question
stringlengths 15
100
| context
stringlengths 18
412k
|
|---|---|
who sings on mike oldfield's moonlight shadow | Moonlight Shadow - wikipedia
"Moonlight Shadow '' is a song written and performed by English multi-instrumentalist Mike Oldfield, released as a single in May 1983 by Virgin Records, and included in the album Crises of the same year. The vocals were performed by Scottish vocalist Maggie Reilly, who had collaborated with Mike Oldfield since 1980. It is Oldfield 's most successful single, reaching number one on a number of charts around Europe.
The single peaked at number 4 in the British charts, making it Oldfield 's second highest ranked single after "Portsmouth '', which reached number 3 in 1976. "Moonlight Shadow '' was successful throughout Europe. It reached number 1 in many countries, including Italy, Austria, Switzerland for four weeks and Norway for six weeks. It spent four weeks at number 2 in West Germany, hit number 6 in Australia, and peaked at number 3 in New Zealand and France. It was re-released as a maxi - CD single in 1993 to promote Oldfield 's Elements box set, charting at number 52.
A 12 - inch single (later reissued on a 3 '' CD single) featured an extended version of the song with an extra verse, and the single B - side was "Rite of Man '', which was a rare instance of Oldfield singing lead vocal. The extended mix also appears on his compilation album The Platinum Collection.
In 1991, the song was re-released in France, and in 1993 it was featured on promos for Elements in France and Spain. The 1993 reissue included "Bones '' and "In the Pool '' as B - sides, which had previously been released as B - sides with "To France ''. Furthermore, the name of the song was used for the 2013 Universal Music compilation album of Oldfield 's music, Moonlight Shadow: The Collection.
Maggie Reilly sang "Moonlight Shadow '' live when she toured with Oldfield in the 1980s. However, since then, other singers have performed the song live with Oldfield, including Anita Hegerland during the late 1980s, Pepsi Demacque at the Tubular Bells III premiere and at the Live Then & Now 1999 tour, Miriam Stockley at the Millennium concert and Nokia Night of the Proms in Germany, and Rosa Cedrón at Nokia Night of the Proms in Spain.
The original cover art is an enlargement of the lower right corner of the Crises album cover by UK artist Terry Ilott. This shows a man with his foot on a ledge with the sea and sky in the background. The moon, the tower and its shadow from the album cover can not be seen on the single cover.
The artwork for the 1993 reissue followed the style of the Elements artwork in most countries.
An early version of the song was entitled "Midnight Passion '' with vocals by British singer Hazel O'Connor. Along with Maggie Reilly, a girlfriend of one of the roadies when Oldfield was on tour, Oldfield used a rhyming dictionary and recorded many of the lyrics word by word.
According to bassist Phil Spalding the initial tracks recorded simultaneously for "Moonlight Shadow '' were acoustic guitar (Oldfield), bass (Spalding), drums (Phillips) and electric guitar (Tim Renwick) in early February 1983 at Oldfield 's studio in Denham, Buckinghamshire. Renwick 's guitar track was apparently not used in the final track. The remaining tracks including the vocals and Oldfield on electric guitar were later overdubs.
According to Oldfield, Virgin Records were immediately happy with the song and wanted more pieces similar to it. Reilly also sang on "Foreign Affair '' on Crises. An unplugged mix of the song appears on the 2013 Mercury Records reissue of the Crises album.
Oldfield later sampled the drums from "Moonlight Shadow '' for the song "Man in the Rain '' on his 1998 album, Tubular Bells III.
It has been suggested that the lyrics of the song are a reference to the murder of John Lennon despite the fact that the events in the song do not correspond with those of Lennon 's murder. Lennon was shot four times just before 11 pm, whereas in the song the time is 4 am and the number of shots is six. Also, the night Lennon was shot (8 December 1980) was a new moon, so there was no moonlight, and in the song it is Saturday night while Lennon was killed on a Monday night. When asked if "Moonlight Shadow '' is a reference to John Lennon 's murder in a 1995 interview, Oldfield responded:
Not really... well, perhaps, when I look back on it, maybe it was. I actually arrived in New York that awful evening when he was shot and I was staying at the Virgin Records house in Perry Street, which was just a few blocks down the road from the Dakota Building where it happened, so it probably sank into my subconscious. It was originally inspired by a film I loved -- Houdini, starring Tony Curtis, which was about attempts to contact Houdini after he 'd died, through spiritualism... it was originally a song influenced by that, but a lot of other things must have crept in there without me realising it.
There are two versions of the video: the full - length original, and a shorter one which omits a verse. The reason for the shorter version was for the requirements of some TV broadcasters, and the way both versions are edited suggests that Oldfield 's touring guitarist "Ant '' (Anthony Glynne) performs the second, overdriven half of the guitar solo, which is not the case. Also in the video is Oldfield 's touring drummer, Pierre Moerlen, miming the part played by Simon Phillips on the recording. The music video was directed by Keith McMillan and shot on location at Hatfield House and Brocket Hall in Hertfordshire, England (the band are seen performing in Brocket Hall 's ballroom and the girl runs in through the door and up the staircase in Brocket 's hallway).
The song performed particularly well in European charts, reaching number one in countries such as Norway, Sweden, Italy, Switzerland and Austria.
The song has been used in other media, such as:
In 2002, a dance version of "Moonlight Shadow '' by Groove Coverage peaked third in the German Top 10 (simultaneously, a similar version of Oldfield 's "To France '' by Novaspace was in the German Top 30). "Moonlight Shadow '' appeared on Groove Coverage 's debut album, Covergirl. The vocals are by Melanie Munch, who is known by her stage name Mell. Aside from the single remixes, the album also contains a piano version, featuring piano by Verena Rehm.
A-side
B - side
|
who played james bond when he got married | On Her Majesty 's Secret Service (film) - wikipedia
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service (1969) is the sixth spy film in the James Bond series to be produced by Eon Productions. It is based on the 1963 novel of the same name by Ian Fleming. Following Sean Connery 's decision to retire from the role after You Only Live Twice, Eon Productions selected an unknown actor and model, George Lazenby, to play the part of James Bond. During the making of the film, Lazenby announced that he would play the role of Bond only once.
In the film Bond faces Blofeld (Telly Savalas), who is planning to hold the world ransom by the threat of sterilising the world 's food supply through a group of brainwashed "angels of death ''. Along the way Bond meets, falls in love with, and eventually marries Contessa Teresa di Vicenzo (Diana Rigg).
This is the only Bond film to be directed by Peter R. Hunt, who had served as a film editor and second unit director on previous films in the series. Hunt, along with producers Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, decided to produce a more realistic film that would follow the novel closely. It was shot in Switzerland, England, and Portugal from October 1968 to May 1969. Although its cinema release was not as lucrative as its predecessor You Only Live Twice, On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was still one of the top performing films of the year. Critical reviews upon release were mixed, but the film 's reputation has improved greatly over time.
In Portugal, James Bond -- agent 007, sometimes referred to simply as ' 007 ' -- saves a woman on the beach from committing suicide by drowning, and later meets her again in a casino. The woman, Contessa Teresa "Tracy '' di Vicenzo, invites Bond to her hotel room to thank him, but when Bond arrives he is attacked by an unidentified man. After subduing the man, Bond returns to his own room and finds Tracy there, who claims she did n't know the attacker was there. The next morning, Bond is kidnapped by several men, including the one he fought with, who take him to meet Marc - Ange Draco, the head of the European crime syndicate Unione Corse. Draco reveals that Tracy is his only daughter and tells Bond of her troubled past, offering Bond one million pounds if he will marry her. Bond refuses, but agrees to continue romancing Tracy if Draco reveals the whereabouts of Ernst Stavro Blofeld, the head of SPECTRE.
Bond returns to London, and after a brief argument with M at the British Secret Service headquarters, heads for Draco 's birthday party in Portugal. There, Bond and Tracy begin a whirlwind romance, and Draco directs the agent to a law firm in Bern, Switzerland. Bond investigates the office of Swiss lawyer Gumbold, and learns that Blofeld is corresponding with London College of Arms ' genealogist Sir Hilary Bray, attempting to claim the title ' Comte Balthazar de Bleuchamp '.
Posing as Bray, Bond goes to meet Blofeld, who has established a clinical allergy - research institute atop Piz Gloria in the Swiss Alps. Bond meets twelve young women, the "Angels of Death '', who are patients at the institute 's clinic, apparently cured of their allergies. At night Bond goes to the room of one patient, Ruby, to seduce her. At midnight Bond sees that the 12 ladies go into a sleep - induced hypnotic state while Blofeld gives them audio instructions for when they return home. In fact, the women are being brainwashed to distribute bacteriological warfare agents throughout the world.
Bond tries to trick Blofeld into leaving Switzerland so that MI6 can arrest him without violating Swiss sovereignty. Blofeld refuses and Bond is eventually caught by henchwoman Irma Bunt. Blofeld reveals that he identified Bond after his attempt to lure him out of Switzerland, and tells his henchmen to take the agent away. Bond eventually makes his escape by skiing down Piz Gloria while Blofeld and his men give chase. Arriving at the village of Lauterbrunnen, Bond finds Tracy and they escape Bunt and her men after a car chase. A blizzard forces them to a remote barn, where Bond professes his love to Tracy and proposes marriage to her, which she accepts. The next morning, as the flight resumes, Blofeld sets off an avalanche; Tracy is captured, while Bond is buried but manages to escape.
Back in London at M 's office, Bond is informed that Blofeld intends to hold the world to ransom by threatening to destroy its agriculture using his brainwashed women. Apart from money, Blofeld demands amnesty for all past crimes and to be recognised as Count de Bleuchamp. M tells 007 that the ransom will be paid and forbids him to mount a rescue mission. Bond then enlists Draco and his forces to attack Blofeld 's headquarters, while also rescuing Tracy from Blofeld 's captivity. The facility is destroyed, and Blofeld escapes the destruction alone in a bobsleigh, with Bond pursuing him. The chase ends when Blofeld becomes snared in a tree branch and injures his neck. Bond and Tracy marry in Portugal, then drive away in Bond 's Aston Martin. When Bond pulls over to the roadside to remove flowers from the car, Blofeld (wearing a neck brace) and Bunt open fire on the couple 's car. Bond survives, but Tracy is killed in the attack. When a police officer arrives to help, a tearful Bond cradles Tracy 's body and says: "It 's all right. It 's quite all right, really. She 's having a rest. We 'll be going on soon. There 's no hurry you see, we have all the time in the world. ''
The Angels of Death are twelve beautiful women from all over the world being brainwashed by Blofeld under the guise of allergy or phobia treatment to spread the Virus Omega. A number appeared in the representative styles of dress of their particular nation. Their mission is to help Blofeld contaminate and ultimately sterilise the world 's food supply.
The novel On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was first published after the film series started and contains "a gentle dig at the cinematic Bond 's gadgets, Broccoli and Saltzman had originally intended to make On Her Majesty 's Secret Service after Goldfinger and Richard Maibaum worked on a script at that time. However, Thunderball was filmed instead after the ongoing rights dispute over the novel were settled between Fleming and Kevin McClory. On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was due to follow that, but problems with a warm Swiss winter and inadequate snow cover led to Saltzman and Broccoli postponing the film again, favouring production of You Only Live Twice.
Between the resignation of Sean Connery at the beginning of filming You Only Live Twice and its release, Saltzman had planned to adapt The Man with the Golden Gun in Cambodia and use Roger Moore as the next Bond, but political instability meant the location was ruled out and Moore signed up for another series of The Saint. After You Only Live Twice was released in 1967, the producers once again picked up with On Her Majesty 's Secret Service.
Peter Hunt, who had worked on the five preceding films had impressed Broccoli and Saltzman enough to earn his directorial debut as they believed his quick cutting had set the style for the series; it was also the result of a long - standing promise from Broccoli and Saltzman for a directorial position. Hunt also asked for the position during the production of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, and he brought along with him many crew members, including cinematographer Michael Reed. Hunt was focused on putting his mark -- "I wanted it to be different than any other Bond film would be. It was my film, not anyone else 's. '' On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was the last film on which Hunt worked in the series.
Screenwriter Richard Maibaum, who had worked on all the previous Bond films bar You Only Live Twice, was responsible for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service 's script. Saltzman and Broccoli decided to drop the science fiction gadgets from the earlier films and focus more on plot as in From Russia With Love. Peter Hunt asked Simon Raven to write some of the dialogue between Tracy and Blofeld in Piz Gloria, which was to be "sharper, better and more intellectual ''; one of Raven 's additions was having Tracy quoting James Elroy Flecker. When writing the script, the producers decided to make the closest adaptation of the book possible: virtually everything in the novel occurs in the film and Hunt was reported to always enter the set carrying an annotated copy of the novel.
With the script following the novel more closely than the other film adaptations of the eponymous source novels, there are several continuity errors due to the film taking place in a different order, such as Blofeld not recognising Bond, despite having met him face - to - face in the previous film You Only Live Twice. In the original script, Bond undergoes plastic surgery to disguise him from his enemies; the intention was to allow an unrecognisable Bond to infiltrate Blofeld 's hideout and help the audience accept the new actor in the role. However, this was dropped in favour of ignoring the change in actor. To make audiences not forget it was the same James Bond, just played by another actor, the producers inserted many references to the previous films, some as in - jokes. These include Bond breaking the fourth wall by stating "This never happened to the other fellow '', the credits sequence with images from the previous instalments, Bond visiting his office and finding objects from Dr. No, From Russia with Love and Thunderball, and a caretaker whistling the theme from Goldfinger.
In 1967, after five films, Sean Connery resigned from the role of James Bond and -- during the filming of You Only Live Twice -- was not on speaking terms with Albert Broccoli. The confirmed front runners were Englishman John Richardson, Dutchman Hans De Vries, Australian Robert Campbell, Englishman Anthony Rogers and Australian George Lazenby.
Broccoli and Hunt eventually chose Lazenby after seeing him in a Fry 's Chocolate Cream advertisement. Lazenby dressed the part by sporting several sartorial Bond elements such as a Rolex Submariner wristwatch and a Savile Row suit (ordered for, but uncollected, by Connery), and going to Connery 's barber at the Dorchester Hotel. Broccoli noticed Lazenby as a Bond - type man based on his physique and character elements, and offered him an audition. The position was consolidated when Lazenby accidentally punched a professional wrestler, who was acting as stunt coordinator, in the face, impressing Broccoli with his ability to display aggression. Lazenby was offered a contract for seven films; however, he was convinced by his agent Ronan O'Rahilly that the secret agent would be archaic in the liberated 1970s, and as a result he left the series after the release of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service in 1969.
For Tracy Draco, the producers wanted an established actress opposite neophyte Lazenby. Brigitte Bardot was invited, but after she signed to appear in Shalako opposite Sean Connery the deal fell through, and Diana Rigg -- who had already been the popular heroine Emma Peel in The Avengers -- was cast instead. Rigg said one of the reasons for accepting the role was that she always wanted to be in an epic film. Telly Savalas was cast following a suggestion from Broccoli, and Hunt 's neighbour George Baker was offered the part of Sir Hilary Bray. Baker 's voice was also used when Lazenby was impersonating Bray, as Hunt considered Lazenby 's imitation not convincing enough. Gabriele Ferzetti was cast as Draco after the producers saw him in an Italian Mafia film, but Ferzetti 's heavy Italian accent also led to his voice being redubbed by English actor David de Keyser for the final cut.
Principal photography began in the Canton of Bern, Switzerland, on 21 October 1968, with the first scene shot being an aerial view of Bond climbing the stairs of Blofeld 's mountain retreat to meet the girls. The scenes were shot at the now famous revolving restaurant Piz Gloria, located atop the Schilthorn near the village of Mürren. The location was found by production manager Hubert Fröhlich after three weeks of location scouting in France and Switzerland. The restaurant was still under construction, but the producers found the location interesting, and had to finance providing electricity and the aerial lift to make filming there possible. Various chase scenes in the Alps were shot at Lauterbrunnen and Saas - Fee, while the Christmas celebrations were filmed in Grindelwald, and some scenes were shot on location in Bern. Production was hampered by weak snowfall which was unfavourable to the skiing action scenes. The producers even considered moving to another location in Switzerland, but it was taken by the production of Downhill Racer. The Swiss filming ended up running 56 days over schedule. In March 1969, production moved to England, with London 's Pinewood Studios being used for interior shooting, and M 's house being shot in Marlow, Buckinghamshire. In April, the filmmakers went to Portugal, where principal photography wrapped in May. The pre-credit coastal and hotel scenes were filmed at Hotel Estoril Palacio in Estoril and Guincho Beach, Cascais, while Lisbon was used for the reunion of Bond and Tracy, and the ending employed a mountain road in the Arrábida National Park near Setúbal. Harry Saltzman wanted the Portuguese scenes to be in France, but after searching there, Peter Hunt considered that not only were the locations not photogenic, but were already "overexposed ''.
While the first unit shot at Piz Gloria, the second unit, led by John Glen, started filming the ski chases. The downhill skiing involved professional skiers, and various camera tricks. Some cameras were handheld, with the operators holding them as they were going downhill with the stuntmen, and others were aerial, with cameramen Johnny Jordan -- who had previously worked in the helicopter battle of You Only Live Twice -- developing a system where he was dangled by an 18 feet (5.5 m) long parachute harness rig below a helicopter, allowing scenes to be shot on the move from any angle. The bobsledding chase was also filmed with the help of Swiss Olympic athletes, and was rewritten to incorporate the accidents the stuntmen suffered during shooting, such as the scene where Bond falls from the sled. Blofeld getting snared with a tree was performed at the studio by Savalas himself, after the attempt to do this by the stuntman on location came out wrong. Glen was also the editor of the film, employing a style similar to the one used by Hunt in the previous Bond films, with fast motion in the action scenes and exaggerated sound effects.
The avalanche scenes were due to be filmed in co-operation with the Swiss army who annually used explosions to prevent snow build - up by causing avalanches, but the area chosen naturally avalanched just before filming. The final result was a combination of a man - made avalanche at an isolated Swiss location shot by the second unit, stock footage, and images created by the special effects crew with salt. The stuntmen were filmed later, added by optical effects. For the scene where Bond and Tracy crash into a car race while being pursued, an ice rink was constructed over an unused aeroplane track, with water and snow sprayed on it constantly. Lazenby and Rigg did most of the driving due to the high number of close - ups.
For the cinematography, Hunt aimed for a "simple, but glamorous like the 1950s Hollywood films I grew up with '', as well as something realistic, "where the sets do n't look like sets ''. Cinematographer Michael Reed added he had difficulties with lighting, as every set built for the film had a ceiling, preventing spotlights from being hung from above. While shooting, Hunt wanted "the most interesting framings possible '', which would also look good after being cropped for television.
Lazenby said he experienced difficulties during shooting, not receiving any coaching despite his lack of acting experience, and with director Hunt never addressing him directly, only through his assistant. Lazenby also declared that Hunt also asked the rest of the crew to keep a distance from him, as "Peter thought the more I was alone, the better I would be as James Bond. '' Allegedly, there also were personality conflicts with Rigg, who was already an established star. However, according to director Hunt, these rumours are untrue and there were no such difficulties -- or else they were minor -- and may have started with Rigg joking to Lazenby before filming a love scene "Hey George, I 'm having garlic for lunch. I hope you are! '' Hunt also declared that he usually had long talks with Lazenby before and during shooting. For instance, to shoot Tracy 's death scene, Hunt brought Lazenby to the set at 8 o'clock in the morning and made him rehearse all day long, "and I broke him down until he was absolutely exhausted, and by the time we shot it at five o'clock, he was exhausted, and that 's how I got the performance. '' Hunt said that if Lazenby had remained in the role, he would also have directed the successor film, Diamonds Are Forever, and that his original intentions were concluding the film with Bond and Tracy driving off following their wedding, saving Tracy 's murder for the pre-credit sequence of Diamonds Are Forever. The idea was discarded after Lazenby quit the role.
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was the longest Bond film until Casino Royale was released in 2006. Despite that, two scenes were deleted from the final print: Irma Bunt spying on Bond as he buys a wedding ring for Tracy, and a chase over London rooftops and into the Royal Mail underground rail system after Bond 's conversation with Sir Hilary Bray was overheard.
The soundtrack for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service has been called "perhaps the best score of the series. '' It was composed, arranged and conducted by John Barry; it was his fifth successive Bond film. Barry opted to use more electrical instruments and a more aggressive sound in the music -- "I have to stick my oar in the musical area double strong to make the audience try and forget they do n't have Sean... to be Bondian beyond Bondian. ''
Barry felt it would be difficult to compose a theme song containing the title "On Her Majesty 's Secret Service '' unless it were written operatically, in the style of Gilbert and Sullivan. Leslie Bricusse had considered lyrics for the title song but director Peter R. Hunt allowed an instrumental title theme in the tradition of the first two Bond films. The theme was described as "one of the best title cuts, a wordless Moog - driven monster, suitable for skiing at breakneck speed or dancing with equal abandon. ''
Barry also composed the love song "We Have All the Time in the World '', with lyrics by Burt Bacharach 's regular lyricist Hal David, sung by Louis Armstrong. It is heard during the Bond -- Tracy courtship montage, bridging Draco 's birthday party in Portugal and Bond 's burglary of the Gebrüder Gumbold law office in Bern, Switzerland. Barry recalled Armstrong was very ill, but recorded the song in one take. The song was re-released in 1994, achieving the number three position during a 13 - week spell in the UK charts. A Hal David song entitled "Do You Know How Christmas Trees Are Grown? '' performed by Danish singer Nina also featured in the film in several scenes.
The theme, "On Her Majesty 's Secret Service '', is used in the film as an action theme alternative to Monty Norman 's "James Bond Theme '', as with Barry 's previous "007 '' themes. "On Her Majesty 's Secret Service '' was covered in 1997 by the British big beat group, the Propellerheads for the Shaken and Stirred album. Barry - orchestrator Nic Raine recorded an arrangement of the escape from Piz Gloria sequence and it was featured as a theme in the trailers for the 2004 Pixar animated film The Incredibles.
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was released on 18 December 1969 with its premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. Lazenby appeared at the premiere with a beard, looking "very un-Bond - like '', according to the Daily Mirror. Lazenby claimed the producers had tried to persuade him to shave it off to appear like Bond, but at that stage he had already decided not to make another Bond film and rejected the idea. The beard and accompanying shoulder - length hair "strained his already fragile relationship with Saltzman and Broccoli ''. As On Her Majesty 's Secret Service had been filmed in stereo, the first Bond film to use the technology, the Odeon had a new speaker system installed to benefit the new sounds.
Because Lazenby had informed the producers that On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was to be his only outing as Bond and because of the lack of gadgets used by Bond in the film, few items of merchandise were produced for the film, apart from the soundtrack album and a film edition of the book. Those that were produced included a number of Corgi Toys, including Tracey 's Cougar, Campbell 's Volkswagen and two versions of the bobsleigh -- one with the 007 logo and one with the Piz Gloria logo. On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was nominated for only one award: George Lazenby was nominated in the New Star of the Year -- Actor category at the 1970 Golden Globe Award ceremony, losing out to Jon Voight.
The film topped the North American box office when it opened with a gross of $1.2 million. The film closed its box office run with £ 750,000 in the United Kingdom (the highest - grossing film of the year), $64.6 million worldwide, half of You Only Live Twice 's total gross, but still one of the highest - grossing films of 1969. It was one of the most popular movies in France in 1969, with admissions of 1,958,172. Nonetheless this was a considerable drop from You Only Live Twice. After re-releases, the total box office was $82,000,000 worldwide.
The majority of reviews were critical of either the film, Lazenby, or both, while most of the contemporary reviews in the British press referred to George Lazenby at some point as "The Big Fry '', a reference to his previous acting in Fry 's Chocolate advertisements. Derek Malcolm of The Guardian was dismissive of Lazenby 's performance, saying that he "is not a good actor and though I never thought Sean Connery was all that stylish either, there are moments when one yearns for a little of his louche panache. '' For all the criticism of Lazenby, however, Malcolm says that the film was "quite a jolly frolic in the familiar money - spinning fashion ''. Tom Milne, writing in The Observer was even more scathing, saying that "I... fervently trust (OHMSS) will be the last of the James Bond films. All the pleasing oddities and eccentricities and gadgets of the earlier films have somehow been lost, leaving a routine trail through which the new James Bond strides without noticeable signs of animation. ''
Donald Zec in the Daily Mirror was equally damning of Lazenby 's acting abilities, comparing him unfavourably to Connery: "He looks uncomfortably in the part like a size four foot in a size ten gumboot. '' Zec was kinder to Lazenby 's co-star, saying that "there is style to Diana Rigg 's performance and I suspect that the last scene which draws something of a performance out of Lazenby owes much to her silken expertise. '' The New York Times critic AH Weiler also weighed in against Lazenby, saying that "Lazenby, if not a spurious Bond, is merely a casual, pleasant, satisfactory replacement. ''
One of the few supporters of Lazenby amongst the critics was Alexander Walker in the London Evening Standard who said that "The truth is that George Lazenby is almost as good a James Bond as the man referred to in his film as ' the other fellow '. Lazenby 's voice is more suave than sexy - sinister and he could pass for the other fellow 's twin on the shady side of the casino. Bond is now definitely all set for the Seventies. '' Judith Crist of New York Magazine also found the actor a strong point of the movie, stating that "This time around there 's less suavity and a no - nonsense muscularity and maleness to the role via the handsome Mr. Lazenby ''.
The feminist film critic Molly Haskell also wrote an approving review of the film in the Village Voice: "In a world, an industry, and particularly a genre which values the new and improved product above all, it is nothing short of miraculous to see a movie which dares to go backward, a technological artefact which has nobly deteriorated into a human being. I speak of the new and obsolete James Bond, played by a man named George Lazenby, who seems more comfortable in a wet tuxedo than a dry martini, more at ease as a donnish genealogist than reading (or playing) Playboy, and who actually dares to think that one woman who is his equal is better than a thousand part - time playmates. '' Haskell was also affected by the film 's emotional ending: "The love between Bond and his Tracy begins as a payment and ends as a sacrament. After ostensibly getting rid of the bad guys, they are married. They drive off to a shocking, stunning ending. Their love, being too real, is killed by the conventions it defied. But they win the final victory by calling, unexpectedly, upon feeling. Some of the audience hissed, I was shattered. If you like your Bonds with happy endings, do n't go. ''
Critical response to On Her Majesty 's Secret Service has become much more positive in recent years. Film critic James Berardinelli summed this up in his review of the movie: "with the exception of one production aspect, (it) is by far the best entry of the long - running James Bond series. The film contains some of the most exhilarating action sequences ever to reach the screen, a touching love story, and a nice subplot that has agent 007 crossing (and even threatening to resign from) Her Majesty 's Secret Service. The problem is with Bond himself... George Lazenby is boring, and his ineffectualness lowers the picture 's quality. Lazenby can handle the action sequences, but that 's about all he masters. ''
The American film reviewer Leonard Maltin has suggested that if it had been Connery in the leading role instead of Lazenby, On Her Majesty 's Secret Service would have epitomised the series. On the other hand, Danny Peary wrote, "I 'm not sure I agree with those who insist that if Connery had played Bond it would definitely be the best of the entire Bond series... Connery 's Bond, with his boundless humor and sense of fun and self - confidence, would be out of place in this picture. It actually works better with Lazenby because he is incapable of playing Bond as a bigger - than - life hero; for one thing he has n't the looks... Lazenby 's Bond also has n't the assurance of Connery 's Bond and that is appropriate in the crumbling, depressing world he finds himself. He seems vulnerable and jittery at times. At the skating rink, he is actually scared. We worry about him... On Her Majesty 's Secret Service does n't have Connery and it 's impossible to ever fully adjust to Lazenby, but I think that it still might be the best Bond film, as many Bond cultists claim. '' Peary also described On Her Majesty 's Secret Service as "the most serious '', "the most cynical '' and "the most tragic '' of the Bond films.
Brian Fairbanks differed in his opinion of Lazenby, saying that the film "gives us a James Bond capable of vulnerability, a man who can show fear and is not immune to heartbreak. Lazenby is that man, and his performance is superb. '' Fairbanks also thought On Her Majesty 's Secret Service to be "not only the best Bond, it is also the last truly great film in the series. In fact, had the decision been made to end the series, this would have been the perfect final chapter. ''
The filmmaker Steven Soderbergh writes that "For me there 's no question that cinematically On Her Majesty 's Secret Service is the best Bond film and the only one worth watching repeatedly for reasons other than pure entertainment... Shot to shot, this movie is beautiful in a way none of the other Bond films are '' The director Christopher Nolan also saw On Her Majesty 's Secret Service as his favourite Bond film; in describing its influence on his own film, Inception, Nolan said, "What I liked about it that we 've tried to emulate in this film is there 's a tremendous balance in that movie of action and scale and romanticism and tragedy and emotion. ''
Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an 82 % rating based on 44 reviews. IGN ranked On Her Majesty 's Secret Service as the eighth best Bond film, Entertainment Weekly as the sixth, and Norman Wilner of MSN, as the fifth best. The film also became a fan favourite, seeing "ultimate success in the home video market ''. In September 2012 it was announced that On Her Majesty 's Secret Service had topped a poll of Bond fans run by 007 Magazine to determine the greatest ever Bond film. Goldfinger came second in the poll and From Russia With Love was third.
|
13 reasons why season 1 order of tapes | 13 Reasons Why - Wikipedia
13 Reasons Why (stylized onscreen as TH1RTEEN R3ASONS WHY) is an American teen drama web television series developed for Netflix by Brian Yorkey, based on the 2007 novel Thirteen Reasons Why by Jay Asher. The series revolves around seventeen year old high school student, Clay Jensen, and his deceased female friend Hannah Baker, who has committed suicide after failing to cope with the culture, gossip and lack of support from her friends and her school. A box of cassette tapes recorded by Hannah in the lead up to her suicide detail thirteen reasons why she ended her life. The series is produced by July Moon Productions, Kicked to the Curb Productions, Anonymous Content and Paramount Television, with Yorkey and Diana Son serving as showrunners.
Dylan Minnette stars as Clay, while Katherine Langford plays Hannah. Christian Navarro, Alisha Boe, Brandon Flynn, Justin Prentice, Miles Heizer, Ross Butler, Devin Druid, Amy Hargreaves, Derek Luke, Kate Walsh, and Brian d'Arcy James also star. A film from Universal Pictures based on Thirteen Reasons Why began development in February 2011, with Selena Gomez set to star as Hannah, before being shelved in favor of a television series and Netflix ordering the show straight to series in October 2015, with Gomez instead serving as an executive producer.
The first season was released on Netflix on March 31, 2017. It received positive reviews from critics and audiences, who praised its subject matter and acting, particularly the performances of Minnette and Langford. For her performance, Langford received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress in a Drama Series. However, its graphic depiction of issues such as suicide and rape, along with other mature content prompted concerns from mental health professionals. In response, Netflix added a warning card and from March 2018, a video that plays at the start of each season warning viewers about its themes.
In May 2017, Netflix renewed 13 Reasons Why for a second season; filming began the next month and concluded that December. The second season was released on May 18, 2018, and received negative reviews from critics. A third season was ordered in June 2018 and is set to be released in 2019. Critical and audience reaction to the series has been divided, with the program generating controversy between audiences and industry reviewers.
In season one, seventeen year old Clay Jensen returns home from school one day to find a mysterious box on his porch. Inside he discovers seven cassette tapes recorded by Hannah Baker, his deceased classmate and unrequited love, who committed suicide two weeks earlier. On the tapes, Hannah unfolds an intensely emotional audio diary, detailing why she decided to end her life. It appears each person who receives this package of old - style tapes is fundamentally related to why she killed herself. Clay is not the first to receive the tapes, but there is implied detail as to how he should pass the tapes on after hearing them. There appears to be an order to distribution of the tapes, with an additional copy held by an overseer should the plan go awry. Each tape recording refers to a different person involved in Hannah 's life contributing to a reason for her suicide. The tapes refer to both friends and enemies.
In season two, months after Hannah 's suicide, Clay and the other people mentioned on the tapes, as well as close friends and Hannah 's family members, become embroiled in a civil legal battle between Hannah 's parents and Liberty High School. Alleging negligence on the part of the school, Hannah 's mother pursues her perception of justice, while her reluctance to settle pre-trial and her personal circumstances eventually break up her marriage with Hannah 's father. The story unfolds with narratives illustrating Hannah 's story told by those who present in court at trial.
Clay, who perceives himself as Hannah 's failed protector, embarks on an investigation using whatever evidence he can find in an effort to impact on the civil case between Hannah 's parents and the school. Clay also endeavours to expose the corrupted culture of the High School and its favour of wealthy, sports savvy male students over the average student, which especially compromises the integrity of young girls such as Hannah.
Throughout season two, Clay appears to be communicating with the ghost of Hannah as a plot narrative device.
Clay Jensen finds a box filled with audio cassette tapes anonymously left on his front doorstep. He plays the first in his father 's boombox and realizes they have been recorded by his recently deceased classmate Hannah Baker, before he accidentally drops and breaks the boombox when surprised by his mother. Clay steals his friend Tony 's Walkman to continue listening. Clay listens to the first tape, in which Hannah begins to relate the experiences that led to her suicide. She starts by sharing the story of her first kiss, with Justin Foley, who goes on to inadvertently spread a salacious rumor that begins the sequence of events leading to her suicide. Clay is revealed, through numerous short flashbacks, to have been in love with Hannah and to have worked with her at the local movie theater. It is revealed in this episode that Hannah has put her friend Tony in charge of the tapes.
Hannah reminisces about her friendship with two other new students: Jessica, who moves frequently because her father is in the Air Force, and Alex, whom they met at a coffee shop. Jessica and Alex eventually begin a relationship and stop spending time with Hannah. When Alex breaks up with Jessica, she very publicly blames Hannah. In the present, Hannah 's mother, Olivia, finds a note in her daughter 's textbook that leads her to believe Hannah was being bullied. Clay asks Jessica about the tapes, which results in Bryce Walker 's circle of peers meeting to discuss how Clay is listening to Hannah 's recordings.
As Clay attempts to pursue a romantic relationship with Hannah, her relationships are threatened by a "best / worst list '' made by Alex Standall, who has put a "target '' on Hannah. In the present, Hannah 's mother, Olivia Baker, seeks out the school principal about her suspicion of bullying and makes a disturbing discovery. In the midst of his investigation, Clay turns to Alex for answers, who not only feels regret for his actions on the tapes, but also warns Clay against trusting Tony, whom Clay later sees in a violent exchange with his brothers. As Justin tries to recuperate from his recent slump, Bryce strong - arms Clay and Alex into a drinking contest in an alleyway.
Hannah hears someone outside her window, and confesses to her friend, Courtney, that she has a stalker. Courtney offers to help her catch the offender in the act. While waiting for the stalker to arrive, they play an alcohol - fueled game of truth or dare that leads to the two of them kissing on Hannah 's bed. The stalker, school photographer Tyler Down, takes a photo of the girls and sends it around the school. This effectively ends Courtney and Hannah 's friendship as Courtney distances herself from Hannah to avoid being revealed as one of the people in the photograph. In the present, Clay goes to Hannah 's house and talks to her mother, though is unable to admit how close he and Hannah were. He also confronts Tony about the incident with his brothers. Tony responds that "people have to make their own justice '' and proves he has an extra set of tapes. Inspired by this, Clay takes a naked picture of Tyler and sends it around the school in revenge.
Courtney, afraid of her classmates finding out about her sexuality, spreads a rumor that the girls in the leaked photos are Hannah and Laura, an openly lesbian classmate. Courtney also adds to the rumor about Hannah and Justin, worsening Hannah 's poor reputation. In the present, Clay takes Courtney to visit Hannah 's grave. She leaves, not ready to face her involvement in the loss of her classmate or be more open about her sexuality. Tony arrives with Clay 's bike and gives him a tape with the song he and Hannah danced to at the Winter Formal. Later, Justin, Zach and Alex force Clay into the car with them by stealing his bike and scare him into silence about the tapes by driving over the speed limit. They are pulled over by the police but face no consequences as the officer is revealed to be Alex 's father. Clay denies knowing Hannah to his mother, who has been asked to represent the school in the lawsuit the Bakers are bringing.
Hannah 's date on Valentine 's Day with Marcus does not go as planned due to the rumors that she is promiscuous. In the present, Alex gets into a fight with Montgomery and they both must appear before the student honor board. Clay helps Sheri on an assignment, and they nearly hook up, but Sheri reveals she is only there because she is on the tapes and wants Clay to like her despite her role in Hannah 's death.
After Hannah refuses to go out with Zach, he gets revenge by sabotaging her emotionally during a class project. Zach removes compliments from Hannah 's box, affecting her self - confidence. In the present, Clay hears Zach 's tape and keys his car in an act of revenge, but things turn out to be different than they appeared. Clay is now having both auditory and visual hallucinations of Hannah during the day, including seeing her dead body on the floor of the basketball court during a game and hearing her tape playing over the school 's intercom system. He returns the tapes to Tony, unable to continue listening.
Hannah is touched by poetry recited by fellow student Ryan Shaver, and joins the Evergreen Poetry Club, a place where people write and perform their own poetry, and listen and critique others. Hannah presents some extremely revealing and confessional poetry at the poetry club after Ryan encourages her. Ryan betrays her by publishing the poem without her knowledge or consent in his school magazine. Almost everyone in school finds the poem hilarious, but Clay is both touched and disturbed by it, not realizing Hannah is the author. In the present day, Tony confides to Clay about the night of Hannah 's death, and Clay takes back the tapes. Clay later gives the poem to Hannah 's mother.
While hiding in Jessica 's room during a party, Hannah witnesses Bryce Walker raping an unconscious and intoxicated Jessica. In the present, Marcus warns Clay the worst is yet to come and again attempts to scare him into silence about the tapes, this time by planting drugs in his backpack to get him suspended from school. Clay finally admits to his mother that he and Hannah were close. After getting suspicious legal advice from his mother, he goes to Justin 's apartment to retrieve his bike and talk about getting justice for Jessica. Justin finally admits that what happened in the tapes is real, and claims it is better if Jessica does not know the truth.
After the party, Hannah gets a ride home from her classmate, cheerleader Sheri Holland. They have what appears to be a minor accident, knocking over a stop sign. While Hannah wants to call the police to report it, Sheri refuses to do so, because she is afraid she will get in trouble. While Hannah is on her way to find a phone to call the authorities, the downed stop sign causes a serious accident at that intersection, resulting in the death of Clay 's friend Jeff Atkins, which was incorrectly considered a drunk driving accident. When Hannah tries to tell Clay about the stop sign, he pushes her away, thinking she is being unnecessarily dramatic. In the present, Jessica 's behavior becomes more erratic. Clay finds out that Sheri is trying to make up for her mistake in her own way, and he tells Jeff 's parents that Jeff was sober when he died.
With Tony 's support, Clay finally listens to his tape and is overcome with guilt to the point of contemplating his own suicide because he feels he did not do enough to prevent Hannah 's death. Tony manages to calm him down. Justin finds out Jessica is at Bryce 's home. He confronts her there and admits that Bryce raped her on the night of the party, causing her to break up with him. Olivia Baker finds a list with the names of all the people on the tapes, although she does not know what the list means.
After accidentally losing her parents ' store 's earnings, a depressed Hannah stumbles upon a party being thrown by Bryce. The night ends in tragedy when she ends up alone with him, and he rapes her in his hot tub. This leads Hannah to create a list of people (the one that her mother found in the previous episode) who she feels were responsible for leading her to her current circumstances, which becomes the inspiration for the creation of the tapes. In the present, everyone on Hannah 's list is subpoenaed to testify in the lawsuit between the Bakers and the school. The subjects of the tapes disagree over what to do. Tyler eventually suggests they pin everything on Bryce, but Alex refuses and says they should tell the truth. Sheri turns herself in. Clay goes to Bryce 's house, on the pretext of buying marijuana, to confront him about the events of the night he raped Hannah. Clay provokes Bryce to attack him and is badly beaten. However, Clay has been secretly recording their conversation and gets Bryce to admit that he raped Hannah. An unknown teenager with a gunshot wound to the head is treated by paramedics.
