialization.
Soil pollution can be caused by the following (non-exhaustive list)
The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals.
Any activity that leads to other forms of soil degradation (erosion, compaction, etc.) may indirectly worsen the contamination effects in that soil remediation becomes more tedious.
Historical deposition of coal ash used for residential, commercial, and industrial heating, as well as for industrial processes such as ore smelting, were a common source of contamination in areas that were industrialized before about 1960. Coal naturally concentrates lead and zinc during its formation, as well as other heavy metals to a lesser degree. When the coal is burned, most of these metals become concentrated in the ash (the principal exception being mercury). Coal ash and slag may contain sufficient lead to qualify as a "characteristic hazardous waste '', defined in the USA as containing more than 5 mg / l of extractable lead using the TCLP procedure. In addition to lead, coal ash typically contains variable but significant concentrations of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; e.g., benzo (a) anthracene, benzo (b) fluoranthene, benzo (k) fluoranthene, benzo (a) pyrene, indeno (cd) pyrene, phenanthrene, anthracene, and others). These PAHs are known human carcinogens and the acceptable concentrations of them in soil are typically around 1 mg / kg. Coal ash and slag can be recognised by the presence of off - white grains in soil, gray heterogeneous soil, or (coal slag) bubbly, vesicular pebble - sized grains.
Treated sewage sludge, known in the industry as biosolids, has become controversial as a "fertilizer ''. As it is the byproduct of sewage treatment, it generally contains more contaminants such as organisms, pesticides, and heavy metals than other soil.
In the European Union, the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive allows sewage sludge to be sprayed onto land. The volume is expected to double to 185,000 tons of dry solids in 2005. This has good agricultural properties due to the high nitrogen and phosphate content. In 1990 / 1991, 13 % wet weight was sprayed onto 0.13 % of the land; however, this is expected to rise 15 fold by 2005. Advocates say there is a need to control this so that pathogenic microorganisms do not get into water courses and to ensure that there is no accumulation of heavy metals in the top soil.
A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest. Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms) and microbes that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector for disease or cause a nuisance. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other organisms.
Herbicides are used to kill weeds, especially on pavements and railways. They are similar to auxins and most are biodegradable by soil bacteria. However, one group derived from trinitrotoluene (2: 4 D and 2: 4: 5 T) have the impurity dioxin, which is very toxic and causes fatality even in low concentrations. Another herbicide is Paraquat. It is highly toxic but it rapidly degrades in soil due to the action of bacteria and does not kill soil fauna.
Insecticides are used to rid farms of pests which damage crops. The insects damage not only standing crops but also stored ones and in the tropics it is reckoned that one third of the total production is lost during food storage. As with fungicides, the first insecticides used in the nineteenth century were inorganic e.g. Paris Green and other compounds of arsenic. Nicotine has also been used since the late eighteenth century.
There are now two main groups of synthetic insecticides --
1. Organochlorines include DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin and BHC. They are cheap to produce, potent and persistent. DDT was used on a massive scale from the 1930s, with a peak of 72,000 tonnes used 1970. Then usage fell as the harmful environmental effects were realized. It was found worldwide in fish and birds and was even discovered in the snow in the Antarctic. It is only slightly soluble in water but is very soluble in the bloodstream. It affects the nervous and endocrine systems and causes the eggshells of birds to lack calcium causing them to be easily breakable. It is thought to be responsible for the decline of the numbers of birds of prey like ospreys and peregrine falcons in the 1950s -- they are now recovering. As well as increased concentration via the food chain, it is known to enter via permeable membranes, so fish get it through their gills. As it has low water solubility, it tends to stay at the water surface, so organisms that live there are most affected. DDT found in fish that formed part of the human food chain caused concern, but the levels found in the liver, kidney and brain tissues was less than 1 ppm and in fat was 10 ppm, which was below the level likely to cause harm. However, DDT was banned in the UK and the United States to stop the further buildup of it in the food chain. U.S. manufacturers continued to sell DDT to developing countries, who could not afford the expensive replacement chemicals and who did not have such stringent regulations governing the use of pesticides..
2. Organophosphates, e.g. parathion, methyl parathion and about 40 other insecticides are available nationally. Parathion is highly toxic, methyl - parathion is less so and Malathion is generally considered safe as it has low toxicity and is rapidly broken down in the mammalian liver. This group works by preventing normal nerve transmission as cholinesterase is prevented from breaking down the transmitter substance acetylcholine, resulting in uncontrolled muscle movements.
The disposal of munitions, and a lack of care in manufacture of munitions caused by the urgency of production, can contaminate soil for extended periods. There is little published evidence on this type of contamination largely because of restrictions placed by Governments of many countries on the publication of material related to war effort. However, mustard gas stored during World War II has contaminated some sites for up to 50 years and the testing of Anthrax as a potential biological weapon contaminated the whole island of Gruinard
Contaminated or polluted soil directly affects human health through direct contact with soil or via inhalation of soil contaminants which have vaporized; potentially greater threats are posed by the infiltration of soil contamination into groundwater aquifers used for human consumption, sometimes in areas apparently far removed from any apparent source of above ground contamination. This tends to result in the development of (List of pollution - related diseases pollution - related diseases)
Health consequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on pollutant type, pathway of attack and vulnerability of the exposed population. Chronic exposure to chromium, lead and other metals, petroleum, solvents, and many pesticide and herbicide formulations can be carcinogenic, can cause congenital disorders, or can cause other chronic health conditions. Industrial or man - made concentrations of naturally occurring substances, such as nitrate and ammonia associated with livestock manure from agricultural operations, have also been identified as health hazards in soil and groundwater.
Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with higher incidence of leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage and some irreversible diseases. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity. Organophosphates and carbonates can induce a chain of responses leading to neuromuscular blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes and depression of the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient dosages a large number of soil contaminants can cause death by exposure via direct contact, inhalation or ingestion of contaminants in groundwater contaminated through soil.
The Scottish Government has commissioned the Institute of Occupational Medicine to undertake a review of methods to assess risk to human health from contaminated land. The overall aim of the project is to work up guidance that should be useful to Scottish Local Authorities in assessing whether sites represent a significant possibility of significant harm (SPOSH) to human health. It is envisaged that the output of the project will be a short document providing high level guidance on health risk assessment with reference to existing published guidance and methodologies that have been identified as being particularly relevant and helpful. The project will examine how policy guidelines have been developed for determining the acceptability of risks to human health and propose an approach for assessing what constitutes unacceptable risk in line with the criteria for SPOSH as defined in the legislation and the Scottish Statutory Guidance.
Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems. There are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many hazardous chemicals even at low concentration of the contaminant species. These changes can manifest in the alteration of metabolism of endemic microorganisms and arthropods resident in a given soil environment. The result can be virtual eradication of some of the primary food chain, which in turn could have major consequences for predator or consumer species. Even if the chemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the food chain may ingest alien chemicals, which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung of the food chain. Many of these effects are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chick mortality and potential extinction of species.
Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination. Contaminants typically alter plant metabolism, often causing a reduction in crop yields. This has a secondary effect upon soil conservation, since the languishing crops can not shield the Earth 's soil from erosion. Some of these chemical contaminants have long half - lives and in other cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants.
Cleanup or environmental remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field measurement of soil chemicals and also apply computer models (GIS in Environmental Contamination) for analyzing transport and fate of soil chemicals. Various technologies have been developed for remediation of oil - contaminated soil / sediments There are several principal strategies for remediation:
Various national standards for concentrations of particular contaminants include the United States EPA Region 9 Preliminary Remediation Goals (U.S. PRGs), the U.S. EPA Region 3 Risk Based Concentrations (U.S. EPA RBCs) and National Environment Protection Council of Australia Guideline on Investigation Levels in Soil and Groundwater.
The immense and sustained growth of the People 's Republic of China since the 1970s has exacted a price from the land in increased soil pollution. The State Environmental Protection Administration believes it to be a threat to the environment, to food safety and to sustainable agriculture. According to a scientific sampling, 150 million mu (100,000 square kilometres) of China 's cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate a further 32.5 million mu (21,670 square kilometres) and another 2 million mu (1,300 square kilometres) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one - tenth of China 's cultivatable land, and is mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12 million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 20 billion yuan (US $2.57 billion).
According to the received data from Member states, in European Union the number of estimated potential contaminated sites is more than 2.5 million and the identified contaminated sites around 342 thousand. Municipal and industrial wastes contribute most to soil contamination (38 %), followed by the industrial / commercial sector (34 %). Mineral oil and heavy metals are the main contaminants contributing around 60 % to soil contamination. In terms of budget, the management of contaminated sites is estimated to cost around 6 billion Euros (€) annually.
Generic guidance commonly used in the United Kingdom are the Soil Guideline Values published by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and the Environment Agency. These are screening values that demonstrate the minimal acceptable level of a substance. Above this there can be no assurances in terms of significant risk of harm to human health. These have been derived using the Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment Model (CLEA UK). Certain input parameters such as Health Criteria Values, age and land use are fed into CLEA UK to obtain a probabilistic output.
Guidance by the Inter Departmental Committee for the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (ICRCL) has been formally withdrawn by DEFRA, for use as a prescriptive document to determine the potential need for remediation or further assessment.
The CLEA model published by DEFRA and the Environment Agency (EA) in March 2002 sets a framework for the appropriate assessment of risks to human health from contaminated land, as required by Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990. As part of this framework, generic Soil Guideline Values (SGVs) have currently been derived for ten contaminants to be used as "intervention values ''. These values should not be considered as remedial targets but values above which further detailed assessment should be considered; see Dutch standards.
Three sets of CLEA SGVs have been produced for three different land uses, namely
It is intended that the SGVs replace the former ICRCL values. The CLEA SGVs relate to assessing chronic (long term) risks to human health and do not apply to the protection of ground workers during construction, or other potential receptors such as groundwater, buildings, plants or other ecosystems. The CLEA SGVs are not directly applicable to a site completely covered in hardstanding, as there is no direct exposure route to contaminated soils.
To date, the first ten of fifty - five contaminant SGVs have been published, for the following: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, inorganic mercury, nickel, selenium ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene. Draft SGVs for benzene, naphthalene and xylene have been produced but their publication is on hold. Toxicological data (Tox) has been published for each of these contaminants as well as for benzo (a) pyrene, benzene, dioxins, furans and dioxin - like PCBs, naphthalene, vinyl chloride, 1, 1, 2, 2 tetrachloroethane and 1, 1, 1, 2 tetrachloroethane, 1, 1, 1 trichloroethane, tetrachloroethene, carbon tetrachloride, 1, 2 - dichloroethane, trichloroethene and xylene. The SGVs for ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene are dependent on the soil organic matter (SOM) content (which can be calculated from the total organic carbon (TOC) content). As an initial screen the SGVs for 1 % SOM are considered to be appropriate.
In March 2009, the issue of Uranium poisoning in Punjab attracted press coverage. It was alleged to be caused by fly ash ponds of thermal power stations, which reportedly lead to severe birth defects in children in the Faridkot and Bhatinda districts of Punjab. The news reports claimed the uranium levels were more than 60 times the maximum safe limit. In 2012, the Government of India confirmed that the ground water in Malwa belt of Punjab has uranium metal that is 50 % above the trace limits set by the United Nations ' World Health Organization. Scientific studies, based on over 1000 samples from various sampling points, could not trace the source to fly ash and any sources from thermal power plants or industry as originally alleged. The study also revealed that the uranium concentration in ground water of Malwa district is not 60 times the WHO limits, but only 50 % above the WHO limit in 3 locations. This highest concentration found in samples was less than those found naturally in ground waters currently used for human purposes elsewhere, such as Finland. Research is underway to identify natural or other sources for the uranium.
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what is the current amount of the us national debt | National debt of the United States - Wikipedia
The national debt of the United States is the amount owed by the federal government of the United States. The measure of the public debt is the value of the outstanding Treasury securities at a point of time that have been issued by the Treasury and other federal government agencies. The terms national deficit and national surplus usually refer to the federal government budget balance from year to year, not the cumulative total. A deficit year increases the debt because more money is spent than is received; a surplus year decreases the debt because more money is received than spent.
There are two components of gross national debt:
In general, government debt increases as a result of government spending, trade deficits, and unpaid credit, and decreases from tax or other receipts, both of which fluctuate during the course of a fiscal year. In practice, Treasury securities are not issued or redeemed on a day - by - day basis, and may also be issued or redeemed as part of the federal government 's macroeconomic monetary management operations. The aggregate, gross amount that Treasury can borrow is limited by the United States debt ceiling.
Historically, the US public debt as a share of gross domestic product (GDP) has increased during wars and recessions, and subsequently declined. The ratio of debt to GDP may decrease as a result of a government surplus or due to growth of GDP and inflation. For example, debt held by the public as a share of GDP peaked just after World War II (113 % of GDP in 1945), but then fell over the following 35 years. In recent decades, aging demographics and rising healthcare costs have led to concern about the long - term sustainability of the federal government 's fiscal policies.
On November 7, 2016, debt held by the public was $14.3 trillion or about 76 % of the previous 12 months of GDP. Intragovernmental holdings stood at $5.4 trillion, giving a combined total gross national debt of $19.8 trillion or about 106 % of the previous 12 months of GDP; $6.2 trillion or approximately 45 % of the debt held by the public was owned by foreign investors, the largest of which were Japan and China at about $1.09 trillion for Japan and $1.06 trillion for China as of December 2016.
The United States government has continuously had a fluctuating public debt since its formation in 1789, except for about a year during 1835 -- 1836. To allow comparisons over the years, public debt is often expressed as a ratio to gross domestic product (GDP).
The United States public debt as a percentage of GDP reached its highest level during Harry Truman 's first presidential term, during and after World War II. Public debt as a percentage of GDP fell rapidly in the post-World War II period, and reached a low in 1974 under Richard Nixon. Debt as a share of GDP has consistently increased since then, except during the presidencies of Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton. Public debt rose during the 1980s, as Ronald Reagan cut tax rates and increased military spending. It fell during the 1990s, due to decreased military spending, increased taxes and the 1990s boom. Public debt rose sharply in the wake of the 2007 -- 2008 financial crisis and the resulting significant tax revenue declines and spending increases.
On January 26, 2016, debt held by the public was $13.62 trillion or about 75 % of the previous 12 months of GDP. Intragovernmental holdings stood at $5.34 trillion, giving a combined total gross national debt of $18.96 trillion or about 104 % of the previous 12 months of GDP.
The national debt can also be classified into marketable or non-marketable securities. Most of the marketable securities are Treasury notes, bills, and bonds held by investors and governments globally. The non-marketable securities are mainly the "government account series '' owed to certain government trust funds such as the Social Security Trust Fund, which represented $2.74 trillion in 2011.
The non-marketable securities represent amounts owed to program beneficiaries. For example, in the case of the Social Security Trust Fund, the payroll taxes dedicated to Social Security were credited to the Trust Fund upon receipt, but spent for other purposes. If the government continues to run deficits in other parts of the budget, the government will have to issue debt held by the public to fund the Social Security Trust Fund, in effect exchanging one type of debt for the other. Other large intragovernmental holders include the Federal Housing Administration, the Federal Savings and Loan Corporation 's Resolution Fund and the Federal Hospital Insurance Trust Fund (Medicare).
Only debt held by the public is reported as a liability on the consolidated financial statements of the United States government. Debt held by government accounts is an asset to those accounts but a liability to the Treasury; they offset each other in the consolidated financial statements.
Government receipts and expenditures are normally presented on a cash rather than an accrual basis, although the accrual basis may provide more information on the longer - term implications of the government 's annual operations. The United States public debt is often expressed as a ratio of public debt to gross domestic product (GDP). The ratio of debt to GDP may decrease as a result of a government surplus as well as due to growth of GDP and inflation.
Under normal accounting rules, fully owned companies would be consolidated into the books of the owner, but the large size of Fannie and Freddie has made the U.S. government reluctant to incorporate Freddie and Fannie into its own books. When Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae required bail - outs, White House Budget Director Jim Nussle, on September 12, 2008, initially indicated their budget plans would not incorporate the GSE debt into the budget because of the temporary nature of the conservator intervention. As the intervention has dragged out, pundits have started to further question this accounting treatment, noting that changes in August 2012 "makes them even more permanent wards of the state and turns the government 's preferred stock into a permanent, perpetual kind of security ''.
The government controls the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, which would normally criticize inconsistent accounting practices, but it does not oversee its own government 's accounting practices or the standards set by the Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board. The on - or off - balance sheet obligations of those two independent GSEs was just over $5 trillion at the time the conservatorship was put in place, consisting mainly of mortgage payment guarantees and agency bonds. The confusing independent but government - controlled status of the GSEs has resulted in investors of the legacy common shares and preferred shares launching various activist campaigns in 2014.
U.S. federal government guarantees are not included in the public debt total, until such time as there is a call on the guarantees. For example, the U.S. federal government in late - 2008 guaranteed large amounts of obligations of mutual funds, banks, and corporations under several programs designed to deal with the problems arising from the late - 2000s financial crisis. The guarantee program lapsed at the end of 2012 when Congress declined to extend the scheme. The funding of direct investments made in response to the crisis, such as those made under the Troubled Assets Relief Program, are included in the debt.
The U.S. government is obligated under current law to make mandatory payments for programs such as Medicare, Medicaid and Social Security. The Government Accountability Office (GAO) projects that payouts for these programs will significantly exceed tax revenues over the next 75 years. The Medicare Part A (hospital insurance) payouts already exceed program tax revenues, and social security payouts exceeded payroll taxes in fiscal 2010. These deficits require funding from other tax sources or borrowing. The present value of these deficits or unfunded obligations is an estimated $45.8 trillion. This is the amount that would have had to be set aside in 2009 in order to pay for the unfunded obligations which, under current law, will have to be raised by the government in the future. Approximately $7.7 trillion relates to Social Security, while $38.2 trillion relates to Medicare and Medicaid. In other words, health care programs will require nearly five times more funding than Social Security. Adding this to the national debt and other federal obligations would bring total obligations to nearly $62 trillion. However, these unfunded obligations are not counted in the national debt, as shown in monthly Treasury reports of the national debt.
GDP is a measure of the total size and output of the economy. One measure of the debt burden is its size relative to GDP, called the "debt - to - GDP ratio. '' Mathematically, this is the debt divided by the GDP amount. The Congressional Budget Office includes historical budget and debt tables along with its annual "Budget and Economic Outlook. '' Debt held by the public as a percentage of GDP rose from 34.7 % GDP in 2000 to 40.5 % in 2008 and 67.7 % in 2011.
Mathematically, the ratio can decrease even while debt grows, if the rate of increase in GDP (which also takes account of inflation) is higher than the rate of increase of debt. Conversely, the debt to GDP ratio can increase even while debt is being reduced, if the decline in GDP is sufficient.
According to the CIA World Factbook, during 2015, the U.S. debt to GDP ratio of 73.6 % was the 39th highest in the world. This was measured using "debt held by the public. '' However, $1 trillion in additional borrowing since the end of FY 2015 has raised the ratio to 76.2 % as of April 2016 (See Appendix # National debt for selected years). Also, this number excludes state and local debt. According to the OECD, general government gross debt (federal, state, and local) in the United States in the fourth quarter of 2015 was $22.5 trillion (125 % of GDP); subtracting out $5.25 trillion for intergovernmental federal debt to count only federal "debt held by the public '' gives 96 % of GDP.
The ratio is higher if the total national debt is used, by adding the "intragovernmental debt '' to the "debt held by the public. '' For example, on April 29, 2016, debt held by the public was approximately $13.84 trillion or about 76 % of GDP. Intra-governmental holdings stood at $5.35 trillion, giving a combined total public debt of $19.19 trillion. U.S. GDP for the previous 12 months was approximately $18.15 trillion, for a total debt to GDP ratio of approximately 106 %.
Conceptually, an annual deficit (or surplus) should represent the change in the national debt, with a deficit adding to the national debt and a surplus reducing it. However, there is complexity in the budgetary computations that can make the deficit figure commonly reported in the media (the "total deficit '') considerably different from the annual increase in the debt. The major categories of differences are the treatment of the Social Security program, Treasury borrowing, and supplemental appropriations outside the budget process.
Social Security payroll taxes and benefit payments, along with the net balance of the U.S. Postal Service, are considered "off - budget '', while most other expenditure and receipt categories are considered "on - budget ''. The total federal deficit is the sum of the on - budget deficit (or surplus) and the off - budget deficit (or surplus). Since FY1960, the federal government has run on - budget deficits except for FY1999 and FY2000, and total federal deficits except in FY1969 and FY1998 -- FY2001.
For example, in January 2009 the CBO reported that for fiscal year 2008 (FY2008) the "on - budget deficit '' was $638 billion, offset by an "off - budget surplus '' (mainly due to Social Security revenue in excess of payouts) of $183 billion, for a "total deficit '' of $455 billion. This latter figure was the one commonly reported in the media. However, an additional $313 billion was required for "the Treasury actions aimed at stabilizing the financial markets, '' an unusually high amount due to the Subprime mortgage crisis. This meant that the "debt held by the public '' increased by $768 billion ($455 B + $313 B = $768 B). The "off - budget surplus '' was borrowed and spent (as is typically the case), increasing the "intra-governmental debt '' by $183 billion. So the total increase in the "National debt '' in FY2008 was $768 B + $183 B = $951 billion. The Treasury Department reported an increase in the National Debt of $1,017 B for FY2008. The $66 billion difference is likely due to "supplemental appropriations '' for the War on Terror, some of which were outside the budget process entirely until President Obama began including most of them in his FY2010 budget.
In other words, spending the "off budget '' Social Security surplus adds to the total national debt (by increasing the intragovernmental debt) while the "off - budget '' surplus reduces the "total '' deficit reported in the media. Certain spending called "supplemental appropriations '' is outside the budget process entirely but adds to the national debt. Funding for the Iraq and Afghanistan wars was accounted for this way prior to the Obama administration. Certain stimulus measures and earmarks were also outside the budget process. The federal government publishes the total debt owed (public and intragovernmental holdings) monthly.
Since 2010, the U.S. Treasury has been obtaining negative real interest rates on government debt, meaning the inflation rate is greater than the interest rate paid on the debt. Such low rates, outpaced by the inflation rate, occur when the market believes that there are no alternatives with sufficiently low risk, or when popular institutional investments such as insurance companies, pensions, or bond, money market, and balanced mutual funds are required or choose to invest sufficiently large sums in Treasury securities to hedge against risk.
Economist Lawrence Summers has stated that at such low interest rates, government borrowing actually saves taxpayer money and improves creditworthiness.
In the late 1940s through the early 1970s, the US and UK both reduced their debt burden by about 30 % to 40 % of GDP per decade by taking advantage of negative real interest rates, but there is no guarantee that government debt rates will continue to stay so low. Between 1946 and 1974, the US debt - to - GDP ratio fell from 121 % to 32 % even though there were surpluses in only eight of those years which were much smaller than the deficits.
The two economists, Jaromir Benes and Michael Kumhof, working for the International Monetary Fund, published a working paper called The Chicago Plan Revisited suggesting that the debt could be eliminated by raising bank reserve requirements and converting from fractional reserve banking to full reserve banking. Economists at the Paris School of Economics have commented on the plan, stating that it is already the status quo for coinage currency, and a Norges Bank economist has examined the proposal in the context of considering the finance industry as part of the real economy. A Centre for Economic Policy Research paper agrees with the conclusion that, "no real liability is created by new fiat money creation, and therefore public debt does not rise as a result ''.
The debt ceiling is a legislative mechanism to limit the amount of national debt that can be issued by the Treasury. In effect, it will restrain the Treasury from paying for expenditures after the limit has been reached, even if the expenditures have already been approved (in the budget) and have been appropriated. If this situation were to occur, it is unclear whether Treasury would be able to prioritize payments on debt to avoid a default on its debt obligations, but it would have to default on some of its non-debt obligations.
Because a large variety of people own the notes, bills, and bonds in the "public '' portion of the debt, Treasury also publishes information that groups the types of holders by general categories to portray who owns United States debt. In this data set, some of the public portion is moved and combined with the total government portion, because this amount is owned by the Federal Reserve as part of United States monetary policy. (See Federal Reserve System.)
As is apparent from the chart, a little less than half of the total national debt is owed to the "Federal Reserve and intragovernmental holdings ''. The foreign and international holders of the debt are also put together from the notes, bills, and bonds sections. To the right is a chart for the data as of June 2008:
As of September 2014, foreigners owned $6.06 trillion of U.S. debt, or approximately 47 % of the debt held by the public of $12.8 trillion and 34 % of the total debt of $17.8 trillion. The largest holders were China, Japan, Belgium, the Caribbean banking centers, and oil exporters.
The share held by foreign governments has grown over time, rising from 13 % of the public debt in 1988 to 25 % in 2007.
As of September 2014 the largest single holder of U.S. government debt was China, with 21 % of all foreign - held U.S. Treasury securities (10 % of total U.S. public debt). China 's holdings of government debt, as a percentage of all foreign - held government debt are up significantly since 2000 (when China held just 6 percent of all foreign - held U.S. Treasury securities).
This exposure to potential financial or political risk should foreign banks stop buying Treasury securities or start selling them heavily was addressed in a June 2008 report issued by the Bank of International Settlements, which stated, "Foreign investors in U.S. dollar assets have seen big losses measured in dollars, and still bigger ones measured in their own currency. While unlikely, indeed highly improbable for public sector investors, a sudden rush for the exits can not be ruled out completely. ''
On May 20, 2007, Kuwait discontinued pegging its currency exclusively to the dollar, preferring to use the dollar in a basket of currencies. Syria made a similar announcement on June 4, 2007. In September 2009 China, India and Russia said they were interested in buying International Monetary Fund gold to diversify their dollar - denominated securities. However, in July 2010 China 's State Administration of Foreign Exchange "ruled out the option of dumping its vast holdings of US Treasury securities '' and said gold "can not become a main channel for investing our foreign exchange reserves '' because the market for gold is too small and prices are too volatile.
According to Paul Krugman, "It 's true that foreigners now hold large claims on the United States, including a fair amount of government debt. But every dollar 's worth of foreign claims on America is matched by 89 cents ' worth of U.S. claims on foreigners. And because foreigners tend to put their U.S. investments into safe, low - yield assets, America actually earns more from its assets abroad than it pays to foreign investors. If your image is of a nation that 's already deep in hock to the Chinese, you 've been misinformed. Nor are we heading rapidly in that direction. ''
The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reported in its February 2014 Budget and Economic Outlook (which covers the 2014 -- 2024 period) that deficits were projected to return to approximately the historical average relative to the size of the economy (GDP) by 2014. The CBO estimated that under current law, the deficit would total $514 billion in fiscal year 2014 or 3.0 % GDP. Deficits would then slowly begin rising again through 2024, due primarily to the pressures of an aging population and rising healthcare costs per person. The debt to GDP ratio would remain stable for much of the decade then begin rising again toward the end of the 10 - year forecast window, from 74 % in 2014 to 79 % in 2024.
The CBO reports its Long - Term Budget Outlook annually, providing at least two scenarios for spending, revenue, deficits, and debt. The 2014 Outlook mainly covers the 25 - year period through 2039. The "extended baseline scenario '' assumes that the laws currently on the books will be implemented, for the most part. The CBO reported in July 2014 that under this scenario:
If current laws remained generally unchanged in the future, federal debt held by the public would decline slightly relative to GDP over the next few years. After that, however, growing budget deficits would push debt back to and above its current high level. Twenty - five years from now, in 2039, federal debt held by the public would exceed 100 percent of GDP. Moreover, debt would be on an upward path relative to the size of the economy, a trend that could not be sustained indefinitely. By 2039, the deficit would equal 6.5 percent of GDP, larger than in any year between 1947 and 2008, and federal debt held by the public would reach 106 percent of GDP, more than in any year except 1946 -- even without factoring in the economic effects of growing debt.
The "extended alternative fiscal scenario '' assumes the continuation of present trends, which result in a more unfavorable debt position and adverse economic consequences relative to the baseline scenario. The CBO reported in July 2014 that under this scenario:
(C) ertain policies that are now in place but are scheduled to change under current law are assumed to continue, and some provisions of current law that might be difficult to sustain for a long period are assumed to be modified. Under that scenario, deficits excluding interest payments would be about $2 trillion larger over the first decade than those under the baseline; subsequently, such deficits would be larger than those under the extended baseline by rapidly increasing amounts, doubling as a percentage of GDP in less than 10 years. CBO projects that real GNP in 2039 would be about 5 percent lower under the extended alternative fiscal scenario than under the extended baseline with economic feedback, and that interest rates would be about three - quarters of a percentage point higher. Reflecting the budgetary effects of those economic developments, federal debt would rise to 183 percent of GDP in 2039.
Over the long - term, the CBO projects that interest expense and mandatory spending categories (e.g., Medicare, Medicaid and Social Security) will continue to grow relative to GDP, while discretionary categories (e.g., Defense and other Cabinet Departments) continue to fall relative to GDP. Debt is projected to continue rising relative to GDP under the above two scenarios, although the CBO did also offer other scenarios that involved austerity measures that would bring the debt to GDP ratio down.
The CBO estimated under the baseline scenario that the U.S. debt held by the public would increase approximately $8.5 trillion between the end of 2014 and 2024. Under a $2 trillion deficit reduction scenario during that first decade, federal debt held by the public in 2039 would stand at 75 percent of GDP, only slightly above the value of 72 percent at the end of 2013. Under a $4 trillion deficit reduction scenario for that decade, federal debt held by the public would fall to 42 percent of GDP in 2039. By comparison, such debt comprised 35 percent of GDP in 2007 and has averaged 39 percent of GDP during the past 40 years.
The CBO reported in September 2011: "The nation can not continue to sustain the spending programs and policies of the past with the tax revenues it has been accustomed to paying. Citizens will either have to pay more for their government, accept less in government services and benefits, or both. ''
The CBO reported several types of risk factors related to rising debt levels in a July 2010 publication:
Many American and other economic analysts have expressed concerns on account of the People 's Republic of China 's "extensive '' holdings of United States government debt, as part of their reserves.
The National Defense Authorization Act of the fiscal year 2012 included a provision requiring the Secretary of Defense to conduct a "national security risk assessment of U.S. federal debt held by China. '' The Department issued its report in July 2012, stating that "attempting to use U.S. Treasury securities as a coercive tool would have limited effect and likely would do more harm to China than to the United States. As the threat is not credible and the effect would be limited even if carried out, it does not offer China deterrence options, whether in the diplomatic, military, or economic realms, and this would remain true both in peacetime and in scenarios of crisis or war. ''
The 112th United States Congress introduced legislation whose aim was the assessment of the implications of China 's ownership of U.S. debt. The 2013 Report claimed that "(a) potentially serious short - term problem would emerge if China decided to suddenly reduce their liquid U.S. financial assets significantly '' (emphasis in the original text), noting, also, that Federal Reserve System Chairman Ben Bernanke had, in 2007, stated that "because foreign holdings of U.S. Treasury securities represent only a small part of total U.S. credit market debt outstanding, U.S. credit markets should be able to absorb without great difficulty any shift of foreign allocations. ''
A significant number of economists and analysts dismiss any and all concerns over foreign holdings of United States government debt denominated in U.S. dollars, including China 's holdings.
According to the Government Accountability Office (GAO), the United States is on a "fiscally unsustainable '' path because of projected future increases in Medicare and Social Security spending.
Debt levels may affect economic growth rates. In 2010, economists Kenneth Rogoff and Carmen Reinhart reported that among the 20 developed countries studied, average annual GDP growth was 3 -- 4 % when debt was relatively moderate or low (i.e. under 60 % of GDP), but it dips to just 1.6 % when debt was high (i.e., above 90 % of GDP). In April 2013, the conclusions of Rogoff and Reinhart 's study came into question when a coding error in their original paper was discovered by Herndon, Ash and Pollin of the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Herndon, Ash and Pollin found that after correcting for errors and unorthodox methods used, there was no evidence that debt above a specific threshold reduces growth. Reinhart and Rogoff maintain that after correcting for errors, a negative relationship between high debt and growth remains. However, other economists, including Paul Krugman, have argued that it is low growth which causes national debt to increase, rather than the other way around.
Commenting on fiscal sustainability, former Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke stated in April 2010 that "Neither experience nor economic theory clearly indicates the threshold at which government debt begins to endanger prosperity and economic stability. But given the significant costs and risks associated with a rapidly rising federal debt, our nation should soon put in place a credible plan for reducing deficits to sustainable levels over time. ''
Despite rising debt levels, interest costs have remained at approximately 2008 levels (around $450 billion in total) due to lower than long - term interest rates paid on government debt in recent years. However, interest rates may return to higher historical levels.
The cost of servicing the U.S. national debt can be measured in various ways. The CBO analyzes net interest as a percentage of GDP, with a higher percentage indicating a higher interest payment burden. During 2015, this was 1.3 % GDP, close to the record low 1.2 % of the 1966 -- 1968 era. The average from 1966 to 2015 was 2.0 % of GDP. However, the CBO estimated in 2016 that the interest amounts and % GDP will increase significantly over the following decade as both interest rates and debt levels rise: "Interest payments on that debt represent a large and rapidly growing expense of the federal government. CBO 's baseline shows net interest payments more than tripling under current law, climbing from $231 billion in 2014, or 1.3 percent of GDP, to $799 billion in 2024, or 3.0 percent of GDP -- the highest ratio since 1996. ''
Economists also debate the definition of public debt. Krugman argued in May 2010 that the debt held by the public is the right measure to use, while Reinhart has testified to the President 's Fiscal Reform Commission that gross debt is the appropriate measure. The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities (CBPP) cited research by several economists supporting the use of the lower debt held by the public figure as a more accurate measure of the debt burden, disagreeing with these Commission members.
There is debate regarding the economic nature of the intragovernmental debt, which was approximately $4.6 trillion in February 2011. For example, the CBPP argues: that "large increases in (debt held by the public) can also push up interest rates and increase the amount of future interest payments the federal government must make to lenders outside of the United States, which reduces Americans ' income. By contrast, intragovernmental debt (the other component of the gross debt) has no such effects because it is simply money the federal government owes (and pays interest on) to itself. ''
However, if the U.S. government continues to run "on budget '' deficits as projected by the CBO and OMB for the foreseeable future, it will have to issue marketable Treasury bills and bonds (i.e., debt held by the public) to pay for the projected shortfall in the Social Security program. This will result in "debt held by the public '' replacing "intragovernmental debt ''.
One debate about the national debt relates to intergenerational equity. For example, if one generation is receiving the benefit of government programs or employment enabled by deficit spending and debt accumulation, to what extent does the resulting higher debt impose risks and costs on future generations? There are several factors to consider:
Krugman wrote in March 2013 that by neglecting public investment and failing to create jobs, we are doing far more harm to future generations than merely passing along debt: "Fiscal policy is, indeed, a moral issue, and we should be ashamed of what we 're doing to the next generation 's economic prospects. But our sin involves investing too little, not borrowing too much. '' Young workers face high unemployment and studies have shown their income may lag throughout their careers as a result. Teacher jobs have been cut, which could affect the quality of education and competitiveness of younger Americans.
The US has never fully defaulted.
In April 1979, however, the United States may have technically defaulted on $122 million in Treasury bills, which was less than 1 % of U.S. debt. The Treasury Department characterized it as a delay rather than as a default, but it did have consequences for short - term interest rates, which jumped 0.6 %. Others view it as a temporary, partial default.
On June 25, 2014, the BEA announced: "(On July 30, 2014, i) n addition to the regular revision of estimates for the most recent 3 years and for the first quarter of 2014, GDP and select components will be revised back to the first quarter of 1999.
Fiscal years 1940 -- 2009 GDP figures were derived from February 2011 Office of Management and Budget figures which contained revisions of prior year figures due to significant changes from prior GDP measurements. Fiscal years 1950 -- 2010 GDP measurements were derived from December 2010 Bureau of Economic Analysis figures which also tend to be subject to revision, especially more recent years. Afterwards the OMB figures were revised back to 2004 and the BEA figures (in a revision dated July 31, 2013) were revised back to 1947.
Regarding estimates recorded in the GDP column (the last column) marked with a "~ '' symbol, absolute differences from advance (one month after) BEA reports of GDP percent change to current findings (as of November 2013) found in revisions are stated to be 1.3 % ± 2.0 % or a 95 % probability of being within the range of 0.0 -- 3.3 %, assuming the differences to occur according to standard deviations from the average absolute difference of 1.3 %. E.g. with an advance report of a $400 billion increase of a $10 trillion GDP, for example, one could be 95 % confident that the range in which the exact GDP dollar amount lies would be 0.0 to 3.3 % different than 4.0 % (400 ÷ 10,000) or within the range of $0 to $330 billion different than the hypothetical $400 billion (a range of $70 -- 730 billion). Two months after, with a revised value, the range of potential difference from the stated estimate shrinks, and three months after with another revised value the range shrinks again.
Fiscal years 1940 -- 1970 begin July 1 of the previous year (for example, Fiscal Year 1940 begins July 1, 1939 and ends June 30, 1940); fiscal years 1980 -- 2010 begin October 1 of the previous year. Intragovernmental debts before the Social Security Act are presumed to equal zero.
1909 -- 1930 calendar year GDP estimates are from MeasuringWorth.com Fiscal Year estimates are derived from simple linear interpolation.
(a1) Audited figure was "about $5,659 billion. ''
(a2) Audited figure was "about $5,792 billion. ''
(a3) Audited figure was "about $6,213 billion. ''
(a) Audited figure was said to be "about '' the stated figure.
(a4) Audited figure was "about $7,918 billion. ''
(a5) Audited figure was "about $8,493 billion. ''
(a6) Audited figure was "about $8,993 billion. ''
(a7) Audited figure was "about $10,011 billion. ''
(a8) Audited figure was "about $11,898 billion. ''
(a9) Audited figure was "about $13,551 billion. ''
(a10) GAO affirmed Bureau of the Public debt figure as $14,781 billion.
(a11) GAO affirmed Bureau of the Public debt figure as $16,059 billion.
(a12) GAO affirmed Bureau of the Fiscal Service 's figure as $16,732 billion.
(a13) GAO affirmed Bureau of the Fiscal Service 's figure as $17,810 billion.
(a14) GAO affirmed Bureau of the Fiscal Service 's figure as $18,138 billion.
The following is a list of the top foreign holders (over $150 billion) of US Treasury securities as listed by the US Treasury (revised by August 2017 survey):
A 1998 Brookings Institution study published by the Nuclear Weapons Cost Study Committee (formed in 1993 by the W. Alton Jones Foundation), calculated that total expenditures for U.S. nuclear weapons from 1940 to 1998 was $5.5 trillion in 1996 Dollars. The total public debt at the end of fiscal year 1998 was $5,478,189,000,000 in 1998 Dollars or $5.3 trillion in 1996 Dollars.
Sources: Eurostat, International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook (emerging market economies); Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Economic Outlook (advanced economies)
China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand
Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Mexico
On July 29, 2016 the BEA released a revision to 2013 -- 2016 GDP figures. The figures for this table were corrected the next week with changes to figures in those fiscal years.
On July 30, 2015 the BEA released a revision to 2012 -- 2015 GDP figures. The figures for this table were corrected on that day with changes to FY 2013 and 2014, but not 2015 as FY 2015 is updated within a week with the release of debt totals for July 31, 2015.
On June 25, 2014 the BEA announced a 15 - year revision of GDP figures would take place on July 31, 2014. The figures for this table were corrected after that date with changes to FY 2000, 2003, 2008, 2012, 2013 and 2014. The more precise FY 1999 -- 2014 debt figures are derived from Treasury audit results. The variations in the 1990s and FY 2015 figures are due to double - sourced or relatively preliminary GDP figures respectively. A comprehensive revision GDP revision dated July 31, 2013 was described on the Bureau of Economic Analysis website. In November 2013 the total debt and yearly debt as a percentage of GDP columns of this table were changed to reflect those revised GDP figures.
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song i got spurs that jingle jangle jingle | Jingle Jangle Jingle - Wikipedia
"Jingle Jangle Jingle '', also known as "I 've Got Spurs That Jingle Jangle Jingle '', is a song written by Joseph J. Lilley and Frank Loesser, and published in 1942. It was featured in that year 's film The Forest Rangers, in which it was sung by Dick Thomas.
The most commercially successful recording was by Kay Kyser, whose version reached no. 1 in the Billboard charts in July 1942. Versions were recorded by many other musicians, including Tex Ritter, Gene Autry, Glenn Miller and The Merry Macs.
Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.
Kay Kyser 's recording of the song is featured in the 2010 role - playing video game Fallout: New Vegas.
The song was performed by Jon Walmsley and Lisa Harrison on The Waltons, Season 9, Episode 13, "The Gold Watch '' (26 Feb. 1981).
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who is the king on the walking dead | King Ezekiel - Wikipedia
King Ezekiel is a fictional character from the comic book series The Walking Dead and the television series of the same name, where he is portrayed by Khary Payton.
Ezekiel, referred to as "King Ezekiel '' by his fellow citizens, is the leader of a community known as the Kingdom. Ezekiel was formerly a zookeeper and has known his pet tiger, Shiva, since she was born.
At some point, Ezekiel meets and forms a friendship with Paul Monroe (who calls himself "Jesus '' in the television series), who invites his community to join a trading network that includes the Hilltop community Paul belongs to. Ezekiel later discovers the Saviors are threatening and harassing the other communities in the trade network in exchange for supplies and possibly sees how vicious their leader, Negan really is (despite the truce offered by the Saviors).
Ezekiel bides his time and waits for the opportune moment to strike back against "this tyrant ''. The opportunity Ezekiel is waiting for finally comes when Paul brings Rick Grimes to meet him and passes on the information they have regarding the Saviors ' strength and the location of their main base of operations.
During the war Ezekiel starts a relationship with Michonne. Two years after the war against the Saviors ends, Ezekiel and Michonne break up, but Ezekiel is confident about starting their relationship again. However, he and 11 other people are decapitated by Alpha during the conflict with the Whisperers.
Prior to the outbreak, Ezekiel was a zookeeper in D.C. as well as a stage actor. At some point he met Shiva, a tiger cub who was injured in her exhibit. Ezekiel cared for and befriended Shiva and formed a strong bond with her. When the walker outbreak began, Ezekiel returned to the zoo and freed Shiva with the two being together ever since. Ezekiel subsequently founded a community known as the Kingdom which grew to be a thriving community, lush with food and comfort. To better inspire his people, Ezekiel began referring to himself as King Ezekiel and took on the mannerisms of a feudal king (going so far as to speak in Shakespearean tone and form). He also formed a court of advisers to help him manage the Kingdom which include seasoned survivor Richard, his personal attendant and bodyguard Jerry and Benjamin, a young survivor who was the son of a good friend of Ezekiel 's.
Ezekiel is first introduced to the series in the episode "The Well '', when Morgan Jones and Carol are brought to the Kingdom by his people to give medical attention to Carol. When Carol awakens, Morgan introduces her to Ezekiel and his pet Bengal tiger Shiva. Ezekiel 's quasi-Shakespearean manner of ruling leaves Carol quietly incredulous. When Ezekiel asks what she thinks of his sanctuary and him, she sarcastically tells him, "It 's amazing! '', and refuses his offer of fruit, stating that pomegranates are n't worth the trouble. Morgan, having swiftly gained Ezekiel 's confidence, is taken out with Ezekiel 's inner circle to perform a seemingly pointless task: herd a group of wild pigs into a barn far outside the Kingdom, where they feed on walkers. Ezekiel asks Morgan about his combat skills, as he sees Morgan is capable of using a staff, and asks him to train one of his men, Benjamin. After hesitating, Morgan agrees. Ezekiel brings Morgan and Benjamin to a secret meeting with the Saviors, who are given the walker - fed pigs, now slaughtered, as part of their tribute from the Kingdom. One of the Saviors, Jared, tells Richard the Saviors are letting the Kingdom off easy by taking only eight pigs, to which Richard replies: the Saviors are the ones being let off easy. Jared attacks Richard, and Ezekiel makes them break up the fight. The leader of the Saviors group tells Jared to stop only after Jared has hit Richard a few times. The Saviors leave and say they will want produce next time, or Richard will be the first to die. During the night, Carol is picking fruit as she prepares to leave town quietly, and Ezekiel catches her. He explains that he realized Carol 's innocence was just an act but wonders how Carol could survive, and wants to know where she originally came from. After a few moments, Ezekiel slowly drops his guard and reveals that he was a zookeeper and amateur actor. He tells her that he developed the "King Ezekiel '' persona so that the people would have someone to follow and to emphasize that there is still good in the world. Carol still wishes to leave, so Ezekiel suggests that she live in the abandoned house she passed on the way to the Kingdom, so that she could "go and not go ''. She agrees to this arrangement. Morgan takes Carol out to the house, tells her to take care of herself, and returns to the Kingdom. Later, she gets a visit from Ezekiel and Shiva. Ezekiel once again offers her a pomegranate causing Carol to smile.
In the mid-season premiere "Rock in the Road '', Ezekiel is shown to be friends with Hilltop scout Paul Rovia, aka "Jesus ''. Jesus introduces Ezekiel to Rick Grimes, the leader of Alexandria, another community forced to serve the Saviors. Rick implores Ezekiel to join their fight against the Saviors as only together can they succeed. Ezekiel takes the night to ponder his decision, but ultimately decides against open conflict with the Saviors as he refuses to endanger his people 's lives. He does, however, allow Rick 's friend Daryl Dixon to stay in the Kingdom to hide from the Saviors. Ezekiel appears in episode "New Best Friends '' when the Saviors arrive for their offering. When Jared continues to insult Richard, the two draw guns on each other and Morgan and Ben are forced to stop further violence. Ezekiel later chastises Benjamin for acting hasty as violence must be reserved as a last resort. In the episode "Bury Me Here '', Ezekiel, Morgan, Ben, Richard and several others find a roadblock en route to their meeting with the Saviors. They then find a grave reading bury me here with Ezekiel claiming that it is only luck that the world has not driven them all insane, though Ben credits Ezekiel with keeping them together. They arrive to find that their load is short, causing Jared to shoot Ben. They bring him to Carol 's, but despite their best efforts, Ben dies. When they meet the Saviors to settle their debt Morgan attacks and kills Richard, strangling him to death. He reveals Richard was behind yesterday 's events to start a war. Ezekiel shown to be enraged at Richard 's betrayal while shocked at Morgan 's brutality (though he still attempts to bring him back). Carol later goes to Ezekiel and apologizes for his loss before stating that it is time to fight. Ezekiel agrees, but states that they must wait before helping Ben 's younger brother tend to the gardens. In the season finale "First Day of the Rest of Your Life '', Ezekiel leads Carol and a group of Kingdom fighters to Alexandria to accept Rick 's alliance. They encounter Morgan along the way and Ezekiel convinces him to march with them as opposed to alone. Ezekiel 's arrival proves timely as their group arrives just as Negan is about to execute Carl. Ezekiel and Shiva charge into battle, killing numerous Saviors and help drive off the Saviors. The episode ends with Ezekiel standing beside Rick and Maggie Greene as the Kingdom, Hilltop and Alexandria pledge their aid to each other.
In in the season premiere "Mercy '', as Rick prepares for war against Negan, Ezekiel commits his own soldiers from the Kingdom, and provides rousing speeches to his men at Kingdom and later to the combined group prior to their first attack. After their initial assault on Sanctuary, resulting in a large walker horde that prevents the Saviors from leaving or entering, Rick 's army breaks into several groups to attack other Savior strongholds. In the following episode "The Damned '', Ezekiel, alongside Carol, leads forces most of Kingdom soldiers, clearing out all but one Savior at a stronghold. The solitary Savior escapes, but Ezekiel orders his group to give chase, fearing he will warn a nearby stronghold. With Shiva 's help, the solitary Savior is stopped in time.
In the episode "Monsters '', since they are close to another stronghold but still undetected, Ezekiel decides to launch an attack, despite not being in Rick 's plan and against Carol 's caution. The attack goes better than expected, with no losses to the Kingdom forces. As they are celebrating, Savior forces hidden in a nearby building fire on the group with a heavy machine gun, killing most of the Kingdom forces instantly; the few not yet hit rush to protect Ezekiel. In the episode "Some Guy '', Ezekiel crawls out from the pile of corpses with a limp foot, aghast at the bodies around him that are starting to reanimate. Ultimately he is saved by Jerry, who remains a loyal follower, and Carol, who dealt with the Savior attackers. They struggle towards the Kingdom, but Ezekiel is broken both physically and emotionally, and tells them to leave him behind, no longer worthy of being their king. Shiva arrives to fend off walkers that are about to attack Ezekiel, but the walkers eventually overwhelm the tiger, and Ezekiel can only look on in anguish as his companion is fed upon. The three eventually make it to Kingdom, and Ezekiel can not come to say anything to the families of his soldiers, and walks off in silence. In the episode "The King, the Widow, and Rick '', Ezekiel has secluded himself in his home, refusing to allow others to see him. Carol is able to approach Ezekiel and tries to encourage him to take up leadership again, even if it just maintaining his act, but Ezekiel remains reluctant to participate and urges her to lead the Kingdom. In the mid-season finale "How It 's Gotta Be '', when his community is invaded by the Saviors and they demand to know where Ezekiel is hiding, he allows himself to be caught soon afterwards, so his people may escape.
Ezekiel is portrayed by Khary Payton on The Walking Dead television series, beginning with the seventh season. Ezekiel and his pet tiger Shiva were introduced in the season seven trailer at the San Diego Comic - Con in 2016.
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who wrote the song end of the beginning | End of the Beginning (song) - wikipedia
"End of the Beginning '' is a song by English rock band Black Sabbath featured on the album 13. According to lyricist Geezer Butler, the song deals with the fear of how "technology is going to completely take over the human race '', inspired particularly by cloning: "It seems like eventually, people are going to clone the Beatles and stuff like that. I mean, it 's already happening now with a "Tupac '' at Coachella, using holograms. But eventually I think they 'll start cloning people like the Beatles, and sending them out on endless tours. ''
"End of the Beginning '' was premiered during the finale of season 13 of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation. The band guest starred in the episode, and also appeared in a short interview prior to its release. The song was first performed live on 20 April 2013, on the first of the two Auckland shows in New Zealand. The performance was part of their reunion tour. It was also featured in the end credits of the film This Is the End. On 11 June, coinciding with the album 's launch, Black Sabbath released a full performance video from the CSI season 13 finale of length 8: 20. The single peaked at the number 38 in US Mainstream Rock chart.
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who led the forces that conquered the inca empire | Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire - wikipedia
Spanish Empire Spanish conquistadors Viceroyalty of Peru Native allies
The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. After years of preliminary exploration and military skirmishes, 180 Spanish soldiers under conquistador Francisco Pizarro, his brothers, and their native allies captured the Sapa Inca Atahualpa in the 1532 Battle of Cajamarca. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory in 1572 and colonization of the region as the Viceroyalty of Peru. The conquest of the Inca Empire led to spin - off campaigns into present - day Chile and Colombia, as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin.
When the Spanish arrived at the borders of the Inca Empire in 1528, it spanned a considerable area; by far the largest of the four grand pre-Columbian civilizations. Extending southward from the Ancomayo, which is now known as the Patía River, in southern present - day Colombia to the Maule River in what would later be known as Chile, and eastward from the Pacific Ocean to the edge of the Amazonian jungles, the empire covered some of the most mountainous terrain on Earth. In less than a century, the Inca had expanded their empire from about 400,000 km2 (155,000 sq mi) in 1448, to 1,800,000 km2 (690,000 sq mi) in 1528, just before the arrival of the Spanish. This vast area of land varied greatly in cultures and in climate. Because of the diverse cultures and geography, the Inca allowed many areas of the empire to be governed under the control of local leaders, who were watched and monitored by Inca officials. However, under the administrative mechanisms established by the Inca, all parts of the empire answered to, and were ultimately under the direct control of, the Emperor. Scholars estimate that the population of the Inca Empire numbered more than 16,000,000.
Some scholars, such as Jared Diamond, believe that while the Spanish conquest was undoubtedly the proximate cause of the collapse of the Inca Empire, it may very well have been past its peak and already in the process of decline. In 1528, Emperor Huayna Capac ruled the Inca Empire. He could trace his lineage back to a "stranger king '' named Manco Cápac, the mythical founder of the Inca clan, who according to tradition emerged from a cave in a region called Pacariqtambo.
Huayna Capac was the son of the previous ruler, Túpac Inca, and the grandson of Pachacuti, the Emperor who, by conquest, had commenced the dramatic expansion of the Inca Empire from its cultural and traditional base in the area around Cuzco. On his accession to the throne, Huayna Capac had continued the policy of expansion by conquest, taking Inca armies north into what is today Ecuador. While he had to put down a number of rebellions during his reign, by the time of his death, his legitimacy was as unquestioned as was the primacy of Inca power.
However, expansion had resulted in its own problems. Many parts of the empire maintained distinctive cultures and these were at best resistive participants in the imperial project. The large extent of the empire, the extremely difficult terrain of much of it, and the fact that all communication and travel had to take place on foot or by boat, seems to have caused increasing difficulty in the Incas ' effective administration of the empire.
Huayna Capac relied on his sons to support his reign. While he had many legitimate and illegitimate children (legitimate meaning born of his sister - wife, under the Inca system), two sons are historically important. Prince Túpac Cusi Hualpa, also known as Huáscar, was the son of Coya Mama Rahua Occllo of the royal line. The second was Atahualpa, an illegitimate son who was likely born of a daughter of the last independent King of Quitu, one of the states conquered by Huayna Capac during the expansion of the Inca Empire. These two sons would play pivotal roles in the final years of the Inca Empire.
The Spanish conquistador Pizarro and his men were greatly aided in their enterprise by invading when the Inca Empire was in the midst of a war of succession between the princes Huáscar and Atahualpa. Atahualpa seems to have spent more time with Huayna Capac during the years when he was in the north with the army conquering Ecuador. Atahualpa was thus closer to, and had better relations with the army and its leading generals. When both Huayna Capac and his eldest son and designated heir, Ninan Cuyochic, died suddenly in 1528 from what was probably smallpox, a disease introduced by the Spanish into the Americas, the question of who would succeed as emperor was thrown open. Huayna had died before he could nominate the new heir.
At the time of Huayna Capac 's death, Huáscar was in the capital Cuzco, while Atahualpa was in Quitu with the main body of the Inca army. Huáscar had himself proclaimed Sapa Inca (i.e. "Only Emperor '') in Cuzco, but the army declared loyalty to Atahualpa. The resulting dispute led to the Inca Civil War.
The civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar weakened the empire immediately prior to its struggle with the Spanish. Historians are unsure of whether a united Inca Empire could have defeated the Spanish in the long term due to factors such as the high mortality from disease and its related social disruption, and the superior military technology of the conquistadors, who possessed horses, dogs, metal armor, swords, cannons, and primitive, but effective, firearms. Atahualpa appeared to be more popular with the people than his brother, and he was certainly more valued by the army, the core of which was based in the recently conquered northern province of Quitu.
At the outset of the conflict, each brother controlled his respective domains, with Atahualpa secure in the north, and Huáscar controlling the capital of Cuzco and the large territory to the south, including the area around Lake Titicaca. This region had supplied large numbers of troops for Huáscar 's forces. After a period of diplomatic posturing and jockeying for position, open warfare broke out. Huáscar seemed poised to bring the war to a rapid conclusion, as troops loyal to him took Atahualpa prisoner, while he was attending a festival in the city of Tumibamba. However, Atahualpa quickly escaped and returned to Quitu. There, he was able to amass what is estimated to be at least 30,000 soldiers. While Huáscar managed to muster about the same number of soldiers, they were less experienced.