Hannah begins to record the tapes and then visits Mr. Porter to tell him about her rape. Hannah secretly records the conversation, hoping he will help her. When he does not, she heads home and takes her own life. In the present, Clay gives Tony the tape of his conversation with Bryce to copy. He confronts Mr. Porter about meeting with Hannah on her last day. He also hands over the tapes, including the additional tape containing Bryce 's confession. Clay tells Porter that he is the subject of the final tape. The depositions begin, Marcus and Courtney deny their involvement in Hannah 's death as much as possible. Zach and Jessica admit their mistakes. Before his deposition, Tyler hides ammunition and guns in his room, and then reveals the existence of the tapes during his interview. Alex is revealed to have been the teenager with the gunshot wound; he is in critical condition at the hospital. Justin leaves town out of guilt, but not before telling Bryce about the tapes. Jessica finally tells her father about her rape. At school, Clay reaches out to Skye Miller, his former friend, to avoid repeating the same mistakes he made with Hannah.
Five months after the events of the first season, Hannah 's trial moves to court. Tyler is the first to testify in the trial and does so truthfully. Skye and Clay are dating, but Clay starts to hallucinate Hannah. Mr Porter confronts Bryce in the bathroom about raping Hannah. Jessica returns to school, as does Alex who survived his suicide attempt, but has lost much of his memory from before it, including the contents of Hannah 's tapes. Tony is given the note Hannah left him the night she died, and is later seen burning it. Clay finds a Polaroid photograph in his locker, with a note saying "Hannah was n't the only one ''.
Courtney reveals that she is a lesbian and had feelings for Hannah during her testimony. A group of protesters gather at the court to demand justice for Hannah, but Jessica and Alex are both threatened to avoid revealing anything incriminating when they testify. Skye and Clay fight over her suspicion that Clay is still in love with Hannah, and Skye is hospitalized soon after leaving Clay 's house. Meanwhile, Tyler befriends a classmate named Cyrus.
Clay, riding home on his bicycle, is hit intentionally by a car, injuring him slightly. He visits Skye in hospital, but she breaks up with him. Clay and Alex try to encourage Jessica to reveal information about Bryce during her testimony, but she fails after seeing incriminating pictures of her stuck to the board in a classroom. Olivia asks her afterwards if she was the girl on the ninth tape, but Jessica does not answer. After discovering Jessica had been contacted by Justin, Clay finds him homeless in Oakland with Tony 's help. With no other option, Clay lets Justin stay in his bedroom with him. Skye 's parents move her to a psychiatric facility, and tell Clay not to contact her. Tyler meets the rest of Cyrus ' friends while Bryce is asked to testify.
Marcus lies about what happened with Hannah the night they went out on Valentine 's Day during his testimony (in order to protect his reputation) and briefly mentions Bryce, angering him. Cyrus and Tyler hear of Marcus ' lies and prank him, going to a nearby field afterwards to shoot guns. Clay finds out that Justin has been taking heroin and he and Sheri help him onto the path to sobriety. Jessica shows the threatening note she was left before her testimony to Mr Porter. Alex continues to be frustrated about not being able to remember anything and asks Clay for the tapes, who sends them to him. Jessica and Alex skip school and share a kiss. Clay also finds a second Polaroid photograph in his locker, which shows Bryce having sex with an unconscious girl, alongside a note saying "he wo n't stop ''.
Tyler is confronted by Mr Porter, who suspects he was behind the pictures of Jessica found in the classroom before her testimony, but he denies involvement. Ryan testifies and talks about Hannah 's poems, saying they were written about Justin and that she and Justin maintained contact even after falling out. Afterwards, Olivia invites Ryan to help her decipher Hannah 's poems for additional clues, but Ryan soon leaves after Olivia mentions missing pages in Hannah 's journal, which Ryan had torn out. Clay realizes the Polaroid photos were taken at school and attempts to find out where. Chlöe meets with Bryce 's parents and his mother notices bruises on her. Jessica attends her first group therapy session. Mr Porter finds a brick thrown through his car window, with a threatening note attached; he later confronts Justin 's mother and is arrested after a violent incident with her boyfriend.
Zach testifies and reveals that he and Hannah had a romantic relationship the summer before she died, but they kept it secret. After the testimony, Clay reacts angrily and confronts Zach, ignoring his apologies, while Bryce teases Zach about his relationship, prompting a small fight between them. Justin returns to school and talks to Jessica, but she asks him to leave. He then faints after seeing Bryce, and on his return to Clay 's house, has to hide as someone breaks in, at which point Clay 's parents find out he has been staying there, but allow it to continue.
During Clay 's testimony, he is forced to reveal he and Hannah did drugs at a small party one night and spent the night together, and Clay ignored a comment Hannah made the next morning about wanting to die. Alex 's birthday party is derailed after a number of arguments break out. When Clay leaves the birthday party, he finds a Polaroid photograph left on his car, with a note reading "The Clubhouse ''. After reading comments posted online about his testimony, Clay anonymously uploads Hannah 's tapes to the Internet. Meanwhile, Bryce is seen having sex with Chlöe without getting proper consent.
After the release of the tapes, Bryce returns to school to find his locker vandalized and his "confession tape '' Clay recorded being shared among students. After Marcus is blackmailed, he calls Bryce a rapist during a speech at a ceremony, in front of a large group of parents and students, in order to protect his own reputation. Clay finally contacts Skye again and meets with her at the psychiatric facility, but she tells him she is moving to a different state. Justin overdoses on heroin, but Alex saves his life - he then returns to his mother 's home.
When testifying, Mr Porter reveals that since Hannah 's death he has come to believe that Hannah was raped by Bryce. He then emotionally apologizes to Hannah 's mother for the part he played in her suicide. Justin steals money from his mother 's boyfriend, and when confronted by his mother, leaves her some suggesting she leaves too in order to escape the relationship. Bryce confronts and threatens Clay under the assumption that it was Clay who blackmailed Marcus into publicly accusing Bryce of rape. Later, Clay is violently beaten at school by four masked students. He is then approached by Cyrus who invites him to join him and Tyler in vandalizing the school that evening, but when he does, he sees a group of students entering a storage shed next to the baseball field, which he correctly guesses that it 's the location of The Clubhouse. He texts Justin and they reconvene. Meanwhile, Olivia contacts a girl, Sarah, and her mother and asks them not to testify.
Tony is asked to testify, but chooses not to reveal that Hannah left him her tapes because he owed her a favor after she helped him evade arrest. During Sarah 's testimony, she reveals Hannah was part of a trio of girls who bullied her at another high school. After an argument between Tyler and Mackenzie, his friendship with Cyrus breaks down. Offering marijuana, Sheri tempts some male students into taking her to The Clubhouse, where Bryce takes a picture of her and two other boys on a Polaroid camera, placing the photograph in a box filled with many others. She learns the code to unlock the door and shares it with Clay and Justin. During a baseball game, Zach confronts Bryce, tells him he knows Hannah was not lying, and quits the game. He goes to The Clubhouse to find Clay and Justin there, and hands Clay the box of Polaroid photographs taken in the Clubhouse, confessing that it was him who had given Clay the first three photographs. Clay reviews the photographs at home with Justin and Sheri, and they find a pair of photographs which show Bryce raping Chlöe. Clay also finds a picture of Hannah.
Bryce testifies and says that he and Hannah had a casual sexual relationship, and that she falsely accused him of rape after he brought an end to it. When Bryce returns to school, Justin approaches him and a fight breaks out, which evolves into a mass brawl. Jessica shows Chlöe the two pictures of Bryce and her in The Clubhouse, and Chlöe confesses that it was her who stuck up the pictures in the classroom before Jessica testified. Olivia, her legal team, and Jessica ask Chlöe to testify, and she agrees, but in the courtroom she reports that she remembers Bryce having sex with her and remembers consenting. The box of Polaroid photographs taken from The Clubhouse is stolen from Clay 's car, and Alex is sent a package containing a gun and a threatening letter. Bryce 's mother later asks him whether he was telling the truth in his testimony, and, after being pressed, he confesses to raping Hannah. Through a series of flashbacks, it is revealed Bryce wanted a relationship with Hannah and was rejected himself. Clay becomes mentally tormented by hallucinations of Hannah, to the point where he contemplates both murdering Bryce and killing himself.
Justin receives a death threat before going to testify, but he tells of Bryce raping Jessica during his testimony nonetheless. Montgomery is confronted by Alex, Clay, Justin, Tony, Zach, and Scott after Alex realizes he is responsible for intimidating people during the trial, and admits to stealing the box of Polaroid photos. However, after taking Alex to their location, he reveals he was lying and escapes. As a result, Jessica is encouraged by a group of her friends to report her case of sexual assault to the police. After the trial concludes and the jury find the school district not responsible for Hannah 's death, both Bryce and Justin are arrested outside the courtroom for their involvement in Jessica 's rape. Mr. Porter is fired after a performance review, and Tyler is placed on a diversion program after one of his social media posts reveals it was him who vandalized the school.
Universal Studios purchased film rights to the novel on February 8, 2011, with Selena Gomez cast to play Hannah Baker. On October 29, 2015, it was announced that Netflix would be making a television adaptation of the book with Gomez instead serving as an executive producer. Tom McCarthy was hired to direct the first two episodes. The series is produced by Anonymous Content and Paramount Television with Gomez, McCarthy, Joy Gorman, Michael Sugar, Steve Golin, Mandy Teefey, and Kristel Laiblin serving as executive producers.
Filming for the show took place in the Northern Californian towns of Vallejo, Benicia, San Rafael, Crockett and Sebastopol during the summer of 2016. The 13 - episode first season and the special were released on Netflix on March 31, 2017.
Therapy dogs were present on set for the actors because of the intense and emotional content of the series.
On May 7, 2017, it was announced that Netflix had renewed the series for a second season. Filming for the second season began on June 12, 2017, but was briefly halted in October in response to the then - ongoing Northern California wildfires happening around the areas where the series was being filmed. Production on the second season wrapped in December 2017. The second season was released on May 18, 2018.
On June 6, 2018, Netflix renewed the series for a third season, which is set to be released in 2019.
The marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the first season was the second-most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered, garnering 48 % of the viewers that the second season of Daredevil received, which was the most viewed season according to Jumpshot. The series also showed an 18 % increase in week - over-week viewership from week one to week two. Jumpshot, which "analyzes click - stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers '', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company 's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.
The first season has received positive reviews from critics, with much of the praise for the show being aimed at its acting, directing, story, visuals, improvements upon its source material, and mature approach to dark and adult subject matter. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 80 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.2 / 10, based on 51 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "13 Reasons Why complements its bestselling source material with a gripping look at adolescent grief whose narrative maturity belies its YA milieu. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 76 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating generally favorable reviews.
Jesse Schedeen of IGN praised 13 Reasons Why, giving it a 9.2 out of 10, "Amazing '', stating that the show is "a very powerful and hard - hitting series '' and "ranks among the best high school dramas of the 21st century ''. Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe gave a glowing review for the show, saying, "The drama is sensitive, consistently engaging, and, most importantly, unblinking. '' Maureen Ryan of Variety asserts that the show "is undoubtedly sincere, but it 's also, in many important ways, creatively successful '' and called it "simply essential viewing ''. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the entire season a score of B+, calling the show "a frank, authentically affecting portrait of what it feels like to be young, lost and too fragile for the world ''. Daniel Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter also praised the show, calling it "an honorably mature piece of young - adult adaptation '', and citing its performances, direction, relevance and maturity as some of the show 's strongest points.
The acting, particularly Katherine Langford as Hannah and Dylan Minnette as Clay, was frequently mentioned and widely lauded in several reviews. Schedeen of IGN praised the cast, particularly Minnette and Langford, stating: "Langford shines in the lead role... (and) embodies that optimism and that profound sadness (of Hannah 's) as well. Minnette 's Clay is, by design, a much more stoic and reserved character... and does a fine job in what 's often a difficult role. '' Gilbert of The Boston Globe praised the chemistry of Langford and Minnette, saying that "watching these two young actors together is pure pleasure '', while Schedeen of IGN also agreed, saying that they are "often at their best together, channeling just the right sort of warm but awkward chemistry you 'd expect from two teens who ca n't quite admit to their feelings for one another ''. Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter also praises both actors: "Langford 's heartbreaking openness makes you root for a fate you know is n't possible. The actress ' performance is full of dynamic range, setting it against Minnette 's often more complicated task in differentiating between moods that mostly go from uncomfortable to gloomy to red - eyed, hygiene - starved despair. ''
Ryan of Variety also gave praise to not only the two leads, but also the supporting cast of actors, particularly Kate Walsh 's performance as Hannah 's mother, which Ryan describes as "career - best work ''. Positive mentions from various critics, such as Ryan, Feinberg and Schedeen, were also given to the supporting cast of actors (most particularly Alisha Boe, Miles Heizer and Christian Navarro 's respective performances of Jessica, Alex and Tony). Liz Shannon Miller of Indiewire, who enjoyed the show and gave it a positive score of B+, gave praise to the racial, gender and complex diversity of its supporting cast of teens.
Another aspect frequently mentioned within reviews was the show 's mature and emotional approach to its dark and adult subject matter. This was favorably reviewed by critics, such as Miller of Indiewire, particularly her statement that "the adult edges to this story ring with honesty and truth. '' Miller, and Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter, also stated that the show can be difficult to watch at times, while Schedeen of IGN states that it is "an often depressing and even uncomfortable show to watch... a pretty emotionally draining experience, particularly towards the end as the pieces really start to fall into place. ''
Numerous critics also praised several other aspects of the show. Feinberg highlighted the show 's directors, saying: "A Sundance - friendly gallery of directors including Tom McCarthy, Gregg Araki and Carl Franklin keeps the performances grounded and the extremes from feeling exploitative '', while Gilbert of The Boston Globe praised the storytelling: "The storytelling techniques are powerful... (as it) builds on the world established in the previous hour, as we continually encounter new facets of Hannah 's life and new characters. The background on the show keeps getting deeper, richer. ''
Conversely, the series has also received criticism over its portrayal of teen angst. Mike Hale of The New York Times wrote a critical review, writing, "the show does n't make (Hannah 's) downward progress convincing. It too often feels artificial, like a very long public service announcement. '' He also criticized the plot device that has Clay listening to the tapes one by one instead of all in one sitting like the other teens did, which Hale felt was unbelievable: "It makes no sense as anything but a plot device, and you 'll find yourself, like Clay 's antagonists, yelling at him to listen to the rest of tapes already. ''
Writing for The Guardian, Rebecca Nicholson praised some aspects of the show, including the performances from Minnette and Walsh, but was troubled by much of the plot, writing, "a storyline that suggests the love of a sweet boy might have sorted all this out added to an uneasy feeling that stayed with me ''. Nicholson was skeptical that the show would appeal to older viewers, unlike other series set in high school such as Freaks and Geeks and My So - Called Life: "It lacks the crossover wit of its forebears... It 's too tied up in conveying the message that terrible behaviour can have horrible consequences to deal in any subtleties or shades of feeling. It 's largely one - note -- and that note is horrifying. ' It has to get better, ' implores one student towards the end, but given its fairly open ending, an apparent season two setup, it does not seem as if there 's much chance of that happening. ''
Washington Post television critic Hank Stuever wrote a negative review, finding 13 Reasons Why "contrived '' and implausible: "There are 13 episodes lasting 13 super-sullen hours -- a passive - aggressive, implausibly meandering, poorly written and awkwardly acted effort that is mainly about miscommunication, delivering no more wisdom or insight about depression, bullying and suicide than one of those old ABC Afterschool Specials people now mock for being so corny. '' He also wrote that he found Hannah 's suicide tapes "a protracted example of the teenager who fantasizes how everyone will react when she 's gone. The story... strikes me as remarkably, even dangerously, naive in its understanding of suicide, up to and including a gruesome, penultimate scene of Hannah opening her wrists in a bathtub. ''
David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the series a tepid review, saying that it was plagued by character inconsistencies, particularly Hannah. He praised Langford 's "stunning performance '' but noted, "There are times when we simply do n't believe the characters, when what they do or say is n't consistent with who we 've been led to believe they are... At times, (Hannah) is self - possessed and indifferent at best to the behavior of the popular kids. At other times, though, relatively minor misperceived slights seem to send her into an emotional tailspin. No doubt, teenagers embody a constant whirl of conflicting emotions, but the script pushes the bounds of credibility here and there. '' He noted that overall, the series worked: "The structure is gimmicky and the characters inconsistent, but there are still at least 13 Reasons Why the series is worthy. ''
The second season received largely mixed to negative reviews from critics, with criticism aimed at the poor execution of its topics; many declared it unnecessary. Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 27 % with an average rating of 5.5 / 10, based on 25 reviews. The site 's critical consensus states, "By deviating from its source material, 13 Reasons Why can better explore its tenderly crafted characters; unfortunately, in the process, it loses track of what made the show so gripping in the first place. '' On Metacritic the season has an average score of 49 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
A scene in which the character Tyler gets viciously attacked and sexually assaulted during the finale also caused controversy from fans and critics of the series, with some describing it as "unnecessary '' and "traumatizing ''. The series ' showrunner has defended the scene, saying that it was included in an attempt to "(tell) truthful stories about things that young people go through in as unflinching a way as we can ''.
The series has generated controversy over its portrayal of suicide and self - harm, prompting Netflix to add strong advisory warnings prior to the first, twelfth, and thirteenth episodes. School psychologists and educators expressed concern about the series.
The superintendent of Palm Beach County, Florida schools reportedly told parents that their schools had seen an increase in suicidal and self - harming behavior from students, and that some of those students "have articulated associations of their at - risk behavior to the 13 Reasons Why Netflix series ''.
The Australian youth mental health service for 12 -- 25 year - olds, Headspace, issued a warning in late April 2017 over the graphic content featured in the series, due to the increased number of calls to the service following the show 's release in the country. Netflix however, demonstrably complied with the Australian viewer ratings system, by branding the series as "MA15 + '' when streamed via its own interface. They accompanied its presentation with additional warnings and viewer advice, and ensured that counselling referrals were included and not easily skipped at the conclusion of each episode, even including an Australian accent in the voice over for those referrals every fifth episode. The "MA15 + '' rating in Australia requires a guardian to accompany a minor to an Australian cinema to allow admission of those under 18 years of age. "MA15 + '' also prohibits the admission of anyone under the age of 15, requiring proof - of - age identification.
In response to the graphic nature of the show and New Zealand 's high youth suicide rate, which was the highest among the 34 OECD countries during 2009 to 2012, the Office of Film & Literature Classification in the country created a new rating, "RP18 '', allowing individuals aged 18 and over to watch the series alone and those below having to watch it with supervision from a parent or guardian.
-- Executive producer Selena Gomez, in defense of the controversy surrounding the series
In April 2017, the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) in the United States released a statement regarding the series, saying: "Research shows that exposure to another person 's suicide, or to graphic or sensationalized accounts of death, can be one of the many risk factors that youth struggling with mental health conditions cite as a reason they contemplate or attempt suicide. '' NASP sent a letter to school mental health professionals across the country about the series, reportedly a first for NASP in response to a television show. The following month, the United States Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP) released a statement also noting how strongly the show may serve as a trigger for self - injury among vulnerable youth. They lamented the depiction of mental health professionals as ineffective for youth who have experienced trauma and may have been considering suicide. The statement implored Netflix to add a tag following each episode with mental health resources, and a reminder that depression and suicide can be effectively treated by a qualified mental health professional, such as a clinical child psychologist, using evidence - based practice.
Similarly, clinical psychologists such as Daniel J. Reidenberg and Erika Martinez, as well as mental health advocate MollyKate Cline of Teen Vogue magazine, have expressed concerns regarding the risk of suicide contagion. However, Eric Beeson, a counselor at The Family Institute at Northwestern University noted that "it 's unlikely that one show alone could trigger someone to attempt suicide. '' Mental health professionals have also criticized the series ' depiction of suicide itself, much of which violates widely promulgated recommendations for reporting on actual suicides or not depicting them in fiction, in order to not encourage copycat suicides. The season finale, which depicts Hannah 's suicide in graphic detail, has been particularly criticized in this regard. Nic Sheff, a writer for the show, has defended it as intended to dispel the myth that suicides "quietly drift off '', and recalled how he himself was deterred from a suicide attempt by recalling a survivor 's account of how painful and horrifying it was.
The NASP statement also criticized the show 's suggestion that bullying alone led Hannah to take her life, noting that while it may be a contributing factor, suicidal ideations far more often result from the bullied person having a treatable mental illness without adequate coping mechanisms. Alex Moen, a school counselor in Minneapolis, took issue with the show 's entire plotline as "... essentially a fantasy of what someone who is considering suicide might have -- that once you commit suicide, you can still communicate with your loved ones, and people will suddenly realize everything that you were going through and the depth of your pain... That the cute, sensitive boy will fall in love with you and seek justice for you, and you 'll be able to orchestrate it, and in so doing kind of still be able to live. '' Other counselors criticized the depiction of Hannah 's attempt to reach out to Mr. Porter as dangerously misleading, since not only does he miss obvious signs of her suicidal ideations, but says he can not report her sexual assault to the police without her identifying the assailant. School counselors are often portrayed as ineffective or clueless in popular culture, Moen says, but Porter 's behavior in the series goes beyond that, to being unethical and possibly illegal. "It 's ridiculous! Counselors are not police. We do n't have to launch an investigation. We bring whatever information we do have to the police '', she told Slate.
In May 2017, the Canadian Mental Health Association (CMHA) along with the Centre for Suicide Prevention (CSP) released a statement with similar concerns to the ones raised by NASP. CMHA believed that the series may glamorize suicide, and that some content may lead to distress in viewers, particularly in younger viewers. Furthermore, the portrayal of Hannah 's suicide does not follow the media guidelines as set out by the Canadian Association for Suicide Prevention (CASP) and the American Association of Suicidology. CMHA and CASP did praise the show for raising awareness about "... this preventable health concern, '' adding that, "Raising awareness needs to be done in a safe and responsible manner. A large and growing body of Canadian and international research has found clear links between increases in suicide rates and harmful media portrayals of suicide. '' Ways in which the portrayals of suicide may cause harm, according to CMHA and CASP, include the following: "They may simplify suicide, such as, by suggesting that bullying alone is the cause; they may make suicide seem romantic, such as, by putting it in the context of a Hollywood plot line; they may portray suicide as a logical or viable option; they may display graphic representations of suicide which may be harmful to viewers, especially young ones; and / or they may advance the false notion that suicides are a way to teach others a lesson. ''
One study found the release of 13 Reasons Why corresponded with between 900,000 and 1,500,000 more suicide - related searches in the United States, including a 26 % increase in searches for "how to commit suicide, '' an 18 % increase for "commit suicide, '' and a 9 % increase for "how to kill yourself. '' A review, however, found that it is unclear if searching for information about suicide on the Internet relates to the risk of suicide.
With the release of the first season of the series, Netflix also released 13 Reasons Why: Beyond the Reasons, an aftershow documentary television film. The 29 - minute documentary featured cast and crew of the series, and mental health professionals discussing their experiences working on the show and dealing with difficult issues, including bullying, depression and sexual assault. A second Beyond the Reasons special was released with the second season of the series.
|
the names of snow white's seven dwarfs | Seven Dwarfs - wikipedia
The Seven Dwarfs are a group of seven dwarfs that appear in the fairy tale Snow White and others.
The Seven Dwarfs are a group of seven dwarfs that live in a tiny cottage and work in the nearby mines. Snow White happens upon their house after being told by the Huntsman to flee from the Queen 's kingdom.
The Seven Dwarfs return home and immediately notice someone has sneaked in, because the house has been cleaned. During their loud discussion, they discover the sleeping Snow White. She wakes up and explains to them what happened. The Dwarfs take pity on her, saying: "If you will keep house for us, and cook, make beds, wash, sew, and knit, and keep everything clean and orderly, then you can stay with us, and you shall have everything that you want. '' They warn her to be careful when alone at home, and to not let anyone in while they are delving in the mountains.
When the Queen disguised as an old peddler ties a colorful, silky bodice onto Snow White which causes her to faint, the Seven Dwarfs return just in time and Snow White revives when the Dwarfs loosen the lace. When the Queen dresses as a comb seller and gives Snow White a poisoned comb, the Seven Dwarfs save her again. The Queen then appears disguised as a farmer 's wife and gives Snow White a poisoned apple, of which she takes a bite. This time, the Seven Dwarfs are unable to revive the girl, because they ca n't find the source of Snow White 's poor health and, assuming that she is dead, they place her in a glass coffin. After some time has passed, a Prince traveling through the land sees Snow White where he strides to her coffin, and instantly falls in love with her upon being enchanted by her beauty. The Seven Dwarfs let him take the coffin, and as his servants carry the coffin away, they stumble on some roots and the piece of apple comes out of Snow White 's throat, reviving her.
The following is a list of names of the Seven Dwarfs from multiple versions of the Snow White story. There are many adaptations to the story of Snow White; including animation, film, books, plays, etc. This is a listing of the Seven Dwarfs names based on release date. The original Snow White story, written by the Brothers Grimm, did not feature names to any of the dwarfs. Snow White & the Huntsman and Once Upon a Time feature eight dwarfs, while the 1991 animated Snow White only featured six.
A Disney version of the Seven Dwarfs, also called Disney Dwarfs as a potential Disney Consumer Products / DisneyToon Studios franchise, appeared in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the Seven Dwarfs in this are:
The Seven Dwarfs also appeared in House of Mouse, and Kingdom Hearts: Birth by Sleep.
In the early 2000s, DisneyToon Studios (DTS) joined Disney Consumer Products (DCP) as their internal Disney conglomerate video partner in developing the new Disney franchises. While DCP eyed other potential franchises, DisneyToon looked to the Seven Dwarfs for a male - centric franchise to counterbalance the female - centric Fairies. By 2005, The Seven Dwarfs computer - animated sequel to Snow White was officially underway. Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi was one team that was given an attempt at a movie pitch, which was to follow the Dwarfs in which they trap the villain in the magic mirror and setting it up for Snow White movie. Given the possible demand, Buena Vista Games brought in Obsidian Entertainment, a game developer, who pitched a video game focusing on the Dwarfs ' similar ancestors. DTS executives were not feeling that the two franchise launching projects were coming together well enough that they turned to Mike Disa, who worked on the Tinker Bell movie story. Disa and Evan Spiliotopoulos pitched a Lord of the Rings - style epic for the dwarfs while "connecting seamlessly '' with the original movie, which was given permission to move forward. With interfering managers wanting a tragic back story for Dopey, Disa decided that he could not go forward. Walt Disney Animation Studios chief creative officer John Lasseter about two month later ended production on the film.
The 7D is an American animated television series produced by Disney Television Animation franchise based on Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. This series is the first Walt Disney Animation Studios classic series. The TV series details the 7D working for Queen Delightful where they protect Jollywood from the Glooms and other threats.
The Seven Dwarfs were given a new theme park attraction called the Seven Dwarfs Mine Train coaster.
In Descendants and Descendants 2, Dopey is shown to have a son named Doug (portrayed by Zachary Gibson) who can talk and becomes smitten by Evil Queen 's daughter Evie. In the Descendants novel The Isle of the Lost, Doc is shown to be sympathetic towards the Goblins that operate on the Isle of the Lost 's Goblin Wharf where they want amnesty for their involvement with Maleficent.
In Sesame Street, there were different versions of the Seven Dwarfs where each of them was made from an Anything Muppets.
In the "Snow White '' episode of Grimm 's Fairy Tale Classics, the Seven Dwarfs are named Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday and are shown to be allied with a pack of wolves.
In Happily Ever After, it was mentioned that the Seven Dwarfs have opened up a mine in the next kingdom. In their place is the Seven Dwarfelles who have received a power based on nature to help out their boss Mother Nature.
The Dwarfelles consisted of:
The Dwarfelles helped Snow White on her quest to rescue the Prince from the Queen 's sorcerer brother Lord Maliss.
In Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child, the show 's adaption of "Snow White '' that takes place in the American southwest depicts the Seven Dwarves as seven mystical little men who came from the north to mine turquoise. They consist of:
The Seven Dwarfs appear in the Shrek series.
In Shrek, the Seven Dwarfs appear in the first film carrying Snow White 's coffin. When they place the coffin on the table, Shrek says "Oh no! Dead broad off the table! '' One of the Dwarfs says "Where else are we supposed to put it? The bed 's already been taken. '' Shrek promptly finds the Big Bad Wolf in his bed.
They are seen again at the start of Shrek 2, giving Shrek a ring engraved with "I love you '' in flaming letters for Fiona (in an allusion to the One Ring from The Lord of the Rings).
In Shrek the Third, one of them is given to Fiona as a wedding present (as a babysitter) from Snow White who says she has six more at home.
The Seven Dwarfs are seen at the end of Scared Shrekless when Shrek and Fiona celebrate by egging them.
In Mirror Mirror, the Seven Dwarfs work as Highwaymen and rob from anyone that comes down their way by wearing boots with retractable stilts that make them look taller. The Seven Dwarfs consist of:
The Seven Dwarfs help Snow White to form a resistance against Queen Clementianna.
In the Princesses series by Jim C. Hines, the dwarfs are actually anthropomorphic elemental personifications, summoned by Snow to aid her based on a spell from one of her mother 's books. The seven dwarfs represent Earth, Air, Fire, Water, Light, Shadow, and Magic, although the ' Magic ' dwarf is essentially a spirit that just inhabits Snow and enhances her power rather than appearing on its own, with the others appearing in some form to represent their element. Although powerful fighters that will serve Snow loyally, the consequences of summoning them is that Snow must ' pay ' the spirits with seven years of her life, with the result that she appears to be in her mid-thirties when she is really only in her early twenties. As a result, she has only summoned the dwarves twice, initially calling on their aid to help her defeat her mother before the series began, and summoning them again to help her and her allies defeat her mother 's spirit in the first book in the series (she contemplated summoning them against to deal with the ruthless Wild Hunt in Red Riding 's Revenge, but was advised against it as the spiritual nature of the hunt meant that nobody could be sure if the dwarves could do anything against them).
In Snow White and the Huntsman, the Seven Dwarfs started out as eight dwarfs when they are encountered by Snow White and Eric the Huntsman while fleeing Queen Ravenna. The Seven Dwarfs are:
The Dwarfs were played by actors without dwarfism who had their faces digitally transmuted onto small bodies, prompting a protest from the Little People of America.
In Once Upon a Time, the Seven Dwarfs (who started out as eight) are on the side of Snow White and go by their Disney names.
There were some other dwarfs that were associated with the Seven Dwarfs:
In the first episode of the final series of The Goodies (which was filmed at ITV), The Goodies did a story set in a fairy tale world. Where they replaced three of the seven dwarfs (two of them died of exposure and another one was eaten by a gold fish). But they are later found out because of their height. The dwarfs take their names from the Disney movie (Sleepy, Happy, and Grumpy) while Graeme and Bill renamed themselves to fit in (Soppy and Gwotty). Only Tim kept his name.
In the American cartoon RWBY, the Seven Dwarfs are represented by Klein Sieben (translated as "Little Seven ''). Seiben, voiced by J. Michael Tatum, possesses the ability to alter his eye color and personality at will; each personality resembles the personality of one of the Seven Dwarfs. Seiben serves as the butler of a large estate belonging to Jacques Schnee, CEO of the Schnee Dust Company in the kingdom of Atlas. Seiben 's loyalty, however, lies with Jacques 's daughter Weiss, whose likeness is based on Snow White herself.
|
what is the correct html syntax for creating a hyperlink | Hyperlink - Wikipedia
In computing, a hyperlink, or simply a link, is a reference to data that the reader can directly follow either by clicking, tapping, or hovering. A hyperlink points to a whole document or to a specific element within a document. Hypertext is text with hyperlinks. The text that is linked from is called anchor text. A software system that is used for viewing and creating hypertext is a hypertext system, and to create a hyperlink is to hyperlink (or simply to link). A user following hyperlinks is said to navigate or browse the hypertext.
The document containing a hyperlink is known as its source document. For example, in an online reference work such as Wikipedia, many words and terms in the text are hyperlinked to definitions of those terms. Hyperlinks are often used to implement reference mechanisms such as tables of contents, footnotes, bibliographies, indexes, letters and glossaries.
In some hypertext hyperlinks can be bidirectional: they can be followed in two directions, so both ends act as anchors and as targets. More complex arrangements exist, such as many - to - many links.
The effect of following a hyperlink may vary with the hypertext system and may sometimes depend on the link itself; for instance, on the World Wide Web most hyperlinks cause the target document to replace the document being displayed, but some are marked to cause the target document to open in a new window. Another possibility is transclusion, for which the link target is a document fragment that replaces the link anchor within the source document. Not only persons browsing the document follow hyperlinks; they may also be followed automatically by programs. A program that traverses the hypertext, following each hyperlink and gathering all the retrieved documents is known as a Web spider or crawler.
An inline link displays remote content without the need for embedding the content. The remote content may be accessed with or without the user selecting the link.
An inline link may display a modified version of the content; for instance, instead of an image, a thumbnail, low resolution preview, cropped section, or magnified section may be shown. The full content will then usually be available on demand, as is the case with print publishing software -- e.g., with an external link. This allows for smaller file sizes and quicker response to changes when the full linked content is not needed, as is the case when rearranging a page layout.
An anchor hyperlink is a link bound to a portion of a document -- generally text, though not necessarily. For instance, it may also be a hot area in an image (image map in HTML), a designated, often irregular part of an image. One way to define it is by a list of coordinates that indicate its boundaries. For example, a political map of Africa may have each country hyperlinked to further information about that country. A separate invisible hot area interface allows for swapping skins or labels within the linked hot areas without repetitive embedding of links in the various skin elements.
Tim Berners - Lee saw the possibility of using hyperlinks to link any information to any other information over the Internet. Hyperlinks were therefore integral to the creation of the World Wide Web. Web pages are written in the hypertext mark - up language HTML.
This is what a hyperlink to the home page of the W3C organization could look like in HTML code:
This HTML code consists of several tags:
Webgraph is a graph, formed from web pages as vertices and hyperlinks, as directed edges.
The W3C Recommendation called XLink describes hyperlinks that offer a far greater degree of functionality than those offered in HTML. These extended links can be multidirectional, linking from, within, and between XML documents. It can also describe simple links, which are unidirectional and therefore offer no more functionality than hyperlinks in HTML.
While wikis may use HTML - type hyperlinks, the use of wiki markup, a set of lightweight markup languages specifically for wikis, provides simplified syntax for linking pages within wiki environments -- in other words, for creating wikilinks.
The syntax and appearance of wikilinks may vary. Ward Cunningham 's original wiki software, the WikiWikiWeb used CamelCase for this purpose. CamelCase was also used in the early version of Wikipedia and is still used in some wikis, such as TiddlyWiki, Trac, and PMWiki. A common markup syntax is the use of double square brackets around the term to be wikilinked. For example, the input "((zebras)) '' will be converted by wiki software using this markup syntax to a link to a zebras article. Hyperlinks used in wikis are commonly classified as follows:
Wikilinks are visibly distinct from other text, and if an internal wikilink leads to a page that does not yet exist, it usually has a different specific visual appearance. For example, in Wikipedia wikilinks are displayed in blue, except those which link to pages which do not yet exist, which are instead shown in red. Another possibility for linking is to display a highlighted clickable question mark after the wikilinked term.
Hyperlinks are being implemented in various 3D virtual world networks, including those which utilize the OpenSimulator and Open Cobalt platforms.
Hyperlinks are used in the Gopher protocol, text editors, PDF documents, help systems such as Windows Help, word processing documents, spreadsheets, Apple 's HyperCard and many other places.
A link from one domain to another is said to be outbound from its source anchor and inbound to its target.
The most common destination anchor is a URL used in the World Wide Web. This can refer to a document, e.g. a webpage, or other resource, or to a position in a webpage. The latter is achieved by means of an HTML element with a "name '' or "id '' attribute at that position of the HTML document. The URL of the position is the URL of the webpage with a fragment identifier -- "# id attribute '' -- appended.
When linking to PDF documents from an HTML page the "id attribute '' can be replaced with syntax that references a page number or another element of the PDF, for example, "# page = 386 ''.
A web browser usually displays a hyperlink in some distinguishing way, e.g. in a different color, font or style. The behavior and style of links can be specified using the Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) language.
In a graphical user interface, the appearance of a mouse cursor may change into a hand motif to indicate a link. In most graphical web browsers, links are displayed in underlined blue text when they have not been visited, but underlined purple text when they have. When the user activates the link (e.g. by clicking on it with the mouse) the browser will display the target of the link. If the target is not an HTML file, depending on the file type and on the browser and its plugins, another program may be activated to open the file.
The HTML code contains some or all of the five main characteristics of a link:
It uses the HTML element "a '' with the attribute "href '' (HREF is an abbreviation for "Hypertext REFerence '') and optionally also the attributes "title '', "target '', and "class '' or "id '':
To embed a link into a web page, blogpost, or comment, it may take this form:
In a typical web browser, this would display as the underlined word "Example '' in blue, which when clicked would take the user to the example.com website. This contributes to a clean, easy to read text or document.
When the cursor hovers over a link, depending on the browser and graphical user interface, some informative text about the link can be shown, popping up, not in a regular window, but in a special hover box, which disappears when the cursor is moved away (sometimes it disappears anyway after a few seconds, and reappears when the cursor is moved away and back). Mozilla Firefox, IE, Opera, and many other web browsers all show the URL. In addition, the URL is commonly shown in the status bar.
Normally, a link will open in the current frame or window, but sites that use frames and multiple windows for navigation can add a special "target '' attribute to specify where the link will be loaded. If no window exists with that name, a new window will be created with the ID, which can be used to refer to the window later in the browsing session.
Creation of new windows is probably the most common use of the "target '' attribute. In order to prevent accidental reuse of a window, the special window names "_blank '' and "_new '' are usually available, and will always cause a new window to be created. It is especially common to see this type of link when one large website links to an external page. The intention in that case is to ensure that the person browsing is aware that there is no endorsement of the site being linked to by the site that was linked from. However, the attribute is sometimes overused and can sometimes cause many windows to be created even while browsing a single site.
Another special page name is "_top '', which causes any frames in the current window to be cleared away so that browsing can continue in the full window.
The term "hyperlink '' was coined in 1965 (or possibly 1964) by Ted Nelson at the start of Project Xanadu. Nelson had been inspired by "As We May Think '', a popular 1945 essay by Vannevar Bush. In the essay, Bush described a microfilm - based machine (the Memex) in which one could link any two pages of information into a "trail '' of related information, and then scroll back and forth among pages in a trail as if they were on a single microfilm reel.
In a series of books and articles published from 1964 through 1980, Nelson transposed Bush 's concept of automated cross-referencing into the computer context, made it applicable to specific text strings rather than whole pages, generalized it from a local desk - sized machine to a theoretical proprietary worldwide computer network, and advocated the creation of such a network. Though Nelson 's Xanadu Corporation was eventually funded by Autodesk in the 1980s, it never created this proprietary public - access network. Meanwhile, working independently, a team led by Douglas Engelbart (with Jeff Rulifson as chief programmer) was the first to implement the hyperlink concept for scrolling within a single document (1966), and soon after for connecting between paragraphs within separate documents (1968), with NLS. Ben Shneiderman working with graduate student Dan Ostroff designed and implemented the highlighted link in the HyperTIES system in 1983. HyperTIES was used to produce the world 's first electronic journal, the July 1988 Communications of ACM, which was cited as the source for the link concept in Tim Berners - Lee 's Spring 1989 manifesto for the Web. In 1988, Ben Shneiderman and Greg Kearsley used HyperTIES to publish "Hypertext Hands - On! '', the world 's first electronic book.
A database program HyperCard was released in 1987 for the Apple Macintosh that allowed hyperlinking between various pages within a document. In 1990, Windows Help, which was introduced with Microsoft Windows 3.0, had widespread use of hyperlinks to link different pages in a single help file together; in addition, it had a visually different kind of hyperlink that caused a popup help message to appear when clicked, usually to give definitions of terms introduced on the help page. The first widely used open protocol that included hyperlinks from any Internet site to any other Internet site was the Gopher protocol from 1991. It was soon eclipsed by HTML after the 1993 release of the Mosaic browser (which could handle Gopher links as well as HTML links). HTML 's advantage was the ability to mix graphics, text, and hyperlinks, unlike Gopher, which just had menu - structured text and hyperlinks.
While hyperlinking among webpages is an intrinsic feature of the web, some websites object to being linked by other websites; some have claimed that linking to them is not allowed without permission.
Contentious in particular are deep links, which do not point to a site 's home page or other entry point designated by the site owner, but to content elsewhere, allowing the user to bypass the site 's own designated flow, and inline links, which incorporate the content in question into the pages of the linking site, making it seem part of the linking site 's own content unless an explicit attribution is added.
In certain jurisdictions it is or has been held that hyperlinks are not merely references or citations, but are devices for copying web pages. In the Netherlands, Karin Spaink was initially convicted in this way of copyright infringement by linking, although this ruling was overturned in 2003. The courts that advocate this view see the mere publication of a hyperlink that connects to illegal material to be an illegal act in itself, regardless of whether referencing illegal material is illegal. In 2004, Josephine Ho was acquitted of ' hyperlinks that corrupt traditional values ' in Taiwan.
In 2000, British Telecom sued Prodigy, claiming that Prodigy infringed its patent (U.S. Patent 4,873,662) on web hyperlinks. After litigation, a court found for Prodigy, ruling that British Telecom 's patent did not cover web hyperlinks.
In United States jurisprudence, there is a distinction between the mere act of linking to someone else 's website, and linking to content that is illegal (e.g., gambling illegal in the US) or infringing (e.g., illegal MP3 copies). Several courts have found that merely linking to someone else 's website, even if by bypassing commercial advertising, is not copyright or trademark infringement, regardless of how much someone else might object. Linking to illegal or infringing content can be sufficiently problematic to give rise to legal liability. Compare For a summary of the current status of US copyright law as to hyperlinking, see the discussion regarding the Arriba Soft and Perfect 10 cases.
Somewhat controversially, Vuestar Technologies has tried to enforce patents applied for by its owner, Ronald Neville Langford, around the world relating to search techniques using hyperlinked images to other websites or web pages.
|
what phone did tony stark used in iron man | LG VX9400 - wikipedia
The LG VX9400 is a mobile phone manufactured by LG Electronics. This CDMA phone is supplied by Verizon Wireless in the United States. It was one of the first two phones on the market to support live mobile TV broadcasts using Qualcomm 's MediaFLO technology. (Samsung 's SCH - U620 was the other.) The unique design of the QVGA display allows it to swing up into landscape orientation for TV viewing. Other key features of the VX9400 includes stereo Bluetooth, a Secure Digital memory card slot, digital music player, EVDO high - speed data connectivity, and speakerphone.
This phone was also featured in the movie Iron Man as the phone Tony Stark used to communicate to Obediah the successful presentation of Stark Industries Jericho missile. And in the movie Picture This starring Ashley Tisdale.
The phone is compatible with BitPim 1.0 and later to upload ringtones, transfer wallpapers and pictures, and to back up SMS messages, the phone book / contact list and the calendar. The current available software version is v03 and should be updated at your local Verizon store.
As with Verizon Wireless 's EVDO coverage, MediaFLO TV is not available in all areas.
Also, the phone does have individual contact ringtones for text messages.
|
where did the use of the dove as a peace symbol come from | Peace symbols - wikipedia
A number of peace symbols have been used many ways in various cultures and contexts. The dove and olive branch was used symbolically by early Christians and then eventually became a secular peace symbol, popularized by Pablo Picasso after World War II. In the 1950s the "peace sign '', as it is known today, was designed by Gerald Holtom as the logo for the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, a group at the forefront of the peace movement in the UK, and adopted by anti-war and counterculture activists in the US and elsewhere. The V hand signal and the peace flag also became international peace symbols.
The use of the olive branch as a symbol of peace in Western civilization dates at least to 5th century BC Greece. The olive branch, which the Greeks believed represented plenty and drove away evil spirits, was one of the attributes of Eirene, the Greek goddess of peace. Eirene (whom the Romans called Pax), appeared on Roman Imperial coins with an olive branch.
The Roman poet Virgil (70 -- 10 BC) associated "the plump olive '' with Pax and he used the olive branch as a symbol of peace in his Aeneid:
High on the stern Aeneas his stand, And held a branch of olive in his hand, While thus he spoke: "The Phrygians ' arms you see, Expelled from Troy, provoked in Italy By Latian foes, with war unjustly made; At first affianced, and at last betrayed. This message bear: The Trojans and their chief Bring holy peace, and beg the king 's relief. ''
The Romans believed there was an intimate relationship between war and peace. Mars, the god of war, had another aspect, Mars Pacifer, Mars the bringer of Peace, who is shown on coins of the later Roman Empire bearing an olive branch. Appian describes the use of the olive - branch as a gesture of peace by the enemies of the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus in the Numantine War and by Hasdrubal of Carthage.
Poets of the 17th century associated the olive branch with peace. A Charles I gold coin of 1644 shows the monarch with sword and olive branch. Throughout the 18th century, English coins show Britannia with a spear and olive branch.
The Old Royal Naval College, Greenwich, contains an allegorical painting by James Thornhill, Peace and Liberty Triumphing Over Tyranny (1708 -- 1716), depicting King William III and Queen Mary (who had enacted the English Bill of Rights) enthroned in heaven with the Virtues behind them. Peace, with her doves and lambs, hands an olive branch to William, who in turn hands the cap of liberty to Europe, where absolute monarchy prevails. Below William is the defeated French king, Louis XIV.
In January 1775, the frontispiece of the London Magazine published an engraving of Peace descending on a cloud from the Temple of Commerce, bringing an olive branch to America and Britannia. In July that year, the American Continental Congress adopted the "Olive Branch Petition '' in the hope of avoiding a full - blown war with Great Britain.
On the Great Seal of the United States (1782), the olive branch denotes peace, as explained by Charles Thomson, Secretary to Congress: "The Olive branch and arrows denote the power of peace & war which is exclusively vested in Congress. ''
The use of a dove as a symbol of peace originated with early Christians, who portrayed baptism accompanied by a dove, often on their sepulchres.
The New Testament compared the dove to the Spirit of God that descended on Jesus during his baptism. Christians saw similarities between baptism and Noah 's Flood. The First Epistle of Peter (composed around the end of the first century AD) said that the Flood, which brought salvation through water, prefigured baptism. Tertullian (c. 160 -- c. 220) compared the dove, who "announced to the world the assuagement of divine wrath, when she had been sent out of the ark and returned with the olive branch '', to the Holy Spirit who descends in baptism in the form of a dove that brings the peace of God, sent out from the heavens ".
At first the dove represented the subjective personal experience of peace, the peace of the soul, and in the earliest Christian art it accompanies baptism. By the end of the second century (for example in the writing of Tertullian) it also represented social and political peace, "peace unto the nations '', and from the third century it began to appear in depictions of conflict, such as Noah and the Ark, Daniel and the lions, the three young men in the furnace, and Susannah and the Elders.
The dove appears in Christian inscriptions in the Roman catacombs, sometimes accompanied by the words in pace (Latin for "in peace ''). For example, in the Catacomb of Callixtus, a dove and branch are drawn next to a Latin inscription NICELLA VIRCO DEI OVE VI XIT ANNOS PM XXXV DE POSITA XV KAL MAIAS BENE MERENTI IN PACE, meaning "Nicella, God 's virgin, who lived for more or less 35 years. She was placed (here) 15 days before the Kalends of May (17 April). For the well deserving one in peace. '' In another example, a shallow relief sculpture shows a dove with a branch flying to a figure marked in Greek as ΕΙΡΗΝΗ (Eirene, or Peace). The symbol has also been found in the Christian catacombs of Sousse, Tunisia (ancient Carthage), which date from the end of the first century AD.
The Christian symbolism of the olive branch, invariably carried by the dove, derives from Greek usage and the story of Noah in the Hebrew Bible. The story of Noah ends with a dove bringing a freshly plucked olive leaf (Hebrew: עלה זית alay zayit), a sign of life after the Flood and of God 's bringing Noah, his family and the animals to land. Rabbinic literature interpreted the olive leaf as "the young shoots of the Land of Israel '' or the dove 's preference for bitter food in God 's service, rather than sweet food in the service of men. and neither represented peace in Jewish thought, but the dove and olive branch acquired that meaning in Christianity.
Before the Peace of Constantine (313 AD), in which Rome ceased its persecution of Christians following Constantine 's conversion, Noah was normally shown in an attitude of prayer, a dove flying toward him or alighting on his outstretched hand. According to Graydon Snyder, "The Noah story afforded the early Christian community an opportunity to express piety and peace in a vessel that withstood the threatening environment '' of Roman persecution. According to Ludwig Budde and Pierre Prigent, the dove referred to the descending of the Holy Spirit rather than the peace associated with Noah. After the Peace of Constantine, when persecution ceased, Noah appeared less frequently in Christian art.
In the fourth century, St. Jerome 's Latin Bible rendered the Hebrew Bible 's "olive leaf '' in Noah as "olive branch '' (Latin: ramum olivae), possibly reflecting the Christian equivalence between the peace brought by baptism and peace brought by the ending of the Flood. By the fifth century, St Augustine confirmed the Christian adoption of the olive branch as a symbol of peace, writing that, "perpetual peace is indicated by the olive branch (Latin: oleae ramusculo) that the dove brought with it when it returned to the ark. ''
Medieval illuminated manuscripts, such as the Holkham Bible, showed the dove returning to Noah with a branch. Wycliffe 's Bible, which translated the Vulgate into English in the 14th century, uses "a braunche of olyue tre with greene leeuys '' ("a branch of olive tree with green leaves '') in Gen. 8: 11. In the Middle Ages, some Jewish manuscripts, which were often illustrated by Christians, also showed Noah 's dove with an olive branch, for example, the Golden Haggadah (about 1420).
English Bibles from the 17th - century King James Bible onwards, which translated the story of Noah direct from Hebrew, render the Hebrew ' aleh zayit as "olive leaf '' rather than "olive branch '', but by this time the association of the dove with an olive branch as a symbol of peace in the story of Noah was firmly established.
The broken rifle symbol is used by War Resisters ' International (WRI) and its affiliates but predates the foundation of WRI in 1921. The first known example of the symbol is in the masthead of the January 1909 issue of De Wapens Neder (Down with Weapons), the monthly paper of the International Antimilitarist Union in the Netherlands. In 1915 it appeared on the cover of a pamphlet, Under det brukne Gevær (Under the Broken Rifle), published by the Norwegian Social Democratic Youth Association. The (German) League for War Victims, founded in 1917, used the broken rifle on a 1919 banner.
In 1921, Belgian workers marching through La Louvrière on 16 October 1921, carried flags showing a soldier breaking his rifle. Ernst Friedrich, a German who had refused military service, founded the Anti-Kriegs Museum in Berlin, which featured a bas - relief broken rifle over the door. The Museum distributed broken - rifle badges, girls ' and women 's brooches, boys ' belt buckles, and men 's tie pins.
In 1933, during a period in which there was widespread fear of war in Europe, the Women 's Co-operative Guild began the practice of distributing white poppies as an alternative to the red poppies distributed by the Royal British Legion in commemoration of servicemen who died in the First World War. In 1934 the newly formed Peace Pledge Union (PPU), which was the largest British peace organization in the inter-war years, joined in distributing white poppies and laying white poppy wreaths "as a pledge to peace that war must not happen again ''. In 1980, the PPU revived the symbol as a way of remembering the victims of war without glorifying militarism.
Nicholas Roerich (1874 -- 1947), a Russian artist, cultural activist, and philosopher, founded a movement to protect cultural artifacts. Its symbol was a maroon - on - white emblem consisting of three solid circles in a surrounding circle. It has also been used as a peace banner. In 1935 a pact initiated by Roerich was signed by the United States and Latin American nations, agreeing that "historic monuments, museums, scientific, artistic, educational and cultural institutions '' should be protected both in times of peace and war.
According to the Roerich Museum,
The Banner of Peace symbol has ancient origins. Perhaps its earliest known example appears on Stone Age amulets: three dots, without the enclosing circle. Roerich came across numerous later examples in various parts of the world, and knew that it represented a deep and sophisticated understanding of the triune nature of existence. But for the purposes of the Banner and the Pact, Roerich described the circle as representing the totality of culture, with the three dots being Art, Science, and Religion, three of the most embracing of human cultural activities. He also described the circle as representing the eternity of time, encompassing the past, present, and future. The sacred origins of the symbol, as an illustration of the trinities fundamental to all religions, remain central to the meaning of the Pact and the Banner today.
The internationally recognized peace symbol -- variously known as the nuclear disarmament symbol, the CND symbol and the peace sign -- was designed for the British nuclear disarmament movement by Gerald Holtom. Holtom, an artist and designer, presented it to the Direct Action Committee on 21 February 1958 where it was "immediately accepted '' as a symbol for a march from Trafalgar Square, London, to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston in Berkshire on 4 April. Holtom 's design was adapted by Eric Austen (1922 -- 1999) to ceramic lapel badges. The original design is in the Peace Museum in Bradford, England.
The symbol is a combination of the semaphore signals for the letters "N '' and "D '', standing for "nuclear disarmament ''. In semaphore the letter "N '' is formed by a person holding two flags in an inverted "V '', and the letter "D '' is formed by holding one flag pointed straight up and the other pointed straight down. Superimposing these two signs forms the shape of the centre of the peace symbol.
Holtom later wrote to Hugh Brock, editor of Peace News, explaining the genesis of his idea:
I was in despair. Deep despair. I drew myself: the representative of an individual in despair, with hands palm outstretched outwards and downwards in the manner of Goya 's peasant before the firing squad. I formalised the drawing into a line and put a circle round it.
Ken Kolsbun, a correspondent of Holtom 's, says that the designer came to regret the symbolism of despair, as he felt that peace was something to be celebrated and wanted the symbol to be inverted. Eric Austen is said to have "discovered that the ' gesture of despair ' motif had long been associated with ' the death of man ', and the circle with ' the unborn child ' ''.
The symbol became the badge of CND, and wearing it became a sign of support for the campaign urging British unilateral nuclear disarmament. An account of CND 's early history described the image as "a visual adhesive to bind the (Aldermaston) March and later the whole Campaign together... probably the most powerful, memorable and adaptable image ever designed for a secular cause ''.
Not copyrighted, trademarked or restricted, the symbol spread beyond CND and was adopted by the wider disarmament and anti-war movements. It became widely known in the United States in 1958 when Albert Bigelow, a pacifist protester, sailed a small boat fitted with the CND banner into the vicinity of a nuclear test. Buttons with the symbol were imported into the United States in 1960 by Philip Altbach, a freshman at the University of Chicago. Altbach had traveled to England to meet with British peace groups as a delegate from the Student Peace Union (SPU) and, on his return, he persuaded the SPU to adopt the symbol. Between 1960 and 1964, they sold thousands of the buttons on college campuses. By the end of the decade, the symbol had been adopted as a generic peace sign, crossing national and cultural boundaries in Europe and other regions.
In 1970, two US private companies tried to register the peace symbol as a trade mark: the Intercontinental Shoe Corporation of New York and Luv, Inc. of Miami. Commissioner of Patents William E. Schuyler Jr, said that the symbol "could not properly function as a trade mark subject to registration by the Patent Office ''.
Between 1968 and 1971, the John Birch Society circulated rumours about the origin and meaning of the symbol, claiming it was a sign of the devil and a Nazi "rune ''. In 1971, Peggy Duff, who had been the general secretary of CND, re-affirmed Eric Austen 's explanation of the symbol, saying that the inside was a "runic symbol for death of man '' and the circle the "symbol for the unborn child ''.
In 1973, the South African government tried to ban its use by opponents of apartheid.
It can be formed as U + 262E ☮ Peace symbol in Unicode.
The international peace flag in the colours of the rainbow was first used in Italy on a 1961 peace march from Perugia to Assisi organised by the pacifist and social philosopher Aldo Capitini (1899 -- 1968). Inspired by the peace flags used on British peace marches, Capitini got some women of Perugia hurriedly to sew together coloured strips of material. The march has been repeated many times since 1961, the most recent in 2010. The original flag was kept by Capitini 's collaborator, Lanfranco Mencaroni, at Collevalenza, near Todi. In 2011, plans were announced to transfer it to the Palazzo dei Priori in Perugia.
The flag commonly has seven rainbow - colored stripes with the word "Peace '' in the center. It has been explained as follows:
In the account of the Great Flood, God set the rainbow to a seal the alliance with man and nature, promising that there will never be another Flood. The rainbow thus became a symbol of Peace across the earth and the sky, and, by extension, among all men.
The flag usually has the colours violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red from top to bottom, but some have the violet stripe below the blue one (as in the picture at the right) or a white one at the top. A picture of Capitini 's first peace flag, carried by Anna Capitini and Silvana Mencaroni, shows the colours red, orange, white, green, violet, indigo, and lavender.
In 2002, renewed display of the flag was widespread with the Pace da tutti i balconi ("Peace from every balcony '') campaign, a protest against the impending war in Iraq planned by the United States and its allies. In 2003, the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera reported leading advertising executives saying that the peace flag had become more popular than the Italian national flag. In November 2009, a huge peace flag, 21m wide by 40m long, was made in Lecce, Salento, by young members of "GPACE -- Youth for Peace -- Give Peace a Chance Everywhere ''.
The V sign (U + 270C ✌ Victory hand in Unicode) is a hand gesture, palm outwards, with the index and middle fingers open and all others closed. It had been used to represent victory during the Second World War. During the 1960s in the USA, activists against the Vietnam War and in subsequent anti-war protests adopted the gesture as a sign of peace.
The crane, a traditional symbol of luck in Japan, was popularized as a peace symbol by the story of Sadako Sasaki (1943 -- 1955), a girl who died as a result of the atomic bomb exploded over Hiroshima in 1945. According to the story, popularized through the book Sadako and the Thousand Paper Cranes, in her last illness she started folding paper cranes, inspired by the Japanese saying that one who folded a thousand origami cranes was granted a wish. This made an impression in people 's minds. As a result, she is remembered on every 6 August, which is an annual peace day for people all over Japan.
The Japanese Peace Bell is a United Nations peace symbol.
A wordmark of the three words, Hebrew word "shalom '' (Hebrew: שָׁלוֹם ), together with the Arabic "salaam '' (Arabic: سلام ) and the English word "peace '' has been used as a peace symbol in the Middle East. Shalom and salaam mean "peace '' and are cognates of each other, derived from the Semitic triconsonantal of S-L-M (realized in Hebrew as Š - L-M and in Arabic as S-L-M). The symbol has come to represent peace in the Middle East and an end to the Arab -- Israeli conflict. Wall plaques, signs, T - shirts, and buttons are sold with only those words. (See Gallery, and see also Vulcan salute.)
|
where is the poison located in a puffer fish | Tetraodontidae - wikipedia
See text
The Tetraodontidae are a family of primarily marine and estuarine fish of the order Tetraodontiformes. The family includes many familiar species which are variously called pufferfish, puffers, balloonfish, blowfish, blowies, bubblefish, globefish, swellfish, toadfish, toadies, honey toads, sugar toads, and sea squab. They are morphologically similar to the closely related porcupinefish, which have large external spines (unlike the thinner, hidden spines of the Tetraodontidae, which are only visible when the fish has puffed up). The scientific name refers to the four large teeth, fused into an upper and lower plate, which are used for crushing the shells of crustaceans and mollusks, their natural prey.
The majority of pufferfish species are toxic and some are among the most poisonous vertebrates in the world. In certain species, the internal organs, such as liver, and sometimes their skin, contain tetrodotoxin and are highly toxic to most animals when eaten; nevertheless, the meat of some species is considered a delicacy in Japan (as 河豚, pronounced as fugu), Korea (as 복 bok or 복어 bogeo), and China (as 河豚 hétún) when prepared by specially trained chefs who know which part is safe to eat and in what quantity. Other pufferfish species with nontoxic flesh, such as the northern puffer, Sphoeroides maculatus, of Chesapeake Bay, are considered a delicacy elsewhere.
Torquigener albomaculosus species was called by David Attenborough "the greatest artist of the animal kingdom '' due to its ability to create the most complex and visually appealing structures in the sand ever authored by animal.
The Tetraodontidae contain at least 191 species of puffers in 29 genera:
Arothron stellatus
Canthigaster valentini
Carinotetraodon irrubesco
Colomesus asellus
Ephippion guttifer
Lagocephalus lagocephalus
Omegophora cyanopunctata
Sphoeroides spengleri
Takifugu rubripes
Tetractenos glaber
Tetraodon mbu
They are typically small to medium in size, although a few species can reach lengths of greater than 100 cm (39 in).
They are most diverse in the tropics, relatively uncommon in the temperate zone, and completely absent from cold waters.
Most pufferfish species live in marine or brackish waters, but some can enter fresh water. About 35 species spend their entire lifecycles in fresh water. These fresh water species are found in disjunct tropical regions of South America (Colomesus asellus), Africa (six Tetraodon species) and Southeast Asia (Auriglobus, Carinotetraodon, Dichotomyctere, Leiodon and Pao).
The puffer 's unique and distinctive natural defenses help compensate for its slow locomotion. It moves by combining pectoral, dorsal, anal, and caudal fins. This makes it highly maneuverable, but very slow, and therefore a comparatively easy predation target. Its tail fin is mainly used as a rudder, but it can be used for a sudden evasive burst of speed that shows none of the care and precision of its usual movements. The puffer 's excellent eyesight, combined with this speed burst, is the first and most important defense against predators.
The pufferfish 's secondary defense mechanism, used if successfully pursued, is to fill its extremely elastic stomach with water (or air when outside the water) until it is much larger and almost spherical in shape. Even if they are not visible when the puffer is not inflated, all puffers have pointed spines, so a hungry predator may suddenly find itself facing an unpalatable, pointy ball rather than a slow, tasty fish. Predators which do not heed this warning (or which are "lucky '' enough to catch the puffer suddenly, before or during inflation) may die from choking, and predators that do manage to swallow the puffer may find their stomachs full of tetrodotoxin, making puffers an unpleasant, possibly lethal, choice of prey. This neurotoxin is found primarily in the ovaries and liver, although smaller amounts exist in the intestines and skin, as well as trace amounts in muscle. It does not always have a lethal effect on large predators, such as sharks, but it can kill humans.
Not all puffers are necessarily poisonous; the flesh of the northern puffer is not toxic (a level of poison can be found in its viscera) and it is considered a delicacy in North America. Takifugu oblongus, for example, is a fugu puffer that is not poisonous, and toxin level varies wildly even in fish that are. A puffer 's neurotoxin is not necessarily as toxic to other animals as it is to humans, and puffers are eaten routinely by some species of fish, such as lizardfish and tiger sharks. Also, Japanese fish farmers have grown nonpoisonous puffers by controlling their diets.
Puffers are able to move their eyes independently, and many species can change the color or intensity of their patterns in response to environmental changes. In these respects, they are somewhat similar to the terrestrial chameleon. Although most puffers are drab, many have bright colors and distinctive markings, and make no attempt to hide from predators. This is likely an example of honestly signaled aposematism.
Many marine puffers have a pelagic, or open - ocean, life stage. Spawning occurs after males slowly push females to the water surface or join females already present. The eggs are spherical and buoyant. Hatching occurs after roughly four days. The fry are tiny, but under magnification have a shape usually reminiscent of a pufferfish. They have a functional mouth and eyes, and must eat within a few days. Brackish - water puffers may breed in bays in a similar manner to marine species, or may breed more similarly to the freshwater species, in cases where they have moved far enough upriver.
Reproduction in freshwater species varies quite a bit. The dwarf puffers court with males following females, possibly displaying the crests and keels unique to this subgroup of species. After the female accepts his advances, she will lead the male into plants or another form of cover, where she can release eggs for fertilization. The male may help her by rubbing against her side. This has been observed in captivity, and they are the only commonly captive - spawned puffer species.
Target - group puffers have also been spawned in aquariums, and follow a similar courting behavior, minus the crest / keel display. However, eggs are laid on a flat piece of slate or other smooth, hard material, to which they adhere. The male will guard them until they hatch, carefully blowing water over them regularly to keep the eggs healthy. His parenting is finished when the young hatch, and the fry are on their own.
Information on breeding of specific species is very limited. T. nigroviridis, the green - spotted puffer, has recently been artificially spawned under captive conditions. It is believed to spawn in bays in a similar manner to saltwater species, as their sperm was found to be motile only at full marine salinities, but actual wild breeding has never been observed. Xenopterus naritus has been reported to be first breed artificially in Sarawak, Northwestern Borneo in June 2016, which the main purpose is for development in aquaculture of the species.
In 2012, males of the species Torquigener albomaculosus were documented carving large geometric, circular structures in the seabed sand in Amami Ōshima, Japan. The structures serve to attract females and provide a safe place for them to lay their eggs.
A pufferfish 's diet can vary depending on its environment. Traditionally, their diet consists mostly of algae and small invertebrates. They can survive on a completely vegetarian diet if their environment is lacking resources, but prefer an omnivorous food selection. Larger species of pufferfish are able to use their beak - like front teeth to break open clams, mussels, as well as other shellfish. Some species of pufferfish have also been known to enact various hunting techniques ranging from ambush to open water hunting.
White - spotted puffer
Striped puffer
Elaborate skin pattern of the giant or mbu puffer
The tetraodontids have been estimated to diverge from diodontids between 89 and 138 million years ago. The four major clades diverged during the Cretaceous between 80 and 101 million years ago. The oldest known pufferfish genus is Eotetraodon, from the Lutetian epoch of Middle Eocene Europe, with fossils found in Monte Bolca and the Caucasus Mountains. The Monte Bolca species, E. pygmaeus, coexisted with several other tetraodontiforms, including an extinct species of diodontid, primitive boxfish (Proaracana and Eolactoria), and other, totally extinct forms, such as Zignoichthys and the spinacanthids. The extinct genus, Archaeotetraodon is known from Miocene - aged fossils from Europe.
Fossil teeth of a possible tetraodontid (referred to as "Pekinosaurus hyperostosis '') have been found in the Triassic Pekin Formation of North Carolina, possibly extending their range.
Pufferfish can be lethal if not served properly. Puffer poisoning usually results from consumption of incorrectly prepared puffer soup, fugu chiri, or occasionally from raw puffer meat, sashimi fugu. While chiri is much more likely to cause death, sashimi fugu often causes intoxication, light - headedness, and numbness of the lips, and is often eaten for this reason. Pufferfish tetrodotoxin deadens the tongue and lips, and induces dizziness and vomiting, followed by numbness and prickling over the body, rapid heart rate, decreased blood pressure, and muscle paralysis. The toxin paralyzes diaphragm muscle and stops the person who has ingested it from breathing. People who live longer than 24 hours typically survive, although possibly after a coma lasting several days.
The source of tetrodotoxin in puffers has been a matter of debate, but it is increasingly accepted that bacteria in the fish 's intestinal tract are the source.
Saxitoxin, the cause of paralytic shellfish poisoning and red tide, can also be found in certain puffers.
The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources issued a warning not to eat puffer fish, locally known as butete, after local fishermen died upon consuming puffer fish for dinner. The warning indicated that puffer fish toxin is 100 times more potent than cyanide.
Pufferfish, called pakpao in Thailand, are usually consumed by mistake. They are often cheaper than other fish, and because they contain inconsistent levels of toxins between fish and season, there is little awareness or monitoring of the danger. Consumers are regularly hospitalized and some even die from the poisoning.
Cases of neurological symptoms, including numbness and tingling of the lips and mouth, have been reported to rise after the consumption of puffers caught in the area of Titusville, Florida, U.S. The symptoms generally resolve within hours to days, although one affected individual required intubation for 72 hours. As a result, Florida banned the harvesting of puffers from certain bodies of water.
Treatment consists of intestinal decontamination with gastric lavage and activated charcoal. Case reports suggest anticholinesterases such as edrophonium may be effective.
|
when was the new south african flag adopted | Flag of South Africa - Wikipedia
The flag of South Africa was adopted on 27 April 1994, at the beginning of South Africa 's 1994 general election, to replace the flag that had been used since 1928. The new national flag, designed by the then State Herald of South Africa Frederick Brownell, was chosen to represent the country 's new democracy after the end of apartheid.
The flag has horizontal bands of red (on the top) and blue (on the bottom), of equal width, separated by a central green band which splits into a horizontal "Y '' shape, the arms of which end at the corners of the hoist side (and follow the flag 's diagonals). The "Y '' embraces a black isosceles triangle from which the arms are separated by narrow yellow bands; the red and blue bands are separated from the green band and its arms by narrow white stripes. The stripes at the fly end are in the 5: 1: 3: 1: 5 ratio.
At the time of its adoption, the South African flag was the only national flag in the world to comprise six colours in its primary design and without a seal and brocade. The design and colours are a synopsis of principal elements of the country 's flag history. Individual colours, or colour combinations have different meanings for different people and therefore no universal symbolism should be attached to any of the colours.
The central design of the flag, beginning at the flagpost in a "V '' form and flowing into a single horizontal band to the outer edge of the fly, can be interpreted as the convergence of diverse elements within South African society, taking the road ahead in unity. The theme of convergence and unity ties in with the motto "Unity is Strength '' of the previous South African Coat of Arms.
The design therefore represents a converging of paths, the merging of both the past and the present.
According to the flag 's designer, the red symbolizes the blood that was shed during the various wars and conflicts in the country. It is also suggested that the blue represents the sky and the two oceans that flank the country. The green symbolizes the farms and the rich, natural environment of the country, while the yellow represents the natural resources, particularly gold. Finally, it is said that the black represents black South Africans, while the white represents the white population of the country.
The Anglo - Boer War between 1899 and 1902 ended with the Treaty of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902 and resulted in what is now South Africa falling under the British Union Flag. The former Boer Republics of the Orange Free State and the Zuid - Afrikaanse Republiek (Transvaal) became British colonies along with the existing Cape and Natal colonies. Each was also entitled to a colonial flag following in the British tradition.
On 31 May 1910 these four colonies came together to form the Union of South Africa and the individual colonial flags were no longer used and new South African flags came into being. Once again, as a British dominion the British Union Flag was to continue as the national flag and the standard British ensign pattern was used as a basis for distinctive South African flags.
As was the case throughout the British Empire, the Red and Blue Ensigns were the official flags for merchant and government vessels at sea, and the British Admiralty authorised them to be defaced in the fly with the shield from the South African coat of arms. These ensigns were not intended to be used as the Union 's national flag, although they were used by some people as such. Although these ensigns were primarily intended for maritime use, they were also flown on land.
The South Africa Red Ensign was South Africa 's de facto national flag between 1910 and 1928 and was flown at times from Government buildings.
The Blue Ensign was flown over the Union 's offices abroad between 1910 and 1928.
The design of the Red Ensign was modified slightly in 1912 when the shield was placed on a white disc so as to make it more distinguishable. The Red Ensign continued to be used as the flag of the South African merchant marine until 1951.
These flags never enjoyed much popular support due to the animosities lingering after the Anglo - Boer War. The Afrikaner descendants of the Dutch settlers from the former Boer Republics found the prominent position of the British Union Flag to be offensive while the English - speakers saw any move to remove it as an Afrikaner plot to deprive them of their imperial symbol.
Due to the lack of popularity of these flags, there were intermittent discussions about the desirability of a more distinctive national flag for South Africa after 1910, it was only after a coalition government took office in 1925 that a bill was introduced in Parliament to introduce a national flag for the Union. This provoked often violent controversy that lasted for three years based on whether the British Union Flag should be included in the new flag design or not. The Natal Province even threatened to secede from the Union should it be decided to remove it.
Finally, a compromise was reached that resulted in the adoption of a separate flag for the Union in late 1927 and the design was first hoisted on 31 May 1928. The design was based on the so - called Van Riebeeck flag or Prinsenvlag ("Prince 's Flag '' in Afrikaans) that was originally the Dutch flag; it consisted of orange, white, and blue horizontal stripes. A version of this flag had been used as the flag of the Dutch East India Company (known as the VOC) at the Cape (with the VOC logo in the centre) from 1652 until 1795. The South African addition to the design was the inclusion of three smaller flags centred in the white stripe. The miniature flags were the British Union Flag (mirrored) towards the hoist, the flag of the Orange Free State hanging vertically in the middle and the Transvaal Vierkleur towards the fly. The position of each of the miniature flags is such that each has equal status. However, to ensure that the Dutch flag in the canton of the Orange Free State flag is placed nearest to the upper hoist of the main flag, the Free State flag must be reversed. The British Union Flag, which is nearest to the hoist and is thus in a more favoured position, is spread horizontally from the Free State flag towards the hoist and is thus also reversed. Although placed horizontally furthest from the hoist, to balance the British Union Flag, the Vierkleur is the only one of the miniature flags which is spread in the same direction as the main flag. This compensates for its otherwise less favourable position. In this arrangement, each of the miniature flags enjoy equal precedence. Note that the miniature flag of the Orange Free State contains a miniature of the Dutch flag, making the South African flag the only flag in the world containing a flag in a flag in a flag.
The choice of the Prinsenvlag as the basis upon which to design the South African flag had more to do with compromise than Afrikaner political desires, as the Prinsenvlag was believed to be the first flag hoisted on South African soil by Jan van Riebeeck of the VOC and was politically neutral, as it was no longer the national flag of any nation. A further element of this compromise was that the British Union Flag would continue to fly alongside the new South African national flag over official buildings. This dual flag arrangement continued until 1957 when the British Union Flag lost its official status per an Act of Parliament.
Following a referendum the country became a republic on 31 May 1961, but the design of the flag remained unchanged. However, there was intense pressure to change the flag, particularly from Afrikaners who still resented the fact that the British Union Flag was a part of the flag. In 1968, the then Prime Minister, John Vorster, proposed the adoption of a new flag from 1971, to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the declaration of a republic but this never materialised.
The present South African national flag was first flown on 27 April 1994, the day of the 1994 election. However, the flag was first intended to be an interim flag only, and its design was decided upon only a week beforehand.
The choice of a new flag was part of the negotiation process set in motion when Nelson Mandela was released from prison in 1990. When a nationwide public competition was held in 1993, the National Symbols Commission received more than 7,000 designs. Six designs were shortlisted and presented to the public and the Negotiating Council, but none elicited enthusiastic support. A number of design studios were then contacted to submit further proposals, but these also did not find favour. Parliament went into recess at the end of 1993 without a suitable candidate for the new national flag.
In February 1994, Cyril Ramaphosa and Roelf Meyer, the chief negotiators of the African National Congress and the National Party government of the day respectively, were given the task of resolving the flag issue. A final design was adopted on 15 March 1994, derived from a design developed by the State Herald Fred Brownell, who had also previously designed the Flag of Namibia. This interim flag was hoisted for the first time on the 27 April 1994, the day when the nation 's first fully inclusive elections commenced which resulted in Nelson Mandela being inaugurated as South Africa 's first democratically elected president on 10 May 1994.
The proclamation of the new national flag by South African President F.W. de Klerk was only published on 20 April 1994, a mere seven days before the flag was to be inaugurated, sparking a frantic last - minute flurry for flag manufacturers. As stated in South Africa 's post-apartheid interim constitution, the flag was to be introduced on an interim probationary period of five years, after which there would be discussion about whether or not to change the national flag in the final draft of the constitution. The Constitutional Assembly was charged with the responsibility of drafting the country 's new constitution and had called for submissions, inter alia, on the issues of its various national symbols. It received 118 submissions recommending the retention of the new flag and 35 suggesting changes to it. Thus on 28 September 1995 it decided that the flag should be retained unchanged and accordingly it was included as Section One of the Constitution of South Africa which came into force in February 1997.
The South African government published guidelines for proper display of the flag at designated flag stations, in Government Notice 510 of 8 June 2001 (Gazette number 22356). These rules apply only to official flag stations and not to the general public.
The Southern African Vexillological Association (SAVA), a non-official association for the study of flags, published their own guide for proper display of the flag in 2002. This guide has no official authority but was drawn up with generally accepted vexillological etiquette and principles in mind.
An addendum to the Transitional Executive Council agenda (April 1994) described the flag in heraldic terms as follows:
The National flag shall be rectangular in the proportion of two in the width to three to the length; per pall from the hoist, the upper band red (chilli) and lower band blue, with a black triangle at the hoist; over the partition lines a green pall one fifth the width of the flag, fimbriated white against the red and blue, and gold against the black triangle at the hoist, and the width of the pall and its fimbriations is one third the width of the flag.
Schedule One of the Constitution of South Africa (1996) replaced the heraldic definition and described the flag in plain English as follows:
|
where does the us winter olympic team train | United States Olympic training Center - wikipedia
The United States Olympic Training Centers (OTCs) are three campuses created by the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) as training facilities for its Olympic and Paralympic athletes. They are located in Colorado Springs, Colorado; Lake Placid, New York; and Chula Vista, California. There is a U.S. Olympic Education Center in Marquette, Michigan, and other official U.S. Olympic / Paralympic training sites are located in Oklahoma City and Edmond, Oklahoma; Carson, California; Birmingham, Alabama; Charlotte, North Carolina; the Pettit National Ice Center in West Allis, Wisconsin; a USRowing training center in Princeton, New Jersey; Huntsville, Texas and the SPIRE Institute near Geneva, Ohio.
Some athletes preparing for the Olympics, Paralympics, and Pan American Games live at one of the OTCs for a period of months or years, while others visit periodically with their respective national teams for training camps, coaching (especially in sports science and sports psychology), or physical testing. Although foreign national teams are occasionally granted use of the USOTCs, they are used mainly by athletes from the United States.
The Colorado Springs OTC was the first to be built, and has been the home of the U.S. Olympic Committee since 1978. Its location on the former Ent Air Force Base was selected for its relatively high elevation, which is often thought to improve training effectiveness. Its facilities include an Olympic - size swimming pool, an indoor shooting range, the Olympic Training Center Velodrome, two sports centers housing numerous gymnasiums and weight rooms, and a sports science laboratory, in addition to an athlete center and dining hall, several dormitories, a visitors ' center, and the offices of both the USOC and U.S. Paralympics.
The Lake Placid OTC facility opened in November 1982, two years after hosting the 1980 Winter Games. The LPOTC is home to four resident sports: Bobsled / Skeleton, Luge, Freestyle Ski, and Biathlon. Athletes from boxing, canoe and kayak, judo, rowing, synchronized swimming, taekwondo, team handball, water polo and wrestling also train frequently on site.
The third OTC is in Chula Vista, which is located about 7 miles (11 km) south of the city of San Diego, is where the U.S. national rugby sevens team trains. The 150 - acre campus features sport venues and support facilities for eight Olympic sports: archery, canoe / kayak, cycling, field hockey, rowing, soccer, softball and track & field. In June 1995, the training center, then known as ARCO Training Center for sponsorship reasons, was open. Over the years more facilities, such as beach volleyball courts and a BMX track, were added. The Chula Vista OTC is also home to the annual SoCal Showdown, a national - level archery tournament that attracts archers from around the country to compete in a several day competition consisting of qualifications and eliminations.
As of January 2017, the training center is owned by the City of Chula Vista, and has been renamed Chula Vista Elite Athlete Training Center. The United States Olympic Committee will continue funding athlete programming at the center at least through 2020.