Atahualpa sent his forces south under the command of two of his leading generals, Challcuchima and Quisquis, who won an uninterrupted series of victories that soon brought them to the very gates of Cuzco. On the first day of the battle for Cuzco, the forces loyal to Huáscar gained an early advantage. However, on the second day, Huáscar personally led an ill - advised "surprise '' attack, of which the generals Challcuchima and Quisquis had advance knowledge. In the ensuing battle, Huáscar was captured, and resistance completely collapsed. The victorious generals sent word north by chasqui messenger to Atahualpa, who had moved south from Quitu to the royal resort springs outside Cajamarca. The messenger arrived with news of the final victory on the same day that Pizarro and his small band of adventurers, together with some indigenous allies, descended from the Andes into the town of Cajamarca.
Francisco Pizarro and his brothers (Gonzalo, Juan, and Hernando) were attracted by the news of a rich and fabulous kingdom. They had left the then impoverished Extremadura, like many migrants after them.
In 1529, Francisco Pizarro obtained permission from the Spanish Monarchy to conquer the land they called Peru.
According to historian Raúl Porras Barrenechea, Peru is not a Quechuan nor Caribbean word, but Indo - Hispanic or hybrid. Unknown to Pizarro, as he was lobbying for permission to mount an expedition, his proposed enemy was being devastated by the diseases brought to the American continents during earlier Spanish contacts.
When Pizarro arrived in Peru in 1532, he found it vastly different from when he had been there just five years before. Amid the ruins of the city of Tumbes, he tried to piece together the situation before him. From two young local boys whom he had taught how to speak Spanish in order to translate for him, Pizarro learned of the civil war and of the disease that was destroying the Inca Empire.
After four long expeditions, Pizarro established the first Spanish settlement in northern Peru, calling it San Miguel de Piura.
When first spotted by the natives, Pizarro and his men were thought to be viracocha cuna or "gods ''. The Indians described Pizarro 's men to the Inca. They said that capito was tall with a full beard and was completely wrapped in clothing. The Indians described the men 's swords and how they killed sheep with them. The men did not eat human flesh, but rather sheep, lamb, duck, pigeons, and deer, and cooked the meat. Atahualpa was fearful of what the white men were capable of. If they were runa quicachac or "destroyers of peoples, '' then he should flee. If they were viracocha cuna runa allichac or "gods who are benefactors of the people, '' then he should not flee, but welcome them. The messengers went back to Tangarala, and Atahualpa sent Cinquinchara, an Orejon warrior, to the Spanish to serve as an interpreter.
After traveling with the Spanish, Cinquinchara returned to Atahualpa; they discussed whether or not the Spanish men were gods. Cinquinchara decided they were men because he saw them eat, drink, dress, and have relations with women. He saw them produce no miracles. Cinquinchara informed Atahualpa that they were small in number, about 170 -- 180 men, and had bound the Indian captives with "iron ropes ''. When Atahualpa asked what to do about the strangers, Cinquinchara said that they should be killed because they were evil thieves who took whatever they wanted, and were supai cuna or "devils ''. He recommended trapping the men inside of their sleeping quarters and burning them to death.
At this point, Pizarro had 168 men under his command: 106 on foot and 62 on horses. Pizarro sent his captain Hernando de Soto to invite Atahualpa to a meeting. Soto rode to meet Atahualpa on his horse, an animal that Atahualpa had never seen before. With one of his young interpreters, Soto read a prepared speech to Atahualpa telling him that they had come as servants of God to teach them the truth about God 's word. He said he was speaking to them so that they might
"lay the foundation of concord, brotherhood, and perpetual peace that should exist between us, so that you may receive us under your protection and hear the divine law from us and all your people may learn and receive it, for it will be the greatest honor, advantage, and salvation to them all. ''
Atahualpa responded only after Hernando Pizarro arrived. He replied with what he had heard from his scouts, saying that Pizarro and his men were killing and enslaving countless numbers on the coast. Pizarro denied the report and Atahualpa, with limited information, reluctantly let the matter go. At the end of their meeting, the men agreed to meet the next day at Cajamarca.
After his victory and the death of his brother Huáscar, Atahualpa was fasting in the Inca baths outside Cajamarca. Pizarro and his men reached that city on 15 November 1532.
Pizarro sent Hernando de Soto and Hernando Pizarro to the Inca leader 's camp. Hernando Pizarro and De Soto explained they were emissaries of Emperor Charles I of Spain, to offer their services, and "impart to him the doctrines of the true faith. '' Additionally, they invited the Incan leader to visit Pizarro at his quarters along the Cajamarca plaza. Atahuallpa replied that his fast would end the next day, when he would visit Pizarro. When De Soto noticed Atahualpa 's interest in his horse, he put on a display of "excellent horsemanship '' in close proximity. Atahualpa displayed hospitality by serving refreshments.
The next morning, Pizarro had arranged an ambuscade around the Cajamarca plaza, where they were to meet. When Atahualpa arrived with about 6,000 unarmed followers, Friar Vincente de Valverde and Felipillo met them and proceeded to "expound the doctrines of the true faith '' and seek his tribute as a vassal of King Charles. The unskilled translator likely contributed to problems in communication. The friar offered Atahualpa the Bible as the authority of what he had just stated. Atahualpa stated, "I will be no man 's tributary. ''
The friar urged attack, starting the Battle of Cajamarca on 16 November 1532. Though the historical accounts relating to these circumstances vary, the true Spanish motives for the attack seemed to be a desire for loot and flat - out impatience. The Inca likely did not adequately understand the conquistadors ' demands.
At the signal to attack, the Spaniards unleashed volleys of gunfire at the vulnerable mass of Incas and surged forward in a concerted action. The effect was devastating, the shocked Incas offered such feeble resistance that the battle has often been labeled a massacre, with the Inca losing 2,000 dead. Pizarro also used cavalry charges against the Inca forces, which stunned them in combination with gunfire.
The majority of Atahualpa 's troops were in the Cuzco region along with Rumiñawi, Quisquis and Challcuchima, the two generals he trusted the most. This was a major disadvantage for the Inca. Their undoing also resulted from a lack of self - confidence, and a desire to make public demonstration of fearlessness and godlike command of situation. The main view is that the Inca were eventually defeated due to inferior weapons, ' open battle ' tactics, disease, internal unrest, the bold tactics of the Spanish, and the capture of their emperor. While Spanish armour was very effective against most of the Andean weapons, it was not impenetrable to maces, clubs, or slings. However, ensuing hostilities such as the Mixtón Rebellion, Chichimeca War, and Arauco War would require that the conquistadors ally with friendly tribes in these later expeditions.
The battle began with a shot from a cannon and the battle cry "Santiago! '' Many of the guns used by the Spaniards were hard to use in the frequent close - combat situations. Most natives adapted in ' guerrilla fashion ' by only shooting at the legs of the conquistadors if they happened to be unarmored.
During Atahualpa 's captivity, the Spanish, although greatly outnumbered, forced him to order his generals to back down by threatening to kill him if he did not. According to the Spanish envoy 's demands, Atahualpa offered to fill a large room with gold and promised the Spanish twice that amount in silver. While Pizarro ostensibly accepted this offer and allowed the gold to pile up, he had no intention of releasing the Inca; he needed Atahualpa 's influence over his generals and the people in order to maintain the peace.
When Atahualpa was captured at the massacre at Cajamarca, he was treated with respect, allowed his wives to join him, and the Spanish soldiers taught him the game of chess. Francisco Pizarro sent his brother Hernando to gather gold and silver from the temples in Pachacamac in January 1533, and on his return in March, captured Chalcuchimac in the Jauja Valley. Francisco Pizzaro sent a similar expedition to Cuzco, bringing back many gold plates from the Temple of the Sun. By February 1533, Almagro had joined Pizarro in Cajamarca with an additional 150 men with 50 horses.
Pizarro held Atahualpa for a ransom of gold and silver; the treasure began to be delivered from Cuzco on 20 December 1532 and flowed steadily from then on. By 3 May 1533 Pizarro received all the treasure he had requested; it was melted, refined, and made into bars.
The question eventually came up of what to do with Atahualpa; both Pizarro and Soto were against killing him, but the other Spaniards were loud in their demands for death. False interpretations from the interpreter Felipillo made the Spaniards paranoid. They were told that Atahualpa had ordered secret attacks and his warriors were hidden in the surrounding area. Soto went with a small army to look for the hidden army, but a trial for Atahualpa was held in his absence. Among the charges were polygamy, incestuous marriage, and idolatry, all frowned upon in Catholicism but common in Inca culture and religion.
The men who were against Atahualpa 's conviction and murder argued that he should be judged by King Charles since he was the sovereign prince. Atahualpa agreed to accept baptism to avoid being burned at the stake and in the hopes of one day rejoining his army and killing the Spanish; he was baptized as Francisco. On 29 August 1533 Atahualpa was garrotted and died a Christian. He was buried with Christian rites in the church of San Francisco at Cajamarca, but was soon disinterred. His body was taken, probably at his prior request, to its final resting place in Quito. Upon de Soto 's return, he was furious; he had found no evidence of any secret gathering of Atahualpa 's warriors.
Pizarro advanced with his army of 500 Spaniards toward Cuzco, accompanied by Chalcuchimac. The latter was burned alive in the Jauja Valley, accused of secret communication with Quizquiz, and organizing resistance. Manco Inca Yupanqui joined Pizarro after the death of Túpac Huallpa. Pizarro 's force entered the heart of the Tawantinsuyu on 15 November 1533.
Benalcázar, Pizarro 's lieutenant and fellow Extremaduran, had already departed from San Miguel with 140 - foot soldiers and a few horses on his conquering mission to Ecuador. At the foot of Mount Chimborazo, near the modern city of Riobamba (Ecuador) he met and defeated the forces of the great Inca warrior Rumiñawi with the aid of Cañari tribesmen who served as guides and allies to the conquering Spaniards. Rumiñahui fell back to Quito, and, while in pursuit of the Inca army, Benalcázar was joined by five hundred men led by Guatemalan Governor Pedro de Alvarado. Greedy for gold, Alvarado had set sail for the south without the crown 's authorization, landed on the Ecuadorian coast, and marched inland to the Sierra. Finding Quito empty of its treasures, Almagro soon joined the combined Spanish force. Alvarado agreed to sell his fleet of twelve ships, his forces, plus arms and ammunition, and returned to Guatemala.
After Atahualpa 's execution, Pizarro installed Atahualpa 's brother, Túpac Huallpa, as a puppet Inca ruler, but he soon died unexpectedly, leaving Manco Inca Yupanqui in power. He began his rule as an ally of the Spanish and was respected in the southern regions of the empire, but there was still much unrest in the north near Quito where Atahualpa 's generals were amassing troops. Atahualpa 's death meant that there was no hostage left to deter these northern armies from attacking the invaders. Led by Atahualpa 's generals Rumiñahui, Zope - Zupahua and Quisquis, the native armies were finally defeated, effectively ending any organized rebellion in the north of the empire.
Archaeological evidence of the rebellion incident exists. The remains of about 70 men, women, and adolescents were found in the path of a planned expressway near Lima in 2007. Forensic evidence suggests that the natives were killed by European weapons, probably during the uprising in 1536.
Manco Inca initially had good relations with Francisco Pizarro and several other Spanish conquistadors. However, in 1535 he was left in Cuzco under the control of Pizarro 's brothers, Juan and Gonzalo, who so mistreated Manco Inca that he ultimately rebelled. Under the pretense of recovering a statue of pure gold in the nearby Yucay valley, Manco was able to escape Cuzco.
Manco Inca hoped to use the disagreement between Almagro and Pizarro to his advantage and attempted the recapture of Cuzco starting in Feb. 1536. The siege of Cuzco was waged until the following spring, and during that time Manco 's armies managed to wipe out four relief columns sent from Lima, but was ultimately unsuccessful in its goal of routing the Spaniards from the city. The Inca leadership did not have the full support of all its subject peoples and furthermore, the degrading state of Inca morale coupled with the superior Spanish siege weapons soon made Manco Inca realize his hope of recapturing Cuzco was failing. Manco Inca eventually withdrew to Tambo.
After the Spanish regained control of Cuzco, Manco Inca and his armies retreated to the fortress at Ollantaytambo where he, for a time, successfully launched attacks against Pizarro based at Cuzco and even managed to defeat the Spanish in an open battle.
When it became clear that defeat was imminent, Manco Inca retreated further to the mountainous region of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State, where Manco Inca and his successors continued to hold some power for several more decades. His son, Túpac Amaru, was the last Inca. After deadly confrontations, he was murdered by the Spanish in 1572.
In total, the conquest took about forty years to complete. Many Inca attempts to regain the empire had occurred, but none had been successful. Thus the Spanish conquest was achieved through relentless force, and deception, aided by factors like smallpox and a great communication and cultural divide. The Spaniards destroyed much of the Incan culture and introduced the Spanish culture to the native population.
A struggle for power resulted in a long civil war between Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in which Almagro was killed. Almagro 's loyal followers and his descendants later avenged his death by killing Pizarro in 1541. This was done inside the palace of Francisco Pizarro in a fight to the death by these assassins, most of which were former soldiers of Diego de Almagro who were stripped of title and belongings after his death.
Despite the war, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. Spanish royal authority on these territories was consolidated by the creation of an Audiencia Real, a type of appellate court. In January 1535, Lima was founded, from which the political and administrative institutions were to be organized. In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castile, that shortly after would be called Viceroyalty of Peru. Nevertheless, the Viceroyalty of Peru was not organized until the arrival of a later Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572. Toledo ended the indigenous Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba, executing the Inca Túpac Amaru. He promoted economic development using commercial monopoly and built up the extraction from the silver mines of Potosí, using slavery based on the Inca institution of forced labor for mandatory public service called mita.
The integration of Spanish culture into Peru was carried out not only by Pizarro and his other captains, but also by the many Spanish who also came to Peru to exploit its riches and inhabit its land. These included many different kinds of immigrants such as Spanish merchants, peasants, artisans, and Spanish women. Another element that the Spanish brought with them were African slaves to work alongside captive Incas for use in labor with things such as agriculture and mining for silver. These people all brought with them their own pieces of Spanish culture to integrate into Peruvian society.
The arrival of the Spanish even had effects on the coastal geography of Peru, since the shores were uninhabited after the Incas that previously lived there were either killed or relocated to another area by the Spanish.
Almost nothing was left of the Inca civilizations after the conquest by the Spanish, as culture was not as significant as gold to the new conquerors. The unique indigenous road and communications systems were essentially lost. The only things that persisted of the original culture are the very few artifacts that remained and the minute cultural aspects, such as language, that was left behind by the small percentage of Incas who persisted.
The long - term effects of the arrival of the Spanish on the population of South America were simply catastrophic. While this is the case for every group of Native - Americans that encountered Europeans from the fifteenth century onwards, the Incan population suffered a dramatic and quick decline following contact. It is estimated that parts of the empire, notably the Central Andes, suffered a population decline ratio of 58: 1 during the years of 1520 -- 1571.
The single greatest cause of the decimation of native populations was infectious disease. Old World Eurasian diseases, which had long been endemic on the Continent, were carried unknowingly by colonists and conquistadors. As these were new to the natives, they had no acquired immunity and suffered very high rates of death. More died of disease than any army or armed conflict. As the Inca did not have as strong a writing tradition as the Aztec or Maya, it is difficult for historians to estimate population decline or any events after conquest. But, it is apparent that the Inca began to contract the diseases several years before the Spanish appeared in the region, as it was likely carried to their empire by traders and travelers. The outbreak, believed to be hemorrhagic smallpox, reached the Andes in 1524. While numbers are unavailable, Spanish records indicate that the population was so devastated by disease that they could hardly resist the foreign forces.
Historians differ as to whether the illness of the 1520s was smallpox; a minority of scholars claim that the epidemic was due to an indigenous illness called Carrion 's disease. In any case, a 1981 study by N.D. Cook the shows that the Andes suffered from three separate population declines during colonization. The first was of 30 -- 50 percent during the first outbreak of smallpox. When a measles outbreak occurred, there was another decline of 25 -- 30 percent. Finally, when smallpox and measles epidemics occurred together, which occurred from 1585 to 1591, a decline of 30 -- 60 percent occurred. Collectively these declines amounted to a decline of 93 percent from the pre-contact population in the Andes region.
Beyond the devastation of the local populations by disease, they suffered considerable enslavement, pillaging and destruction from warfare. The Spanish took thousands of women from the local natives to use as servants and concubines. As Pizarro and his men took over portions of South America, they plundered and enslaved countless people. Some local populations entered into vassalage willingly, to defeat the Inca. Native groups such as the Huanca, Cañari and Chachapoya fought alongside the Spanish as they opposed Inca rule. The basic policy of the Spanish towards local populations was that voluntary vassalage would yield safety and coexistence, while continued resistance would result in more deaths and destruction.
Another significant effect on the people in South America was the spread of Christianity. As Pizarro and the Spanish subdued the continent and brought it under their control, they forcefully converted many to Christianity, claiming to have educated them in the ways of the "one true religion. '' With the depopulation of the local populations along with the capitulation of the Inca Empire, the Spanish missionary work after colonization began was able to continue unimpeded. It took just a generation for the entire continent to be under Christian influence.
Peter Shaffer 's play The Royal Hunt of the Sun (1964) dramatizes the conquest of the Incas. In the play, Pizarro, Atahualpa, Valverde and other historical figures appear as characters.
Matthew Reilly 's novel Temple, is set at the siege of Cuzco. Many historical figures are mentioned, and a (fictional) brother of Pizarro is noted to be in pursuit of the protagonist. The conquest is also used as a "starting point of the cat. ''
The Inca are featured in the third Campaign in Age of Empires 3, having a Lost City hidden in the Andes. They are also in the Multiplayer, found primarily in the areas making up Chile and Argentina.
The conquest is parodied in The Simpsons TV series, in the chapter "Lost Verizon '', written by John Frink.
Pizarro and his fellow conquistadors feature as antagonists in the 1982 animated serial The Mysterious Cities of Gold.
I wish Your Majesty to understand the motive that moves me to make this statement is the peace of my conscience and because of the guilt I share. For we have destroyed by our evil behaviour such a government as was enjoyed by these natives. They were so free of crime and greed, both men and women, that they could leave gold or silver worth a hundred thousand pesos in their open house. So that when they discovered that we were thieves and men who sought to force their wives and daughters to commit sin with them, they despised us. But now things have come to such a pass in offence of God, owing to the bad example we have set them in all things, that these natives from doing no evil have turned into people who can do no good... I beg God to pardon me, for I am moved to say this, seeing that I am the last to die of the Conquistadors. ''
When has it ever happened, either in ancient or modern times, that such amazing exploits have been achieved? Over so many climes, across so many seas, over such distances by land, to subdue the unseen and unknown? Whose deeds can be compared with those of Spain? Not even the ancient Greeks and Romans.
When I set out to write for the people of today and of the future, about the conquest and discovery that our Spaniards made here in Peru, I could not but reflect that I was dealing with the greatest matters one could possibly write about in all of creation as far as secular history goes. Where have men ever seen the things they have seen here? And to think that God should have permitted something so great to remain hidden from the world for so long in history, unknown to men, and then let it be found, discovered and won all in our own time!
The houses are more than two hundred paces in length, and very well built, being surrounded by strong walls, three times the height of a man. The roofs are covered with straw and wood, resting on the walls. The interiors are divided into eight rooms, much better built than any we had seen before. Their walls are of very well cut stones and each lodging is surrounded by its masonry wall with doorways, and has its fountain of water in an open court, conveyed from a distance by pipes, for the supply of the house. In front of the plaza, towards the open country, a stone fortress is connected with it by a staircase leading from the square to the fort. Towards the open country there is another small door, with a narrow staircase, all within the outer wall of the plaza. Above the town, on the mountain side, where the houses commence, there is another fort on a hill, the greater part of which is hewn out of the rock. This is larger than the other, and surrounded by three walls, rising spirally.
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who is the most subscribed youtuber in the world | List of Most - Subscribed YouTube Channels - wikipedia
This article lists the fifty most - subscribed channels on the video platform YouTube. The ability to "subscribe '' to a user 's channel was added to YouTube by late October 2005, and the "most subscribed '' list on YouTube began as a chart by May 2006, at which time Smosh was number one with fewer than three thousand subscribers. Since December 22, 2013, the most subscribed user has been PewDiePie, whose channel has over 62 million subscribers as of May 2018.
The following table lists the fifty most subscribed channels on YouTube, with each total rounded down to the nearest million subscribers, as well as the network and language of each channel. Channels marked as "Auto - generated by YouTube '' (such as Music, Gaming, Sports and Movies) and channels whose content has been transferred (such as JustinBieberVEVO and RihannaVEVO) are excluded. As of May 2018, 34 of these channels primarily produce content in English.
The following table lists the most subscribed YouTube channel in each country and territory from which at least one channel with at least five million subscribers originates, according to social media statistics complier DBase.
The following table lists the last 16 channels to become YouTube 's most subscribed channel, from May 2006 to present.
Timeline of Most Subscribed Channels (May 2006 -- May 2018)
In late 2006, when Peter Oakley, also known as Geriatric1927, became most subscribed, a number of TV channels wanted to interview him on his rise to fame. The Daily Mail and TechBlog published an article about him and his success. In 2009, the FRED channel was the first to have over one million subscribers.
Following the third time that Smosh became most subscribed, Ray William Johnson collaborated with the duo. A flurry of top YouTubers including Ryan Higa, Shane Dawson, Felix Kjellberg, Michael Buckley, Kassem Gharaibeh, The Fine Brothers, and Johnson himself, congratulated the duo shortly after they surpassed Johnson as the most subscribed channel.
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who are the cast members of when calls the heart | When Calls the Heart - wikipedia
When Calls the Heart is a Canadian - American television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke 's book of the same name from her Canadian West series, and developed by Michael Landon Jr. The series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014, and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.
The series originally debuted as a two - hour television movie pilot in October 2013, starring Maggie Grace as young teacher Elizabeth Thatcher and Stephen Amell as North West Mounted Police officer Wynn Delaney. In the television series Erin Krakow is cast as her niece, whose name is also Elizabeth Thatcher (played by Poppy Drayton in the movie), and Daniel Lissing plays a Mountie named Jack Thornton, with Lori Loughlin reprising her role as coal mine widow Abigail Stanton.
On April 24, 2017, Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season. The season premiered with a two - hour Christmas special that was broadcast as part of Hallmark 's Countdown to Christmas event, and continues for 10 episodes which began February 18, 2018. On March 21, 2018, Hallmark renewed the series for a sixth season.
When Calls the Heart tells the story of Elizabeth Thatcher (Erin Krakow), a young teacher accustomed to her high - society life. She receives her first classroom assignment in Coal Valley, a small coal - mining town in Western Canada which is located just south of Robb, Alberta. There, life is simple -- but often fraught with challenges. Elizabeth charms most everyone in Coal Valley, except Royal North West Mounted Police Constable Jack Thornton (Daniel Lissing). He believes Thatcher 's wealthy father has doomed the lawman 's career by insisting he be assigned in town to protect the shipping magnate 's daughter. The town of Coal Valley was renamed Hope Valley in Episode 2, Season 2 after the coal mine was closed.
Living in this 1910 coal town, Elizabeth must learn the ways of the Canadian frontier movement if she wishes to thrive in the rural west on her own. Lori Loughlin portrays Abigail Stanton, whose husband, the foreman of the mine, and her only son -- along with 45 other miners -- have recently been killed in an explosion, which turns out to have been a tragic accident waiting to happen -- a result of the mining - company site manager 's irresponsible management and lack of due care in his management of the mine. The newly widowed women find their faith tested when they must go to work in the mine to keep a roof over their heads, food on the table, and compile a wage for the town 's teacher.
The series, originally planned to be filmed in Colorado, is filmed south of Vancouver, British Columbia, on a farm surrounded by vineyards. The fictional frontier town of Coal Valley was erected in late 2013. Some of the set trimmings and a stage coach came from the Hell on Wheels set. The Thatcher home is the University Women 's Club of Vancouver.
The series was renewed for a second season, which aired from April 25 to June 13, 2015. Hallmark Channel announced in July 2015 that the series had been renewed for a third season, which aired from February 21 to April 10, 2016, with a sneak peek airing during the 2015 Christmas season.
In mid-2016, it was announced that Season 4 would premiere on the Hallmark Channel Christmas Day with a two - hour special. On April 11, 2016, Lissing and Krakow announced via the series ' Facebook page that Hallmark Channel had renewed the series for a fourth season, which aired from February 19 to April 23, 2017.
Filming for season five began in Vancouver on August 22, 2017, and ended on December 21, 2017.
The first season of the series was subsequently picked up by CBC Television for rebroadcast as a summer series in 2015. The network has since aired the second and third seasons. The series became available internationally on Netflix in August 2017.
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is the united states in the northern or southern hemisphere | Southern Hemisphere - wikipedia
Coordinates: 90 ° 0 ′ 0 '' S 0 ° 0 ′ 0 '' E / 90.00000 ° S 0.00000 ° E / - 90.00000; 0.00000
The Southern Hemisphere is the half sphere of Earth which is south of the equator. It contains all or parts of five continents (Antarctica, Australia, about 90 % of South America, the southern third of Africa, and several southern islands off the continental mainland of Asia), four oceans (Indian, South Atlantic, Southern, and South Pacific) and most of the Pacific Islands in Oceania. Its surface is 80.9 % water, compared with 60.7 % water in the case of the Northern Hemisphere, and it contains 32.7 % of Earth 's land.
Due to the tilt of Earth 's rotation relative to the Sun and the ecliptic plane, summer is from December to March and winter is from June to September. September 22 or 23 is the vernal equinox and March 20 or 21 is the autumnal equinox. The South Pole is in the middle of the southern hemispherical region.
Southern Hemisphere climates tend to be slightly milder than those at similar latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, except in the Antarctic which is colder than the Arctic. This is because the Southern Hemisphere has significantly more ocean and much less land; water heats up and cools down more slowly than land.
In the Southern Hemisphere the sun passes from east to west through the north, although north of the Tropic of Capricorn the mean sun can be directly overhead or due south at midday. The Sun rotating through the north causes an apparent right - left trajectory through the sky unlike the left - right motion of the Sun when seen from the Northern Hemisphere as it passes through the southern sky. Sun - cast shadows turn anticlockwise throughout the day and sundials have the hours increasing in the anticlockwise direction. During solar eclipses viewed from a point to the south of the Tropic of Capricorn, the Moon moves from left to right on the disc of the Sun (see, for example, photos with timings of the solar eclipse of November 13, 2012), while viewed from a point to the north of the Tropic of Cancer (i.e., in the Northern Hemisphere), the Moon moves from right to left during solar eclipses.
Cyclones and tropical storms spin clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere (as opposed to anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere) due to the Coriolis effect.
The southern temperate zone, a subsection of the Southern Hemisphere, is nearly all oceanic. This zone includes the southern tip of Uruguay and South Africa; the southern half of Chile and Argentina; parts of Australia, going south from Adelaide, and all of New Zealand.
The Sagittarius constellation that includes the galactic centre is a southern constellation and this, combined with clearer skies, makes for excellent viewing of the night sky from the Southern Hemisphere with brighter and more numerous stars.
Forests in the Southern Hemisphere have special features which set them apart from those in the Northern Hemisphere. Both Chile and Australia share, for example, unique beech species or Nothofagus, and New Zealand has members of the closely related genera Lophozonia and Fuscospora. The eucalyptus is native to Australia but is now also planted in Southern Africa and Latin America for pulp production and, increasingly, biofuel uses.
Approximately 800,000,000 humans live in the Southern Hemisphere, representing only 10 -- 12 % of the total global human population of 7.3 billion. Portuguese is the most spoken language in the Southern Hemisphere.
Media related to Southern Hemisphere at Wikimedia Commons
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when does game of thrones come out in usa | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also adapting material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran Stark returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons. On April 25, 2017, it was reported by Daily Express that the actors ' new salary made them each earn £ 2 million ($2.6 million USD) per episode.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, and Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season. After some speculation, UFC President Dana White announced that Conor McGregor would appear in a cameo role in the seventh season. However, in January 2017, McGregor confirmed it was a rumor. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 percent approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, and a 93 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from by piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.
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what is object oriented programming in java wikipedia | Object - oriented programming - wikipedia
Object - oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects '', which may contain data, in the form of fields, often known as attributes; and code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. A feature of objects is that an object 's procedures can access and often modify the data fields of the object with which they are associated (objects have a notion of "this '' or "self ''). In OOP, computer programs are designed by making them out of objects that interact with one another. There is significant diversity of OOP languages, but the most popular ones are class - based, meaning that objects are instances of classes, which typically also determine their type.
Many of the most widely - used programming languages (such as C++, Object Pascal, Java, Python etc.) are multi-paradigm programming languages that support object - oriented programming to a greater or lesser degree, typically in combination with imperative, procedural programming. Significant object - oriented languages include Java, C++, C#, Python, PHP, JavaScript, Ruby, Perl, Object Pascal, Objective - C, Dart, Swift, Scala, Common Lisp, and Smalltalk.
Object - oriented programming uses objects, but not all of the associated techniques and structures are supported directly in languages that claim to support OOP. The features listed below are, however, common among languages considered strongly class - and object - oriented (or multi-paradigm with OOP support), with notable exceptions mentioned.
Modular programming support provides the ability to group procedures into files and modules for organizational purposes. Modules are namespaced so identifiers in one module will not be accidentally confused with a procedure or variable sharing the same name in another file or module.
Languages that support object - oriented programming typically use inheritance for code reuse and extensibility in the form of either classes or prototypes. Those that use classes support two main concepts:
Objects sometimes correspond to things found in the real world. For example, a graphics program may have objects such as "circle '', "square '', "menu ''. An online shopping system might have objects such as "shopping cart '', "customer '', and "product ''. Sometimes objects represent more abstract entities, like an object that represents an open file, or an object that provides the service of translating measurements from U.S. customary to metric.
Junade Ali, Mastering PHP Design Patterns
Each object is said to be an instance of a particular class (for example, an object with its name field set to "Mary '' might be an instance of class Employee). Procedures in object - oriented programming are known as methods; variables are also known as fields, members, attributes, or properties. This leads to the following terms:
Objects are accessed somewhat like variables with complex internal structure, and in many languages are effectively pointers, serving as actual references to a single instance of said object in memory within a heap or stack. They provide a layer of abstraction which can be used to separate internal from external code. External code can use an object by calling a specific instance method with a certain set of input parameters, read an instance variable, or write to an instance variable. Objects are created by calling a special type of method in the class known as a constructor. A program may create many instances of the same class as it runs, which operate independently. This is an easy way for the same procedures to be used on different sets of data.
Object - oriented programming that uses classes is sometimes called class - based programming, while prototype - based programming does not typically use classes. As a result, a significantly different yet analogous terminology is used to define the concepts of object and instance.
In some languages classes and objects can be composed using other concepts like traits and mixins.
In class - based languages the classes are defined beforehand and the objects are instantiated based on the classes. If two objects apple and orange are instantiated from the class Fruit, they are inherently fruits and it is guaranteed that you may handle them in the same way; e.g. a programmer can expect the existence of the same attributes such as color or sugar content or is ripe.
In prototype - based languages the objects are the primary entities. No classes even exist. The prototype of an object is just another object to which the object is linked. Every object has one prototype link (and only one). New objects can be created based on already existing objects chosen as their prototype. You may call two different objects apple and orange a fruit, if the object fruit exists, and both apple and orange have fruit as their prototype. The idea of the fruit class does n't exist explicitly, but as the equivalence class of the objects sharing the same prototype. The attributes and methods of the prototype are delegated to all the objects of the equivalence class defined by this prototype. The attributes and methods owned individually by the object may not be shared by other objects of the same equivalence class; e.g. the attributes sugar content may be unexpectedly not present in apple. Only single inheritance can be implemented through the prototype.
It is the responsibility of the object, not any external code, to select the procedural code to execute in response to a method call, typically by looking up the method at run time in a table associated with the object. This feature is known as dynamic dispatch, and distinguishes an object from an abstract data type (or module), which has a fixed (static) implementation of the operations for all instances. If the call variability relies on more than the single type of the object on which it is called (i.e. at least one other parameter object is involved in the method choice), one speaks of multiple dispatch.
A method call is also known as message passing. It is conceptualized as a message (the name of the method and its input parameters) being passed to the object for dispatch.
Encapsulation is an object - oriented programming concept that binds together the data and functions that manipulate the data, and that keeps both safe from outside interference and misuse. Data encapsulation led to the important OOP concept of data hiding.
If a class does not allow calling code to access internal object data and permits access through methods only, this is a strong form of abstraction or information hiding known as encapsulation. Some languages (Java, for example) let classes enforce access restrictions explicitly, for example denoting internal data with the private keyword and designating methods intended for use by code outside the class with the public keyword. Methods may also be designed public, private, or intermediate levels such as protected (which allows access from the same class and its subclasses, but not objects of a different class). In other languages (like Python) this is enforced only by convention (for example, private methods may have names that start with an underscore). Encapsulation prevents external code from being concerned with the internal workings of an object. This facilitates code refactoring, for example allowing the author of the class to change how objects of that class represent their data internally without changing any external code (as long as "public '' method calls work the same way). It also encourages programmers to put all the code that is concerned with a certain set of data in the same class, which organizes it for easy comprehension by other programmers. Encapsulation is a technique that encourages decoupling.
Objects can contain other objects in their instance variables; this is known as object composition. For example, an object in the Employee class might contain (either directly or through a pointer) an object in the Address class, in addition to its own instance variables like "first_name '' and "position ''. Object composition is used to represent "has - a '' relationships: every employee has an address, so every Employee object has access to a place to store an Address object (either directly embedded within itself, or at a separate location addressed via a pointer).
Languages that support classes almost always support inheritance. This allows classes to be arranged in a hierarchy that represents "is - a-type - of '' relationships. For example, class Employee might inherit from class Person. All the data and methods available to the parent class also appear in the child class with the same names. For example, class Person might define variables "first_name '' and "last_name '' with method "make_full_name () ''. These will also be available in class Employee, which might add the variables "position '' and "salary ''. This technique allows easy re-use of the same procedures and data definitions, in addition to potentially mirroring real - world relationships in an intuitive way. Rather than utilizing database tables and programming subroutines, the developer utilizes objects the user may be more familiar with: objects from their application domain.
Subclasses can override the methods defined by superclasses. Multiple inheritance is allowed in some languages, though this can make resolving overrides complicated. Some languages have special support for mixins, though in any language with multiple inheritance, a mixin is simply a class that does not represent an is - a-type - of relationship. Mixins are typically used to add the same methods to multiple classes. For example, class UnicodeConversionMixin might provide a method unicode_to_ascii () when included in class FileReader and class WebPageScraper, which do n't share a common parent.
Abstract classes can not be instantiated into objects; they exist only for the purpose of inheritance into other "concrete '' classes which can be instantiated. In Java, the final keyword can be used to prevent a class from being subclassed.
The doctrine of composition over inheritance advocates implementing has - a relationships using composition instead of inheritance. For example, instead of inheriting from class Person, class Employee could give each Employee object an internal Person object, which it then has the opportunity to hide from external code even if class Person has many public attributes or methods. Some languages, like Go do not support inheritance at all.
The "open / closed principle '' advocates that classes and functions "should be open for extension, but closed for modification ''.
Delegation is another language feature that can be used as an alternative to inheritance.
Subtyping, a form of polymorphism, is when calling code can be agnostic as to whether an object belongs to a parent class or one of its descendants. For example, a function might call "make_full_name () '' on an object, which will work whether the object is of class Person or class Employee. This is another type of abstraction which simplifies code external to the class hierarchy and enables strong separation of concerns.
In languages that support open recursion, object methods can call other methods on the same object (including themselves), typically using a special variable or keyword called this or self. This variable is late - bound; it allows a method defined in one class to invoke another method that is defined later, in some subclass thereof.
Terminology invoking "objects '' and "oriented '' in the modern sense of object - oriented programming made its first appearance at MIT in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In the environment of the artificial intelligence group, as early as 1960, "object '' could refer to identified items (LISP atoms) with properties (attributes); Alan Kay was later to cite a detailed understanding of LISP internals as a strong influence on his thinking in 1966.
Alan Kay,
Another early MIT example was Sketchpad created by Ivan Sutherland in 1960 -- 61; in the glossary of the 1963 technical report based on his dissertation about Sketchpad, Sutherland defined notions of "object '' and "instance '' (with the class concept covered by "master '' or "definition ''), albeit specialized to graphical interaction. Also, an MIT ALGOL version, AED - 0, established a direct link between data structures ("plexes '', in that dialect) and procedures, prefiguring what were later termed "messages '', "methods '', and "member functions ''.
In the 1960s object - orientated programming was put into practice with the Simula language, which introduced important concepts that are today an essential part of object - orientated programming, such as class and object, inheritance, and dynamic binding. Simula was also designed to take account of programming and data security. For programming security purposes a detection process was implemented so that through reference counts a last resort garbage collector deleted unused objects in the random - access memory (RAM). But although the idea of data objects had already been established by 1965, date encapsulation through levels of scope for variables, such as private (-) and public (+), were not implemented in Simula because it would have required the accessing procedures to be also hidden.
In 1962 Kristen Nygaard initiated a project for a simulation language at the Norwegian Computing Center, based on his previous use of the Monte Carlo simulation and his work to conceptualise real - world systems. Ole - Johan Dahl formally joined the project and the Simula programming language was designed to run on the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) 1107. In the early stages Simula was supposed to be a procedure package for the programming language ALGOL 60. Dissatisfied with the restrictions imposed by ALGOL the researchers decided to develop Simula into a fully - fledged programming language, which used the UNIVAC ALGOL 60 compiler. Simula launched in 1964, and was promoted by Dahl and Nygaard throughout 1965 and 1966, leading to increasing use of the programming language in Sweden, Germany and the Soviet Union. In 1968 the language became widely available through the Burroughs B5500 computers, and was later also implemented on the URAL - 16 computer. In 1966 Dahl and Nygaard wrote a Simula compiler. They became preoccupied with putting into practice Tony Hoare 's record class concept, which had been implemented in the free - form, English - like general - purpose simulation language SIMSCRIPT. They settled for a generalised process concept with record class properties, and a second layer of prefixes. Through prefixing a process could reference its predecessor and have additional properties. Simula thus introduced the class and subclass hierarchy, and the possibility of generating objects from these classes. The Simula 1 compiler and a new version of the programming language, Simula 67, was introduced to the wider world through the research paper "Class and Subclass Declarations '' at a 1967 conference.
A Simula 67 compiler was launched for the System / 360 and System / 370 IBM mainframe computers in 1972. In the same year a Simula 67 compiler was launched free of charge for the French CII 10070 and CII Iris 80 mainframe computers. By 1974 the Association of Simula Users had members in 23 different countries. Early 1975 a Simula 67 compiler was released free of charge for the DecSystem - 10 mainframe family. By August the same year the DecSystem Simula 67 compiler had been installed at 28 sites, 22 of them in North America. The object - orientated Simula programming language was used mainly by researchers involved with physical modelling, such as models to study and improve the movement of ships and their content through cargo ports.
In the 1970s the first version of the Smalltalk programming language was developed at Xerox PARC by Alan Kay, Dan Ingalls and Adele Goldberg. Smaltalk - 71 included a programming environment and was dynamically typed, and at first was interpreted, not compiled. Smalltalk got noted for its application of object orientation at the language level and its graphical development environment. Smalltalk went through various versions and interest in the language grew. While Smalltalk was influenced by the ideas introduced in Simula 67 it was designed to be a fully dynamic system in which classes could be created and modified dynamically.
In the 1970s Smalltalk influenced the Lisp community to incorporate object - based techniques that were introduced to developers via the Lisp machine. Experimentation with various extensions to Lisp (such as LOOPS and Flavors introducing multiple inheritance and mixins) eventually led to the Common Lisp Object System, which integrates functional programming and object - oriented programming and allows extension via a Meta - object protocol. In the 1980s, there were a few attempts to design processor architectures that included hardware support for objects in memory but these were not successful. Examples include the Intel iAPX 432 and the Linn Smart Rekursiv.
In 1981 Goldberg edited the August 1981 issue of Byte Magazine, introducing Smalltalk and object - orientated programming to a wider audience. In 1986 the Association for Computing Machinery organised the first Conference on Object - Oriented Programming, Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA), which was unexpectedly attended by 1,000 people. In the mid-1980s Objective - C was developed by Brad Cox, who had used Smalltalk at ITT Inc., and Bjarne Stroustrup, who had used Simula for his PhD thesis, eventually went to create the object - orientated C++. In 1985 Bertrand Meyer also produced the first design of the Eiffel language. Focused on software quality, Eiffel is a purely object - oriented programming language and a notation supporting the entire software lifecycle. Meyer described the Eiffel software development method, based on a small number of key ideas from software engineering and computer science, in Object - Oriented Software Construction. Essential to the quality focus of Eiffel is Meyer 's reliability mechanism, Design by Contract, which is an integral part of both the method and language.
In the early and mid-1990s object - oriented programming developed as the dominant programming paradigm when programming languages supporting the techniques became widely available. These included Visual FoxPro 3.0, C++, and Delphi. Its dominance was further enhanced by the rising popularity of graphical user interfaces, which rely heavily upon object - oriented programming techniques. An example of a closely related dynamic GUI library and OOP language can be found in the Cocoa frameworks on Mac OS X, written in Objective - C, an object - oriented, dynamic messaging extension to C based on Smalltalk. OOP toolkits also enhanced the popularity of event - driven programming (although this concept is not limited to OOP).
At ETH Zürich, Niklaus Wirth and his colleagues had also been investigating such topics as data abstraction and modular programming (although this had been in common use in the 1960s or earlier). Modula - 2 (1978) included both, and their succeeding design, Oberon, included a distinctive approach to object orientation, classes, and such.
Object - oriented features have been added to many previously existing languages, including Ada, BASIC, Fortran, Pascal, and COBOL. Adding these features to languages that were not initially designed for them often led to problems with compatibility and maintainability of code.
More recently, a number of languages have emerged that are primarily object - oriented, but that are also compatible with procedural methodology. Two such languages are Python and Ruby. Probably the most commercially important recent object - oriented languages are Java, developed by Sun Microsystems, as well as C# and Visual Basic.NET (VB.NET), both designed for Microsoft 's. NET platform. Each of these two frameworks shows, in its own way, the benefit of using OOP by creating an abstraction from implementation. VB.NET and C# support cross-language inheritance, allowing classes defined in one language to subclass classes defined in the other language.
Simula (1967) is generally accepted as being the first language with the primary features of an object - oriented language. It was created for making simulation programs, in which what came to be called objects were the most important information representation. Smalltalk (1972 to 1980) is another early example, and the one with which much of the theory of OOP was developed. Concerning the degree of object orientation, the following distinctions can be made:
In recent years, object - oriented programming has become especially popular in dynamic programming languages. Python, PowerShell, Ruby and Groovy are dynamic languages built on OOP principles, while Perl and PHP have been adding object - oriented features since Perl 5 and PHP 4, and ColdFusion since version 6.
The Document Object Model of HTML, XHTML, and XML documents on the Internet has bindings to the popular JavaScript / ECMAScript language. JavaScript is perhaps the best known prototype - based programming language, which employs cloning from prototypes rather than inheriting from a class (contrast to class - based programming). Another scripting language that takes this approach is Lua.
The messages that flow between computers to request services in a client - server environment can be designed as the linearizations of objects defined by class objects known to both the client and the server. For example, a simple linearized object would consist of a length field, a code point identifying the class, and a data value. A more complex example would be a command consisting of the length and code point of the command and values consisting of linearized objects representing the command 's parameters. Each such command must be directed by the server to an object whose class (or superclass) recognizes the command and is able to provide the requested service. Clients and servers are best modeled as complex object - oriented structures. Distributed Data Management Architecture (DDM) took this approach and used class objects to define objects at four levels of a formal hierarchy:
The initial version of DDM defined distributed file services. It was later extended to be the foundation of Distributed Relational Database Architecture (DRDA).
Challenges of object - oriented design are addressed by several approaches. Most common is known as the design patterns codified by Gamma et al... More broadly, the term "design patterns '' can be used to refer to any general, repeatable, solution pattern to a commonly occurring problem in software design. Some of these commonly occurring problems have implications and solutions particular to object - oriented development.
It is intuitive to assume that inheritance creates a semantic "is a '' relationship, and thus to infer that objects instantiated from subclasses can always be safely used instead of those instantiated from the superclass. This intuition is unfortunately false in most OOP languages, in particular in all those that allow mutable objects. Subtype polymorphism as enforced by the type checker in OOP languages (with mutable objects) can not guarantee behavioral subtyping in any context. Behavioral subtyping is undecidable in general, so it can not be implemented by a program (compiler). Class or object hierarchies must be carefully designed, considering possible incorrect uses that can not be detected syntactically. This issue is known as the Liskov substitution principle.
Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object - Oriented Software is an influential book published in 1995 by Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides, often referred to humorously as the "Gang of Four ''. Along with exploring the capabilities and pitfalls of object - oriented programming, it describes 23 common programming problems and patterns for solving them. As of April 2007, the book was in its 36th printing.
The book describes the following patterns:
Both object - oriented programming and relational database management systems (RDBMSs) are extremely common in software today. Since relational databases do n't store objects directly (though some RDBMSs have object - oriented features to approximate this), there is a general need to bridge the two worlds. The problem of bridging object - oriented programming accesses and data patterns with relational databases is known as object - relational impedance mismatch. There are a number of approaches to cope with this problem, but no general solution without downsides. One of the most common approaches is object - relational mapping, as found in IDE languages such as Visual FoxPro and libraries such as Java Data Objects and Ruby on Rails ' ActiveRecord.
There are also object databases that can be used to replace RDBMSs, but these have not been as technically and commercially successful as RDBMSs.
OOP can be used to associate real - world objects and processes with digital counterparts. However, not everyone agrees that OOP facilitates direct real - world mapping (see Criticism section) or that real - world mapping is even a worthy goal; Bertrand Meyer argues in Object - Oriented Software Construction that a program is not a model of the world but a model of some part of the world; "Reality is a cousin twice removed ''. At the same time, some principal limitations of OOP have been noted. For example, the circle - ellipse problem is difficult to handle using OOP 's concept of inheritance.
However, Niklaus Wirth (who popularized the adage now known as Wirth 's law: "Software is getting slower more rapidly than hardware becomes faster '') said of OOP in his paper, "Good Ideas through the Looking Glass '', "This paradigm closely reflects the structure of systems ' in the real world ', and it is therefore well suited to model complex systems with complex behaviours '' (contrast KISS principle).
Steve Yegge and others noted that natural languages lack the OOP approach of strictly prioritizing things (objects / nouns) before actions (methods / verbs). This problem may cause OOP to suffer more convoluted solutions than procedural programming.
OOP was developed to increase the reusability and maintainability of source code. Transparent representation of the control flow had no priority and was meant to be handled by a compiler. With the increasing relevance of parallel hardware and multithreaded coding, developing transparent control flow becomes more important, something hard to achieve with OOP.
Responsibility - driven design defines classes in terms of a contract, that is, a class should be defined around a responsibility and the information that it shares. This is contrasted by Wirfs - Brock and Wilkerson with data - driven design, where classes are defined around the data - structures that must be held. The authors hold that responsibility - driven design is preferable.
SOLID is a mnemonic invented by Michael Feathers that stands for and advocates five programming practices:
GRASP (General Responsibility Assignment Software Patterns) is another set of guidelines advocated by Craig Larman.
The OOP paradigm has been criticised for a number of reasons, including not meeting its stated goals of reusability and modularity, and for overemphasizing one aspect of software design and modeling (data / objects) at the expense of other important aspects (computation / algorithms).
Luca Cardelli has claimed that OOP code is "intrinsically less efficient '' than procedural code, that OOP can take longer to compile, and that OOP languages have "extremely poor modularity properties with respect to class extension and modification '', and tend to be extremely complex. The latter point is reiterated by Joe Armstrong, the principal inventor of Erlang, who is quoted as saying:
The problem with object - oriented languages is they 've got all this implicit environment that they carry around with them. You wanted a banana but what you got was a gorilla holding the banana and the entire jungle.
A study by Potok et al. has shown no significant difference in productivity between OOP and procedural approaches.
Christopher J. Date stated that critical comparison of OOP to other technologies, relational in particular, is difficult because of lack of an agreed - upon and rigorous definition of OOP; however, Date and Darwen have proposed a theoretical foundation on OOP that uses OOP as a kind of customizable type system to support RDBMS.
In an article Lawrence Krubner claimed that compared to other languages (LISP dialects, functional languages, etc.) OOP languages have no unique strengths, and inflict a heavy burden of unneeded complexity.
Alexander Stepanov compares object orientation unfavourably to generic programming:
I find OOP technically unsound. It attempts to decompose the world in terms of interfaces that vary on a single type. To deal with the real problems you need multisorted algebras -- families of interfaces that span multiple types. I find OOP philosophically unsound. It claims that everything is an object. Even if it is true it is not very interesting -- saying that everything is an object is saying nothing at all.
Paul Graham has suggested that OOP 's popularity within large companies is due to "large (and frequently changing) groups of mediocre programmers ''. According to Graham, the discipline imposed by OOP prevents any one programmer from "doing too much damage ''.
Leo Brodie has suggested a connection between the standalone nature of objects and a tendency to duplicate code in violation of the do n't repeat yourself principle of software development.
Steve Yegge noted that, as opposed to functional programming:
Object Oriented Programming puts the Nouns first and foremost. Why would you go to such lengths to put one part of speech on a pedestal? Why should one kind of concept take precedence over another? It 's not as if OOP has suddenly made verbs less important in the way we actually think. It 's a strangely skewed perspective.
Rich Hickey, creator of Clojure, described object systems as overly simplistic models of the real world. He emphasized the inability of OOP to model time properly, which is getting increasingly problematic as software systems become more concurrent.
Eric S. Raymond, a Unix programmer and open - source software advocate, has been critical of claims that present object - oriented programming as the "One True Solution '', and has written that object - oriented programming languages tend to encourage thickly layered programs that destroy transparency. Raymond compares this unfavourably to the approach taken with Unix and the C programming language.
Rob Pike, a programmer involved in the creation of UTF - 8 and Go, has called object - oriented programming "the Roman numerals of computing '' and has said that OOP languages frequently shift the focus from data structures and algorithms to types. Furthermore, he cites an instance of a Java professor whose "idiomatic '' solution to a problem was to create six new classes, rather than to simply use a lookup table.
Objects are the run - time entities in an object - oriented system. They may represent a person, a place, a bank account, a table of data, or any item that the program has to handle.
There have been several attempts at formalizing the concepts used in object - oriented programming. The following concepts and constructs have been used as interpretations of OOP concepts:
Attempts to find a consensus definition or theory behind objects have not proven very successful (however, see Abadi & Cardelli, A Theory of Objects for formal definitions of many OOP concepts and constructs), and often diverge widely. For example, some definitions focus on mental activities, and some on program structuring. One of the simpler definitions is that OOP is the act of using "map '' data structures or arrays that can contain functions and pointers to other maps, all with some syntactic and scoping sugar on top. Inheritance can be performed by cloning the maps (sometimes called "prototyping '').
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why did the u.s. department of education develop career clusters and how many are there | Career Clusters - wikipedia
Career Clusters provide students with a context for studying traditional academics and learning the skills specific to a career, and provide U.S. schools with a structure for organizing or restructuring curriculum offerings and focusing class make - up by a common theme such as interest.
In the U.S. Department of Education model, 16 Career Clusters link to 70 + more specific Career Pathways -- each have their own knowledge and skills requirements. Within the 70 + career pathways, 1800 Career Specialties are defined. The structure has evolved over time and may vary by state. The U.S. DOE Career Clusters framework is useful for connecting students with courses of study and careers via Career Assessments, and allows them to learn general, more transferable skills at the cluster level, with more specific skills and knowledge acquired at the career pathways and specialty levels. The nonprofit Vocational Research Institute adapted an interest and aptitude assessment, Careerscope, to help students choose curriculum and careers for which they have both interest and aptitude - at the cluster, pathway and career specialty levels. A concept related to Career Clusters, Small Learning Community is primarily concerned with restructuring secondary schools, in many cases using a career clusters framework.
The Career Cluster initiative began in 1996 in the U.S. as the Building Linkages Initiative and was a collaborative effort between the U.S. Department of Education, the Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE), the National School - to - Work Office (NSTWO) and the National Skill Standards Board (NSSB). The purpose of the Initiative was to establish linkages among State educational agencies, secondary and post-secondary educational institutions, employers, industry groups, other stakeholders and Federal agencies. The goal was to create curricular frameworks in broad career clusters, designed to prepare students to transition successfully from high school to post-secondary education and employment in a career area.
The creation of curricular models within the context of broad career clusters ensures the alignment of academic and technical instructional strategies with the requirements of post-secondary education and the expectations of employers in increasingly academic and technologically demanding careers. The vocational education field has historically responded to the needs of the national economy by preparing individuals for in - demand jobs.
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when is the story set in horizon zero dawn | Horizon Zero Dawn - wikipedia
Horizon Zero Dawn is an action role - playing video game developed by Guerrilla Games and published by Sony Interactive Entertainment. It was released for the PlayStation 4 in early 2017. The plot revolves around Aloy, a hunter living in a world overrun by machines. Having been an outcast her whole life, she sets out to discover the dangers that kept her sheltered. The player uses ranged weapons, a spear and stealth tactics to combat the mechanised creatures, whose remains can be looted for resources. A skill tree provides the player with new abilities and passive bonuses. The game features an open world environment for Aloy to explore, while undertaking side and main story quests.
Development began in 2011 after the studio completed production of Killzone 3, with game director Mathijs de Jonge considering it "the most risky '' idea of those that were pitched at the time. The concept explores the contrast between the beauty and danger of the game 's setting. The game engine, Decima, was developed for Killzone Shadow Fall and altered for Horizon Zero Dawn. Anthropologists were consulted to authenticate the world 's decay over a millennium. The game is the first new intellectual property (IP) developed by Guerrilla Games since Killzone in 2004, and also the studio 's first attempt at developing a role - playing video game. The soundtrack, led by Joris de Man, contains experimental instrumentation to distinguish the themes.
Horizon Zero Dawn was well received by critics, who praised the open world, story, visuals, combat, the character of Aloy and the performance provided by her voice actress Ashly Burch, whilst giving criticism to the dialogue, melee combat and character models. It won various awards and accolades and was the best - selling launch of an original IP on the PlayStation 4; selling over seven million copies by February 2018, which ranks it among the best - selling games on the PlayStation 4. An expansion, The Frozen Wilds, was released in November 2017.
Horizon Zero Dawn is an action role - playing game played from a third - person view. Players take control of Aloy, a hunter who ventures through a post-apocalyptic land ruled by robotic creatures. Aloy can kill enemies in a variety of ways: setting traps like tripwires using the Tripcaster, shooting them with arrows, using explosives, and a spear.