Coordinates: 38 ° 50 ′ 27 '' N 104 ° 47 ′ 47 '' W / 38.840853 ° N 104.796288 ° W / 38.840853; - 104.796288
|
which episode of american horror story is lady gaga in | American Horror Story: Hotel - wikipedia
American Horror Story: Hotel is the fifth season of the FX horror anthology television series American Horror Story. It premiered on October 7, 2015, and concluded January 13, 2016. The series was renewed in October 2014, with the subtitle Hotel being announced in February 2015. Hotel marks the first season to not feature series mainstays Jessica Lange and Frances Conroy. Returning cast from previous seasons of the series include: Evan Peters, Sarah Paulson, Denis O'Hare, Lily Rabe, Kathy Bates, Angela Bassett, Chloë Sevigny, Finn Wittrock, Wes Bentley, Gabourey Sidibe, Mare Winningham, Matt Bomer, Christine Estabrook, Matt Ross, John Carroll Lynch, and Anthony Ruivivar, along with new cast members Lady Gaga and Cheyenne Jackson. Breaking from the anthological format, like Freak Show, the season is interconnected to the first and third seasons, and features an appearance by the Murder House, its original owner Dr. Charles Montgomery (Ross), its realtor Marcy (Estabrook), and the psychic Billie Dean Howard (Paulson), as well as the appearance of the witch Queenie (Sidibe).
The plot centers around the enigmatic Hotel Cortez in Los Angeles, California, that catches the eye of an intrepid homicide detective (Bentley). The Cortez is host to the strange and bizarre, spearheaded by its owner, The Countess (Gaga), who is a bloodsucking fashionista. The hotel is loosely based on an actual hotel built in 1893 by H.H. Holmes in Chicago, Il. for the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition. It became known as the ' Murder Castle ' as it was built for Holmes to torture, murder, and dispose of evidence just as is the Cortez. This season features two murderous threats in the form of the Ten Commandments Killer, a serial offender who selects his victims in accordance with biblical teachings, and "the Addiction Demon '', who roams the hotel armed with a drill bit dildo.
According to creators Brad Falchuk and Ryan Murphy, thematically, Hotel is much darker than previous seasons. Inspiration came from old hotel horror films and actual hotels situated in downtown Los Angeles with a reputation for sinister events, including the Cecil. The cycle also marks a return to filming in Los Angeles, where the first two seasons were shot. Hotel features one of the most expansive sets in American Horror Story history, with production designer Mark Worthington building two stories on a soundstage, along with a working elevator and stairway. In July 2015, FX launched a marketing campaign for the series, with most trailers and teasers touting Gaga 's involvement.
Although Hotel was originally reported to consist of thirteen episodes (à la Asylum, Coven, and Freak Show), that number was later revised to twelve (à la Murder House). The season garnered a total of eight Emmy Award nominations, including two acting nominations for Paulson and Bates. It was the first time, however, that a season of American Horror Story was not nominated for Outstanding Limited Series. In addition, Gaga won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Mini-Series or Television Film while Hotel received a nomination for Best Mini-Series or Television Film.
The fifth season of American Horror Story focuses on the Downtown Los Angeles Hotel Cortez which has been recently purchased by a New York fashion designer, Will Drake (Cheyenne Jackson). The 90 year old hotel is haunted by demons and mysterious ghosts including the founder, James Patrick March (Evan Peters); heroin junkie Sally (Sarah Paulson); and the strap - on - wielding Addiction Demon. Staff and residents of the hotel include the 111 - year - old "vampire '', Elizabeth / The Countess (Lady Gaga), and her longtime paramour, the former drug - addict Donovan (Matt Bomer), as well as Donovan 's mother, the manager and front desk clerk Iris (Kathy Bates); the eccentric transgender bartender Liz Taylor (Denis O'Hare); and the Countess ' vengeance - obsessed lover, Ramona Royale (Angela Bassett).
As the season unfolds, the information and backstory of each character is revealed. Elizabeth was married to James March and had an illegal abortion at the Murder House (of AHS Season One) back in 1926. Ramona was a Hollywood actress who had a romantic past with Elizabeth, before the latter killed Ramona 's new boyfriend in a jealous rage. Liz was formerly known as Nick Pryor and lived in Topeka, Kansas up until 1984 when she was given a makeover and christened as Liz Taylor by Elizabeth. Sally, after supplying Donovan heroin, was shoved out a window by an angered Iris. Finally, James tortured and murdered many visitors to his hotel, which he built with a series of secret chutes and hallways used primarily for covertly disposing the bodies of his victims.
The present and past stories of the Hotel are interwoven with the present tale of Detective John Lowe (Wes Bentley), who is first drawn to the hotel by a series of murders committed by a serial killer the victims of whom each exemplify a sin in violation of one of the Ten Commandments, and his wife, Dr. Alex Lowe (Chloe Sevigny). As the season unfolds, it is revealed that certain past events -- including the earlier disappearance of Lowe 's young son Holden -- are also entangled in the stories of the Countess and the Hotel Cortez.
On October 13, 2014, FX renewed the series for a fifth season for an October 2015 premiere. Network president John Landgraf stated that the season would necessitate a "huge reinvention '' for the series. The season 's subtitle was confirmed as Hotel in February 2015. The theme and Gaga 's involvement were hinted in the previous installment as an image of a top hat, an arcane clue alluding to the 1935 screwball musical comedy film Top Hat, which is set in a hotel and features a song called "Cheek to Cheek '', also the title of Gaga 's duet album with Tony Bennett. Co-creator Ryan Murphy explained that the casting included a number of actors and singers, but would be a much darker season compared to the previous ones. Inspiration came from old hotel horror films and actual hotels situated in downtown Los Angeles, with horrific reputations. This included The Cecil, where the death of 21 - year - old Canadian student Elisa Lam occurred. Murphy had watched a surveillance video of Lam in the hotel, in which she displayed erratic behavior just hours prior to her supposed death. It was around this time that the writing for Hotel was conceptualized, which included Murphy 's personal phobia and fears, a fear that had not been explored since the first season.
The upcoming season that we 're doing is much more horror - based; it 's much more dark. It 's about a theme and an idea that 's very close to my heart that I 've always wanted to do that 's a little bloodier and grislier, I think, than anything that we 've done before; it 's straight horror this year. Murder House, I thought, was a very primal season because everybody 's great fear is about the bogeyman under the bed in their house, and this feels similar to me in that when you check into a hotel, there are certain things beyond your control... Other people have the keys to your room; they can come in there. You 're not exactly safe, it 's a very unsettling idea.
Murphy and some of the cast appeared at the 2015 Comic - Con International and revealed further information about the series. "(Angela Bassett, Kathy Bates, Matt Bomer, Sarah Paulson and Evan Peters) are bad boys and girls this time. '' Regarding the season having no primary character, Murphy confessed that "the thing that 's different about the season is that before we 've always been very driven by the Jessica Lange character. She was always the lead character... This year, it 's a true ensemble and I think we have more male parts and more male stories. The Wes Bentley part is really big, the Matt Bomer part is really big; Evan Peters and Finn Wittrock are really big. (But) that 's not to say that the women are n't either. ''
Co-creator Brad Falchuk explained that like the first and second season of the series, Hotel would explore the "trapped '' horror trope, though the actions would not be limited to just within the premises. "This season, the horror is sneaking out of the hotel, '' he added explaining that the plot would revolve around the hotel in the center, with a more noir like ambience. Named as Hotel Cortez, the titular structure was built by James March in 1930, who was created as a rich and charming but deeply psychotic character. The season features two tormentors, The Ten Commandments Killer, who is inspired by biblical teachings, and The Addiction Demon, who wields a drill bit dildo. They are in the vein of previous seasons ' Bloody Face and Rubber Man, respectively. The Halloween episode, "Devil 's Night '', features a dinner with "the biggest serial killers of all time '', including Wuornos and John Wayne Gacy.
The Hotel 's two - story lobby set, along with a working elevator, was constructed over the course of seven weeks. While no particular hotel served as inspiration, production designer Mark Worthington was influenced by Timothy Pflueger and William Van Alen when selecting patterns and schemes, stating, "Tonally, I thought Art Deco would make sense for the horror genre because it can be dark and spiky and odd and the composition is strange. It 's beautiful, but it is n't necessarily inviting. '' The hotel consists of labyrinthine structures housing March 's murderous fantasies with dead ends, secret rooms and includes plot - lines corresponding to it. A painting of Hernán Cortés, after whom the establishment is named, hangs in the reception area. Worthington and his team had a hand in creating even the smallest of details; such as hotel insignias for the light fixtures, bar coasters, and a venus flytrap column carving that reflects the nature of Gaga 's character. The staircase was structured in such a way as to not pull focus from the elevator, which will serve as prime location. The exterior of the set was inspired by the James Oviatt Building in Downtown Los Angeles, while the interior decorations were modeled from the Cicada restaurant situated inside the Oviatt.
In February 2015, it was announced that American singer Lady Gaga had joined the show. Murphy stated she wanted her role in the series to be "evil ''. He also explained that Hotel would be devoid of any musical numbers. Instead Gaga 's character, Elizabeth / The Countess, is a fashion icon and owner of the Hotel Cortez. Created as a glamorous socialite character, The Countess maintains her beauty by imbibing human blood. Murphy was so pleased with Gaga 's performance that he invited her back for the yet - to - be-confirmed sixth season of the series, before Hotel had even made its debut. In March 2015, series star Jessica Lange definitively announced that she would not be returning for the fifth season. During PaleyFest 2015, it was announced that Matt Bomer and Cheyenne Jackson would co-star. Afterwards, more castings were confirmed, including Sarah Paulson, Evan Peters, Kathy Bates, and Angela Bassett. Murphy tweeted about the latter 's involvement in Hotel, including a plotline with Gaga, as a character called Ramona Royale, an actress and former lover of The Countess returning to the titular hotel for revenge. Chloë Sevigny, who was a recurring special guest in Asylum, returned to the series for Hotel, playing the wife of Wes Bentley 's character, a detective.
In May 2015, it was announced that Max Greenfield would also be joining the cast, in a role later revealed to be that of an addict. Greenfield had to dye his hair platinum blond for the role. His is intertwined to that of Sally 's (Paulson) and together with The Addiction Demon feature "the most disturbing scene '' the show had ever produced, according to Murphy. In an interview with Vanity Fair, Paulson described Sally as someone who is "selfish and greedy '', with hygiene problems. The next month, Murphy announced that Denis O'Hare would return as a cross-dressing bar worker in the hotel. He also confirmed that Finn Wittrock would return in the new role of Tristan Duffy, a male model who is involved in a love triangle with Gaga and Bomer, and later a fated love of Liz 's. Wittrock explained that the character might have similarities to his previous Freak Show character, Dandy Mott. In July 2015, Murphy stated that Coven alum Emma Roberts would return for a few episodes toward the finale, after completing filming on her Fox series, Scream Queens. Her character would be associated with James March (Peters). While promoting Queens in September 2015, Roberts spoke about her role with less certainty, but optimism, stating, "... it 's just everything you could dream of and more. Everything you could nightmare about and more. Granted, things over there are always changing, but I definitely want to go back to it. If it still stands, what Ryan told me, everyone 's in for a great shock. '' However, she later confirmed that she would be unable to return, due to her demanding feature schedule. Furthermore, she did state that Murphy and her had already discussed about a "devilish '' role for her in the forthcoming season six.
Later in July, Richard T. Jones joined the cast as Detective Hahn, a homicide detective, for an eight - episode arc. That same day, Helena Mattsson announced that she had also joined the series in an unspecified role. Series alum Lily Rabe portrayed infamous serial killer Aileen Wuornos during the Halloween installment and the finale. With her appearance in the season, Rabe is one of three cast members to appear in all five seasons (along with Paulson and Peters) of the show. Naomi Campbell was cast as a fashion editor who does not get along with Gaga 's character. In August 2015, Murphy revealed that Mädchen Amick joined the season as a "mother of a boy who becomes ill '', and shares screen time with Alex Lowe (Sevigny). Later in the month, Darren Criss was announced to guest star as a hipster that has conflicts with Iris (Bates), while Mare Winningham joined as the laundress of the Cortez, who works closely with Mr. March, in the 1920s. Christine Estabrook returned to the series as Marcy; the realtor who sold the first season 's Murder House to the Harmons. Gabourey Sidibe appeared in the eleventh episode as her Coven persona Queenie. Paulson also reprised her first season role of psychic Billie Dean Howard, appearing in the final episode of the season.
Principal photography for the season began on July 14, 2015, in Los Angeles, California, marking a return to where the series shot its first two cycles (Murder House and Asylum). According to the Los Angeles Times, creative reasons, not economic factors, was the deciding key for moving the series from Louisiana back to Los Angeles since Hotel 's story is connected to the city. Murphy revealed a six - story hotel set was being built on the Fox lot. A dummy set of the hotel was built at Comic - Con, showing an Art Deco style building from the 1920s, inspired by the old Hollywood era. Murphy announced at the TCA Summer Press Tour in August 2015 that he would be directing the season 's Halloween episode, "Devil 's Night '', marking the first time in series history that he will helm more than the premiere. He stated he would direct it "because I love the script so much, when we finished it I said, ' I ca n't give this to anybody else '. '' However, ultimately Murphy did not direct the episode. In an interview with Entertainment Tonight, Murphy spoke about Gaga 's entrance scene, confirming it to be about six minutes long and describing it as "like a silent movie with no dialogue, and lots of blood and nudity ''.
Greenfield recalled that Murphy wanted to push the limits of the scenes between him, Paulson and The Addiction Demon, while admitting that it was scary. Paulson described it as a normal day of shooting for her since she was accustomed to the theatrics surrounding the show. She added, "None of it 's crazy to me. I walk in and I 'm like ' Hello conical dildo demon person '. I do n't even think twice. '' For The Countess and Donovan, who both suffer from blood lust, Murphy was insistent on chainmail gloves being used as their weapons of choice. Costume designer Lou Eyrich created the custom gloves in the mold of armor, deriving inspiration from artist Daphne Guinness; "We wanted it to look both rock - n - roll but old at the same time. But then the nail that pops out with diamonds on the edge to slice you, '' said Eyrich.
Filming also took place at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, in front of Chris Burden 's art installation called Urban Light, where Gaga was seen in a floor length pink gown shooting scenes. Media reported that the filming involved a party scene with Gaga walking through the installation while singer Dinah Washington 's "Coquette '' played in the background. Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack spent three days on set, where he witnessed the filming of a foursome / murder scene, involving Gaga and Bomer 's characters. Murphy recounted Gaga 's day of filming stating, "You write a foursome for her and you expect a lot of questions. She never did that. She showed up and she was wearing diamond pasties, a Band - Aid on her hoo - ha, heels, and a black veil that Alexander McQueen made for her on the day before his death. '' Additional filming for the exterior shots of the Hotel Cortez took place outside the James Oviatt Building. Other locations include the lower level of the Los Angeles Theatre at 615 South Broadway, The Majestic Downtown at 650 South Spring Street acting as John Lowe 's office, the Loews Hollywood Hotel at 1755 Highland Avenue filming The Ten Commandments Killer murder scene, and Hollywood Forever Cemetery, where scenes with Gaga and Bomer were shot. Also used was the house from the first season located at 1120 Westchester Place.
O'Hare revealed that he had filmed three episodes by September 2015, with his scenes involving Bomer, Sevigny and Bates mostly. "We 're kind of doing it piecemeal. You 'll do five days on this one, three days on that one. You know, they always start out rocking. There 's no warm - up. You 're in it, '' the actor explained. He later went on to compare the aesthetic to Murder House, stating, "It feels like season 1 in many ways... and I think it 's because we 're back in LA. You ca n't help it! '' He also revealed that his character, Liz Taylor, would be wearing a dress that Lange was supposed to wear in Coven. The actor explained that for his part, he had to shave his body including his head, and wear eye make - up, since the character was inspired by actress Elizabeth Taylor 's films like BUtterfield 8 (1960) and Cleopatra (1963).
In February 2015, Gaga tweeted a link to the first promotional video for the upcoming season with the caption "Make your reservation now. # GagaAHSHotel '' announcing her presence in the season and the official title. In July 2015, a promotional trading card was unveiled by Entertainment Weekly, available at Comic - Con, where after entering the hotel set built there, one could receive the trading card with a promotional key. The first official teaser for the season was released later that month, showing Gaga 's long - nailed hand ringing the bell at the front desk. In August 2015, FX revealed the premiere date of the season along with a new teaser poster, showing an Art Deco peephole on a wooden door, beyond which an obscure image revealed a blond woman putting a body to bed. Later that month, Entertainment Weekly exclusively unveiled two teaser trailers of the season, entitled "Beauty Rest '' and "Do Not Disturb '', set to singer Heidi Feek 's cover of Elvis Presley 's 1956 single, "Heartbreak Hotel ''.
On August 26, Entertainment Weekly revealed exclusive cast photos, along with character descriptions. Gaga also took to her Twitter account to release another photo, showing her as The Countess with three cherubic blond boys, who are seemingly sucking on bottles of blood. The singer captioned the image: "We are family. Meet my magical children. HOTEL # AHS. '' Murphy released three new teasers through his Twitter account, titled "Towhead '', "Sleepwalk '', and "Jeepers Peepers '', all set to "Heartbreak Hotel ''. Jef Rouner from Houston Press complimented the teasers, describing them as "things of fleeting, awful beauty. So far I 've seen six for this season and at least one of them is creepier than every episode of Coven combined... Each one of these is usually less than 15 seconds long and they are murderously effective. I find myself wanting to watch the show again. '' On September 10, 2015, an extended teaser was released, featuring a psychedelic tour of the hotel, with cameos by most of the cast. Few days later, two more trailers were released, one showed the hand of an addict, with a keyhole in place of the needle point, while the other, titled "Above & Below '', portrays Gaga as The Countess, with several psychedelic intercuts inside a hotel, featuring Rammstein 's "Du hast ''.
American retail chain Hot Topic announced on their Instagram account that starting September 28, 2015, they will launch a clothing and apparel line based on Hotel, that will be sold in - store and online. On September 16, 2015, a featurette was released, giving more details about the season and showing some footage. An actual scene from the season, released in October 2015, showed Bentley 's character resting in the Hotel, while Greenfield 's character hiding underneath his bed. Same day the title sequence of the season was released by Murphy, consisting of the same soundtrack like previous seasons, intercut with scenes of a dirty hotel and the Ten Commandments written across a wall. Jacob Bryant from Variety was impressed with the clip, saying that "The opening credits for (American Horror Story) have always managed to be unsettling, but season five 's creepy credits might top the list. ''
American Horror Story: Hotel initially received mixed reviews from critics, but, as the season progressed, the reviews became more positive. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the season a 63 % approval rating (average episode score of 75 %) with an average rating of 6.38 / 10 based on 43 reviews. The site 's consensus reads, "Favoring garish style over effective storytelling, the fifth American Horror Story strands a talented cast at Ryan Murphy 's Hotel. '' On Metacritic, the season was given a score of 60 out of 100 based on 24 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Dan Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter gave a positive review, writing, "Early on, Hotel has n't hooked me with its storytelling, but it 's always fun to see what the series does with its repertory acting company and with new additions. Throw in the normal grotesquerie and visual panache and that should keep me going for a while, even if all of the humor appears to have been funneled into Scream Queens. '' Amber Dowling of TheWrap also gave a positive review, saying, "It 's a visual, visceral romp into what is being set up to be another haphazard foray into the world of horror, as imagined by Murphy and his writing counterpart Brad Falchuk. The show has rarely made sense in terms of story, and this is no exception. '' Willa Paskin of Slate called this season a "promising new start '', saying, "AHS: Hotel more obviously resembles the first two, better seasons of American Horror Story than it does the latter, lesser two. ''
On the other hand, Matt Zoller Seitz of New York Magazine found the season "confusing, tedious, annoyingly precious, and often ostentatiously brutal '', but also praised it for being "darkly beautiful, deeply weird, and (sometimes) exhilarating. '' Although Scott D. Pierce from The Salt Lake Tribune praised the production design and the cinematography, he said "the storytelling is derivative; the scares are non-existent; and it 's all about style without much substance. '' Mike Hale from The New York Times complained that it "suffers from the absence of Jessica Lange ''. IGN 's Matt Fowler gave a rating of 5.9 out of 10, criticizing the season as "mediocre '' and concluding "all weight and meaning is gone ''.
Gaga 's performance has received mixed reviews from critics. Matt Zoller Seitz of Vulture called Gaga "terrible here in the way that Madonna was terrible in a lot of her ' 90s films, at once too poised and too blank. '' David Weiland of San Francisco Chronicle said Gaga "makes an enormous visual impact, but the minute she opens her mouth to deliver a line, it 's obvious that acting just is n't one of her many talents. '' Ben Travers of Indiewire wrote that he "would n't go so far as to say Gaga 's talent adds much to the proceedings, but her presence -- and the manner in which its captured -- certainly does. '' On the other hand, Emily L. Stephens from The A.V. Club and Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly both gave a B - rating. Stephens praised Gaga 's first appearance as "slickly exploitative and hellishly effective '' while Jensen described her as "the show 's most potent symbol for all of its themes about our Bad Romance with fame, fortune, sex, sex, and more sex, materialism and consumerism, the denial of death and the corrupt want for cultural immortality ''. Brian Lowry of Variety praised the look of Gaga 's character as "gloriously photographed '' and felt her addition to the show was "extraordinarily well - timed ''.
In its fifth season, the series has been nominated for 64 awards, 20 of which were won.
Hotel 's premiere episode, "Checking In '', was initially watched by 5.81 million viewers. After factoring in delayed viewing, the episode rose to 9.1 million, with 6.13 million in the 18 - 49 demographic, while combined linear, nonlinear and encore viewing, it drew 12.17 million viewers through October 11. Variety stated that "Checking In '' could become FX 's most - watched telecast, with the 60 full data tabulated. Through its first four episodes, Hotel averaged at 3.7 rating in 18 - 49 adult zone and 6.9 million viewers total, which is up by 7 % and 1 % from previous installment, Freak Show, respectively, pacing ahead of the average ratings of all prior installments on a Live + 3 basis. The season finale, "Be Our Guest '', initially watched by 2.24 million viewers, more than doubled its 18 - 49 rating with three days of delayed viewing, going from 1.1 million to 2.3 million, an 109 % of increase. The episode increased 94 % in total viewers, upping to 4.3 million.
|
who plays addison montgomery on grey's anatomy | Kate Walsh (actress) - wikipedia
Kathleen Erin Walsh (born October 13, 1967) is an American actress and businesswoman. Her roles include Dr. Addison Montgomery on the ABC television dramas Grey 's Anatomy and Private Practice, Rebecca Wright on the short - lived NBC sitcom Bad Judge, and Olivia Baker on the Netflix drama series 13 Reasons Why.
Walsh was born in San Jose, California, the daughter of Angela Walsh. She grew up in a Roman Catholic household in Tucson, Arizona. Her father is Irish, being a native of Navan, County Meath, and her mother is of Italian descent.
Walsh attended Catalina Magnet High School for three years before transferring to and graduating from Rincon High School. She later studied acting at the University of Arizona and at Chicago 's Piven Theatre Workshop before moving to New York City and joining the comedy troupe, Burn Manhattan, supporting herself by waitressing.
Before modeling, Walsh worked at Burger King and Dairy Queen. She began as a model in Japan in the 1980s where she also taught English. Later she moved to Chicago and worked with the Piven Theatre Workshop. She also performed on National Public Radio in the production of the radio play Born Guilty.
After playing Cathy Buxton in the Homicide: Life on the Street episode "Stakeout '' in 1996 and Navy Lieutenant Kirstin Blair in the Law & Order episode "Navy Blues '', her first major television appearance was in 1997, when she appeared on The Drew Carey Show as Drew Carey 's love interest, Nicki Fifer. She wore a fatsuit in some episodes of the show, as the Nicki character was a formerly obese woman who lost weight and slowly started to gain it back. She went on to portray Carol Nelson in HBO 's The Mind of the Married Man television series, and played Norm Macdonald 's romantic interest in the sitcom The Norm Show. Walsh also made a guest appearance on CSI: Crime Scene Investigation as Mimosa, a transsexual. She sometimes appeared in sketches on Late Night with Conan O'Brien. She had a recurring role on Karen Sisco as Detective Marley Novak in 2003 and 2004.
In 2005, she was cast in her breakout role in the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy, as Dr. Addison Montgomery, the estranged spouse of Derek Shepherd ("Dr. McDreamy '', played by Patrick Dempsey).
It was announced in February 2007 that Walsh 's Grey 's Anatomy character would be in a spin - off of Grey 's Anatomy that began airing in September 2007. Taye Diggs, Tim Daly, Amy Brenneman, Chris Lowell, and Audra McDonald were cast in the spin - off, Private Practice. Walsh returned to Seattle Grace as a special guest star for episode thirteen in Season 4 and episodes 15 and 16 in Season 5 of Grey 's Anatomy. She also briefly returned for one episode in season 6 and two episodes in the seventh and eighth seasons.
She continued playing the character of Addison Montgomery on the fourth season of Private Practice, for which ABC ordered a full season of episodes. On January 10, 2011, ABC picked up Private Practice for the 2011 -- 2012 fall season (5th season). Walsh guest - starred in "Song Beneath The Song '', a musical episode of Grey 's Anatomy.
Beginning in September 2007, Walsh has appeared in television commercials for the 2008 Cadillac CTS. She is also the current spokeswoman for Caress ' Exotic Oil Infusions body wash. On June 12, 2012, Walsh announced that the sixth season of Private Practice would be her final season. However, she mentioned she 'd be open to reprise her role in Grey 's Anatomy for a few guest spots.
In 2013, Walsh appeared in Full Circle, a 10 - episode ensemble drama series created by Neil LaBute and airing on DirecTV 's Audience Network channel.
In 2014, Walsh had a supporting role in the first season of FX 's television series Fargo. She had a guest starring role in Hulu 's original series The Hotwives of Orlando and later starred in the NBC series Bad Judge, which aired for one season. As of 2017, Walsh starred in the 2017 Netflix drama series 13 Reasons Why as the mother of a child who committed suicide. Her performance was dubbed to be the "best work '' of her career and was met with critical acclaim.
The crime drama Normal Life marked her film debut; she played the sister of a bank robber played by Luke Perry. She portrayed a kleptomaniac in the film Peppermills. Walsh appeared in the cult movie, Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer, Part II. She had her first significant role in a major Hollywood production as Will Ferrell 's character 's wife in the family comedy, Kicking & Screaming, alongside Robert Duvall and Mike Ditka. Walsh has appeared in several other films with Ferrell, including Bewitched (with Nicole Kidman) and an "alternate film '' to Anchorman titled, Wake Up, Ron Burgundy: The Lost Movie.
In 2003, Walsh appeared in Under the Tuscan Sun, with Diane Lane and Sandra Oh. She played the partner of Sandra Oh 's character. Regarding her lesbian roles, Walsh said: "Do I give off a girl - on - girl vibe, I wonder? Or is it because I 'm tall? I guess the chicks just dig me! ''
Walsh was set to star opposite John Cusack and Samuel L. Jackson in the supernatural thriller 1408, but she had to drop out due to scheduling conflicts. Walsh starred alongside Dennis Quaid and Paul Bettany in the biblical horror film Legion, that was released on January 22, 2010. She played Charlie 's mother in The Perks of Being a Wallflower.
In May 2010, Walsh made her off - Broadway debut opposite Paul Sparks in Atlantic Theater Company 's world premiere of Stephen Belber 's Dusk Rings a Bell. The new play began previews on May 19 and opened May 27 at Atlantic Stage 2 and played through June 26. The New York Times called it "a sublime, beautifully acted drama. '' She also had a long theater career in Chicago, which included roles in Happy Birthday Wanda June, The Danube, Moon Under Miami and Troilus and Cressida. In New York, Walsh was a member of the improvisational comedy troupe Burn Manhattan and the New York City Players theater ensemble.
Walsh founded Boyfriend LLC, a beauty and lifestyle company in 2010. The company launched its first product in November 2010: a perfume called "Boyfriend ''. HSN, a leading multichannel retailer, and Walsh partnered to launch the "Boyfriend '' fragrance with live appearances by the actress / entrepreneur on HSN, November 11 and 12. Walsh 's fragrance train case, including Boyfriend eau de perfume, pulse point oil and votive candles, sold out on day one exceeding sales expectations.
Leading up to the launch of Boyfriend, Walsh released eight webimercials written and directed by the actress herself, relaying the sentiments the Boyfriend scent was developed to evoke. Launched via various social media channels, including Twitter, YouTube and select blogs, the Boyfriend webimercials have been viewed more than 200,000 times to date and were released by Walsh prior to her appearance on HSN to drive excitement and anticipation.
In April 2007, Walsh began dating 20th Century Fox executive Alex Young. Young proposed to Walsh during a trip to San Francisco, California. They married on September 1, 2007 at the Ojai Presbyterian Church in Ojai, California. On December 11, 2008, Young filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences; the official date of separation in the divorce petition was listed as November 22. On December 24, 2008, Walsh counterfiled for divorce, contesting the date of separation listed in Young 's divorce papers. The divorce was finalized on February 5, 2010.
In September 2017, Walsh revealed that she was diagnosed with a benign meningioma in 2015. She underwent surgery and had the tumor successfully removed. Walsh took a nine - month break to recover.
Since the summer of 2007, Walsh has been the spokesperson for Narcolepsy Network, working to promote national awareness of narcolepsy through infomercials and DVDs. In January 2008, Walsh participated in a video for Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama called, "Yes We Can '', produced by will.i.am of The Black Eyed Peas. She also campaigned for Obama in Arizona, Texas, Nevada, and Pennsylvania. In July 2008, Walsh was nominated as a candidate on the Unite for Strength slate for a place on the national governing board of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) in elections scheduled for September 18, 2008. On September 18, 2008, Walsh was elected to serve on the SAG board for a three - year term. Walsh ran as a candidate with the Unite for Strength party who won six of the 11 Hollywood Division seats which were up for contention in the recent Screen Actor 's Guild National Board elections.
Walsh supports pet adoption and frequently campaigns for the cause. On February 7, 2008, she cut the ribbon to a new dog adoption center named Pedigree (R) Dogstore in Times Square. In 2005, Walsh joined the Planned Parenthood Federation of America (PPFA) 's Board of Advocates, and in 2008 received the PPFA Maggie Award for an Artist who Stands Up for Reproductive Health and Freedom. She has participated in numerous Planned Parenthood activities, including national fundraisers, local Planned Parenthood affiliate events, the PPFA Awards Gala, and lobby day on Capitol Hill promoting the need for comprehensive sex education. In January 2009, she spoke at the Planned Parenthood Presidential Inauguration Brunch in Washington, D.C.
As announced in late 2009, Walsh partnered with the ocean conservancy and advocacy group Oceana to call for increased sea turtle protections. She joined experts from the group on a trip to the Virgin Islands to witness the turtles ' hatching and moving to the sea. In her own words: "I want to get the word out and make people aware about the challenges facing sea turtles. I also want to help get legislation enacted to keep harmful fishing techniques to a minimum and help protect the sea turtles. ''
Walsh referenced Oceana during a September 16, 2010 appearance on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. She told Jay Leno that her dress was covered in sushi and sashimi as an homage to a dress made of beef worn by Lady Gaga at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards. While she claimed it was sustainable seafood, Walsh later admitted via her Twitter account that the sushi was fake. She attended a meeting on Capitol Hill in which they marked the one year anniversary since the BP oil spill. On November 3, 2012, Walsh spoke in Dubuque, IA during one of President Obama 's campaign stops days before Election Day.
During the 2016 election, Walsh was a supporter of Hillary Clinton, publicly endorsing her and campaigning for her several times in California, Arizona, and Virginia.
|
what kind of food do they eat in rome italy | Roman cuisine - wikipedia
Roman cuisine comes from the Italian city of Rome. It features fresh, seasonal and simply - prepared ingredients from Roman Campagna. These include: peas, globe artichokes and fava beans, shellfish, milk - fed lamb and goat, and cheeses such as Pecorino Romano and ricotta. Olive oil is used mostly to dress raw vegetables, while Strutto (pork lard) and fat from prosciutto are preferred for frying. The most popular sweets in Rome are, little individual pastries called pasticcini, gelato (ice cream) and handmade chocolates and candies. Special dishes are often reserved for different days of the week; for example, gnocchi is eaten on Thursdays, baccalà (salted cod) on Fridays, and trippa on Saturdays.
Rome 's food has evolved through centuries and periods of social, cultural, and political changes. Rome became a major gastronomical center during ancient age. Ancient Roman cuisine was highly influenced by Ancient Greek culture. Subsequently, the empire 's enormous expansion exposed Romans to many new, provincial culinary habits and cooking techniques. In the beginning, the differences between social classes were not very great, but disparities developed with the empire 's growth. Later, during the Renaissance, Rome became well known as a center of high - cuisine, since some of the best chefs of the time worked for the popes. An example of this could be Bartolomeo Scappi, who was a chef working for Pius IV in the Vatican kitchen, reaching fame with his cookbook Opera dell'arte del cucinare, published in 1570. Here he lists approximately 1000 recipes of Renaissance cuisine and describes cooking techniques and tools, giving the first known picture of a fork.
The Testaccio rione, Rome 's trade and slaughterhouse area, is the place where Rome 's most original and traditional foods can still be found. The area was often known as the "belly '' or "slaughterhouse '' of Rome, and was inhabited by butchers, or vaccinari. The most common or ancient Roman cuisine included the "fifth quarter ''. Popular foods include pig 's trotters, brain, and the genitals of other animals, which were often carefully cooked and richly spiced with different savouries, spices and herbs. The old - fashioned coda alla vaccinara (oxtail cooked in the way of butchers) is still one of the city 's most popular meals and is part of most of Rome 's restaurants ' menus. Lamb is also a very popular part of Roman cuisine, and is often roasted with spices and herbs. There is a considerable Jewish influence in Roman cuisine, since they were many in the city, and some of the traditional meals of the ghetto date back over 400 years. Such include the carciofi alla giudia (Jewish - style artichokes) and Jewish courgettes.
Pasta is one important element of Roman cuisine. Famous pasta sauces include amatriciana, carbonara, (a sauce made with pancetta or guanciale - pig 's cheek -, cheese and egg), cacio e pepe and gricia (like carbonara but without eggs). Alfredo (invented by the chef of restaurant "Alfredo alla Scrofa '') is famous abroad, but not considered traditional and mostly unheard of in Rome.
There is a pasta museum in Rome called the Museo Nazionale della Paste Alimentari (the National Museum of Pasta). Rome 's most common pasta shape is spaghetti, but there are many other forms.
The city is known as a centre of white wine, especially with the warm territory. Frascati and Castelli Romani have been called the best ones in the city.
There are also many other dishes in Roman cuisine, including several desserts and sweets, many of which are made with ricotta cheese. Typical of Rome is the grattachecca.
Bread
The smell of baking starts early in Rome about 4 AM. Nearby, in the town of Genzano, the famous Pane di Genzano is prepared in wood fired ovens that date back centuries. The bread has an IGP geographic protection and is considered one of the best breads in Rome.
|
how did the availability of cash crops lead to developing plantations | Plantation economy - wikipedia
A plantation economy is an economy based on agricultural mass production, usually of a few commodity crops grown on large farms called plantations. Plantation economies rely on the export of cash crops as a source of income. Prominent plantation crops included cotton, rubber, sugar cane, tobacco, figs, rice, kapok, sisal, and species in the genus Indigofera, used to produce indigo dye.
The longer a crop 's harvest period, the more efficient plantations become. Economies of scale are also achieved when the distance to market is long. Plantation crops usually need processing immediately after harvesting. Sugarcane, tea, sisal, and palm oil are most suited to plantations, while coconuts, rubber, and cotton are suitable to a lesser extent.
In the Thirteen Colonies, plantations were concentrated in the South. These colonies included Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. They had good soil and almost year - round growing seasons, ideal for crops such as rice and tobacco. The existence of many waterways in the region made transportation easier. Each colony specialized in one or two crops, with Virginia standing out in tobacco production
Planters embraced the use of slaves mainly because indentured labor became expensive. Some indentured servants were also leaving to start their own farms as land was widely available. Colonists tried to use Native Americans for labor, but they were susceptible to European diseases and died in large numbers. The plantation owners then turned to enslaved Africans for labor. In 1665, there were fewer than 500 Africans in Virginia but by 1750, 85 percent of the 235,000 slaves lived in the Southern colonies, Virginia included. Africans made up 40 percent of the South 's population.
According to the 1840 United States Census, one out of every four families in Virginia owned slaves. There were over 100 plantation owners who owned over 100 slaves.
Fewer than one - third of Southern families owned slaves at the peak of slavery prior to the Civil War. In Mississippi and South Carolina the figure approached one half. The total number of slave owners was 385,000 (including, in Louisiana, some free African Americans), amounting to approximately 3.8 % of the Southern and Border states population.
On a plantation with more than 100 slaves, the capital value of the slaves was greater than the capital value of the land and farming implements.
Enslaved Africans were brought from Africa by the English and other European powers, for their Western Hemisphere colonies. They were shipped from ports in West Africa to the New World. The journey from Africa across the Atlantic Ocean was called "the middle passage '', and was one of the three legs which comprised the triangular trade among the continents of Europe, the Americas, and Africa.
By some estimates, it is said that some ten million Africans were brought to the Americas. Only about 6 % ended up in the North American colonies, while the majority were taken to the Caribbean colonies and South America. A reason many did not make it to the colonies at all was disease and illness. Underneath the slave ship 's decks, Africans were held chest - to - chest and could not do much moving. There was waste and urine throughout the hold; this caused the captives to get sick and to die from illnesses that could not be cured.
As the plantation economy expanded, the slave trade grew to meet the growing demand for labor.
Western Europe was the final destination for the plantation produce. At this time, Europe was starting to industrialize, and it needed a lot of materials to manufacture goods. Being the power center of the world at the time, they exploited the New World and Africa to industrialize. Africa supplied slaves for the plantations; the New World produced raw material for industries in Europe. Manufactured goods, of higher value, were then sold both to Africa and the New World. The system was largely run by European merchants
Sugar has a long history as a plantation crop. Cultivation of sugar had to follow a precise scientific system to profit from the production. Sugar plantations everywhere were disproportionate consumers of labor, often enslaved, because of the high mortality of the plantation laborers. In Brazil, plantations were called casas grandes and suffered from similar issues.
The slaves working the sugar plantation were caught in an unceasing rhythm of arduous labor year after year. Sugarcane is harvested about 18 months after planting and the plantations usually divided their land for efficiency. One plot was lying fallow, one plot was growing cane, and the final plot was being harvested. During the December -- May rainy season, slaves planted, fertilized with animal dung, and weeded. From January to June, they harvested the cane by chopping the plants off close to the ground, stripping the leaves and then cutting them into shorter strips to be bundled off to be sent to the sugar cane mill.
In the mill, the cane was crushed using a three - roller mill. The juice from the crushing of the cane was then boiled or clarified until it crystallized into sugar. Some plantations also went a step further and distilled the molasses, the liquid left after the sugar is boiled or clarified, to make rum. The sugar was then shipped back to Europe. For the slave laborer, the routine started all over again.
With the 19th - century abolition of slavery, plantations continued to grow sugar cane, but sugar beets, which can be grown in temperate climates, increased their share of the sugar market.
Indigofera was a major crop cultivated during the 18th century, in Venezuela, Guatemala -- and Haiti until the slave rebellion against France that left them embargoed by Europe and India in the 19th and 20th centuries. The indigo crop was grown for making blue indigo dye in the pre-industrial age.
Mahatma Gandhi 's investigation of indigo workers ' claims of exploitation led to the passage of the Champaran Agrarian Bill in 1917 by the British colonial government.
|
who held the power in the articles of confederation | Articles of Confederation - wikipedia
The Articles of Confederation, formally the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, was an agreement among the 13 original states of the United States of America that served as its first constitution. It was approved, after much debate (between July 1776 and November 1777), by the Second Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, and sent to the states for ratification. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. A guiding principle of the Articles was to preserve the independence and sovereignty of the states. The federal government received only those powers which the colonies had recognized as belonging to king and parliament.
The Articles formed a war - time confederation of states, with an extremely limited central government. While unratified, the document was used by the Congress to conduct business, direct the American Revolutionary War, conduct diplomacy with foreign nations, and deal with territorial issues and Native American relations. The adoption of the Articles made few perceptible changes in the federal government, because it did little more than legalize what the Continental Congress had been doing. That body was renamed the Congress of the Confederation; but Americans continued to call it the Continental Congress, since its organization remained the same.