Machine components, including electricity and the metal they are composed of, are vital to Aloy 's survival; she can loot their remains for crafting resources. Ammo, resource satchels, pouches, quivers; resistance, antidotes, health potions, and traps can all be crafted. Weapons have modification slots for dealing more damage. Aloy wears a Focus, a small head piece that scans machines to determine their susceptibilities, identify their location, their level, and the nature of loot they will drop. One machine, the Stalker, can enable cloaking technology to avert the gaze of Aloy 's Focus scan.
Machines attack with defensive and offensive measures, and will in either case react to a perceived threat by charging at it with brute force or projectiles. Exhibiting the behaviour of wild animals, some machines are inclined to move in herds and others, with the ability to fly, do so in flocks. Unless hacked with the Override Tool, machines will not exert aggressive force against each other. Aloy engages in battle with the cult known as the Eclipse. She can dodge, sprint, slide, or roll to evade her enemies ' advances. Hiding in foliage to ambush nearby enemies can ensure immediate takedowns. Swimming may reach enemies stealthily or places otherwise unreachable on foot. She is able to hack a selection of machines with the Override Tool, some of which can be turned into makeshift mounts. Explorable ruins called Cauldrons exist to unlock additional machines to override.
There are three categories in the skill tree: "Prowler '' concerns stealth, "Brave '' improves combat, and "Forager '' increases healing and gathering capabilities. To level up, Aloy attains experience points from individual kills and completing quests. Upgrades in each category result in more adept use of the skills learned, with "Prowler '' leading to silent takedowns, "Brave '' to aiming a bow in slow motion, and "Forager '' to an enlarged medicine pouch. The Frozen Wilds added "Traveller '', which unlocks the ability to jump off a mount to attack enemies.
The game features an open world environment with a day - night cycle and dynamic weather system which can be seamlessly explored. The map is composed of forest, jungle, desert, and snowy mountain regions. Mountainous terrain is traversed with the employment of parkour, and aided by the use of zip - lines installed throughout the world. Corruption Zones constitute areas that heighten difficulty and are populated by corrupted machines that behave with more aggression. To uncover more of the map, one must scale large giraffe - like machines known as Tallnecks. Twenty - five robotic creature designs are present in the game. Save points and fast travel can be accessed by interacting with campfires, once discovered.
The quest structure unfolds to accommodate the exploration of tribes, while the main story covers the entire world. Side quests involve Aloy completing tasks, like gathering materials, coming to the aid of individuals in danger of being killed, solving mysteries, assuming control of bandit camps, eliminating criminals and more difficult machines, accomplishing various challenges at any of the five Hunting Grounds, and obtaining an ancient armour that makes Aloy almost impervious to damage. A dialogue wheel is used to communicate with non-player characters. Collectibles include vantages that offer visual information of the Old World, metal flowers, which when acquired contain poetry, and old relics, such as ancient mugs and tribal artefacts.
The story is set in the 31st century, in a world where humans have regressed to primitive tribal societies as a result of some unspecified calamity. Their technologically advanced predecessors are vaguely remembered as the "Old Ones. '' Large robotic creatures known merely as "machines '' now dominate the Earth. For the most part, they peacefully coexist with humans, who occasionally hunt them for parts. However, a phenomenon known as the "Derangement '' has caused machines to become more aggressive towards humans, and larger and deadlier machines have begun to appear. There are three tribes that are prominently featured: the Nora, the Carja, and the Oseram. The Nora are fierce hunter - gatherers who live in the mountains and worship nature as the "All - Mother. '' The Carja are desert - dwelling city builders who worship the Sun. The Oseram are tinkerers known for their metalworking, brewing, and arguing.
Aloy was cast out from the Nora tribe at birth, raised by an outcast named Rost (JB Blanc). As a child, she obtained a Focus, a small augmented reality device that gives her special perceptive abilities. After coming of age, Aloy (Ashly Burch) enters a competition called the Proving to win the right to become a Nora Brave, and by extension, a member of the Nora tribe. Aloy wins the competition, but the Nora are suddenly attacked by cultists. Aloy is almost killed by their leader Helis (Crispin Freeman), but is saved by Rost, who sacrifices himself to save Aloy from a bomb. When Aloy awakes, a Matriarch explains that the cultists had gained control of corrupted machines. Aloy also learns that as an infant, she was found at the foot of a sealed door. An Oseram foreigner called Olin (Chook Sibtain) informs Aloy that the cultists are part of a group calling themselves the Eclipse. Olin indicates that the reason Aloy was targeted by the Eclipse was due to her resemblance to an Old World scientist named Dr. Elisabet Sobeck (also voiced by Burch).
Aloy locates the remnants of the company Faro Automated Solutions and discovers that the old world was destroyed nearly 1,000 years ago after Faro lost control of its automated "peacekeeper '' military robots. The robots, which could self - replicate and consumed biomass as fuel, overran the planet and consumed the biosphere, stripping Earth of all life. Project Zero Dawn, a top secret project spearheaded by Dr. Sobeck, was a plan to create an automated terraforming system to eventually shut the robots down and restore life to Earth. Aloy is then contacted by Sylens (Lance Reddick), a secretive figure interested in uncovering what happened to the "Old Ones ''. Aloy eventually learns that Dr. Sobeck was sent to an Orbital Launch Base to complete Zero Dawn and Sylens reveals that the base is located under the Citadel, the centre of Eclipse power. Aloy heads for the base and inside, she learns that Zero Dawn was a vast underground system of databases, factories, and cloning facilities all controlled by a single artificial intelligence named GAIA (Lesley Ewen). Once all life had been extinguished, GAIA developed a countermeasure to deactivate all of the Faro robots and then build its own robots to restore the Earth 's biosphere. Once the planet was habitable again, GAIA reseeded life on Earth based on stored DNA and taught the first human clones not to repeat their predecessors ' past mistakes. However, APOLLO, the system designed to teach the new humans, was sabotaged by Faro in a fit of nihilism, and the Cradle - born humans were therefore reduced to a tribal, subsistence society. HADES was one of GAIA 's subsystems designed to enact controlled extinction if the outcome of Zero Dawn was not favourable for human existence.
Aloy reaches Dr. Sobeck 's office, where she downloads a registry to give her access to the door from which she was born. She is captured by Helis and sentenced to death at the Citadel, but escapes with the help of Sylens. Aloy helps the Nora tribe fight off the Eclipse and then enters the door beneath the Nora mountain. She finds a recording left behind by GAIA, revealing that a signal of unknown origin caused HADES to activate and seize control of her functions. As a last resort, GAIA self - destructed in order to stop HADES. Without GAIA to maintain the terraforming process, the entire system began to break down. As a contingency plan, GAIA created a clone of Dr. Sobeck in the form of Aloy, in the hope that she would find GAIA 's message, destroy HADES, and restore GAIA 's functions. Aloy learns that Dr. Sobeck sacrificed her life to ensure the Faro robot swarm would not find GAIA. Aloy manages to obtain the System Override necessary to destroy HADES. Sylens admits that he was the original founder of the Eclipse, originally tempted by HADES ' promises of knowledge. With Sylens 's help, Aloy surmises that HADES wants to send a signal to reactivate the Faro robots so that they can once again extinguish all life on Earth. Aloy kills Helis and helps fight off waves of corrupted machines, before stabbing HADES with Sylens ' lance, ending the war. Aloy then journeys to Dr. Sobeck 's old home, where she finds her corpse, and has a moment of mourning for her predecessor. In a post-credits scene, HADES is shown to still be alive, but trapped by Sylens, who intends to interrogate HADES to find out who sent the signal that activated it in the first place.
Aloy travels to The Cut, the home of the Banuk Tribe after hearing word of dangerous machines appearing and a mountain belching smoke. There, she learns from a local chieftain named Aratak that the Banuk have been attempting to battle a Daemon on the mountain, "Thunder 's Drum '', which is apparently the cause of the machines in the area attacking the Banuk. However, their first attack had been a failure, and their shaman, Ourea, had disappeared afterwards. Aloy searches for Ourea, coming across strange robotic towers which corrupt any nearby machines.
She finds Ourea in an Old World facility that had been converted into a Banuk shrine, and is housing an artificial intelligence called the Spirit, which she believes is a machine spirit. Aloy is able to establish communications with the Spirit, which warns Ourea that the Daemon is blocking its transmissions before being cut off. Aloy and Ourea agree to work together to save the Spirit. However, Aloy must first oust Aratak and replace him as chieftain, since he refuses to let Ourea go to Thunder 's Drum. It is also revealed that Ourea and Aratak are siblings.
Aloy challenges Aratak, but daemonic machines ambush them in the final stretch of the challenge. They both team up to fight off the machines, and impressed by Aloy 's skills, Aratak concedes leadership to her. Aloy, Ourea, and Aratak head for Thunder 's Drum. They infiltrate the Old World facility built inside the mountain where Aloy discovers that the Spirit is actually CYAN, an AI designed to prevent the Yellowstone Caldera from erupting. Traveling further inside, they discover that the Daemon has already overtaken much of the facility, but CYAN suggests using lava from the caldera to destroy the infected areas while preserving the facility. It is also revealed that the Daemon is in fact HEPHAESTUS, another of GAIA 's subsystems.
The group fights through HEPHAESTUS ' defenses and Ourea sacrifices herself to override CYAN 's core, allowing it to transfer to an auxiliary data center and initiate destruction of the facility. Aloy and Aratak are able to narrowly escape. Aloy returns to the Banuk Shrine, where CYAN has transferred herself to, and CYAN provides additional information about the Old World but warns that HEPHAESTUS is still active somewhere, and will continue to build machines designed specifically to kill humans, which is why it tried to seize control of CYAN and its facilities. Aratak thanks Aloy for all of the help she has provided to the Banuk, and Aloy puts him back in charge of his people before parting ways.
Guerrilla Games began developing Horizon Zero Dawn in 2011, following the release of Killzone 3. When conceiving the idea for a new game, about 40 concepts were pitched. Among these was Horizon Zero Dawn, which game director Mathijs de Jonge considered "the most risky '' of the concepts and was first pitched in 2010 by art director Jan - Bart van Beek. When this concept was chosen, a team of 10 -- 20 began building prototypes of the game. Approximately 20 different stories were written for the game, exploring varying concepts for the game, such as different player characters. John Gonzalez, who previously acted as lead writer for Fallout: New Vegas (2010), was hired to write the game 's story as narrative director, with Ben McCaw as lead writer. The main elements of the story and the character of Aloy remained intact since early development. Upon the completion of Killzone Shadow Fall in late 2013, the remainder of the staff began working on Horizon Zero Dawn. Guerrilla also cancelled work on another title so as to allow the entire team to focus on the development of Horizon. Sony would later admit to being reluctant about having the main character be female and conducted focus testing to see if such a decision was marketable. It had an estimated budget of over € 45 million.
The game 's concept explores the juxtaposition between the danger and beauty of the world, particularly analysing the concept of humanity not being the dominant species. The team aimed to emphasise the game 's exploration element by featuring a quest system, as well as including items throughout the world that can be used to craft or replenish health. The team wished for the game to have a simple user interface design, specifically avoiding complicated menus for crafting, and considered the game to be a technical challenge. They felt that the game engine, Decima, which was designed for games such as the Killzone series and was previously used for Killzone Shadow Fall, was difficult to alter for Horizon, in terms of draw distance and loading. To discover how some game elements work differently in open world games, the team sought help from talent in the design, art and technical fields. In extrapolating the game world, Guerrilla turned to anthropologists and researched the formation of tribal cultures as well as how building materials would decay over a millennium. The game 's quest system and narrative design took inspiration from other role - playing video games, ranging from the "Relaxed '' quest design of RPG Maker games to the "Strict '' quest design of hack and slash games. They defined "Relaxed '' quest design as having few centralised systems for managing quest progression, and "Strict '' quest design as having a rigid structure and predefined elements, with the team deciding the latter.
The involvement of Lance Reddick and Ashly Burch was revealed in January 2017. Burch voiced Aloy, whose likeness was portrayed by Hannah Hoekstra and motion capture was performed by Amanda Piery in London. Following an auditioning process in 2014, Burch was called in to do the E3 2015 trailer and worked on the game for two years, providing facial motion capture as well. Her work was done in Los Angeles, with the Dutch developer brought in via Skype.
The game 's soundtrack was composed by Joris de Man, The Flight, Niels van der Leest, and Jonathan Williams, with vocalist Julie Elven serving as the primary performer. Lucas van Tol, music supervisor and senior sound designer, provided the composers with a game design document, insisting on an intimate sound for the score. For the tribal theme, they experimented with bows on piano wire and resonator guitars (with layered tracks of harmonicas on top of the latter) and playing cellos with plectrums or the back of a bow to convey how contemporary instruments would be played by someone to whom the instruments were unknown; de Man also used a contrabass flute and made synth pads from blowing on a Thai bamboo flute, noting "distant pads and ambiences, and wide, spread out chords seemed to work well ''. Circuit - bent synthesizers and percussive loops, run through impulse responses of metal and iron being beaten, were devoted to making a thematic identifier for the machines based on technology and metal. Van Tol required that the music be supplied in stems so that different pieces could be combined. The positive response to the first E3 trailer 's main theme led it to be included in the main menu. The composers also did the motion capture for diegetic music vignettes, portraying in - game tribal musicians. The 4 - hour score was released across digital music platforms on 10 March 2017.
The concept art as well as the game 's codename, Horizon, were leaked in September 2014. Horizon Zero Dawn was officially announced during Sony Interactive Entertainment 's E3 2015 press conference. The game was featured as the cover story in the September 2015 issue of Edge and the October 2016 issue of Game Informer. At E3 2016, Sony had a life - sized cosplay version of one of the machines greet the trade show attendees. Originally set to be released in 2016, the game was later delayed to February 2017 so as to give additional time for the development team to polish the game. It was released to manufacturing in late January 2017. The game launched to North American markets on 28 February 2017, in Europe, Australia and New Zealand on 1 March and Asia on 2 March for the PlayStation 4. Horizon Zero Dawn is forward compatible with the PS4 Pro, allowing it to run up to 4K resolution. In April 2017, a 47 - minute documentary about the making of Horizon Zero Dawn was released by Dutch public television. By March 2017, a story expansion had already been set in motion. New Game Plus, an Ultra Hard difficulty mode, additional trophies and aesthetic features were introduced with a patch released in July 2017. The expansion, The Frozen Wilds, was released on 7 November 2017. Horizon Zero Dawn: Complete Edition, which contains the base game, The Frozen Wilds, and all additional downloadable content, was released on 5 December 2017.
Horizon Zero Dawn received "generally favorable '' reviews from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. The open world exploration, the story 's depth, the visual aesthetics, the challenging combat, the character development of Aloy and voice actress Ashly Burch 's performance were acclaimed by reviewers, while contradicting dialogue, aspects of the melee combat and character models faced the most reproval.
Destructoid 's Chris Carter commended Ashly Burch and Lance Reddick for their performances, with the character of Aloy receiving credit for maintaining a "captivating '' and "interesting '' consistency in the narrative and action sequences. Carter also lauded the focus on exploration and discovery, which he said grew more effective as he traversed more of the land. The game world itself was subject to compliment for its "beautiful '' day - night cycle and weather system. According to Carter, the challenging nature of the machines and varied methods with which to battle them brought a real sense of fun to the combat. Matt Buchholtz of EGMNow likewise praised Burch as well as the game world, which he found to be mesmerising. Thought as the most powerful part of the game, the Focus feature gained approval for complementing the combat in a way that "forces you to become a hunter ''. Writing for Game Informer, Jeff Marchiafava opined that, unlike with other open world video games, searching for audio logs and emails provided the plot with a "remarkable sense of discovery ''. He was thankful that story - based missions dominated the overall experience, arguing that they worked to detail the game world and inspired variation in the gameplay.
Peter Brown at GameSpot reflected on Aloy 's character development with amazement, adding that the process matured Aloy and grew her confidence. One constant thrill to Brown came from combating the machines, which he said took the spotlight and never lost its flair. He appreciated also that the main quests encouraged one to explore the environment. Zoe Delahunty - Light, writing for GamesRadar+, was fascinated with the intricacies of the game world and found integral value in the lore scattered among the ruins. She echoed Brown 's view that fighting machines maintained excitement throughout. Giant Bomb 's Jeff Gerstmann declared Horizon Zero Dawn as "a near - perfect story '' with a satisfying conclusion, and emphasised that it contained substantial depth. Lucy O'Brien at IGN admired its weight in meaning, while welcoming the charm of the protagonist 's personality. A considerable impression was made with the combat, which was stated as the game 's most compelling accomplishment. Writing for Polygon, Philip Kollar applauded the game as what he dubbed the "refutation '' of Guerrilla Games ' past work, a change of pace he described as "refreshing ''. Aloy was observed to be perfectly coupled with the story in that she offered the curiosity to seek out its many mysteries. Kollar perceived the Focus as "key to combat '' and the machines as engaging foes in battle. Colm Ahern of VideoGamer.com wrote in his verdict, "Destroying large robot beasts while frantically switching between weapons is intoxicating, but the strength of Horizon Zero Dawn is in Aloy 's engaging quest to find out who she really is ''.
Conversely, Carter saw the characters beyond Aloy and Sylens as uninteresting and bland in their designs. He also disparaged the human artificial intelligence as being worse than that of the machines. To Buchholtz, the weapon system in relation to ammunition appeared convoluted; the ability to only purchase one item at a time "a massive oversight ''; and Aloy 's ability to only grab marked ledges was confusing for a "parkour master ''. Marchiafava 's only major criticism was that it held too familiar roots with established open world formula. Although Brown drew enjoyment from other aspects of combat, he disparaged the melee for its ineffectiveness and simplicity. Delahunty - Light concurred that the melee fell short of its potential, and also took issue with the jumping mechanic. O'Brien felt the dialogue occasionally contradicted the otherwise intelligent narrative. Kollar bemoaned the character models as Horizon Zero Dawn 's one visual shortcoming.
Japanese game director Yoko Taro listed Horizon Zero Dawn as one of his favourite PlayStation 4 games. Entertainment Weekly ranked it as the fourth best game of 2017, GamesRadar+ ranked it second on their list of the 25 Best Games of 2017, and Eurogamer ranked it 31st on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017 ''. The Verge named Horizon Zero Dawn as one of the 15 Best Games of 2017. In Game Informer 's Reader 's Choice Best of 2017 Awards, it took the lead for "Best Sony Game '', coming up in second place for both "Best Action Game '' and "Game of the Year ''. Game Informer also awarded it "Best Sony Exclusive '' in their Best of 2017 Awards, and also gave it the awards for "Best Story '' and "Best Character '' (Aloy) in their 2017 Action Game of the Year Awards. EGMNow ranked the game third in their list of 25 Best Games of 2017, while Polygon ranked it eighth on their list of the 50 best games of 2017.
The game won the Gold Prize and Users Choice Prize at the 2017 PlayStation Awards. It was nominated for "Best PS4 Game '' at Destructoid 's Game of the Year Awards 2017. It also won the awards for "Best PlayStation 4 Game '' and "Best Graphics '' at IGN 's Best of 2017 Awards, whereas its other nominations were for "Game of the Year '', "Best Action - Adventure Game '', and "Best Art Direction ''. It was nominated for "Best Looking Game '' at Giant Bomb 's 2017 Game of the Year Awards. In 2018, it won the awards for Best PS4 Game, Best Performance for Ashly Burch, Best Art Direction, Best Soundtrack, Best Story, Best Post-Release Content, Best PlayStation Console Exclusive, and Best Use of PS4 Pro at PlayStation Blog 's Game of the Year Awards. In addition, a tabletop game based on Horizon Zero Dawn is being developed by Steamforged Games.
Horizon Zero Dawn was the best - selling game during its release week in the UK. It surpassed No Man 's Sky as the biggest launch of a new intellectual property on the PlayStation 4 and was the most successful launch of any kind on the PlayStation 4 since Uncharted 4: A Thief 's End, as well as Guerrilla Games ' biggest debut to date. The game sold close to 117,000 copies in its first week in Japan, becoming the second best - selling game that week. Horizon Zero Dawn was the second most downloaded game on the American PlayStation 4 store for February. Because its launch day occurred on the last day of February, only one day of sales was counted. It was the best - selling game in its week of release in Australia. In March 2017, it was the second best - selling game in the United Kingdom and the highest - selling PlayStation 4 game. Horizon Zero Dawn was also the best - selling game on PlayStation Store that month. It was ranked number one in the UK sales chart in April 2017, and eighth place in the Japanese chart of the same time period. By February 2018, over 7.6 million copies had been sold worldwide.
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name one organelle due to lack of which virus are dependent on a living cell | Introduction to viruses - wikipedia
I: dsDNA viruses II: ssDNA viruses III: dsRNA viruses IV: (+) ssRNA viruses V: (-) ssRNA viruses VI: ssRNA - RT viruses VII: dsDNA - RT viruses
A single, fully functional virus particle outside its host cell
Some viruses have a bubble of fat that surrounds the virion.
A segment of DNA or RNA; genes are like sentences made of the "letters '' of the nucleotide alphabet. Genes direct the reproduction of viruses. Different types of viruses have genes made from DNA or RNA but not both.
The animals, plants or bacteria that any one type of virus can infect.
The viruses that reproduce in bacteria
A grouping of viruses based on the antigens on the surface of virus
All viruses of a type are identical and their particles have a cubical, helical or complex structure.
A virus is a biological agent that reproduces inside the cells of living hosts. When infected by a virus, a host cell is forced to produce thousands of identical copies of the original virus at an extraordinary rate. Unlike most living things, viruses do not have cells that divide; new viruses are assembled in the infected host cell. But unlike still simpler infectious agents, viruses contain genes, which gives them the ability to mutate and evolve. Over 5,000 species of viruses have been discovered.
The origins of viruses are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids -- pieces of DNA that can move between cells -- while others may have evolved from bacteria. A virus consists of two or three parts: genes, made from either DNA or RNA, long molecules that carry genetic information; a protein coat that protects the genes; and in some viruses, an envelope of fat that surrounds the protein coat and is used, in combination with specific receptors, to enter a new host cell. Viruses vary in shape from the simple helical and icosahedral to more complex structures. Viruses range in size from 20 to 300 nanometres; it would take 30,000 to 750,000 of them, side by side, to stretch to 1 centimetre (0.39 in).
Viruses spread in many ways. Just as many viruses are very specific as to which host species or tissue they attack, each species of virus relies on a particular method for propagation. Plant viruses are often spread from plant to plant by insects and other organisms, known as vectors. Some viruses of animals, including humans, are spread by exposure to infected bodily fluids. Viruses such as influenza are spread through the air by droplets of moisture when people cough or sneeze. Viruses such as norovirus are transmitted by the faecal -- oral route, which involves the contamination of hands, food and water. Rotavirus is often spread by direct contact with infected children. The human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, is transmitted by bodily fluids transferred during sex. Others, such as the Dengue virus, are spread by blood - sucking insects.
Viral infections can cause disease in humans, animals and even plants. However, they are usually eliminated by the immune system, conferring lifetime immunity to the host for that virus. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but antiviral drugs have been developed to treat life - threatening infections. Vaccines that produce lifelong immunity can prevent some viral infections.
In 1884 the French microbiologist Charles Chamberland invented a filter, known today as the Chamberland filter or Chamberland -- Pasteur filter, that has pores smaller than bacteria. Thus he could pass a solution containing bacteria through the filter and completely remove them from the solution. In the early 1890s the Russian biologist Dmitri Ivanovsky used this filter to study what became known as the tobacco mosaic virus. His experiments showed that extracts from the crushed leaves of infected tobacco plants remain infectious after filtration.
At the same time several other scientists proved that, although these agents (later called viruses) were different from bacteria, they could still cause disease, and they were about one hundredth the size of bacteria. In 1899 the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck observed that the agent multiplied only in dividing cells. Having failed to demonstrate its particulate nature, he called it a "contagium vivum fluidum '', a "soluble living germ ''. In the early 20th century the English bacteriologist Frederick Twort discovered viruses that infect bacteria, and the French - Canadian microbiologist Félix d'Herelle described viruses that, when added to bacteria growing on agar, would lead to the formation of whole areas of dead bacteria. Counting these dead areas allowed him to calculate the number of viruses in the suspension.
With the invention of the electron microscope in 1931 by the German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll came the first images of viruses. In 1935 American biochemist and virologist Wendell Meredith Stanley examined the tobacco mosaic virus and found it to be mostly made from protein. A short time later, this virus was separated into protein and RNA parts. A problem for early scientists was that they did not know how to grow viruses without using live animals. The breakthrough came in 1931, when the American pathologist Ernest William Goodpasture and Alice Miles Woodruff grew influenza and several other viruses in fertilised chickens ' eggs. Some viruses could not be grown in chickens ' eggs, but this problem was solved in 1949 when John Franklin Enders, Thomas Huckle Weller and Frederick Chapman Robbins grew polio virus in cultures of living animal cells. Over 5,000 species of virus have been discovered.
Viruses co-exist with life wherever it occurs. They have probably existed since living cells first evolved. The origin of viruses remains unclear because they do not form fossils, so molecular techniques have been the most useful means of hypothesising how they arose. However, these techniques rely on the availability of ancient viral DNA or RNA but most of the viruses that have been preserved and stored in laboratories are less than 90 years old. Molecular methods have only been successful in tracing the ancestry of viruses that evolved in the 20th century. Three main theories speculate on the origins of viruses:
There are problems with all of these hypotheses: the regressive hypothesis does not explain why even the smallest of cellular parasites do not resemble viruses in any way. The escape hypothesis does not explain the structures of virus particles. The coevolution, or virus - first hypothesis, contravenes the definition viruses, in that they are dependent on host cells. But viruses are recognised as ancient and to have origins that pre-date the divergence of life into the three domains. This discovery has led modern virologists to reconsider and re-evaluate these three classical hypotheses.
A virus particle, also known as a virion, consists of genes made from DNA or RNA which are surrounded by a protective coat of protein called a capsid. The capsid is made of many smaller, identical protein molecules which are called capsomers. The arrangement of the capsomers can either be icosahedral (20 - sided), helical or more complex. There is an inner shell around the DNA or RNA called the nucleocapsid, which is formed by proteins. Some viruses are surrounded by a bubble of lipid (fat) called an envelope.
Viruses are among the smallest infectious agents, and most of them can only be seen by electron microscopy. Most viruses can not be seen by light microscopy (in other words, they are sub-microscopic); their sizes range from 20 to 300 nm. They are so small that it would take 30,000 to 750,000 of them, side by side, to stretch to one cm. By contrast bacterial sizes are typically around 1 micrometre (1000 nm) in diameter, and the cells of higher organisms a few tens of micrometres. Some viruses such as megaviruses and pandoraviruses are relatively large. At around 1 micrometer, these viruses, which infect amoebae, were discovered in 2003 and 2013. They are around a thousand times larger than influenza viruses and the discovery of these "giant '' viruses astonished scientists.
Genes are made from DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and, in many viruses, RNA (ribonucleic acid). The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA or RNA. Most organisms use DNA, but many viruses have RNA as their genetic material. The DNA or RNA of viruses consists of either a single strand or a double helix.
Viruses reproduce rapidly because they have only a few genes compared to humans who have 20,000 -- 25,000. For example, influenza virus has only eight genes and rotavirus has eleven. These genes encode structural proteins that form the virus particle, or non-structural proteins, that are only found in cells infected by the virus.
All cells, and many viruses, produce proteins that are enzymes called DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase which make new copies of DNA and RNA. A virus 's polymerase enzymes are often much more efficient at making DNA and RNA than the host cell 's. However, RNA polymerase enzymes often make mistakes, and this is one of the reasons why RNA viruses often mutate to form new strains.
In some species of RNA virus, the genes are not on a continuous molecule of RNA, but are separated. The influenza virus, for example, has eight separate genes made of RNA. When two different strains of influenza virus infect the same cell, these genes can mix and produce new strains of the virus in a process called reassortment.
Proteins are essential to life. Cells produce new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information coded in DNA. Each type of protein is a specialist that usually only performs one function, so if a cell needs to do something new, it must make a new protein. Viruses force the cell to make new proteins that the cell does not need, but are needed for the virus to reproduce. Protein synthesis consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.
Transcription is the process where information in DNA, called the genetic code, is used to produce RNA copies called messenger RNA (mRNA). These migrate through the cell and carry the code to ribosomes where it is used to make proteins. This is called translation because the protein 's amino acid structure is determined by the mRNA 's code. Information is hence translated from the language of nucleic acids to the language of amino acids.
Some nucleic acids of RNA viruses function directly as mRNA without further modification. For this reason, these viruses are called positive - sense RNA viruses. In other RNA viruses, the RNA is a complementary copy of mRNA and these viruses rely on the cell 's or their own enzyme to make mRNA. These are called negative - sense RNA viruses. In viruses made from DNA, the method of mRNA production is similar to that of the cell. The species of viruses called retroviruses behave completely differently: they have RNA, but inside the host cell a DNA copy of their RNA is made with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. This DNA is then incorporated into the host 's own DNA, and copied into mRNA by the cell 's normal pathways.
When a virus infects a cell, the virus forces it to make thousands more viruses. It does this by making the cell copy the virus 's DNA or RNA, making viral proteins, which all assemble to form new virus particles.
There are six basic, overlapping stages in the life cycle of viruses in living cells:
The range of structural and biochemical effects that viruses have on the host cell is extensive. These are called cytopathic effects. Most virus infections eventually result in the death of the host cell. The causes of death include cell lysis (bursting), alterations to the cell 's surface membrane and apoptosis (cell "suicide ''). Often cell death is caused by cessation of its normal activity due to proteins produced by the virus, not all of which are components of the virus particle.
Some viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell. Cells in which the virus is latent and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally. This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years. This is often the case with herpes viruses.
Some viruses, such as Epstein - Barr virus, often cause cells to proliferate without causing malignancy; but some other viruses, such as papillomavirus, are an established cause of cancer. When a cell 's DNA is damaged by a virus, and if the cell can not repair itself, this often triggers apoptosis. One of the results of apoptosis is destruction of the damaged DNA by the cell itself. Some viruses have mechanisms to limit apoptosis so that the host cell does not die before progeny viruses have been produced; HIV, for example, does this.
Common human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold, the flu, chickenpox and cold sores. Serious diseases such as Ebola and AIDS are also caused by viruses. Many viruses cause little or no disease and are said to be "benign ''. The more harmful viruses are described as virulent. Viruses cause different diseases depending on the types of cell that they infect. Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections where the viruses continue to reproduce in the body despite the host 's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected with a virus are known as carriers. They serve as important reservoirs of the virus. If there is a high proportion of carriers in a given population, a disease is said to be endemic.
There are many ways in which viruses spread from host to host but each species of virus uses only one or two. Many viruses that infect plants are carried by organisms; such organisms are called vectors. Some viruses that infect animals, including humans, are also spread by vectors, usually blood - sucking insects. However, direct transmission is more common. Some virus infections, such as norovirus and rotavirus, are spread by contaminated food and water, hands and communal objects and by intimate contact with another infected person, while others are airborne (influenza virus). Viruses such as HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C are often transmitted by unprotected sex or contaminated hypodermic needles. It is important to know how each different kind of virus is spread to prevent infections and epidemics.
There are many types of plant virus, but often they only cause a loss of yield, and it is not economically viable to try to control them. Plant viruses are often spread from plant to plant by organisms (vectors). These are normally insects, but some fungi, nematode worms and single - celled organisms have been shown to be vectors. When control of plant virus infections is considered economical (perennial fruits, for example) efforts are concentrated on killing the vectors and removing alternate hosts such as weeds. Plant viruses are harmless to humans and other animals because they can only reproduce in living plant cells.
Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria and archaea. The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses officially recognises 28 genera of bacteriophages that belong to 11 families. They are important in marine ecology: as the infected bacteria burst, carbon compounds are released back into the environment, which stimulates fresh organic growth. Bacteriophages are useful in scientific research because they are harmless to humans and can be studied easily. These viruses can be a problem in industries that produce food and drugs by fermentation and depend on healthy bacteria. Some bacterial infections are becoming difficult to control with antibiotics, so there is a growing interest in the use of bacteriophages to treat infections in humans.
Animals, including humans, have many natural defences against viruses. Some are non-specific and protect against many viruses regardless of the type. This innate immunity is not improved by repeated exposure to viruses and does not retain a "memory '' of the infection. The skin of animals, particularly its surface, which is made from dead cells, prevents many types of viruses from infecting the host. The acidity of the contents of the stomach destroys many viruses that have been swallowed. When a virus overcomes these barriers and enters the host, other innate defences prevent the spread of infection in the body. A special hormone called interferon is produced by the body when viruses are present, and this stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours. Inside cells, there are enzymes that destroy the RNA of viruses. This is called RNA interference. Some blood cells engulf and destroy other virus infected cells.
Specific immunity to viruses develops over time and white blood cells called lymphocytes play a central role. Lymphocytes retain a "memory '' of virus infections and produce many special molecules called antibodies. These antibodies attach to viruses and stop the virus from infecting cells. Antibodies are highly selective and attack only one type of virus. The body makes many different antibodies, especially during the initial infection; however, after the infection subsides, some antibodies remain and continue to be produced, often giving the host lifelong immunity to the virus.
Plants have elaborate and effective defence mechanisms against viruses. One of the most effective is the presence of so - called resistance (R) genes. Each R gene confers resistance to a particular virus by triggering localised areas of cell death around the infected cell, which can often be seen with the unaided eye as large spots. This stops the infection from spreading. RNA interference is also an effective defence in plants. When they are infected, plants often produce natural disinfectants which destroy viruses, such as salicylic acid, nitric oxide and reactive oxygen molecules.
The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes which destroy foreign DNA. These enzymes, called restriction endonucleases, cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells.
Vaccination is a way of preventing diseases caused by viruses. Vaccines simulate a natural infection and its associated immune response, but do not cause the disease. Their use has resulted in the eradication of smallpox and a dramatic decline in illness and death caused by infections such as polio, measles, mumps and rubella. Vaccines are available to prevent over fourteen viral infections of humans and more are used to prevent viral infections of animals. Vaccines may consist of either live or killed viruses. Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus, but these vaccines can be dangerous when given to people with weak immunity. In these people, the weakened virus can cause the original disease. Biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques are used to produce "designer '' vaccines that only have the capsid proteins of the virus. Hepatitis B vaccine is an example of this type of vaccine. These vaccines are safer because they can never cause the disease.
Over the past 20 years, the development of antiviral drugs has increased rapidly, mainly driven by the AIDS pandemic. Antiviral drugs are often nucleoside analogues, which are molecules very similar, but not identical to DNA building blocks. When the replication of virus DNA begins, some of these fake building blocks are incorporated. As soon as that happens, replication stops prematurely -- the fake building blocks lack the essential features that allow the addition of further building blocks. Thus, DNA production is halted, and the virus can no longer reproduce. Examples of nucleoside analogues are aciclovir for herpes virus infections and lamivudine for HIV and hepatitis B virus infections. Aciclovir is one of the oldest and most frequently prescribed antiviral drugs.
Other antiviral drugs target different stages of the viral life cycle. HIV is dependent on an enzyme called the HIV - 1 protease for the virus to become infectious. There is a class of drugs called protease inhibitors, which bind to this enzyme and stop it from functioning.
Hepatitis C is caused by an RNA virus. In 80 % of people infected, the disease becomes chronic, and they remain infectious for the rest of their lives unless they are treated. There is an effective treatment that uses the nucleoside analogue drug ribavirin combined with interferon. Treatments for chronic carriers of the hepatitis B virus by a similar strategy using lamivudine and other anti-viral drugs have been developed. In both diseases, the drugs stop the virus from reproducing and the interferon kills any remaining infected cells.
HIV infections are usually treated with a combination of antiviral drugs, each targeting a different stage in the virus 's life - cycle. There are drugs that prevent the virus from attaching to cells, others that are nucleoside analogues and some poison the virus 's enzymes that it needs to reproduce. The success of these drugs is proof of the importance of knowing how viruses reproduce.
Viruses are the most abundant biological entity in aquatic environments -- there are about one million of them in a teaspoon of seawater -- and they are essential to the regulation of saltwater and freshwater ecosystems. Most of these viruses are bacteriophages, which are harmless to plants and animals. They infect and destroy the bacteria in aquatic microbial communities and this is the most important mechanism of recycling carbon in the marine environment. The organic molecules released from the bacterial cells by the viruses stimulate fresh bacterial and algal growth.
Microorganisms constitute more than 90 % of the biomass in the sea. It is estimated that viruses kill approximately 20 % of this biomass each day and that there are fifteen times as many viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea. Viruses are mainly responsible for the rapid destruction of harmful algal blooms, which often kill other marine life. The number of viruses in the oceans decreases further offshore and deeper into the water, where there are fewer host organisms.
Their effects are far - reaching; by increasing the amount of respiration in the oceans, viruses are indirectly responsible for reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by approximately 3 gigatonnes of carbon per year.
Marine mammals are also susceptible to viral infections. In 1988 and 2002, thousands of harbour seals were killed in Europe by phocine distemper virus. Many other viruses, including caliciviruses, herpesviruses, adenoviruses and parvoviruses, circulate in marine mammal populations.
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how many bills are in a sheet of money | Uncut Currency sheets - Wikipedia
Uncut currency sheets are common numismatics collector 's items. They are often sold as souvenirs by issuers. After cutting, usually the banknotes can be used as legal tender.
The Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) has been selling uncut sheets of United States dollars since October 26, 1981. Uncut American paper money issued prior to that is a rarity.
As of December 2016, uncut banknote sheets of the following denominations are available for order from the BEP online store:
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do you need a licence to own an air pistol in the uk | Air gun laws - wikipedia
This is a list of laws concerning air guns by country.
While in some countries air guns are not subject to any specific regulation, in most there are laws, which differ widely. Each jurisdiction has its own definition of an air gun; and regulations may vary for weapons of different bore, muzzle energy or velocity, or material of ammunition, with guns designed to fire metal pellets often more tightly controlled than airsoft weapons. There may be minimum ages for possession, and sales of both air guns and ammunition may be restricted. Some areas in the world require permits and background checks similar to those required for firearms proper.
The Australian gun law is quite restrictive and differs on a state - by - state basis; however, as general rule all air guns -- regardless of action type, caliber and muzzle energy -- are considered firearms for legal purposes; e.g. air rifles are considered Class A firearms and as such are subject to licensing and registration.
Air pistols are considered handguns and subjected to Class H firearms restrictions. An air pistol shooter will require membership and attendance at an authorized pistol club for six months before allowing ownership, and need to shoot in at least ten events per year -- four for each handgun class (air pistol, rimfire or centerfire) -- including at least six formal competitions to keep the licence.
Paintball markers are classified as "soft air weapons '' and treated differently to other air guns; refer to the paintball section on legality for a state - by - state breakdown.
Though also regarded as "soft air weapons '', airsoft guns are strictly prohibited in all states except in the Northern Territory (where they are considered regular airguns and subjected to the corresponding laws and licensing) and the ACT (where they are considered "imitation firearms '').
The Brazilian legislation that regulates the manufacture, import, export, trade, traffic and use of airguns divide them into two groups:
Airguns in the first group may be purchased by anyone over 18. Airguns in the second group can only be purchased by people registered in the army, transportation depends on authorization, and usage is allowed only in places approved by the army. Airguns of any kind may not be carried openly. There is no muzzle energy limit for any type or calibre.
Scopes or any equipment with magnification needs to be registered by the army in the shooter 's registry and accompany a traffic authorization, and are allowed to civilians only if under 6 times magnification and with the objective lens smaller than 36 millimeters. Scopes with magnification equal or above 6 times and / or over 35 milimeters, or equipment that mark the target (like laser sights), are restricted to civilians and allowed only for use by the army. The permitted equipment has to be registered in the civilian 's document, this process is called "Apostilamento ''. The document for a shooter 's registry is called "Certificado de Registro de Atirador ''.
Air guns can be freely bought and owned by any person older than 18 years old. Only pistols with muzzle energy exceeding 7.5 joules (5.5 ft ⋅ lbf) are not allowed. There is no maximum muzzle energy limit for rifles. Open carry of airguns is not allowed. The use of air guns is restricted non-public places, being shooting ranges, inside a house or a backyard that is not easily accessible from the street.
In Bulgaria anyone over the age of 18 can obtain an airgun if its muzzle energy is below that of 24 Joules. Weapons can not be bought online.
Air guns with both a muzzle velocity greater than 152.4 meters per second (500 feet per second) and a muzzle energy greater than 5.7 joules (4.2 foot - pounds) are firearms for purposes of both the Firearms Act and the Criminal Code. Usually the manufacturer 's specifications are used to determine the design muzzle velocity and energy. Air rifles that meet these velocity and energy criteria are generally classified as non-restricted firearms; however, some are classified as restricted or prohibited, depending on the exact design of the air rifle. Air pistols are classified as restricted if their barrel is longer than 105 mm or prohibited if their barrel length is 105 mm or less. The lawful possession of these airguns requires that the owner have a valid firearms licence and that the airgun be registered as a firearm.
Air guns that meet the Criminal Code definition of a firearm, but that are deemed not to be firearms for certain purposes of the Firearms Act and Criminal Code are those that have a muzzle velocity of less than 152.4 meters per second (500 feet per second) and / or a maximum muzzle energy of 5.7 joules (4.2 foot pounds). Such air guns are exempt from licensing, registration, and other requirements under the Firearms Act, and from penalties set out in the Criminal Code for possessing a firearm without a valid licence or registration certificate. However, they are considered to be firearms under the Criminal Code if they are used to commit a crime. The simple possession, acquisition and use of these air guns for lawful purposes is regulated by provincial and municipal laws and by - laws. For example, some provinces may have set a minimum age for acquiring such an air gun. These air guns are exempt from the specific safe storage, transportation and handling requirements set out in the regulations supporting the Firearms Act. However, the Criminal Code requires that reasonable precautions be taken to use, carry, handle, store, transport, and ship them in a safe and secure manner.
Carrying one of these firearms is permitted for those aged 14 or older.
Suppressors for all firearms, including airguns, are prohibited in Canada.
In the Czech Republic anyone over age of 18 can acquire air gun with a muzzle energy not exceeding 16 joules (12 ft ⋅ lbf). Children over age of 10 have to be supervised by adult when shooting. The only restriction on shooting place is requirement of public safety. Since firearms can be used only at the officially licensed shooting ranges air guns became popular to practice target shooting at or near the home.
Air guns with a muzzle energy over 16 J (12 ft ⋅ lbf) require the same licence as firearms and police registration. Such air guns can be used only at the shooting ranges.
Since September 2013, air rifles with a muzzle energy less than 20 joules (14 ft lbf) can be acquired by persons over age 18 and no licence is required. (Previously the limit was 10 joules.) For air rifles of 20 joules muzzle energy or more, a hunting licence or club shooting licence is required. However, hunting or pest control with air guns is illegal in France.
In Germany, air guns producing a muzzle energy up to 7.5 joule (J) (5.53 ft lbf) can be owned by persons from the age of 18 years and freely acquired provided they bear the "F - in - pentagon '' mark '' that indicates a muzzle energy not exceeding 7.5 J (5.5 ft ⋅ lbf) kinetic energy. Carrying air guns in public necessitates a carry permit (§ 10 Abs. 4 WaffG), extremely rare as such and never granted for air guns. Only the transportation of unloaded and non-accessible air guns (or carrying unloaded during biathlon) is considered a "permissible carry '' (§ 12 Abs. 3 Nr. 2, Nr. 3 WaffG).
Shooting is permitted on licensed ranges (§ 27 Abs. 1, § 12 Abs. 4 2 Nr. 1 WaffG), and on enclosed private property if it is assured that the projectiles can not possibly leave the shooting area (§ 12 Abs. 4 Nr. 1a WaffG). The minimum age for air gun shooting in Germany is 12 years under supervision (§ 27 Abs. 3 S. 1 Nr. 1 WaffG), but exceptions may be granted to younger children upon request, supported by suitable references from a doctor and by a licensed shooting federation (§ 27 Abs. 4 WaffG).
Air weapons exceeding 7.5 J muzzle energy, e.g. field target guns, are treated like firearms and therefore require a relevant permit for acquisition and possession. Proof of need, a clean criminal record and the passing of a knowledge and handling test are required (§ 4 Abs. 1 WaffG) to gain the permit.
A purchase authorization is not required for air guns that were manufactured and introduced onto the market before 1 January 1970 in Germany or before 2 April 1991 on the territory of the former East Germany (WaffG, Appendix 2, Section 1, Subsection 2, 1.2); they can, regardless of their muzzle energy or the absence of an "F - in - pentagon '' mark, be freely acquired and possessed.
The storage requirements for firearms do not apply to air guns (cf. § 36 Abs. 1 S. 1 WaffG); they must only be stored unaccessible to minors.
In the Isle of Man, Air guns are treated in the same manner as conventional firearms and require a relevant firearms certificate.
In Italy, any mechanism that produces a muzzle energy higher than 1 joule (0.74 ft lbf) and lower than 7.5 joules (5.53 ft lbf) is considered a "low - power air gun ''; the sale of such instruments is open to anyone over 18 years of age without licence or registration, but it can take place only in authorized gun shops where the owner must require the purchaser to provide his ID Card as a proof of age.
Any device developing a muzzle energy equal to, or higher than, 7.5 joules is considered a "high - power air gun '', requiring Police licensing and registration for purchase and detention just like any firearm. Bows, crossbows and similar are exempt from this rule. The muzzle energy of such devices is certified by a governance office called "Banco di Prova ''. Air guns developing less than 1 joule of muzzle energy are categorized as airsoft, which are considered by law as toys, with no restriction whatsoever to their trade, except that they can never be modified to achieve a higher muzzle energy and must be only able to shoot 6 mm plastic pellets.
It is illegal to hunt with air guns.
In the Netherlands, air guns can be owned by persons from the age of 18 years and can freely be acquired. Until 1997 there were limitations on muzzle velocity and kinetic energy, similar to the German law, but these restrictions were lifted for practical reasons. Carrying air guns in public and the possession of air guns (and toy guns) that resemble firearms is prohibited. The expression "to resemble '' is nowadays given a very broad interpretation so that just about any airgun can be considered to resemble a firearm. Whether an airgun is considered to resemble a firearm too closely is decided by the police or, when it comes to that, by the court. It is impossible to predict the outcome of such courtcases. Air guns may be kept in private homes but must be inaccessible for persons under 18. Commercial sales of airguns may only take place in licensed gunshops. It is illegal to own an airgun that was "produced or modified so that it can more easily be carried concealed ''. Generally this is considered the case when the barrel has been shortened or the weapon has a folding or telescoping stock.
In New Zealand any member of the public over the age of 18 may own and fire most air rifles without a firearms licence, provided they use the air rifle in a safe environment with a responsible attitude.
Minors 16 and over, but under the age of 18, require a Firearms Licence to possess an air rifle -- however, they may use an air rifle under adult supervision without this licence.
Airguns can not be fully automatic, and there is provision under the New Zealand Arms Acts to specify "specially dangerous airguns ''. Only pre-charged pneumatic rifles have now been specified in this category, but for these a firearms licence is now a requirement for possession and use. The change was made as a consequence of two fatal shootings by. 22 calibre semi-automatic air rifles.
In Poland it is possible to freely acquire air guns with a muzzle energy not exceeding 17 joules (13 ft ⋅ lbf). Air guns with muzzle energy over 17 J are considered FAC and must be registered at a local police station no later than 5 days after purchase (a gun licence is not needed). FAC air guns can only be used at the officially licensed shooting ranges. Hunting / shooting animals with air guns is illegal and can lead to prosecution.
In Singapore, airguns are classified as ' arms ', in the same category as firearms utilising gunpowder as propellant among other weapons. It is necessary to obtain a licence from the Singapore Police Force before one can import, export or own an airgun.
All air guns are very loosely regulated in South Africa. The only laws concerning them are that they still count as firearms if used in a crime, and ca n't be fired or exposed in public areas. Airguns may be carried on one 's person concealed, not openly. It is an offense to shoot animals and human beings, except criminals and animals which are attacking you. It must also be carried in a bag, not on your body, otherwise it is an offence. It does not require a licence for 5.5 mm or smaller calibers. Any air rifle over 5.5 mm is considered to be a firearm as stipulated in the Firearms control act 60 of 2000, Chapter 1 (xii) (d)
In Sweden, airguns are regarded as firearms, and generally require a licence. Limited energy weapons, such as airguns and paintball guns and are however licence free, but may not be used by a minor under 18 years of age, unless licensed or under adult supervision. Limited energy weapons may not have a muzzle energy exceeding 10 J measured four metres from the muzzle. Fully automatic limited energy weapons may not exceed 3 J.
Air pistols generating more than 6 ft lbf (8.1 J) and air rifles generating more than 12 ft lbf (16.2 J) of muzzle energy are legally termed "specifically dangerous firearms ''. As a result, ownership of these air rifles requires the possession of a Firearm Certificate (FAC); however, ownership of such air pistols is prohibited as they are defined as "Prohibited Weapons '' under Section 5 of the Firearms Act 1968. (Section 5 Authority is usually only granted to members of the Gun Trade.)
Pistols and rifles below these energy levels are still termed firearms and are dealt with under the Firearms Act, but do not require licensing in England and Wales, and may be purchased by anyone over the age of 18. Pistols and rifles under 0.737 ft lbf (1 J) are not included under firearms regulations in the UK but do fall under the VCR act. In Northern Ireland any air rifle or air pistol generating more than 0.737 ft lbf (1 J) is considered a firearm and as such requires a FAC.
The Air Weapons and Licensing (Scotland) Act 2015 (1) introduced an air weapon certificate in Scotland, which anyone owning an air weapon is now required to hold.
The Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 prohibits online or mail - order sale of new air guns in the UK. UK transactions for new items from retail UK shops must be finalised face - to - face, either at the shop where purchased, or through a Registered Firearms Dealer (to which an item may be posted and the transfer completed). Since February 2011, The Crime & Security Act 2010 (S. 46) made it an offence "... for a person in possession of an air weapon to fail to take reasonable precautions to prevent any person under the age of eighteen from having the weapon with him... ''. This legislation essentially relates to the storage of air guns and the requirement of owners to prevent unauthorised access by children. Failure to do so renders owners liable for a fine of up to £ 1,000.
Possession of an air gun while trespassing, with or without ammunition, loaded or unloaded is armed trespass, and is considered a serious criminal offence and subject to heavy penalties.
The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives states that:
Although the federal government does not normally regulate air guns, some state and local governments do; the Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence has compiled a list of states and selected municipalities that regulate air guns, finding that 23 states and the District of Columbia regulate air guns to some degree. Two states (New Jersey and Rhode Island) define all non-powder guns as firearms; one state (Illinois) defines certain high - power and / or large calibre non-powder guns as firearms; three states (Connecticut, Delaware and North Dakota) define non-powder guns as dangerous weapons (but not firearms). The remaining states which regulate air guns impose age restrictions on possession, use, or transfer of non-powder guns, and / or explicitly regulate possession of non-powder guns on school grounds.
New York City has a restrictive municipal ordinance regulating air guns. Air guns were previously banned in San Francisco, but a state preemption statute struck down the ban, and the San Francisco District Attorney declared them legal as long as in compliance with state law.
New York state law prohibits anyone under the age of 16 from possessing an air gun.
Along with state laws, local county laws or ordinances may be relevant to users of air guns. Generally, state laws do not mention air gun laws, but local counties do.
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most players in all-star game from one team mlb | Major League Baseball All - Star game - wikipedia
The Major League Baseball All - Star Game, also known as the "Midsummer Classic '', is an annual professional baseball game sanctioned by Major League Baseball (MLB) contested between the All - Stars from the American League (AL) and National League (NL), currently selected by fans for starting fielders, by managers for pitchers, and by managers and players for reserves.
The game usually occurs on either the second or third Tuesday in July, and is meant to mark a symbolic halfway - point in the MLB season (though not the mathematical halfway - point which, for most seasons, is usually found within the previous calendar week). Both of the major leagues share an All - Star break, with no regular - season games scheduled on the day before or two days after the All - Star Game itself. Some additional events and festivities associated with the game take place each year close to and during this break in the regular season.
No official MLB All - Star Game was held in 1945 including the official selection of players due to World War II travel restrictions. For a brief period in MLB history, players were named to the AL roster and NL roster for two All - Star Games held during the 1959, 1960, 1961, and 1962 seasons, but this format was subsequently abandoned. The most recent All - Star Game was held on July 11, 2017, at Marlins Park, home of the National League 's Miami Marlins. The next game will be held July 17, 2018 at Nationals Park, home of the Washington Nationals in Washington D.C.
The first All - Star Game was held on July 6, 1933 as part of the 1933 World 's Fair in Chicago, at Comiskey Park (1910 -- 1990) and was initiated by Arch Ward, then sports editor for the Chicago Tribune. Initially intended to be a one - time event, its great success resulted in making the game an annual one.
The venue for the All - Star Game is chosen by Major League Baseball. The criteria for the venue are subjective; generally, cities with new ballparks and those who have not hosted the game in a long time -- or ever -- tend to get selected. Over time, this has resulted in certain cities being selected more often at the expense of others, mainly due to timely circumstances: Cleveland Stadium and the original Yankee Stadium are tied for the most times a venue has hosted the All - Star game, both hosting four games. New York City has hosted more than any other city, having done so nine times in five different stadiums. At the same time, the New York Mets failed to host for 48 seasons (1965 -- 2012), while the Los Angeles Dodgers have not hosted since 1980 (37 years as of 2017). Among current major league teams, the Washington Nationals and the Tampa Bay Rays have yet to host the All - Star game, but the Nationals are scheduled to host the game in 2018.
In the first two decades of the game there were two pairs of teams that shared ballparks, located in Philadelphia and St. Louis. This led to some shorter - than - usual gaps between the use of those venues: The Cardinals hosted the game in 1940, and the Browns in 1948. The Athletics hosted the game in 1943, and the Phillies in 1952.
The venues traditionally alternate between the American League and National League every year. This tradition has been broken several times: The first time was in 1951, when the A.L. Detroit Tigers were chosen to host the annual game as part of the city 's 250th birthday (corrected by the N.L. hosting the next two seasons). The second was when the two - game format during the 1959 -- 1962 seasons resulted in the A.L. being one game ahead in turn. This was corrected in 2007, when the N.L. San Francisco Giants were the host for the 2007 All - Star Game, which also set up the 2008 game to be held at the A.L. 's original Yankee Stadium in its final season. It was broken when again the N.L. hosted the three straight games from 2015 - 2017 (in Cincinnati, San Diego, and Miami), and is scheduled to host a fourth straight game in Washington in 2018. The A.L. will host its next game in 2019 in Cleveland.
The "home team '' has traditionally been the league in which the host franchise plays its games, but the American League was designated the home team for the 2016 All Star Game, despite its being played in Petco Park, home of the National League 's San Diego Padres. This decision was made following the announcement of Miami as host for the 2017 All Star Game, which was the third straight year in which the game is hosted in a National League ballpark.
Since 1934, the managers of the game are the managers of the previous year 's league pennant winners and World Series clubs.