As the Confederation Congress attempted to govern the continually growing American states, delegates discovered that the limitations placed upon the central government rendered it ineffective at doing so. As the government 's weaknesses became apparent, especially after Shays ' Rebellion, individuals began asking for changes to the Articles. Their hope was to create a stronger national government. Initially, some states met to deal with their trade and economic problems. However, as more states became interested in meeting to change the Articles, a meeting was set in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787. This became the Constitutional Convention. It was quickly realized that changes would not work, and instead the entire Articles needed to be replaced. On March 4, 1789, the government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the Constitution. The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government by establishing a chief executive (the President), courts, and taxing powers.
The political push to increase cooperation among the then - loyal colonies began with the Albany Congress in 1754 and Benjamin Franklin 's proposed Albany Plan, an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. The Articles of Confederation would bear some resemblance to it. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen and others would weaken, particularly the degree of deserved loyalty to the crown. With civil disobedience resulting in coercive, and what the colonials perceived as intolerable acts of Parliament, and armed conflict resulting in dissidents being proclaimed rebels and outside the King 's protection, any loyalty remaining shifted toward independence and how to achieve it. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the Second Continental Congress began acting as the provisional government that would run the American Revolutionary War and gain the colonies their collective independence.
It was an era of constitution writing -- most states were busy at the task -- and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution, even though other nations did not. During the war, Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions, established and maintained an army, issued fiat money, created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments.
To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of the first edition of Common Sense that the "custom of nations '' demanded a formal declaration of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans and Great Britain. The monarchies of France and Spain in particular could not be expected to aid those they considered rebels against another legitimate monarch. Foreign courts needed to have American grievances laid before them persuasively in a "manifesto '' which could also reassure them that the Americans would be reliable trading partners. Without such a declaration, Paine concluded, "(t) he custom of all courts is against us, and will be so, until, by an independence, we take rank with other nations. ''
Beyond improving their existing association, the records of the Second Continental Congress show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time he also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances '' and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a Model Treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states ' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established "a firm league '' among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.
On June 12, 1776, a day after appointing a committee to prepare a draft of the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee met repeatedly, and chairman John Dickinson presented their results to the Congress on July 12, 1776. There were long debates on such issues as sovereignty, the exact powers to be given the confederate government, whether to have a judiciary, and voting procedures. The final draft of the Articles was prepared in the summer of 1777 and the Second Continental Congress approved them for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777, after a year of debate. Consensus was achieved by dividing sovereignty between the states and the central government, with a unicameral legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states.
The Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states for ratification in November 1777. The first state to ratify was Virginia on December 16, 1777; 12 states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process. The lone holdout, Maryland, refused to go along until the landed states, especially Virginia, had indicated they were prepared to cede their claims west of the Ohio River to the Union. It would be two years before the Maryland General Assembly became satisfied that the various states would follow through, and voted to ratify. During this time, Congress observed the Articles as its de facto frame of government. Maryland finally ratified the Articles on February 2, 1781. Congress was informed of Maryland 's assent on March 1, and officially proclaimed the Articles of Confederation to be the law of the land.
The several states ratified the Articles of Confederation on the following dates:
The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the confederation 's central government. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national Congress, which was empowered to make war and peace, negotiate diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and to resolve disputes between the states. The document also stipulates that its provisions "shall be inviolably observed by every state '' and that "the Union shall be perpetual ''.
Summary of the purpose and content of each of the 13 articles:
Under the Articles, Congress had the authority to regulate and fund the Continental Army, but it lacked the power to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, and even food. Further, although the Articles enabled the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers, as a tool to build a centralized war - making government, they were largely a failure; Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote:
George Washington had been one of the very first proponents of a strong federal government. The army had nearly disbanded on several occasions during the winters of the war because of the weaknesses of the Continental Congress... The delegates could not draft soldiers and had to send requests for regular troops and militia to the states. Congress had the right to order the production and purchase of provisions for the soldiers, but could not force anyone to supply them, and the army nearly starved in several winters of war.
The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783 -- 84. General Henry Knox, who would later become the first Secretary of War under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union. Knox wrote:
The army generally have always reprobated the idea of being thirteen armies. Their ardent desires have been to be one continental body looking up to one sovereign... It is a favorite toast in the army, "A hoop to the barrel '' or "Cement to the Union ''.
As Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, "As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution. ''
Once the war had been won, the Continental Army was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against Native American attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, George Washington defused the Newburgh conspiracy, but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily.
The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788 the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state 's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States ' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms.
The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for several months because too few delegates were present at any one time to constitute a quorum so that it could be ratified. Afterward, the problem only got worse as Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Rarely did more than half of the roughly sixty delegates attend a session of Congress at the time, causing difficulties in raising a quorum. The resulting paralysis embarrassed and frustrated many American nationalists, including George Washington. Many of the most prominent national leaders, such as Washington, John Adams, John Hancock, and Benjamin Franklin, retired from public life, served as foreign delegates, or held office in state governments; and for the general public, local government and self - rule seemed quite satisfactory. This served to exacerbate Congress 's impotence.
Inherent weaknesses in the confederation 's frame of government also frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1786, Thomas Jefferson, concerned over the failure of Congress to fund an American naval force to confront the Barbary pirates, wrote in a diplomatic correspondence to James Monroe that, "It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth. ''
Furthermore, the 1786 Jay -- Gardoqui Treaty with Spain also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty, which was never ratified, the United States was to give up rights to use the Mississippi River for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains. Finally, due to the Confederation 's military weakness, it could not compel the British army to leave frontier forts which were on American soil -- forts which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against Loyalists and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the Treaty of Paris would later be resolved by the implementation of Jay 's Treaty in 1795, after the federal Constitution came into force.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government 's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures.
Congress was denied any powers of taxation: it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full, leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress, the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779, George Washington wrote to John Jay, who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress, "that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions. '' Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45 million from the States. In an appeal to the States to comply, Jay wrote that the taxes were "the price of liberty, the peace, and the safety of yourselves and posterity. '' He argued that Americans should avoid having it said "that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent '' or that "her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith. '' The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them.
Congress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or interstate commerce and, as a result, all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War, and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states ' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention.
Nevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long - lasting impact. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and it established the precedent by which the national (later, federal) government would be sovereign and expand westward -- as opposed to the existing states doing so under their sovereignty.
The Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the Mississippi River. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now - familiar squares of land called the township (36 square miles), the section (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 acres). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of Texas and California that had already been surveyed and divided up by the Spanish Empire). Then, when the Homestead Act was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler - farmers.
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up northwestern land claims, organized the Northwest Territory and laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of new states. While it did n't happen under the articles, the land north of the Ohio River and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania ceded by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, eventually became the states of: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and the part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in this territory would never be slave states.
No new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the Province of Quebec (referred to as "Canada '' in the Articles) into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. Additionally, ordinances to admit Frankland (later modified to Franklin), Kentucky, and Vermont to the Union were considered, but none were approved.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the presiding officer of Congress -- referred to in many official records as President of the United States in Congress Assembled -- chaired the Committee of the States when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the later President of the United States is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress.
There were 10 presidents of Congress under the Articles. The first, Samuel Huntington, had been serving as president of the Continental Congress since September 28, 1779.
The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation, but granted to the Congress -- the only federal institution -- little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived. Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast - growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control.
By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously, new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations (debts) incurred during the war, or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development, only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786 -- 87, Shays ' Rebellion, an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government.
The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression "not worth a continental ''. Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone.
When John Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.
By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.
The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington 's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like - minded nationalists, won Washington 's endorsement, and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long - term crisis.
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the Congress. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson, who were the President and Secretary to the Congress.
The Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification.
On July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and South Carolina signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also were unable to sign that day, since their delegations were absent.
After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina 's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778.
The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland refused to ratify the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims. Chevalier de La Luzerne, French Minister to the United States, felt that the Articles would help strengthen the American government. In 1780 when Maryland requested France provide naval forces in the Chesapeake Bay for protection from the British (who were conducting raids in the lower part of the bay), he indicated that French Admiral Destouches would do what he could but La Luzerne also "sharply pressed '' Maryland to ratify the Articles, thus suggesting the two issues were related.
On February 2, 1781, the much - awaited decision was taken by the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis. As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, "among engrossed Bills '' was "signed and sealed by Governor Thomas Sim Lee in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses... an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation '' and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned "to the first Monday in August next. '' The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781, and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state.
Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.
The signers and the states they represented were:
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
Maryland
Massachusetts Bay
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
South Carolina
Virginia
Roger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the Continental Association, the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.
Robert Morris (Pennsylvania) signed three of the great state papers of the United States: the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.
John Dickinson (Delaware), Daniel Carroll (Maryland) and Gouverneur Morris (New York), along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution (Gouverneur Morris represented Pennsylvania when signing the Constitution).
Images of an original draft of the Articles of Confederation stored at the United States National Archive.
Preamble through Article V, ¶ 1
Article V, ¶ 2 through Article VI
Article VII through Article IX, ¶ 2
Article IX, ¶ 2 through ¶ 5
Article IX, ¶ 5 through Article XIII, ¶ 2
Article XIII, ¶ 2 through signatures
On January 21, 1786, the Virginia Legislature, following James Madison 's recommendation, invited all the states to send delegates to Annapolis, Maryland to discuss ways to reduce interstate conflict. At what came to be known as the Annapolis Convention, the few state delegates in attendance endorsed a motion that called for all states to meet in Philadelphia in May 1787 to discuss ways to improve the Articles of Confederation in a "Grand Convention. '' Although the states ' representatives to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, the representatives held secret, closed - door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new Constitution gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get close to a republic as defined by the philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment, while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian Forrest McDonald, using the ideas of James Madison from Federalist 39, describes the change this way:
The constitutional reallocation of powers created a new form of government, unprecedented under the sun. Every previous national authority either had been centralized or else had been a confederation of sovereign states. The new American system was neither one nor the other; it was a mixture of both.
In May 1786, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting Congress power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after Shays ' Rebellion threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts.
Historian Ralph Ketcham comments on the opinions of Patrick Henry, George Mason, and other Anti-Federalists who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution:
Antifederalists feared what Patrick Henry termed the "consolidated government '' proposed by the new Constitution. They saw in Federalist hopes for commercial growth and international prestige only the lust of ambitious men for a "splendid empire '' that, in the time - honored way of empires, would oppress the people with taxes, conscription, and military campaigns. Uncertain that any government over so vast a domain as the United States could be controlled by the people, Antifederalists saw in the enlarged powers of the general government only the familiar threats to the rights and liberties of the people.
Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines.
Rakove (1988) identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by Rhode Island. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures "stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war - weary populace. '' The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation 's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power.
When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state, '' much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.
Political scientist David C. Hendrickson writes that two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, John Jay of New York and Thomas Burke of North Carolina believed that "the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges. ''
According to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously:
(T) he Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.
On the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity:
The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.
The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, James Madison remarked (in Federalist No. 40) that the issue had become moot: "As this objection... has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further observation. '' Nevertheless, it is an interesting historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply. Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding.
Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus "other states - parties did not have to comply with the Articles ' unanimous consent rule ''. In contrast, law professor Akhil Amar suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it.
On July 3, 1788, the Congress received New Hampshire 's all - important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be "unadvisable '' to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so "under the Articles of Confederation '' only, but not "under the Constitution ''.
By the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October. On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and select a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day the new government would take over and the government under the Articles of Confederation would come to an end. On that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital.
|
where does the small intestine connected to the large intestine | Cecum - wikipedia
The cecum or caecum (/ ˈsiːkəm /, plural ceca / ˈsiːkə /; from the Latin caecus meaning blind) is an intraperitoneal pouch that is considered to be the beginning of the large intestine. It is typically located on the right side of the body (the same side of the body as the appendix, to which it is joined).
It receives chyme from the ileum, and connects to the ascending colon of the large intestine. It is separated from the ileum by the ileocecal valve (ICV) or Bauhin 's valve. It is also separated from the colon by the cecocolic junction. While the cecum is usually intraperitoneal, the ascending colon is retroperitoneal.
In herbivores, the cecum stores food material where bacteria are able to break down the cellulose. This function no longer occurs in the human cecum (see appendix), so in humans it is simply a dead - end pouch forming a part of the large intestine.
The cecum and appendix are formed by the enlargement of the postarterial segment of the midgut loop. The proximal part of the bud grows rapidly to form the cecum. The lateral wall of the cecum grows much more rapidly than the medial wall, with the result that the point of attachment of the appendix comes to lie on the medial side.
The term cecum comes from the Latin caecum, literally "blind '', here in the sense "blind gut '' or "cul de sac ''.
In dissections by the Greek philosophers, the connection between the ileum of the small intestines and the cecum was not fully understood. Most of the studies of the digestive tract were done on animals and the results were compared to human structures.
The junction between the small intestine and the colon, called the ileocecal valve, is so small in some animals that it was not considered to be a connection between the small and large intestines. During a dissection, the colon could be traced from the rectum, to the sigmoid colon, through the descending, transverse, and ascending sections. The cecum is an end point for the colon with a dead - end portion terminating with the appendix.
The connection between the end of the small intestine (ileum) and the start (as viewed from the perspective of food being processed) of the colon (cecum) is now clearly understood, and is called the ileocolic orifice. The connection between the end of the cecum and the beginning of the ascending colon is called the cecocolic orifice.
A cecal carcinoid tumor is a carcinoid tumor of the cecum. An appendiceal carcinoid tumor (a carcinoid tumor of the appendix) is sometimes found next to a cecal carcinoid.
Neutropenic enterocolitis (typhlitis) is the condition of inflammation of the cecum, primarily caused by bacterial infections.
Over 99 % of the bacteria in the gut are anaerobes, but in the cecum, aerobic bacteria reach high densities.
A cecum is present in most amniote species, and also in lungfish, but not in any living species of amphibian. In reptiles, it is usually a single median structure, arising from the dorsal side of the large intestine. Birds typically have two paired ceca, as, unlike other mammals, do hyraxes. Parrots do not have ceca.
Most mammalian herbivores have a relatively large cecum, hosting a large number of bacteria, which aid in the enzymatic breakdown of plant materials such as cellulose; in many species, it is considerably wider than the colon. In contrast, obligatory carnivores, whose diets contain little or no plant material, have a reduced cecum, which is often partially or wholly replaced by the appendix. Mammalian species which do not develop a cecum include raccoons, bears, and the red panda. Over 99 % of the bacteria in the gut flora are anaerobes, but in the cecum, aerobic bacteria reach high densities.
Many fish have a number of small outpocketings, called pyloric ceca, along their intestine; despite the name they are not homologous with the cecum of amniotes, and their purpose is to increase the overall area of the digestive epithelium. Some invertebrates, such as squid, may also have structures with the same name, but these have no relationship with those of vertebrates.
Illustration of the large intestine
Diagram of human gastrointestinal tract
Cecum and ileum
Ileo - cecal valve
Cecum
Ileocecal orifice
Location of McBurney 's point (# 1)
The superior mesenteric artery and its branches
Arteries of cecum and vermiform process
Inferior ileocecal fossa
Interior of the cecum and lower end of ascending colon, showing colic valve
Topography of thoracic and abdominal viscera
Endoscopic image of cecum with arrow pointing to ileocecal valve in foreground
|
when did china's economy start to grow | Economic history of China (1949 -- present) - wikipedia
China 's economic system before the late - 1990s, with state ownership of certain industries and central control over planning and the financial system, has enabled the government to mobilize whatever surplus was available and greatly increase the proportion of the national economic output devoted to investment.
Analysts estimated that investment accounted for about 25 percent of GNP in 1979, a rate surpassed by few other countries. Because of the comparatively low level of GNP, however, even this high rate of investment secured only a small amount of resources relative to the size of the country and the population. In 1978, for instance, only 16 percent of the GNP of the United States went into gross investment, but this amounted to U.S. $345.6 billion, whereas the approximately 25 percent of China 's GNP that was invested came to about the equivalent of U.S. $111 billion and had to serve a population 4.5 times the size of that in the United States. The limited resources available for investment prevented China from rapidly producing or importing advanced equipment. Technological development proceeded gradually, and outdated equipment continued to be used as long as possible. Consequently, many different levels of technology were in use simultaneously (see Science and technology in China). Most industries included some plants that were comparable to modern Western facilities, often based on imported equipment and designs. Equipment produced by Chinese factories were generally some years behind standard Western designs. Agriculture received a much smaller share of state investment than industry did and remained at a much lower investment average than that of technology and productivity did. Despite a significant increase in the availability of tractors, trucks, electric pumps and mechanical threshers, most agricultural activities were still performed by people or animals.
Although the central administration coordinated the economy and redistributed the resources to the regions that required them when necessary, most of the economic activity was very decentralized and there was little flow of goods and services between regions, causing those suffering areas to wait for the central administration to step in before any relief was given. For example, roughly 75 percent of the grain grown in China was consumed by the families that produced it, with the remaining 25 percent being distributed to the other regions that required it.
One of the most important sources of growth in the economy was to show the comparative advantages of each locality by expanding its transportation capacity. The transportation and communications sectors were growing and improving, but not at a fast enough pace to handle the volume of traffic that a fast growing modern economy requires, due to the scarcity of investment funds and the lack of the advanced technology needed to support such growth.
Because of the limited interaction among the regions, a vast variety of differing geographic zones were created, with a broad spectrum of incompatible technologies were in use, creating areas that greatly differed in economic activities, organizational forms, and prosperity.
Within any given city, enterprises ranged from tiny, collectively owned handicraft units, barely earning subsistence level incomes for their members, to modern, state owned factories, whose workers received steady wages along with free medical care, bonuses, and an assortment of other benefits.
The agricultural sector was diverse, accommodating well equipped, "specialized households '' that supplied scarce products and services to the local markets, along with wealthy suburban villages specializing in the production of vegetables, pork, poultry, and eggs to sell in the nearby free market cities, fishing villages on the seacoast, there were also herding groups on the grasslands of Inner Mongolia and poor, struggling grain producing villages in the arid mountains of Shaanxi and Gansu provinces.
The economy had progressed in major ways since 1949, but after four to five decades, experts in China and abroad agreed that it still had a great distance yet to go.
Despite formidable constraints and disruptions, the Chinese economy was never stagnant. Production grew substantially between 1800 and 1949 and increased fairly rapidly after 1949. Before the 1980s, however, production gains were largely matched by population growth, so that productive capacity was unable to outdistance essential consumption needs significantly, particularly in agriculture. For example, grain output in 1979 was about twice as much as in 1952, but the population had also doubled, which mostly countered this increase in production, and as a result, very little surplus was accrued, even in high yielding years. Furthermore, very few resources could be spared for investment in capital goods, such as machinery, factories, mines, railroads, and other productive assets. The relatively small size of the capital stock caused productivity per worker to remain low, which in turn perpetuated the inability of the economy to generate a substantial surplus.
When the Communist Party of China came to power in 1949, its leaders ' fundamental long - range goals were to transform China into a modern, powerful, socialist nation. In economic terms these objectives meant industrialization, improvement of living standards, narrowing of income differences, and production of modern military equipment. As the years passed, the leadership continued to subscribe to these goals. But the economic policies formulated to achieve them were dramatically altered on several occasions in response to major changes in the economy, internal politics, and international political and economic developments.
An important distinction emerged between leaders who felt that the socialist goals of income equalization and heightened political consciousness should take priority over material progress and those who believed that industrialization and general economic modernization were prerequisites for the attainment of a successful socialist order. Among the prominent leaders who considered politics the prime consideration were Mao Zedong, Lin Biao, and the members of the Gang of Four. Leaders who more often stressed practical economic considerations included Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai, and Deng Xiaoping. For the most part, important policy shifts reflected the alternating emphasis on political and economic goals and were accompanied by major changes in the positions of individuals in the political power structure. An important characteristic in the development of economic policies and the underlying economic model was that each new policy period, while differing significantly from its predecessor, nonetheless retained most of the existing economic organization. Thus the form of the economic model and the policies that expressed it at any given point in Chinese history reflected both the current policy emphasis and a structural foundation built up during the earlier periods.
In 1949 China 's economy was suffering from the debilitating effects of decades of warfare. Many mines and factories had been damaged or destroyed. At the end of the war with Japan in 1945, Soviet troops had dismantled about half the machinery in the major industrial areas of the northeast and shipped it to the Soviet Union. Transportation, communication, and power systems had been destroyed or had deteriorated because of lack of maintenance. Agriculture was disrupted, and food production was some 30 percent below its pre-war peak level. Further, economic ills were compounded by one of the most virulent inflations in world history.
The chief goal of the government for the 1949 -- 52 period was simply to restore the economy to normal working order. The administration moved quickly to repair transportation and communication links and revive the flow of economic activity. The banking system was nationalized and centralized under the People 's Bank of China. To bring inflation under control by 1951, the government unified the monetary system, tightened credit, restricted government budgets at all levels and put them under central control, and guaranteed the value of the currency. Commerce was stimulated and partially regulated by the establishment of state trading companies (commercial departments), which competed with private traders in purchasing goods from producers and selling them to consumers or enterprises. Transformation of ownership in industry proceeded slowly. About a third of the country 's enterprises had been under state control while the Guomindang government was in power (1927 -- 49), as was much of the modernized transportation sector. The Communist Party of China immediately made these units state - owned enterprises upon taking power in 1949. The remaining privately owned enterprises were gradually brought under government control, but 17 percent of industrial units were still completely outside the state system in 1952.
In agriculture a major change in landownership was carried out. Under a nationwide land reform program, titles to about 45 percent of the arable land were redistributed from landlords and more prosperous farmers to the 60 to 70 percent of farm families that previously owned little or no land. Once land reform was completed in an area, farmers were encouraged to cooperate in some phases of production through the formation of small "mutual aid teams '' of six or seven households each. Thirty - nine percent of all farm households belonged to mutual aid teams in 1952. By 1952 price stability had been established, commerce had been restored, and industry and agriculture had regained their previous peak levels of production. The period of recovery had achieved its goals.
Having restored a viable economic base, the leadership under Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, and other revolutionary veterans was prepared to embark on an intensive program of industrial growth and socialization. For this purpose the administration adopted the Soviet economic model, based on state ownership in the modern sector, large collective units in agriculture, and centralized economic planning. The Soviet approach to economic development was manifested in the First Five - Year Plan (1953 -- 57). As in the Soviet economy, the main objective was a high rate of economic growth, with primary emphasis on industrial development at the expense of agriculture and particular concentration on heavy industry and capital - intensive technology. Soviet planners helped their Chinese counterparts formulate the plan. Large numbers of Soviet engineers, technicians, and scientists assisted in developing and installing new heavy industrial facilities, including many entire plants and pieces of equipment purchased from the Soviet Union. Government control over industry was increased during this period by applying financial pressures and inducements to convince owners of private, modern firms to sell them to the state or convert them into joint public - private enterprises under state control. By 1956 approximately 67.5 percent of all modern industrial enterprises were state owned, and 32.5 percent were under joint public - private ownership. No privately owned firms remained. During the same period, the handicraft industries were organized into cooperatives, which accounted for 91.7 percent of all handicraft workers by 1956.
Agriculture also underwent extensive organizational changes. To facilitate the mobilization of agricultural resources, improve the efficiency of farming, and increase government access to agricultural products, the authorities encouraged farmers to organize increasingly large and socialized collective units. From the loosely structured, tiny mutual aid teams, villages were to advance first to lower - stage, agricultural producers ' cooperatives, in which families still received some income on the basis of the amount of land they contributed, and eventually to advanced cooperatives, or collectives. In the advanced producers ' cooperatives, income shares were based only on the amount of labor contributed. In addition, each family was allowed to retain a small private plot on which to grow vegetables, fruit, and livestock for its own use. The collectivization process began slowly but accelerated in 1955 and 1956. In 1957 about 93.5 percent of all farm households had joined advanced producers ' cooperatives.
In terms of economic growth the First Five - Year Plan was quite successful, especially in those areas emphasized by the Soviet - style development strategy. A solid foundation was created in heavy industry. Key industries, including iron and steel manufacturing, coal mining, cement production, electricity generation, and machine building were greatly expanded and were put on a firm, modern technological footing. Thousands of industrial and mining enterprises were constructed, including 156 major facilities. Industrial production increased at an average annual rate of 19 percent between 1952 and 1957, and national income grew at a rate of 9 percent a year.
Despite the lack of state investment in agriculture, agricultural output increased substantially, averaging increases of about 4 percent a year. This growth resulted primarily from gains in efficiency brought about by the reorganization and cooperation achieved through collectivization. As the First Five - Year Plan wore on, however, Chinese leaders became increasingly concerned over the relatively sluggish performance of agriculture and the inability of state trading companies to increase significantly the amount of grain procured from rural units for urban consumption.
Before the end of the First Five - Year Plan, the growing imbalance between industrial and agricultural growth, dissatisfaction with inefficiency, and lack of flexibility in the decision - making process convinced the nation 's leaders -- particularly Mao Zedong -- that the highly centralized, industry - based Soviet model was not appropriate for China. In 1957 the government adopted measures to shift a great deal of the authority for economic decision making to the provincial - level, county, and local administrations. In 1958 the Second Five - Year Plan (1958 -- 62), which was intended to continue the policies of the first plan, was abandoned. In its place the leadership adopted an approach that relied on spontaneous heroic efforts by the entire population to produce a dramatic "great leap '' in production for all sectors of the economy at once. Further reorganization of agriculture was regarded as the key to the endeavor to leap suddenly to a higher stage of productivity. A fundamental problem was the lack of sufficient capital to invest heavily in both industry and agriculture at the same time. To overcome this problem, the leadership decided to attempt to create capital in the agricultural sector by building vast irrigation and water control works employing huge teams of farmers whose labor was not being fully utilized. Surplus rural labor also was to be employed to support the industrial sector by setting up thousands of small - scale, low - technology, "backyard '' industrial projects in farm units, which would produce machinery required for agricultural development and components for urban industries. Mobilization of surplus rural labor and further improvements in agricultural efficiency were to be accomplished by a "leap '' to the final stage of agricultural collectivization -- the formation of people 's communes.
People 's communes were created by combining some 20 or 30 advanced producers ' cooperatives of 20,000 to 30,000 members on average, although membership varied from as few as 6,000 to over 40,000 in some cases. When first instituted, the communes were envisaged as combining in one body the functions of the lowest level of local government and the highest level of organization in agricultural production. Communes consisted of three organizational levels: the central commune administration; the production brigade (roughly equivalent to the advanced producers ' cooperatives, or a traditional rural village), and the production team, which generally consisted of around thirty families. At the inception of the Great Leap Forward, the communes were intended to acquire all ownership rights over the productive assets of their subordinate units and to take over most of the planning and decision making for farm activities. Ideally, communes were to improve efficiency by moving farm families into dormitories, feeding them in communal mess halls, and moving whole teams of laborers from task to task. In practice, this ideal, extremely centralized form of commune was not instituted in most areas.
Ninety - eight percent of the farm population was organized into communes between April and September 1958. Very soon it became evident that in most cases the communes were too unwieldy to carry out successfully all the managerial and administrative functions that were assigned to them. In 1959 and 1960, most production decisions reverted to the brigade and team levels, and eventually most governmental responsibilities were returned to county and township administrations. Nonetheless, the commune system was retained and continued to be the basic form of organization in the agricultural sector until the early 1980s.
During the Great Leap Forward, the industrial sector also was expected to discover and use slack labor and productive capacity to increase output beyond the levels previously considered feasible. Political zeal was to be the motive force, and to "put politics in command '' enterprising party branches took over the direction of many factories. In addition, central planning was relegated to a minor role in favor of spontaneous, politically inspired production decisions from individual units.
The result of the Great Leap Forward was a severe economic crisis. In 1958 industrial output did in fact "leap '' by 55 percent, and the agricultural sector gathered in a good harvest. In 1959, 1960, and 1961, however, adverse weather conditions, improperly constructed water control projects, and other misallocations of resources that had occurred during the overly centralized communization movement resulted in disastrous declines in agricultural output. In 1959 and 1960, the gross value of agricultural output fell by 14 percent and 13 percent, respectively, and in 1961 it dropped a further 2 percent to reach the lowest point since 1952. Widespread famine occurred, especially in rural areas, according to 1982 census figures, and the death rate climbed from 1.2 percent in 1958 to 1.5 percent in 1959, 2.5 percent in 1960, and then dropped back to 1.4 percent in 1961. From 1958 to 1961, over 14 million people apparently died of starvation, and the number of reported births was about 23 million fewer than under normal conditions. The government prevented an even worse disaster by canceling nearly all orders for foreign technical imports and using the country 's foreign exchange reserves to import over 5 million tons of grain a year beginning in 1960. Mines and factories continued to expand output through 1960, partly by overworking personnel and machines but largely because many new plants constructed during the First Five - Year Plan went into full production in these years. Thereafter, however, the excessive strain on equipment and workers, the effects of the agricultural crisis, the lack of economic coordination, and, in the 1960s, the withdrawal of Soviet assistance caused industrial output to plummet by 38 percent in 1961 and by a further 16 percent in 1962.
Faced with economic collapse in the early 1960s, the government sharply revised the immediate goals of the economy and devised a new set of economic policies to replace those of the Great Leap Forward. Top priority was given to restoring agricultural output and expanding it at a rate that would meet the needs of the growing population. Planning and economic coordination were to be revived - - although in a less centralized form than before the Great Leap Forward -- so as to restore order and efficient allocation of resources to the economy. The rate of investment was to be reduced and investment priorities reversed, with agriculture receiving first consideration, light industry second, and heavy industry third.
In a further departure from the emphasis on heavy industrial development that persisted during the Great Leap Forward, the government undertook to mobilize the nation 's resources to bring about technological advancement in agriculture. Organizational changes in agriculture mainly involved decentralization of production decision making and income distribution within the commune structure. The role of the central commune administration was greatly reduced, although it remained the link between local government and agricultural producers and was important in carrying out activities that were too large in scale for the production brigades. Production teams were designated the basic accounting units and were responsible for making nearly all decisions concerning production and the distribution of income to their members. Private plots, which had disappeared on some communes during the Great Leap Forward, were officially restored to farm families.
Economic support for agriculture took several forms. Agricultural taxes were reduced, and the prices paid for agricultural products were raised relative to the prices of industrial supplies for agriculture. There were substantial increases in supplies of chemical fertilizer and various kinds of agricultural machinery, notably small electric pumps for irrigation. Most of the modern supplies were concentrated in areas that were known to produce "high and stable yields '' in order to ensure the best possible results.
In industry, a few key enterprises were returned to central state control, but control over most enterprises remained in the hands of provincial - level and local governments. This decentralization had taken place in 1957 and 1958 and was reaffirmed and strengthened in the 1961 - 65 period. Planning rather than politics once again guided production decisions, and material rewards rather than revolutionary enthusiasm became the leading incentive for production. Major imports of advanced foreign machinery, which had come to an abrupt halt with the withdrawal of Soviet assistance starting in 1960, were initiated with Japan and West European countries.
During the 1961 -- 65 readjustment and recovery period, economic stability was restored, and by 1966 production in both agriculture and industry surpassed the peak levels of the Great Leap Forward period. Between 1961 and 1966, agricultural output grew at an average rate of 9.6 percent a year. Industrial output was increased in the same years at an average annual rate of 10.6 percent, largely by reviving plants that had operated below capacity after the economic collapse in 1961. Another important source of growth in this period was the spread of rural, small - scale industries, particularly coal mines, hydroelectric plants, chemical fertilizer plants, and agricultural machinery plants. The economic model that emerged in this period combined elements of the highly centralized, industrially oriented, Soviet - style system of the First Five - Year Plan with aspects of the decentralization of ownership and decision making that characterized the Great Leap Forward and with the strong emphasis on agricultural development and balanced growth of the "agriculture first '' policy. Important changes in economic policy occurred in later years, but the basic system of ownership, decision - making structure, and development strategy that was forged in the early 1960s was not significantly altered until the reform period of the 1980s.
The Cultural Revolution was set in motion by Mao Zedong in 1966 and called to a halt in 1968, but the atmosphere of radical leftism persisted until Mao 's death and the fall of the Gang of Four in 1976. During this period, there were several distinct phases of economic policy.
The Cultural Revolution, unlike the Great Leap Forward, was primarily a political upheaval and did not produce major changes in official economic policies or the basic economic model. Nonetheless, its influence was felt throughout urban society, and it profoundly affected the modern sector of the economy.
Agricultural production stagnated, but in general the rural areas experienced less turmoil than the cities. Production was reduced in the modern nonagricultural sectors in several ways.
The most direct cause of production halts was the political activity of students and workers in the mines and factories.
A second cause was the extensive disruption of transportation resulting from the requisitioning of trains and trucks to carry Chinese Red Guards around the country. Output at many factories suffered from shortages of raw materials and other supplies.
A third disruptive influence was that the direction of factories was placed in the hands of revolutionary committees, consisting of representatives from the party, the workers, and the Chinese People 's Liberation Army, whose members often had little knowledge of either management or the enterprise they were supposed to run. In addition, virtually all engineers, managers, scientists, technicians, and other professional personnel were "criticized, '' demoted, "sent down '' to the countryside to "participate in labor, '' or even jailed, all of which resulted in their skills and knowledge being lost to the enterprise.
The effect was a 14 - percent decline in industrial production in 1967. A degree of order was restored by the army in late 1967 and 1968, and the industrial sector returned to a fairly high rate of growth in 1969.
Other aspects of the Cultural Revolution had more far - reaching effects on the economy. Imports of foreign equipment, required for technological advancement, were curtailed by rampant xenophobia.
Probably the most serious and long - lasting effect on the economy was the dire shortage of highly educated personnel caused by the closing of the universities. China 's ability to develop new technology and absorb imported technology would be limited for years by the hiatus in higher education.
As political stability was gradually restored, a renewed drive for coordinated, balanced development was set in motion under the leadership of Premier Zhou Enlai.
To revive efficiency in industry, Communist Party of China committees were returned to positions of leadership over the revolutionary committees, and a campaign was carried out to return skilled and highly educated personnel to the jobs from which they had been displaced during the Cultural Revolution.
Universities began to reopen, and foreign contacts were expanded. Once again the economy suffered from imbalances in the capacities of different industrial sectors and an urgent need for increased supplies of modern inputs for agriculture. In response to these problems, there was a significant increase in investment, including the signing of contracts with foreign firms for the construction of major facilities for chemical fertilizer production, steel finishing, and oil extraction and refining. The most notable of these contracts was for thirteen of the world 's largest and most modern chemical fertilizer plants. During this period, industrial output grew at an average rate of 8 percent a year.
Agricultural production declined somewhat in 1972 because of poor weather but increased at an average annual rate of 3.8 percent for the period as a whole. The party and state leadership undertook a general reevaluation of development needs, and Zhou Enlai presented the conclusions in a report to the Fourth National People 's Congress in January 1975. In it he called for the Four Modernizations (see Glossary). Zhou emphasized the mechanization of agriculture and a comprehensive two - stage program for the modernization of the entire economy by the end of the century.
During the early and mid-1970s, the radical group later known as the Gang of Four attempted to dominate the power center through their network of supporters and, most important, through their control of the media.
More moderate leaders, however, were developing and promulgating a pragmatic program for rapid modernization of the economy that contradicted the set of policies expressed in the media. Initiatives by Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping were vehemently attacked in the press and in political campaigns as "poisonous weeds. ''
Using official news organs, the Gang of Four advocated the primacy of nonmaterial, political incentives, radical reduction of income differences, elimination of private farm plots, and a shift of the basic accounting unit up to the brigade level in agriculture. They opposed the strengthening of central planning and denounced the use of foreign technology.
In the face of such contradictory policy pronouncements and uncertain political currents, administrators and economic decision makers at all levels were virtually paralyzed. Economic activity slowed, and the incipient modernization program almost ground to a halt. Uncertainty and instability were exacerbated by the death of Zhou Enlai in January 1976 and the subsequent second purge of Deng Xiaoping in April.
The effects of the power struggle and policy disputes were compounded by the destruction resulting from the Tangshan earthquake in July 1976. Output for the year in both industry and agriculture showed no growth over 1975. The interlude of uncertainty finally ended when the Gang of Four was arrested in October, one month after Mao 's death.
After the fall of the Gang of Four, the leadership under Hua Guofeng -- and by July 1977 the rehabilitated Deng Xiaoping -- reaffirmed the modernization program espoused by Zhou Enlai in 1975. They also set forth a battery of new policies for the purpose of accomplishing the Four Modernizations.
The new policies strengthened the authority of managers and economic decision makers at the expense of party officials, stressed material incentives for workers, and called for expansion of the research and education systems. Foreign trade was to be increased, and exchanges of students and "foreign experts '' with developed countries were to be encouraged.
This new policy initiative was capped at the Fifth National People 's Congress in February and March 1978, when Hua Guofeng presented the draft of an ambitious ten - year plan for the 1976 - 85 period. The plan called for high rates of growth in both industry and agriculture and included 120 construction projects that would require massive and expensive imports of foreign technology.
Between 1976 and 1978, the economy quickly recovered from the stagnation of the Cultural Revolution. Agricultural production was sluggish in 1977 because of a third consecutive year of adverse weather conditions but rebounded with a record harvest in 1978. Industrial output jumped by 14 percent in 1977 and by 13 percent in 1978.
We have said that socialism is the primary stage of communism and that at the advanced stage the principle of from each, according to his ability, to each, according to his needs, will be applied. This calls for highly developed productive forces and an overwhelming abundance of material wealth.
Therefore, the fundamental task for the socialist stage is to develop the productive forces. The superiority of the socialist system is demonstrated, in the final analysis, by faster and greater development of those forces than under the capitalist system.
As they develop, the people 's material and cultural life will constantly improve. One of our shortcomings after the founding of the People 's Republic was that we did n't pay enough attention to developing the productive forces. Socialism means eliminating poverty. Pauperism is not socialism, still less communism. ''
At the milestone Third Plenum of the National Party Congress 's 11th Central Committee which opened on December 22, 1978, the party leaders decided to undertake a program of gradual but fundamental reform of the economic system. They concluded that the Maoist version of the centrally planned economy had failed to produce efficient economic growth and had caused China to fall far behind not only the industrialized nations of the West but also the new industrial powers of Asia: Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong.
In the late 1970s, while Japan and Hong Kong rivaled European countries in modern technology, China 's citizens had to make do with barely sufficient food supplies, rationed clothing, inadequate housing, and a service sector that was inadequate and inefficient. All of these shortcomings embarrassed China internationally.
The purpose of the reform program was not to abandon communism but to make it work better by substantially increasing the role of market mechanisms in the system and by reducing -- not eliminating -- government planning and direct control.
The process of reform was incremental. New measures were first introduced experimentally in a few localities and then were popularized and disseminated nationally if they proved successful.
By 1987 the program had achieved remarkable results in increasing supplies of food and other consumer goods and had created a new climate of dynamism and opportunity in the economy. At the same time, however, the reforms also had created new problems and tensions, leading to intense questioning and political struggles over the program 's future.
The first few years of the reform program were designated the "period of readjustment, '' during which key imbalances in the economy were to be corrected and a foundation was to be laid for a well - planned modernization drive. The schedule of Hua Guofeng 's ten - year plan was discarded, although many of its elements were retained.
The major goals of the readjustment process were to expand exports rapidly; overcome key deficiencies in transportation, communications, coal, iron, steel, building materials, and electric power; and redress the imbalance between light and heavy industry by increasing the growth rate of light industry and reducing investment in heavy industry. Agricultural production was stimulated in 1979 by an increase of over 22 percent in the procurement prices paid for farm products.
The central policies of the reform program were introduced experimentally during the readjustment period. The most successful reform policy, the contract responsibility system of production in agriculture, was suggested by the government in 1979 as a way for poor rural units in mountainous or arid areas to increase their incomes. The responsibility system allowed individual farm families to work a piece of land for profit in return for delivering a set amount of produce to the collective at a given price. This arrangement created strong incentives for farmers to reduce production costs and increase productivity. Soon after its introduction the responsibility system was adopted by numerous farm units in all sorts of areas.
Agricultural production was also stimulated by official encouragement to establish free farmers ' markets in urban areas, as well as in the countryside, and by allowing some families to operate as "specialized households, '' devoting their efforts to producing a scarce commodity or service on a profit - making basis.
In industry, the main policy innovations increased the autonomy of enterprise managers, reduced emphasis on planned quotas, allowed enterprises to produce goods outside the plan for sale on the market, and permitted enterprises to experiment with the use of bonuses to reward higher productivity. The government also tested a fundamental change in financial procedures with a limited number of state - owned units: rather than remitting all of their profits to the state, as was normally done, these enterprises were allowed to pay a tax on their profits and retain the balance for reinvestment and distribution to workers as bonuses.
The government also actively encouraged the establishment of collectively owned and operated industrial and service enterprises as a means of soaking up some of the unemployment among young people and at the same time helping to increase supplies of light industrial products. Individual enterprise also was allowed, after having virtually disappeared during the Cultural Revolution, and independent cobblers, tailors, tinkers, and vendors once again became common sights in the cities. Foreign - trade procedures were greatly eased, allowing individual enterprises and administrative departments outside the Ministry of Foreign Trade (which became the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade in 1984) to engage in direct negotiations with foreign firms. A wide range of cooperation, trading and credit arrangements with foreign firms were legalized so that China could enter the mainstream of international trade.
The period of readjustment produced promising results, increasing incomes substantially; raising the availability of food, housing, and other consumer goods; and generating strong rates of growth in all sectors except heavy industry, which was intentionally restrained. On the strength of these initial successes, the reform program was broadened, and the leadership under Deng Xiaoping frequently remarked that China 's basic policy was "reform and opening, '' that is, reform of the economic system and opening to foreign trade.
In agriculture the contract responsibility system was adopted as the organizational norm for the entire country, and the commune structure was largely dismantled. By the end of 1984, approximately 98 percent of all farm households were under the responsibility system, and all but a handful of communes had been dissolved. The communes ' administrative responsibilities were turned over to township and town governments, and their economic roles were assigned to townships and villages. The role of free markets for farm produce was further expanded and, with increased marketing possibilities and rising productivity, farm incomes rose rapidly.
In industry the complexity and interrelation of production activities prevented a single, simple policy from bringing about the kind of dramatic improvement that the responsibility system achieved in agriculture. Nonetheless, a cluster of policies based on greater flexibility, autonomy, and market involvement significantly improved the opportunities available to most enterprises, generated high rates of growth, and increased efficiency. Enterprise managers gradually gained greater control over their units, including the right to hire and fire, although the process required endless struggles with bureaucrats and party cadres. The practice of remitting taxes on profits and retaining the balance became universal by 1985, increasing the incentive for enterprises to maximize profits and substantially adding to their autonomy. A change of potentially equal importance was a shift in the source of investment funds from government budget allocations, which carried no interest and did not have to be repaid, to interest - bearing bank loans. As of 1987 the interest rate charged on such loans was still too low to serve as a check on unproductive investments, but the mechanism was in place.
The role of foreign trade under the economic reforms increased far beyond its importance in any previous period. Before the reform period, the combined value of imports and exports had seldom exceeded 10 percent of national income. In 1980 it was 15 percent, in 1984 it was 21 percent, and in 1986 it reached 35 percent. Unlike earlier periods, when China was committed to trying to achieve self - sufficiency, under Deng Xiaoping foreign trade was regarded as an important source of investment funds and modern technology. As a result, restrictions on trade were loosened further in the mid-1980s, and foreign investment was legalized. The most common foreign investments were joint ventures between foreign firms and Chinese units. Sole ownership by foreign investors also became legal, but the feasibility of such undertakings remained questionable.
The most conspicuous symbols of the new status of foreign trade were the four coastal special economic zones (see Glossary), which were created in 1979 as enclaves where foreign investment could receive special treatment. Three of the four zones -- the cities of Shenzhen, Zhuhai, and Shantou -- were located in Guangdong Province, close to Hong Kong. The fourth, Xiamen, in Fujian Province, was directly across the strait from Taiwan. More significant for China 's economic development was the designation in April 1984 of economic development zones in the fourteen largest coastal cities - - including Dalian, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Guangzhou -- all of which were major commercial and industrial centers. These zones were to create productive exchanges between foreign firms with advanced technology and major Chinese economic networks.
Domestic commerce also was stimulated by the reform policies, which explicitly endeavored to enliven the economy by shifting the primary burden of the allocation of goods and services from the government plan to the market. Private entrepreneurship and freemarket activities were legalized and encouraged in the 1980s, although the central authorities continuously had to fight the efforts of local government agencies to impose excessive taxes on independent merchants. By 1987 the state - owned system of commercial agencies and retail outlets coexisted with a rapidly growing private and collectively owned system that competed with it vigorously, providing a wider range of consumption choices for Chinese citizens than at any previous time.
Although the reform program achieved impressive successes, it also gave rise to several serious problems. One problem was the challenge to party authority presented by the principles of freemarket activity and professional managerial autonomy. Another difficulty was a wave of crime, corruption, and -- in the minds of many older people -- moral deterioration caused by the looser economic and political climate. The most fundamental tensions were those created by the widening income disparities between the people who were "getting rich '' and those who were not and by the pervasive threat of inflation. These concerns played a role in the political struggle that culminated in party general secretary Hu Yaobang 's forced resignation in 1987. Following Hu 's resignation, the leadership engaged in an intense debate over the future course of the reforms and how to balance the need for efficiency and market incentives with the need for government guidance and control. The commitment to further reform was affirmed, but its pace, and the emphasis to be placed on macroeconomic and microeconomic levers, remained objects of caution.
In 1985, the State Council of China approved to establish a SNA (System of National Accounting), use the GDP to measure the national economy. China started the study of theoretical foundation, guiding, and accounting model etc., for establishing a new system of national economic accounting. In 1986, as the first citizen of the People 's Republic of China to receive a Ph. D. in economics from an overseas country, Dr. Fengbo Zhang headed Chinese Macroeconomic Research - the key research project of the seventh Five - Year Plan of China, as well as completing and publishing the China GDP data by China 's own research. The summary of the above has been included in the book "Chinese Macroeconomic Structure and Policy '' (June 1988) edited by Fengbo Zhang, and collectively authored by the Research Center of the State Council of China. This is the first GDP data which was published by China.
The research utilized the World Bank 's method as a reference, and made the numerous appropriate adjustments based on China 's national condition. The GDP also has been converted to USD based data by utilizing the moving average exchange rate. The research systematically completed China 's GDP and GDP per capita from 1952 to 1986 and analyzed growth rate, the change and contribution rates of each component. The research also included international comparisons. Additionally, the research compared MPS (Material Product System) and SNA (System of National Accounting), looking at the results from the two systems from analyzing Chinese economy. This achievement created the foundation for China 's GDP research.
The State Council of China issued "The notice regarding implementation of System of National Accounting '' in August 1992, the Western SNA system officially is introduced to China, replaced Soviet Union 's MPS system, Western economic indicator GDP became China 's most important economic indicator. Based on Dr. Fengbo Zhang 's research, in 1997, the National Bureau of Statistics of China, in collaboration with Hitotsubashi University of Japan, estimated China 's GDP Data from 1952 up to 1995 based on the SNA principal.
In 1985, industry employed about 17 percent of the labor force but produced more than 46 percent of gross national product (GNP). It was the fastest growing sector with an average annual growth of 11 percent from 1952 to 1985. There was a wide range of technological levels. There were many small handicraft units and many enterprises using machinery installed or designed in the 1950s and 1960s. There was a significant number of big, up - to - date plants, including textile mills, steel mills, chemical fertilizer plants, and petrochemical facilities but there were also some burgeoning light industries producing consumer goods. China produced most kinds of products made by industrialized nations but limited quantities of high - technology items. Technology transfer was conducted by importing whole plants, equipment, and designs as an important means of progress. Major industrial centers were in Liaoning Province, Beijing - Tianjin - Tangshan area, Shanghai, and Wuhan. Mineral resources included huge reserves of iron ore and there were adequate to abundant supplies of nearly all other industrial minerals. Outdated mining and ore processing technologies were gradually being replaced with modern processes, techniques and equipment.
In 1985, the agricultural sector employed about 63 percent of the labor force and its proportion of GNP was about 33 percent. There was low worker productivity because of scant supplies of agricultural machinery and other modern inputs. Most agricultural processes were still performed by hand. There was very small arable land area (just above 10 percent of total area, as compared with 22 percent in United States) in relation to the size of the country and population. There was intensive use of land; all fields produced at least one crop a year, and wherever conditions permitted, two or even three crops were grown annually, especially in the south. Grain was the most the important product, including rice, wheat, corn, sorghum, barley, and millet. Other important crops included cotton, jute, oilseeds, sugarcane, and sugar beets. Eggs were also a major product. Pork production increased steadily, and poultry and pigs were raised on family plots. Other livestock were relatively limited in numbers, except for sheep and goats, which grazed in large herds on grasslands of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and the northwest. There was substantial marine and freshwater fishery. Timber resources were mainly located in the northeast and southwest, and much of the country was deforested centuries ago. A wide variety of fruits and vegetables were grown.
China was self - sufficient in nearly all energy forms. Coal and petroleum were exported since the early 1970s. Its coal reserves were among the world 's largest, and mining technology was inadequately developed but steadily improved in the late 1980s. Petroleum reserves were very large at the time but of varying quality and in disparate locations. Suspected oil deposits in the northwest and offshore tracts were believed to be among the world 's largest. Exploration and extraction was limited by scarcity of equipment and trained personnel. Twenty - seven contracts for joint offshore exploration and production by Japanese and Western oil companies were signed by 1982, but by the late 1980s only a handful of wells were producing oil. Substantial natural gas reserves were in the north, northwest, and offshore. The hydroelectric potential of the country was the greatest in the world and sixth largest in capacity, and very large hydroelectric projects were under construction, with others were in the planning stage. Thermal power, mostly coal fired, produced approximately 68 percent of generating capacity in 1985, and was increased to 72 percent by 1990. Emphasis on thermal power in the late 1980s was seen by policy makers as a quick, shortterm solution to energy needs, and hydroelectric and nuclear power was seen as a long - term solution. Petroleum production growth continued in order to meet the needs of nationwide mechanization and provided important foreign exchange but domestic use was restricted as much as possible until the end of the decade.
Foreign trade was small by international standards but was growing rapidly in size and importance, as it represented 20 percent of GNP in 1985. Trade was controlled by the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade and subordinate units and by the Bank of China, the foreign exchange arm of the central bank. Substantial decentralization and increased flexibility in foreign trade operations occurred since the late 1970s. Textiles were leading the export category. Other important exports included petroleum and foodstuffs. Leading imports included machinery, transport equipment, manufactured goods, and chemicals. Japan was the dominant trading partner, and accounted for 28.9 percent of imports and 15.2 percent of exports in 1986. Hong Kong was a leading market for exports (31.6 percent) but a source of only 13 percent of imports. In 1979 the United States became China 's second largest source of imports and in 1986 was the third largest overall trade partner. Western Europe, particularly the Federal Republic of Germany, was also a major trading partner. Tourism was encouraged and growing.
China 's economy regained momentum in the early 1990s. During a Chinese New Year visit to southern China in early 1992, China 's paramount leader at the time Deng Xiaoping made a series of political pronouncements designed to give new impetus to and reinvigorate the process of economic reform. The 14th National Communist Party Congress later in the year backed up Deng 's renewed push for market reforms, stating that China 's key task in the 1990s was to create a "socialist market economy ''. Continuity in the political system but bolder reform in the economic system were announced as the hallmarks of the 10 - year development plan for the 1990s.
During 1993, output and prices were accelerating, investment outside the state budget was soaring, and economic expansion was fueled by the introduction of more than 2,000 special economic zones (SEZs) and the influx of foreign capital that the SEZs facilitated. The government approved additional long - term reforms aimed at giving still more play to market - oriented institutions and at strengthening central control over the financial system; state enterprises would continue to dominate many key industries in what was now termed a "socialist market economy ''. Fearing hyperinflation, the authorities called in speculative loans, raised interest rates, and reevaluated investment projects. The growth rate was thus tempered, and the inflation rate dropped from over 17 % in 1995 to 8 % in early 1996.
In 1996, the Chinese economy continued to grow at a rapid pace, at about 9.5 %, accompanied by low inflation. The economy slowed for the next 3 years, influenced in part by the Asian Financial Crisis, with official growth of 8.9 % in 1997, 7.8 % in 1998 and 7.1 % for 1999. From 1995 to 1999, inflation dropped sharply, reflecting tighter monetary policies and stronger measures to control food prices. The year 2000 showed a modest reversal of this trend. Gross domestic product in 2000 grew officially at 8.0 % that year, and had quadrupled since 1978. In 1999, with its 1.25 billion people but a GDP of just $3,800 per capita (PPP), China became the second largest economy in the world after the US. According to several sources, China did not become the second largest economy until 2010. However, according to Gallup polls many Americans rate China 's economy as first. Considering GDP per capita, this is far from accurate. The United States remains the largest economy in the world. However, the trend of China Rising is clear.
The Asian financial crisis affected China at the margin, mainly through decreased foreign direct investment and a sharp drop in the growth of its exports. However, China had huge reserves, a currency that was not freely convertible, and capital inflows that consisted overwhelmingly of long - term investment. For these reasons it remained largely insulated from the regional crisis and its commitment not to devalue had been a major stabilizing factor for the region. However, China faced slowing growth and rising unemployment based on internal problems, including a financial system burdened by huge amounts of bad loans, and massive layoffs stemming from aggressive efforts to reform state - owned enterprises (SOEs).
Despite China 's impressive economic development during the past two decades, reforming the state sector and modernizing the banking system remained major hurdles. Over half of China 's state - owned enterprises were inefficient and reporting losses. During the 15th National Communist Party Congress that met in September 1997, General secretary, President Jiang Zemin announced plans to sell, merge, or close the vast majority of SOEs in his call for increased "non-public ownership '' (feigongyou or privatization in euphemistic terms). The 9th National People 's Congress endorsed the plans at its March 1998 session. In 2000, China claimed success in its three - year effort to make the majority of large state owned enterprises (SOEs) profitable.
Following the Chinese Communist Party 's Third Plenum, held in October 2003, Chinese legislators unveiled several proposed amendments to the state constitution. One of the most significant was a proposal to provide protection for private property rights. Legislators also indicated there would be a new emphasis on certain aspects of overall government economic policy, including efforts to reduce unemployment (now in the 8 -- 10 % range in urban areas), to rebalance income distribution between urban and rural regions, and to maintain economic growth while protecting the environment and improving social equity. The National People 's Congress approved the amendments when it met in March 2004.
The Fifth Plenum in October 2005 approved the 11th Five - Year Economic Program (2006 -- 2010) aimed at building a "socialist harmonious society '' through more balanced wealth distribution and improved education, medical care, and social security. On March 2006, the National People 's Congress approved the 11th Five - Year Program. The plan called for a relatively conservative 45 % increase in GDP and a 20 % reduction in energy intensity (energy consumption per unit of GDP) by 2010.
China 's economy grew at an average rate of 10 % per year during the period 1990 -- 2004, the highest growth rate in the world. China 's GDP grew 10.0 % in 2003, 10.1 %, in 2004, and even faster 10.4 % in 2005 despite attempts by the government to cool the economy. China 's total trade in 2006 surpassed $1.76 trillion, making China the world 's third - largest trading nation after the U.S. and Germany. Such high growth is necessary if China is to generate the 15 million jobs needed annually -- roughly the size of Ecuador or Cambodia -- to employ new entrants into the job market.
On January 14, 2009 as confirmed by the World Bank the NBS published the revised figures for 2007 financial year in which growth happened at 13 percent instead of 11.9 percent (provisional figures). China 's gross domestic product stood at US $ 3.4 trillion while Germany 's GDP was USD $3.3 trillion for 2007. This made China the world 's third largest economy by gross domestic product. Based on these figures, in 2007 China recorded its fastest growth since 1994 when the GDP grew by 13.1 percent. China may have already overtaken Germany even earlier as China 's informal economy (including the Grey market and underground economy) is larger than Germany 's. Louis Kuijs, a senior economist at World Bank China Office in Beijing, said that China 's economy may even be (as of January 2009) as much as 15 percent larger than Germany 's. According to Merrill Lynch China economist Ting Lu, China is projected to overtake Japan in "three to four years ''.
Social and economic indicators have improved since various recent reforms were launched, but rising inequality is evident between the more highly developed coastal provinces and the less developed, poorer inland regions. According to UN estimates in 2007, around 130 million people in China -- mostly in rural areas of the lagging inland provinces -- still lived in poverty, on consumption of less than $1 a day. About 35 % of the Chinese population lives under $2 a day.
In the medium - term, economists state that there is ample amount of potential for China to maintain relatively high economic growth rates and is forecasted to be the world 's largest exporter by 2010. Urbanization in China and technological progress and catch - up with developed countries have decades left to run. But future growth is complicated by a rapidly aging population and costs of damage to the environment.
China launched its Economic Stimulus Plan to specifically deal with the Global financial crisis of 2008 -- 2009. It has primarily focused on increasing affordable housing, easing credit restrictions for mortgage and SMEs, lower taxes such as those on real estate sales and commodities, pumping more public investment into infrastructure development, such as the rail network, roads and ports.
Major natural disasters of 2008, such as the 2008 Chinese winter storms, the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, and the 2008 South China floods mildly affected national economic growth but did do major damage to local and regional economies and infrastructure. Growth rates for Sichuan dropped to 4.6 % in the 2nd quarter but recovered to 9.5 % annual growth for the whole of 2008. Major reconstruction efforts are still continuing after the May 12 earthquake, and are expected to last for at least three years. Despite closures and relocation of some factories because of the 2008 Summer Olympics, the games had a minor impact on Beijing 's overall economic growth. The Chinese economy is significantly affected by the 2008 - 9 global financial crisis due to the export oriented nature of the economy which depends heavily upon international trade. However, government economic - stimulus has been hugely successful by nearly all accounts.
Corporate income tax (CIT): The income tax for companies is set at 25 %, although there are some exceptions. When companies invest in industries supported by the Chinese government tax rates are only 15 %. Companies that are investing in these industries also get other advantages.
In the online realm, China 's e-commerce industry has grown more slowly than the EU and the US, with a significant period of development occurring from around 2009 onwards. According to Credit Suisse, the total value of online transactions in China grew from an insignificant size in 2008 to around RMB 4 trillion (US $660 billion) in 2012. Alipay has the biggest market share in China with 300 million users and control of just under half of China 's online payment market in February 2014, while Tenpay 's share is around 20 percent, and China UnionPay 's share is slightly greater than 10 percent.
According to the 2013 Corruption Perception Index, compiled by global coalition Transparency International, China is ranked 80 out of 177 countries, with a score of 40. The Index scores countries on a scale of 0 (highly corrupt) to 100 (very low corruption) and over half of the nations in the Asia Pacific region emerged with a score lower than 40. Transparency International stated in its final assessment:
If genuine efforts are to be made, the present efforts of the Chinese government should go beyond observing the rule of law. They should embrace political reforms that would allow checks and balances, transparency and independent scrutiny together with acknowledging the role that the civil society can play in countering corruption.
Until the 1980s the economy was directed and coordinated by means of economic plans that were formulated at all levels of administration. The reform program significantly reduced the role of central planning by encouraging off - plan production by state - owned units and by promoting the growth of collective and individual enterprises that did not fall under the planning system. The government also endeavored to replace direct plan control with indirect guidance of the economy through economic levers, such as taxes and investment support. Despite these changes, overall direction of the economy was still carried out by the central plan, as was allocation of key goods, such as steel and energy.
When China 's planning apparatus was first established in the early 1950s, it was patterned after the highly centralized Soviet system. That system basically depended on a central planning bureaucracy that calculated and balanced quantities of major goods demanded and supplied. This approach was substantially modified during the Great Leap Forward (1958 -- 60), when economic management was extensively decentralized. During the 1960s and 1970s, the degree of centralization in the planning system fluctuated with the political currents, waxing in times of pragmatic growth and waning under the influence of the Cultural Revolution and the Gang of Four.
At the national level, planning began in the highest bodies of the central government. National economic goals and priorities were determined by the party 's Central Committee, the State Council, and the National People 's Congress. These decisions were then communicated to the ministries, commissions, and other agencies under the State Council to be put into effect through national economic plans.
The State Planning Commission worked with the State Economic Commission, State Statistical Bureau, the former State Capital Construction Commission, People 's Bank of China, the economic ministries, and other organs subordinate to the State Council to formulate national plans of varying duration and import. Long - range plans as protracted as ten and twelve years also were announced at various times. These essentially were statements of future goals and the intended general direction of the economy, and they had little direct effect on economic activity. As of late 1987 the most recent such long - range plan was the draft plan for 1976 - 85, presented by Hua Guofeng in February 1978.
The primary form of medium - range plan was the five - year plan, another feature adopted from the Soviet system. The purpose of the five - year plan was to guide and integrate the annual plans to achieve balanced growth and progress toward national goals. In practice, this role was only fulfilled by the First Five - Year Plan (1953 -- 57), which served effectively as a blueprint for industrialization. The second (1958 -- 62), third (1966 -- 70), fourth (1971 -- 75), and fifth (1976 -- 80) five - year plans were all interrupted by political upheavals and had little influence. The Sixth Five - Year Plan (1981 -- 85) was drawn up during the planning period and was more a reflection of the results of the reform program than a guide for reform. The Seventh Five - Year Plan (1986 -- 90) was intended to direct the course of the reforms through the second half of the 1980s, but by mid-1987 its future was already clouded by political struggle.
A second form of medium - range planning appeared in the readjustment and recovery periods of 1949 -- 52, 1963 -- 65, and 1979 -- 81, each of which followed a period of chaos - the civil war, the Great Leap Forward, and the Gang of Four, respectively. In these instances, normal long - and medium - range planning was suspended while basic imbalances in the economy were targeted and corrected. In each case, objectives were more limited and clearly defined than in the five - year plans and were fairly successfully achieved.
The activities of economic units were controlled by annual plans. Formulation of the plans began in the autumn preceding the year being planned, so that agricultural output for the current year could be taken into account. The foundation of an annual plan was a "material balance table. '' At the national level, the first step in the preparation of a material balance table was to estimate - for each province, autonomous region, special municipality, and enterprise under direct central control - the demand and supply for each centrally controlled good. Transfers of goods between provincial - level units were planned so as to bring quantities supplied and demanded into balance. As a last resort, a serious overall deficit in a good could be made up by imports.
The initial targets were sent to the provincial - level administrations and the centrally controlled enterprises. The provincial - level counterparts of the state economic commissions and ministries broke the targets down for allocation among their subordinate counties, districts, cities, and enterprises under direct provincial - level control. Counties further distributed their assigned quantities among their subordinate towns, townships, and county - owned enterprises, and cities divided their targets into objectives for the enterprises under their jurisdiction. Finally, towns assigned goals to the state - owned enterprises they controlled. Agricultural targets were distributed by townships among their villages and ultimately were reduced to the quantities that villages contracted for with individual farm households.
At each level, individual units received their target input allocations and output quantities. Managers, engineers, and accountants compared the targets with their own projections, and if they concluded that the planned output quotas exceeded their capabilities, they consulted with representatives of the administrative body superior to them. Each administrative level adjusted its targets on the basis of discussions with subordinate units and sent the revised figures back up the planning ladder. The commissions and ministries evaluated the revised sums, repeated the material balance table procedure, and used the results as the final plan, which the State Council then officially approved.
Annual plans formulated at the provincial level provided the quantities for centrally controlled goods and established targets for goods that were not included in the national plan but were important to the province, autonomous region, or special municipality. These figures went through the same process of disaggregation, review, discussion, and reaggregation as the centrally planned targets and eventually became part of the provincial - level unit 's annual plan. Many goods that were not included at the provincial level were similarly added to county and city plans.
The final stage of the planning process occurred in the individual producing units. Having received their output quotas and the figures for their allocations of capital, labor, and other supplies, enterprises generally organized their production schedules into ten - day, one - month, three - month, and six - month plans.
The Chinese planning system has encountered the same problems of inflexibility and inadequate responsiveness that have emerged in other centrally planned economies. The basic difficulty has been that it is impossible for planners to foresee all the needs of the economy and to specify adequately the characteristics of planned inputs and products. Beginning in 1979 and 1980, the first reforms were introduced on an experimental basis. Nearly all of these policies increased the autonomy and decision - making power of the various economic units and reduced the direct role of central planning. By the mid-1980s planning still was the government 's main mechanism for guiding the economy and correcting imbalances, but its ability to predict and control the behavior of the economy had been greatly reduced.
Until the reform period of the late 1970s and 1980s, the prices of most commodities were set by government agencies and changed infrequently. Because prices did not change when production costs or demand for a commodity altered, they often failed to reflect the true values of goods, causing many kinds of goods to be misallocated and producing a price system that the Chinese government itself referred to as "irrational. ''
The best way to generate the accurate prices required for economic efficiency is through the process of supply and demand, and government policy in the 1980s increasingly advocated the use of prices that were "mutually agreed upon by buyer and seller, '' that is, determined through the market. The prices of products in the farm produce free markets were determined by supply and demand, and in the summer of 1985 the state store prices of all food items except grain also were allowed to float in response to market conditions. Prices of most goods produced by private and collectively owned enterprises in both rural and urban areas generally were free to float, as were the prices of many items that state - owned enterprises produced outside the plan. Prices of most major goods produced by state - owned enterprises, however, along with the grain purchased from farmers by state commercial departments for retail sales in the cities, still were set or restricted by government agencies and still were not sufficiently accurate.
In 1987 the price structure in China was chaotic. Some prices were determined in the market through the forces of supply and demand, others were set by government agencies, and still others were produced by procedures that were not clearly defined. In many cases, there was more than one price for the same commodity, depending on how it was exchanged, the kind of unit that produced it, or who the buyer was. While the government was not pleased with this situation, it was committed to continued price reform. It was reluctant, however, to release the remaining fixed prices because of potential political and economic disruption. Sudden unpredictable price changes would leave consumers unable to continue buying some goods; some previously profitable enterprises under the old price structure would begin to take losses, and others would abruptly become very wealthy.
As a result of the economic reform program and the increased importance of market exchange and profitability, in the 1980s prices played a central role in determining the production and distribution of goods in most sectors of the economy. Previously, in the strict centrally planned system, enterprises had been assigned output quotas and inputs in physical terms. Under the reform program, the incentive to show a positive profit caused even state - owned enterprises to choose inputs and products on the basis of prices whenever possible. State - owned enterprises could not alter the amounts or prices of goods they were required to produce by the plan, but they could try to increase their profits by purchasing inputs as inexpensively as possible, and their off - plan production decisions were based primarily on price considerations. Prices were the main economic determinant of production decisions in agriculture and in private and collectively owned industrial enterprises despite the fact that regulations, local government fees or harassment, or arrangements based on personal connections often prevented enterprises from carrying out those decisions.
Consumer goods were allocated to households by the price mechanism, except for rationed grain. Families decided what commodities to buy on the basis of the prices of the goods in relation to household income.
The grain market was a typical example of a situation in which the government was confronted with major problems whether it allowed the irrational price structure to persist or carried out price reform. State commercial agencies paid farmers a higher price for grain than the state received from the urban residents to whom they sold it. In 1985 state commercial agencies paid farmers an average price of ¥ 416.4 per ton of grain and then sold it in the cities at an average price of ¥ 383.3 a ton, for a loss of ¥ 33.1 per ton. Ninety million tons were sold under this arrangement, causing the government to lose nearly ¥ 3 billion. If the state reduced the procurement price, farmers would reduce their grain production. Because grain was the staple Chinese diet, this result was unacceptable. If the state increased the urban retail price to equal the procurement price, the cost of the main food item for Chinese families would rise 9 percent, generating enormous resentment. But even this alternative would probably not entirely resolve the problem, as the average free - market price of grain - ¥ 510.5 a ton in 1987 - indicated that its true value was well above the state procurement price.
There was no clear solution to the price policy dilemma. The approach of the government was to encourage the growth of nonplanned economic activity and thereby expand the proportion of prices determined by market forces. These market prices could then serve as a guide for more accurate pricing of planned items. It was likely that the Chinese economy would continue to operate with a dual price system for some years to come.
One of the most striking manifestations of economic instability in China in the 1930s and 1940s was runaway inflation. Inflation peaked during the Chinese civil war of the late 1940s, when wholesale prices in Shanghai increased 7.5 million times in the space of 3 years. In the early 1950s, stopping inflation was a major government objective, accomplished through currency reform, unification and nationalization of the banks, and tight control over prices and the money supply. These measures were continued until 1979, and China achieved a remarkable record of price stability. Between 1952 and 1978, retail prices for consumer goods grew at an average rate of only 0.6 percent a year.
During the reform period, higher levels of inflation appeared when government controls were reduced. The first serious jump in the cost of living for urban residents occurred in 1980, when consumer prices rose by 7.5 percent. In 1985 the increase was 11.9 percent, and in 1986 it was 7.6 percent. There were several basic reasons for this burst of inflation after thirty years of steady prices. First, the years before the reform saw a generally high rate of investment and concentration on the manufacture of producer goods. The resultant shortage of consumer commodities caused a gradual accumulation of excess demand: personal savings were relatively large, and, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was a booming market for such expensive consumer durables as watches and television sets. Second, the real value of many items changed as some resources became more scarce and as technology altered both manufacturing processes and products. The real cost of producing agricultural products rose with the increased use of modern inputs. Manufactured consumer goods that were more technologically advanced and more expensive than those previously on the market - such as washing machines and color television sets - became available.
During the early 1980s, both consumer incomes and the amount of money in circulation increased fairly rapidly and, at times, unexpectedly. Consumer incomes grew because of the reform program 's emphasis on material incentives and because of the overall expansion in productivity and income - earning possibilities. The higher profits earned and retained by enterprises were passed on to workers, in many cases, in the form of wage hikes, bonuses, and higher subsidies. At the same time, the expanded and diversified role of the banking system caused the amounts of loans and deposits to increase at times beyond officially sanctioned levels, injecting unplanned new quantities of currency into the economy.
By 1987, under the stimulus of the reform program, the Chinese economy had made major strides toward achieving modernization and improved living standards. The potential for further improvements in efficiency and productivity was greatly increased by the revival of the education system, the opening of the economy to broader trade and cooperation with other countries, the expanded use of the market to enliven commerce and production, and the increased decision - making power of individual economic units.
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Army. This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress document: "China: A country study ''. Federal Research Division.
|
how has the location of the atlantic provinces influenced its culture | Atlantic Canada - wikipedia
Atlantic Canada is the region of Canada comprising the four provinces located on the Atlantic coast, excluding Quebec: the three Maritime provinces -- New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia -- and the easternmost province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The population of the four Atlantic provinces in 2016 was about 2,300,000 on half a million km. The provinces combined had an approximate GDP of $110.308 billion in 2011.
The first Premier of Newfoundland, Joey Smallwood, coined the term "Atlantic Canada '' when Newfoundland joined the Dominion of Canada in 1949. He believed that it would have been presumptuous for Newfoundland to assume that it could include itself within the existing term "Maritime Provinces '', used to describe the cultural similarities shared by New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. The three Maritime provinces entered into confederation during the 19th century: New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were founding members of the Dominion of Canada in 1867, and Prince Edward Island joined in 1873. Today Atlantic Canada is a culturally distinct region of Canada, with the original founding cultures of Celtic, English and French remaining strong and vibrant to this day.
Although Quebec has physical Atlantic coasts on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Ungava Bay, and the Hudson Strait, it is generally not considered an Atlantic Province.
2016 census figures for "Metropolitan Areas '' (broadest definition, includes entire municipalities and all commuter municipalities) and "Population Centres '' (limited to actual continuously - built - up area) in Atlantic Canada. The list includes communities above 15,000, by Metropolitan Area population, or 10,000 by Population Centre population.
Coordinates: 47 ° N 62 ° W / 47 ° N 62 ° W / 47; - 62
|
how many models of mac computers does apple produce | Macintosh - wikipedia
The Macintosh (/ ˈmækɪntɒʃ / MAK - in - tosh; (branded as Mac since 1998) is a series of personal computers (PCs) designed, developed, and marketed by Apple Inc. Steve Jobs introduced the original Macintosh computer on January 24, 1984. This was the company 's first mass - market personal computer featuring an integral graphical user interface and mouse. This first model was later renamed to "Macintosh 128k '' for uniqueness amongst a populous family of subsequently updated models which are also based on Apple 's same proprietary architecture. Since 1998, Apple has largely phased out the Macintosh name in favor of "Mac '', and the product family has been nicknamed "Mac '' or "the Mac '' since the development of the first model.
The Macintosh was expensive, which hindered its ability to be competitive in a market already dominated by the Commodore 64 for consumers, as well as the IBM Personal Computer and its accompanying clone market for businesses. Macintosh systems still found success in education and desktop publishing and kept Apple as the second - largest PC manufacturer for the next decade. In the 1990s, improvements in the rival Wintel platform, notably with the introduction of Windows 3.0, then Windows 95, gradually took market share from the more expensive Macintosh systems. The performance advantage of 68000 - based Macintosh systems was eroded by Intel 's Pentium, and in 1994 Apple was relegated to third place as Compaq became the top PC manufacturer. Even after a transition to the superior PowerPC - based Power Macintosh (later renamed the Power Mac, in line with the PowerBook series) line in 1994, the falling prices of commodity PC components and the release of Windows 95 saw the Macintosh user base decline.
In 1998, after the return of Steve Jobs, Apple consolidated its multiple consumer - level desktop models into the all - in - one iMac G3, which became a commercial success and revitalized the brand. Since their transition to Intel processors in 2006, the complete lineup is entirely based on said processors and associated systems. Its current lineup comprises three desktops (the all - in - one iMac, entry - level Mac Mini, and the Mac Pro graphics workstation), and three laptops (the MacBook, MacBook Air, and the MacBook Pro). Its Xserve server was discontinued in 2011 in favor of the Mac Mini and Mac Pro.
Apple also develops the operating system for the Mac, currently macOS (formerly known as OS X) version 10.12 "Sierra ''. Macs are currently capable of running non-Apple operating systems such as Linux, OpenBSD, and Microsoft Windows with the aid of Boot Camp or third - party software. Apple does not license macOS for use on non-Apple computers, though it did license previous versions of the classic Mac OS through their Macintosh clone program from 1995 to 1997.
The Macintosh project was begun in 1979 by Jef Raskin, an Apple employee who envisioned an easy - to - use, low - cost computer for the average consumer. He wanted to name the computer after his favorite type of apple, the McIntosh, but the spelling was changed to "Macintosh '' for legal reasons as the original was the same spelling as that used by McIntosh Laboratory, Inc., the audio equipment manufacturer. Steve Jobs requested that McIntosh Laboratory give Apple a release for the name with its changed spelling so that Apple could use it, but the request was denied, forcing Apple to eventually buy the rights to use the name. (A 1984 Byte Magazine article suggested Apple changed the spelling only after "early users '' misspelled "McIntosh ''. However, Jef Raskin had adopted the "Macintosh '' spelling by 1981, when the Macintosh computer was still a single prototype machine in the lab. This explanation further clashes with the first explanation given above that the change was made for "legal reasons. '')
In 1978 Apple began to organize the Apple Lisa project, aiming to build a next - generation machine similar to an advanced Apple III or the yet - to - be-introduced IBM PC. In 1979, Steve Jobs learned of the advanced work on graphical user interfaces (GUI) taking place at Xerox PARC. He arranged a deal in which Xerox received Apple stock options in return for which Apple would license their designs, and their engineers would be allowed to visit PARC to see the systems in action. The Lisa project was immediately redirected to utilize a GUI, which at that time was well beyond the state of the art for microprocessor capabilities; the Xerox Alto required a custom processor that spanned several circuit boards in a case which was the size of a small refrigerator. Things had changed dramatically with the introduction of the 32 - bit Motorola 68000 in 1979, which offered at least an order of magnitude better performance than existing designs, and made a software GUI machine a practical possibility. The basic layout of the Lisa was largely complete by 1982, at which point Jobs ' continual suggestions for improvements led to him being kicked off the project.
At the same time that the Lisa was becoming a GUI machine in 1979, Jef Raskin started the Macintosh project. The design at that time was for a low - cost, easy - to - use machine for the average consumer. Instead of a GUI, it intended to use a text - based user interface that allowed several programs to be running and easily switched between, and special command keys on the keyboard that accessed standardized commands in the programs. Raskin was authorized to start hiring for the project in September 1979, and he immediately asked his long - time colleague, Brian Howard, to join him. His initial team would eventually consist of himself, Howard, Joanna Hoffman, Burrell Smith, and Bud Tribble. The rest of the original Mac team would include Bill Atkinson, Bob Belleville, Steve Capps, George Crow, Donn Denman, Chris Espinosa, Andy Hertzfeld, Bruce Horn, Susan Kare, Larry Kenyon, and Caroline Rose with Steve Jobs leading the project.
Smith 's first Macintosh board was built to Raskin 's design specifications: it had 64 kilobytes (kB) of RAM, used the 8 - bit Motorola 6809 E microprocessor, and was capable of supporting a 256 × 256 - pixel black - and - white bitmap display. Bud Tribble, a member of the Mac team, was interested in running the Apple Lisa 's graphical programs on the Macintosh, and asked Smith whether he could incorporate the Lisa 's Motorola 68000 microprocessor into the Mac while still keeping the production cost down. By December 1980, Smith had succeeded in designing a board that not only used the 68000, but increased its speed from the Lisa 's 5 MHz to 8 MHz; this board also had the capacity to support a 384 × 256 - pixel display. Smith 's design used fewer RAM chips than the Lisa, which made production of the board significantly more cost - efficient. The final Mac design was self - contained and had the complete QuickDraw picture language and interpreter in 64 KB of ROM -- far more than most other computers which typically had around 4 to 8 KB of ROM; it had 128 kB of RAM, in the form of sixteen 64 - kilobit (kb) RAM chips soldered to the logicboard. Though there were no memory slots, its RAM was expandable to 512 kB by means of soldering sixteen IC sockets to accept 256 kb RAM chips in place of the factory - installed chips. The final product 's screen was a 9 - inch (230 mm), 512x342 pixel monochrome display, exceeding the size of the planned screen.
Burrel 's innovative design, combining the low production cost of an Apple II with the computing power of Lisa 's Motorola 68000 CPU, began to receive Jobs ' attentions. Realizing that the Macintosh was more marketable than the Lisa, he began to focus his attention on the project. Raskin left the team in 1981 over a personality conflict with Jobs. After development had completed, team member Andy Hertzfeld said that the final Macintosh design is closer to Jobs ' ideas than Raskin 's. When Jobs was forced out of the Lisa team in 1982, he devoted his entire attentions to the Macintosh.
Jobs ' leadership at the Macintosh project did not last. Following an internal power struggle with then - new Apple CEO John Sculley, Jobs resigned from Apple in 1985. He went on to found NeXT, another computer company which targeted the education market, and did not return until 1997, when Apple acquired NeXT.
Jobs commissioned industrial designer Hartmut Esslinger to work on the Macintosh line, resulting in the "Snow White '' design language; although it came too late for the earliest Macs, it was implemented in most other mid - to late - 1980s Apple computers.
In 1982, Regis McKenna was brought in to shape the marketing and launch of the Macintosh. Later the Regis McKenna team grew to include Jane Anderson, Katie Cadigan and Andy Cunningham, who eventually led the Apple account for the agency. Cunningham and Anderson were the primary authors of the Macintosh launch plan. The launch of the Macintosh pioneered many different tactics that are used today in launching technology products, including the "multiple exclusive, '' event marketing (credited to John Sculley, who brought the concept over from Pepsi), creating a mystique around a product and giving an inside look into a product 's creation.