The coaching staff for each team is selected by its manager. This honor is given to the manager, not the team, so it is possible that the All - Star manager could no longer be with the team with which he won. This happened in 2003, when Dusty Baker managed the National League team despite having moved from the National League champion San Francisco Giants to the Chicago Cubs. This has also included situations where the person is no longer actively managing a team. For the first All - Star Game, intended as a one - time event, Connie Mack and John McGraw were regarded as baseball 's venerable managers, and were asked to lead the American and National League teams, respectively. McGraw came out of retirement for that purpose. Dick Williams resigned after managing the Oakland Athletics to the 1973 World Series. In 1974, he became manager of the California Angels, whose uniform he wore for the game. Tony La Russa, who managed the World Series champion St. Louis Cardinals in 2011, and retired after the season, came back to manage the National League in 2012.
In 1979, Bob Lemon managed the American League team after having been fired by New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner. Lemon led the Yankees to the 1981 World Series but did not make it to the ' 82 All - Star Game as manager after again being fired by Steinbrenner, so Billy Martin, skipper of the 1981 AL runner - up Oakland Athletics, led the All - Star squad.
There have been some exceptional cases where the usual rule was abandoned. After the 1964 season and the World Series, the managers, Johnny Keane of the St. Louis Cardinals and Yogi Berra of the New York Yankees, both left their teams and found new jobs in the other league -- Keane was hired to manage the Yankees and Berra became a player - coach with the New York Mets. The Philadelphia Phillies and Cincinnati Reds had finished in a second - place tie in the NL; the Chicago White Sox had finished second in the AL. Cincinnati 's manager, Fred Hutchinson, had died in the off - season, so Gene Mauch of the Phillies and Al López of the White Sox were chosen to be the managers for the 1965 All - Star Game.
Because of the season - ending 1994 -- 95 MLBPA strike where the season was abandoned without official league champions, the 1995 game featured the "unofficial '' league champions, the managers of the clubs leading their respective leagues ' won - loss records, Buck Showalter of the New York Yankees and Felipe Alou of the Montreal Expos for the All - Star Game.
The All Star game roster size for each league was 18 in 1933, 20 in 1934, 25 in 1939, 30 in 1982, 32 in 2003, and 33 in 2009. Since 2010, there are 34 players on each league 's team roster.
On April 28, 2010, MLB announced several rules changes for future All - Star games, effective with the 2010 edition.
The AL and NL All - Stars are selected through the following process:
Since the first game, American League players have worn their respective team uniforms rather than wearing uniforms made specifically for the game, while National League players waited until the second game to do this. In the first game, the National League All - Star Team wore gray uniforms with navy blue letters spelling "NATIONAL LEAGUE '' across the front of the jersey with "NL '' caps.
During the games of the 1970s and 1980s, alternate jerseys were commonly worn by players from the Oakland Athletics, Baltimore Orioles, Cleveland Indians and Chicago White Sox. When the late 1980s and early 1990s approached, fewer alternates were worn for the games. They were back in use for the 1992 game by White Sox pitcher Jack McDowell and infielder Robin Ventura, and for the final time in the 1997 game by Seattle Mariners outfielder Ken Griffey Jr. & by San Diego Padres 3rd baseman Ken Caminiti. Under current MLB rules, alternate jerseys are no longer allowed to be worn during the game, as players must wear either their team 's white or gray uniforms, depending on which league is the home team.
Game - specific uniforms are made every year, but are not worn for the game itself. Instead they are worn during batting practice and the Home Run Derby.
Starting with the 2014 All - Star Game, players will be wearing special All - Star Game caps. For the workout, batting practice and Home Run Derby contest, players will be using one type of cap with colors corresponding the league. For the All - Star Game day, players will be wearing a cap with the team 's logo on front and the All - Star Game logo on the right side.
In 1933 and 1934, the fans selected the 18 starters for game and the managers chose the rest of the two teams players. From 1935 through 44 and in 1946, the manager of each All - Star squad selected the entire team; in 1945, no MLB All - Star Game was held and no All - Stars were officially named.
In 1947, fans were given the opportunity to vote on the eight starting position players, but in 1957, fans of the Cincinnati Reds stuffed the ballot box (see below), and elected a Red to every position except first base. Commissioner Ford Frick stepped in and removed two Reds from the lineup. As a response to this unfairness, fan voting was discontinued; players, coaches, and managers were given the sole authority to elect starting position players, for the next dozen years.
Between the lack of fan input and over-exposure due to the double All - Star games during the 1959 -- 1962 seasons, interest in the game was thought to be waning. As part of the rise of the MLB Promotion Corporation 's attempts to modernize marketing of baseball, fan balloting for the starting eight was restored for the 1970 game.
Sometime in the 1960s, the distinction between left - fielder, center - fielder, and right - fielder was dropped, and it was provided that the top 3 vote - getters in the outfield category would start regardless of position. Oft - heard remarks prior to this time included ones such as "If you had Clemente, you could n't have Aaron '', and so on.
Rico Carty was the first player ever selected to an All - Star team as a write - in candidate by fans, in 1970, the first year that voting was given back to the fans. Steve Garvey was the second player ever selected to an All - Star team as a write - in candidate by fans, in 1974. He was later the Most Valuable Player of that game as well as the National League MVP for that year.
Since 2002, the final roster selection has been made by the public via the All - Star Final Vote.
Until 2003, reserves and pitchers were chosen by the manager. Player voting was re-introduced in 2003 after the managers were criticized for picking players from their own team over more deserving players from other teams. This was particularly evident in 2002, when National League manager Bob Brenly selected his own catcher, Damian Miller, over the more deserving Paul Lo Duca; while American League manager Joe Torre selected his own third baseman, Robin Ventura, over the Oakland Athletics ' Gold Glove and Silver Slugger - winning third baseman Eric Chavez.
Before the 2009 game, Major League Baseball announced that an additional pitcher would be added to each roster, bringing the total for each league to 33 players. The following year, MLB announced that an extra position player would be added to each roster for the 2010 game and beyond, bringing the total to 34 for each league.
One continuing controversy of the player selection process is the rule that each team has to have at least one representative on its league 's All - Star roster. Supporters of the rule point out that this prevents the large - market teams from totally dominating the squad, and keeps fan and media interest in the game, as fans would not be interested in the game if their team did not have any players involved. Opponents of the rule contend that the purpose of the game is to spotlight Major League Baseball 's best players, and that some players from stronger teams are left off the roster in favor of possibly less deserving players from weaker teams.
Both these arguments were strengthened by the greater urgency of winning the game, due to the former rule that the winning league attains home field advantage in the World Series. A number of compromises were suggested in the sports / news media as measures to mitigate these selection issues, including limiting the number of representatives a particular team could have; or requiring only that a certain percentage of the 30 teams be represented; or expanding the size of the All - Star rosters.
The only exception is if a team trades its lone All - Star before the game; in this case, its league 's All - Star Game manager is not required to include another player from that team.
In 1957, fans of the Cincinnati Reds stuffed the ballot box and elected 7 Reds players to start in the All - Star Game: Johnny Temple (2B), Roy McMillan (SS), Don Hoak (3B), Ed Bailey (C), Frank Robinson (LF), Gus Bell (CF), and Wally Post (RF), and the only non-Red elected to start for the National League was St. Louis Cardinals first baseman Stan Musial. While the Reds were a great offensive team, most baseball observers agreed that they did not deserve seven starters in the All - Star Game. An investigation ordered by Commissioner Ford Frick showed that over half of the ballots cast came from Cincinnati, as the Cincinnati Enquirer had printed up pre-marked ballots and distributed them with the Sunday newspaper to make it easy for Reds fans to vote often for their favorite stars.
Commissioner Ford Frick appointed Willie Mays of the New York Giants and Hank Aaron of the Milwaukee Braves to substitute for Reds players Gus Bell and Wally Post, and took fan voting rights away in future games; Bell was kept as a reserve, while Post was injured and would have been unable to play in any event. Managers, players, and coaches picked the entire team until 1969, when the vote for starters again returned to the fans; to prevent a repeat of this incident, since 1970 until the start of internet voting, each team has been given the same number of ballots to hand out. In 1998, that number was roughly 400,000 ballots.
The 1988 Game was surrounded by tacit accusations against Oakland A 's fans of stuffing the ballot box in favor of catcher Terry Steinbach, whose qualifications as a starter were questioned by some sportswriters. Steinbach wound up being named the game 's Most Valuable Player, hitting a home run and a sacrifice fly to get both RBIs in a 2 -- 1 win.
Since the dawn of the internet age, online voting has again led to ballot stuffing. In 1999, Chris Nandor, a Red Sox fan, utilized a simple computer program to vote for Nomar Garciaparra over 39,000 times. Upon discovery, MLB disallowed the votes. Major League Baseball assures that they have taken precautions to guard against this.
In 2015, Kansas City Royals fans were accused of stuffing the ballot box when eight of their players (Salvador Pérez, Lorenzo Cain, Mike Moustakas, Alcides Escobar, Eric Hosmer, Kendrys Morales, Alex Gordon, and Omar Infante) were leading the ballots at their respective positions before the final tally was taken. Had this result stood, the only non-Royal in the American League 's starting lineup would have been Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim player Mike Trout. This also would have been a record for the most players from one team starting in the All - Star game. However, after MLB cancelled 65 million votes citing voting fraud, the final starting roster included only Salvador Pérez, Lorenzo Cain, Alcides Escobar, and Alex Gordon (Gordon would be replaced due to injury). The only other Royals to make the final lineup were Mike Moustakas, Kelvin Herrera and Wade Davis; Moustakas as the winner of the AL All - Star Final Vote while Herrera and Davis, both pitchers, were chosen through either Player Ballots or by Royals and AL Manager, Ned Yost.
In 1989, a designated hitter was allowed in the All - Star Game for the first time. Until 2010, the designated hitter rule was applied based on the league in which the host team plays; it was used for games played in American League ballparks -- in each such instance, both teams used a designated hitter -- while in National League ballparks, managers have scheduled the pitcher to hit, though pinch hitters have almost always been used in practice. This allows a deserving nonstarter to make a plate appearance. In 2010, Major League Baseball announced the designated hitter rule would apply for every All - Star Game; while the 2010 game was already to have the DH, the 2011 game was the first played in a National League park with a DH.
The All - Star Game Most Valuable Player Award is presented annually to the most outstanding player of each season 's All - Star Game. Presented each year beginning in 1962 (two games were held in 1962 and an award was presented for each game), the MVP award was originally called the Arch Ward Memorial Award, after the man who came up with the concept of the All - Star Game in 1933. In 1970, the name was changed to the Commissioner 's Trophy (two NL players were presented the award in 1975); however, the name change was reversed in 1985, so that the World Series Trophy (first awarded in 1967) could be renamed the Commissioner 's Trophy. In 2002, the trophy itself retained its eponym, while the award itself was dedicated as The Ted Williams Most Valuable Player Award, in honor of former Boston Red Sox player Ted Williams, who had died earlier that year.
The first tie in an All - Star Game occurred on July 31, 1961 at Fenway Park in Boston when the game was called at 1 -- 1 after nine innings for rain; the only other rain - shortened game was in 1952, but the National League defeated the American League, 3 -- 2 in five innings.
The 2002 All - Star Game, held in Milwaukee, ended in controversy in the 11th inning when both teams ran out of substitute players available to pitch in relief. At that point, Commissioner Bud Selig (a Milwaukee native and former owner of the Brewers) declared that the game would end after 11 innings, and it ended in a 7 -- 7 tie. The crowd booed and threw beer bottles onto the field, and the media were highly critical of this unsatisfactory conclusion.
To provide additional incentive for victory, Major League Baseball reached an agreement with the players union to award home - field advantage for the World Series to the champion of the league that won the All - Star Game, for 2003 and 2004. The agreement was extended for both 2005 and 2006, and was made permanent until 2016.
Previously, home - field advantage in the World Series alternated between the two leagues each year. The American League took advantage of the new rule in each of its first seven years: between 2003 and 2009, the American League won four Series and the National League won three. The National League champion benefited from this rule for the first time in 2010.
Even with this rule in effect, there was no guarantee that a repeat of the 2002 situation would not occur; to avoid future ties due to lack of available players, managers have been instructed to (and have voluntarily) hold back a few select position players and pitchers. This has resulted in some fan dissatisfaction and controversy when these players are never actually used in the game, for example Tim Wakefield in the 2009 All - Star Game. Such a move has resulted in calls to allow limited re-entry of players who have been replaced during the game (in addition to catchers, which is already allowed), thereby giving the freedom to use all the players on the roster without leaving teams with the situation where no players are available, as was the case in 2002. Starting with the 2010 game, each league 's manager is allowed to designate one position player who can re-enter the game to replace an injured or ejected player at any position, in addition to the existing rule covering catchers.
A tie game could also be deemed a "suspended game '' in which case it would become a tie if no make - up date was scheduled, but it would be extremely difficult to find such a make - up date in any event as Major League Baseball would have to postpone one or more days of the regular season and / or schedule the make - up date on a travel day during the postseason, the latter which would be unfair to teams involved in the upcoming series. Since 2012, there have been off days for all teams on the Wednesday and Thursday after the All - Star Game, and if necessary, the game could be finished in the morning or afternoon on Wednesday / Thursday if the situation warranted it.
Furthermore, various writers have stated that home - field advantage in the World Series should be decided based on the regular season records of the participants, not on an exhibition game such as the All - Star Game played several months earlier. Some writers especially questioned the integrity of this rule after the 2014 All - Star Game, when St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Adam Wainwright suggested that he intentionally gave Derek Jeter some easy pitches to hit in the New York Yankees ' shortstop 's final All - Star appearance before he retired at the end of that season.
Starting in 2017, home field advantage in the World Series goes to the league champion team with the higher regular season win - loss record.
Eighty - eight All - Star Games have been played (including two games per year from 1959 -- 1962), with each league winning forty - three plus two ties. The All - Star Game has seen several "eras '' in which one league tended to dominate. From 1933 to 1949, the American League won 12 out of the first 16. The National League dominated from 1950 to 1987, winning 33 of 42 with 1 tie. This included a stretch from 1963 to 1982 when it won 19 of 20, including 11 in a row from 1972 to 1982. Since 1988, the American League has dominated, winning 23 of 30 with 1 tie, including a 13 - game unbeaten streak (12 -- 0 -- 1) from 1997 to 2009.
Each league has scored 361 runs overall.
The longest All - Star Game, in terms of innings, lasted 15 innings, which has occurred twice: 1967 and 2008; the latter of which was the longest game, with a total time of 4 hours and 50 minutes.
Since 1963, the All - Star Game has been played on a Tuesday in July every year except three:
The game was played at night for the first time in 1942, at the Polo Grounds, located in New York City. Since 1970 every ASG has been played under the lights, though when held at venues near enough to the west coast, the game starts in daylight in the late afternoon.
In April 1945, with severe wartime travel restrictions in effect, the game scheduled to be played at Boston 's Fenway Park was deferred to the next season.
There were two All - Star Games played each season from 1959 through 1962. The second game was added to raise money for the MLB players ' pension funds, as well as other causes. The experiment was later abandoned on the grounds that having two games watered down the appeal of the event.
In 1981, the game was moved from July to August, after the middle portion of the 1981 season, including the scheduled All - Star break, had been erased by the MLB players ' strike. To promote the resumption of the season, the game (in Cleveland) was moved from its original July date to August 9. Second - half regular - season play began the next afternoon with a game in Wrigley Field in Chicago.
Since 1985, the Home Run Derby, a contest among home run hitters, has been held on the day before the All - Star Game.
Since 1999, the All - Star Futures Game has been held during All - Star Week. The two teams, one consisting of young players from the United States and the other consisting of young players from all other nations, are usually chosen based on prospect status in the minor leagues.
Since 2001, the All - Star Legends and Celebrity Softball Game pits teams with a mixture of former stars from the host team 's past, as well as celebrities from music, film, and television. This game is held during the day prior to the Home Run Derby. (However, it is tape - delayed and broadcast after the Derby.)
Since 2002, the ESPY Awards ceremony has been conducted on the Wednesday in July following the game. Because none of the major North American professional leagues have games scheduled for that day -- the National Basketball Association, National Football League, and National Hockey League are not in - season, MLB does not have games that day, and likewise college sports are on summer vacation -- major sports figures are available to attend. The show used to air on the subsequent Sunday five days later, with the results announced on ESPN.com and thereafter across media outlets immediately after taping was complete. Since 2010, the ESPY Awards are shown live (the first time was 2003); this helps the network fill airtime that would go unfilled because of the lack of any major league or high - level college sporting events.
Similar events:
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where did the torpedo come from in dunkirk | Little Ships of Dunkirk - wikipedia
The Little Ships of Dunkirk were about 850 private boats that sailed from Ramsgate in England to Dunkirk in France between 26 May and 4 June 1940 as part of Operation Dynamo, helping to rescue more than 338,000 British and French soldiers who were trapped on the beaches at Dunkirk during the Second World War.
The situation of the troops, who had been cut off from their advance into France by a pincer movement from the German army, was regarded by the British prime minister Winston Churchill as the greatest military defeat for centuries; it appeared likely to cost Britain the war, as the majority of the British Expeditionary Force was trapped, leaving the country vulnerable to invasion by Germany. Because of the shallow waters, British destroyers were unable to approach the beaches, and soldiers were having to wade out to the boats, many of them waiting hours shoulder deep in water.
On 27 May, the small - craft section of the British Ministry of Shipping telephoned boat builders around the coast, asking them to collect all boats with "shallow draft '' that could navigate the shallow waters. Attention was directed to the pleasure boats, private yachts and launches moored on the River Thames and along the south and east coasts. Some of them were taken with the owners ' permission -- and with the owners insisting they would sail them -- while others were requisitioned by the government with no time for the owners to be contacted. The boats were checked to make sure they were seaworthy, fuelled, and taken to Ramsgate to set sail for Dunkirk. They were manned by Naval Officers, Ratings and experienced volunteers. Very few owners manned their own vessels, apart from fishermen and one or two others.
When they reached France, some of the boats acted as shuttles between the beaches and the destroyers, ferrying soldiers to the warships. Others carried hundreds of soldiers each back to Ramsgate, protected by the Royal Air Force from the attacks of the Luftwaffe.
According to the Association of Dunkirk Little Ships, the term "Little Ship '' applies to all craft that were originally privately owned and includes commercial vessels such as barges, fishing vessels and pleasure steamers; the Association does include some ex-Service vessels, which are now privately owned, and ex-lifeboats.
See also individual stations for more information in many cases.
At the outbreak of war, 10 of the 16 vessels in the fleet of the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company were requisitioned. Four were lost.
Eight of the company 's ships took part in the Dunkirk evacuation. Mona 's Isle was the first to leave Dover, and the first vessel to complete a round trip. By the end of operations, the fleet had rescued a total of 24,699, 1 in 14 of those evacuated from Dunkirk.
Whilst the evacuation is widely regarded as the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company 's "finest hour '', it also saw its blackest day. Three of its ships were lost in one day, 29 May 1940.
Thirty - nine Dutch coasters had escaped the occupation of the Netherlands by the Germans on 10 May 1940 and were asked by the Dutch shipping bureau in London or by the Royal Navy to assist. The Dutch coasters, able to approach the beaches very closely due to their flat bottoms, rescued 22,698 men in total.
The MV Rian, a 35 - metre (115 ft) ship of 300 tons dwt built in 1934 in the province of Groningen, saved 2,542 men between 28 and 31 May 1940 under Captain D. Buining, the most men saved amongst the Dutch coasters. The vessel had already saved the crew of the British coaster SS Highwave on 30 January 1940. Other Dutch coasters that saved more than 1,000 men each were:
Of these ships, seven were lost at Dunkirk or during the evacuation nearer the British coast.
The Belgian Army, commanded by King Leopold III, had surrendered to the Germans on 28 May. However, numerous ships from the fishing fleet and small Corps de Marine were involved in Operation Dynamo. In total, 65 Belgian ships participated, including 54 fishing boats, 4 Corps de Marine units, 4 tugs and 2 patrol vessels. The Belgian fishing fleet itself transported 4,300 British and French soldiers to the English coast.
Among the notable Belgian ships to participate in the evacuation were:
An Irish Marine and Coastwatching Service Motor Torpedo Boat (MTB) made two separate trips to rescue allied soldiers during the Dunkirk evacuation.
In nine days, 192,226 British and 139,000 French soldiers -- 331,226 in all -- were rescued by the 700 little ships and around 220 warships. The rescue operation turned a military disaster into a story of heroism which served to raise the morale of the British.
It was in describing the success of the operation to the House of Commons on 4 June 1940 that Churchill made his famous "we shall fight on the beaches '' speech:
We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender...
The phrase "Dunkirk spirit '' is still used to describe courage and solidarity in adversity.
The Association of Dunkirk Little Ships is an association for owners of Dunkirk Little Ships, founded in 1965. The Association organizes a memorial crossing of Little Ships to Dunkirk every five years, escorted by the Royal Navy. Its flag is the St George 's Cross defaced with the arms of Dunkirk flown from the jack staff, known as the Dunkirk jack.
The Dunkirk Little Ships Restoration Trust is a registered charity established in 1993 to preserve and restore Dunkirk Little Ships. Its collection includes the steam tug ST Challenge, a vessel in the National Historic Fleet.
Twelve actual Little Ships were used in the 2017 film Dunkirk.
One of the Little Ships, the Red Funnel paddle steamer, Princess Elizabeth is now owned by the City of Dunkirk and is permanently moored in the harbour as a floating conference centre...
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where is the south china sea on a map | South China Sea - wikipedia
The South China Sea is a marginal sea that is part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from the Karimata and Malacca Straits to the Strait of Taiwan of around 3,500,000 square kilometres (1,400,000 sq mi). The sea carries tremendous strategic importance; one - third of the world 's shipping passes through it carrying over $3 trillion in trade each year, it contains lucrative fisheries that are crucial for the food security of millions in Southeast Asia, and huge oil and gas reserves are believed to lie beneath its seabed.
According to International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition (1953), it is located
However, in its unapproved draft 4th edition (1986), IHO proposed the Natuna Sea, thus the South China Sea southern boundary was shifted northward, from north of Bangka Belitung Islands to
The minute South China Sea Islands, collectively an archipelago, number in the hundreds. The sea and its mostly uninhabited islands are subject to competing claims of sovereignty by several countries. These claims are also reflected in the variety of names used for the islands and the sea.
South China Sea is the dominant term used in English for the sea, and the name in most European languages is equivalent. This name is a result of early European interest in the sea as a route from Europe and South Asia to the trading opportunities of China. In the sixteenth century Portuguese sailors called it the China Sea (Mare da China); later needs to differentiate it from nearby bodies of water led to calling it the South China Sea. The International Hydrographic Organization refers to the sea as "South China Sea (Nan Hai) ''.
The Yizhoushu, which was a chronicle of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 -- 771 BCE) gives the first Chinese name for the South China Sea as Nanfang Hai (Chinese: 南方 海; pinyin: Nánfāng Hǎi; literally: "Southern Sea ''), claiming that barbarians from that sea gave tributes of hawksbill sea turtles to the Zhou rulers. The Classic of Poetry, Zuo Zhuan, and Guoyu classics of the Spring and Autumn period (771 -- 476 BCE) also referred to the sea, but by the name Nan Hai (Chinese: 南海; pinyin: Nán Hǎi; literally: "South Sea '') in reference to the State of Chu 's expeditions there. Nan Hai, the South Sea, was one of the Four Seas of Chinese literature. There are three other seas, one for each of the four cardinal directions. During the Eastern Han dynasty (23 -- 220 CE), China 's rulers called the Sea Zhang Hai (Chinese: 漲 海; pinyin: Zhǎng Hǎi; literally: "distended sea ''). Fei Hai (Chinese: 沸 海; pinyin: Fèi Hǎi; literally: "boil sea '') became popular during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period. Usage of the current Chinese name, Nan Hai (South Sea), became gradually widespread during the Qing Dynasty.
In Southeast Asia it was once called the Champa Sea or Sea of Cham, after the maritime kingdom of Champa that flourished there before the sixteenth century. The majority of the sea came under Japanese naval control during World War II following the military acquisition of many surrounding South East Asian territories in 1941. Japan calls the sea Minami Shina Kai "South China Sea ''. This was written 南 支那 海 until 2004, when the Japanese Foreign Ministry and other departments switched the spelling to 南シナ海, which has become the standard usage in Japan.
In China, it is called the "South Sea '', 南海 Nánhǎi, and in Vietnam the "East Sea '', Biển Đông. In Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, it was long called the "South China Sea '' (Dagat Timog Tsina in Tagalog, Laut China Selatan in Malay), with the part within Philippine territorial waters often called the "Luzon Sea '', Dagat Luzon, by the Philippines. However, following an escalation of the Spratly Islands dispute in 2011, various Philippine government agencies started using the name "West Philippine Sea ''. A Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) spokesperson said that the sea to the east of the Philippines will continue to be called the Philippine Sea.
In September 2012, Philippine President Benigno Aquino III signed Administrative Order No. 29, mandating that all government agencies use the name "West Philippine Sea '' to refer to the parts of the South China Sea within the Philippines ' exclusive economic zone, including the Luzon Sea as well as the waters around, within and adjacent to the Kalayaan Island Group and Bajo de Masinloc, and tasked the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) to use the name in official maps.
In July 2017, to assert its sovereignty, Indonesia renamed the northern reaches of its exclusive economic zone in the South China Sea as the "North Natuna Sea '', which is located north of the Indonesian Natuna Islands, bordering the southern Vietnam exclusive economic zone, corresponding to the southern end of the South China Sea. The "Natuna Sea '' is located south of Natuna Island within Indonesian territorial waters. Therefore, Indonesia has named two seas that are portions of the South China Sea; the Natuna Sea located between Natuna Islands and the Lingga and Tambelan Archipelagos, and the North Natuna Sea located between the Natuna Islands and Cape Cà Mau on the southern tip of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam.
States and territories with borders on the sea (clockwise from north) include: the People 's Republic of China, Republic of China (Taiwan), the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, and Vietnam.
Major rivers that flow into the South China Sea include the Pearl, Min, Jiulong, Red, Mekong, Rajang, Pahang, Pampanga, and Pasig Rivers.
The International Hydrographic Organization in its Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition (1953), defines the limits of the South China Sea as follows:
On the South. The Eastern and Southern limits of Singapore and Malacca Straits (A line joining Tanjong Datok, the Southeast point of Johore (1 ° 22 ′ N 104 ° 17 ′ E / 1.367 ° N 104.283 ° E / 1.367; 104.283) through Horsburgh Reef to Pulo Koko, the Northeastern extreme of Bintan Island (1 ° 13.5 ′ N 104 ° 35 ′ E / 1.2250 ° N 104.583 ° E / 1.2250; 104.583). The Northeastern coast of Sumatra) as far West as Tanjong Kedabu (1 ° 06 ′ N 102 ° 58 ′ E / 1.100 ° N 102.967 ° E / 1.100; 102.967) down the East coast of Sumatra to Lucipara Point (3 ° 14 ′ S 106 ° 05 ′ E / 3.233 ° S 106.083 ° E / - 3.233; 106.083) thence to Tanjong Nanka, the Southwest extremity of Banka Island, through this island to Tanjong Berikat the Eastern point (2 ° 34 ′ S 106 ° 51 ′ E / 2.567 ° S 106.850 ° E / - 2.567; 106.850), on to Tanjong Djemang (2 ° 36 ′ S 107 ° 37 ′ E / 2.600 ° S 107.617 ° E / - 2.600; 107.617) in Billiton, along the North coast of this island to Tanjong Boeroeng Mandi (2 ° 46 ′ S 108 ° 16 ′ E / 2.767 ° S 108.267 ° E / - 2.767; 108.267) and thence a line to Tanjong Sambar (3 ° 00 ′ S 110 ° 19 ′ E / 3.000 ° S 110.317 ° E / - 3.000; 110.317) the Southwest extreme of Borneo.
On the East. From Tanjong Sambar through the West coast of Borneo to Tanjong Sampanmangio, the North point, thence a line to West points of Balabac and Secam Reefs, on to the West point of Bancalan Island and to Cape Buliluyan, the Southwest point of Palawan, through this island to Cabuli Point, the Northern point thereof, thence to the Northwest point of Busuanga and to Cape Calavite in the island of Mindoro, to the Northwest point of Lubang Island and to Point Fuego (14 ° 08'N) in Luzon Island, through this island to Cape Engano, the Northeast point of Luzon, along a line joining this cape with the East point of Balintang Island (20 ° N) and to the East point of Y'Ami Island (21 ° 05'N) thence to Garan Bi, the Southern point of Taiwan (Formosa), through this island to Santyo (25 ° N) its North Eastern Point.
On the North. From Fuki Kaku the North point of Formosa to Kiushan Tao (Turnabout Island) on to the South point of Haitan Tao (25 ° 25'N) and thence Westward on the parallel of 25 ° 24 ' North to the coast of Fukien.
On the West. The Mainland, the Southern limit of the Gulf of Thailand and the East coast of the Malay Peninsula.
However, in a revised edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, 4th edition (1986), the International Hydrographic Organization officially recognized the Natuna Sea. Thus the southern limit of South China Sea is revised from the Bangka Belitung Islands to the Natuna Islands.
The sea lies above a drowned continental shelf; during recent ice ages global sea level was hundreds of metres lower, and Borneo was part of the Asian mainland.
The South China Sea opened around 45 million years ago when the "Dangerous Ground '' rifted away from southern China. Extension culminated in seafloor spreading around 30 million years ago, a process that propagated to the SW resulting in the V - shaped basin we see today. Extension ceased around 17 million years ago. Arguments have continued about the role of tectonic extrusion in forming the basin. Paul Tapponnier and colleagues have argued that as India collides with Asia it pushes Indochina to the SE. The relative shear between Indochina and China caused the South China Sea to open. This view is disputed by geologists who do not consider Indochina to have moved far relative to mainland Asia. Marine geophysical studies in the Gulf of Tonkin by Peter Clift has shown that the Red River Fault was active and causing basin formation at least by 37 million years ago in the NW South China Sea, consistent with extrusion playing a part in the formation of the sea. Since opening the South China Sea has been the repository of large sediment volumes delivered by the Mekong River, Red River and Pearl River. Several of these deltas are rich in oil and gas deposits.
The South China Sea contains over 250 small islands, atolls, cays, shoals, reefs, and sandbars, most of which have no indigenous people, many of which are naturally under water at high tide, and some of which are permanently submerged. The features are grouped into three archipelagos (listed by area size), Macclesfield Bank and Scarborough Shoal:
The Spratly Islands spread over an 810 by 900 km area covering some 175 identified insular features, the largest being Taiping Island (Itu Aba) at just over 1.3 km long and with its highest elevation at 3.8 metres.
The largest singular feature in the area of the Spratly Islands is a 100 km wide seamount called Reed Tablemount, also known as Reed Bank, in the northeast of the group, separated from Palawan Island of the Philippines by the Palawan Trench. Now completely submerged, with a depth of 20 m, it was an island until it sank about 7,000 years ago due to the increasing sea level after the last ice age. With an area of 8,866 km2, it is one of the largest submerged atoll structures in the world.
The South China Sea is an extremely significant body of water in a geopolitical sense. It is the second most used sea lane in the world, while in terms of world annual merchant fleet tonnage, over 50 % passes through the Strait of Malacca, the Sunda Strait, and the Lombok Strait. Over 1.6 million m3 (10 million barrels) of crude oil a day are shipped through the Strait of Malacca, where there are regular reports of piracy, but much less frequently than before the mid-20th century.
The region has proven oil reserves of around 1.2 km3 (7.7 billion barrels), with an estimate of 4.5 km3 (28 billion barrels) in total. Natural gas reserves are estimated to total around 7,500 km3 (266 trillion cubic feet). A 2013 report by the U.S. Energy Information Administration raised the total estimated oil reserves to 11 billion barrels. In 2014 China began to drill for oil in waters disputed with Vietnam.
According to studies made by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines, this body of water holds one third of the entire world 's marine biodiversity, thereby making it a very important area for the ecosystem. However the fish stocks in the area are depleted, and countries are using fishing bans as a means of asserting their sovereignty claims.
Indonesia 's maritime waters have been breached by fishing fleets from Vietnam and the Philippines leading to said ships being seized and sunk by Indonesian authorities.
China announced in May 2017 a breakthrough for mining methane clathrates, when they extracted methane from hydrates in the South China Sea.
Several countries have made competing territorial claims over the South China Sea. Such disputes have been regarded as Asia 's most potentially dangerous point of conflict. Both People 's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC, commonly known as Taiwan) claim almost the entire body as their own, demarcating their claims within what is known as the nine - dotted line, which claims overlap with virtually every other country in the region. Competing claims include:
China and Vietnam have both been vigorous in prosecuting their claims. China (various governments) and South Vietnam each controlled part of the Paracel Islands before 1974. A brief conflict in 1974 resulted in 18 Chinese and 53 Vietnamese deaths, and China has controlled the whole of Paracel since then. The Spratly Islands have been the site of a naval clash, in which over 70 Vietnamese sailors were killed just south of Chigua Reef in March 1988. Disputing claimants regularly report clashes between naval vessels.
ASEAN in general, and Malaysia in particular, have been keen to ensure that the territorial disputes within the South China Sea do not escalate into armed conflict. As such, Joint Development Authorities have been set up in areas of overlapping claims to jointly develop the area and divide the profits equally without settling the issue of sovereignty over the area. This is true particularly in the Gulf of Thailand. Generally, China has preferred to resolve competing claims bilaterally, while some ASEAN countries prefer multilateral talks, believing that they are disadvantaged in bilateral negotiations with the much larger China and that because many countries claim the same territory only multilateral talks could effectively resolve the competing claims.
The overlapping claims over Pedra Branca or Pulau Batu Putih including the neighboring Middle Rocks by both Singapore and Malaysia were settled in 2008 by the International Court of Justice, awarding Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh to Singapore and the Middle Rocks to Malaysia.
In July 2010, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton called for China to resolve the territorial dispute. China responded by demanding the US keep out of the issue. This came at a time when both countries had been engaging in naval exercises in a show of force to the opposing side, which increased tensions in the region. The US Department of Defense released a statement on August 18 where it opposed the use of force to resolve the dispute, and accused China of assertive behaviour. On July 22, 2011, one of India 's amphibious assault vessels, the INS Airavat which was on a friendly visit to Vietnam, was reportedly contacted at a distance of 45 nautical miles from the Vietnamese coast in the disputed South China Sea on an open radio channel by a vessel identifying itself as the Chinese Navy and stating that the ship was entering Chinese waters. The spokesperson for the Indian Navy clarified that as no ship or aircraft was visible from INS Airavat it proceeded on her onward journey as scheduled. The Indian Navy further clarified that "(t) here was no confrontation involving the INS Airavat. India supports freedom of navigation in international waters, including in the South China Sea, and the right of passage in accordance with accepted principles of international law. These principles should be respected by all. ''
In September 2011, shortly after China and Vietnam had signed an agreement seeking to contain a dispute over the South China Sea, India 's state - run explorer, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) said that its overseas investment arm ONGC Videsh Limited had signed a three - year deal with PetroVietnam for developing long - term cooperation in the oil sector and that it had accepted Vietnam 's offer of exploration in certain specified blocks in the South China Sea. In response, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Jiang Yu issued a protest. The spokesman of the Ministry of External Affairs of the Government of India responded by saying that "The Chinese had concerns but we are going by what the Vietnamese authorities have told us and have conveyed this to the Chinese. '' The Indo - Vietnamese deal was also denounced by the Chinese state - run newspaper Global Times.
In 1999, Taiwan claimed the entirety of the South China Sea islands under the Lee Teng - hui administration. The entire subsoil, seabed and waters of the Paracels and Spratlys are claimed by Taiwan.
In 2012 and 2013, Vietnam and Taiwan butted heads against each other over anti-Vietnamese military exercises by Taiwan.
In May 2014, China established an oil rig near the Paracel Islands, leading to multiple incidents between Vietnamese and Chinese ships.
In 2017, analysts expect the US, under Donald Trump 's administration, to take a more aggressive stance against China in the South China Sea.
In January 2013, the Philippines formally initiated arbitration proceedings against China 's claim on the territories within the "Nine - Dash Line '' that includes the Spratly Islands, which it said is unlawful under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). On July 12, 2016, the arbitral tribunal backed the Philippines, saying that there was no evidence that China had historically exercised exclusive control over the waters or resources, hence there was "no legal basis for China to claim historic rights '' over the nine - dash line. The tribunal also criticized China 's land reclamation projects and its construction of artificial islands in the Spratly Islands, saying that it had caused "severe harm to the coral reef environment ''. It also characterized Taiping Island and other features of the Spratly Islands as "rocks '' under UNCLOS, and therefore are not entitled to a 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone. China however rejected the ruling, calling it "ill - founded ''. Taiwan, which currently administers Taiping Island, the largest of the Spratly Islands, also rejected the ruling.
Coordinates: 12 ° N 113 ° E / 12 ° N 113 ° E / 12; 113
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why do we have toll roads in the uk | Toll roads in Great Britain - wikipedia
Toll roads in Great Britain, used to raise fees for the management of roads in the United Kingdom, were common in the era of the turnpike trusts. Currently there is a single major road, the M6 Toll and a small number of bridges and tunnels where tolls are collected. In addition, there are also two UK road pricing schemes, the London congestion charge and the Durham congestion charge.
In the 14th century, pavage grants, which had previously been made for paving the market place or streets of towns, began also to be used for maintaining some roads between towns. These grants were made by letters patent, almost invariably for a limited term, presumably the time likely to be required to pay for the required works.
Responsibility for the upkeep of most roads seems to have rested with landowners, however. This was probably not easily enforced against them. The Parliament of England placed the upkeep of bridges to local settlements or the containing county under the Bridges Act 1530 and in 1555 the care of roads was similarly devolved to the parishes as statute labour under the Highways Act 1555. Every adult inhabitant of the parish was obliged to work four consecutive days a year on the roads, providing their own tools, carts and horses. The work was overseen by an unpaid local appointee, the Surveyor of Highways.
It was not until 1654 that road rates were introduced. However, the improvements offered by paid labour were offset by the rise in the use of wheeled vehicles greatly increasing wear to the road surfaces. The government reaction to this was to use legislation to limit the use of wheeled vehicles and also to regulate their construction. A vain hope that wider rims would be less damaging briefly led to carts with sixteen inch wheels. They did not cause ruts but neither did they roll and flatten the road as was hoped.
The first turnpike road, whereby travellers paid tolls to be used for road upkeep, was authorised in 1663 for a section of the Great North Road in Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire and Huntingdonshire. The term turnpike refers the military practice of placing a pikestaff across a road to block and control passage. Upon payment of the toll, the pike would be "turned '' to one side to allow travellers through. Most English gates were not built to this standard; of the first three gates, two were found to be easily avoided.
The early turnpikes were administered directly by the Justices of the Peace in Quarter Sessions. The first trusts were established by Parliament through an Act of Parliament in 1706, placing a section of the London - Coventry - Chester road in the hands of a group of trustees.
The trustees could erect gates as they saw fit, demand statute labour or a cash equivalent, and appoint surveyors and collectors, in return they repaired the road and put up mileposts. Initially trusts were established for limited periods of often twenty one years. The expectation was that the trust would borrow the money to repair the road and repay that debt over time with the road then reverting to the parishes. In reality the initial debt was rarely paid off and the trusts were renewed as needed.
Shortly after the creation of the United Kingdom in 1707, turnpike acts began to be passed by the British Parliament to encourage the construction of toll roads in Scotland in the same way they had been used successfully in England and Wales. The first turnpike act for a road scheme in Scotland was passed in 1713 for the construction of a road in Midlothian.
Although in the south of England common carriers ' carts became frequent, they were not seen for a long time north of York or west of Exeter. Long trains of packhorses still carried goods through Settle until the Keighley and Kendal Turnpike was started in 1753.
The rise of railway transport largely halted the improving schemes of the turnpike trusts. The London - Birmingham railway almost instantly halved the tolls income of the Holyhead Road. The system was never properly reformed but from the 1870s Parliament stopped renewing the acts and roads began to revert to local authorities, the last trust vanishing in 1895. However, some bridges have continued to be subject to tolls.
The Local Government Act 1888 created county councils and gave them responsibility for maintaining the major roads. The abiding relic of the English toll roads is the number of houses with names like "Turnpike Cottage '', the inclusion of "Bar '' in place names and occasional road name: Turnpike Lane in northern London has given its name to an Underground station.
Following the abolition of turnpikes a few private roads and toll bridges remained. Some bridges of the turnpike era were built by companies (rather than trusts) and have continued to charge tolls. Tolls on some bridges were abolished by county councils buying up the tolls and then declaring them county bridges. A recent example of this relates to the well - known Cob at Porthmadog, where tolls ceased in 2006, when it was nationalised by the Welsh Assembly.
Tolls are similarly collected to finance the cost of building the Humber Bridge and Severn Bridge. In recent times, the concept of charging tolls to finance the building of roads has been revived, but so far the only new toll road is M6 Toll.
Tolls for the Forth Road Bridge were removed in 2008 following a divisive 3 - year political debate during which it was proposed that variable congestion pricing tolls would be introduced.
A new toll road is being planned in South Wales. The M4 is planned to have a relief road built and managed in the same way as the M6 Toll.
College Road, Dulwich
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who is known as the star of the millennium | Millennium Star - wikipedia
The Millennium Star is a diamond owned by De Beers. At 203.04 carats (40.608 g), it is the world 's second largest known top - color (grade D, i.e. colourless), internally and externally flawless, pear - shaped diamond.
The diamond was discovered in the Mbuji - Mayi district of Zaire in 1990 in alluvial deposits; uncut, it was 777 carats (155.4 g). It was purchased by De Beers during the height of the country 's Civil War that took place in the early to mid-nineties. It took over three years for workers of the Steinmetz Diamond Group to produce the classic pear form. The actual cutting was done using lasers.
It was first displayed in October 1999 as the centerpiece of the De Beers Millennium diamond collection. The collection also includes eleven blue diamonds totaling 118 carats (23.6 g) and The Heart of Eternity. They were displayed at London 's Millennium Dome over 2000. There was an attempt on 7 November 2000 to steal the collection (see Millennium Dome raid), but the Metropolitan Police discovered the plot and arrested the robbers before their escape. Crime journalist Kris Hollington wrote a book called Diamond Geezers (ISBN 1843171228) about the attempted theft. The book also features a detailed history of the Millennium Star.
The largest cut white (D) diamond by weight is the 1991 modified heart - shaped 273.85 carats (54.770 g) Centenary Diamond.
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who are the celebrity get me out of here | I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! (Australian TV series) - Wikipedia
I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! (occasionally shortened to I 'm a Celebrity) is an Australian reality television series on Network Ten which is based on the British television show of the same name. The series sees celebrities living in the jungle with few creature comforts and compete in various challenges to earn meals and other luxuries. The celebrities compete for $100,000 to be donated to their chosen charity. The series is set in Kruger National Park, South Africa, and is hosted by Julia Morris and Chris Brown.
On 16 July 2015 the series was renewed for a second season, which premiered on 31 January 2016. The second season was accompanied by the companion series I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! Now!. It aired on Eleven following each episode of the main series, hosted by comedian and former season one contestant Joel Creasey and The Bachelor Australia 3 contestant Heather Maltman. On 1 August 2016 the series was renewed for a third season with Morris and Brown returning as hosts, which premiered on 29 January 2017. A fourth season commenced on 28 January 2018.
The premise of the show is that there is a group of well known personalities living together in a specially constructed camp site in a jungle. During their time in the jungle they are isolated from the outside world and are not commonly aware of outside events. The contestants compete for $100,000 to be donated to a charity of their choosing, in addition to being personally reimbursed for their participation. While in the jungle, some of the contestants (generally voted by the viewing public) compete in challenges for food and luxuries for the camp. These challenges often involve local wildlife and are meant to take the contestants out of their comfort zone. Each week one or more of the contestants are evicted from the jungle, based on viewer votes. In addition, if the contestants become overwhelmed by their situation they can leave the series by speaking the phrase "I 'm a celebrity get me out of here! ''. However, it is reported that if contestants do quit they will have their income for participating in the series markedly reduced. Throughout the show, additional contestants (called "intruders '') enter the competition; and beginning with season two, some contestants are only included temporarily (i.e. having a guest appearance). In the end, a final viewer vote occurs to determine the winner of the series, who is given the title of "King and / or Queen of the Jungle ''.
The contestants take part in daily trials to earn food. These trials aim to test both physical and mental abilities. The winner is usually determined by the number of stars collected during the trial, with each star representing a meal earned by the winning contestant for their camp mates.
Two or more celebrities are chosen to take part in the celebrity chest challenge to win luxuries for camp. Each challenge involves completing a task to win a chest to take back to camp. However, to win the luxury item in the chest, the campmates must correctly answer a question. If they fail to answer correctly, the luxury item is forfeited and a joke prize is won. The luxury item is "donated '' by a celebrity from the outside.
This is a challenge where some celebrities have to take part without alerting the other celebrities - if they are successful in their ' missions ', they are rewarded.
A mystery box sees a box delivered to the campsite, each time containing a different gift for the contestants.
The show is broadcast Sunday to Thursday at 7.30 pm, with a weekly eviction show on Sunday (except for the first week, where the celebrities arrive in the ' jungle '). All shows are presented by Julia Morris & Chris Brown from a nearby studio. The program is live to AEDT States (New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory), in other states the program is delayed to accommodate local time zones.
In addition to the television broadcast, for the first season a live feed from the camp site aired for an hour after the AEDT airing of the show on Ten 's website and mobile app, titled The Fallout Zone but more commonly referred to as FOZ. The content of feed was available on the website after the fact so viewers in other states could watch the show after their airing of the main show. The feed was hosted by comedian Sam Mac and producer Ciaran "The Butcher '' Flannery, also known as "The C - Word ''. On 8 and 12 March 2015, producer Dominic "The Domin8or '' Sullivan filled in during Flannery 's absence. The duo interact with viewers through Twitter, using the hashtag # FOZ. Mac and Flannery have no control over the shots used in the stream which has resulted in one episode featuring a 20 - minute shot of a waterfall and, on 16 February 2015, a 15 - minute conversation featuring a sound technician looking for Bob being picked up. On 5 March 2015 the show famously featured audio problems during which Mac and Flannery 's voices fluctuated between chipmunk and Darth Vader filters for the first thirty minutes. The show 's theme song is Highway to the Fallout Zone sung by Sam Mac. The show did not return for the second season.
Throughout the show the public votes on who competes in the following tucker trial and who to evict from the campsite. Viewers can either vote via SMS (by texting the name of the celebrity to 1995 1010) or vote via Social Media (namely Facebook or Twitter) by using the celebrity 's hashtag (# celeb (name)). Voting via social media is limited to 20 votes per account. For tucker trial voting, viewers vote for celebrity they wish to compete. For eviction voting, viewers vote for a celebrity to stay. Voting closes at approximately 7: 30pm AEDT for Sunday 's eviction vote and at approximately 8pm AEDT for voting on other days.
Prior to the premiere of the second season, it was announced that the voting process would change slightly compared to the inaugural season. SMS voting wil be used for both trial and eviction voting while Twitter voting will be used exclusively for trial voting. This change was implemented to even the playing field between celebrities with a larger international fan base (who are more likely to receive Twitter votes from said fan base) and celebrities with a smaller fan base who are only known in Australia. However, this decision was later reversed, allowing Twitter and Facebook votes for the finals.
Winners are crowned King or Queen of their respective year.
Key:
In June 2017, Tom Arnold filed a lawsuit against Network Ten and A List Entertainment for defrauding him for being on I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!. Arnold claims that he was promised a payment of $425,000 and a comedy tour in Australia, however he was missing $140,000 in payment and that Network Ten backed out of the comedy tour.
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who took the first wicket in psl 1 | 2016 Pakistan Super League - wikipedia
The 2016 Pakistan Super League or for sponsorship reasons HBL PSL 2016 was the debut season of the Pakistan Super League which was established by the Pakistan Cricket Board. The tournament featured five teams and was held from 4 February 2016 to 23 February 2016 in the United Arab Emirates. The opening ceremony and first match of the tournament were held at the Dubai International Cricket Stadium on 4 February 2016.
The final was held in Dubai on 23 February and saw Islamabad United defeating Quetta Gladiators by 6 wickets to win the first title. Dwayne Smith of Islamabad United was awarded the man of the match award for his innings of 73 runs from 51 balls. Ravi Bopara of the Karachi Kings was named player of the tournament.
Around half of the TV viewing audience in Pakistan watched matches in the competition at peak times.
The opening ceremony of the tournament was held at the Dubai International Cricket Stadium in Dubai on 4 February 2016, and was hosted by Yasir Hussain and Sri Lankan model Stephanie Siriwardhana. It featured live performances by singer Ali Zafar, Jamaican rapper and singer Sean Paul, Mohib Mirza, Sanam Saeed and such other artists and ended with a firework display. A large crowd attended the ceremony at the stadium.
The player draft for the 2016 season was held at Gaddafi Stadium in Lahore on 21 -- 22 December 2015. 308 players, including both Pakistani and international players, were divided into five different categories. Each franchise was allowed to pick a maximum of six foreign players in their squads which could have a maximum of 20 members.
Seven umpires and two match referees made up the match officials panel for the tournament. Pakistan 's top ICC umpire Aleem Dar stood in matches during the tournament as did West Indian ICC umpire Joel Wilson. Also a part of the panel were other Pakistani umpires Ahsan Raza, Shozab Raza, Ahmed Shahab, Rashid Riaz and Khalid Mahmood. The match referees panel consisted of former Sri Lankan ICC match referee Roshan Mahanama and Pakistani match referee Mohammad Anees.
The official anthem of PSL season I, "Ab Khel Ke Dikha '' was released on 30 September 2015. It was written, composed and sung by Ali Zafar.
The venue for the tournament was originally planned to be a single stadium in Doha, Qatar. In September 2015 the Pakistan Cricket Board announced the shifting of the tournament to Dubai and Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates.
Each team played each other twice in the league stage of the tournament in a round robin format. As matches were played in the UAE, all games were effectively at a neutral venue. Following the group stage the top four teams qualified for the playoff stage of the tournament.
The 2016 season of the PSL followed rules and regulations laid down by the International Cricket Council. In the group stage, two points were awarded for a win, one for a no result and none for a loss. In the event of tied scores after both teams faced their quota of overs, a super over would have been used to determine the match winner. In the group stage teams were ranked on the following criteria:
If any play - off match had finished with a no result, a super over would have been used to determine the winner. If the super over had not have been possible or the result of the over was a tie, the team which finished in the highest league position at the end of the regular season would have been deemed the winner of the match.
All times are in Pakistan Standard Time (UTC + 5).
All times are in Pakistan Standard Time (UTC + 5).
The player of the tournament was Ravi Bopara of the Karachi Kings. Bopara scored 329 runs and took 11 wickets in the tournament. Andre Russell of Islamabad United took 16 wickets at an average of 17.25 to be the leading wicket - taker ahead of Wahab Riaz of Peshawar Zalmi with 15. Umar Akmal of Lahore Qalandars was the leading run scorer with 335 runs at an average of 83.75 and also took the most catches in the tournament with 7. Winners of the Spirit of Cricket award was Lahore Qalandars.
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what is the name of the cleveland brown's dog | Dawg Pound - wikipedia
The Dawg Pound is the name of the bleacher section behind the east end zone in FirstEnergy Stadium, the home field of the Cleveland Browns, a National Football League (NFL) franchise based in Cleveland, Ohio. It is known for having passionate fans.
According to Hanford Dixon, then a cornerback with the Browns, Dixon himself gave his defensive teammates the name "Dawgs '' to inspire them before the 1985 season. The Dawg Pound started during the 1985 training camp at Lakeland Community College in Kirtland, Ohio. Dixon and fellow cornerback Frank Minnifield started the idea of the pound by using the dog - versus - cat relationship between the quarterback and the defense. "We had the idea of the quarterback being the cat, and the defensive line being the dog, '' Dixon said. "Whenever the defense would get a regular sack or a coverage sack the defensive linemen and linebackers would bark. '' This attitude carried into the stands at the training camp, where fans started barking along with the players. Dixon and Minnifield then put up the first "Dawg Pound '' banner in front of the bleachers before the first preseason game at old Cleveland Stadium. The bleacher section had the cheapest seats in the stadium, and its fans were already known as the most vocal. They adopted their new identity whole - heartedly, wearing dog noses, dog masks, bone - shaped hats and other outlandish costumes.
Dawg Pound fans quickly developed a reputation for misbehavior as well as vociferousness. Team officials banned the carrying of dog food into the stadium, as bleacher fans would shower the visiting team with Milk - Bones, along with eggs, batteries, other objects. Dawg Pound fans also consumed hefty amounts of alcohol, even sneaking a keg into the stadium inside of a doghouse. Their reputation was such that other teams ' rowdy fans would often be compared to them - in 1989, when a Cincinnati Bengals game was halted by the throwing of debris at the visiting Seattle Seahawks, Bengals coach Sam Wyche addressed the crowd, angrily reminding them that, "You do n't live in Cleveland, you live in Cincinnati! ''
On at least one occasion, Dawg Pound rowdiness had a concrete impact on the outcome of a game. In the fourth quarter of a 1989 game against the hated Denver Broncos, the rain of batteries, rocks, eggs, and other debris coming down from the bleachers was endangering the safety of the players. To move the action away from the east end, referee Tom Dooley had the teams switch sides. That put the wind at the Browns ' back. The Browns won on a Matt Bahr field goal that barely cleared the crossbar.
At the final game at Cleveland Stadium in December 1995, members of the Dawg Pound ripped the bleachers from the stands (many having brought wrenches, crowbars, and other tools to dislodge the seats). Some fans threw the seats onto the field, while others took them home as souvenirs.
"Here We Go Brownies Here We Go! - Woof! Woof! '' is the most common chant heard in the Pound, especially on drives (either offensive or defensive) going towards that end of the field.
When FirstEnergy Stadium was completed in 1999, team officials named the sections in the stadium 's east end the Dawg Pound. The new Pound differs from the original in having two decks, but like the Dawg Pound of Cleveland Municipal Stadium, the new stadium 's Dawg Pound seats are all bleachers. Ironically, the Dawg Pound PSL was one of the most expensive in the new Stadium.
The new Pound also has official recognition from the team. The team trademarked a Dawg Pound logo, which it uses on select fan memorabilia. This logo was created by NFL Properties and is the only such logo developed for an NFL fan base by the league. It is featured on officially licensed Browns merchandise such as T - shirts, pennants, bumper stickers, etc.
The establishment nature of the new Pound, as well as the more - sterile atmosphere of the new stadium, originally turned off some veteran fans, especially the old "blue - collar '' fan base. This has resulted from what was originally a player and fan movement - the Dawg Pound - having been made "corporate, '' by the Browns organization, including trademarks, copyrights and an official "Dawg Pound '' logo. Also, the more sterile, corporate atmosphere at the new FirstEnergy Stadium (as opposed to the near anarchy at the old stadium in the 1960s - 1990s) has been viewed by more traditionalist Browns fans and Dawg Pound season ticket holders as tarnishing the history and traditional passion of the fanbase.