After the Lisa 's announcement, John Dvorak discussed rumors of a mysterious "MacIntosh '' project at Apple in February 1983. The company announced the Macintosh 128K -- manufactured at an Apple factory in Fremont, California -- in October 1983, followed by an 18 - page brochure included with various magazines in December. The Macintosh was introduced by a US $1.5 million Ridley Scott television commercial, "1984 ''. It most notably aired during the third quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984, and is now considered a "watershed event '' and a "masterpiece. '' McKenna called the ad "more successful than the Mac itself. '' "1984 '' used an unnamed heroine to represent the coming of the Macintosh (indicated by a Picasso - style picture of the computer on her white tank top) as a means of saving humanity from the "conformity '' of IBM 's attempts to dominate the computer industry. The ad alludes to George Orwell 's novel, Nineteen Eighty - Four, which described a dystopian future ruled by a televised "Big Brother. ''
Two days after "1984 '' aired, the Macintosh went on sale, and came bundled with two applications designed to show off its interface: MacWrite and MacPaint. It was first demonstrated by Steve Jobs in the first of his famous Mac keynote speeches, and though the Mac garnered an immediate, enthusiastic following, some labeled it a mere "toy. '' Because the operating system was designed largely around the GUI, existing text - mode and command - driven applications had to be redesigned and the programming code rewritten. This was a time - consuming task that many software developers chose not to undertake, and could be regarded as a reason for an initial lack of software for the new system. In April 1984, Microsoft 's MultiPlan migrated over from MS - DOS, with Microsoft Word following in January 1985. In 1985, Lotus Software introduced Lotus Jazz for the Macintosh platform after the success of Lotus 1 - 2 - 3 for the IBM PC, although it was largely a flop. Apple introduced the Macintosh Office suite the same year with the "Lemmings '' ad. Infamous for insulting its own potential customers, the ad was not successful.
Apple spent $2.5 million purchasing all 39 advertising pages in a special, post-election issue of Newsweek, and ran a "Test Drive a Macintosh '' promotion, in which potential buyers with a credit card could take home a Macintosh for 24 hours and return it to a dealer afterwards. While 200,000 people participated, dealers disliked the promotion, the supply of computers was insufficient for demand, and many were returned in such a bad condition that they could no longer be sold. This marketing campaign caused CEO John Sculley to raise the price from US $1,995 to US $2,495 (about $5,200 when adjusted for inflation in 2010). The computer sold well, nonetheless, reportedly outselling the IBM PCjr which also began shipping early that year. By April 1984 the company sold 50,000 Macintoshes, and hoped for 70,000 by early May and almost 250,000 by the end of the year.
Most Apple II sales had once been to companies, but the IBM PC caused small businesses, schools, and some homes to become Apple 's main customers. Jobs stated during the Macintosh 's introduction "we expect Macintosh to become the third industry standard '', after the Apple II and IBM PC. Although outselling every other computer, it did not meet expectations during the first year, especially among business customers. Only about ten applications including MacWrite and MacPaint were widely available, although many non-Apple software developers participated in the introduction and Apple promised that 79 companies including Lotus, Digital Research, and Ashton - Tate were creating products for the new computer. After one year, it had less than one quarter of the software selection available compared to the IBM PC -- including only one word processor, two databases, and one spreadsheet -- although Apple had sold 280,000 Macintoshes compared to IBM 's first year sales of fewer than 100,000 PCs.
Developers were required to learn how to write software that used the Macintosh 's graphic user interface, and early in the computer 's history needed a Lisa 2 or Unix system to write Macintosh software. Despite standardizing on Pascal for software development Apple did not release a native - code Pascal compiler. Until third - party Pascal compilers appeared, developers had to write software in other languages while still learning enough Pascal to understand Inside Macintosh. MacWrite 's inclusion with the Macintosh discouraged developers from creating other word processing software.
In 1985, the combination of the Mac, Apple 's LaserWriter printer, and Mac - specific software like Boston Software 's MacPublisher and Aldus PageMaker enabled users to design, preview, and print page layouts complete with text and graphics -- an activity to become known as desktop publishing. Initially, desktop publishing was unique to the Macintosh, but eventually became available for other platforms. Later, applications such as Macromedia FreeHand, QuarkXPress, and Adobe 's Photoshop and Illustrator strengthened the Mac 's position as a graphics computer and helped to expand the emerging desktop publishing market.
The Macintosh 's minimal memory became apparent, even compared with other personal computers in 1984, and could not be expanded easily. It also lacked a hard disk drive or the means to easily attach one. Many small companies sprang up to address the memory issue. Suggestions revolved around either upgrading the memory to 512 KB or removing the computer 's 16 memory chips and replacing them with larger - capacity chips, a tedious and difficult operation. In October 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh 512K, with quadruple the memory of the original, at a price of US $3,195. It also offered an upgrade for 128k Macs that involved replacing the logic board.
Apple released the Macintosh Plus on January 10, 1986, for a price of US $2,600. It offered one megabyte of RAM, easily expandable to four megabytes by the use of socketed RAM boards. It also featured a SCSI parallel interface, allowing up to seven peripherals -- such as hard drives and scanners -- to be attached to the machine. Its floppy drive was increased to an 800 kB capacity. The Mac Plus was an immediate success and remained in production, unchanged, until October 15, 1990; on sale for just over four years and ten months, it was the longest - lived Macintosh in Apple 's history. In September 1986, Apple introduced the Macintosh Programmer 's Workshop, or MPW, an application that allowed software developers to create software for Macintosh on Macintosh, rather than cross compiling from a Lisa. In August 1987, Apple unveiled HyperCard and MultiFinder, which added cooperative multitasking to the Macintosh. Apple began bundling both with every Macintosh.
Updated Motorola CPUs made a faster machine possible, and in 1987 Apple took advantage of the new Motorola technology and introduced the Macintosh II at $5500, powered by a 16 MHz Motorola 68020 processor. The primary improvement in the Macintosh II was Color QuickDraw in ROM, a color version of the graphics language which was the heart of the machine. Among the many innovations in Color QuickDraw were the ability to handle any display size, any color depth, and multiple monitors. The Macintosh II marked the start of a new direction for the Macintosh, as now for the first time it had an open architecture with several NuBus expansion slots, support for color graphics and external monitors, and a modular design similar to that of the IBM PC. It had an internal hard drive and a power supply with a fan, which was initially fairly loud. One third - party developer sold a device to regulate fan speed based on a heat sensor, but it voided the warranty. Later Macintosh computers had quieter power supplies and hard drives.
The Macintosh SE was released at the same time as the Macintosh II for $2900 (or $3900 with hard drive), as the first compact Mac with a 20 MB internal hard drive and an expansion slot. The SE 's expansion slot was located inside the case along with the CRT, potentially exposing an upgrader to high voltage. For this reason, Apple recommended users bring their SE to an authorized Apple dealer to have upgrades performed. The SE also updated Jerry Manock and Terry Oyama 's original design and shared the Macintosh II 's Snow White design language, as well as the new Apple Desktop Bus (ADB) mouse and keyboard that had first appeared on the Apple IIGS some months earlier.
In 1987, Apple spun off its software business as Claris. It was given the code and rights to several applications, most notably MacWrite, MacPaint, and MacProject. In the late 1980s, Claris released a number of revamped software titles; the result was the "Pro '' series, including MacDraw Pro, MacWrite Pro, and FileMaker Pro. To provide a complete office suite, Claris purchased the rights to the Informix Wingz spreadsheet program on the Mac, renaming it Claris Resolve, and added the new presentation software Claris Impact. By the early 1990s, Claris applications were shipping with the majority of consumer - level Macintoshes and were extremely popular. In 1991, Claris released ClarisWorks, which soon became their second best - selling application. When Claris was reincorporated back into Apple in 1998, ClarisWorks was renamed AppleWorks beginning with version 5.0.
In 1988, Apple sued Microsoft and Hewlett - Packard on the grounds that they infringed Apple 's copyrighted GUI, citing (among other things) the use of rectangular, overlapping, and resizable windows. After four years, the case was decided against Apple, as were later appeals. Apple 's actions were criticized by some in the software community, including the Free Software Foundation (FSF), who felt Apple was trying to monopolize on GUIs in general, and boycotted GNU software for the Macintosh platform for seven years.
With the new Motorola 68030 processor came the Macintosh IIx in 1988, which had benefited from internal improvements, including an on - board MMU. It was followed in 1989 by the Macintosh IIcx, a more compact version with fewer slots and a version of the Mac SE powered by the 16 MHz 68030, the Macintosh SE / 30. Later that year, the Macintosh IIci, running at 25 MHz, was the first Mac to be "32 - bit clean. '' This allowed it to natively support more than 8 MB of RAM, unlike its predecessors, which had "32 - bit dirty '' ROMs (8 of the 32 bits available for addressing were used for OS - level flags). System 7 was the first Macintosh operating system to support 32 - bit addressing. The following year, the Macintosh IIfx, starting at US $9,900, was unveiled. Apart from its fast 40 MHz 68030 processor, it had significant internal architectural improvements, including faster memory and two Apple II CPUs (6502s) dedicated to I / O processing.
Microsoft Windows 3.0 was released in May 1990, and according to a common saying at the time "Windows was not as good as Macintosh, but it was good enough for the average user ''. Though still a graphical wrapper that relied upon MS - DOS, 3.0 was the first iteration of Windows which had a feature set and performance comparable to the much more expensive Macintosh platform. It also did not help matters that during the previous year Jean - Louis Gassée had steadfastly refused to lower the profit margins on Mac computers. Finally, there was a component shortage that rocked the exponentially - expanding PC industry in 1989, forcing Apple USA head Allan Loren to cut prices, which dropped Apple 's margins.
In response, Apple introduced a range of relatively inexpensive Macs in October 1990. The Macintosh Classic, essentially a less expensive version of the Macintosh SE, was the least expensive Mac offered until early 2001. The 68020 - powered Macintosh LC, in its distinctive "pizza box '' case, offered color graphics and was accompanied by a new, low - cost 512 × 384 pixel monitor. The Macintosh IIsi was essentially a 20 MHz IIci with only one expansion slot. All three machines sold well, although Apple 's profit margin on them was considerably lower than that on earlier models.
Apple improved Macintosh computers by introducing models equipped with newly available processors from the 68k lineup. The Macintosh Classic II and Macintosh LC II, which used a 16 MHz 68030 CPU, were joined in 1991 by the Macintosh Quadra 700 and 900, the first Macs to employ the faster Motorola 68040 processor.
It was not long until Apple released their first portable computer, the Macintosh Portable in 1989. Although due to considerable design issues, it was soon replaced in 1991 with the first of the PowerBook line: the PowerBook 100, a miniaturized portable; the 16 MHz 68030 PowerBook 140; and the 25 MHz 68030 PowerBook 170. They were the first portable computers with the keyboard behind a palm rest and a built - in pointing device (a trackball) in front of the keyboard. The 1993 PowerBook 165c was Apple 's first portable computer to feature a color screen, displaying 256 colors with 640 × 400 - pixel resolution. The second generation of PowerBooks, the 68040 - equipped 500 series, introduced trackpads, integrated stereo speakers, and built - in Ethernet to the laptop form factor in 1994.
As for Mac OS, System 7 was a 32 - bit rewrite from Pascal to C++ that introduced virtual memory and improved the handling of color graphics, as well as memory addressing, networking, and co-operative multitasking. Also during this time, the Macintosh began to shed the "Snow White '' design language, along with the expensive consulting fees they were paying to Frogdesign. Apple instead brought the design work in - house by establishing the Apple Industrial Design Group, becoming responsible for crafting a new look for all Apple products.
Intel had tried unsuccessfully to push Apple to migrate the Macintosh platform to Intel chips. Apple concluded that Intel 's CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) architecture ultimately would not be able to compete against RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processors. While the Motorola 68040 offered the same features as the Intel 80486 and could on a clock - for - clock basis significantly outperform the Intel chip, the 486 had the ability to be clocked significantly faster without suffering from overheating problems, especially the clock - doubled i486DX2 which ran the CPU logic at twice the external bus speed, giving such equipped IBM compatible systems a significant performance lead over their Macintosh equivalents. Apple 's product design and engineering did not help matters as they restricted the use of the ' 040 to their expensive Quadras for a time while the 486 was readily available to OEMs as well as enthusiasts who put together their own machines. In late 1991, as the higher - end Macintosh desktop lineup transitioned to the ' 040, Apple was unable to offer the ' 040 in their top - of - the - line PowerBooks until early 1994 with the PowerBook 500 series, several years after the first 486 - powered IBM compatible laptops hit the market which cost Apple considerable sales. In 1993 Intel rolled out the Pentium processors as the successor to the 486, while the Motorola 68050 was never released, leaving the Macintosh platform a generation behind IBM compatibles in the latest CPU technology. In 1994, Apple abandoned Motorola CPUs for the RISC PowerPC architecture developed by the AIM alliance of Apple Computer, IBM, and Motorola. The Power Macintosh line, the first to use the new chips, proved to be highly successful, with over a million PowerPC units sold in nine months. However, in the long run, spurning Intel for the PowerPC was a mistake as the commoditization of Intel - architecture chips meant Apple could n't compete on price against "the Dells of the world ''.
Notwithstanding these technical and commercial successes on the Macintosh, the falling costs of components made IBM PC compatibles cheaper and accelerated their adoption, over Macintosh systems that remained fairly expensive. A successful price war initiated by Compaq vaulted them from third place to first among PC manufacturers in 1994, overtaking a struggling IBM and relegating Apple to third place.
Furthermore, Apple had created too many similar models that confused potential buyers. At one point, its product lineup was subdivided into Classic, LC, II, Quadra, Performa, and Centris models, with essentially the same computer being sold under a number of different names. These models competed against Macintosh clones, hardware manufactured by third parties to whom Apple had licensed System 7. This succeeded in increasing the Macintosh 's market share somewhat, and provided cheaper hardware for consumers, but hurt Apple financially as existing Apple customers began to buy cheaper clones which cannibalized the sales of Apple 's higher - margin Macintosh systems, while Apple continued to bear the burden of developing Mac OS.
Apple 's market share further struggled due to the release of the Windows 95 operating system, which unified Microsoft 's formerly separate MS - DOS and Windows products. Windows 95 significantly enhanced the multimedia capability and performance of IBM PC compatible computers, and brought the capabilities of Windows substantially nearer to parity with Mac OS.
When Steve Jobs returned to Apple in 1997 following the company 's purchase of NeXT, he ordered that the OS that had been previewed as System 7.7 be branded Mac OS 8, a name Apple had previously wished to preserve for the never - to - appear next generation Copland OS. This maneuver effectively ended the clone lines, as Apple had only licensed System 7 to clone manufacturers, not Mac OS 8. The decision caused significant financial losses for companies like Motorola, who produced the StarMax; Umax, who produced the SuperMac; and Power Computing, who offered several lines of Mac clones, including the PowerWave, PowerTower, and PowerTower Pro. These companies had invested substantial resources in creating their own Mac - compatible hardware. Apple bought out Power Computing 's license, but allowed Umax to continue selling Mac clones until their license expired, as they had a sizeable presence in the lower - end segment that Apple did not. In September 1997 Apple extended Umax ' license allowing them to sell clones with Mac OS 8, the only clone maker to do so, but with the restriction that they only sell low - end systems. Without the higher profit margins of high - end systems, however, Umax judged this would not be profitable and exited the Mac clone market in May 1998, having lost USD $36 million on the program.
In 1998, Apple introduced its new iMac which, like the original 128K Mac, was an all - in - one computer. Its translucent plastic case, originally Bondi blue and later various additional colors, is considered an industrial design landmark of the late 1990s. The iMac did away with most of Apple 's standard (and usually proprietary) connections, such as SCSI and ADB, in favor of two USB ports. It replaced a floppy disk drive with a CD - ROM drive for installing software, but was incapable of writing to CDs or other media without external third - party hardware. The iMac proved to be phenomenally successful, with 800,000 units sold in 139 days. It made the company an annual profit of US $309 million, Apple 's first profitable year since Michael Spindler took over as CEO in 1995. This aesthetic was applied to the Power Macintosh and later the iBook, Apple 's first consumer - level laptop computer, filling the missing quadrant of Apple 's "four - square product matrix '' (desktop and portable products for both consumers and professionals). More than 140,000 pre-orders were placed before it started shipping in September, and by October proved to be a large success.
The iMac also marked Apple 's transition from the "Macintosh '' name to the more simplistic "Mac ''. Apple completed elimination of the Macintosh product name in 1999, when "Power Macintosh '' was retired with the introduction of the Power Mac G4.
In early 2001, Apple began shipping computers with CD - RW drives and emphasized the Mac 's ability to play DVDs by including DVD - ROM and DVD - RAM drives as standard. Steve Jobs admitted that Apple had been "late to the party '' on writable CD technology, but felt that Macs could become a "digital hub '' that linked and enabled an "emerging digital lifestyle ''. Apple would later introduce an update to its iTunes music player software that enabled it to burn CDs, along with a controversial "Rip, Mix, Burn '' advertising campaign that some felt encouraged media piracy. This accompanied the release of the iPod, Apple 's first successful handheld device. Apple continued to launch products, such as the unsuccessful Power Mac G4 Cube, the education - oriented eMac, and the titanium (and later aluminium) PowerBook G4 laptop for professionals.
The original iMac used a PowerPC G3 processor, but G4 and G5 chips were soon added, both accompanied by complete case redesigns that dropped the array of colors in favor of white plastic. As of 2007, all iMacs use aluminium cases. On January 11, 2005, Apple announced the Mac Mini, priced at US $499, making it the cheapest Mac.
Mac OS continued to evolve up to version 9.2. 2, including retrofits such as the addition of a nanokernel and support for Multiprocessing Services 2.0 in Mac OS 8.6, though its dated architecture made replacement necessary. Initially developed in the Pascal programming language, it was substantially rewritten in C++ for System 7. From its beginnings on an 8 MHz machine with 128 KB of RAM, it had grown to support Apple 's latest 1 GHz G4 - equipped Macs. Since its architecture was laid down, features that were already common on Apple 's competition, like preemptive multitasking and protected memory, had become feasible on the kind of hardware Apple manufactured. As such, Apple introduced Mac OS X, a fully overhauled Unix - based successor to Mac OS 9. OS X uses Darwin, XNU, and Mach as foundations, and is based on NeXTSTEP. It was released to the public in September 2000, as the Mac OS X Public Beta, featuring a revamped user interface called "Aqua ''. At US $29.99, it allowed adventurous Mac users to sample Apple 's new operating system and provide feedback for the actual release. The initial version of Mac OS X, 10.0 "Cheetah '', was released on March 24, 2001. Older Mac OS applications could still run under early Mac OS X versions, using an environment called "Classic ''. Subsequent releases of Mac OS X included 10.1 "Puma '' (2001), 10.2 "Jaguar '' (2002), 10.3 "Panther '' (2003) and 10.4 "Tiger '' (2005).
Apple discontinued the use of PowerPC microprocessors in 2006. At WWDC 2005, Steve Jobs announced this transition, revealing that Mac OS X was always developed to run on both the Intel and PowerPC architectures. This was done in order to modernize the company 's computers, keeping pace with Intel 's low power Pentium M chips, especially for heat - sensitive laptops. The PowerPC G5 chip 's heavy power consumption and heat output (the Power Mac G5 had to be liquid - cooled) also prevented its use in Mac notebook computers (as well as the original Mac mini), which were forced to use the older and slower PowerPC G4 chip. These shortcomings of the PowerPC chips were the main reasons behind Apple 's transition to Intel processors, and the brand was revitalised by the subsequent boost in processing power available due to greater efficiency and the ability to implement multiple cores in Mac CPUs.
All new Macs now use x86 processors made by Intel, and some were renamed as a result. Intel - based Macs running OS X 10.6 and below (support has been discontinued since 10.7) can run pre-existing software developed for PowerPC using an emulator called Rosetta, although at noticeably slower speeds than native programs. However, the Classic environment is unavailable on the Intel architecture. Intel chips introduced the potential to run the Microsoft Windows operating system natively on Apple hardware, without emulation software such as Virtual PC. In March 2006, a group of hackers announced that they were able to run Windows XP on an Intel - based Mac. The group released their software as open source and has posted it for download on their website. On April 5, 2006, Apple announced the availability of the public beta of Boot Camp, software that allows owners of Intel - based Macs to install Windows XP on their machines; later versions added support for Windows Vista and Windows 7. Classic was discontinued in Mac OS X 10.5, and Boot Camp became a standard feature on Intel - based Macs.
Starting in 2006, Apple 's industrial design shifted to favor aluminum, which was used in the construction of the first MacBook Pro. Glass was added in 2008 with the introduction of the unibody MacBook Pro. These materials are billed as environmentally friendly. The iMac, MacBook Pro, MacBook Air, and Mac Mini lines currently all use aluminum enclosures, and are now made of a single unibody. Chief designer Jonathan Ive continues to guide products towards a minimalist and simple feel, including eliminating of replaceable batteries in notebooks. Multi-touch gestures from the iPhone 's interface have been applied to the Mac line in the form of touch pads on notebooks and the Magic Mouse and Magic Trackpad for desktops.
On February 24, 2011, Apple became the first company to bring to market a computer that utilized Intel 's new Thunderbolt (codename Light Peak) I / O interface. Using the same physical interface as a Mini DisplayPort, and backwards compatible with that standard, Thunderbolt boasts two - way transfer speeds of 10 Gbit / s.
Apple contracts hardware production to Asian original equipment manufacturers such as Foxconn and Pegatron, maintaining a high degree of control over the end product. By contrast, most other companies (including Microsoft) create software that can be run on hardware produced by a variety of third parties such as Dell, HP Inc. / Hewlett - Packard / Compaq, and Lenovo. Consequently, the Macintosh buyer has comparably fewer options, but has superior integration compared to a Microsoft buyer.
The current Mac product family uses Intel x86 - 64 processors. Apple introduced an emulator during the transition from PowerPC chips (called Rosetta), much as it did during the transition from Motorola 68000 architecture a decade earlier. The Macintosh is the only mainstream computer platform to have successfully transitioned to a new CPU architecture, and has done so twice. All current Mac models ship with at least 8 GB of RAM as standard other than the 1.4 GHz Mac Mini, MacBook Pro (without Retina Display), and MacBook Air. Current Mac computers use ATI / AMD Radeon or Nvidia GeForce graphics cards as well as Intel graphics built into the main CPU. All current Macs (except for the MacBook Pro without Retina Display) do not ship with an optical media drive that includes a dual - function DVD / CD burner. Apple refers to this as a SuperDrive. Current Macs include two standard data transfer ports: USB and Thunderbolt (except for the Retina MacBook, which only has a USB - C port and headphone port). MacBook Pro, iMac, MacBook Air, and Mac Mini computers now also feature the "Thunderbolt '' port, which Apple says can transfer data at speeds up to 10 gigabits per second. USB was introduced in the 1998 iMac G3 and is ubiquitous today, while FireWire was mainly reserved for high - performance devices such as hard drives or video cameras. Starting with the then - new iMac G5, released in October 2005, Apple started to include built - in iSight cameras on appropriate models, and a media center interface called Front Row that can be operated by an Apple Remote or keyboard for accessing media stored on the computer. Front Row has been discontinued as of 2011, however, and the Apple Remote is no longer bundled with new Macs.
Apple was initially reluctant to embrace mice with multiple buttons and scroll wheels. Macs did not natively support pointing devices that featured multiple buttons, even from third parties, until Mac OS X arrived in 2001. Apple continued to offer only single button mice, in both wired and Bluetooth wireless versions, until August 2005, when it introduced the Mighty Mouse. While it looked like a traditional one - button mouse, it actually had four buttons and a scroll ball, capable of independent x - and y - axis movement. A Bluetooth version followed in July 2006. In October 2009, Apple introduced the Magic Mouse, which uses multi-touch gesture recognition (similar to that of the iPhone) instead of a physical scroll wheel or ball. It is available only in a wireless configuration, but the wired Mighty Mouse (re-branded as "Apple Mouse '') is still available as an alternative. Since 2010, Apple has also offered the Magic Trackpad as a means to control Macintosh desktop computers in a way similar to laptops.
The original Macintosh was the first successful personal computer to use a graphical user interface devoid of a command line. It uses a desktop metaphor, depicting real - world objects like documents and a trash can as icons on - screen. Now known as the classic Mac OS, the System software was introduced in 1984 with the first Macintosh, renamed Mac OS in 1997, and continued to evolve until version 9.2. 2.
Originally, the hardware architecture was so closely tied to the classic Mac OS system that it was impossible to boot an alternative operating system. The most common workaround, is to boot into Mac OS and then to hand over control to a Mac OS - based bootloader application. Used even by Apple for A / UX and MkLinux, this technique is no longer necessary since the introduction of Open Firmware - based PCI Macs, though it was formerly used for convenience on many Old World ROM systems due to bugs in the firmware implementation. Since then, Mac hardware boots directly from Open Firmware in most PowerPC - based Macs or EFI in all Intel - based Macs.
In 2001, Apple introduced Mac OS X (renamed OS X in 2012 and macOS in 2016), based on Darwin and NeXTSTEP; its new features included the Dock and the Aqua user interface. During the transition, Apple included a virtual machine subsystem known as Classic, allowing users to run Mac OS 9 applications under Mac OS X 10.4 and earlier on PowerPC machines. Because macOS is a Unix operating system that borrows heavily from FreeBSD, many applications written for Linux or BSD run on it, often using X11. There are many popular Macintosh software applications; many of those from large developers, such as Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop are actively developed for both macOS and Windows. A large amount of open - source software applications, such as the Firefox web browser and the LibreOffice office suite, are cross-platform, and thereby also run natively on macOS.
Following the release of Intel - based Macs, third - party platform virtualization software such as Parallels Desktop, VMware Fusion, and VirtualBox began to emerge. These programs allow users to run Microsoft Windows or previously Windows - only software on Macs at near native speed. Apple also released Boot Camp and Mac - specific Windows drivers that help users to install Windows XP or Vista and natively dual boot between Mac OS X and Windows. Though not condoned by Apple, it is possible to run the Linux operating system using Boot camp or other virtualization workarounds. Unlike most PCs, however, Macs are unable to run many legacy PC operating systems. In particular, Intel - based Macs lack the A20 gate.
Since the introduction of the Macintosh, Apple has struggled to gain a significant share of the personal computer market. At first, the Macintosh 128K suffered from a dearth of available software compared to IBM 's PC, resulting in disappointing sales in 1984 and 1985. It took 74 days for 50,000 units to sell. Although Apple was not able to overcome the tidal wave of IBM PCs and its clones, Macintosh systems found success in education and desktop publishing.
Notwithstanding these technical and commercial successes on the Macintosh platform, their systems remained fairly expensive, making them less competitive in light of the falling costs of components that made IBM PC compatibles cheaper and accelerated their adoption. In 1989, Jean - Louis Gassée had steadfastly refused to lower the profit margins on Mac computers, then there was a component shortage that rocked the exponentially - expanding PC industry that year, forcing Apple USA head Allan Loren to cut prices which dropped Apple 's margins. Microsoft Windows 3.0 was released in May 1990, the first iteration of Windows which had a feature set and performance comparable to the significantly costlier Macintosh. Furthermore, Apple had created too many similar models that confused potential buyers; at one point the product lineup was subdivided into Classic, LC, II, Quadra, Performa, and Centris models, with essentially the same computer being sold under a number of different names.
Compaq, who had previously held the third place spot among PC manufacturers during the 1980s and early / mid-1990s, initiated a successful price war in 1994 that vaulted them to the biggest by the year end, overtaking a struggling IBM and relegating Apple to third place. Apple 's market share further struggled due to the release of the Windows 95 operating system, which unified Microsoft 's formerly separate MS - DOS and Windows products. Windows 95 significantly enhanced the multimedia capability and performance of IBM PC compatible computers, and brought the capabilities of Windows to parity with the Mac OS GUI.
In 1997, upon return to Apple as interim CEO, Steve Jobs terminated the Macintosh clone program while simplifying the computer product lines. If measuring market share by installed base, there were more than 20 million Mac users by 1997, compared to an installed base of around 340 million Windows PCs.
In 1998, the release of the iMac G3 all - in - one was a great success, selling 800,000 units in 139 days, providing a much needed boost to the ailing Macintosh platform. The introduction of the Power Macintosh and iBook laptop completed "four - square product matrix '' (desktop and portable products for both consumers and professionals), with the iBook ranking as the most popular laptop in the U.S. market for 1999.
In 2000, Apple released the Power Mac G4 Cube, their first desktop since the discontinued Power Macintosh G3, to slot between the iMac G3 and the Power Mac G4. Even with its innovative design, it was initially priced US $ 200 higher than the comparably - equipped and more - expandable base Power Mac G4, while also not including a monitor, making it too expensive and resulting in slow sales. Apple sold just 29,000 Cubes in Q4 of 2000 which was one third of expectations, compared to 308,000 Macs during that same quarter, and Cube sales dropped to 12,000 units in Q1 of 2001. A price drop and hardware upgrades could not offset the earlier perception of the Cube 's reduced value compared to the iMac and Power Mac G4 lineup, and it was discontinued in July 2001.
Starting in 2002, Apple moved to eliminate CRT displays from its product line as part of aesthetic design and space - saving measures with the iMac G4. However, the new iMac with its flexible LCD flat - panel monitor was considerably more expensive on its debut than the preceding iMac G3, largely due to the higher cost of the LCD technology at the time. In order to keep the Macintosh affordable for the education market and due to obsolescence of the iMac G3, Apple created the eMac in April 2002 as the intended successor; however the eMac 's CRT made it relatively bulky and somewhat outdated, while its all - in - one construction meant it could not be expanded to meet consumer demand for larger monitors. The iMac G4 's relatively high prices were approaching that of laptops which were portable and had higher resolution LCD screens. Meanwhile, Windows PC manufacturers could offer desktop configurations with LCD flat panel monitors at prices comparable to the eMac and at much lower cost than the iMac G4. The flop of the Power Mac G4 Cube, along with the more expensive iMac G4 and heavy eMac, meant that Macintosh desktop sales never reached the market share attained by the previous iMac G3. For the next half - decade while Macintosh sales held steady, it would instead be the iPod portable music player and iTunes music download service that would drive Apple 's sales growth.
Statistics from late 2003 indicate that Apple had 2.06 percent of the desktop share in the United States that had increased to 2.88 percent by Q4 2004. As of October 2006, research firms IDC and Gartner reported that Apple 's market share in the U.S. had increased to about 6 percent. Figures from December 2006, showing a market share around 6 percent (IDC) and 6.1 percent (Gartner) are based on a more than 30 percent increase in unit sale from 2005 to 2006. The installed base of Mac computers is hard to determine, with numbers ranging from 5 % (estimated in 2009) to 16 % (estimated in 2005).
In recent years, market share of the personal computer market is measured by browser hits, sales and installed base. If using the browser metric, Mac market share has increased substantially in 2007. Mac OS X 's share of the OS market increased from 7.31 % in December 2007 to 9.63 % in December 2008, which is a 32 % increase in market share during 2008, compared with a 22 % increase during 2007.
From 2001 to 2008, Mac sales increased continuously on an annual basis. Apple reported worldwide sales of 3.36 million Macs during the 2009 holiday season. As of Mid-2011, the Macintosh continues to enjoy rapid market share increase in the US, growing from 7.3 % of all computer shipments in 2010 to 9.3 % in 2011. According to IDC 's quarterly PC tracker, globally, in 3rd quarter of 2014, Apple 's PC market share increased 5.7 percent year over year, with record sales of 5.5 million units. Apple now sits in the number five spot, with a global market share of about 6 % during 2014, behind Lenovo, HP, Dell and Acer.
By March 2011, the market share of OS X in North America had increased to slightly over 14 %. Whether the size of the Mac 's market share and installed base is relevant, and to whom, is a hotly debated issue. Industry pundits have often called attention to the Mac 's relatively small market share to predict Apple 's impending doom, particularly in the early and mid-1990s when the company 's future seemed bleakest. Others argue that market share is the wrong way to judge the Mac 's success. Apple has positioned the Mac as a higher - end personal computer, and so it may be misleading to compare it to a budget PC. Because the overall market for personal computers has grown rapidly, the Mac 's increasing sales numbers are effectively swamped by the industry 's expanding sales volume as a whole. Apple 's small market share, then, gives the impression that fewer people are using Macs than did ten years ago, when exactly the opposite is true. Soaring sales of the iPhone and iPad mean that the portion of Apple 's profits represented by the Macintosh has declined in 2010, dropping to 24 % from 46 % two years earlier. Others try to de-emphasize market share, citing that it is rarely brought up in other industries. Regardless of the Mac 's market share, Apple has remained profitable since Steve Jobs ' return and the company 's subsequent reorganization. Notably, a report published in the first quarter of 2008 found that Apple had a 14 % market share in the personal computer market in the US, with 66 % of all computers over $1,000. Market research indicates that Apple draws its customer base from a higher - income demographic than the mainstream personal computer market.
The sales breakdown of the Macintosh have seen sales of desktop Macs stayed mostly constant while being surpassed by that of Mac notebooks whose sales rate has grown considerably; seven out of ten Macs sold were laptops in 2009, a ratio projected to rise to three out of four by 2010. The change in sales of form factors is due to the desktop iMac moving from affordable (iMac G3) to upscale (iMac G4) and subsequent releases are considered premium all - in - ones. By contrast the MSRP of the MacBook laptop lines have dropped through successive generations such that the MacBook Air and MacBook Pro constitute the lowest price of entry to a Mac, with the exception of the even more inexpensive Mac Mini (the only sub - $1000 offering from Apple, albeit without a monitor and keyboard), not surprisingly the MacBooks are the top - selling form factors of the Macintosh platform today. The use of Intel microprocessors has helped Macs more directly compete with their Windows counterparts on price and performance, and by the 2010s Apple was receiving Intel 's latest CPUs first before other PC manufacturers.
In recent years, Apple has seen a significant boost in sales of Macs. This has been attributed, in part, to the success of the iPod and the iPhone, a halo effect whereby satisfied iPod or iPhone owners purchase more Apple products, and Apple has since capitalized on that with the iCloud cloud service that allows users to seamlessly sync data between these devices and Macs. Nonetheless, like other personal computer manufacturers, the Macintosh lines have been hurt by consumer trend towards smartphones and tablet computers (particularly Apple 's own iPhone and iPad, respectively) as the computing devices of choice among consumers.
Although the PC market declined, Apple still managed to ship 2.8 million MacBooks in Q2 2012 (the majority of which are the MacBook Air) compared to 500,000 total Ultrabooks, although there were dozens of Ultrabooks from various manufacturers on the market while Apple only offered 11 - inch and 13 - inch models of the MacBook Air. The Air has been the best - selling ultra-portable in certain countries over Windows Ultrabooks, particularly the United States. While several Ultrabooks were able to claim individual distinctions such as being the lightest or thinnest, the Air was regarded by reviewers as the best all - around subnotebook / ultraportable in regard to "OS X experience, full keyboard, superior trackpad, Thunderbolt connector and the higher - quality, all - aluminum unibody construction ''. The Air was among the first to receive Intel 's latest CPUs before other PC manufacturers, and OS X has gained market share on Windows in recent years. Through July 1, 2013, the MacBook Air took in 56 percent of all Ultrabook sales in the United States, although being one of the higher - priced competitors, though several Ultrabooks with better features were often more expensive than the MacBook Air. The competitive pricing of MacBooks was particularly effective when rivals charged more for seemingly equivalent Ultrabooks, as this contradicted the established "elitist aura '' perception that Apple products cost more but were higher quality, which made these most expensive Ultrabooks seem exorbitant no matter how valid their higher prices were.
Apple has generally dominated the premium PC market, having a 91 percent market share for PCs priced at more than $1,000 in 2009, according to NPD. The Macintosh took 45 percent of operating profits in the PC industry during Q4 2012, compared to 13 percent for Dell, seven percent for Hewlett Packard, six percent for Lenovo and Asus, and one percent for Acer. While sales of the Macintosh have largely held steady, in comparison to Apple 's sales of the iPhone and iPad which increased significantly during the 2010s, Macintosh computers still enjoy high margins on a per unit basis, with the majority being their MacBooks that are focused on the ultraportable niche that is the most profitable and only growing segment of PCs. It also helped that the Macintosh lineup is simple, updated on a yearly schedule, and consistent across both Apple retail stores, and authorized resellers where they have a special "store within a store '' section to distinguish them from Windows PCs. In contrast, Windows PC manufacturers generally have a wide range of offerings, selling only a portion through retail with a full selection on the web, and often with limited - time or region - specific models. The Macintosh ranked third on the "list of intended brands for desktop purchases '' for the 2011 holiday season, then moved up to second in 2012 by displacing Hewlett Packard, and in 2013 took the top spot ahead of Dell.
|
where does the nosebleed in anime come from | Nosebleed - wikipedia
A nosebleed, also known as epistaxis (/ ˌɛpɪˈstæksɪs / EP - ih - STAK - sis), is the common occurrence of bleeding from the nose. It is usually noticed when blood drains out through the nostrils.
There are two types: anterior (the most common), and posterior (less common, more likely to require medical attention). Sometimes in more severe cases, the blood can come up the nasolacrimal duct and out from the eye. Fresh blood and clotted blood can also flow down into the stomach and cause nausea and vomiting.
Although the sight of large amounts of blood can be alarming and may warrant medical attention, nosebleeds are rarely fatal, accounting for only 4 of the 2.4 million deaths in the U.S. in 1999. About 60 % of people have a nosebleed at some point in their life. About 10 % of nosebleeds are serious.
The causes of nosebleeds can generally be divided into two categories, local and general factors, although a significant number of nosebleeds occur with no obvious cause.
Nosebleeds are due to the rupture of a blood vessel within the richly perfused nasal mucosa. Rupture may be spontaneous or initiated by trauma. Nosebleeds are reported in up to 60 % of the population with peak incidences in those under the age of ten and over the age of 50 and appear to occur in males more than females. An increase in blood pressure (e.g. due to general hypertension) tends to increase the duration of spontaneous epistaxis. Anticoagulant medication and disorders of blood clotting can promote and prolong bleeding. Spontaneous epistaxis is more common in the elderly as the nasal mucosa (lining) becomes dry and thin and blood pressure tends to be higher. The elderly are also more prone to prolonged nose bleeds as their blood vessels are less able to constrict and control the bleeding.
The vast majority of nose bleeds occur in the anterior (front) part of the nose from the nasal septum. This area is richly endowed with blood vessels (Kiesselbach 's plexus). This region is also known as Little 's area. Bleeding farther back in the nose is known as a posterior bleed and is usually due to bleeding from Woodruff 's plexus, a venous plexus situated in the posterior part of inferior meatus. Posterior bleeds are often prolonged and difficult to control. They can be associated with bleeding from both nostrils and with a greater flow of blood into the mouth.
Sometimes blood flowing from other sources of bleeding passes through the nasal cavity and exits the nostrils. It is thus blood coming from the nose but is not a true nosebleed, that is, not truly originating from the nasal cavity. Such bleeding is called pseudoepistaxis (pseudo + epistaxis). Examples include blood coughed up through the airway and ending up in the nasal cavity, then dripping out.
The flow of blood normally stops when the blood clots, which may be encouraged by direct pressure applied by pinching the soft fleshy part of the nose. This applies pressure to Little 's area (Kiesselbach 's area), the source of the majority of nose bleeds, and promotes clotting. Pressure should be firm and be applied for at least five minutes and up to 20 minutes; tilting the head forward helps decrease the chance of nausea and airway obstruction. Swallowing excess blood can irritate the stomach and cause vomiting.
The local application of a vasoconstrictive agent has been shown to reduce the bleeding time in benign cases of epistaxis. The drugs oxymetazoline or phenylephrine are widely available in over-the - counter nasal sprays for the treatment of allergic rhinitis, and they may be used for this purpose.
If these simple measures do not work then medical intervention may be needed to stop bleeding. The use of silver nitrate to cauterize bleeding blood vessels is common but not very useful for those with more than mild bleeding. It is also often painful even when freezing is used.