In a crucial late - season 2001 game against the Jacksonville Jaguars, the Browns were driving toward the east end zone for what would have been the winning score. A controversial call on fourth down gave the Jaguars the ball. Browns ' receiver Quincy Morgan had caught a pass for a first down on 4th and 1. After Tim Couch spiked the ball on the next play, referee Terry McAulay reviewed Morgan 's catch, claiming that the replay officials had buzzed him before Couch spiked the ball. (NFL Rules state that once the next play is completed, the officials can not under any circumstances review any previous plays.) Upon reviewing the play, McAulay determined that Morgan never had control of the ball, thus the pass was incomplete, and the Jaguars were awarded the ball. Fans in the Dawg Pound began throwing plastic beer bottles (a recently introduced concept from the team 's beer sponsor, Miller Lite) and other objects on the players and officials. McAulay declared the game over and sent the teams to the locker rooms. NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue then called to override the referee 's decision, sending the players back onto the field, where the Jaguars ran out the last seconds under a hail of debris. The incident then would become known as "Bottlegate '', and resulted in the immediate ban of plastic beer bottles from future Browns home games.
Current ticket prices for the Dawg Pound are $50 per game, and usually require purchase of season tickets. Since construction of the new stadium the Dawg Pound is populated with more affluent attendees compared to the generally blue collar fan base that made the Municipal Stadium 's Dawg Pound famous. Baseball Hall - of - Famer Hank Aaron often attended Browns games at Municipal Stadium and would sit in the Dawg Pound with the fans, albeit incognito.
One of the more famous Dawg Pound season - ticket holders is John Big Dawg Thompson (he had a legal name change to include his nickname), known as the "Canine - in - Chief. '' Television cameras often showed the offensive - lineman - sized man in his dog mask and No. 98 jersey, although recently he has undergone gastric bypass surgery and lost considerable weight. In 1995, Thompson became an unofficial spokesman for Browns fans fighting the move of the team to Baltimore. He testified before the U.S. House Committee on the Judiciary and appeared on Politically Incorrect with Bill Maher.
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when did the movie to kill a mockingbird come out | To Kill a Mockingbird (film) - wikipedia
To Kill a Mockingbird is a 1962 American drama film directed by Robert Mulligan. The screenplay by Horton Foote is based on Harper Lee 's 1960 Pulitzer Prize - winning novel of the same name. It stars Gregory Peck as Atticus Finch and Mary Badham as Scout.
The film received overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics and was a box - office success, earning more than 10 times its budget. The film won three Academy Awards, including Best Actor for Peck, and was nominated for eight, including Best Picture.
In 1995, the film was listed in the National Film Registry. In 2003, the American Film Institute named Atticus Finch the greatest movie hero of the 20th century. In 2007 the film ranked twenty - fifth on the AFI 's 10th anniversary list of the greatest American movies of all time.
To Kill a Mockingbird marked the film debuts of Robert Duvall, William Windom, and Alice Ghostley.
The film 's young protagonists, Jean Louise "Scout '' Finch (Mary Badham) and her brother Jeremy Atticus "Jem '' Finch (Phillip Alford), live in the fictional town of Maycomb, Alabama, during the early 1930s. The story covers three years, during which Scout and Jem undergo changes in their lives. They are innocent children, spending their days happily playing games with each other and spying on Arthur "Boo '' Radley (Robert Duvall) who has not left his home for many years and about whom many rumors circulate. Their widowed father, Atticus (Gregory Peck), is a town lawyer and has strong beliefs that all people are to be treated fairly, to turn the other cheek, and to stand for what you believe. He also allows his children to call him by his first name. Early in the film, the children see their father accept hickory nuts, and other produce, from Mr. Cunningham (Crahan Denton) for legal work because the client has no money. Through their father 's work as a lawyer, Scout and Jem begin to learn of the racism and evil in their town, aggravated by poverty; they mature quickly as they are exposed to it.
The local judge (Paul Fix) appoints Atticus to defend a black man, Tom Robinson (Brock Peters), against an accusation of rape of a white girl, Mayella Ewell (Collin Wilcox). Atticus accepts the case. Jem and Scout experience schoolyard taunts for their father 's decision. Later, as Atticus is sitting in front of the local jail to safeguard Robinson, a lynch mob arrives, which includes Mr. Cunningham. Scout, Jem and their friend, Dill (John Megna), interrupt the confrontation. Scout, unaware of the mob 's purpose, recognizes Cunningham as the man who paid her father in hickory nuts and tells him to say hello to his son, who is her schoolmate. Cunningham becomes embarrassed and the mob disperses.
At the trial, it is undisputed that Tom came to Mayella 's home at her request to help with the chopping up of a chifforobe, and that Mayella showed signs of having been beaten around that time. Among Atticus ' chief arguments is that Tom has a crippled left arm, yet the supposed rapist would have had to make extensive use of his left hand in assaulting Mayella before raping her. Atticus then points out that Mayella 's father, Bob Ewell (James Anderson), is left handed, implying that he -- rather than Tom -- was the one who beat Mayella. Atticus also states that the girl had not been examined by a doctor to check for signs of rape after the supposed assault. In his closing argument Atticus asks the all - white male jury to cast aside their prejudices and instead focus on Tom 's obvious innocence. In taking the stand in his own defense, Tom denies he attacked Mayella, but states she kissed him. He testifies he voluntarily assisted Mayella because "I felt sorry for her because... ''. Although Tom does not finish his sentence, the prosecutor (William Windom) hammers home the point that he was a black man feeling sorry for a white woman. In a town where whites are viewed as superior to blacks, Tom 's sympathy for Mayella dooms his case, and he is found guilty.
As Atticus leaves the courtroom, the black spectators in the balcony rise to their feet as a sign of respect and appreciation. Reverend Sykes says to Scout, "Miss Jean Louise, stand up. Your father 's passing. '' When Atticus arrives home, Sheriff Heck Tate (Frank Overton) tells him that Tom has been killed by a deputy during his transfer to prison. According to this deputy, Tom was trying to escape, "running like a crazy man '' before he was shot. Atticus and Jem go to the Robinson family home to inform them of Tom 's death. Bob Ewell, Mayella 's father, appears and spits in Atticus ' face while Jem waits in the car. Atticus wipes his face and leaves.
Autumn arrives, and Scout and Jem attend a nighttime Halloween pageant at their school. Scout wears a large hard - shelled ham costume, portraying one of Maycomb county 's products. At some point during the pageant, Scout 's dress and shoes are misplaced. She is forced to walk home without shoes, wearing her ham costume. While cutting through the woods, Scout and Jem are attacked by an unidentified man who has been following them. Scout 's costume, like an awkward suit of armor, protects her from the attack but restricts her movement and severely restricts her vision. Jem is knocked unconscious and Scout escapes unharmed in a brief but violent struggle. Their attacker is thwarted and overcome by another unidentified man. Scout escapes her costume in time to see the second man carrying Jem to their home. Scout follows the stranger inside and runs into the arms of a concerned Atticus. Doc Reynolds comes over and treats the broken arm of an unconscious Jem.
When Sheriff Tate asks Scout what happened, she sees a man standing quietly in the corner behind the door of Jem 's room. Atticus formally introduces Scout to Arthur Radley, whom she has known as Boo, the man who came to the aid of Jem and Scout in the woods. It is revealed that their attacker was Bob Ewell, who Boo overpowered, before carrying Jem home. The sheriff reports that Ewell was discovered dead at the scene of the attack with a knife in his ribs. Atticus assumes that Jem killed Ewell in self - defense. Sheriff Tate, however, believes that Boo killed Ewell in defense of the children, and he tells Atticus that to drag the shy and reserved Boo into the spotlight for his heroism would be "a sin ''. To protect Boo, Sheriff Tate suggests that Ewell "fell on his knife ''. Scout draws a startlingly precocious analogy, to likening unwelcome public attention to Boo to the killing of a mockingbird.
In the order of the film 's opening credits:
Uncredited roles (in order of appearance)
Elmer Bernstein 's score for To Kill a Mockingbird is regarded as one of the greatest film scores and has been recorded three times. It was first released in April 1963 on Ava; then Bernstein re-recorded it in the 1970s for his Film Music Collection series; and finally, he recorded the complete score (below) in 1996 with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra for the Varese Sarabande Film Classics series.
The film received widespread critical acclaim. As of March 2017, it maintains a 91 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 56 reviews. According to Bosley Crowther:
"Horton Foote 's script and the direction of Mr. Mulligan may not penetrate that deeply, but they do allow Mr. Peck and little Miss Badham and Master Alford to portray delightful characters. Their charming enactments of a father and his children in that close relationship, which can occur at only one brief period, are worth all the footage of the film. Rosemary Murphy as a neighbor, Brock Peters as the Negro on trial, and Frank Overton as a troubled sheriff are good as locality characters, too. James Anderson and Collin Wilcox as Southern bigots are almost caricatures. But those are minor shortcomings in a rewarding film. ''
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times criticized the film for focusing less on the blacks, denouncing the cliché of the honest, white man standing for a helpless black:
"It expresses the liberal pieties of a more innocent time, the early 1960s, and it goes very easy on the realities of small - town Alabama in the 1930s. One of the most dramatic scenes shows a lynch mob facing Atticus, who is all by himself on the jailhouse steps the night before Tom Robinson 's trial. The mob is armed and prepared to break in and hang Robinson, but Scout bursts onto the scene, recognizes a poor farmer who has been befriended by her father, and shames him (and all the other men) into leaving. Her speech is a calculated strategic exercise, masked as the innocent words of a child; one shot of her eyes shows she realizes exactly what she 's doing. Could a child turn away a lynch mob at that time, in that place? Is n't it nice to think so. ''
Gregory Peck 's performance became synonymous with the role and character of Atticus Finch. Producer Alan J. Pakula remembered hearing from Peck when he was first approached with the role: "He called back immediately. No maybes. (...) I must say the man and the character he played were not unalike ''. Peck later said in an interview that he was drawn to the role because the book reminded him of growing up in La Jolla, California. "Hardly a day passes that I do n't think how lucky I was to be cast in that film '', Peck said in a 1997 interview. "I recently sat at a dinner next to a woman who saw it when she was 14 years old, and she said it changed her life. I hear things like that all the time ''.
The 1962 softcover edition of the novel opens with the following: The Southern town of Maycomb, Alabama, reminds me of the California town I grew up in. The characters of the novel are like people I knew as a boy. I think perhaps the great appeal of the novel is that it reminds readers everywhere of a person or a town they have known. It is to me a universal story -- moving, passionate and told with great humor and tenderness. Gregory Peck.
Harper Lee, in liner notes written for the film 's DVD re-release by Universal, wrote: "When I learned that Gregory Peck would play Atticus Finch in the film production of To Kill a Mockingbird, I was of course delighted: here was a fine actor who had made great films -- what more could a writer ask for?... The years told me his secret. When he played Atticus Finch, he had played himself, and time has told all of us something more: when he played himself, he touched the world ''. Upon Peck 's death in 2003, Brock Peters, who played Tom Robinson in the film version, quoted Harper Lee at Peck 's eulogy, saying, "Atticus Finch gave him an opportunity to play himself ''. Peters concluded his eulogy stating, "To my friend Gregory Peck, to my friend Atticus Finch, vaya con Dios ''. Peters remembered the role of Tom Robinson when he recalled, "It certainly is one of my proudest achievements in life, one of the happiest participations in film or theater I have experienced ''. Peters remained friends not only with Peck but with Mary Badham throughout his life.
Peck himself admitted that many people have reminded him of this film more than any other film he has ever done.
In 1995 To Kill a Mockingbird was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. It is also Robert Duvall 's big - screen debut, as the misunderstood recluse Boo Radley. Duvall was cast on the recommendation of screenwriter Horton Foote, who met him at Neighborhood Playhouse in New York City where Duvall starred in a 1957 production of Foote 's play, The Midnight Caller.
The American Film Institute named Atticus Finch the greatest movie hero of the 20th century. Additionally, the AFI ranked the movie second on their 100 Years... 100 Cheers list, behind It 's a Wonderful Life. The film was ranked number 34 on AFI 's list of the 100 greatest movies of all time, but moved up to number 25 on the 10th Anniversary list. In June 2008, the AFI revealed its "Ten top Ten '' -- the best ten films in ten "classic '' American film genres -- after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. To Kill a Mockingbird was acknowledged as the best film in the courtroom drama genre.
In 2007 Hamilton was honored by the Harlem community for her part in the movie. She was the last surviving African - American adult who had a speaking part in the movie. When told of the award, she said, "I think it is terrific. I 'm very pleased and very surprised ''.
The film won three Academy Awards out of the eight for which it was nominated.
Other nominations were for
Its main competition was Lawrence of Arabia, which won the Oscar for Best Picture, Best Director and Best Original Score. Peter O'Toole had been nominated for Best Actor for his performance as T.E. Lawrence, but Peck won for Mockingbird. The Longest Day claimed the award for Best Cinematography, while Patty Duke was awarded Best Supporting Actress for her work in The Miracle Worker.
The film was selected for the 1963 Cannes Film Festival in feature film category, winning the Gary Cooper Award.
The film was restored and released on Blu - ray and DVD in 2012 as part of the 100th anniversary of Universal Pictures.
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where is the biggest aquarium in the world located | Georgia aquarium - wikipedia
The Georgia Aquarium is a public aquarium in Atlanta, Georgia, USA. It houses more than a hundred thousand animals and represents several thousand species, all of which reside in 10 million US gallons (38,000 m) of marine and salt water. It was the largest aquarium in the world from its opening in 2005 until 2012, when it was surpassed by Marine Life Park in Singapore.
Businessman Bernard Marcus credits his 60th birthday dinner, held at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, with inspiring him to build a great aquarium for Atlanta; his subsequent $250 million donation provided the bulk of the money needed to build and stock the new facility.
The Aquarium 's notable specimens include whale sharks, beluga whales, California sea lions, bottlenose dolphins, and manta rays.
In November 2001, Bernard Marcus announced his vision of presenting Atlanta with an aquarium that would encourage both education and economic growth. After visiting 56 aquariums in 13 countries with his wife, Billi, he donated $250 million toward what was to become Georgia Aquarium. Corporate contributions totaling an additional $40 million allowed the aquarium to open debt - free.
Jeff Swanagan, the Aquarium 's founding president and executive director until 2008, is largely credited with the creation of the aquarium, from the design of the structure to the procurement of animals for the exhibits.
The aquarium is in downtown Atlanta on land donated by The Coca - Cola Company, just north of Centennial Olympic Park and near the Georgia Dome, the Georgia World Congress Center, Philips Arena, and CNN Center. Its blue metal - and - glass exterior is meant to evoke a giant ark breaking through a wave. The world 's largest when it opened in November 2005, the aquarium encompasses 550,000 square feet (5.1 ha; 13 acres) of covered space; its exhibits hold 8,000,000 US gallons (30,000 m) of fresh and salt water.
After 27 months of construction the aquarium opened on November 21, 2005, with 60 animal habitats. Though the non-profit aquarium 's admission charges are among the highest in the United States, attendance has far exceeded expectations, with 1 million visitors in the first 100 days, 3 million by August 2006, 5 million by May 2007, and 10 million by June 2009. The aquarium is part of the Smithsonian Affiliations program.
The Georgia Aquarium contains tens of thousands of fish and other sea creatures, representing several hundred species.
The aquarium is the only institution outside of Asia that houses whale sharks, which are kept in a 6.3 - million - U.S. - gallon (24,000 m) exhibit -- the aquarium as a whole was designed around the whale shark exhibit. Their importation from Taiwan (by air, truck and boat) had never been attempted previously. They were taken from Taiwan 's annual fishing kill quota, under which they would have been eaten had they not been purchased by the aquarium. The aquarium 's most famous specimens were four young whale sharks from Taiwan named Ralph, Norton, Alice, and Trixie, after the primary characters from The Honeymooners. Ralph and Norton died in 2007 but that same year the aquarium received two more whale sharks ("Taroko '', commemorating Taroko Gorge National Park, and "Yushan '' after Taiwan 's Jade Mountain) just before a ban on capture of that species took effect.
The aquarium has also been home to as many as five 11 - foot (3 m) beluga whales at once. Males Nico and Gasper, acquired from an amusement park in Mexico, were joined by three females on breeding loan from the New York Aquarium: Marina, Natasha and Natasha 's daughter, Maris. After Gasper and Marina died in 2007, the belugas were transferred to SeaWorld San Antonio, where Nico died in 2009. In 2010, Maris and a new male, Beethoven, were returned to the Georgia Aquarium while Natasha remains with a potential mate in San Antonio. Two young belugas, Grayson (male) and Qinu (female), also from San Antonio, were added in November 2010. Before transferring to the Shedd Aquarium in 2014, Beethoven fathered calves with Maris in 2012 and 2015, neither of which survived. Maris died of a heart defect in 2015. In 2016, Grayson was sent to Shedd Aquarium while SeaWorld Orlando 's Aurek and Maple and Shedd Aquarium 's Nunavik arrived on loan at Georgia Aquarium. In June 2017, Georgia Aquarium announced that Qinu is pregnant with her first calf, sired by Aurek, and is due in the fall of 2017. In September 2017, Aurek was transferred to Shedd Aquarium on a breeding loan. On November 8th, 2017, the aquarium announced that Qinu 's calf had died from complications during birth.
A manta ray, Nandi, that had been accidentally caught in nets protecting the South African coast from sharks, joined the Ocean Voyager exhibit in 2008 as the first manta ray on display in the country; the Aquarium is one of only four sites in the world displaying one. A second manta ray, Tallulah, was added in September 2009, joined in 2010 by female named Billi, and in 2012 by a male. The animals range in size from 10 -- 13 ft wingspans.
The aquarium 's animals are displayed in seven galleries and exhibits: Tropical Diver, Ocean Voyager, Cold Water Quest, River Scout, Dolphin Celebration, Pier 225, and Aquanaut Adventure: A Discovery Zone. Each corresponds to a specific environment.
The first exhibit, Southern Company River Scout, reflects regional environments. It features an overhead river where visitors can see North American fish from the bottom up. In addition to local specimens, this exhibit displays piranha, electric eel and other unusual freshwater life.
Next to River Scout is the AT&T Dolphin Celebration gallery. This is one of the aquarium 's newer additions (opened in April 2011) and houses the indoor dolphin stadium. The aquarium houses thirteen bottlenose dolphins, though this number fluctuates from time to time. The show lasts about 20 to 30 minutes and includes an informative / educational videos about the dolphins 30 minutes before the show. Admission to the AT&T Dolphin Celebration show is included in general admission.
Current Dolphins presently living there: Niele (M), Kenobi (M), Polka (M), Sydney (M), Pacino (M), Phebe (F), Pukanala (F), Kei (M), Makana (M), Briland (M), Salvador (M), Luna (F), Bermudiana (F). Guests also can see the dolphins during non-show times.
The third section of the aquarium, Cold Water Quest, features animals from the polar and temperate regions of the world and contains most of the mammal species in the aquarium 's collection. This exhibit includes beluga whales in the aquarium 's second largest habitat (after Ocean Voyager), sea otters, Japanese spider crabs, weedy sea dragons, and African penguins.
The largest exhibit, Ocean Voyager built by Home Depot, contains 6.3 million US gallons (24,000 m) of water and several thousand fish. It measures 284 ft × 126 ft (87 m × 38 m) and the depth ranges between 20 and 30 ft (6.1 and 9.1 m), making it the largest indoor aquatic habitat in the world. This exhibit is designed to feature the life of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System and showcases the aquarium 's whale sharks, as well as a 100 ft (30 m) underwater tunnel and one of the world 's largest viewing windows.
The fifth exhibit, Tropical Diver, features mainly Indo - Pacific tropical fish. The largest habitat in the exhibit is a 164,000 - US - gallon (620,000 L) reef featuring many species of fish. The aquarium also cultivates its own live coral, some of which can be seen on this large reef. Other animals in this gallery include sea horses, garden eels, jellyfish, clownfish, shrimp, lobsters, turkeyfish, and many other tropical fishes.
The sixth exhibit, SunTrust Pier 225, is for sea lions. It opened in the Spring of 2016, replacing the Suntrust Georgia Explorer gallery.
The seventh exhibit, Aquanaut Adventure: A Discovery Zone, is Georgia Aquarium 's newest gallery containing several smaller exhibits and multiple hands - on activities, including an augmented reality scavenger hunt using the aquarium 's mobile app.
The aquarium also features a "4D '' movie and a virtual reality simulator which takes guests on a trip through prehistoric seas (for an additional fee).
Also, in 2009, the "Titanic Aquatic '' exhibit opened, which features a walk - through of what it was like on the ship RMS Titanic. The exhibit was at the aquarium until September 7, 2009. The Georgia Aquarium then hosted the world debut of Planet Shark: Predator or Prey: The Exhibition. The exhibit focused on dispelling myths and sharing facts to help create a better understanding of sharks. It was open through April 2011, and featured shark jaws, teeth and fossils, full scale shark models made from real specimens and more.
According to founder Bernard Marcus, the aquarium 's conservation and environmental mission is just as important as its status as an attraction. Long before opening, the aquarium was already working with Georgia Tech and Georgia State University in Atlanta and the University of Georgia in Athens to help save endangered species through education and research programs.
The acquisition of the male beluga whales, previously suffering in an inadequate environment, was hailed by Marcus as a prime example of the type of conservation activities the Aquarium should be involved with. Roughly 100 tarpon stranded in a tidal pool at Skidaway Island, off the Georgia coast, were rescued for the collection. Coral used in exhibits at the aquarium is man - made in a collaboration between Georgia Tech and the University of the South Pacific, produced by suspending blocks of pumice over a reef near the village of Tagaqe, Fiji for eight months so that seaweeds and reef invertebrates could establish colonies.
The aquarium is involved in several research initiatives that focus on whale sharks in the Yucatán Peninsula, beluga whales in Alaska, penguins in South Africa, manatees in Quintana Roo, Mexico, loggerhead sea turtles on the Georgia coast, and spotted eagle rays in Sarasota, Florida.
Its newest research project centers on bottlenose dolphins in the Indian River Lagoon. These animals serve as indicators of environmental health because they are permanent residents of the lagoon and are at the top of the food chain. The aquarium is partnering with Florida Atlantic University and the federal government to monitor the health of these animals as well as identify potential threats from pollution and emerging infectious diseases.
In May 2008, the aquarium announced plans to build a $110 million expansion for a new dolphin exhibit. The expansion covers 84,000 square feet (7,800 m) and contains 1.8 million US gallons (6,800 m) of water. Located on the west side of the facility, the exhibit features space for live presentations, observation windows, and opportunities for visitors to interact with animals.
Construction began later in 2008 and was completed in late 2010. During part of the construction, the aquarium 's three beluga whales were temporarily relocated to SeaWorld San Antonio. Beluga whales are very sensitive to sound, and while officials had not noted any excessive amounts of stress, it was decided to remove them anyway and eliminate the possibility. Unexpectedly, one of the three belugas, Nico, died at SeaWorld on October 31, 2009; a preliminary necropsy was unable to determine if Nico 's death was caused by the move or by something else.
The AT&T Dolphin Celebration show opened to the public on April 2, 2011, and has been controversial. Some view it as purely being a theatrical show with live actors and feel - good songs befitting of Disneyland while others argue that from entertainment comes education. In 2016, the aquarium changed the format of the show to make it more educational.
On January 1, 2011, the aquarium purchased Marineland of Florida for a reported $9.1 million. The seller was Jim Jacoby, a metro Atlanta developer and member of the Georgia Aquarium board of directors, who bought the park in 2004 and re-developed it.
In 2012, the beluga whale Maris gave birth to a female calf. After less than a week, the calf, who was born underweight, died. Although mortality rates of calves born to first time mothers is extremely high, even in wild populations, Maris 's second calf -- born on Mother 's Day in 2015 -- would survive less than a month. Maris herself died in October of the same year, reigniting the debate as to whether the captive beluga breeding program was humane or successful.
In 2015, the aquarium applied to import 18 belugas from Russia; it had previously placed an order for their capture and planned to send them on breeding loans to partnered parks such as Shedd Aquarium and SeaWorld, though SeaWorld ultimately opted out of the agreement. However, the permit was denied by the National Marine Fisheries Service, prompting Georgia Aquarium to sue. In September 2015, a federal district court ruled that "Georgia Aquarium failed to demonstrate that its permit would not result in the taking of additional animals beyond those authorized by the permit '', and that the denial would stand.
Aerial view of the aquarium
Guests observe Navy divers as they dive in a tank at the Aquarium
Whale shark in the viewing theater
Cuttlefish at the aquarium
The petting tank featuring bonnethead sharks and cownose rays
The Ocean Voyager exhibit tunnel
Ocean Voyager exhibit tunnel
† -- Centennial Olympic Stadium was rebuilt in 1997 as Turner Field. In turn, Turner Field was rebuilt as Georgia State Stadium in 2017.
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the time complexity of the shortest path algorithm can be bounded by | Shortest path problem - wikipedia
In graph theory, the shortest path problem is the problem of finding a path between two vertices (or nodes) in a graph such that the sum of the weights of its constituent edges is minimized.
The problem of finding the shortest path between two intersections on a road map (the graph 's vertices correspond to intersections and the edges correspond to road segments, each weighted by the length of its road segment) may be modeled by a special case of the shortest path problem in graphs.
The shortest path problem can be defined for graphs whether undirected, directed, or mixed. It is defined here for undirected graphs; for directed graphs the definition of path requires that consecutive vertices be connected by an appropriate directed edge.
Two vertices are adjacent when they are both incident to a common edge. A path in an undirected graph is a sequence of vertices P = (v 1, v 2,..., v n) ∈ V × V × ⋯ × V (\ displaystyle P = (v_ (1), v_ (2), \ ldots, v_ (n)) \ in V \ times V \ times \ cdots \ times V) such that v i (\ displaystyle v_ (i)) is adjacent to v i + 1 (\ displaystyle v_ (i + 1)) for 1 ≤ i < n (\ displaystyle 1 \ leq i < n). Such a path P (\ displaystyle P) is called a path of length n − 1 (\ displaystyle n - 1) from v 1 (\ displaystyle v_ (1)) to v n (\ displaystyle v_ (n)). (The v i (\ displaystyle v_ (i)) are variables; their numbering here relates to their position in the sequence and needs not to relate to any canonical labeling of the vertices.)
Let e i, j (\ displaystyle e_ (i, j)) be the edge incident to both v i (\ displaystyle v_ (i)) and v j (\ displaystyle v_ (j)). Given a real - valued weight function f: E → R (\ displaystyle f: E \ rightarrow \ mathbb (R)), and an undirected (simple) graph G (\ displaystyle G), the shortest path from v (\ displaystyle v) to v ′ (\ displaystyle v ') is the path P = (v 1, v 2,..., v n) (\ displaystyle P = (v_ (1), v_ (2), \ ldots, v_ (n))) (where v 1 = v (\ displaystyle v_ (1) = v) and v n = v ′ (\ displaystyle v_ (n) = v ')) that over all possible n (\ displaystyle n) minimizes the sum ∑ i = 1 n − 1 f (e i, i + 1). (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (i = 1) ^ (n - 1) f (e_ (i, i + 1)).) When each edge in the graph has unit weight or f: E → (1) (\ displaystyle f: E \ rightarrow \ (1 \)), this is equivalent to finding the path with fewest edges.
The problem is also sometimes called the single - pair shortest path problem, to distinguish it from the following variations:
These generalizations have significantly more efficient algorithms than the simplistic approach of running a single - pair shortest path algorithm on all relevant pairs of vertices.
The most important algorithms for solving this problem are:
Additional algorithms and associated evaluations may be found in Cherkassky, Goldberg & Radzik (1996).
An algorithm using topological sorting can solve the single - source shortest path problem in linear time, Θ (E + V), in weighted DAGs.
The following table is taken from Schrijver (2004). A green background indicates an asymptotically best bound in the table.
The all - pairs shortest path problem finds the shortest paths between every pair of vertices v, v ' in the graph. The all - pairs shortest paths problem for unweighted directed graphs was introduced by Shimbel (1953), who observed that it could be solved by a linear number of matrix multiplications that takes a total time of O (V).
Shortest path algorithms are applied to automatically find directions between physical locations, such as driving directions on web mapping websites like MapQuest or Google Maps. For this application fast specialized algorithms are available.
If one represents a nondeterministic abstract machine as a graph where vertices describe states and edges describe possible transitions, shortest path algorithms can be used to find an optimal sequence of choices to reach a certain goal state, or to establish lower bounds on the time needed to reach a given state. For example, if vertices represent the states of a puzzle like a Rubik 's Cube and each directed edge corresponds to a single move or turn, shortest path algorithms can be used to find a solution that uses the minimum possible number of moves.
In a networking or telecommunications mindset, this shortest path problem is sometimes called the min - delay path problem and usually tied with a widest path problem. For example, the algorithm may seek the shortest (min - delay) widest path, or widest shortest (min - delay) path.
A more lighthearted application is the games of "six degrees of separation '' that try to find the shortest path in graphs like movie stars appearing in the same film.
Other applications, often studied in operations research, include plant and facility layout, robotics, transportation, and VLSI design.
A road network can be considered as a graph with positive weights. The nodes represent road junctions and each edge of the graph is associated with a road segment between two junctions. The weight of an edge may correspond to the length of the associated road segment, the time needed to traverse the segment, or the cost of traversing the segment. Using directed edges it is also possible to model one - way streets. Such graphs are special in the sense that some edges are more important than others for long distance travel (e.g. highways). This property has been formalized using the notion of highway dimension. There are a great number of algorithms that exploit this property and are therefore able to compute the shortest path a lot quicker than would be possible on general graphs.
All of these algorithms work in two phases. In the first phase, the graph is preprocessed without knowing the source or target node. The second phase is the query phase. In this phase, source and target node are known. The idea is that the road network is static, so the preprocessing phase can be done once and used for a large number of queries on the same road network.
The algorithm with the fastest known query time is called hub labeling and is able to compute shortest path on the road networks of Europe or the USA in a fraction of a microsecond. Other techniques that have been used are:
For shortest path problems in computational geometry, see Euclidean shortest path.
The travelling salesman problem is the problem of finding the shortest path that goes through every vertex exactly once, and returns to the start. Unlike the shortest path problem, which can be solved in polynomial time in graphs without negative cycles, the travelling salesman problem is NP - complete and, as such, is believed not to be efficiently solvable for large sets of data (see P = NP problem). The problem of finding the longest path in a graph is also NP - complete.
The Canadian traveller problem and the stochastic shortest path problem are generalizations where either the graph is n't completely known to the mover, changes over time, or where actions (traversals) are probabilistic.
The shortest multiple disconnected path is a representation of the primitive path network within the framework of Reptation theory.
The widest path problem seeks a path so that the minimum label of any edge is as large as possible.
Sometimes, the edges in a graph have personalities: each edge has its own selfish interest. An example is a communication network, in which each edge is a computer that possibly belongs to a different person. Different computers have different transmission speeds, so every edge in the network has a numeric weight equal to the number of milliseconds it takes to transmit a message. Our goal is to send a message between two points in the network in the shortest time possible. If we know the transmission - time of each computer (the weight of each edge), then we can use a standard shortest - paths algorithm. If we do not know the transmission times, then we have to ask each computer to tell us its transmission - time. But, the computers may be selfish: a computer might tell us that its transmission time is very long, so that we will not bother it with our messages. A possible solution to this problem is to use a variant of the VCG mechanism, which gives the computers an incentive to reveal their true weights.
There is a natural linear programming formulation for the shortest path problem, given below. It is very simple compared to most other uses of linear programs in discrete optimization, however it illustrates connections to other concepts.
Given a directed graph (V, A) with source node s, target node t, and cost w for each edge (i, j) in A, consider the program with variables x
The intuition behind this is that x i j (\ displaystyle x_ (ij)) is an indicator variable for whether edge (i, j) is part of the shortest path: 1 when it is, and 0 if it is not. We wish to select the set of edges with minimal weight, subject to the constraint that this set forms a path from s to t (represented by the equality constraint: for all vertices except s and t the number of incoming and outcoming edges that are part of the path must be the same (i.e., that it should be a path from s to t).
This LP has the special property that it is integral; more specifically, every basic optimal solution (when one exists) has all variables equal to 0 or 1, and the set of edges whose variables equal 1 form an s - t dipath. See Ahuja et al. for one proof, although the origin of this approach dates back to mid-20th century.
The dual for this linear program is
and feasible duals correspond to the concept of a consistent heuristic for the A * algorithm for shortest paths. For any feasible dual y the reduced costs w i j ′ = w i j − y j + y i (\ displaystyle w'_ (ij) = w_ (ij) - y_ (j) + y_ (i)) are nonnegative and A * essentially runs Dijkstra 's algorithm on these reduced costs.
Many problems can be framed as a form of the shortest path for some suitably substituted notions of addition along a path and taking the minimum. The general approach to these is to consider the two operations to be those of a semiring. Semiring multiplication is done along the path, and the addition is between paths. This general framework is known as the algebraic path problem.
Most of the classic shortest - path algorithms (and new ones) can be formulated as solving linear systems over such algebraic structures.
More recently, an even more general framework for solving these (and much less obviously related problems) has been developed under the banner of valuation algebras.
In real - life situations, the transportation network is usually stochastic and time - dependent. In fact, a traveler traversing a link daily may experiences different travel times on that link due not only to the fluctuations in travel demand (origin - destination matrix) but also due to such incidents as work zones, bad weather conditions, accidents and vehicle breakdowns. As a result, a stochastic time - dependent (STD) network is a more realistic representation of an actual road network compared with the deterministic one.
Despite considerable progress during the course of the past decade, it remains a controversial question how an optimal path should be defined and identified in stochastic road networks. In other words, there is no unique definition of an optimal path under uncertainty. One possible and common answer to this question is to find a path with the minimum expected travel time. The main advantage of using this approach is that efficient shortest path algorithms introduced for the deterministic networks can be readily employed to identify the path with the minimum expected travel time in a stochastic network. However, the resulting optimal path identified by this approach may not be reliable, because this approach fails to address travel time variability. To tackle this issue some researchers use distribution of travel time instead of expected value of it so they find the probability distribution of total traveling time using different optimization methods such as dynamic programming and Dijkstra 's algorithm. These methods use stochastic optimization, specifically stochastic dynamic programming to find the shortest path in networks with probabilistic arc length. It should be noted that the concept of travel time reliability is used interchangeably with travel time variability in the transportation research literature, so that, in general, one can say that the higher the variability in travel time, the lower the reliability would be, and vice versa.
In order to account for travel time reliability more accurately, two common alternative definitions for an optimal path under uncertainty have been suggested. Some have introduced the concept of the most reliable path, aiming to maximize the probability of arriving on time or earlier than a given travel time budget. Others, alternatively, have put forward the concept of an α - reliable path based on which they intended to minimize the travel time budget required to ensure a pre-specified on - time arrival probability.
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when is fortnite coming out of early access | Fortnite - wikipedia
Fortnite is a co-op sandbox survival video game developed by Epic Games and People Can Fly, the former also publishing the game. The game was released as a paid early access title for Microsoft Windows, macOS, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on July 25, 2017, with a full free - to - play release expected in 2018.
Fortnite is set in contemporary Earth, where the sudden appearance of a worldwide storm causes 98 % of the world 's population to disappear, and zombie - like creatures rise to attack the remainder. Considered by Epic as a cross between Minecraft and Left 4 Dead, Fortnite has up to four players cooperating on various missions on randomly - generated maps to collect resources, build fortifications around defensive objectives that are meant to help fight the storm and protect survivors, and construct weapons and traps to engage in combat with waves of these creatures that attempt to destroy the objectives. Players gain rewards through these missions to improve their hero characters, support teams, and arsenal of weapon and trap schematics to be able to take on more difficult missions. The game is supported through microtransactions to purchase in - game currency that can be used towards these upgrades.
A standalone mode, Fortnite Battle Royale, based on the battle royale genre, was released for Windows, macOS, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One in September 2017.
One day, 98 % of Earth 's population suddenly disappeared, and the remaining population found the skies covered in dense clouds, creating chaotic storms that dropped husks, humanoid zombie - like creatures, that attacked the living. The survivors found ways to construct "storm shields '', a field that cleared the storm clouds from immediately overhead and reduced the attacks from husks, and used these to set up survivor bases across the globe. The player is a commander of one of these bases, charged with going out of the storm shield to find resources, survivors, and other allies to help expand their storm shield and find a way to return Earth to its normal state.
Currently, Fortnite provides two distinct modes: a player - versus - environment "Save the World '', and a player - versus - player "Battle Royale ''. The latter mode was added after Fortnite 's initial early access launch, and later offered as a separate free - to - play mode on September 26, 2017, that does not require the base game to play.
The "Save the World '' mode is described as a co-op sandbox survival game and is about exploration, scavenging items, crafting weapons, building fortified structures, and fighting waves of encroaching monsters. Tim Sweeney, Epic 's founder, described the game as "Minecraft meets Left 4 Dead ''. The game cycles between managing one 's resources at a safe home base, and then going out on missions to complete quests as to collect resources and obtain rewards to advance the game 's story.
In the meta - game, the player has an inventory of weapon and trap schematics, hero characters, defender characters, and support characters, along with collected resources. Schematics are used to construct weapons and traps when on the field. Hero characters represent characters from one of four classes that the player can use while on mission, as well as used to undertake resource - gathering missions making them unavailable to use until they return from the mission. Defender characters can be summoned to help with defense but only if there are less than four players on a mission. Support characters are used to form various non-playable squads that provide passive bonuses to the player 's attack strength, building speed, armor, and health, with additional benefits if the player can match certain characterization attributes within a squad. The player can spend different types of experience points and resources earned as mission rewards, from loot boxes (represented as llama pinatas), or other sources to level up and evolve schematics and characters. For weapons and traps, this generally boosts their effectiveness as well as unlocking additional attribute bonuses, while leveling up hero characters will unlock special skills the character has while in the field. Schematics and characters are generally assigned a rarity, which determines how much they can be leveled and evolved. A player 's inventory of schematics and characters is limited, but players can opt to slot any one they do not need into a collection book to gain rewards when certain collection sets are completed; use one or more of these schematics or characters to transform them into a new random item, or simply retire them to gain back experience points and other resources to free up the inventory slots.
The player also can spend skill points, earned by completing missions, and technology points, earned over time, to unlock new skills and technologies in the game 's skill and technologies trees. These can improve a player 's base attributes, attributes that are shared with the other players while on missions, unlock higher levels of evolution for schematics and characters, open up new squad positions, or unlock general skills that players can use in the field. Collectively, the player 's progress on these skill and technology trees, their squad composition, and their selected hero character make up the player 's current "power level '' which relates to what difficulty of missions the player should take and the game 's matchmaking services. Also, players can review their current story progress and quests, which can include daily, side, and event quests, which when completed provide in - game currency or resources.
Mission are currently divided between four world locations, some available only after progressing far enough in the story, and special locations for timed events and for the Survive the Storm mode. Within a location are several possible mission areas that show the type of mission, the terrain it takes place on, its difficulty rating relative to the player 's current power level, and whether the mission is currently under special "storm '' conditions that throw random effects, like buffed husks or mini-bosses, into the mission but have potentially better rewards if completed. The player optionally can select a special site that automatically matches them with players at similar power level and story progression on a random mission for added rewards.
Most missions take place on procedurally - generated landscapes. Most missions are based on locating site (s) representing the objectives on the map, build up fortifications around those locations, and then face off against several waves of husks that will try to destroy the objectives. During completion of these missions, players are generally given a "storm forecast '' to know where husks will spawn in as to enhance fortification in that direction, though this direction can change in more difficult missions. Other missions are time - limited, requiring the players to locate and help a number of survivors, build out several radar towers, or clear out various encampment of husks scattered around the map before time runs out. These missions encourage the players to explore the map and farm for resources (either by searching objects or destroying them with an axe) used to build the fortifications, weapons, ammunition, and traps needed to defend or attack the husks. Players also frequently need to seek out bluglo, a special resource that does not carry over between maps to activate certain mission objectives. Some missions are considered a loss if the objective is destroyed or time runs out, while other missions allow the players to rework their fortifications and start their defense again if the objective is destroyed. Maps will frequently have optional objectives that are discovered through exploration, such as human survivors that need help. Completing these successfully earn immediate in - game rewards such as resources, weapons, and traps. Missions themselves may provide bonus objectives, such as by completing the mission within a certain in - game period, using a limited number of fortification pieces, or saving more survivors than the minimum necessary, which affects the qualify of rewards the players receive after the successful completion of the main mission.
During missions, players can make their fortifications from one of three base materials (wood, brick, and metal), and in a number of configurations, including floors / ceilings, walls, stairs, and ramps; players have the ability to edit these for more configurations, such as adding a door or window to a wall. Each fortification part can be upgraded with more resources of the same type to improve their durability, and when they are damaged, can be repaired by spending additional resources. Traps, which have a limited number of activation before they fall apart, can be placed on floors, walls, and ceilings, and arranged in means to make them more lethal or effective against husks. Traps may also include beneficial resources for players, such as healing pads, defender posts, and launch pads. Similarly, players can use a range of weapons but these have limited durability that drops as they are used or as a penalty if the player should be downed by husks and need to respawn without help of allies. Players can construct new weapons, ammo, and traps from gathered resources, or find these from searching containers across the map. During missions, the game progresses through an accelerated day - night cycle; during the day, the husks are more passive and do not generally pose immediate threats, while during the night, bands of husks may spawn in and will aggressively seek out players.
One unique mission type are Storm Shield Defense missions. In each of the four world locations, the player is allocated a map that remains persistent, representing the site where their base 's storm shield generator is placed, and in the storm mode, the player must return to this map to expand the storm shield, requiring them to add a new objective to defend successfully to continue the story. At any time, the player can enter this map without starting the defense mission, and use their carried - over resources to built out the fortification and traps, or add resources to a special storage area for this map.
Fortnite is also able to offer themed - events with a unique progression line, new locations, and rewards based on those themes. The first such event was its Halloween event, "Fortnitemares '', that offered Halloween - themed heroes, characters, weapons and traps (usable outside of the event) by completing numerous objectives.
Fortnite 's "Battle Royale '' mode follows similar gameplay mechanics as other battle royale games, particularly PlayerUnknown 's Battlegrounds. This mode supports up to 100 players, either individuals or up to four - man squads, attempting to be the last man or team standing as they hunt other players and avoid being killed themselves. Players all start with no equipment outside of a pickaxe for resource gathering, and parachute onto the map. Once they land, they can scavenge for weapons, armor, and resources, the latter which can be used to make structures in the same manner as the "Save the World '' mode. Over time, a "storm '' surrounds the area, and makes it so that the "safe '' area of the map shrinks down in size. Once the "safe '' area has shrunk to the smaller circle on the map (a thin, white circle), it will generate, at a random location, a smaller circle within. Those caught outside the area take damage and potentially die if they remain outside it too long. There are also random air drops of resources, weapons and items that may require players to construct floors and ramps to access, with varying randomized items determined by rarity. Players can use real money to purchase in - game currency, which can be used to purchase cosmetic items.
During The Game Awards 2017 on December 7, 2017, Epic announced and released a time - limited 50 - versus - 50 mode for Battle Royale, the first of several planned game modes. In this, players are randomly assigned to one of two teams, and play until only members from one team remain, with all other Battle Royale mechanics otherwise in place. The mode encourages players on a team to work together to scavenge resources in anticipation of the smaller safe areas, and then to build up forts when the safe area is small enough, protecting their own fortifications while trying to damage the other teams ' and finish off the remaining players.
Fortnite was first revealed at the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards (VGA), with Epic 's former design director Cliff Bleszinski introducing a trailer for the game. Donald Mustard, creative lead at Epic, said in 2017 that this announcement was "three weeks after we came up with the idea, before we even made the game ''. The title, which started out as an internal game jam project, represents a departure from the company 's previous work. As Bleszinski explained during the Spike event, Epic wanted to "switch things up a little bit and do something different and fun '' with Fortnite, describing it as "a world where you explore, you scavenge, you build and ultimately you survive. '' In an interview with Engadget, he also echoed these statements, claiming that the game would be different from the Gears of War series: "There 's no dudebros in it... Not that there 's anything wrong with that, right? But creatively for the team, Gears has been amazing for us. But it 's fun to kind of stretch our wings and do something that 's a little different from the usual. '' Epic Games Vice President of Publishing Mike Fischer said in 2015 that Epic recognized that they "announced this game too soon '', and that its lengthy development was due to "very good reasons ''.
As the game was at its very preliminary stages at the VGA reveal, the goal of this reveal was to seek public interest in the title and potential publishing partners as to decide on the game 's release platforms and timeframe. During the July 2012 San Diego Comic Con, Epic announced that Fortnite would be an exclusive personal computer title, and the first one to be developed by Epic using their new Unreal 4 game engine, with a planned release in 2013. The game 's development was originally started in the Unreal 3 engine, but as they progressed, they had seen the opportunity to work in several of the new feature sets and scripting language offered by Unreal 4 for Fortnite, while still running on most personal computers at that time. They further opted for personal computer exclusivity to avoid the difficulty of having to go through console certification, and as they planned to be constantly monitoring and tweaking the game, acting as a dungeon master, the personal computer approach would allow them to do this without restrictions normally set by console manfuctures. Bleszinski later clarified that they would not rule out release on other platforms as they developed the title.
Fortnite 's development was spread among several of Epic 's satellite studios, and was also co-developed by the Polish studio People Can Fly, which had worked with Epic previously on earlier games, and had been fully acquired by Epic sometime in 2012. People Can Fly were briefly renamed Epic Games Poland in 2013 as to align with Epic 's other studios. By March 2014, there were about 90 developers working on the game. People Can Fly later returned to being an independent studio and their own name in 2015, but continued to help Epic with Fortnite 's development.
During Fortnite 's development, Epic had seen the game industry shifting to games as a service model. To help with this transition, the company brought in Tencent who had several games operating under this model. As part of this agreement, Tencent bought a significant share of ownership in Epic Games through stock acquisition around June 2012. The shifting of Epic 's approach through Tencent led to the departure of some high - level staff later that year, including Bleszinski. Fortnite was seen as the spearhead for Epic 's games - as - a-service model as they collaborated with Tencent. This caused some road bumps in the development of Fortnite, according to Mustard. Fortnite 's development was also slowed as it was used as the testing ground for the new features of the Unreal 4 engine.
By November 2013, Epic confirmed that Fortnite would not release that year, nor offered a target released date, through affirmed the game was still in development by several of its studios. Fortnite was a feature in the May 2014 issue of Game Informer, revealing that the title would be released as a free - to - play game.
By 2014, Fortnite was at a "pretty functional prototype '' with most of the Unreal 4 engine elements smoothed out, according to Mustard. Epic anticipated it would still take about three more years to complete, not only in polishing and balancing the game, but setting in place the necessary backend elements for the games - as - a-service model. To help support development and get player feedback, Epic used two closed alpha test periods. The game 's first closed alpha, called Online Test 1, ran from December 2 to 19, 2014, while Online Test 2 ran from March 24 to April 14, 2015. Epic said the first alpha was designed to help it "make sure all of our basic systems are working '' and establish "a baseline for how people play in order to make Fortnite better. '' After being demoed at WWDC 2015 on Mac, Fortnite entered closed beta testing in the fall of 2015. Approximately 50,000 players participated in these periods.
Fortnite was being developed alongside Paragon, which Epic announced on November 2015. As Paragon seemed to take Epic 's focus, leaving little news about Fortnite, CEO Tim Sweeney said in March 2016 that they were still committed to Fortnite once Paragon was launched and established, given that much of the work on Fortnite would take time to get the right balance for gameplay. "We figure we should start with one major successful launch and do one at a time. Fortnite will be next. ''
By July 2017, Epic Games announced that Fortnite was now set for a 2018 release across Windows, macOS, and the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One consoles. Leading up to this free - to - play release, the game was offered as a paid early access period starting on July 25, 2017 for all platforms; those that purchases access would be given a "Founders '' status in - game with additional perks that would extend into the free - to - play game. The lengthy period since the game 's alpha phases was ascribed to developing Fortnite as a games - as - a-service model, according to creative lead Donald Mustard. While the game was in a playable state for the two years prior, Epic wanted to be able to develop ongoing content to players to keep them interested in the title, such as planning timed events with unique rewards, following in the approach used by games like League of Legends and Warframe. At the time of the start of early access, Epic announced that Gearbox Software will help distribute the game on physical media once it is released.
In their initial prototypes of the game, Epic had used more creepier and darker designs for the husks and other enemies. Bleszinski said that they found this to create an "exhaustive environment '' that was too grim, and designed to take the design in a more cartoonish approach, while still remaining creepy, so that players would enjoy spending time in the game 's world, nor try to compete with games like DayZ. They used works from Pixar, Tim Burton, and Looney Tunes as inspiration for the designs.
Fortnite uses procedural generation to build out the maps for each mission. The game also includes an "AI director '' that monitors how players are progressing, and alters the challenges of the monsters it sends out to the players based on that progression, easing off if players are having greater difficulty in surviving. At one point, the game had a team - based player versus player mode, where each side attempted to build up a base around a central target while trying to attack the opponent 's target after breaking through their base. This did not make it into the final game.
Epic currently has cross-platform play between PC and PS4 and has stated plans to allow separate Fortnite cross-platform support for Xbox One and personal computer users, but cross-platform play between all three platforms has not been announced. However, for a few hours during one day in September 2017, players found they could cross-play between all three platforms. Epic later corrected this, calling it a "configuration error ''.
In March 2017, PlayerUnknown 's Battlegrounds was released on personal computers in early access, and quickly became a popular and successful game, becoming the defining example of the battle royale genre. According to Mustard, the Epic team "loved Battle Royale games like (Battlegrounds) '', and explored how they could make a similar mode within Fortnite 's engine. They kept this mode in a separate development team from the main player versus environment modes for experimentation and as to not throw off the balance in the main game.
The Battle Royale mode for Fortnite was announced in early September 2017 for release to early access users on September 26, 2017. However, within a week, Epic changed plans and decided to offer this mode as a standalone free - to - play game for Windows, macOS, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One platforms to be released on September 26, 2017; those that had purchased early access to Fortnite in anticipation of this mode were offered refunds. This release, which beat out Battlegrounds to consoles, caused some concern with Battlegrounds developer Bluehole, as they had been working closely with Epic for Unreal engine support in Battlegrounds, and were worried that Fortnite may be able to include planned features to their Battle royale mode before they could release those in Battlegrounds.
With the popularity of Fortnite: Battle Royale by the start of 2018, Epic split off a separate development team to focus on improvements for that mode. Epic said that their attention to Fortnite was causing some of their other games to see lower player populations, leading them to reduce development efforts on these games, particularly Paragon. By the end of January 2018, Epic announced it was shutting down Paragon by April of that year, providing refunds to all players. Players on a Fortnite - dedicated Reddit forum had expressed concerns that a similar fate could befall the Save the World mode of Fortnite, as externally, the Save the World mode has not received the same attention in providing updates and improvements compared to the Battle Royale mode since that mode 's release.
On July 26, 2017, it was announced that Fortnite had sold over 500,000 digital pre-order copies. On August 18, 2017, Epic confirmed that Fortnite had surpassed over one million players. The game 's free - to - play battle royale mode obtained over 10 million players two weeks after its release.
Eurogamer ranked the game 32nd on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017 ''. It was also nominated for "Best Co-op Game '' in PC Gamer 's 2017 Game of the Year Awards, and for "Best Spectator Game '' in IGN 's Best of 2017 Awards.
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aztecs founded tenochtitlan in 1325 to 1350 a.d. today tenochtitlan is known as | Tenochtitlan - wikipedia
Tenochtitlan (Spanish: Tenochtitlan, Spanish pronunciation: (ˈmexiko tenotʃˈtitlan) (listen)), originally known as México - Tenochtitlán (Classical Nahuatl: Mēxihco - Tenōchtitlan (meːˈʃíʔ. ko te. noːt͡ʃ. ˈtí. t͡ɬan)), was a large Mexica city - state in what is now the center of Mexico City. Founded on June 20, 1325, the city was built on an island in what was then Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico. The city was the capital of the expanding Aztec Empire in the 15th century until it was captured by the Spanish in 1521.
At its peak, it was the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas. It subsequently became a cabecera of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Today, the ruins of Tenochtitlan are in the historic center of the Mexican capital.
Tenochtitlan was one of two Nahua āltēpetl (city - states) on the island, the other being Tlatelolco.
Traditionally, the name Tenochtitlan was thought to come from Nahuatl tetl (ˈtetɬ) ("rock '') and nōchtli (ˈnoːtʃtɬi) ("prickly pear '') and is often thought to mean, "Among the prickly pears (growing among) rocks ''. However, one attestation in the late 16th - century manuscript known as "the Bancroft dialogues '' suggest the second vowel was short, so that the true etymology remains uncertain.
Tenochtitlan covered an estimated 8 to 13.5 km (3.1 to 5.2 sq mi), situated on the western side of the shallow Lake Texcoco.
At the time of Spanish conquests, Mexico City comprised both Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco. The city extended from north to south, from the north border of Tlatelolco to the swamps, which by that time were gradually disappearing to the west; the city ended more or less at the present location of Avenida Bucareli.
The city was connected to the mainland by bridges and causeways leading to the north, south, and west. The causeways were interrupted by bridges that allowed canoes and other water traffic to pass freely. The bridges could be pulled away, if necessary, to defend the city. The city was interlaced with a series of canals, so that all sections of the city could be visited either on foot or via canoe.
Lake Texcoco was the largest of five interconnected lakes. Since it formed in an endorheic basin, Lake Texcoco was brackish. During the reign of Moctezuma I, the "levee of Nezahualcoyotl '' was constructed, reputedly designed by Nezahualcoyotl. Estimated to be 12 to 16 km (7.5 to 9.9 mi) in length, the levee was completed circa 1453. The levee kept fresh spring - fed water in the waters around Tenochtitlan and kept the brackish waters beyond the dike, to the east.
Two double aqueducts, each more than 4 km (2.5 mi) long and made of terracotta, provided the city with fresh water from the springs at Chapultepec. This was intended mainly for cleaning and washing. For drinking, water from mountain springs was preferred. Most of the population liked to bathe twice a day; Moctezuma was said to take four baths a day. According to the context of Aztec culture in literature, the soap that they most likely used was the root of a plant called copalxocotl (Saponaria americana), and to clean their clothes they used the root of metl (Agave americana). Also, the upper classes and pregnant women washed themselves in a temazcalli, similar to a sauna bath, which is still used in the south of Mexico. This was also popular in other Mesoamerican cultures.
When we saw so many cities and villages built in the water and other great towns on dry land we were amazed and said that it was like the enchantments (...) on account of the great towers and cues and buildings rising from the water, and all built of masonry. And some of our soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream? (...) I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never been heard of or seen before, not even dreamed about.
The city was divided into four zones, or camps; each camp was divided into 20 districts (calpullis, Nahuatl calpōlli); and each calpulli, or ' big house ', was crossed by streets or tlaxilcalli. There were three main streets that crossed the city, each leading to one of the three causeways to the mainland of Tepeyac, Ixtapalpa, and Tlacopan. Bernal Díaz del Castillo reported that they were wide enough for ten horses. Surrounding the raised causeways were artificial floating gardens with canal waterways and gardens of plants, shrubs, and trees. The calpullis were divided by channels used for transportation, with wood bridges that were removed at night.
The earliest European images of the city were woodcuts published in Augsburg around 1522.
Each calpulli (from Classical Nahuatl calpōlli, Nahuatl pronunciation: (kaɬˈpoːlːi), meaning "large house '') had its own tiyanquiztli (marketplace), but there was also a main marketplace in Tlatelolco -- Tenochtitlan 's sister city. Cortés estimated it was twice the size of the city of Salamanca with about 60,000 people trading daily. Bernardino de Sahagún provides a more conservative population estimate of 20,000 on ordinary days and 40,000 on feast days. There were also specialized markets in the other central Mexican cities.
In the center of the city were the public buildings, temples, and palaces. Inside a walled square, 500 meters to a side, was the ceremonial center. There were about 45 public buildings, including: the Templo Mayor, which was dedicated to the Aztec patron deity Huitzilopochtli and the Rain God Tlaloc; the temple of Quetzalcoatl; the tlachtli (ball game court) with the tzompantli or rack of skulls; the Sun Temple, which was dedicated to Tonatiuh; the Eagle 's House, which was associated with warriors and the ancient power of rulers; the platforms for the gladiatorial sacrifice; and some minor temples.
Outside was the palace of Moctezuma with 100 rooms, each with its own bath, for the lords and ambassadors of allies and conquered people. Also located nearby was the cuicalli, or house of the songs, and the calmecac.
The city had great symmetry. All constructions had to be approved by the calmimilocatl, a functionary in charge of the city planning.
The palace of Moctezuma II also had two houses or zoos, one for birds of prey and another for other birds, reptiles, and mammals. About 300 people were dedicated to the care of the animals.
There was also a botanical garden and an aquarium. The aquarium had ten ponds of salt water and ten ponds of fresh water, containing various fish and aquatic birds. Places like this also existed in Texcoco, Chapultepec, Huaxtepec (now called Oaxtepec), and Texcotzingo.
Tenochtitlan can be considered the most complex society in Mesoamerica in regard to social stratification. The complex system involved many social classes. The macehualtin were commoners who lived outside the island city of Tenochtitlan. The pipiltin were noblemen who were relatives of leaders and former leaders, and lived in the confines of the island. Cuauhipiltin, or eagle nobles, were commoners who impressed the nobles with their martial prowess, and were treated as nobles. Teteuctin were the highest class, rulers of various parts of the empire, including the king. Tlacohtin were individuals who chose to enslave themselves to pay back a debt; they were not slaves forever and were not treated as badly as typical slaves seen in other ancient civilizations worldwide. Finally, the pochteca were merchants who traveled all of Mesoamerica trading. The membership of this class was based on heredity. Pochteca could become very rich because they did not pay taxes, but they had to sponsor the ritual feast of Xocotl Huetzi from the wealth that they obtained from their trade expeditions.
Status was displayed by location and type of house where a person lived. Ordinary people lived in houses made of reeds plastered with mud and roofed with thatch. People who were better off had houses of adobe brick with flat roofs. The wealthy had houses of stone masonry with flat roofs. They most likely made up the house complexes that were arranged around the inner court. The higher officials in Tenochtitlan lived in the great palace complexes that made up the city.
Adding even more complexity to Aztec social stratification was the calpolli. Calpolli, meaning ' big house ' is a group of families related by either kinship or proximity. These groups consist of both elite members of Aztec society and commoners. Elites provided commoners with arable land and nonagricultural occupations, and commoners performed services for chiefs and gave tribute.
Tenochtitlan was the capital of the Mexican civilization of the Mexica people, founded in 1325. The state religion of the Mexica civilization awaited the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy: the wandering tribes would find the destined site for a great city whose location would be signaled by an eagle with a snake in its beak perched atop a (Opuntia) cactus.
The Mexica saw this vision on what was then a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco, a vision that is now immortalized in Mexico 's coat of arms and on the Mexican flag. Not deterred by the unfavourable terrain, they set about building their city, using the chinampa system (misnamed as "floating gardens '') for agriculture and to dry and expand the island.
A thriving culture developed, and the Mexica civilization came to dominate other tribes around Mexico. The small natural island was perpetually enlarged as Tenochtitlan grew to become the largest and most powerful city in Mesoamerica. Commercial routes were developed that brought goods from places as far as the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific Ocean and perhaps even the Inca Empire.
After a flood of Lake Texcoco, the city was rebuilt under the rule of Ahuitzotl in a style that made it one of the grandest ever in Mesoamerica.
Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519. With an estimated population between 200,000 and 300,000, many scholars believe Tenochtitlan to have been among the largest cities in the world at that time. Compared to the cities of Europe, only Paris, Venice and Constantinople might have rivaled it. It was five times the size of the London of Henry VIII. In a letter to the Spanish king, Cortés wrote that Tenochtitlan was as large as Seville or Córdoba. Cortes ' men were in awe at the sight of the splendid city and many wondered if they were dreaming.
Although some popular sources put the number as high as 350,000, the most common estimates of the population are of over 200,000 people. One of the few comprehensive academic surveys of Mesoamerican city and town sizes arrived at a population of 212,500 living on 13.5 km (5.2 sq mi), It is also said that at one time, Moctezuma had rule over an empire of almost five million people in central and southern Mexico because he had extended his rule to surrounding territories to gain tribute and prisoners to sacrifice to the gods.
When Cortés and his men arrived in Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma II, who precariously ruled over a large empire, chose to welcome Cortés as an honored guest, rather than risk a war which might quickly be joined by aggrieved indigenous people. Moctezuma may have feared that Cortés was the returning god Quetzalcoat, because the Spanish arrival coincided with the close of an Aztec calendar cycle consistent with such a return. This claim is found in the Florenino Codex, among other early sources, and accepted as true in many later histories. However, some scholars doubt it.
As Cortés approached Tenochtitlan, the natives celebrated Toxcatl. At this event the most prominent warriors of altepetl would dance in front of a huge statue of Huitzilopochtli. The Spanish leader, Pedro de Alvarado, who was left in charge, worried that the natives planned a surprise attack. He captured three natives and tortured them until they said that this was indeed true. There was no proof, however, but Alvarado decided to attack first. During the festival, the Spaniards came heavily armed and closed off every exit from the courtyard so that no one would escape. This happened during their last days in Tenochtitlan..
Nobles lined each side of the city 's main causeway, which extended about a league. Walking down the center came Moctezuma II, with two lords at his side, one his brother, the ruler of Iztapalapa. Cortés dismounted and was greeted by the ruler and his lords, but forbidden to touch him. Cortés gave him a necklace of crystals, placing it over his neck.
They were then brought to a large house that would serve as their home for their stay in the city. Once they were settled, Moctezuma himself sat down and spoke with Cortés. The great ruler declared that anything that they needed would be theirs to have. He was thrilled to have visitors of such stature. Although the Spaniards were seeking gold, Moctezuma expressed that he had very little of the sort, but all of it was to be given to Cortés if he desired it.
Since arriving in Tenochtitlan, Cortés faced early trouble. Leaving a post in Vera Cruz, the officer left in charge received a letter from Qualpopoca, the leader of Almería, asking to become a vassal of the Spaniards. He requested that officials be sent to him so that he could confirm his submission. To reach the province, the officers would have to travel through hostile land. The officer in charge of Vera Cruz decided to send four officers to meet with Qualpopoca.
When they arrived, they were captured and two were killed, the other two escaping through the woods. Upon their return to Vera Cruz, the officer in charge was infuriated, and led troops to storm Almería. Here they learned that Moctezuma was supposedly the one who ordered the officers executed. Back in Tenochtitlan, Cortés detained Moctezuma and questioned him. Though no serious conclusions were reached, this started the relationship between Moctezuma and the Spaniards on a bad note.
Cortés subsequently besieged Tenochtitlan for 75 days, causing a famine; directed the systematic destruction and leveling of the city; and began its rebuilding, despite opposition, with a central area designated for Spanish use (the traza). The outer Indian section, now dubbed San Juan Tenochtitlan, continued to be governed by the previous indigenous elite and was divided into the same subdivisions as before. While the people of Tenochtitlan were celebrating the few Spaniards who were not able to escape and were killed, the city was in great ruins.
The people of Tenochtitlan were exposed to diseases. Someone who was exposed would not feel it for the first ten days, then the disease would spread throughout the body, causing many sores, pain in the body and high fever. People were weak to the point that they could not move, nor obtain food and water. They could n't cook or bury the remaining dead bodies from the conquest. The population of the people of Tenochtitlan began to starve and weaken. The death toll rose steadily over the course of the next 60 days.
Tenochtitlan 's main temple complex, the Templo Mayor, was dismantled and the central district of the Spanish colonial city was constructed on top of it. The great temple was destroyed by the Spanish during the construction of a cathedral. The location of the Templo Mayor was rediscovered in the early 20th century, but major excavations did not take place until 1978 -- 1982, after utility workers came across a massive stone disc depicting the nude dismembered body of the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui. The disc is 3.25 meters in diameter (or 10.5 ft), and is held at the Templo Mayor Museum.
The ruins, constructed over seven periods, were built on top of each other. The resulting weight of the structures caused them to sink into the sediment of Lake Texcoco; the ruins now rest at an angle instead of horizontally.
Mexico City 's Zócalo, the Plaza de la Constitución, is located at the site of Tenochtitlan 's original central plaza and market, and many of the original calzadas still correspond to modern city streets. The Aztec calendar stone was located in the ruins. This stone is 4 meters in diameter and weighs over 20 tons. It was once located half - way up the great pyramid. This sculpture was carved around 1470 under the rule of King Axayacatl, the predecessor of Tizoc, and is said to tell the history of the Mexicas and to prophesy the future.
In August 1987, archaeologists discovered a mix of 1,789 human bones five metres below street level in Mexico City. The burial dates back to the 1480s and lies at the foot of the main temple in the sacred ceremonial precinct of the Aztec capital. The bones are from children, teenagers and adults and a complete skeleton of a young woman was also found at the site.
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who played grandma pearl in big fat liar | Big Fat Liar - wikipedia
Big Fat Liar is a 2002 American teen comedy film, directed by Shawn Levy, written by Dan Schneider and Brian Robbins, and starring Frankie Muniz, Paul Giamatti, Amanda Bynes, Amanda Detmer, Donald Faison, Lee Majors, Russell Hornsby, and Kenan Thompson.
The film tells a story about a 14 - year - old pathological liar, Jason Shepherd (Muniz), whose creative writing assignment is stolen by an arrogant Hollywood producer, Marty Wolf (Giamatti), who later plans to use it to make the fictional film of the same name. The film is an allusion to the Aesop 's Fable, The Boy Who Cried Wolf, with Jason Shepherd being analogous to the shepherd boy in the story and Marty Wolf, analogous to the wolf. It was released in the United States on February 8, 2002.
Jason Shepherd is a 14 - year - old chronic liar who is constantly deceiving and misleading his way out of trouble. He tries to get out of his creative writing essay by making up a lie, but eventually gets caught by his English teacher Phyllis Caldwell, who alerts his parents. He is given three hours to submit his essay. Otherwise, he will fail English and go to summer school. Jason writes a story titled "Big Fat Liar '', based on the lies he has told throughout his life. On his way to turn it in, he is struck by the limousine of movie producer Marty Wolf, head of Wolf Pictures, who gives him a ride. Along the way, Marty reveals that he also tells lies and that, "The truth is overrated. '' In a rush, Jason accidentally forgets his essay in the limo upon arriving. Marty initially tries to return it, but is inspired by the story when he reads it and decides to keep it for himself.
Jason realizes his essay is missing and explains what happened, but his parents and Caldwell do not believe him, and he is sent to summer school to repeat English. Later, he and his best friend Kaylee see a preview for a film produced by Wolf Pictures titled Big Fat Liar and recognize that it had been plagiarized from Jason 's essay.
Determined to convince his parents he was being truthful after having lost their trust, Jason and Kaylee fly to Los Angeles to confront Marty while their parents are out of town. Upon arrival, they trick limo driver and struggling actor Frank Jackson into giving them a ride to the Marty Wolf Pictures studio. Jason sneaks into Marty 's office, hoping to convince him to tell his parents what really happened, but Marty burns the essay and has Jason and Kaylee thrown out. Angered, the two decide to inconvenience him until he confesses, with Frank joining them due to his own troubled history with Marty. After gathering information about Marty 's cruel and abusive treatment of his employees, they begin to sabotage him through various pranks, such as dyeing his skin blue and hair orange, super gluing his headset, sending him to a child 's birthday party where he is mistaken for the hired clown, and tampering the controls to his car.
These pranks make Marty miss an appointment with his boss, Universal Pictures president Marcus Duncan. After Marty 's film Whitaker and Fowl proves to be a critical and commercial failure, Marcus loses confidence in him and threatens to pull the plug on Big Fat Liar. Jason approaches Marty and agrees to help in exchange for his confession. Guided by Jason, Marty makes a successful presentation which gets Big Fat Liar green - lit, but Marcus warns Marty any mistakes will make Universal pull funding and end his career. Marty betrays Jason again and calls security to arrest him and Kaylee. Marty 's assistant, Monty Kirkham, decides to help Jason and Kaylee expose him, having grown tired of his repeated verbal abuse. They rally all of his employees and devise a plan to expose him for good, while Jason has his parents fly to Los Angeles.
The next morning, as Marty heads to the studio to begin shooting, many of his employees cause him to be late through multiple mishaps. As Marty finally arrives at the studio, he witnesses Jason kidnapping his stuffed monkey toy Mr. Funnybones. After a chase across the studio, Marty catches Jason and retrieves his toy. He taunts Jason and tells him he will never reveal the truth to anyone while admitting that he stole Jason 's paper and turned it into Big Fat Liar. The entire conversation is revealed to have been caught on camera and is witnessed by many people, including Jason 's parents and the news media. Disgusted by his plagiarism and dishonesty, Marcus fires Marty - whom Jason then thanks for teaching him the importance of truth - telling. Marty furiously attempts to get revenge on Jason, but he escapes and reunites with his parents - regaining their trust in the process. Universal produces Big Fat Liar, utilizing the talents and skills of people whom Marty had abused.
Frank Jackson stars as the film 's lead character, and the film is released in theaters to critical success, with Jason receiving credit for writing the original story, making Jason 's parents and Caldwell proud of him.
Elsewhere, Marty begin his new job as a birthday clown.
Kenan Thompson, Dustin Diamond, Shawn Levy, Corinne Reilly, and Bart Myer appear as party guests at a party following the premiere of Whitaker and Fowl where they criticize it in their party interviews.
The film was filmed at Universal Studios Hollywood, the Flash Flood set, and Los Angeles International Airport, as well as in Glendale, Monrovia, Pasadena, and Whittier, California.
The exotic Intermec 6651 Handheld PC appears as the computer used by one of Marty 's disgruntled employees to help Jason by releasing a stream of water into Marty 's path.
The film was released in cinemas on February 8, 2002 by Universal Pictures and was released on VHS and DVD on September 24, 2002 by Universal Studios Home Entertainment.
The film grossed $48.4 million in the U.S. and Canada and $4.6 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $53 million, against a budget of $15 million.
The film grossed $11.6 million in its opening weekend, finishing in second at the box office behind Collateral Damage ($15.1 million).
Big Fat Liar received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 42 % based on 92 reviews with an average rating of 4.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Though there 's nothing that offensive about Big Fat Liar, it is filled with Hollywood cliches and cartoonish slapstick, making it strictly for kids. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 36 out of 100 based on 24 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Some critics praised the film as energetic and witty; others called it dull and formulaic. On the positive side, Ebert and Roeper gave it "Two Thumbs Up ''. Critic David Palmer gave it a 7 / 10, stating that it is a fun one for people who love the behind the scenes of making movies, and "not awful considering it 's a kids film ''.
A remake of Big Fat Liar began filming in August 2016. The film titled Bigger Fatter Liar starred Ricky Garcia as Kevin Shepherd, Jodelle Ferland as Becca, and Barry Bostwick as Larry Wolf. It was released on DVD in April 2017.
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who sings love you like i'm going to lose you | Like I 'm Gonna Lose You - wikipedia
"Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Meghan Trainor for her first studio album Title (2015). The song features American singer John Legend. It was written by Trainor, Justin Weaver, and Caitlyn Smith, and produced by Chris Gelbuda and Trainor. Released by Epic Records on June 23, 2015, as Trainor 's fourth and final single from the album, it is a soul song. Lyrically, it is an optimistic and inspiring love song with a theme of fatalism and conveys the message to not take time with loved ones for granted.
The song topped the Australian singles chart for four consecutive weeks and reached number one in New Zealand for three weeks. The song peaked at number eight on both the Billboard Hot 100, and the Canadian Hot 100, becoming Trainor 's third top 10 single in both countries. The song 's music video was directed by Constellation Jones and released on July 9, 2015. It depicts Trainor and Legend singing in the candlelight as it rains outside. Trainor promoted "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' in a number of appearances, including live performances at the 2015 American Music Awards and on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. It was also performed at Trainor 's That Bass Tour and MTrain Tour (2015).
-- Trainor on the song 's conception in an interview with Digital Spy
"Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' was written by Meghan Trainor, Justin Weaver, and Caitlyn Smith. It was composed as a demo "years ago '', but Trainor was at first hesitant to show the song to her record label during the recording of her debut album, Title (2015).
At the request of Trainor 's uncle, Burton Toney, her management listened to the track. Trainor recalls one of her managers being brought to tears by the song, resulting in the decision to include it on the album. The song was produced by Trainor and Chris Gelbuda, who she had first met in 2011 at a music conference in Colorado. They later co-wrote Sabrina Carpenter 's "Ca n't Blame a Girl for Trying ''. During their recording of the track "3am '' for Title, Trainor told Gelbuda about "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '', a reggae song which she felt was a poor fit for the album. The pair brainstormed, with Gelbuda playing various melodies on a guitar, resulting in a change in sound and tempo. "She dug it and it just worked. We built the track together, she sang the vocals, and I worked at it for weeks, '' Gelbuda recalls. They recorded "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' in 2014 at The Green Room, Gelbuda 's home studio, in East Nashville, Tennessee. Trainor and Gelbuda performed all of the track 's instrumentation, production, and programming.
Initially intended to be a solo recording, L.A. Reid sent it to John Legend, who shares the same management as Trainor. Legend said, "I love this: I want to be a part of it ''. Trainor announced her collaboration with Legend in an interview with MTV News at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in September 2014. His vocal was recorded as a duet with Trainor 's by Jason Agel at Germano Studios in New York City, with the assistance of Kenta Yonesaka. "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larabee North Studios in Universal City, California and mastered by Dave Kutch at The Mastering Palace in New York City. Gelbuda describes it as "classic and jazzy '' and "a big departure from everything she 's done ''.
"Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' is a retro style soul ballad. It features Trainor 's soprano vocals in a duet with Legend, and includes additional background vocals by Trainor and Gelbuda. The track comprises minimal harmonies and instrumental accompaniment, showcasing Trainor and Legend 's vocals at its forefront. Critics noted the song as a more earnest, tender, and subdued sound compared Trainor 's other material. The track is set in the time signature of time, with a slow tempo of 72 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of C major and has a sequence of C -- F / C -- C -- Em -- Am -- F -- C / E -- Dm -- F / G as its chord progression.
Characterized as a love song with a lyrical theme of fatalism, "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' channels anxiety about losing someone into determination to make the most of every moment. According to Gelbuda, the track is about not taking time with loved ones for granted.
Rolling Stone writer Chuck Arnold called the song "finger - snapping balladry '' and likened it to duets by Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell. Melanie J. Sims of the Associated Press felt that "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' was the most refreshing track on Title, writing "Not only is it a nice change of pace sonically, but in a rare moment, the track gives Trainor 's vocals the main stage, without a catchy hook or quirky production yanking away the spotlight ''. Similarly, Elysa Gardener of USA Today wrote: "Trainor is at her most appealing when she does n't try to be sly or subversive. Her yearning soprano is a perfect match for guest John Legend 's silky voice and presence on ' Like I 'm Gonna Lose You ' ''. Glenn Gamboa of Newsday called the song "classic - sounding '' and said that it would "stick with Trainor throughout her sure - to - be-lengthy career ''. Martin Townsend of the Daily Express named "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '', along with "Walkashame '', as the album 's best tracks. Virgin Media 's Ian Gittins opined that the song manifested Trainor 's vocal prowess.
In a mixed review, The Daily Telegraph 's Helen Brown opined that the ballad was formulaic, but complimented Legend 's sincerity of tone. Daily News writer Jim Farber commented that the track "played to the smarm of Legend '', and further added, "Trainor can turn earnest -- not always in a good way ''. Marc Hirsh of The Boston Globe wrote, "When (Trainor) steps away from pastiche, she struggles; John Legend comes through loud and clear on boilerplate ballad ' Like I 'm Gonna Lose You, ' while she could be anybody at all ''. Billboard writer Carl Wilson shared the views of Farber and Hirsh, and said that Legend 's vocal added "deeper textures to an otherwise static (song) ''.
"Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' debuted at number 63 on the Canadian Hot 100 and number 11 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles charts issued for January 31, 2015. The song later re-entered US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles at a new peak of number 10 for the chart dated June 6, 2015. For the chart dated July 25, 2015, the track debuted on the Hot 100 at number 95. On the week charting October 3, 2015, the song charted at number 45 and steadily rose to a peak position of number 18 on November 6, and later reached a new peak of number 8, on the issue dated 12 December, thus becoming Trainor 's third and Legend 's second top - 10 single. It also peaked at number one on the Adult Top 40 chart.
In Australia, "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' debuted at number 80 on the Australian Singles Chart issued for June 8, 2015. It climbed 61 positions to number 19 the following week, marking Trainor fifth consecutive top - 20 hit in the country. The following week, it ascended to number five, finally hitting the number one position on the chart the following week. It stayed at number one for a total of four weeks. In New Zealand, the song debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 26 on the chart dated June 29, 2015. In its second week, the song dropped to number 32, before rising to number 13 the following week. After four weeks on the chart, the song was certified gold and reached number one, marking Trainor 's third number - one hit and fifth top - 10 hit. It gave Legend his first number - one single in the country and his second top - 10.
On June 18, 2015, Trainor confirmed that the shooting for the "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' music video had begun. She premiered the music video in Times Square on July 9, 2015. Trainor released the videos behind the scenes on July 21, 2015.
In the video, directed by Constellation Jones, Trainor is singing amid candlelight in a darkened building as it rains outside. As the video continues, different aspects of love are shown in the rain: a mother and child, romantic couples, and friendships, braving their way through the same rainy night.
The music video on YouTube has more than 470 million views as of August 2018.
Trainor performed "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' during her That Bass Tour as a duet with either Matt Prince or George Sheppard of Sheppard at selected dates. At the tour 's date in Birmingham on April 11, 2015, Trainor was joined by Nathan Sykes for a duet of the song. In a review of Sykes and Trainor 's rendition, Noelle Devolle of Seventeen said, "It goes without saying that these two are pretty much cementing themselves as the new King and Queen of doo - wop and soul, and they need to collaborate ''.
Trainor and Legend 's first performance together of "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' was at the 2015 Billboard Music Awards on May 17, 2015. According to Hugh McIntyre of Forbes, the rendition was widely applauded. It was the third most - tagged performance of the night on Shazam. William Gruger of Billboard wrote, "It 's notable that Shazam was so popular with the slow, ballad - oriented tracks, which suggested that they were some of the most engaging moments of the evening ''. The performance spurred a 45 % increase in Title 's unit sales in the United States, helping it rise seven positions to number five on the Billboard 200 that week. Trainor climbed from number seven to number four on the Billboard Artist 100 as a result. Joe Lynch of Billboard described the rendition as "one of the night 's quiet victories: Not a show - stopper, but a performance that stuck with you ''. Trainor and Legend sang "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on May 21, 2015. She performed the track solo in a set for The Today Show on May 22, 2015, along with "Dear Future Husband '', "All About That Bass '' and "Lips Are Movin ''. An a cappella rendition of the song by Trainor and Legend premiered on May 27, 2015, by Entertainment Weekly, as part of Pop TV 's "Massive Musical Mash - Up ''. Trainor also performed along with Legend on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on October 14, 2015. Trainor performed the song on the American Music Awards of 2015 on November 22, 2015, in a medley with Charlie Puth 's collaboration "Marvin Gaye ''.
Girl group Fifth Harmony, with whom Trainor previously collaborated on their debut album Reflection, covered the song at the 2016 Billboard Women in Music ceremony, at which Trainor was supposed to perform but was unable to due to her vocal cords being damaged. The performance was one of the group 's last with their original lineup, before member Camila Cabello left the group in December of the same year. Trainor praised the group 's performance via social media after the ceremony.
Credits and personnel adapted from Title album liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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what kinds of corporation were made illegal in the texas constitution of 1845 | Constitution of Texas - wikipedia
The Constitution of the State of Texas is the document that describes the structure and function of the government of the U.S. state of Texas.
The current document took effect on February 15, 1876, and is the seventh (including the Mexican constitution) constitution in Texas history. The previous six were adopted in 1827 (while Texas was still part of Mexico), 1836 (as the Republic of Texas), 1845, 1861, 1866 and 1869.
The current constitution is among the longest of state constitutions in the United States. From 1876 to 2015 the legislature proposed 673 constitutional amendments, of which 491 were approved by the electorate and 179 defeated.
Most of the amendments are due to the document 's highly restrictive nature: the State of Texas has only those powers explicitly granted to it by the Constitution. However, despite its length, it is not nearly as long as the Alabama Constitution (which has been amended over 800 times despite having been adopted 25 years after Texas ' current constitution) nor the California Constitution (which, due to provisions allowing amendments via initiative, is subject to frequent revision).
As with many state constitutions, it explicitly provides for the separation of powers and incorporates its bill of rights directly into the text of the constitution (as Article I). The bill of rights is considerably lengthier and more detailed than the federal Bill of Rights, and includes some provisions unique to Texas.
Article 1 is the Texas Constitution 's bill of rights. The article originally contained 29 sections; four sections have since been added. Some of the article 's provisions concern specific fundamental limitations on the power of the state.
The provisions of the Texas Constitution apply only against the government of Texas. However, a number of the provisions of the U.S. Constitution are held to apply to the states as well, under the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
Section 4 purports to prohibit office holders from the requirements of any religious test, provided they "acknowledge the existence of a Supreme Being ''. This conflicts with the U.S. Constitution 's No Religious Test Clause, and would almost certainly be held unenforceable if challenged, as was a similar South Carolina requirement in Silverman v. Campbell, and a broader Maryland restriction in Torcaso v. Watkins.
Section 32 denies state recognition to same - sex unions, a practice which was invalidated as a consequence of Obergefell v. Hodges.
Article 2 provides for the separation of powers of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the state government, prohibiting each branch from encroaching on the powers of the others.
Article 3 vests the legislative power of the state in the "Legislature of the State of Texas '', consisting of the state 's Senate and House of Representatives. It also lists the qualifications required of senators and representatives, and regulates many details of the legislative process. The article contains many substantive limitations on the power of the legislature and a large number of exceptions to those limitations.
As with the United States Constitution, either house may originate bills (Section 31), but bills to raise revenue must originate in the House of Representatives (Section 33).
Section 39 allows a bill to take effect immediately upon the Governor 's signature if the bill passes both chambers by a two - thirds vote, unless otherwise specified in the bill. If the bill does not pass by this majority it takes effect on the first day of the next fiscal year (September 1).
The largest Section within this article is Section 49 ("State Debts ''), which includes 30 separate sub-sections (including two sub-sections both added in 2003 and both curiously numbered as "49 - n ''). Section 49 limits the power of the Legislature to incur debt to only specific purposes as stated in the Constitution; in order to allow the Legislature to incur debt for a purpose not stated numerous amendments to this section have had to be added and voted upon by the people In addition, Section 49a requires the Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts to certify the amount of available cash on hand and anticipated revenues for the next biennium; no appropriation may exceed this amount (except in cases of emergency, and then only with a four - fifths vote of both chambers), and the Comptroller is required to reject and return to the Legislature any appropriation in violation of this requirement. Section 49 - g created the state 's "Rainy Day Fund '' (technically called the Economic Stabilization Fund).
Article 4 describes the powers and duties of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Comptroller, Commissioner of the General Land Office, and Attorney General. With the exception of the Secretary of State the above officials are directly elected in what is known as a "plural executive '' system. (Although the Texas Agriculture Commissioner is also directly elected, that is the result of Legislative action, not a Constitutional requirement.)
Under Section 16 of this article, the Lieutenant Governor automatically assumes the power of Governor if and when the Governor travels outside of the state.
Article 5 describes the composition, powers, and jurisdiction of the state 's Supreme Court, Court of Criminal Appeals, and District, County, and Commissioners Courts, as well as the Justice of the Peace Courts.
Article 6 denies voting rights to minors, felons, and people who are deemed mentally incompetent by a court (though the Legislature may make exceptions in the latter two cases). It also describes rules for elections.
Article 7 establishes provisions for public schools, asylums, and universities. Section 1 states, "it shall be the duty of the Legislature of the State to establish and make suitable provision for the support and maintenance of an efficient system of public free schools ''. This issue has surfaced repeatedly in lawsuits involving the State 's funding of education and the various restrictions it has placed on local school districts.
This Article also discusses the creation and maintenance of the Permanent University Fund (Sections 11, 11a, and 11b) and mandates the establishment of "a University of the first class '' (Section 10) to be called The University of Texas, as well as "an Agricultural, and Mechanical department '' (Section 13, today 's Texas A&M University, which opened seven years prior to UT); it also establishes Prairie View A&M University in Section 14.
Article 8 places various restrictions on the ability of the Legislature and local governments to impose taxes. Most of these restrictions concern local property taxes.
Section 1 - e prohibits statewide property taxes. This Section has been the subject of numerous school district financing lawsuits claiming that other Legislative restrictions on local property taxes have created a de facto statewide property tax; the Texas Supreme Court has at times ruled that the restrictions did in fact do so (and thus were unconstitutional) and at other times ruled that they did not.
Texas does not have a personal income tax. Section 24 of the article, added by an amendment adopted in 1993, restricts the ability of the Legislature to impose such a tax. Under the section, a law imposing a personal income tax must be ratified in a statewide referendum to take effect; any further change in the tax must also be ratified to take effect, if it would increase the "collective liability '' of all persons subject to the tax. The proceeds from the tax must first be used to reduce local school property taxes, with any remainder being used for the support of education.
No such restriction exists on imposition of a corporate income tax or similar tax; in May 2006 the Legislature replaced the existing franchise tax with a gross receipts tax.
Article 9 provides rules for the creation of counties (now numbering 254) and for determining the location of county seats. It also includes several provisions regarding the creation of county - wide hospital districts in specified counties, as well as other miscellaneous provisions regarding airports and mental health.
Article 10 contains a single section declaring that railroads are considered "public highways '' and railroad carriers "common carriers ''. Eight other sections were repealed in 1969.
Article 11 recognizes counties as legal political subunits of the State, grants certain powers to cities and counties, empowers the legislature to form school districts.
Texas operates under Dillon 's Rule: counties and special districts are not granted home rule privileges, while cities and school districts have those privileges only in the limited instances specified below.
Sections 4 and 5 discuss the operation of cities based on population. Section 4 states that a city with a population of 5,000 or fewer has only those powers granted to it by general law; Section 5 permits a city, once its population exceeds 5,000, to adopt a charter under home rule provided the charter is not inconsistent with limits placed by the Texas Constitution or general law (the city may amend to maintain home rule status even if its population subsequently falls to 5,000 or fewer).
School districts may adopt home rule, but none have chosen to do so.
Article 12 contains two sections directing the Legislature to enact general laws for the creation of private corporations and prohibiting the creation of private corporations by special law. Four other sections were repealed in 1969, and a fifth section in 1993.
Article 13 established provisions for Spanish and Mexican land titles from the Mexican War Era to please the Mexican government. This article was repealed in its entirety in 1969.
Article 14 contains a single section establishing the General Land Office and the office of commissioner of the General Land Office. Seven other sections were repealed in 1969.
Article 15 describes the process of impeachment and lists grounds on which to impeach judges. The House of Representatives is granted the power of impeachment.
Article 16 contains miscellaneous provisions, including limits on interest rates, civil penalties for murder, and the punishment for bribery.
Section 28 prohibits garnishment of wages, except for spousal maintenance and child support payments (however, this does not limit Federal garnishment for items such as student loan payments or income taxes).
Section 37 provides for the constitutional protection of the mechanic 's lien.
Section 50 provides for protection of a homestead against forced sale to pay debts, except for foreclosure on debts related to the homestead (mortgage, taxes, mechanic 's liens, and home equity loans including home equity lines of credit). This section also places specific restrictions on home equity loans and lines of credit (Texas being the last state to allow them), the section:
Although Texas is a right - to - work state, such protections are governed by law; the state does not have a constitutional provision related to right - to - work.
Notwithstanding the large number of amendments (and proposed amendments) that the Texas Constitution has had since its inception, the only method of amending the Constitution prescribed by Article 17 is via the Legislature, subject to voter approval. The Constitution does not provide for amendment by initiative, constitutional convention, or any other means. A 1974 constitutional convention required the voters to amend the Constitution to add a separate section to this Article; the section was later repealed in 1999.
The section also prescribes specific details for notifying the public of elections to approve amendments. It requires that the legislature publish a notice in officially approved newspapers that briefly summarizes each amendment and shows how each amendment will be described on the ballot. It also requires that the full text of each amendment be posted at each county courthouse at least 50 days (but no sooner than 60 days) before the election date.
Once an amendment passes it is compiled into the existing framework (i.e., text is either added or deleted), unlike the United States Constitution.
Because of the unwieldiness of the state constitution, there have been attempts to draft a new constitution or to significantly revise the existing one:
On March 1, 1845, the US enacted a congressional joint resolution proposing the annexation of Texas to the United States (Joint Resolution for annexing Texas to the United States, J. Res. 8, enacted March 1, 1845, 5 Stat. 797). On June 23, 1845, the Texan Congress accepted the US Congress 's joint resolution, and consented to President Jones ' calling of a convention to be held on July 4, 1845. A Texas convention debated the annexation offer and almost unanimously passed an ordinance assenting to it on July 4, 1845. The convention debated through August 28, and adopted the Constitution of the State of Texas on August 27, 1845. The citizens of Texas approved an annexation ordinance and new constitution on October 13, 1845. On December 29, 1845, the United States admitted the State of Texas to the Union (Joint Resolution for the admission of the state of Texas into the Union, J. Res. 1, enacted December 29, 1845, 9 Stat. 108).
On June 17, 1865, President Andrew Johnson appointed Andrew Jackson Hamilton as the provisional civilian governor of the state and directed him to convene a constitutional convention restricted to loyal Americans. A referendum was held on June 25, 1866, pursuant to the laws then in force on March 29, for the ratification of the amendments proposed by the convention.
Texas adopted yet a new constitution document in 1866 once the United States accepted Texas back into the Union. Then, delegates met in 1869 and drafted a new constitution once again. This time, the newly modified law of the land aimed to protect rights for former slaves, and placed more power on centralized state power (p. 57, Practicing Texas Politics, 2015).
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what is the command button on windows keyboard | Command key - wikipedia
The Command key (⌘), also historically known as the Apple key, clover key, open - Apple key, splat key, pretzel key, or propeller key, is a modifier key present on Apple keyboards. The Command key 's purpose is to allow the user to enter keyboard commands in applications and in the system. An "extended '' Macintosh keyboard -- the most common type -- has two command keys, one on each side of the space bar; some compact keyboards have one only on the left.
The "⌘ '' symbol (the "looped square '') was chosen by Susan Kare after Steve Jobs decided that the use of the Apple logo in the menu system (where the keyboard shortcuts are displayed) would be an over-use of the logo. Apple 's adaptation of the symbol -- encoded in Unicode (and HTML) at U + 2318 ⌘ (HTML & # 8984;) -- was derived in part from its use in Scandinavian countries to denote places of interest. The symbol is known by various other names, including "Saint John 's Arms '' and "Bowen knot ''.
Apple 's computers up through the 1979 Apple II Plus did not have a command key. The first model on which it appeared was the 1980 Apple III, where there are two monochrome Apple keys, both to the left of the space bar on the lowest row of the keyboard. Two other early Apple computers, the 1982 Apple IIe and the 1984 Apple IIc, also had two such keys, one to the left and one to the right of the space bar; in these models, they mapped to the first two fire buttons of an attached joystick. This allowed for flexible combinations of a modifier key and base key (such as Open - Apple with C for Copy) with just a few extra wires and no ROM changes, since the Apple II could only register one key press at a time (Shift and Control keys were handled in the keyboard encoding hardware which generated ASCII codes). In all these cases, the left Apple key had an outlined "open '' Apple logo, and the one on the right had an opaque, "closed '' or "solid '' Apple logo key. The Apple Lisa had only the closed Apple logo.
When the Macintosh was introduced in 1984, the keyboard had a single command key with a Looped square symbol (⌘, U + 2318), because Steve Jobs said that showing the Apple logo throughout the menus as a keyboard shortcut was "taking (it) in vain ''. Thus, the ⌘ symbol appears in the Macintosh menus as the primary modifier key symbol. The original Macintosh also had an Option key which was used primarily for entering extended characters.
In 1986, the Apple IIGS was introduced. Like the newer Macintosh computers to come, such as the Macintosh SE, it used the Apple Desktop Bus for its keyboard and mouse. However, it was still an Apple II. Apple changed the keys on the IIGS 's keyboard to Command and Option, as on Mac keyboards, but added an open - Apple to the Command key, for consistency with applications for previous Apple II generations. (The Option key did not have a closed - Apple, probably because Apple II applications used the closed - Apple key much more rarely than the open - Apple key; thus there was less need to keep it around.) Because any ADB keyboard could be used with the IIGS, all of Apple 's ADB keyboards -- even those intended for the Mac -- also required the open - Apple, and it stuck for more than twenty years, causing confusion long after the Apple II series went out of production.
The Apple symbol was removed in the keyboard 's 2007 redesign, making room for the key 's name to appear. The word "command '' is now printed on the key.
On the keyboard of the NeXT Computer that key was marked Command in green. The menus were not marked with a symbol denoting the command key.
Besides being used as a modifier key for keyboard shortcuts it was also used to alter the function of some keys. Command + ⇧ Shift toggles alpha lock, Command + Return sends Enter and Command + 🔉 Volume - down toggles Mute.
The functions were printed in green on the front side of the modified keys. This was also done on the Z, X, C and V keys (Undo, Cut, Copy and Paste)
(Left) Command - Alternate - * triggers a non catchable hardware reset thereby hard rebooting the computer. (Contrary to Ctrl + Alt + Del on a PC compatible computer which triggers only a software reset)
On the NeXT ADB keyboard, the Command keys were replaced by keys labeled Help and the Command key morphed into a wide Command bar in front of the space bar
The purpose of the Command key is to allow the user to enter keyboard commands in applications and in the system. The Macintosh Human Interface Guidelines have always recommended that developers use the Command key (and not the Control or Option keys) for this purpose. A small set of keyboard commands (such as cut and paste, open and save) are standard across nearly all applications, and many other commands are standardized (Find, Show Fonts). If an application needs more shortcuts than can be obtained with the twenty - six letters of the Latin alphabet, double modifiers such as Command + Option are used.
One advantage of this scheme, as contrasted with the Microsoft Windows mixed use of the Control and Alt keys, is that the Control key is available for its original purpose: entering control characters in terminal applications. (Indeed, the very first Macintosh lacked a Control key; it was soon added to allow compatible terminal software.)
The Macintosh keyboard 's other unusual modifier key, the Option key, serves as a modifier both for entering keyboard shortcuts and for typing text -- it is used to enter foreign characters, typographical symbols, and other special characters.
The ⌘ symbol came into the Macintosh project at a late stage. The development team originally went for their old Apple key, but Steve Jobs found it frustrating when "apples '' filled up the Mac 's menus next to the key commands, because he felt that this was an over-use of the company logo. He then opted for a different key symbol. With only a few days left before deadline, the team 's bitmap artist Susan Kare started researching for the Apple logo 's successor. She was browsing through a symbol dictionary when she came across the cloverleaf - like symbol, commonly used in Nordic countries as an indicator of cultural locations and places of interest (it is the official road sign for tourist attraction in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, and the computer key has often been called Fornminne -- ancient monument -- by Swedish Mac users and Seværdighedstegn by Danish users). When she showed it to the rest of the team, everyone liked it, and so it became the symbol of the 1984 Macintosh command key. Susan Kare states that it has since been told to her that the symbol had been picked for its Scandinavian usage due to its resembling the shape of a square castle with round corner towers as seen from above looking down, notably Borgholm Castle.
The symbol was included in the original Macintosh font Chicago, and could be inserted by typing a control q key combination.
In Unicode and HTML it is encoded, respectively, as U + 2318 ⌘ Place of interest sign (HTML & # 8984;).
On USB keyboards, the Command keys are mapped to standard keycodes reserved for GUI functions.
On a keyboard made with the Microsoft Windows logo, the Windows keys are identical in function to the Mac Command keys, as is the ((Meta key Meta)) key on a Sun or another Unix - oriented keyboard. Conversely, when an Apple USB keyboard is used with other operating systems, the Command keys function as Windows keys or Meta keys.
On a Windows keyboard the position of the ⊞ Win and Alt keys are swapped compared to the position of Alt and ⌘ Command keys on an Apple keyboard. In macOS this can be configured in the keyboard preferences (Modifier Keys...) so that the Windows Alt key (next to the space bar) becomes the Mac ⌘ Command key and vice versa so that users do not have to change their Motor learning. All the modifier keys, along with the ⇪ Caps Lock, can be remapped to whichever modifier key function the user wishes, so users of traditional Unix style keyboards may choose to use the ⇪ Caps Lock key as a ⌘ Command key or other modifier. Windows does not provide such a configuration option.
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rad52 is involved in which type of dna damage repair | RAD52 - wikipedia
1H2I, 1KN0
5893
19365
ENSG00000002016
ENSMUSG00000030166
P43351
P43352
NM_134423 NM_134424
NM_001166381 NM_001166382 NM_001166383 NM_011236
NP_001284348 NP_001284349 NP_001284350 NP_001284351 NP_602296
NP_001159853 NP_001159854 NP_001159855 NP_035366
RAD52 homolog (S. cerevisiae), also known as RAD52, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the RAD52 gene.
The protein encoded by this gene shares similarity with Saccharomyces cerevisiae Rad52, a protein important for DNA double - strand break repair and homologous recombination. This gene product was shown to bind single - stranded DNA ends, and mediate the DNA - DNA interaction necessary for the annealing of complementary DNA strands. It was also found to interact with DNA recombination protein RAD51, which suggested its role in RAD51 - related DNA recombination and repair.
RAD52 mediates RAD51 function in homologous recombinational repair (HRR) in both yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and in mammalian cells of mice and humans. However, the RAD52 protein has distinctly different functions in HRR of yeast and humans. In S. cerevisae, Rad52 protein, acting alone, facilitates the loading of Rad51 protein onto single - stranded DNA pre-coated with replication protein A in the presynaptic phase of recombination.
In mice and humans, however, BRCA2 primarily mediates orderly assembly of RAD51 on ssDNA, the form that is active for homologous pairing and strand invasion. BRCA2 also redirects RAD51 from dsDNA and prevents dissociation from ssDNA. In addition, the four paralogs of RAD51, consisting of RAD51B (RAD51L1), RAD51C (RAD51L2), RAD51D (RAD51L3), XRCC2 form a complex called the BCDX2 complex. This complex participates in RAD51 recruitment or stabilization at damage sites. The BCDX2 complex appears to act by facilitating the assembly or stability of the RAD51 nucleoprotein filament. However, in the presence of a BRCA2 mutation, human RAD52 can mediate RAD51 assembly on ssDNA and substitute for BRCA2 in homologous recombinational DNA repair, though with lower efficiency than BRCA2.
In addition, human RAD52, in combination with ERCC1, promotes the error - prone homologous DNA repair pathway of single - strand annealing. Though error prone, this repair pathway may be needed for survival of cells with DNA damage that is not otherwise repairable.
Human RAD52 also has an important role in repair of DNA double - strand breaks at active transcription sites during the G0 / G1 phase of the cell cycle. Repair of these double - strand breaks appears to use an RNA template - based recombination mechanism dependent on RAD52. The Cockayne Syndrome B protein (CSB) (coded for by ERCC6) localizes at double - strand breaks at sites of active transcription, followed by RAD51, RAD51C and RAD52 to carry out homologous recombinational repair using the newly synthesized RNA as a template.
Three prime untranslated regions (3'UTRs) of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) often contain regulatory sequences that can cause post-transcriptional RNA silencing. Such 3 ' - UTRs often contain binding sites for microRNAs (miRNAs). By binding to specific sites within the 3 ' - UTR, miRNAs can decrease gene expression of various mRNAs by either inhibiting translation or directly causing degradation of the transcript.
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) appear to regulate the expression of more than 60 % of protein coding genes of the human genome. One microRNA, miR - 210, represses RAD52. As noted by Devlin et al., miR - 210 is up - regulated in most solid tumors and negatively affects the clinical outcome.
The 3 ' - UTR of RAD52 also has a binding site for the microRNA let - 7. Women with a single - nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the binding site for let - 7 (rs7963551), that causes reduced binding of let - 7, likely have increased expression of RAD52 (as was shown for this SNP in liver). Women with this SNP in the 3'UTR of RAD52 showed a reduced breast cancer risk with an odds ratio of 0.84, 95 % confidence interval of 0.75 - 0.95.
In a Han Chinese population, the same SNP as above in the 3 ' - UTR of RAD52 binding site for let - 7 (rs7963551) reduced the risk of glioma. The risk of glioma associated with the RAD52 rs7963551 genotype had an odds ratio (compared to those without the SNP) of 0.44 for those older than 41 years, and an odds ratio of 0.58 for those 41 years or younger.
Li et al. found significantly decreased hepatic cellular carcinoma risk among individuals with the RAD52 rs7963551 CC genotype (the same SNP as above) compared with those with the AA genotype in a Chinese population. They also found that in 44 normal human liver tissue samples, presence of the rs7963551 SNP was associated with a significant increase of RAD52 mRNA expression.
Thus increased RAD52 expression is protective against various cancers.
Another study of altered microRNA binding sites in RAD52 and their effects on cancer susceptibility was carried out by Naccarati et al. They found two RAD52 microRNA binding sites that were frequently altered and had an effect on colon cancer risk. Individuals with a homozygous or heterozygous SNP in rs1051669 were at increased risk of colon cancer (OR 1.78, 95 % CI 1.13 -- 2.80, p = 0.01 for homozygotes and OR 1.72, 95 % CI 1.10 -- 2.692, p = 0.02 for heterozygotes). Heterozygous carriers of the other RAD52 SNP (rs11571475) were at decreased risk of colon cancer (OR 0.76, 95 % CI 0.58 -- 1.00, p = 0.05). Of 21 genes in the homologous recombinational repair pathway and 7 genes in the non-homologous end joining pathway examined, the only SNPs found in microRNA binding regions which were both at high enough frequency to evaluate and which affected risks of colon cancer, were the two in RAD52 and one in MRE11A.
DNA damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer, and deficiencies in DNA repair appear to underlie many forms of cancer. If DNA repair is deficient, DNA damage tends to accumulate. Such excess DNA damage may increase mutational errors during DNA replication due to error - prone translesion synthesis. Excess DNA damage may also increase epigenetic alterations due to errors during DNA repair. Such mutations and epigenetic alterations may give rise to cancer. The frequent microRNA - induced increase or deficiency of RAD52 - mediated DNA repair due to microRNA binding alterations likely contributes to either the prevention or progression of breast, brain, liver or colon cancers.
RAD52 has been shown to interact with RAD51. The Rad52 will ease the loading of Rad51 on ssDNA by interfering with the RPA protein.
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where did the st george's cross come from | Saint George 's cross - wikipedia
In heraldry, the Saint George 's Cross, also called Cross of Saint George, is a red cross on a white background, which from the from the Late Middle Ages became associated with Saint George, the military saint, often depicted as a crusader.
Associated with the crusades, the red - on - white cross has its origins in the 12th century. It may have been used as the ensign of the Republic of Genoa as early as during the 13th century. The symbol has since been adopted by the Swabian League in the pre-Reformation Holy Roman Empire, and it is used extensively across Northern Italy and is the symbol of Bologna, Padua, Genoa, Reggio Emilia, Mantua, Vercelli, Alessandria, and most notably of Milan, where it is often called the "Cross of Saint Ambrose ''.
Saint George also rose to the position of "national saint '' of England after the English reformation, and since the early modern period his flag came to be identified as the national flag of England. Saint George 's cross is also the main feature of the Ulster Banner, formerly the Flag of Northern Ireland, and thus appears on the badges and flags of some Ulster loyalist groups, such as the Ulster Volunteer Force. Saint George is also the national saint of Georgia, and the national flag of Georgia (2004) displays a combination of Saint George 's cross and the Jerusalem cross.
Saint George became widely venerated as a warrior saint during the Third Crusade. There was a legend that he had miraculously assisted Godfrey of Bouillon; also that Richard the Lionheart had placed himself under his protection. According to legend, the crusaders received miraculous help at the siege of Antioch on 28 June 1098 from a great army on white horses, clothed in white and bearing white banners, led by St George, St Demetrius, and St Mercurius. However, there was no association of the red cross with St George before the end of the crusades.
The red cross in particular was associated with the Knights Templar, from the time of the Second Crusade (1145), but in 1188 red and white crosses were chosen to identify the French and English troops in the "Kings ' Crusade '' of Philip II of France and Henry II of England, respectively. Together with the Jerusalem Cross, the plain red - on - white became a recognizable symbol of the crusader from about 1190, and in the 13th century it came to be used as a standard or emblem by numerous leaders or polities who wanted to associate themselves with the crusades. The red - on - white combination was chosen by Genoa and Aragon, among others. Saint George was depicted as a crusader knight during this time, but the red cross had no particular association with him. A crusader - era fresco in the crypt of Trani cathedral shows Saint George wearing a white cross on a red surcoat. The white - on - red version was chosen as the Reichsbanner ("imperial banner '') by the German crusaders in the 12th century, and Emperor Frederick II used it in his European campaigns of the 1250s after he had returned from the crusades. It continued to be used as the Reichssturmfahne ("imperial war flag '') of the Holy Roman Empire, eventually giving rise to the flag of Savoy and the present - day flags of Switzerland and Denmark).
A vexillum beati Georgii is mentioned in the Genovese annals for the year 1198, referring to a red flag with a depiction of St George and the dragon. An illumination of this flag is shown in the annals for the year 1227. The Genoese flag with the red cross was used alongside this "George 's flag '', from at least 1218, and was known as the insignia cruxata comunis Janue ("cross ensign of the commune of Janua ''). The flag showing the saint himself was the city 's principal war flag, but the flag showing the plain cross was used alongside it in the 1240s.
The cross ceased to be a symbol directly associated with the "taking of the cross '', the resolve to fight in a crusade, after the failure of the crusades in the 14th century. With the development of systematic heraldry, there was great demand for variations of the cross symbol and associated terminology. Juliana Berners reports that there were Crossis innumerabull born dayli. The term "St George 's cross '' was at first associated with any plain Greek cross touching the edges of the field (not necessarily red on white). Thomas Fuller in 1647 wrote of "the plain or S. George 's cross '' as "the mother of all the others '' (that is, the other heraldic crosses).
Early representations of Saint George as a crusader knight with bearing a red - on - white cross still date to the late 13th century, and become widespread as the saint 's attributed arms in the 14th and 15th centuries. Edward III of England chose Saint George as the patron saint of his Order of the Garter in 1348, and also took to using a red - on - white cross in the hoist of his Royal Standard.
There was a historiographical tradition claiming that Richard the Lionheart himself adopted both the flag and the patron saint from Genoa at some point during his crusade. This idea can be traced to the Victorian era, Perrin (1922) refers to it as a "common belief '', and it is still popularly repeated today even though it can not be substantiated as historical.
On the origins of the flag and its connection to the Genoese flag the Duke of Kent remarked in 1992:
"The St. George 's flag, a red cross on a white field, was adopted by England and the City of London in 1190 for their ships entering the Mediterranean to benefit from the protection of the Genoese fleet. The English Monarch paid an annual tribute to the Doge of Genoa for this privilege. ''
The red cross was introduced to England by the late 13th century, but not as a flag, and not at the time associated with Saint George. It was worn by English soldiers as an identification from the early years of the reign of Edward I (1270s), and perhaps originated a few years earlier, in the Second Barons ' War (specifically in the Battle of Evesham of 1265, during which, according to chronicler William Rishanger, Simon de Montford observed that the king had taken from him the idea of having his soldiers marked with a cross).
Saint George rose to the position of "patron saint of England '' in a process beginning in 1348 with the foundation of the Order of the Garter and culminating with the abolition of all saint 's banners except for the St George 's banner in 1552. From 1348 and throughout the 15th century, the Saint George 's Cross was shown in the hoist of the Royal Standards of the Plantagenet kings of England.
A combined British flag was created in 1606 (after the dynastic union of England and Scotland in 1603, the so - called "Union of the Crowns '') by combining Saint George 's Cross with the Saint Andrew 's Cross (the flag of Scotland). The flag was initially for maritime display, later restricted to the King 's ships. Afterwards, the Saint George flag remained the flag of England for other purposes until the Acts of Union 1707. At the union, the first Union Flag became official for all purposes in the new Kingdom of Great Britain. From this time, the Saint Georges Cross came to be seen as a symbol of England and Wales when used alongside symbols for Scotland or Ireland; so in the flags of the Commonwealth of England during 1649 to 1660.
The flag of Saint George is also the rank flag of an Admiral in the Royal Navy, and civilian craft are forbidden to fly it. However, surviving little ships of Dunkirk, which participated in the Dunkirk evacuation during World War II, are allowed to fly it as a jack. This is normally done in the defaced form of the Dunkirk jack.
Churches belonging to the Church of England may fly the Saint George 's Cross (unless another flag is flown by custom for special reasons). The correct way for the church to fly the Saint George 's cross (since an order from the Earl Marshal in 1938) is with the arms of the diocese in the upper left - hand corner of the flag.
The flag of St George has enjoyed a resurgence in popularity since the late 20th century, partly due to football - inspired nationalism, and also in response to the devolution movements in Scotland and Wales.
During the 2010 World Cup, UK Prime Minister David Cameron told Parliament that the flag would fly above his official residence at "no extra cost to the tax payer '' while England played in the contest.
Guernsey was permitted to use the Saint George 's Cross as its state flag between 1936 and 1985.
The coat of arms of Montreal, first used in 1833, had a Saint Patrick 's cross with the floral emblems of England, Scotland, Ireland, and France in its four quarters. The cross was changed to a Saint George 's Cross in 1938, representing England 's dominating influence over Canada, and a city flag in the form of the arms was adopted the following year. The city of Nanaimo in British Columbia also uses a Saint George 's Cross on its flag and arms with a ship and pieces of coal, its former main export.
Three Canadian provinces use the Saint George 's Cross on their coats of arms: Alberta, Manitoba, and Ontario, again reflecting England 's influence in Canada.
The state badge of the Australian state of New South Wales features Saint George 's cross with a golden lion passant guardant in the centre of the cross and a golden eight pointed star on each of the cross limbs.
The Indian Naval Ensign combines the cross of Saint George with the Indian National Flag.
Dunkirk Jack
The Flag of New South Wales
Indian Naval Ensign
Saint George is the patron saint of the nation of Georgia, and the Saint George flag was supposedly used in the 5th century by Georgian king Vakhtang Gorgasali. In the 13th century, Queen Tamar of Georgia used the Saint George flag during her campaign against Seljuk Turks. The four Jerusalem crosses were later added by King George V of Georgia, who drove out the Mongols from Georgia in 1334. The flag fell out during the Russian annexation of Georgia and abolition of the Georgian monarchy. However, the flag was revived by the Georgian patriotic movement in the 1990s. A majority of Georgians supported the restoration of the medieval flag of Georgia, including the influential Catholicos - Patriarch of All Georgia Ilia II of the Georgian Orthodox Church. The flag was finally adopted by the Georgian parliament on January 14, 2004. It was formally endorsed by a presidential decree signed by Mikheil Saakashvili on January 25, following his election as President of Georgia.
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does malaysian need visa to papua new guinea | Visa requirements for Malaysian citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for Malaysian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Malaysia. As of 13 February 2018, Malaysian citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 169 countries and territories, ranking the Malaysian passport 11th in the world (tied with Liechtenstein passport) according to the Henley Passport Index, the highest - ranked passport in the developing world, the 2nd highest - ranked passport in Southeast Asia after the Republic of Singapore, and the 4th highest - ranked in Asia.
Although Malaysian passports bear the inscription "This passport is valid for all countries except Israel '' and the Malaysian government officially allows travel to Israel for Christian pilgrims only, the travel restrictions imposed by the Malaysian government have no bearing on the Israeli government, which issues visas to Malaysian citizens according to Israeli regulations.
In September 2017, Malaysia announced a ban on all Malaysian citizens from travelling to North Korea, in the wake of strained Malaysia -- North Korea relations following the assassination of Kim Jong - nam at Kuala Lumpur International Airport.
Confirmation from Israeli government is required before a visa is issued.
Visa requirements for Malaysia citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries and restricted zones:
Holders of an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) travelling on business do not require a visa to the following countries:
The card must be used in conjunction with a passport and has the following advantages:
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
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where does the gold seal go on a certificate | Seal (East Asia) - wikipedia
A seal, in an East Asian context is a general name for printing stamps and impressions thereof which are used in lieu of signatures in personal documents, office paperwork, contracts, art, or any item requiring acknowledgement or authorship. The process started in China and soon spread across East Asia. China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan currently use a mixture of seals and hand signatures, and increasingly, electronic signatures. It is used to a lesser extent in Vietnam by authorised organisations and businesses, and also traditional Vietnamese artists. It was more common in Vietnam prior to French rule, when thereafter the practice of signature became a commonality, although western - like signatures are usually seen as having less authority in a company situation.
Chinese seals are typically made of stone, sometimes of metals, wood, bamboo, plastic, or ivory, and are typically used with red ink or cinnabar paste (Chinese: 朱砂; pinyin: zhūshā). The word 印 ("yìn '' in Mandarin, "in '' in Japanese and Korean, pronounced the same) specifically refers to the imprint created by the seal, as well as appearing in combination with other ideographs in words related to any printing, as in the word "印刷 '', "printing '', pronounced "yìnshuā '' in Mandarin, "insatsu '' in Japanese. The colloquial name chop, when referring to these kinds of seals, was adapted from the Hindi word chapa and from the Malay word cap meaning stamp or rubber stamps.
The Chinese have been using fingerprints as a means for identification, authentication, and verification dating back before the 3rd century BC. This has been recorded since the 3rd century BC in China -- continuing for at least a millennium, and by the 8th century AD the practice had spread to Japan. Chinese dynastic history would utilize ancient fingerprint authentication technology long before European historical fingerprint records. Chinese documents bore a clay seal marked by the fingerprint of the originator. The clay seal would provide evidence tracing the fingerprint back the originator and the uniqueness of the signature would be used for means of authentication. Signatures were utilized by the Chinese to consider the impression of a fingerprint on a document to be a unique signature. The seal would also contain a left thumbprint embedded on one side and a Chinese script on the other for authentication. Fingerprints were used as identifying marks in ancient China during the Qin and Han dynasties as early as 246 BC. Chinese seals were used by individuals as signatures for many kinds of official documents, such as army rosters, engagements and divorces, deeds for lands and homes, legal papers and financial transactions. In addition to clay seals, the Chinese also used bamboo and wooden slips to record fingerprints were used in burglary crime scene investigations. With the invention of paper by the Han dynasty and Six Dynasties period, the availability of paper and silk would replace bamboo as a medium for recording fingerprints. Fingerprints were also used as evidence in criminal and civil disputes as well as recording confessions. Kia Kung - Yen, a Chinese historian of the Tang dynasty mentions the use of Chinese documents dating from the Tang dynasty, which allude to fingerprints used to seal contracts and legal documents. Yung - Hwui, a Chinese law book, specified that in order for a husband to divorce must present a document giving the reasons for the action, all letters must be in his handwriting and if unable to write, he must sign with his fingerprints. In his Jami al - Tawarikh (Universal History), the Persian physician Rashid - al - Din Hamadani (also known as "Rashideddin '', 1247 -- 1318) refers to the Chinese practice of identifying people via their fingerprints, commenting: "Experience shows that no two individuals have fingers exactly alike. ''
The Chinese emperors, their families and officials used large seals known as xǐ (玺; 璽), later renamed bǎo (宝; 寶; "treasure ''), which corresponds to the Great Seals of Western countries. These were usually made of jade (although hard wood or precious metal could also be used), and were originally square in shape. They were changed to a rectangular form during the Song dynasty, but reverted to square during the Qing dynasty.
The most important of these seals was the Heirloom Seal of the Realm, which was created by the First Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, and was seen as a legitimising device embodying or symbolising the Mandate of Heaven. The Heirloom Seal was passed down through several dynasties, but had been lost by the beginning of the Ming dynasty. This partly explains the Qing emperors ' obsession with creating numerous imperial seals - for the emperors ' official use alone the Forbidden City in Beijing has a collection of 25 seals - in order to reduce the significance of the Heirloom Seal.
These seals typically bore the titles of the offices, rather than the names of the owners. Different seals could be used for different purposes: for example, the Qianlong Emperor had a number of informal appreciation seals (simplified Chinese: 乾隆 御 览 之 宝; traditional Chinese: 乾隆 御 覽 之 寶; pinyin: Qiánlóng yùlǎn zhī bǎo; literally: "Seal (s) for (use during) the Qiánlóng emperor 's inspection '') used on select paintings in his collection.
The most popular style of script for government seals in the imperial eras of China (from the Song dynasty to Qing dynasty) is the Nine-fold Script (九 叠 文; 九 疊 文; jiǔdiéwén), a highly stylised script which is unreadable to the untrained.
The government of the Republic of China (Taiwan) has continued to use traditional square seals of up to about 13 centimetres each side, known by a variety of names depending on the user 's hierarchy. Part of the inaugural ceremony for the President of the Republic of China includes bestowing on him the Seal of the Republic of China and the Seal of Honor.
In the People 's Republic of China, the seal of the Central People 's Government from 1949 to 1954 was a square, bronze seal with side lengths of 9 centimetres. The inscription reads "Seal of the Central People 's Government of the People 's Republic of China ''. Notably, the seal uses the relatively modern Song typeface rather than the more ancient seal scripts, and the seal is called a yìn (印), not a xǐ (玺; 璽), in a nod to modernity. Government seals in the People 's Republic of China today are usually circular in shape, and have a five - pointed star in the centre of the circle. The name of the governmental institution is arranged around the star in a semicircle.
There are many classes of personal seals.
Denotes the person 's name.
Are the equivalent of today 's email signature, and can contain the person 's personal philosophy or literary inclination. These can be any shape, ranging from ovals to dragon - shaped.
Carry the name of the person 's private studio 書齋, which most literati in ancient China had, although probably in lesser forms. These are more or less rectangular in shape.
There are two types of seal paste depending on what base material they are made of. The standard colour is vermilion red (or lighter or darker shades of red) but other colours can be used such as black, navy, etc. for specific purposes.
Plant - based paste tends to dry more quickly than silk - based pastes because the plant extract does not hold onto the oil as tightly as silk. Depending on the paper used, plant pastes can dry in 10 to 15 minutes. The more absorbent the paper is, the faster it dries as the paper absorbs most of the oil. Also, plant pastes tend to smudge more easily than silk pastes due to the loose binding agent.
The paste is kept covered after it has been used, in its original container (be it plastic or ceramic). It is kept in an environment away from direct sunlight and away from intense heat to prevent it from drying out. The paste for silk based pastes need to be stirred with a spatula every month or so to avoid the oil sinking down and drying out the paste as well as to prepare it for use. A good paste would produce a clear impression in one go; if the impression is not clear requiring further impressions then it indicates that the paste is either too dry or the cinnabar has been depleted.
When the seal is pressed onto the printing surface, the procedure differs according to plant or silk based paste. For silk based paste, the user applies pressure, often with a specially made soft, flat surface beneath the paper. For plant based paste, the user simply applies light pressure. As lifting the seal vertically away from its imprint may rip or damage paper, the seal is usually lifted off one side at a time, as if bent off from the page. After this, the image may be blotted with a piece of paper to make it dry faster, although this may smudge it. Usually there needs to be a pile of soft felt or paper under the paper to be imprinted for a clear seal impression.
Many people in China possess a personal name seal. Artists, scholars, collectors and intellectuals may possess a full set of name seals, leisure seals, and studio seals. A well - made seal made from semi-precious stones can cost between 400 and 4000 yuan.
Seals are still used for official purposes in a number of contexts. When collecting parcels or registered post, the name seal serves as an identification, akin to a signature. In banks, traditionally the method of identification was also by a seal. Seals remain the customary form of identification on cheques in mainland China and Taiwan but not in Hong Kong where signatures are required. Today, personal identification is often by a hand signature accompanied by a seal imprint. Seals can serve as identification with signatures because they are difficult to forge (when compared to forging a signature) and only the owner has access to his own seal.
Seals are also often used on Chinese calligraphy works and Chinese paintings, usually imprinted in such works in the order (from top to bottom) of name seal, leisure seal (s), then studio seal. Owners or collectors of paintings or books will often add their own studio seals to pieces they have collected. This practice is an act of appreciation towards the work. Some artworks have had not only seals but inscriptions of the owner on them; for example, the Qianlong Emperor had as many as 20 different seals for use with inscriptions on paintings he collected. Provided that it is tastefully done (for example, not obscuring the body of the painting, appropriate inscription, fine calligraphy, etc.), this practice does not devalue the painting but could possibly enhance it by giving it further provenance, especially if it is a seal of a famous or celebrated individual who possessed the work at some point.
Seals are usually carved by specialist seal carvers, or by the users themselves. Specialist carvers will carve the user 's name into the stone in one of the standard scripts and styles described above, usually for a fee. On the other hand, some people take to carving their own seals using soapstone and fine knives, which are widely available and is cheaper than paying a professional for expertise, craft and material. Results vary, but it is possible for individuals to carve perfectly legitimate seals for themselves.
As a novelty souvenir, seal carvers also ply tourist business at Chinatowns and tourist destinations in China. They often carve on - the - spot or translations of foreign names on inexpensive soapstone, sometimes featuring Roman characters. Though such seals can be functional, they are typically nothing more than curios and may be inappropriate for serious use and could actually devalue or deface serious works of art.
Determining which side of the seal should face up may be done in a number of ways: if there is a carving on top, the front should face the user; if there is an inscription on the side, it should face to the left of the user; if there is a dot on the side, it should face away from the user.
Once seals are used, as much paste as possible is wiped from the printing surface and off the edges with a suitable material. The seals are kept in a constant environment, especially seals made of sandalwood or black ox horn. Tall thin seals are best kept on their sides, in case they should wobble and fall down. More important seals, such as authority and society seals are encased or wrapped in a golden silk cloth to add more protection.
In Japan, seals in general are referred to as inkan (印鑑) or hanko (判子). Inkan is the most comprehensive term; hanko tends to refer to seals used in less important documents.
The first evidence of writing in Japan is a hanko dating from AD 57, made of solid gold given to the ruler of Nakoku by Emperor Guangwu of Han, called King of Na gold seal. At first, only the Emperor and his most trusted vassals held hanko, as they were a symbol of the Emperor 's authority. Noble people began using their own personal hanko after 750, and samurai began using them sometime during the Feudal Period. Samurai were permitted exclusive use of red ink. After modernization began in 1870, hanko finally came into general use throughout Japanese society.
Government offices and corporations usually have inkan specific to their bureau or company, and which follow the general rules outlined for jitsuin with the following exceptions. In size, they are comparatively enormous, measuring 2 to 4 inches (5.1 to 10.2 cm) across. Their handles are often extremely ornately carved with friezes of mythical beasts or hand - carved hakubun inscriptions that might be quotes from literature, names and dates, or original poetry. The Privy Seal of Japan is an example; weighing over 3.55 kg and measuring 9.09 cm in size, it is used for official purposes by the Emperor. Some seals have been carved with square tunnels from handle to underside, so that a specific person can slide his own inkan into the hollow, thus signing a document with both his own name and his business 's (or bureau 's) name. These seals are usually stored in jitsuin - style boxes under high security except at official ceremonies, at which they are displayed on extremely ornate stands or in their boxes.
For personal use, there are at least four kinds of seals. In order from most formal / official to least, they are: jitsuin, ginkō - in, mitome - in, and gagō - in.
A jitsuin (実印) is an officially registered seal. A registered seal is needed to conduct business and other important or legally binding events. A jitsuin is used when purchasing a vehicle, marrying, purchasing land, and so on.
The size, shape, material, decoration, and lettering style of jitsuin are closely regulated by law. For example, in Hiroshima, a jitsuin is expected to be roughly ⁄ to 1 inch (1.3 to 2.5 cm), usually square or (rarely) rectangular but never round, irregular, or oval, and must contain the individual 's full family and given name, without abbreviation. The lettering must be red with a white background (shubun), with roughly equal width lines used throughout the name. The font must be one of several based on ancient historical lettering styles found in metal, woodcarving, and so on; ancient forms of ideographs are commonplace. A red perimeter must entirely surround the name, and there should be no other decoration on the underside (working surface) of the seal, though the top and sides (handle) of the seal may be decorated in any fashion from completely undecorated to historical animal motifs to dates, names, and inscriptions.
Throughout Japan, rules governing jitsuin design are so stringent and each design so unique that the vast majority of people entrust the creation of their jitsuin to a professional, paying upward of US $20 and more often closer to US $100, and will use it for decades. People desirous of opening a new chapter in their lives -- say, following a divorce, death of a spouse, a long streak of bad luck, or a change in career -- will often have a new jitsuin made.
The material is usually a high quality hard stone, and far less frequently deerhorn, soapstone, or jade. It 's sometimes carved by machine. When it 's carved by hand, an intō ("seal - engraving blade ''), a mirror, and a small specialized wooden vice are used. An intō is a flat - bladed pencil - sized chisel, usually round or octagonal in cross-section and sometimes wrapped in string to give the handle a non-slip surface. The intō is held vertically in one hand, with the point projecting from one 's fist on the side opposite one 's thumb. New, modern intō range in price from less than US $1 to US $100.
The jitsuin is always kept in a very secure place such as a bank vault or hidden carefully in one 's home. They 're usually stored in thumb - sized rectangular boxes made of cardboard covered with heavily embroidered green fabric outside and red silk or red velvet inside, held closed by a white plastic or deerhorn splinter tied to the lid and passed through a fabric loop attached to the lower half of the box. Because of the superficial resemblance to coffins, they 're often called "coffins '' in Japanese by enthusiasts and hanko boutiques. The paste is usually stored separately.
A ginkō - in (銀行 印) is used specifically for banking; ginkō means "bank ''. A person 's savings account passbook contains an original impression of the ginkō - in alongside a bank employee 's seal. Rules for the size and design vary somewhat from bank to bank; generally, they contain a Japanese person 's full name; a Westerner may be permitted to use a full family name with or without an abbreviated given name, such as "Smith '', "Bill Smith '', "W Smith '' or "Wm Smith '' in place of "William Smith ''. The lettering can be red or white, in any font, and with artistic decoration.
Most people have them custom - made by professionals or make their own by hand, since mass - produced ginkō - in would offer no security. They are wood or stone and carried about in a variety of thumb - shaped and - sized cases resembling cloth purses or plastic pencil cases. They are usually hidden carefully in the owner 's home.
Banks always provide stamp pads or ink paste, in addition to dry cleansing tissues. The banks also provide small plastic scrubbing surfaces similar to small patches of red artificial grass. These are attached to counters and used to scrub the accumulated ink paste from the working surface of customers ' seals.
A mitome - in (認印) is a moderately formal seal typically used for signing for postal deliveries, signing utility bill payments, signing internal company memos, confirming receipt of internal company mail, and other low - security everyday functions.
Mitome - in are commonly stored in low - security, high - utility places such as office desk drawers and in the anteroom (genkan) of a residence.
A mitome - in 's form is governed by far fewer customs than jitsuin and ginkō - in. However, mitome - in adhere to a handful of strongly observed customs. The size is the attribute most strongly governed by social custom. It is usually the size of an American penny or smaller. A male 's is usually slightly larger than a female 's, and a junior employee 's is always smaller than his bosses ' and his senior co-workers ', in keeping with office social hierarchy. The mitome - in always has the person 's family name, and usually does not have the person 's given name (shita no namae). They are often round or oval, but square ones are not uncommon, and rectangular ones are not unheard - of. They are always geometric figures. They can have red lettering on a blank field (shubun) or the opposite (hakubun). Borderlines around their edges are optional.
Plastic mitome - in in popular Japanese names can be obtained from stationery stores for less than US $1, though ones made from inexpensive stone are also very popular. Inexpensive prefabricated seals are called ' sanmonban ' (三文判). Prefabricated rubber stamps are unacceptable for business purposes.
Mitome - in and lesser seals are usually stored in inexpensive plastic cases, sometimes with small supplies of red paste or a stamp pad included.
Most Japanese also have a far less formal seal used to sign personal letters or initial changes in documents; this is referred to by the also broadly generic term hanko. They often display only a single hiragana, kanji ideograph, or katakana character carved in it, They are as often round or oval as they are square. They vary in size from 0.5 - to - 1.5 - centimetre wide (0.20 to 0.59 in); women 's tend to be small.
Gagō - in (雅号 印) are used by graphic artists to both decorate and sign their work. The practice goes back several hundred years. The signatures are frequently pen names or nicknames; the decorations are usually favorite slogans or other extremely short phrases. A gago in can be any size, design, or shape. Irregular naturally occurring outlines and handles, as though a river stone were cut in two, are commonplace. The material may be anything, though in modern times soft stone is the most common and metal is rare.
Traditionally, inkan and hanko are engraved on the end of a finger - length stick of stone, wood, bone, or ivory, with a diameter between 25 and 75 millimetres (0.98 and 2.95 in). Their carving is a form of calligraphic art. Foreign names may be carved in rōmaji, katakana, hiragana, or kanji. Inkan for standard Japanese names may be purchased prefabricated.
Almost every stationery store, five - and - dime store, large book store, and department store carries small do - it - yourself kits for making hanko. These include instructions, hiragana fonts written forward and in mirror - writing (as they 'd appear on the working surface of a seal), a slim in tou chisel, two or three grades of sandpaper, slim marker pen (to draw the design on the stone), and one to three mottled, inexpensive, soft square green finger - size stones.
In modern Japan, most people have several inkan.
A certificate of authenticity is required for any hanko used in a significant business transaction. Registration and certification of an inkan may be obtained in a local municipal office (e.g. city hall). There, a person receives a "certificate of seal impression '' known as inkan tōroku shōmei - sho (印鑑 登録 証明 書).
The increasing ease with which modern technology allows hanko fraud is beginning to cause some concern that the present system will not be able to survive.
Signatures are not used for most transactions, but in some cases, such as signing a cell phone contract, they may be used, sometimes in addition to a stamp from a mitome - in. For these transactions, a jitsuin is too official, while a mitome - in alone is insufficient, and thus signatures are used. (1) (2)
The seal was first introduced to Korea in approximately 2nd century BC. The remaining oldest record of its usage in Korea is that kings of Buyeo used a royal seal (oksae: 옥새, 玉璽) which bore the inscription of Seal of the King of Ye (濊 王之印, 예 왕지 인). The use of seals became popular during the Three Kingdoms of Korea period.
In the case of State Seals in monarchic Korea, there were two types in use: Gugin (국인, 國 印) which was conferred by the Emperor of China to Korean kings, with the intent of keeping relations between two countries as brothers (Sadae). This was used only in communications with China and for the coronation of kings. Others, generally called eobo (어보, 御 寶) or eosae (어새, 御璽), are used in foreign communications with countries other than China, and for domestic uses. With the declaration of establishment of Republic of Korea in 1948, its government created a new State Seal, guksae (국새, 國 璽) and it is used in promulgation of constitution, designation of cabinet members and ambassadors, conference of national orders and important diplomatic documents.
Seals were also used by government officials in documents. These types of seals were called gwanin (관인, 官印) and it was supervised by specialist officials.
In traditional arts, like in China and Japan, an artist of Chinese calligraphy and paintings would use their seals (generally leisure seals and studio seals) to identify his / her work. These types of seals were called Nakkwan (낙관, 落款). As seal - carving itself was considered a form of art, many artists carved their own seals. Seals of Joseon - period calligraphist and natural historian Kim Jung - hee (aka Wandang or Chusa) are considered as antiquity.
In modern Korea, the use of seals is still common. Most Koreans have personal seals, and every government agency and commercial corporation has its own seals to use in public documents. While signing is also accepted, many Koreans think it is more formal to use seals in public documents. In 2008, the Constitutional Court of South - Korea upheld a Supreme court judgement that a signed and handwritten will which lacked a registered seal was invalid.
Personal seals (dojang in general reference) in Korea can be classified by their legal status. Ingam (인감, 印鑑) or sirin (실인, 實 印), meaning registered seal, is the seal which is registered to local office. By registering the seal, a person can issue a "certificate of seal registration '' (ingam - jungmyeong - seo (인감 증명서, 印鑑 證明 書) in Korean) which is a required document for most significant business transactions and civil services. The legal system of registered seals was introduced by the Japanese colonial government in 1914, however it is slated to be replaced by an electronic certification system in 2013 in order to counter fraud. While ingam is used in important business, other dojangs are used in everyday purpose such as less - significant official transactions. Thus most Koreans have more than two seals.
Korean seals are made of wood, jade, or sometimes ivory for more value. State Seals were generally made of gold or high - quality jade. Rare cases of bronze or steel seals exist.
Chinese style seals were also utilized by the Ryūkyū Kingdom.
While Chinese style seals are typically used in China, Japan, and Korea, they are occasionally used outside East Asia. For example, the rulers of the Ilkhanate, a Mongol khanate established by Hulagu Khan in Persia, used seals containing Chinese characters in each of their diplomatic letters, such as the letter from Arghun to French King Philip IV and the letter from Ghazan to Pope Boniface VIII. These seals were sent by the emperors of the Yuan Dynasty, a ruling dynasty of China and Mongolia, especially by Kublai Khan and his successor Emperor Chengzong.
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when did the pilgrims land on plymouth rock | Plymouth Rock - wikipedia
Plymouth Rock is the traditional site of disembarkation of William Bradford and the Mayflower Pilgrims who founded Plymouth Colony in 1620. The Pilgrims did not refer to Plymouth Rock in any of their writings; the first known written reference to the rock dates to 1715 when it was described in the town boundary records as "a great rock. '' The first documented claim that Plymouth Rock was the landing place of the Pilgrims was made by Elder Thomas Faunce in 1741, 121 years after the Pilgrims arrived in Plymouth. From that time to the present, Plymouth Rock has occupied a prominent spot in American tradition and has been interpreted by later generations as a symbol both of the virtues and flaws of the first English people who colonized New England. In 1774, the rock broke in half during an attempt to haul it to Town Square in Plymouth. The top portion (the fragment now visible) sat in Town Square, was moved to Pilgrim Hall Museum in 1834, and was returned to its original site on the shore of Plymouth Harbor in 1880. Today it is ensconced beneath a granite canopy designed by McKim, Mead & White.
Plymouth Rock is geologically classified as a Dedham Granite boulder and a glacial erratic. The two most significant primary sources on the founding of Plymouth Colony are Edward Winslow 's Mourt 's Relation and Bradford 's history Of Plymouth Plantation, and neither refers to Plymouth Rock. The rock first attracted public attention in 1741 when the residents of Plymouth began plans to build a wharf which would bury it. Before construction began, a 94 - year - old elder of the church named Thomas Faunce, then living three miles from the spot, declared that the boulder was the landing place of the Mayflower Pilgrims. He asked to be brought to the rock to say a farewell. According to Plymouth historian James Thacher:
A chair was procured, and the venerable (Faunce) conveyed to the shore, where a number of the inhabitants were assembled to witness the patriarch 's benediction. Having pointed out the rock directly under the bank of Cole 's Hill, which his father had assured him was that which had received the footsteps of our fathers on their first arrival, and which should be perpetuated to posterity, he bedewed it with his tears and bid to it an everlasting adieu.
Faunce 's father had arrived in the colony aboard the ship Anne in 1623, just two years after the Mayflower landing, and Elder Faunce was born in 1647 when many of the Mayflower Pilgrims were still living, so his assertion made a strong impression on the people of Plymouth. The wharf was built but the rock left intact, the top portion protruding from the dirt so as to be visible to curious visitors.
More recent generations have called Faunce 's assertion into question, alleging that he invented the story or did not have the correct facts, given that he was not an eyewitness to the event. Journalist Bill Bryson, for example, wrote, "The one thing the Pilgrims certainly did not do was step ashore on Plymouth Rock, '' arguing that the boulder would have made an impractical landing spot. Others have taken issue with the significance of the rock based on the fact that the Pilgrims first disembarked from the Mayflower at Provincetown to explore Cape Cod, more than a month prior to arriving in Plymouth harbor. In 1851, a group of Cape Cod residents formed the Cape Cod Association for the purpose of promoting Provincetown as the site of the original Pilgrim landing. Such efforts eventually led to the construction of the Pilgrim Monument in Provincetown, which was completed in 1910.
Col. Theophilus Cotton (son of Josiah Cotton, a Plymouth magistrate) and the townspeople of Plymouth decided to move the rock in 1774. It was split into two parts, with the bottom portion left behind at the wharf and the top portion relocated to the town 's meeting house.
Captain William Coit wrote in the Pennsylvania Journal of November 29, 1775 that he brought captive British sailors ashore "upon the same rock our ancestors first trod. ''
The upper portion of the rock was relocated from Plymouth 's meetinghouse to Pilgrim Hall in 1834. In 1859, the Pilgrim Society began building a Victorian canopy designed by Hammett Billings at the wharf over the lower portion of the rock, which was completed in 1867. The top of the rock was moved from Pilgrim Hall back to its original wharf location in 1880 and rejoined to the lower portion, and the date "1620 '' was carved into it.
In 1920, the rock was temporarily relocated so that the old wharves could be removed and the waterfront re-landscaped to a design by noted landscape architect Arthur Shurcliff, with a waterfront promenade behind a low seawall in such a way that, when the rock was returned to its original site, it would be at water level. The care of the rock was turned over to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, and a new very sober Roman Doric portico was constructed, designed by McKim, Mead and White for viewing the tide - washed rock protected by gratings.
During the rock 's many journeys throughout the town of Plymouth, numerous pieces were taken, bought, and sold. Today approximately ⁄ of the top portion remains. It is estimated that the original Rock weighed 20,000 lb (9,100 kg). Some documents indicate that tourists or souvenir hunters chipped it down, although no pieces have been noticeably removed since 1880. Today there are pieces in Pilgrim Hall Museum, as well as in the Patent Building in the Smithsonian. In 1835, French author Alexis De Tocqueville wrote:
This Rock has become an object of veneration in the United States. I have seen bits of it carefully preserved in several towns in the Union. Does this sufficiently show that all human power and greatness is in the soul of man? Here is a stone which the feet of a few outcasts pressed for an instant; and the stone becomes famous; it is treasured by a great nation; its very dust is shared as a relic.
A 40 - pound (18 kg) piece of the Rock is set on a pedestal in the cloister of historic Plymouth Church of the Pilgrims in Brooklyn Heights, New York. The church was formed by a merger of Plymouth Church and Church of the Pilgrims and was originally pastored by Henry Ward Beecher, father of author Harriet Beecher Stowe.
Cole Porter makes a comic allusion to Plymouth Rock in the title song of the 1934 musical Anything Goes, imagining that, if Puritans were to object to "shocking '' modern mores, instead "of landing on Plymouth Rock, Plymouth Rock would land on them. '' Malcolm X repeated the imagery in a speech on black nationalism: "We did n't land on Plymouth Rock. The rock was landed on us. ''
Plymouth Rock has figured prominently in American Indian politics in the United States, particularly as a symbol of wars starting with King Philip 's War (1675 -- 78), known as the First Indian War. It has been ceremoniously buried twice by Indian rights activists, once in 1970 and again in 1995, as part of National Day of Mourning protests.
Today, Plymouth Rock is managed by the Department of Conservation and Recreation for the Commonwealth of Massachusetts as part of Pilgrim Memorial State Park. From the end of May to Thanksgiving Day, Pilgrim Memorial is staffed by park interpreters who inform visitors of the history of Plymouth Rock and answer questions.
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when was the first time we went to mars | Human mission to Mars - Wikipedia
A human mission to Mars has been the subject of science fiction, aerospace engineering, and scientific proposals since the 19th century. The plans comprise proposals to land on Mars, eventually settling on and terraforming the planet, while utilizing its moons, Phobos and Deimos.
The exploration of Mars has been a goal of national space programs for decades. Preliminary work for missions that would involve human explorers has been undertaken since the 1950s, with planned missions typically being stated as taking place 10 to 30 years in the future when they are drafted. The list of manned Mars mission plans in the 20th century shows the various mission proposals that have been put forth by multiple organizations and space agencies in this field of space exploration. Plans have varied from scientific expeditions in which a small (2 to 8) group visits Mars for a period of a few weeks or year, to the permanent colonization of Mars.
In the 2010s, numerous American, European, and Chinese agencies were developing proposals for human missions to Mars. They are now developing and testing the technologies.
Mars in fiction is a frequent target of exploration and settlement in books, graphic novels, and films.
The energy needed for transfer between planetary orbits, or "∆ V '', is lowest at intervals fixed by the synodic period. For Earth / Mars trips, this is every 26 months (2 years and 2 months), so missions are typically planned to coincide with one of these launch windows. Due to the eccentricity of Mars ' orbit, the energy needed in the low - energy windows varies on roughly a 15 - year cycle with the easiest windows needing only half the energy of the peaks. In the 20th century, there was a minimum in the 1969 and 1971 launch windows and another low in 1986 and 1988, then the cycle repeated.
Several types of mission plans have been proposed, such as the opposition class and conjunction class, or the Crocco flyby. The lowest energy transfer to Mars is a Hohmann transfer orbit; a mission to Mars using Hohmann transfer involves an approximately 9 month travel time from Earth to Mars, about five hundred days at Mars to wait for the transfer window to Earth, and a Hohmann transfer of about 9 months to return to Earth.
Shorter Mars mission plans have round - trip flight times of 400 to 450 days, but requiring a higher energy. A fast Mars mission of 245 days round trip could be possible with on - orbit staging. In 2014 ballistic capture was proposed, which may reduce fuel cost and provide more flexible launch windows compared to the Hohmann.
In the Crocco grand tour, a crewed spacecraft would get a flyby of Mars and Venus for under a year in space. Some flyby mission architectures can also be extended to include a style of Mars landing with a flyby excursion lander spacecraft. Proposed by R. Titus in 1966, it involved extending a flyby mission with a short stay lander. Basically, a short stay lander - ascent vehicle would separate from a "parent '' Earth - Mars transfer prior to its flyby of Mars. The Ascent - Descent lander would arrive sooner and either go into orbit around Mars or land, and depending on the design offer perhaps 10 -- 30 days before it needed to launch itself back to the main transfer vehicle. (see also Mars flyby).
Aerobraking at Mars was estimated in the 1980s to cut the mass of a Mars mission lifted off the Earth by half. As a result, Mars missions have designed interplanetary spacecraft and landers capable of aero - braking.
When an expedition reaches the orbit of Mars, it may drop into orbit around Mars by either of two main options: using rockets to slow down, or aerocapture. The same is true for missions to the surface. The state of the atmosphere, the altitude, and the properties of the landing site must come into consideration for a surface landing. It may be necessary to avoid a scientifically interesting site in the interest of safe touchdown.
Aerocapture at Mars for human missions was studied in the 20th century. In a review of 93 Mars studies 24 used aerocapture for Mars or Earth return. One of the considerations for using aerocapture on humanned missions is a maximum G - limit to experience, for which it was noted 5 - g 's (5 times Earth gravity) was a common limit to be planned for.
There may be several landers, for example, separate ones for the crew, a habitat, rover, supplies, ascent vehicle, etc.
Landed spacecraft on the surface of Mars:
One of the big challenges to landing on Mars was overcome by Mariner 4, when it showed the properties of the atmosphere. Another was a basic survey of the planet, to know what place might be suitable to land. This has been overcome in stages, with major global surveys done by Mariner 9 and Viking 1 and 2 orbiters, which supported the Viking landers finding a suitable landing site. Later orbiters such as Mars Global Surveyor, 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, have helped identify the location of water, a critical resource.
The estimated cost of sending humans to Mars is roughly 500 billion U.S. dollars, though the actual costs are likely to be more. The largest limiting factor for sending humans to Mars is funding. In the late 1950s, rivalry between the Soviet Union and the United States stimulated a national priority to send humans to the Moon. Under the current global geopolitical climate, however, government funding of these programs has decreased. Recent participation of private companies in space travel and participation by new nations such as India may present new opportunities.
Critics argue the immediate benefits of establishing a human presence on Mars are more esoteric than practical. Yet proponents of human space exploration contend that while the short term benefits will be academic, the symbolism of establishing a presence in space may garner public interest to join the cause and spark global cooperation. Furthermore, experts maintain that a long - term investment will be necessary for humanity 's survival.
There are several key physical challenges for human missions to Mars:
Some of these issues were estimated statistically in the HUMEX study. Ehlmann and others have reviewed political and economic concerns, as well as technological and biological feasibility aspects. While fuel for roundtrip travel could be a challenge, methane and oxygen can be produced using Martian H O (preferably as water ice instead of liquid water) and atmospheric CO with mature technology.
Robotic spacecraft to Mars are required to be sterilized, to have at most 300,000 spores on the exterior of the craft -- and more thoroughly sterilized if they contact "special regions '' containing water, as otherwise there is a risk of contaminating not only the life - detection experiments but possibly the planet itself.
It is impossible to sterilize human missions to this level, as humans are host to typically a hundred trillion microorganisms of thousands of species of the human microbiota, and these can not be removed while preserving the life of the human. Containment seems the only option, but it is a major challenge in the event of a hard landing (i.e. crash). There have been several planetary workshops on this issue, but with no final guidelines for a way forward yet. Human explorers would also be vulnerable to back contamination to Earth if they become carriers of microorganisms.
Over the last century, a number of mission concepts for such an expedition have been proposed. David Portree 's history volume Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950 -- 2000 discusses many of these.
Wernher von Braun was the first person to make a detailed technical study of a Mars mission. Details were published in his book Das Marsprojekt (1952, published in English as The Mars Project in 1962) and several subsequent works. Willy Ley popularized a similar mission in English in the book The Conquest of Space (1949), featuring illustrations by Chesley Bonestell. Von Braun 's Mars project envisioned nearly a thousand three - stage vehicles launching from Earth to ferry parts for the Mars mission to be constructed at a space station in Earth orbit. The mission itself featured a fleet of ten spacecraft with a combined crew of 70 heading to Mars, bringing three winged surface excursion ships that would land horizontally on the surface of Mars. (Winged landing was considered possible because at the time of his proposal, the Martian atmosphere was believed to be much denser than was later found to be the case.)
In the 1956 revised vision of the Mars Project plan, published in the book The Exploration of Mars by Wernher Von Braun and Willy Ley, the size of the mission was trimmed, requiring only 400 launches to put together two ships, still carrying a winged landing vehicle. Later versions of the mission proposal, featured in the Disney "Man In Space '' film series, showed nuclear - powered ion - propulsion vehicles for the interplanetary cruise.
In 1962, Aeronutronic Ford, General Dynamics and the Lockheed Missiles and Space Company made studies of Mars mission designs as part of NASA Marshall Spaceflight Center "Project EMPIRE ''. These studies indicated that a Mars mission (possibly including a Venus fly - by) could be done with a launch of eight Saturn V boosters and assembly in low Earth orbit, or possibly with a single launch of a hypothetical "post Saturn '' heavy - lift vehicle. Although the EMPIRE missions were only studies, and never proposed as funded projects, these were the first detailed analyses of what it would take to accomplish a human voyage to Mars using data from actual NASA spaceflight, and laid much of the basis for future studies, including significant mission studies by TRW, North American, Philco, Lockheed, Douglas, and General Dynamics, along with several in - house NASA studies.
Following the success of the Apollo Program, von Braun advocated a manned mission to Mars as a focus for NASA 's manned space program. Von Braun 's proposal used Saturn V boosters to launch nuclear - powered (NERVA) upper stages that would power two six - crew spacecraft on a dual mission in the early 1980s. The proposal was considered by President Richard Nixon but passed over in favor of the Space Shuttle.
In 1975, von Braun discussed the mission architecture that emerged from these Apollo - era studies in a recorded lecture and while doing so suggested that multiple Shuttle launches could instead be configured to lift the two Nuclear Thermal Rocket engine equipped spacecrafts in smaller parts, for assembly in - orbit.
The Martian Piloted Complex or "' MPK ' '' was a proposal by Mikhail Tikhonravov of the Soviet Union for a manned Mars expedition, using the (then proposed) N1 rocket, in studies from 1956 to 1962. The Soviets sent many probes to Mars with some noted success stories including Mars atmospheric entry, but the ratio was low and their space program struggled through disasters like the lost Salyut 1 crew and explosions of their N1 rocket (see Mars 3)
Heavy Interplanetary Spacecraft (known by the Russian acronym TMK) was the designation of a Soviet Union space exploration proposal in the 1960s to send a manned flight to Mars and Venus (TMK - MAVR design) without landing. The TMK spacecraft was due to launch in 1971 and make a three - year - long flight including a Mars fly - by at which time probes would have been dropped. The project was never completed because the required N1 rocket never flew successfully. The Mars Expeditionary Complex, or "' MEK '' ' (1969) was another Soviet proposal for a Mars expedition that would take a crew from three to six to Mars and back with a total mission duration of 630 days.
Following the Viking missions to Mars, between 1981 and 1996 a series of conferences named The Case for Mars were held at the University of Colorado at Boulder. These conferences advocated human exploration of Mars, presented concepts and technologies, and held a series of workshops to develop a baseline concept for the mission. It proposed use of in - situ resource utilization to manufacture rocket propellant for the return trip. The mission study was published in a series of proceedings volumes. Later conferences presented alternative concepts, including the "Mars Direct '' concept of Robert Zubrin and David Baker; the "Footsteps to Mars '' proposal of Geoffrey A. Landis, which proposed intermediate steps before the landing on Mars, including human missions to Phobos; and the "Great Exploration '' proposal from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, among others.
In response to a presidential initiative, NASA made a study of a project for human lunar - and Mars exploration as a proposed follow - on to the International Space Station project. This resulted in a report, called the 90 - day study, in which the agency proposed a long - term plan consisting of completing the Space Station as "a critical next step in all our space endeavors, '' returning to the moon and establishing a permanent base, and then sending astronauts to Mars. This report was widely criticized as too elaborate and expensive, and all funding for human exploration beyond Earth orbit was canceled by Congress.
Because of the greater distance, the Mars mission would be much more risky and expensive than past Moon flights. Supplies and fuel would have to be prepared for a 2 - 3 year round trip and the spacecraft would need at least partial shielding from ionizing radiation. A 1990 paper by Robert Zubrin and David A. Baker, then of Martin Marietta, proposed reducing the mission mass (and hence the cost) by using in situ resource utilization to manufacture propellant from the Martian Atmosphere. This proposal drew on concepts developed by the former "Case for Mars '' conference series. Over the next decade, Zubrin developed it into a mission concept, Mars Direct, which he presented in a book, The Case for Mars (1996). The mission is advocated by the Mars Society, which Zubrin founded in 1998, as practical and affordable.
In 1991 in Toulouse, France, the International Space University studied an international human Mars mission. They proposed a crew of 8 traveling to Mars in a nuclear - powered vessel with artificial gravity provided by rotation. On the surface, 40 tonne habitats pressurized to 10 psi (69 kPa) were powered by a 40 kW photovoltaic array.
In the 1990s NASA developed several conceptual level human Mars exploration architectures. One of these was NASA Design reference mission 3.0 (DRM 3.0) to stimulate further thought and concept development.
Selected other US / NASA studies (1988 -- 2009):
The NASA Mars Design Reference Missions consisted of a series of conceptual design studies for human Mars missions, continued in the 21st century Selected other US / NASA plans (1988 -- 2009):
The Mars Piloted Orbital Station (or MARPOST) is a Russian proposed manned orbital mission to Mars, using a nuclear reactor to run an electric rocket engine. Proposed in October 2000 by Yuri Karash from the Russian Academy of Cosmonautics as the next step for Russia in space along with the Russian participation in the International Space Station, a 30 - volume draft project for MARPOST was confirmed as of 2005. Design for the ship was proposed to be ready in 2012, and the ship itself in 2021.
The European Space Agency had a long - term vision of sending a human mission to Mars in 2033. Laid out in 2001, the project 's proposed timeline would begin with robotic exploration, a proof of concept simulation of sustaining humans on Mars, and eventually a manned mission; however, objections from the participating nations of ESA and other delays have put the timeline into question. Nevertheless, a spawn of this programme, ExoMars, delivered an orbiter to Mars in 2016
Another proposal for a joint ESA mission with Russia is based on two spacecraft being sent to Mars, one carrying a six - person crew and the other the expedition 's supplies. The mission would take about 440 days to complete with three astronauts visiting the surface of the planet for a period of two months. The entire project would cost $20 billion and Russia would contribute 30 % of these funds.
Project Constellation included an Orion Mars Mission. (Then United States President) George W. Bush announced an initiative of manned space exploration on January 14, 2004, known as the Vision for Space Exploration. It included developing preliminary plans for a lunar outpost by 2012 and establishing an outpost by 2020. Precursor missions that would help develop the needed technology during the 2010 -- 2020 decade were tentatively outlined by Adringa and others. On September 24, 2007, Michael Griffin, then NASA Administrator, hinted that NASA may be able to launch a human mission to Mars by 2037. The needed funds were to be generated by diverting $11 billion from space science missions to the vision for human exploration.
NASA has also discussed plans to launch Mars missions from the Moon to reduce traveling costs.
The Mars Society Germany proposed a manned Mars mission using several launches of an improved heavy - lift version of the Ariane 5. Roughly 5 launches would be required to send a crew of 5 on a 1200 days mission, with a payload of 120,000 kg (260,000 lb). Total project was estimated to cost 10 to 15 billion Euros.
Sun Laiyan, administrator of the China National Space Administration, said on July 20, 2006 that China would start deep space exploration focusing on Mars over the next five years, during the Eleventh Five - Year Plan (2006 -- 2010) Program period. The first uncrewed Mars exploration program could take place between 2014 -- 2033, followed by a crewed phase in 2040 -- 2060 in which crew members would land on Mars and return home. The Mars 500 study of 2011 prepared for this manned mission.
The idea of a one - way trip to Mars has been proposed several times. Space activist Bruce Mackenzie, for example, proposed a one - way trip to Mars in a presentation "One Way to Mars -- a Permanent Settlement on the First Mission '' at the 1998 International Space Development Conference, arguing that since the mission could be done with less difficulty and expense without a return to Earth, the first mission to Mars should be a settlement, not a visit. In 2006, former NASA engineer James C. McLane III proposed a scheme to initially colonize Mars via a one - way trip by only one human. Papers discussing this concept appeared in The Space Review, Harper 's Magazine, SEARCH Magazine and The New York Times.
Former Apollo astronaut Buzz Aldrin is a particularly outspoken promoter who has suggested in numerous forums "Forget the Moon, Let 's Head to Mars! '' In June 2013, Aldrin wrote an opinion, published in The New York Times, supporting a manned mission to Mars and which viewed the moon "not as a destination but more a point of departure... '' In August 2015, Aldrin, in association with the Florida Institute of Technology, presented a "master plan '' for NASA consideration proposing astronauts with a "tour of duty of ten years '' colonize Mars before the year 2040.
NASA released initial details of the latest version conceptual level human Mars exploration architecture in this presentation. The study further developed concepts developed in previous NASA DRM and updated it to more current launchers and technology.
NASA released an updated version of NASA DRM 5.0 in early 2009, featuring use of the Ares V launcher, Orion CEV, and updated mission planning. In this document.
Extrapolated from the DRMA 5.0, plans for a manned Mars expedition with chemical propulsion. Austere Human Missions to Mars
In a major space policy speech at Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010, former U.S. President Barack Obama predicted a manned Mars mission to orbit the planet by the mid-2030s, followed by a landing:
By the mid-2030s, I believe we can send humans to orbit Mars and return them safely to Earth. And a landing on Mars will follow. And I expect to be around to see it.
The United States Congress has mostly approved a new direction for NASA that includes canceling Bush 's planned return to the Moon by 2020 and instead proposes asteroid exploration in 2025 (Asteroid Redirect Mission) and orbiting Mars in the 2030s. The Asteroid Redirect Mission was cancelled in June 2017 and "closed out '' in September of the same year.
Mars 500, the longest high fidelity spaceflight simulation, ran from 2007 to 2011 in Russia and was an experiment to assess the feasibility of manned missions to mars.
A number of Mars mission concepts and proposals have been put forth by Russian scientists. Stated dates were for a launch sometime between 2016 and 2020. The Mars probe would carry a crew of four to five cosmonauts, who would spend close to two years in space.
In late 2011, Russian and European space agencies successfully completed the ground - based MARS - 500. The biomedical experiment simulating manned flight to Mars was completed in Russia in July 2000.
In 2011, Jean - Marc Salotti published a new proposal for a manned Mars mission, with a release in 2012. The 2 - 4 - 2 concept is based on a reduction of the crew size to only 2 astronauts and the duplication of the entire mission. There are 2 astronauts in each space vehicle, there are 4 on the surface of Mars and there are 2 once again in each return vehicle. In addition, at every step of the mission, there are 2 astronauts ready to help the 2 others (2 for 2). This architecture simplifies the entry, descent and landing procedures, which are known to be very risky, thanks to a significant reduction of the size of the landing vehicles. It also avoids the assembly of huge vehicles in LEO. The author claims that his proposal is much cheaper than the NASA reference mission without compromising the risks and can be undertaken before 2030.
In 2012, Conceptual Space Vehicle Architecture for Human Exploration of Mars, with Artificial Gravity and Mini-Magnetosphere Crew Radiation Shield was released, laying out a possible design for a human Mars mission. Components of the architecture include various spacecraft for the Earth - to - Mars journey, landing, and surface stay as well as return. Some features include a several unmanned cargo landers assembled into a base on the surface of Mars. The crew would land at this base in the "Mars Personnel Lander '', which could also take them back into Mars orbit. The design for the manned interplanetary spacecraft included artificial - gravity and an artificial magnetic field. Overall, the architecture was modular and to allow for incremental R&D.
In 2012, a Dutch entrepreneur group began raising funds for a human Mars base to be established in 2023. The mission is intended to be primarily a settlement mission with no return trip to Earth planned. Astronaut applications were invited from the public all over the world.
The initial plan included an orbiter and demonstration lander in 2018, followed by a rover in 2020, and the base components in 2024. Mars One suggested it could use a SpaceX Heavy rocket to launch flight hardware. The first crew of four astronauts were to land on Mars in 2025. Then, every two years, a new crew of four would arrive. The entire mission is to be filmed and broadcast as a media event. Revenues from broadcasting would help fund the program. In April 2015, Mars One 's CEO Bas Lansdorp admitted that their 12 - year plan for landing humans on Mars by 2027 is mostly fiction.
In 2013, the Inspiration Mars Foundation founded by Dennis Tito revealed plans of a manned mission to fly by Mars in 2018 with support from NASA. NASA refused to fund the mission.
On December 2, 2014, NASA 's Advanced Human Exploration Systems and Operations Mission Director Jason Crusan and Deputy Associate Administrator for Programs James Reuthner announced tentative support for the Boeing "Affordable Mars Mission Design '' including radiation shielding, centrifugal artificial gravity, in - transit consumable resupply, and a lander which can return. Reuthner suggested that if adequate funding was forthcoming, the proposed mission would be expected in the early 2030s.
On October 8, 2015, NASA published its official plan for human exploration and colonization of Mars. The plan operates through three distinct phases leading up to fully sustained colonization.
The first stage, already underway, is the "Earth Reliant '' phase. This phase continues using the International Space Station until 2024; validating deep space technologies and studying the effects of long duration space missions on the human body.
The second stage, "Proving Ground, '' moves away from Earth reliance and ventures into cislunar space for most of its tasks. This is when NASA planned the now cancelled Asteroid Redirect Mission (for 2020), test deep space habitation facilities, and validate capabilities required for human exploration of Mars.
Finally, phase three is the transition to independence from Earth resources. The "Earth Independent '' phase includes long term missions on the lunar surface with surface habitats that only require routine maintenance, and the harvesting of Martian resources for fuel, water, and building materials. NASA is still aiming for human missions to Mars in the 2030s, though Earth independence could take decades longer.
In November 2015, Administrator Bolden of NASA reaffirmed the goal of sending humans to Mars. He laid out 2030 as the date of a manned surface landing, and noted that planned 2020 Mars rover would support the human mission. Also discussed was the use of robotics to prepare an underground habitat for the arriving people. He noted the advantages of living underground on Mars, especially that it eliminates the need to construct above ground shielding. The underground base would be prepared in advance by an armada of robots. Top surface activity was not excluded however, just that the crew would "probably live underground for the most part ''.
Since 2016, SpaceX publicly announced a comprehensive vision to begin the colonization of Mars, by proposing to develop a high - capacity transportation infrastructure.
In September 2016 at the International Astronautical Congress, Elon Musk announced the ITS launch vehicle design (informally discussed earlier as the Mars Colonial Transporter), that comprised a large reusable booster topped by a spaceship or a tanker for in - orbit refueling, as well as a propellant plant to be built on Mars, at a base referred to as Mars Base Alpha. The aspirational objective is to advance the technology and infrastructure such that the first humans to Mars could potentially depart as early as 2024.
On 29 September 2017, Elon Musk announced an updated vehicle design for the mars mission at the International Astronautical Congress. The replacement vehicle for this mission is called BFR (Big Falcon Rocket). BFR will provide the on - orbit activity like satellite delivery, servicing the International Space Station, Moon mission, as well as Mars mission. There are two phases for the human mission to Mars via BFR:
The BFR is currently under construction, with sub-orbital flight testing expected in 2019.
Mars Base Camp (MBC), an American spacecraft concept that proposes to send astronauts to Mars orbit as early as 2028. The vehicle concept, developed by Lockheed Martin, would utilize both future and heritage technology as well as the Orion MPCV built by NASA.
The Deep Space Transport (DST) is a spacecraft meant to be launched on top of NASA 's SLS launch vehicle in 2027. It was announced by NASA in March 2017. It is to dock with the Deep Space Gateway (DSG) station, which would be in cis - lunar space after its construction, in 2027. Current plans show it to be sent with a crew of 4 to Mars in 2033. It would not, however, land, but merely remain in Martian orbit until there is a launch window for a return. The mission is expected to take about 2 years if all missions in the DSG and DST from 2021 -- 2030 are successful. This mission would use the SLS rocket for launches, and the Orion MPCV to transport the crew to and from the Earth and the DSG and DST.
A number of nations and organizations have long - term intentions to send humans to Mars.
United States - based launch company SpaceX intends to establish a permanent Mars base in the 2020s, using the BFR fully reusable launch system. The current plan is for 2 unmanned BFRs to fly to Mars in 2022, establishing a rocket propellant plant and other infrastructure for the base. 2 crewed BFRs, with 100 crew each, and 2 further unmanned BFRs will follow in 2024.
The BFR is currently under construction, and is planned to enter sub-orbital flight testing in 2019.
Significant technological hurdles need to be overcome for human spaceflight to Mars.
Entry into the thin and shallow Martian atmosphere will pose significant difficulties with re-entry and for a spacecraft of the weight needed to carry humans, along with life support, supplies and other equipment. Should a heat shield be used, it would need to be very large. Retro rockets could be used, but would add significant further weight.
A return mission to Mars will need to land a rocket to carry crew off the surface. Launch requirements mean that this rocket would be significantly smaller than an Earth - to - orbit rocket. Mars - to - orbit launch can also be achieved in single stage. Despite this, landing an ascent rocket on Mars will be difficult. Reentry for a large rocket will be difficult.
In 2014 NASA proposed the Mars Ecopoiesis Test Bed.
One of the medical supplies that may be needed is intravenous fluid, which is mostly water but contains other things so it can be added directly to the human blood stream. If it can be created on the spot from existing water then it could spare the weight of hauling earth - produced units, whose weight is mostly water. A prototype for this capability was tested on the International Space Station in 2010.
While it is possible for humans to breathe pure oxygen, usually additional gases like nitrogen are included in the breathing mix. One possibility is to take in - situ nitrogen and argon from the atmosphere of Mars; however, they are hard to separate from each other. As a result, a Mars habitat may use 40 % argon, 40 % nitrogen, and 20 % oxygen.
An idea for keeping carbon dioxide out of the breathing air is to use re-usable amine bead carbon dioxide scrubbers. While one carbon dioxide scrubber filters the astronaut 's air, the other is vented to the Mars atmosphere.
Some missions may be considered a "Mission to Mars '' in their own right, or they may only be one step in a more in - depth program. An example of this is missions to Mars ' moons, or flyby missions.
An example of this is Inspiration Mars, which could be compared to the Manned Venus Flyby (NASA) mission proposal of the 1970s, but for Mars.
Many Mars mission concepts propose precursor missions to the moons of Mars, for example, a sample return mission to the Mars moon Phobos -- not quite Mars, but perhaps a convenient stepping stone to an eventual Martian surface mission. Lockheed Martin, as part of their "Stepping stones to Mars '' project, called the "Red Rocks Project '', proposed to explore Mars robotically from Deimos.
Use of fuel produced from water resources on Phobos or Deimos has also been proposed.
An unmanned Mars sample return mission (MSR) has sometimes been considered to be an essential precursor to crewed missions to Mars ' surface by the 21st century. The ESA noted that a sample return as being essential and could bridge the gap between robotic and human missions to Mars. An example of a Mars sample return mission is Sample Collection for Investigation of Mars. Mars sample return was the highest priority Flagship Mission proposed for NASA by the Planetary Decadal Survey 2013 -- 2022: The Future of Planetary Science. However, such missions have been hampered by complexity and expense, with one ESA proposal involving no less than five different unmanned spacecraft.
Sample return plans raise the concern, however remote, that an infectious agent could be brought to Earth. Regardless, a basic set of guidelines for extraterrestrial sample return have been laid out depending on the source of sample (e.g. asteroid, Moon, Mars surface, etc.)
At the dawn of the 21st century, NASA crafted four potential pathways to Mars human missions. Of those four, three included a Mars sample return as a prerequisite to human landing, however one did not.
Landis and Lupisella proposed to explore Mars via telepresence from human astronauts in orbit.
A similar idea, was the proposed "Human Exploration using Real - time Robotic Operations '' (HERRO) mission.
Another proposed mission was the Russian Mars Piloted Orbital Station.
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what is the shelf life of a nicad battery | Nickel -- cadmium battery - wikipedia
The nickel -- cadmium battery (NiCd battery or NiCad battery) is a type of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. The abbreviation NiCd is derived from the chemical symbols of nickel (Ni) and cadmium (Cd): the abbreviation NiCad is a registered trademark of SAFT Corporation, although this brand name is commonly used to describe all Ni -- Cd batteries.
Wet - cell nickel - cadmium batteries were invented in 1899. Among rechargeable battery technologies, NiCd rapidly lost market share in the 1990s, to NiMH and Li - ion batteries; market share dropped by 80 %. A NiCd battery has a terminal voltage during discharge of around 1.2 volts which decreases little until nearly the end of discharge. NiCd batteries are made in a wide range of sizes and capacities, from portable sealed types interchangeable with carbon - zinc dry cells, to large ventilated cells used for standby power and motive power. Compared with other types of rechargeable cells they offer good cycle life and performance at low temperatures with a fair capacity but their significant advantage is the ability to deliver practically their full rated capacity at high discharge rates (discharging in one hour or less). However, the materials are more costly than that of the lead -- acid battery, and the cells have high self - discharge rates.
Sealed NiCd cells were at one time widely used in portable power tools, photography equipment, flashlights, emergency lighting, hobby R / C, and portable electronic devices. The superior capacity of the Nickel - metal hydride batteries, and more recently their lower cost, has largely supplanted their use. Further, the environmental impact of the disposal of the toxic metal cadmium has contributed considerably to the reduction in their use. Within the European Union, NiCd batteries can now only be supplied for replacement purposes or for certain types of new equipment such as medical devices.
Larger ventilated wet cell NiCd batteries are used in emergency lighting, standby power, and uninterruptible power supplies and other applications.
The first Ni -- Cd battery was created by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden in 1899. At that time, the only direct competitor was the lead -- acid battery, which was less physically and chemically robust. With minor improvements to the first prototypes, energy density rapidly increased to about half of that of primary batteries, and significantly greater than lead -- acid batteries. Jungner experimented with substituting iron for the cadmium in varying quantities, but found the iron formulations to be wanting. Jungner 's work was largely unknown in the United States. Thomas Edison patented a nickel -- or cobalt -- cadmium battery in 1902, and adapted the battery design when he introduced the nickel -- iron battery to the US two years after Jungner had built one. In 1906, Jungner established a factory close to Oskarshamn, Sweden to produce flooded design Ni -- Cd batteries.
In 1932 active materials were deposited inside a porous nickel - plated electrode and fifteen years later began on a sealed nickel - cadmium battery.
The first production in the United States began in 1946. Up to this point, the batteries were "pocket type, '' constructed of nickel - plated steel pockets containing nickel and cadmium active materials. Around the middle of the twentieth century, sintered - plate Ni -- Cd batteries became increasingly popular. Fusing nickel powder at a temperature well below its melting point using high pressures creates sintered plates. The plates thus formed are highly porous, about 80 percent by volume. Positive and negative plates are produced by soaking the nickel plates in nickel - and cadmium - active materials, respectively. Sintered plates are usually much thinner than the pocket type, resulting in greater surface area per volume and higher currents. In general, the greater amount of reactive material surface area in a battery, the lower its internal resistance.
Today, all consumer Ni -- Cd batteries use the "Swiss roll '' or "jelly - roll '' configuration. This design incorporates several layers of positive and negative material rolled into a cylindrical shape. This design reduces internal resistance as there is a greater amount of electrode in contact with the active material in each cell.
The maximum discharge rate for a Ni -- Cd battery varies by size. For a common AA - size cell, the maximum discharge rate is approximately 1.8 amperes; for a D size battery the discharge rate can be as high as 3.5 amperes.
Model - aircraft or - boat builders often take much larger currents of up to a hundred amps or so from specially constructed Ni -- Cd batteries, which are used to drive main motors. 5 -- 6 minutes of model operation is easily achievable from quite small batteries, so a reasonably high power - to - weight figure is achieved, comparable to internal combustion motors, though of lesser duration. In this, however, they have been largely superseded by lithium polymer (Lipo) and lithium iron phosphate (LiFe) batteries, which can provide even higher energy densities.
Ni -- Cd cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 volts (V). This is lower than the 1.5 V of alkaline and zinc -- carbon primary cells, and consequently they are not appropriate as a replacement in all applications. However, the 1.5 V of a primary alkaline cell refers to its initial, rather than average, voltage. Unlike alkaline and zinc -- carbon primary cells, a Ni -- Cd cell 's terminal voltage only changes a little as it discharges. Because many electronic devices are designed to work with primary cells that may discharge to as low as 0.90 to 1.0 V per cell, the relatively steady 1.2 V of a Ni -- Cd cell is enough to allow operation. Some would consider the near - constant voltage a drawback as it makes it difficult to detect when the battery charge is low.
Ni -- Cd batteries used to replace 9 V batteries usually only have six cells, for a terminal voltage of 7.2 volts. While most pocket radios will operate satisfactorily at this voltage, some manufacturers such as Varta made 8.4 volt batteries with seven cells for more critical applications.
Ni -- Cd batteries can be charged at several different rates, depending on how the cell was manufactured. The charge rate is measured based on the percentage of the amp - hour capacity the battery is fed as a steady current over the duration of the charge. Regardless of the charge speed, more energy must be supplied to the battery than its actual capacity, to account for energy loss during charging, with faster charges being more efficient. For example, an "overnight '' charge, might consist of supplying a current equal to one tenth the amperehour rating (C / 10) for 14 -- 16 hours; that is, a 100 mAh battery takes 10 mA for 14 hours, for a total of 140 mAh to charge at this rate. At the rapid - charge rate, done at 100 % of the rated capacity of the battery in 1 hour (1C), the battery holds roughly 80 % of the charge, so a 100 mAh battery takes 125 mAh to charge (that is, approximately 1 hour and fifteen minutes). Some specialized batteries can be charged in as little as 10 -- 15 minutes at a 4C or 6C charge rate, but this is very uncommon. It also greatly increases the risk of the cells overheating and venting due to an internal overpressure condition: the cell 's rate of temperature rise is governed by its internal resistance and the square of the charging rate. At a 4C rate, the amount of heat generated in the cell is sixteen times higher than the heat at the 1C rate. The downside to faster charging is the higher risk of overcharging, which can damage the battery. and the increased temperatures the cell has to endure (which potentially shortens its life).
The safe temperature range when in use is between − 20 ° C and 45 ° C. During charging, the battery temperature typically stays low, around the same as the ambient temperature (the charging reaction absorbs heat), but as the battery nears full charge the temperature will rise to 45 -- 50 ° C. Some battery chargers detect this temperature increase to cut off charging and prevent over-charging.
When not under load or charge, a Ni -- Cd battery will self - discharge approximately 10 % per month at 20 ° C, ranging up to 20 % per month at higher temperatures. It is possible to perform a trickle charge at current levels just high enough to offset this discharge rate; to keep a battery fully charged. However, if the battery is going to be stored unused for a long period of time, it should be discharged down to at most 40 % of capacity (some manufacturers recommend fully discharging and even short - circuiting once fully discharged), and stored in a cool, dry environment.
Sealed Ni -- Cd cells consist of a pressure vessel that is supposed to contain any generation of oxygen and hydrogen gases until they can recombine back to water. Such generation typically occurs during rapid charge and discharge, and exceedingly at overcharge condition. If the pressure exceeds the limit of the safety valve, water in the form of gas is lost. Since the vessel is designed to contain an exact amount of electrolyte this loss will rapidly affect the capacity of the cell and its ability to receive and deliver current. To detect all conditions of overcharge demands great sophistication from the charging circuit and a cheap charger will eventually damage even the best quality cells.
A fully charged NiCd cell contains:
NiCd batteries usually have a metal case with a sealing plate equipped with a self - sealing safety valve. The positive and negative electrode plates, isolated from each other by the separator, are rolled in a spiral shape inside the case. This is known as the jelly - roll design and allows a Ni -- Cd cell to deliver a much higher maximum current than an equivalent size alkaline cell. Alkaline cells have a bobbin construction where the cell casing is filled with electrolyte and contains a graphite rod which acts as the positive electrode. As a relatively small area of the electrode is in contact with the electrolyte (as opposed to the jelly - roll design), the internal resistance for an equivalent sized alkaline cell is higher which limits the maximum current that can be delivered.
The chemical reactions at the cadmium electrode during discharge are:
The reactions at the nickel oxide electrode are:
The net reaction during discharge is
During recharge, the reactions go from right to left. The alkaline electrolyte (commonly KOH) is not consumed in this reaction and therefore its specific gravity, unlike in lead -- acid batteries, is not a guide to its state of charge.
When Jungner built the first NiCd batteries, he used nickel oxide in the positive electrode, and iron and cadmium materials in the negative. It was not until later that pure cadmium metal and nickel hydroxide were used. Until about 1960, the chemical reaction was not completely understood. There were several speculations as to the reaction products. The debate was finally resolved by infrared spectroscopy, which revealed cadmium hydroxide and nickel hydroxide.
Another historically important variation on the basic NiCd cell is the addition of lithium hydroxide to the potassium hydroxide electrolyte. This was believed to prolong the service life by making the cell more resistant to electrical abuse. The Ni -- Cd battery in its modern form is extremely resistant to electrical abuse anyway, so this practice has been discontinued.
Vented cell (wet cell, flooded cell) NiCd batteries are used when large capacities and high discharge rates are required. Traditional NiCd batteries are of the sealed type, which means that charge gas is normally recombined and they release no gas unless severely overcharged or a fault develops. Unlike typical NiCd cells, which are sealed, vented cells have a vent or low pressure release valve that releases any generated oxygen and hydrogen gases when overcharged or discharged rapidly. Since the battery is not a pressure vessel, it is safer, weighs less, and has a simpler and more economical structure. This also means the battery is not normally damaged by excessive rates of overcharge, discharge or even negative charge.
They are used in aviation, rail and mass transit, backup power for telecoms, engine starting for backup turbines etc. Using vented cell NiCd batteries results in reduction in size, weight and maintenance requirements over other types of batteries. Vented cell NiCd batteries have long lives (up to 20 years or more, depending on type) and operate at extreme temperatures (from − 40 to 70 ° C).
A steel battery box contains the cells connected in series to gain the desired voltage (1.2 V per cell nominal). Cells are usually made of a light and durable polyamide (nylon), with multiple nickel - cadmium plates welded together for each electrode inside. A separator or liner made of silicone rubber acts as an insulator and a gas barrier between the electrodes. Cells are flooded with an electrolyte of 30 % aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH). The specific gravity of the electrolyte does not indicate if the battery is discharged or fully charged but changes mainly with evaporation of water. The top of the cell contains a space for excess electrolyte and a pressure release vent. Large nickel - plated copper studs and thick interconnecting links assure minimum equivalent series resistance for the battery.
The venting of gases means that the battery is either being discharged at a high rate or recharged at a higher than nominal rate. This also means the electrolyte lost during venting must be periodically replaced through routine maintenance. Depending on the charge -- discharge cycles and type of battery this can mean a maintenance period of anything from a few months to a year.
Vented cell voltage rises rapidly at the end of charge allowing for very simple charger circuitry to be used. Typically a battery is constant current charged at 1 CA rate until all the cells have reached at least 1.55 V. Another charge cycle follows at 0.1 CA rate, again until all cells have reached 1.55 V. The charge is finished with an equalizing or top - up charge, typically for not less than 4 hours at 0.1 CA rate. The purpose of the over-charge is to expel as much (if not all) of the gases collected on the electrodes, hydrogen on the negative and oxygen on the positive, and some of these gases recombine to form water which in turn will raise the electrolyte level to its highest level after which it is safe to adjust the electrolyte levels. During the over-charge or top - up charge, the cell voltages will go beyond 1.6 V and then slowly start to drop. No cell should rise above 1.71 V (dry cell) or drop below 1.55 V (gas barrier broken).
In an aircraft installation with a floating battery electrical system the regulator voltage is set to charge the battery at constant potential charge (typically 14 or 28 V). If this voltage is set too high it will result in rapid electrolyte loss. A failed charge regulator may allow the charge voltage to rise well above this value, causing a massive overcharge with boiling over of the electrolyte.
Sealed Ni -- Cd cells may be used individually, or assembled into battery packs containing two or more cells. Small cells are used for portable electronics and toys (such as solar garden lights), often using cells manufactured in the same sizes as primary cells. When Ni -- Cd batteries are substituted for primary cells, the lower terminal voltage and smaller ampere - hour capacity may reduce performance as compared to primary cells. Miniature button cells are sometimes used in photographic equipment, hand - held lamps (flashlight or torch), computer - memory standby, toys, and novelties.
Specialty Ni -- Cd batteries are used in cordless and wireless telephones, emergency lighting, and other applications. With a relatively low internal resistance, they can supply high surge currents. This makes them a favourable choice for remote - controlled electric model airplanes, boats, and cars, as well as cordless power tools and camera flash units.
Larger flooded cells are used for aircraft starting batteries, electric vehicles, and standby power.
Advances in battery - manufacturing technologies throughout the second half of the twentieth century have made batteries increasingly cheaper to produce. Battery - powered devices in general have increased in popularity. As of 2000, about 1.5 billion Ni -- Cd batteries were produced annually. Up until the mid-1990s, Ni -- Cd batteries had an overwhelming majority of the market share for rechargeable batteries in home electronics.
At one point, Ni -- Cd batteries accounted for 8 % of all portable secondary (rechargeable) battery sales in the EU, and in the UK for 9.2 % (disposal) and in Switzerland for 1.3 % of all portable battery sales.
In the EU the 2006 Battery Directive restricted sales of Ni -- Cd batteries to consumers for portable devices.
Ni -- Cd cells are available in the same sizes as alkaline batteries, from AAA through D, as well as several multi-cell sizes, including the equivalent of a 9 volt battery. A fully charged single Ni -- Cd cell, under no load, carries a potential difference of between 1.25 and 1.35 volts, which stays relatively constant as the battery is discharged. Since an alkaline battery near fully discharged may see its voltage drop to as low as 0.9 volts, Ni -- Cd cells and alkaline cells are typically interchangeable for most applications.
In addition to single cells, batteries exist that contain up to 300 cells (nominally 360 volts, actual voltage under no load between 380 and 420 volts). This many cells are mostly used in automotive and heavy - duty industrial applications. For portable applications, the number of cells is normally below 18 cells (24 V). Industrial - sized flooded batteries are available with capacities ranging from 12.5 Ah up to several hundred Ah.
Recently, nickel -- metal hydride and lithium - ion batteries have become commercially available and cheaper, the former type now rivaling Ni -- Cd batteries in cost. Where energy density is important, Ni -- Cd batteries are now at a disadvantage compared with nickel -- metal hydride and lithium - ion batteries. However, the Ni -- Cd battery is still very useful in applications requiring very high discharge rates because it can endure such discharge with no damage or loss of capacity.
When compared to other forms of rechargeable battery, the Ni -- Cd battery has a number of distinct advantages:
The primary trade - off with Ni -- Cd batteries is their higher cost and the use of cadmium. This heavy metal is an environmental hazard, and is highly toxic to all higher forms of life. They are also more costly than lead -- acid batteries because nickel and cadmium cost more. One of the biggest disadvantages is that the battery exhibits a very marked negative temperature coefficient. This means that as the cell temperature rises, the internal resistance falls. This can pose considerable charging problems, particularly with the relatively simple charging systems employed for lead -- acid type batteries. Whilst lead -- acid batteries can be charged by simply connecting a dynamo to them, with a simple electromagnetic cut - out system for when the dynamo is stationary or an over-current occurs, the Ni -- Cd battery under a similar charging scheme would exhibit thermal runaway, where the charging current would continue to rise until the over-current cut - out operated or the battery destroyed itself. This is the principal factor that prevents its use as engine - starting batteries. Today with alternator - based charging systems with solid - state regulators, the construction of a suitable charging system would be relatively simple, but the car manufacturers are reluctant to abandon tried - and - tested technology.
Ni -- Cd batteries may suffer from a "memory effect '' if they are discharged and recharged to the same state of charge hundreds of times. The apparent symptom is that the battery "remembers '' the point in its charge cycle where recharging began and during subsequent use suffers a sudden drop in voltage at that point, as if the battery had been discharged. The capacity of the battery is not actually reduced substantially. Some electronics designed to be powered by Ni -- Cd batteries are able to withstand this reduced voltage long enough for the voltage to return to normal. However, if the device is unable to operate through this period of decreased voltage, it will be unable to get enough energy out of the battery, and for all practical purposes, the battery appears "dead '' earlier than normal.
There is evidence that the memory effect story originated from orbiting satellites, where they were typically charging for twelve hours out of 24 for several years. After this time, it was found that the capacities of the batteries had declined significantly, but were still fit for use. It is unlikely that this precise repetitive charging (for example, 1,000 charges / discharges with less than 2 % variability) could ever be reproduced by individuals using electrical goods. The original paper describing the memory effect was written by GE scientists at their Battery Business Department in Gainesville, Florida, and later retracted by them, but the damage was done. It is unlikely to be a real phenomenon, but has taken on a life of its own as an urban myth.
The battery survives thousands of charges / discharges cycles. Also it is possible to lower the memory effect by discharging the battery completely about once a month. This way apparently the battery does not "remember '' the point in its charge cycle.
An effect with similar symptoms to the memory effect is the so - called voltage depression or lazy battery effect. This results from repeated overcharging; the symptom is that the battery appears to be fully charged but discharges quickly after only a brief period of operation. In rare cases, much of the lost capacity can be recovered by a few deep - discharge cycles, a function often provided by automatic battery chargers. However, this process may reduce the shelf life of the battery. If treated well, a Ni -- Cd battery can last for 1,000 cycles or more before its capacity drops below half its original capacity. Many home chargers claim to be "smart chargers '' which will shut down and not damage the battery, but this seems to be a common problem.
Ni -- Cd batteries contain between 6 % (for industrial batteries) and 18 % (for commercial batteries) cadmium, which is a toxic heavy metal and therefore requires special care during battery disposal. In the United States, part of the battery price is a fee for its proper disposal at the end of its service lifetime. Under the so - called "batteries directive '' (2006 / 66 / EC), the sale of consumer Ni -- Cd batteries has now been banned within the European Union except for medical use; alarm systems; emergency lighting; and portable power tools. This last category has been banned effective 2016. Under the same EU directive, used industrial Ni -- Cd batteries must be collected by their producers in order to be recycled in dedicated facilities.
Cadmium, being a heavy metal, can cause substantial pollution when discarded in a landfill or incinerated. Because of this, many countries now operate recycling programs to capture and reprocess old batteries.
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you and i will fight for our lives | We shall fight on the beaches - wikipedia
"We shall fight on the beaches '' is a common title given to a speech delivered by Winston Churchill to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom on 4 June 1940. This was the second of three major speeches given around the period of the Battle of France, with the others designated as the "Blood, toil, tears, and sweat '' speech of 13 May, and the "This was their finest hour '' speech of 18 June. Events developed dramatically over the five - week period, and although broadly similar in themes, each speech addressed a different military and diplomatic context.
In this speech, Churchill had to describe a great military disaster, and warn of a possible invasion attempt by the Nazis, without casting doubt on eventual victory. He also had to prepare his domestic audience for France 's falling out of the war without in any way releasing France to do so, and wished to reiterate a policy and an aim unchanged -- despite the intervening events -- from his speech of 13 May, in which he had declared the goal of "victory, however long and hard the road may be ''.
Churchill had taken over as Prime Minister on 10 May, eight months after the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He had done so as the head of a multiparty coalition government, which had replaced the previous government (led by Neville Chamberlain) as a result of dissatisfaction with the conduct of the war, demonstrated by the Norway debate on the Allied evacuation of Southern Norway.
Coincidentally, the German Wehrmacht offensive in the Low Countries and France had begun on 10 May with the invasion of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. Churchill had spoken to the House of Commons as Prime Minister for the first time on 13 May, to announce the formation of the new administration:
I would say to the House, as I said to those who have joined this Government: "I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat. ''
In that speech he had said nothing about the military situation in France and the Low Countries.
Expecting that the German offensive would develop along much the same lines as it did in 1914, the lines of communication of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) did not run through the "short crossing '' Channel ports -- Boulogne, Calais, Dunkirk, etc. -- but rather through Dieppe and Le Havre. On 13 May, the Wehrmacht 's attack through the Ardennes had reached the Meuse River at Sedan and then crossed it, breaking through the defences of the French Army. By 20 May, Wehrmacht armoured divisions had reached the coast of the English Channel, splitting the BEF and the French First Army from the main French forces.
The Wehrmacht next moved against the cut - off Allied forces, moving along the seacoast with only small Allied forces to resist them. After the capitulation of Belgium on 28 May, a gap had also appeared on the eastern flank of the Allied forces, which had been forced to retreat into a small pocket around the seaport of Dunkirk. From this pocket the bulk of the BEF and a considerable number of French troops had been evacuated in Operation Dynamo, but these troops had left behind virtually all of their heavy equipment (transport and armaments). The French First Army had most of its units pocketed around Lille. Those of its units evacuated from Dunkirk were relanded in France but saw no further action; they were still being reorganised in Brittany at the fall of France.
Churchill had made a brief statement to the Commons on 28 May reporting the Belgian capitulation, and concluding
Meanwhile, the House should prepare itself for hard and heavy tidings. I have only to add that nothing which may happen in this battle can in any way relieve us of our duty to defend the world cause to which we have vowed ourselves; nor should it destroy our confidence in our power to make our way, as on former occasions in our history, through disaster and through grief to the ultimate defeat of our enemies.
He had promised a further statement of the military situation on 4 June, and indeed the major part of the speech is an account of military events -- so far as they affected the BEF -- since the German breakthrough at Sedan.
The German breakthrough had not been exploited southwards, and the French had improvised a relatively thinly held defensive line along the Aisne and the Somme. The British military evaluation was that this was unlikely to withstand any major attack by the Wehrmacht. In the air, the French were short of fighter planes and the shortage was worsening due to their many losses in combat. The French military commanders had hence asked for additional British fighter squadrons to be sent into the fight in France. Politically, there were considerable doubts over the French willingness to continue the war, even in the absence of any further military catastrophes. Churchill had argued in favour of sending the fighter squadrons to France because he considered that that move would be vital to sustain French public morale, and also to give no excuse for the collapse of the French Army. That would possibly lead to a French government that would not only drop out of the war, but also become hostile to the United Kingdom. The British War Cabinet discussed this issue at meetings on 3 June and on the morning of 4 June, but it decided to take the advice of the Royal Air Force and the Secretary of State for Air, Sir Archibald Sinclair, that the British priority must be to prepare its own defences. The three squadrons present in France would be kept up to fighting strength, but no further squadrons could be spared for the Battle of France.
Despite relief that the bulk of the BEF had made it back to Britain, Mass Observation reported civilian morale in many areas as zero, one observer claiming that everyone looked suicidal. Only half the population expected Britain to fight on and the feelings of thousands were summed up as:
This is not our war -- this is a war of the high - up people who use long words and have different feelings.
Therefore, when talking about the future course and conduct of the war in this speech, Churchill had to describe a great military disaster, and warn of a possible German invasion attempt, without casting doubt on eventual victory. He needed to prepare his domestic audience for France 's departure from the war without in any way releasing France to do so; in his subsequent speech of 18 June immediately after the French had sued for peace Churchill said:
The military events which have happened during the past fortnight have not come to me with any sense of surprise. Indeed, I indicated a fortnight ago as clearly as I could to the House that the worst possibilities were open, and I made it perfectly clear then that whatever happened in France would make no difference to the resolve of Britain and the British Empire to fight on, if necessary for years, if necessary alone.
Finally, he needed to reiterate a policy and an aim unchanged -- despite the intervening events -- from his speech of 13 May, in which he had said:
We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. We have before us many, many long months of struggle and of suffering. You ask, what is our policy? I will say: It is to wage war, by sea, land, and air, with all our might and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny never surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: It is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be.
The peroration is perhaps the best known part of the speech, and is widely held to be one of Churchill 's finest oratorical moments.
Turning once again, and this time more generally, to the question of invasion, I would observe that there has never been a period in all these long centuries of which we boast when an absolute guarantee against invasion, still less against serious raids, could have been given to our people. In the days of Napoleon, of which I was speaking just now, the same wind which would have carried his transports across the Channel might have driven away the blockading fleet. There was always the chance, and it is that chance which has excited and befooled the imaginations of many Continental tyrants. Many are the tales that are told. We are assured that novel methods will be adopted, and when we see the originality of malice, the ingenuity of aggression, which our enemy displays, we may certainly prepare ourselves for every kind of novel stratagem and every kind of brutal and treacherous manœuvre. I think that no idea is so outlandish that it should not be considered and viewed with a searching, but at the same time, I hope, with a steady eye. We must never forget the solid assurances of sea power and those which belong to air power if it can be locally exercised.
I have, myself, full confidence that if all do their duty, if nothing is neglected, and if the best arrangements are made, as they are being made, we shall prove ourselves once more able to defend our island home, to ride out the storm of war, and to outlive the menace of tyranny, if necessary for years, if necessary alone. At any rate, that is what we are going to try to do. That is the resolve of His Majesty 's Government -- every man of them. That is the will of Parliament and the nation. The British Empire and the French Republic, linked together in their cause and in their need, will defend to the death their native soil, aiding each other like good comrades to the utmost of their strength.
Even though large tracts of Europe and many old and famous States have fallen or may fall into the grip of the Gestapo and all the odious apparatus of Nazi rule, we shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender, and if, which I do not for a moment believe, this island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British Fleet, would carry on the struggle, until, in God 's good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the liberation of the old.
In the sentence ending in ' surrender ' only the last word -- "surrender '' -- does not have Old English roots according to some sources. However, it is often forgotten that other words used in the speech such as "confidence '', "defend '', "Empire '' and "liberation '' among others originated from Old French. The popular yet false idea that only the word "surrender '' does not have Old English roots is most likely grounded in Francophobia. There is no similar overwhelming preponderance in the peroration as a whole; nor do the perorations of other Churchill speeches largely exclude words with foreign origins. However, Churchill himself had attended a speech given by Georges Clemenceau in Paris in June 1918, in which Clemenceau had used similar diction ("I will fight (the Germans) in front of Paris, I will fight in Paris, and I will fight behind Paris ''). Both orators used the accumulation of similar - sounding statements to emphasise their uncompromising will to fight.
It is said that immediately after giving the speech, Churchill muttered to a colleague, "And we 'll fight them with the butt ends of broken beer bottles because that 's bloody well all we 've got! '' Nonetheless, Churchill impressed his listeners and the speech was immediately recognised to be historic. One of Churchill 's secretaries noted in his diary "A magnificent oration, which obviously moved the House ''. A Conservative MP wrote in his diary "he was eloquent and oratorical and used magnificent English; several Labour members cried ''. A Labour MP, Josiah Wedgwood, 1st Baron Wedgwood, friend and admirer of Churchill since the Dardanelles campaign, wrote to him, "My dear Winston. That was worth 1,000 guns and the speeches of 1,000 years ''.
Unlike his subsequent This was their finest hour speech, Churchill 's 4 June speech in the House of Commons was not repeated by him as a live radio broadcast that evening. Rather, as with his earlier Blood, toil, tears, and sweat speech, extracts were read by the newsreader on that evening 's BBC news broadcast. They made a great impression on at least one listener:
Even repeated by the announcer, it sent shivers (not of fear) down my spine. I think that one of the reasons why one is stirred by his Elizabethan phrases is that one feels the whole massive backing of power and resolve behind them, like a great fortress: they are never words for words ' sake.
The next year American journalist H.R. Knickerbocker wrote that its words "deserve to be memorized by us all '', observing that "With Churchill 's picture these words are placarded in homes and offices throughout the British Empire. ''
Parts of the peroration are sampled in the song Fool 's overture from Supertramp (at 2: 28):
We shall go on to the end. (...) We shall fight on the seas and oceans, (...) we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. (...) We shall never surrender.
A portion of the speech, from "We shall go on to the end... '' to "We shall never surrender '', has been used in live recordings and performances of Iron Maiden 's song Aces High.
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what's the esn number on a cell phone | Electronic serial number - wikipedia
Electronic serial numbers (ESNs) were created by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to uniquely identify mobile devices, from the days of AMPS in the United States starting in the early 1980s. The administrative role was taken over by the Telecommunications Industry Association in 1997 and is still maintained by them. ESNs are currently mainly used with CDMA phones (and were previously used by AMPS and TDMA phones), compared to International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) numbers used by all GSM phones.
The first 8 bits of the ESN was originally the manufacturer code, leaving 24 bits for the manufacturer to assign up to 16,777,215 codes to mobiles. To allow more than 256 manufacturers to be identified the manufacturer code was extended to 14 bits, leaving 18 bits for the manufacturer to assign up to 262,144 codes. Manufacturer code 0x80 is reserved from assignment and is used instead as an 8 - bit prefix for pseudo-ESNs (pESN). The remaining 24 bits are the least significant bits of the SHA - 1 hash of a mobile equipment identifier (MEID). Pseudo-ESNs are not guaranteed to be unique (the MEID is the unique identifier if the phone has a pseudo-ESN).
ESNs are often represented as either 11 - digit decimal numbers or 8 digit hexadecimal numbers. For the decimal format the first three digits are the decimal representation of the first 8 bits (between 00 and 255 inclusive) and the next 8 digits are derived from the remaining 24 bits and will be between 0000000 and 16777215 inclusive. The decimal format of pseudo ESNs will therefore begin with 128. The decimal format separately displays 8 bit manufacturer codes in the first 3 digits, but 14 bit codes are not displayed as separate digits. The hexadecimal format displays an ESN as 8 digits and also does not separately display 14 bit manufacturer codes which occupy 3.5 hexadecimal digits.
As ESNs have essentially run out, a new serial number format, MEID, was created by 3GPP2 and was first implemented by Verizon in 2006. MEIDs are 56 bits long, the same length as the IMEI and, in fact, MEID was created to be a superset of IMEI. The main difference between MEID and IMEI is that the MEID allows hexadecimal digits while IMEI allows only decimal digits -- "IMEI shall consist of decimal digits (0 through 9) only ''.
The last of the previously unused ESN codes were allocated in November 2008. Applications for assignments were accepted until June 30, 2010 using reclaimed ESN codes, those previously assigned to AMPS or TDMA phones and therefore not present on CDMA2000 systems. Reclaimed codes have also been used for UIMID assignments. Codes are assigned according to industry guidelines.
Although ESN assignments may still occur in the future based on applications received before June 30, 2010, there have not been any assignments made since December 31, 2010.
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who runs the red light district in amsterdam | De Wallen - wikipedia
De Wallen (Dutch pronunciation: (də ˈʋɑlə (n))) or De Walletjes (Dutch pronunciation: (də ˈʋɑləcəs)) is the largest and best known red - light district in Amsterdam. It consists of a network of alleys containing approximately three hundred one - room cabins rented by prostitutes who offer their sexual services from behind a window or glass door, typically illuminated with red lights. These "kamers '' are the most visible and typical kind of red light district sex work in Amsterdam and are a large tourist attraction.
De Wallen, together with the prostitution areas Singelgebied and Ruysdaelkade, form the Rosse Buurt (red light areas) of Amsterdam. Of these De Wallen is the oldest and largest area.
The area also has a number of sex shops, sex theatres, peep shows, a sex museum, a cannabis museum, and a number of coffee shops that sell marijuana.
The Rokin and Damrak run along the original course of the river Amstel. These two roads meet in Dam Square which marks the spot where a bridge was built across the river in 1270. It had doors which were used to dam the river at certain times to avoid flooding. The Damrak then became a harbor and it was around this area that the red light district first appeared. The walled canals led to the names De Wallen and Walletjes (little walls).
Historically because of proximity to the harbor the area has attracted both prostitution and migrant populations and these are the features it is best known for today.
From late Medieval times the trade started to be restricted. Married men and priests were forbidden to enter the area. In 1578 during the Dutch Revolt against Spanish rule a Protestant city board was formed with fornication deemed punishable. Working girls were banned and forced underground. They would work for a madam who provided room and board, protection and advice. Often the madam and girls would venture out at night visiting pubs and inns to pick up clients. Parlours remained illegal but tolerated if kept hidden. Trade remained small scale though spread across the city. Well known areas were De Haarlemmerdijk, De Houttuinen, Zeedijk and around the harbor.
In the 18th century wealthy men would meet working girls at gambling houses on De Gelderskade and Zeedijk. The girls would then take the men back to the parlors where they came from. However these were often unappealing to a gentleman of means. A solution to this problem was for the gambling houses to provide board for the girls. This suited everyone including the authorities. The gambling houses invested in luxury furnishings and gradually they became brothels employing up to 30 girls. Famous brothels included De Pijl in Pijlstraat, De Fonteyn in Nieuwmarkt and Madame Therese on the Prinsengracht. For those who could not afford these there were still girls to be found around Oudekerksplein and unofficial policies of tolerance remained although prostitution was technically illegal.
In 1811 the ban on working girls was lifted. In this Napoleonic period, French soldiers were the main customers of prostitutes in De Wallen. Regulation was brought in and there were compulsory health checks to protect soldiers from venereal diseases. They were given a red card which was a permit to work. If found to be infected the card was taken until they could prove they were disease free again. Because there was no reliable treatment for syphilis until the early 20th century this could mean dangerous treatments such as mercury baths to ease symptoms.
In the early 20th century religious organizations ran campaigns to try to end tolerance of prostitution. In 1911 a law was passed banning brothels and pimping. Working girls themselves were not banned though. Once again it was driven underground and tolerated as long it did not cause a disturbance. With the closure of many parlors in De Wallen some girls moved to De Pijp.
In 1935 it was estimated that there were around 150 disguised parlors. Fronts included massage, pedicure, manicure, and beauty treatments. Working girls continued to work around the Oudekerksplein. Instead of being visible as they are today they would stand behind closed curtains and peer through a small crack looking for customers. If they stood in the doorway they would be arrested.
The total area is approximately 6,500 square metres (1.6 acres), limited by the Niezel in the north, the sea dike / Nieuwmarkt in the east, the Sint Jansstraat in the south and the Warmoesstraat in the west. Prostitution takes place within this area in the following streets: Barndesteeg, Bethlehemsteeg, Bloedstraat, Boomsteeg (now closed), Dollebegijnensteeg, Enge Kerksteeg, Goldbergersteeg, Gordijnensteeg, Molensteeg, Monnikenstraat, Oudekerksplein, Oudekennissteeg, Oudezijds Achterburgwal, Oudezijds Voorburgwal, Sint Annendwarsstraat, Sint Annenstraat, Stoofsteeg and Trompettersteeg.
Between Sint Jansstraat and Sint Annenstraat and running parallel to them are Leidekkerssteeg, Gooijersteeg, Blaauwlakensteeg and Zwartlakensteeg. At least three of these had red light windows which were closed in the 1970s. Today these alleys are blocked by locked gates although the remains of some bricked over windows can be seen in the architecture. In the 1990s Slapersteeg was also closed and a gate now blocks the alley.
In the 1990s parts of Sint Annenstraat and Sint Annendwarsstraat were demolished. The rooms in Goldbergersteeg were opened after this time.
Prostitution is legal in the Netherlands, with the exception of street prostitution, but work permits are not issued in the form of a green card for prostitution; therefore legally working in the trade is limited mostly to EU citizens or foreign permanent residents. (A non-EU citizen can work legally in Netherlands without a work permit in certain circumstances, for instance, if they are the spouse of a local citizen.) From January 2013 the legal working age of a prostitute in the Netherlands was raised from 18 to 21.
Whilst health and social services are readily available, sex workers are required to undergo regular health checks at the government 's expense. Brothel owners and room operators often require health certificates such as the SERVSAFE test before employing or leasing rooms.
To counter negative publicity, Mariska Majoor, founder of the Prostitution Information Center, organized two "open days '' in February 2006 and March 2007, allowing visitors access to some window brothels and peep shows and informing them about the working conditions there. Majoor was also instrumental in having the world 's first monument to sex workers installed in the red light district. The bronze statue was unveiled on the Oudekerksplein in front of the Oude Kerk at the open day in March 2007 and shows a woman standing in a doorway.
Cannabis coffeeshops in the RLD and elsewhere in the Netherlands are licensed to sell cannabis and serve soft drinks. Food, alcohol, and indoor tobacco smoking are generally not permitted.
Before the onset of coffeeshop licensing, some began openly selling cannabis. The first coffee shops opened in the 1970s. These faced trouble from police and the local councils with frequent closures. In 1976, the government of the Netherlands began to take steps to decriminalize the use and possession of cannabis by changing the law so that possession of up to 30 grams of cannabis was no longer a criminal offense.
The gedoogbeleid or tolerance policy gave rise to coffeeshop licensing which meant that as long as coffeeshops did not sell hard drugs, they were allowed to operate. Coffeeshops were not allowed to operate in certain cities near the borders of Germany and Belgium because it was felt soft drug use might raise crime there.
The government of Netherlands has continually been under pressure from different western countries to rein in coffeeshops, leading to several coffeeshops being shut down for flouting rules, with no licenses issued to new operators. This approach has continued since 1995. In the 1990s, the coffeeshop owners organized themselves into a union, the Bond van cannabis Detaillisten or BCD, set up to represent the interests of the coffeeshops which were under constant pressure from local councils.
A recent policy has ordered that 26 coffeeshops in the De Wallen area will have to close their doors between 1 September 2012 and 31 August 2015.
Netherlands has been listed by a report of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime as a top destination for victims of human trafficking:
According to Job Cohen, the former mayor of Amsterdam, "We 've realized this is no longer about small - scale entrepreneurs but that big crime organizations are involved here in trafficking women, drugs, killings and other criminal activities ''.
Groups of sex workers have also worked to raise awareness of their rights. The Prostitute Information Centre, founded in the 1990s, is a prostitute - led organisation offering tours of the area and information concerning safety and the rights of the people involved. While sex workers in brothels currently have to register, it has been suggested making escorts and kamer workers register, which has been opposed by some sex worker groups out of concern it would favor pimps over the workers themselves. Jan Fisher of Red Thread commented: "The ones who want to work know how devastating the stigma could be, and will be. They will try to work outside this system and they 'll be vulnerable when they 're detected by the police and tax office, and the ones who are trafficked may be forced by their pimps to register so they have a kind of legal status. ''
In 2007 a statue called "Belle '' was unveiled on the Oudekerksplein with the inscription "Respect sex workers all over the world ''.
About 75 % of Amsterdam 's prostitutes are from Eastern Europe, Africa, and Asia, according to a former prostitute who produced a report about the sex trade.
European citizens of the 28 member EU states have the legal right under internal market to employment in the Netherlands in any work. Citizens of other countries must already have a valid residence permit (not visitor visa) to work legally in the sex trade as work permits are not issued for the jobs.
TAMPEP research into origin of migrant sex workers records 60 % of workers in the Netherlands are foreign born, with the highest proportion of these (43 %) from elsewhere in Europe. This represents a decrease from 70 % migrants in sex work as recorded in 2006. The report cites high internal mobility within the EU as the reason for this decrease.
In 2004, Amsterdam authorities commissioned research into pimping and human trafficking in Amsterdam. The Willem Plompe institution took up that job. The researchers, under the leadership of professor Frank Bovenkerk, found that women under the control of a pimp can be easily put to work in the legal brothels with the brothel owners being aware that the women are controlled by pimps. The general setup of window prostitution was said to be helpful to pimps, as it facilitates the direct control of the women by their pimp.
A Christian organization of aid workers named the ' Scharlaken Koord ' (in English, Scarlet Cord) has set up a special ' pal ' - program for prostitutes in which the pals help the women build a new social network.
In September 2007, the city council of Amsterdam at the behest of mayor Job Cohen, concerned about trafficking and pimping in the area, forced the owner Charlie Geerts to close 51 prostitution windows, reducing the total number of windows in De Wallen by a third. Amsterdam authorities bought 18 properties from Geerts, with the aim of developing the area with fashion designers and other upscale businesses.
Mariska Majoor of the Prostitution Information Center and representatives of the sex worker rights group De Rode Draad have decried the decision, claiming it would not reduce crime but would only lead to higher rent and more competition for the remaining windows.
In January 2008, the city council announced plans to close the Rosso live sex theatre and the Banana bar strip club in the area. Local business owners have formed the group "Platform 1012 '' (named after the zipcode of the area) to oppose the efforts of the Amsterdam government. In the end, the actions of the city government resulted in the closure of the Yab Yum brothel.
At the end of 2008, mayor Job Cohen announced plans to close half of the city 's 400 prostitution windows because of suspected criminal gang activity; part of the city 's 70 marijuana cafes and sex clubs will also be closed. Mayor Job Cohen: "It is not that we want to get rid of our red - light district. We want to reduce it. Things have become unbalanced and if we do not act we will never regain control ''.
In 2009, the Dutch justice ministry announced plans to close 320 prostitution "windows '' from Amsterdam.
A former Amsterdam prostitute who is now a city councillor said: "There are people who are really proud of the red light district as a tourist attraction. It 's supposed to be such a wonderful, cheery place that shows just what a free city we are. But I think it 's a cesspit. There 's a lot of serious criminality. There 's a lot of exploitation of women, and a lot of social distress. That 's nothing to be proud of. ''
But in 2013 Metje Blaak, who worked in the sex trade for 25 years before turning to film making, says closing legal brothels will push women out onto the streets. "In the window is safe, open. You can see your clients. You can see everything, '' she says.
Media related to Red - light district (Amsterdam) at Wikimedia Commons
Coordinates: 52 ° 22 ′ 24.3 '' N 4 ° 53 ′ 53.0 '' E / 52.373417 ° N 4.898056 ° E / 52.373417; 4.898056
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what are the grooves in the brain called | Sulcus (neuroanatomy) - wikipedia
In neuroanatomy, a sulcus (Latin: "furrow '', pl. sulci) is a depression or groove in the cerebral cortex. It surrounds a gyrus (pl. gyri), creating the characteristic folded appearance of the brain in humans and other mammals. The larger sulci are usually called fissures.
Sulci, the grooves, and gyri, the folds or ridges make up the folded surface of the cerebral cortex. Larger or deeper sulci are termed fissures, and in many cases the two terms are interchangeable. The folded cortex creates a larger surface area for the brain in humans and other mammals. When looking at the human brain, two - thirds of the surface are hidden in the grooves. The sulci and fissures are both grooves in the cortex but they are differentiated by size. A sulcus is a shallower groove that surrounds a gyrus. A fissure is a large furrow that divides the brain into lobes, and also into the two hemispheres as the longitudinal fissure.
As the surface area of the brain increases more functions are made possible. A smooth - surfaced brain is only able to grow to a certain extent. A depression, sulcus, in the surface area allows for continued growth. This in turn allows for the functions of the brain to continue growing.
The sulcal pattern varies between human individuals, and the most elaborate overview on this variation is probably an atlas by Ono, Kubick and Abernathey: Atlas of the Cerebral Sulci. Some of the more prominent sulci are, however, seen across individuals - and even species - making a common nomenclature across individuals and species possible.
In humans, cerebral convolutions appear at about 5 months and take at least into the first year after birth to fully develop. Development varies greatly between individuals. The potential influences of genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors are not fully understood. It has been found that the width of cortical sulci not only increases with age, but also with cognitive decline in the elderly.
Sulcus are divided into following categories:
On the basis of function:
On the basis of formation:
On the basis of Depth:
The variation in the amount of fissures in the brain (gyrification) between species is related to the size of the animal and the size of the brain. Mammals that have smooth - surfaced or nonconvoluted brains are called lissencephalics and those that have folded or convoluted brains gyrencephalics. The division between the two groups occurs when cortical surface area is about 10 cm and the brain has a volume of 3 -- 4 cm. Large rodents such as beavers (40 pounds (18 kg)) and capybaras (150 pounds (68 kg)) are gyrencephalic and smaller rodents such as rats and mice lissencephalic.
A macaque has a more simple sulcal pattern. In a monograph Bonin and Bailey list the following as the primary sulci:
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stories of your life and others table of contents | Stories of Your Life and Others - wikipedia
Stories of Your Life and Others is a collection of short stories by American writer Ted Chiang originally published in 2002 by Tor Books. It collects Chiang 's first eight stories. All of the stories except "Liking What You See: A Documentary '' were previously published individually elsewhere.
This was reprinted in 2016, as a movie tie - in edition for the adaptation of "Story of Your Life '' as the film Arrival and also called "Arrival ''.
Reviewing the book at the SF Site, Greg L. Johnson said that this collection shows why Chiang 's stories continue to win awards. Johnson wrote that "it will not take readers new to these stories very long to appreciate their quality and beauty ''. He added that science fiction relies on short fiction writers to "examine new ideas and push the boundaries of the field '', and Chiang has demonstrated he is "more than up to that task ''.
English fantasy author China Miéville wrote in a review in The Guardian that Chiang 's stories in this collection "unfold with a logic that is ineluctable and compassionate ''. Here "humanism is inextricable from rationalism '', and "it is the rationalism of the characters -- and the writer -- that makes them emotional and human ''. Miéville further said that despite the extensive use of mathematics, physics and language in the stories, they are infused with a "profound humanism '' that makes "the most abstruse philosophical conjectures... resonant and emotional ''.
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america's got talent guest judges 2018 names | America 's Got Talent (season 13) - wikipedia
Season thirteen of the reality competition series America 's Got Talent premiered on May 29, 2018, on NBC. Howie Mandel, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Simon Cowell returned as judges for their respective ninth, sixth, sixth, and third seasons. Meanwhile, Tyra Banks returned for her second season as host.
The live shows returned to the Dolby Theatre, beginning August 14, 2018.
AGT is co-produced by FremantleMedia North America and Syco Entertainment, Cowell 's company.
Dunkin ' Donuts is a sponsor for a fourth consecutive season.
Shin Lim was named the winner on the season finale, September 19, 2018. This marks the second magician to win. Acrobatic group Zurcaroh and violinist Brian King Joseph came in second and third place respectively.
The season had preliminary open call auditions in Orlando, Cincinnati, Savannah, Milwaukee, Houston, Las Vegas, New York City, Nashville, and Los Angeles. As in years past, prospective contestants could also submit online auditions.
Auditions were taped from March 6 - 23 at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles and began to air on May 29, 2018.
The golden buzzer returned for its fifth consecutive season. Any act that receives the golden buzzer during the judges ' auditions will be sent directly to the live shows and will not compete in the Judge Cuts round. In the first episode, Tyra Banks was the first to press the golden buzzer for acrobatic and dance group Zurcaroh. Simon Cowell was second to press it for 40 - year - old singer Michael Ketterer. Howie Mandel was third to press it for 13 year old singer Courtney Hadwin. Mel B was fourth to press it for 15 year old singer Amanda Mena. Heidi Klum was the final judge to use the golden buzzer, using it for 15 year old singer Makayla Phillips.
The Judge Cuts rounds began airing on Tuesday, July 17, 2018. Like the previous season, one guest judge will join the judges ' panel each show and will be given one golden buzzer opportunity to send an act straight to the live shows. Eighteen acts perform each week instead of twenty as in the previous three seasons. Of the eighteen acts performing each week seven acts advance including the guest judge 's golden buzzer which immediately advances if used. Guest judges will not be given a red buzzer to use. Any act that will receive all four red buzzers will be immediately eliminated from the competition. The four guest judges are Ken Jeong, Olivia Munn, Martina McBride, and Chris Hardwick, who was also a guest judge in the previous season. The final Judge Cuts episode aired on August 7, 2018. This is the first Judge Cuts rounds in history where no acts received four red buzzers.
After the Judge Cuts, three wildcards were chosen from eliminated acts to perform in the live shows: Daniel Emmet, Human Fountains and Front Pictures (who did not perform in the Judge Cuts round).
The golden buzzer also returned for the Judge Cuts round. Each week during the Judge Cuts a guest judge will have the option to use their golden buzzer on any act. An act that receives the golden buzzer during the Judge Cuts round will not face elimination and will advance automatically to the live shows. In the first week of the Judge Cuts Ken Jeong pressed his golden buzzer for the Voices of Hope Children 's Choir. In week 2, Olivia Munn pressed her Golden Buzzer for Angel City Chorale. In the third week, Martina McBride pressed her Golden Buzzer for Quin and Misha, a ballroom dance duo. Chris Hardwick gave the season 's final Golden Buzzer for Flau'jae, a 14 - year old rapper, in the final week of the Judge Cuts.
Guest judge: Ken Jeong
Date: July 17, 2018
Guest judge: Olivia Munn
Date: July 24, 2018
Guest judge: Martina McBride
Date: July 31, 2018
This is the second Judge Cuts episode in the show 's history in which an act with at least one "X '' buzzer was nevertheless promoted to the live shows.
Guest judge: Chris Hardwick
Date: August 7, 2018
This is the first time in America 's Got Talent Judge Cuts history where two or more acts that have been buzzed went on to the live shows.
The quarterfinals were broadcast live from the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles starting on August 14, 2018 with twelve acts performing each night. The following night the results will be announced to the public with seven of the twelve acts proceeding to the semifinals. Each week viewers of the show also have the opportunity to send one act, determined by popular vote, using "Google 's Instant Save '', sometimes also known as the "Dunkin ' Save '' due to a sponsorship contract with Dunkin Donuts, via the America 's Got Talent app or the official website. In the first week of the Quarterfinals, Human Fountains received a buzzer from Cowell and Lord Nil received one from Mel B. In the second week of the Quarterfinals, Yumbo Dump received a buzzer from Klum.
Guest: Darci Lynne Farmer
Guests: The Illusionists and Light Balance
Guest: Beautiful Broadway
The live semifinals started on September 4, 2018. They featured the 21 acts voted to the semifinals, plus the judges ' semifinal wildcard pick. Each week, eleven acts performed; five went through to the finals, and six were eliminated.
Guest: BTS and A Magical Cirque Christmas
The final performances took on September 18, followed by the final results show aired on September 19, 2018. No acts were buzzed.
During the finale results, the top 5 acts were revealed first; then they were eliminated in reverse ranking from fifth place to third place.
Guest performers in the finale included Kiss, Bebe Rexha, The Struts, Plácido Domingo, and Lindsey Stirling. Other celebrity appearances included David Spade, Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja - Biamila.
The following chart describes the acts, appearances and segments presented during the finale.
This season is being aired in Asia within 48 hours of being broadcast in the US. It airs on AXN starting May 31, 2018 (UTC + 8).
In the United Kingdom and Ireland the first episode was brought to Netflix on May 31. In Singapore, the show was broadcast on MediaCorp Channel 5 every Thursday starting May 31, 2018.
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the walking dead season 8 episode 1 is how long | The Walking Dead (season 8) - Wikipedia
The eighth season of The Walking Dead, an American post-apocalyptic horror television series on AMC, premiered on October 22, 2017, and will consist of 16 episodes. Developed for television by Frank Darabont, the series is based on the eponymous series of comic books by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard. The executive producers are Kirkman, David Alpert, Scott M. Gimple, Greg Nicotero, Tom Luse, and Gale Anne Hurd, with Gimple as showrunner. This season adapts the All Out War story arc from the comics, with the survivors of the Alexandria Safe - Zone, the Hilltop Colony, and the Kingdom taking on Negan and the Saviors.
The eighth season features twenty series regulars overall. For this season, Katelyn Nacon, Khary Payton, Steven Ogg, and Pollyanna McIntosh were promoted to series regular status, after previously having recurring roles, while Seth Gilliam and Ross Marquand were added to the opening credits.
The Walking Dead was renewed by AMC for a 16 - episode eighth season on October 16, 2016, and that same month it was reported that Maria Bello would have a role on the show. Production began on April 25, 2017, in Atlanta, Georgia. On July 12, 2017, production was shut down after stuntman John Bernecker was killed, after falling more than 20 feet onto a concrete floor. Production resumed on July 17.
The season premiere, which also serves as the series ' milestone 100th episode, was directed by executive producer Greg Nicotero.
The first trailer for the season was released on July 21, 2017, at San Diego Comic - Con.
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when do you get your first youtube playbutton | YouTube Play Button - Wikipedia
YouTube Play Buttons, a part of the YouTube Creator Rewards, are a recognition by YouTube of its most popular channels.
These are distinct from the YouTube Awards which are intended to recognize the best quality videos, while the YouTube Creator Rewards are based solely on a channel 's subscriber count.
When a verified YouTuber reaches a specific milestone, they are awarded a relatively flat trophy in a metal casing with a YouTube play button symbol. The trophies are of different sizes: each button and plaque get progressively bigger the more subscribers the channel gets.
There are currently three different tiers of rewards, plus a fourth one that has been awarded to only one YouTuber thus far:
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how many wins does brazil have in the world cup | Brazil at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
This articles summarizes the results and overall performance of Brazil at the FIFA World Cup.
The tournament consists of two parts, the qualification phase and the final phase, officially called the World Cup Finals. The qualification phase, which currently takes place over the three years preceding the Finals, is used to determine which teams qualify for the Finals. The current format of the Finals involves 32 teams competing for the title, at venues within the host nation (or nations) over a period of about a month. The World Cup Finals is the most widely viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated over 1 billion people watching the 2014 tournament final.
Brazil is the most successful national team in the history of the World Cup, having won five titles, earning second - place, third - place and fourth - place finishes twice each. Brazil is one of the countries besides Argentina, Spain and Germany to win a FIFA World Cup away from its continent (Sweden 1958, Mexico 1970, USA 1994 and South Korea / Japan 2002). Brazil is the only national team to have played in all FIFA World Cup editions without any absence or need for playoffs. Brazil also has the best overall performance in World Cup history in both proportional and absolute terms with a record of 73 victories in 109 matches played, 124 goal difference, 237 points and only 18 losses.
Traditionally, Brazil 's greatest rival is Argentina. The two countries have met each other four times in the history of the FIFA World Cup, with two wins for Brazil (West Germany 1974 and Spain 1982), one for Argentina (Italy 1990) and a draw (Argentina 1978). The country that played most against Brazil in the finals is Sweden: 7 times, with five wins for Brazil and two draws. Three other historical rivals are Italy, which lost two World Cup finals against Brazil and eliminated the Brazilians in two tournaments (France 1938 and Spain 1982), France, which has eliminated Brazil on three occasions (Mexico 1986, France 1998 and Germany 2006), and the Netherlands, which has eliminated Brazil at two of their five meetings (West Germany 1974 and South Africa 2010) and won the third place match in Brazil 2014.
* Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks.
Brazil 's record World Cup player, Cafu is also the only player ever to have appeared in three consecutive World Cup finals: 1994, ' 98 and 2002.
Five Brazilians have won the World Cup Golden Boot Award over the years: Leônidas with 7 goals in 1938, Ademir with 8 goals in 1950, Garrincha and Vavá with 4 goals each in 1962 and Ronaldo with 8 goals in 2002.
Brazilian coaches have appeared on the sidelines of other nations with some regularity. Three of them have won team awards with their nations:
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