There are two types of nasal packing, anterior nasal packing and posterior nasal packing. There are a number of different types of anterior nasal packs. Some use gauze and others use balloons. Posterior packing can be achieved by using a Foley catheter, blowing up the balloon when it is in the back of the throat, and applying traction. Ribbon gauze or Merocel packing can also be used. There are also several dissolvable packing materials, such as surgicel that function as a pack but are not removed and dissolve after a few days. Packing is generally left in for two to five days.
Ongoing bleeding despite good nasal packing is a surgical emergency and can be treated by endoscopic evaluation of the nasal cavity under general anaesthesia to identify an elusive bleeding point or to directly ligate (tie off) the blood vessels supplying the nose. These blood vessels include the sphenopalatine, anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries. More rarely the maxillary or a branch of the external carotid artery can be ligated. The bleeding can also be stopped by intra-arterial embolization using a catheter placed in the groin and threaded up the aorta to the bleeding vessel by an interventional radiologist. There is no difference in outcomes between embolization and ligation as treatment options, but embolization is considerably more expensive. Continued bleeding may be an indication of more serious underlying conditions.
The utility of local cooling of the head and neck is controversial. Some state that applying ice to the nose or forehead is not useful. Others feel that it may promote vasoconstriction of the nasal blood vessels and thus be useful.
Application of a topical antibiotic ointment to the nasal mucosa has been shown to be an effective treatment for recurrent epistaxis. One study found it as effective as nasal cautery in the prevention of recurrent epistaxis in people without active bleeding at the time of treatment -- both had a success rate of approximately 50 percent.
In the visual language of Japanese manga and anime, a sudden, violent nosebleed indicates that the bleeding person is sexually aroused. In Western fiction, nosebleeds often signify intense mental focus or effort, particularly during the use of psychic powers.
In American and Canadian usage, "nosebleed section '' or "nosebleed seats '' are common slang for seating at sporting or other spectator events that are the highest up and farthest away from the event. The reference alludes to the propensity for nasal hemorrhage at high altitudes, usually owing to lower barometric pressure.
The oral history of the Native American Sioux tribe includes reference to women who experience nosebleeds as a result of a lover 's playing of music, implying sexual arousal.
In Finnish language, "begging for a nosebleed '' is commonly used in abstract meaning to describe self - destructive behaviour, for example ignoring safety procedures or deliberately aggravating stronger parties.
In Filipino slang, to "have a nosebleed '' is to have serious difficulty conversing in English with a fluent or native English speaker. It can also refer to anxiety brought on by a stressful event such as an examination or a job interview.
In the Dutch language, "pretending to have a nosebleed '' is a saying that means pretending not to know anything about something, when actually being involved somehow.
The word epistaxis is from Greek: ἐπιστάζω epistazo, "to bleed from the nose '' from ἐπί epi, "above, over '' and στάζω stazo, "to drip (from the nostrils) ''.
|
english august (1994) movie free download | English, August (film) - Wikipedia
English, August, made in 1994, is an Indian film and director Dev Benegal 's first feature film. This film ignited the next generation of Indian cinema and is acknowledged as a landmark in contemporary Indian cinema. A humorous and irreverent study of bureaucracy and the Indian Generation X, English, August won several awards at international film festivals.
English, August became the first Indian independent film to break the stranglehold of mainstream Indian Bollywood cinema when it was acquired by 20th Century Fox and became a theatrical success in the country. This has led the way for other low budget, independent movies such as Bombay Boys and Split Wide Open, which are part of the next generation of "middle cinema ''.
The film is based on the novel English August by Upamanyu Chatterjee.
The negatives of the film were lost due to flooding at a storage facility of Prasad Studios. An attempt at restoration is underway.
Agastya Sen (Rahul Bose), nicknamed "English, August '', speaks and thinks in English. A lover of poetry, he listens to Bob Dylan, Miles Davis, rock and jazz and reads Marcus Aurelius. He is also an Indian Administrative Service Officer, a member of the most influential and powerful cadre of civil servants in India. He is sent off for a year 's training to Madna, the hottest town in the country. Culture shock and a language barrier in his own country follows (August 's mother tongue is Bengali). He feels like a foreigner, but must survive.
Moreover, August is surrounded by wild characters: Srivastava, the pompous head bureaucrat and his wife Malti, the fashion and cultural leader of the town; Sathe, a local pothead and cartoonist; Kumar, the Police Superintendent and connoisseur of porn films; and Vasant, the world 's worst cook. August negotiates this provincial creek with the only paddle he can find; Fantasy, daydreams and "self - abuse '' become his means of revolt and escape as he escapes from the heat into the mystery and quiet of his secret world of erotic fantasy and contemplation.
The original soundtrack for the film is composed by D. Wood and consists of the following instrumental tracks.
|
which of the following is not a characteristic of automatic thinking | Automatic and controlled processes - wikipedia
Automatic and controlled processes (ACP) are the two categories of cognitive processing. All cognitive processes fall into one or both of those two categories. The amounts of "processing power '', attention, and effort a process requires is the primary factor used to determine whether it 's a controlled or an automatic process. An automatic process is capable of occurring without the need for attention, and the awareness of the initiation or operation of the process, and without drawing upon general processing resources or interfering with other concurrent thought processes. Put simply, an automatic process is unintentional, involuntary, effortless (not consumptive of limited processing capacity), and occurring outside awareness. Controlled processes are defined as a process that is under the flexible, intentional control of the individual, that he or she is consciously aware of, and that are effortful and constrained by the amount of attentional resources available at the moment.
When examining the label "automatic '' in social psychology, we find that some processes are intended, and others require recent conscious and intentional processing of related information. That being said automatic effects fall into three classes: Those that occur prior to conscious awareness (preconscious); those that require some form of conscious processing but that produce an unintended outcome (postconscious); and those that require a specific type of intentional, goal directed processing (goal - dependent).
Preconscious automaticity requires only the triggering proximal stimulus event, and occur prior to or in the absence of any conscious awareness of that event. Because they occur without our conscious awareness they are unnoticeable, uncontrollable, and nearly effortless. Many previous studies suggest that the mere perception of the physical behaviors of others, as well as abstract categories (race, gender, role - related) that occurs passively in person perception results in increased tendencies to behave in the same way oneself. So basically a stimulus may that be person, object, or an action will unconsciously affect one 's response and or behavior without one 's knowledge. In a study they subliminally exposed one of the participants with an African American face or a Caucasian face before the participants engaged in a verbal game. The study concluded that when participants were subliminally exposed to the African American faces they were significantly more aggressive in the verbal game than those exposed to the Caucasian face. In a study related to this the participants were required to play a video game that depicted a real - life situation that involved deciding to shoot a man with a gun. Participants were shown pictures of both Caucasian and African American men with or without a gun or another object in hand. The participants had to respond "Shoot '' or "Not Shoot '' within milliseconds. The results were that participants significantly decided to shoot faster when African Americans had a gun versus Caucasians.
Postconscious automaticity depends on recent conscious experience for its occurrence. This postconscious influence on processing can be defined as the non-conscious consequences of conscious thought. The conscious experience may be intentional, or it may be unintentional, what is important is that the material be in awareness. Most things we are aware of are driven by the environment, and one does not intend or control the flood of these perceptual experiences, yet they still result in postconscious effects. In other words, we need to consciously engage in something and depending on the experience we will unconsciously think, and or behave a certain way. In the classic Bobo doll experiment a child watches a video of an adult acting aggressive towards a Bobo doll. Later when the child is put in the room with that same doll, the child was more likely to also engage in that act, versus children who did n't watch the video. In a study participants were primed with the stereotype of professors by being told to imagine a typical professor for 5 min and to list (a conscious act) the behaviors, lifestyle, and appearance attributes of this typical professor. After they were primed they had to perform a general knowledge task. The results were that the participants in the professor condition outperformed those in the control conditions (those not primed at all).
Goal - dependent automaticity concerns skill and thought processes that require a goal to engage in them. This process is much similar to postconscious in that it requires conscious awareness to be initiated, but after that it can be guided outside of awareness by the unconscious mind. A good example would be driving a car: in order to drive a car, one needs to consciously have a goal to drive somewhere. When engaged in driving (only with enough practice) one can almost operate the car almost entirely without conscious awareness. However, more attentional control and decision making are needed when introduced to novel (reference) situations like driving through an unfamiliar town. The process needs to be learned enough that it can be automatic, requiring little conscious thought as to how to do it.
One definition of a controlled process is an intentionally - initiated sequence of cognitive activities. In other words, when attention is required for a task, we are consciously aware and in control. Controlled processes require us to think about situations, evaluate and make decisions. An example would be reading this article. We are required to read and understand the concepts of these processes and it takes effort to think conceptually. Controlled processes are thought to be slower, since by definition they require effortful control; therefore, they generally can not be conducted simultaneously with other controlled processes without task - switching or impaired performance. So the drawback of controlled processes is that humans are thought to have a limited capacity for overtly controlling behavior. Being tightly capacity - limited, controlled processing imposes considerable limitations on speed and the ability to multitask. In a study, participants were randomly assigned into two conditions, one requiring one task (small cognitive load) and one requiring two tasks (heavy cognitive load). In the one - task condition, participants were told that they would hear an anti - or pro-abortion speech and would have to diagnose the speaker 's attitude toward abortion. The two - task condition had the same first assignment, but they were required to switch spots with the speaker and take their place after that. Even after being specifically told that they would be given further instructions at the next step, their cognitive load was affected in this study. Participants in the two - task condition performed more poorly than the one - task condition simply because they had the next task on their mind (they had extra cognitive load). Basically, the more tasks someone tries to manage at the same time, the more their performance will suffer.
Some cognitive processes are difficult to categorize as distinctly automatic or controlled, either because they contain components of both types of process or because the phenomena are difficult to define or observe. An example of the former is driving a car. An example of the latter is flow.
Flow has been described as involving highly focused attention on the task at hand, loss of self - consciousness, and distorted time perception, among other cognitive characteristics. Some people report that during flow states they are less aware of autonomic responses such as hunger, fatigue, and discomfort. Some researchers hypothesize that because of this, some challenging tasks can counterintuitively require less effort to perform.
Flow has been difficult to study, however, because it is difficult to produce in a controlled laboratory setting. Most experiments have relied heavily on correlating the presence of flow with various attributes of the task and the subjects ' reported experiences. Of those correlations, subjects experiencing flow generally report that they perceive a good match between the task requirements and their skills (e.g. a professional basketball player in a professional basketball game.) Task structure and the clarity of the goal of the task are also thought to be related to when flow occurs. All of these aspects of flow imply that there must be an opportunity to suppress other controlled processes, as well as inhibit certain types of automatic processes.
A study involving video game performance showed that flow in participants (determined based on a self - report survey of flow characteristics) strongly correlated with performance in the game. A related study attempted to inhibit and induce flow by biasing the moods of participants. The experimenters found that flow could be inhibited by a negative mood, but could not be induced by a positive mood.
"A person does not need to be told to pay attention to a stimulus that captures attention quickly and effortlessly. In many cases, explicitly directing one 's own or another 's attention is necessary due to the presence of another stimulus that more easily captures attention. In the case of flow, however, an action that would normally grab one 's attention is ignored, and many automatic processes are either suppressed (such as stimulus - driven attention changes) or ignored (such as discomfort.)
On the other hand, situations in which autonomy is encroached upon (for example, if the individual must always control his / her actions to abide by rules imposed by the task) are thought to inhibit flow. This implies that another requirement of flow is to be free from constraints that force controlled processes to be used. Additionally, several areas of research indicate that during a state of flow an otherwise - controlled process becomes automatic allowing it to behave dominant over all other automatic processes.
|
what is the square footage of the mall of america | List of largest Shopping malls in the United States - wikipedia
List of the shopping malls in the United States of America and its territories greater than or equal to 2,000,000 total square feet of retail space (gross leasable area). The list is based in part on information provided by the International Council of Shopping Centers and by the Department of American Studies at Eastern Connecticut State University as part of its Shopping Mall Studies.
|
when was the last time the chicago white sox won the world series | Chicago White Sox - Wikipedia
The Chicago White Sox are an American professional baseball team based in Chicago. The White Sox compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) Central division. Home games are held at Guaranteed Rate Field, located on the city 's South Side, and the team is owned by Jerry Reinsdorf. They are one of two major league clubs in Chicago; the other is the Chicago Cubs, who are a member of the National League (NL) Central division.
One of the American League 's eight charter franchises, the franchise was established as a major league baseball club in 1901. The club was originally called the Chicago White Stockings, but this was soon shortened to Chicago White Sox. The team originally played home games at South Side Park before moving to Comiskey Park in 1910, where they played until Guaranteed Rate Field opened in 1991.
The White Sox won the 1906 World Series with a defense - oriented team dubbed "the Hitless Wonders '', and the 1917 World Series led by Eddie Cicotte, Eddie Collins, and Shoeless Joe Jackson. The 1919 World Series was marred by the Black Sox Scandal, in which several members of the White Sox were accused of conspiring with gamblers to fix games. In response, Major League Baseball 's new Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis banned the players from Major League Baseball for life. In 1959, led by Early Wynn, Nellie Fox, Luis Aparicio and manager Al López, the White Sox won the American League pennant. They won the AL pennant in 2005, and went on to win the World Series, led by Paul Konerko, Mark Buehrle, catcher A.J. Pierzynski, and the first Latino manager to win the World Series, Ozzie Guillén.
The White Sox originated as the Sioux City Cornhuskers of the Western League, a minor league under the parameters of the National Agreement with the National League. In 1894, Charles Comiskey bought the Cornhuskers and moved them to St. Paul, Minnesota, where they became the St. Paul Saints. In 1900, with the approval of Western League president Ban Johnson, Charles Comiskey moved the Saints into his hometown neighborhood of Armour Square, Chicago, where they became known as the White Stockings, the former name of Chicago 's National League team, the Orphans (now the Chicago Cubs).
In 1901, the Western League broke the National Agreement and became the new major league American League. The very first season in the American League ended with a White Stockings championship. However, that would be the end of the season as the World Series did not begin until 1903. The franchise, now known as the Chicago White Sox, made its first World Series appearance in 1906, beating the crosstown Cubs in six games.
The White Sox would win a third pennant and second World Series in 1917, beating the New York Giants in six games with help from stars Eddie Cicotte and "Shoeless '' Joe Jackson. The Sox were heavily favored in the 1919 World Series, but lost to the Cincinnati Reds in 8 games. Huge bets on the Reds fueled speculation that the series had been fixed. A criminal investigation went on in the 1920 season, and though all players were acquitted, commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis banned six of the White Sox players for life, in what was known as the Black Sox Scandal. This set the franchise back, as they did not win another pennant for 40 years.
The White Sox did not finish in the upper half of the American League again until after club founder Charles Comiskey died and passed ownership of the club to his son, J. Louis Comiskey. They finished in the upper half most years between 1936 -- 1946 under the leadership of manager Jimmy Dykes, with star shortstop Luke Appling, known as Ol ' Aches and Pains, and pitcher Ted Lyons. Appling and Lyons have their numbers 4 and 16 retired.
After J. Louis Comiskey died in 1939, ownership of the club was passed down to his widow, Grace Comiskey. The club was later passed down to Grace 's children Dorothy and Chuck in 1956, with Dorothy selling a majority share to a group led by Bill Veeck after the 1958 season. Veeck was notorious for his promotional stunts, attracting fans to Comiskey Park with the new "exploding scoreboard '' and outfield shower. In 1961, Arthur Allyn, Jr. briefly owned the club before selling to his brother John Allyn.
From 1951 to 1967, the White Sox had their longest period of sustained success, scoring a winning record for 17 straight seasons. Known as the "Go - Go White Sox '' for their tendency to focus on speed and getting on base versus power hitting, they featured stars such as Minnie Miñoso, Nellie Fox, Luis Aparicio, Billy Pierce, and Sherm Lollar. From 1957 to 1965, the Sox were managed by Al López. The Sox finished in the upper half of the American League in eight of his nine seasons, including six years in the top two of the league. In 1959, the White Sox ended the New York Yankees dominance over the American League, and won their first pennant since the ill - fated 1919 campaign. Despite winning game one of the 1959 World Series 11 - 0, they fell to the Los Angeles Dodgers in six games.
The late 1960s and 70s were a tumultuous time for the Sox, as they struggled to win games and attract fans. Allyn and Bud Selig agreed to a handshake deal that would give Selig control of the club and move them to Milwaukee; however, this was blocked by the American League. Selig instead bought the Seattle Pilots and moved them to Milwaukee, putting enormous pressure on the American League to place a team in Seattle. A plan was in place for the Sox to move to Seattle and for Charlie Finley to move his Oakland A 's to Chicago. However, Chicago had a renewed interest in the Sox after the 1972 season, and the American League instead added the expansion Seattle Mariners. The 1972 White Sox were one of the lone successful season of this era, as Dick Allen wound up winning the American League MVP award. Some have said that Dick Allen is responsible for saving the White Sox in Chicago. Bill Veeck returned as owner of the Sox in 1975, and despite not having much money, they managed to win 90 games in 1977, a team known as the South Side Hitmen.
However, the team 's fortunes plummeted after the 1977 season, plagued by 90 - loss teams and scarred by the notorious Disco Demolition Night promotion in 1979. Bill Veeck was forced to sell the team. He rejected offers from ownership groups intent on moving the club to Denver, eventually agreeing to sell the club to Ed DeBartolo, who was the only prospective owner who promised to keep the Sox in Chicago. However, DeBartolo was rejected by the owners, and the club was then sold to a group headed by Jerry Reinsdorf and Eddie Einhorn. The Reinsdorf era started off well, as the Sox won their first division title in 1983, led by manager Tony La Russa and stars Carlton Fisk, Tom Paciorek, Ron Kittle, Harold Baines, and LaMarr Hoyt. During the 1986 season, La Russa was fired by announcer - turned - GM Ken Harrelson. La Russa went on to manage in six World Series (winning 3) with the Oakland A 's and St. Louis Cardinals, ending up in the Hall of Fame as the third - winningest manager of all time.
The White Sox struggled for the rest of the 1980s, as Chicago fought to keep the Sox in town. Reinsdorf wanted to replace the aging Comiskey Park, and sought public funds to do so. When talks stalled, there was a strong offer to move the team to the Tampa, Florida area. Funding for a new ballpark was approved in an 11th hour deal by the Illinois State Legislature on June 30, 1988, with the stipulation that new park had to be built on the corner of 35th and Shields, across the street from the old ballpark, as opposed to the suburban ballpark the owners had designed. Architects offered to redesign the ballpark to a more "retro '' feel that would fit in the city blocks around Comiskey Park; however, the ownership group was set on a 1991 open date, and so they kept the old design. In 1991, the new Comiskey Park opened. However, it would be rendered obsolete a year later with the opening of the retro - inspired Oriole Park at Camden Yards. The park, now known as Guaranteed Rate Field, underwent many renovations in the early 2000s to give it a more retro feel.
The White Sox were fairly successful in the 1990s and early 2000s, with 12 winning seasons between 1990 -- 2005. First Baseman Frank Thomas became the face of the franchise, ending his career as the White Sox ' all - time leader in runs, doubles, home runs, total bases and walks. Other major players included Robin Ventura, Ozzie Guillén, Jack McDowell, and Bobby Thigpen. The Sox would win the West division in 1993, and were in first place in 1994 when the season was cancelled due to the 1994 MLB Strike.
In 2004, Ozzie Guillén was hired as manager of his former team. After finishing second in 2004, the Sox won 99 games and the Central Division title in 2005 behind the work of stars Paul Konerko, Mark Buehrle, A.J. Pierzynski, Joe Crede, and Orlando Hernández. They started the playoffs by sweeping the defending champion Boston Red Sox in the ALDS, and then beat the Angels in 5 games to win their first pennant in 46 years, thanks to 4 complete games by the White Sox rotation. The White Sox went on to sweep the Houston Astros in the 2005 World Series, giving the Sox their first World Championship in 88 years.
Guillen had marginal success during the rest of his tenure, with the Sox winning the Central Division title in 2008 after a one game playoff with the Minnesota Twins. However, Guillen left the White Sox after the 2011 season, and was replaced by former teammate Robin Ventura. The White Sox finished the 2015 season, their 115th in Chicago, with a 76 - 86 record, a 3 - game improvement over 2014. The White Sox recorded their 9000th win in franchise history against the home team Detroit by the score of 3 - 2 on Monday, September 21, 2015. Ventura returned in 2016, with a young core featuring Jose Abreu, Adam Eaton, José Quintana, and Chris Sale. Ventura resigned after the 2016 season in which the White Sox finished 78 - 84. Rick Renteria, the 2016 White Sox bench coach, was promoted to the role of manager.
Prior to the start of the 2017 season, the White Sox traded Chris Sale to the Boston Red Sox and Adam Eaton to the Washington Nationals for prospects including Yoan Moncada, Lucas Giolito, and Michael Kopech, signaling the beginning of a rebuilding period.
In the late 1980s, the franchise threatened to relocate to Tampa Bay (as did the San Francisco Giants), but frantic lobbying on the part of the Illinois governor James R. Thompson and state legislature resulted in approval (by one vote) of public funding for a new stadium. Designed primarily as a baseball stadium (as opposed to a "multipurpose '' stadium) New Comiskey Park (redubbed U.S. Cellular Field in 2003 and Guaranteed Rate Field in 2016) was built in a 1960s style similar to Dodger Stadium and Kauffman Stadium. It opened in 1991 to positive reviews; many praised its wide open concourses, excellent sight lines, and natural grass (unlike other stadiums of the era such as Rogers Centre in Toronto). The park 's inaugural season drew 2,934,154 fans -- at the time, an all - time attendance record for any Chicago baseball team.
In recent years, money accrued from the sale of naming rights to U.S. Cellular has been allocated for renovations to make the park more aesthetically appealing and fan friendly. Notable renovations of early phases included: re-orientation of the bullpens parallel to the field of play (thus decreasing slightly the formerly symmetrical dimensions of the outfield); filling seats in up to and shortening the outfield wall; ballooning foul - line seat sections out toward the field of play; creating a new multi-tiered batter 's eye, allowing fans to see out through one - way screens from the center - field vantage point, and complete with concession stand and bar - style seating on its ' fan deck '; renovating all concourse areas with brick, historic murals, and new concession stand ornaments to establish a more friendly feel. The stadium 's steel and concrete was repainted dark gray and black. The scoreboard Jumbotron was also replaced with a new Mitsubishi Diamondvision HDTV giant screen.
More recently, the top quarter of the upper deck was removed in 2004 and a black wrought metal roof was placed over it, covering all but the first eight rows of seats. This decreased seating capacity from 47,098 to 40,615. 2005 also saw the introduction of the Scout Seats, redesignating (and re-upholstering) 200 lower deck seats behind home plate as an exclusive area, with seat - side waitstaff and a complete restaurant located underneath the concourse. The most significant structural addition besides the new roof was 2005 's FUNdamentals Deck, a multi-tiered structure on the left field concourse containing batting cages, a small Tee Ball field, speed pitch, and several other child - themed activities intended to entertain and educate young fans with the help of coaching staff from the Chicago Bulls / Sox Training Academy. This structure was used during the 2005 playoffs by ESPN and Fox Broadcasting Company as a broadcasting platform.
Designed as a 7 - phase plan, the renovations were completed before the 2007 season with the 7th and final phase. The most visible renovation in this final phase was replacing the original blue seats with green seats. The upper deck already had new green seats, put in before the beginning of the 2006 season. Beginning with the 2007 season a new luxury seating section was added in the former press box. This section has amenities similar to those of the Scout Seats section. After the 2007 season the ballpark continued renovation projects despite that the 7 - phase plan was complete.
The St. Paul Saints first played their games at Lexington Park. When they moved to Chicago 's Armour Square neighborhood, they began play at the South Side Park. Previously a cricket ground, the park was located on the north side of 39th Street (now called Pershing Road) between South Wentworth and South Princeton Avenues. Its massive dimensions yielded few home runs, which was to the advantage of the White Sox ' Hitless Wonders teams of the early 20th century.
After the 1909 season, the Sox moved 5 blocks to the north to play in the new Comiskey Park, while the 39th Street grounds became the home of the Chicago American Giants of the Negro Leagues. Billed as the Baseball Palace of the World, it originally held 28,000 seats and eventually grew to hold over 50,000. It became known for its many odd features, such as the outdoor shower and the exploding scoreboard. When it closed after the 1990 season, it was the oldest ballpark still in Major League Baseball.
The White Sox have held spring training in:
On November 19, 2007, the cities of Glendale, Arizona and Phoenix, Arizona broke ground on the Cactus League 's newest Spring Training facility. Camelback Ranch, the $76 million two - team facility is the new home of both the White Sox and the Los Angeles Dodgers for their Spring Training programs. Aside from state - of - the - art baseball facilities at the 10,000 - seat stadium the location includes residential, restaurant and retail development, a 4 - star hotel and 18 - hole golf course. Other amenities include 118,000 sq ft (11,000 m) of Major and minor league clubhouses for the two teams, four Major League practice fields and eight minor league practice fields, two practice infields and parking to accommodate 5,000 vehicles.
Over the years the White Sox have become noted for many of their uniform innovations and changes. In 1960, the White Sox became the first team in the major sports to put players ' last names on jerseys.
In 1912 the White Sox debuted a large "S '' in a Roman - style font, with a small "O '' inside the top loop of the "S '' and a small "X '' inside the bottom loop. This is the logo associated with the 1917 World Series championship team and the 1919 Black Sox. With a couple of brief interruptions, the dark - blue logo with the large "S '' lasted through 1938 (but continued in a modified block style into the 1940s). Through the 1940s, the White Sox team colors were primarily navy blue trimmed with red.
The White Sox logo in the 1950s and 1960s (actually beginning in the 1949 season) was the word "SOX '' in an Old English font, diagonally arranged, with the "S '' larger than the other two letters. From 1949 through 1963, the primary color was black (trimmed with red after 1951). The Old English "SOX '' in black lettering is the logo associated with the Go - Go Sox era.
In 1964, the primary color went back to navy blue, and the road uniforms changed from gray to pale blue. In 1971, the team 's primary color changed from royal blue to red, with the color of their pinstripes and caps changing to red. The 1971 -- 1975 uniform included red socks.
In 1976 the team 's uniforms changed again. The team 's primary color changed back from red to navy. The team based their uniforms on a style worn in the early days of the franchise, with white jerseys worn at home, blue on the road. The team brought back white socks for the last time in team history. The socks featured a different stripe pattern every year. The team also had the option to wear blue or white pants with either jersey. Additionally the teams "SOX '' logo was changed to a modern - looking "SOX '' in a bold font, with ' CHICAGO ' written across the jersey. Finally, the team 's logo featured a silhouette of a batter over the words "SOX ''.
The new uniforms also featured collars and were designed to be worn untucked -- both unprecedented. Yet by far the most unusual wrinkle was the option to wear shorts, which the White Sox did for the first game of a doubleheader against the Kansas City Royals in 1976. The Hollywood Stars of the Pacific Coast League had previously tried the same concept, it was also poorly received. Apart from aesthetic issues, as a practical matter shorts are not conducive to sliding, due to the likelihood of significant abrasions.
Upon taking over the team in 1980 new owners Eddie Einhorn and Jerry Reinsdorf announced a contest where fans were invited to create new uniforms for the White Sox. The winning entry was submitted by a fan where the word "SOX '' was written across the front of the jersey, in the same font as a cap, inside of a large blue stripe trimmed with red. The red and blue stripes were also on the sleeves, and the road jerseys were gray to the home whites. In those jerseys the White Sox won 99 games and the AL West championship in 1983, the best record in the majors.
After five years those uniforms were retired and replaced with a more basic uniform which had "White Sox '' written across the front in script, with "Chicago '' on the front of the road jersey. The cap logo was also changed to a cursive "C '', although the batter logo was retained for several years.
For a mid-season 1990 game at Comiskey Park the White Sox appeared once in a uniform based on that of the 1917 White Sox.
The White Sox then switched their regular uniform style once more. In September, for the final series at Old Comiskey Park, the old English "SOX '' logo (a slightly simplified version of the 1949 -- 63 logo) was restored, and the new uniform also had the black pinstripes restored. The team 's primary color changed back to black, this time with silver trim. The team also introduced a new sock logo -- a white silhouette of a sock centered inside a white outline of a baseball diamond -- which appeared as a sleeve patch on the away and alternate uniforms until 2011 when the patch was switched with the primary logo on the away uniform. With minor modifications (i.e., occasionally wearing vests, black game jerseys) the White Sox have used this style ever since.
During the 2012 and 2013 seasons, the White Sox wore their throwback uniforms at home every Sunday, starting with the 1972 red - pinstriped throwback jerseys worn during the 2012 season, followed by the 1981 -- 86 uniforms the next season. In the 2014 season, the "Winning Ugly '' throwbacks were promoted to full - time alternate status, and is now worn at home on select dates. In one game during the 2014 season, the White Sox paired their throwbacks with a cap featuring the batter logo instead of the wordmark "SOX ''; this is currently their batting practice cap prior to games in the throwback uniforms.
The White Sox were originally known as the White Stockings, a reference to the original name of the Chicago Cubs. To fit the name in headlines, local newspapers such as the Chicago Tribune abbreviated the name alternatively to Stox and Sox. Charles Comiskey would officially adopt the White Sox nickname in the club 's first years, making them the first team to officially use the "Sox '' name. The Chicago White Sox are most prominently nicknamed "the South Siders '', based on their particular district within Chicago. Other nicknames include the synonymous "Pale Hose ''; "the ChiSox '', a combination of "Chicago '' and "Sox '', used mostly by the national media to differentiate them between the Boston Red Sox (BoSox); and "the Good Guys '', a reference to the team 's one - time motto "Good guys wear black '', coined by broadcaster Ken Harrelson. Most fans and Chicago media refer to the team as simply "the Sox ''. The Spanish language media sometimes refer to the team as Medias Blancas for "White Socks. ''
Several White Sox teams have received nicknames over the years:
From 1961 until 1991, lifelong Chicago resident Andrew Rozdilsky performed as the unofficial yet popular mascot "Andy the Clown '' for the White Sox at the original Comiskey Park. Known for his elongated "Come on you White Sox '' battle cry, Andy got his start after a group of friends invited him to a Sox game in 1960, where he decided to wear his clown costume and entertain fans in his section. That response was so positive that when he won free 1961 season tickets, he decided to wear his costume to all games. Comiskey Park ushers eventually offered free admission to Rozdilsky. Starting in 1981, the new ownership group led by Jerry Reinsdorf introduced a twosome, called Ribbie and Roobarb, as the official team mascots, and banned Rozdilsky from performing in the lower seating level. Ribbie and Roobarb were very unpopular, as they were seen as an attempt to get rid of the beloved Andy the Clown.
In 1988, the Sox got rid of Ribbie and Roobarb, and Andy The Clown was not permitted to perform in new Comiskey Park when it opened in 1991. In the early 1990s the White Sox had a cartoon mascot named, ' Waldo The White Sox Wolf ' that advertised the ' Silver and Black Pack ', the team kid 's club at the time. The team 's current mascot, SouthPaw, was introduced in 2004 to attract young fans.
Nancy Faust became the White Sox organist in 1970, a position she would hold for 40 years. She was one of the first ballpark organists to play pop music, and became known for her songs playing on the names of opposing players (such as Iron Butterfly 's "In - A-Gadda - Da - Vida '' for Pete Incaviglia). Her many years with the White Sox established her as one of the last great stadium organists. Since 2011, Lori Moreland has served as the White Sox organist.
Similar to the Boston Red Sox with "Sweet Caroline '' (and two songs named "Tessie ''), and the New York Yankees with "Theme from New York, New York '', several songs have become associated with the White Sox over the years. They include:
The Chicago Cubs are the crosstown rivals of the White Sox, a rivalry that some made fun of prior to the White Sox 's 2005 title because both of them had extremely long championship droughts. The nature of the rivalry is unique; with the exception of the 1906 World Series, in which the White Sox upset the favored Cubs, the teams never met in an official game until 1997, when interleague play was introduced. In the intervening time, the two teams sometimes met for exhibition games. The White Sox currently lead the regular season series 48 -- 39, winning the last 4 seasons in a row. The BP Crosstown Cup was introduced in 2010 and the White Sox have won the trophy each time. There have been seven series sweeps since interleague play began: four by the Cubs in 1998, 2004, 2007, and 2008, and three by the White Sox in 1999, 2008 and 2012, with 1999 and 2012 occurring in Wrigley Field.
An example of this volatile rivalry is the game played between the White Sox and the Chicago Cubs at U.S. Cellular Field on May 20, 2006. White Sox catcher A.J. Pierzynski was running home on a sacrifice fly by center fielder Brian Anderson and smashed into Cubs catcher Michael Barrett, who was blocking home plate. Pierzynski lost his helmet in the collision, and slapped the plate as he rose. Barrett stopped him and, after exchanging a few words, punched Pierzynski in the face, causing a melee to ensue. Brian Anderson and Cubs first baseman John Mabry got involved in a separate confrontation, although it was later determined that Mabry was attempting to be a peacemaker. After 10 minutes of conferring following the fight, the umpires ejected Pierzynski, Barrett, Anderson, and Mabry. As Pierzynski entered his dugout, he pumped his arms, causing the soldout crowd at U.S. Cellular Field to erupt in cheers. When play resumed, White Sox second baseman Tadahito Iguchi blasted a grand slam to put the White Sox up 5 -- 0 on their way to a 7 -- 0 win over their crosstown rivals. While there are other major league cities and metropolitan areas in which two teams co-exist, all of the others feature at least one team which began playing there in 1961 or later, whereas the White Sox and Cubs have been competing for their city 's fans since 1901.
The White Sox enjoy healthy divisional rivalries. The Detroit Tigers are one of Chicago 's primary rivals, and the cities of Chicago and Detroit share rivalries in other sports as well, such as the Bulls -- Pistons rivalry, Blackhawks -- Red Wings rivalry and the Bears -- Lions rivalry. The rivalry has had its fair share of fights as well. The two teams are separated by a small under 5 hour drive.
The Minnesota Twins are high - profile rivals as well, with fans of both teams showing up to US Cellular Field and Target Field in healthy numbers. The White Sox and Twins also played in a one - game playoff in 2008, the White Sox would win the game 1 -- 0 and the division.
Chicago has another rivalry with the Cleveland Indians. The rivalry first started upon the creation of the AL Central in 1994. On July 15, 1994 an umpire confiscated Albert Belle 's bat, presuming that it was corked. They put it in the umpire 's room at Comiskey Park. However, Indians pitcher Jason Grimsley climbed through the ceiling from the visitor 's clubhouse and stole the bat. The theft was discovered and Belle was suspended; Grimsley later owned up to the theft. Belle further inflamed matters by spurning the Indians and signing a large free agent contract with the White Sox in 1997.
A historical regional rival was the St. Louis Browns. Through the 1953 season, the two teams were located fairly close to each other (including the 1901 season when the Browns were the Milwaukee Brewers), and could have been seen as the American League equivalent of the Cardinals -- Cubs rivalry, being that Chicago and St. Louis have for years been connected by the same highway (U.S. Route 66 and now Interstate 55). The rivalry has been somewhat revived at times in the past, involving the Browns ' current identity, the Baltimore Orioles, most notably in 1983.
The current Milwaukee Brewers franchise was also a primary White Sox rival, due to the proximity of the two cities, and with the teams competing in the same division for the 1970 and 1971 seasons, and then again from 1994 to 1997. The rivalry died down however, when the Brewers moved to the National League in 1998.
The White Sox did not sell exclusive rights for radio broadcasts from radio 's inception until 1944, instead having local stations share rights for games. The White Sox first granted exclusive rights in 1944, and would bounce between stations until 1952, when the White Sox started having all games broadcast on 1000 AM WCFL. Throughout this period of instability, one thing remained constant: the White Sox play - by - play announcer, Bob Elson. Known as the "Commander '', Elson was the voice of the Sox from 1929 until his departure from the club in 1970. In 1979, he was the recipient of the Ford Frick Award, and his profile is permanently on display in the National Baseball Hall of Fame.
After the 1966 season, radio rights shifted from 1000 AM to 670 AM, WMAQ. An NBC owned & operated station, it was the home of the Sox until the 1996 season (with the exception of brief stints on 1300 AM WTAQ and 780 AM WBBM). After Elson 's retirement in 1970, Harry Caray began his tenure as the voice of the White Sox, on radio as well as on television. Although best remembered as a broadcaster for the rival Cubs, Caray was very popular with White Sox fans, pining for a "cold one '' during broadcasts. Caray would often broadcast from the stands, sitting at a table set up amidst the bleachers. It became a badge of honor among Sox fans to "Buy Harry a beer... '' By game 's end you 'd see a large stack of empty beer cups beside his microphone. This only endeared him to fans that much more. In fact, it was with the Sox that he started his tradition of leading the fans in the singing of Take Me Out To The Ballgame. Caray, alongside color analyst Jimmy Piersall, was never afraid to criticize the Sox, which angered numerous Sox managers and players, notably Bill Melton and Chuck Tanner. He left to succeed Jack Brickhouse as the voice of the Cubs in 1981, where he became a national icon.
The White Sox shifted through several announcers in the 1980s, before hiring John Rooney as play - by - play announcer in 1989. In 1992, he was paired with color announcer Ed Farmer. In 14 seasons together, the duo became a highly celebrated announcing team, even being ranked by USA Today as the top broadcasting team in the American League. Starting with Rooney and Farmer 's fifth season together, Sox games returned to the 1000 AM frequency for the first time in 30 years (now the ESPN owned & operated station WMVP). The last game on WMVP was Game 4 of the 2005 World Series, with the White Sox clinching their first World Series title in 88 years. That also was Rooney 's last game with the Sox, as he left to join the radio broadcast team of the St. Louis Cardinals.
In 2006, radio broadcasts returned to 670 AM, now the CBS - Owned all - sports station WSCR, branded as 670 the Score. Ed Farmer became the play - by - play man after Rooney left, joined in the booth by Chris Singleton from 2006 to 2007 and then Steve Stone in 2008. In 2009, Darrin Jackson became the color announcer for White Sox radio, where he remains today. Farmer and Jackson are joined by Chris Rogney, who hosts pregame and postgame shows on WSCR. The Chicago White Sox Radio Network currently has 18 affiliates in 3 states, and the White Sox are on contract with 670 the Score through the 2015 season. As of recently, White Sox games are also broadcast in Spanish with play - by - play announcer Hector Molina joined in the booth by Billy Russo. Formerly broadcasting on ESPN Deportes Radio via WNUA, games will begin to be broadcast on 1200 AM WRTO during the 2015 season. Beginning with the 2016 season, the White Sox radio broadcasts will shift to 890 WLS AM.
White Sox games appeared sporadically on television throughout the first half of the 20th century, most commonly announced by Jack Brickhouse on Channel 9, WGN - TV. Starting in 1968, Jack Drees took play - by - play duties as the Sox were broadcast on channel 32, WFLD. After 1972, Harry Caray (joined by Jimmy Piersall in 1977) began double duty as a TV and Radio announcer for the Sox, as broadcasts were moved to channel 44, WSNS - TV, from 1972 to 1980, followed by one year on WGN - TV.
Don Drysdale became the play - by - play announcer in 1982, as the White Sox began splitting their broadcasts between WFLD and the new Pay - TV channel, Sportsvision. Ahead of its time, Sportsvision had a chance to gain huge profits for the Sox. However, few people would subscribe to the channel after being used to free - to - air broadcasts for many years, resulting in the franchise losing around $300,000 a month. While this was going on, every Cubs game was on WGN, with Harry Caray becoming the national icon he never was with the White Sox. The relatively easy access to Cubs games versus Sox games in this era, combined with the popularity of Caray and the Cubs being owned by the Tribune Company, is said by some to be the main cause of the Cubs advantage in popularity over the Sox.
Three major changes to White Sox broadcasting happened each year from 1989 to 1991: in 1989, Sportsvision was replaced by the cable TV channel SportsChannel Chicago. In 1990, over-the - air broadcasts shifted back to WGN. And in 1991, Ken Harrelson became the play by play announcer of the White Sox. One of the most polarizing figures in baseball, "Hawk '' has been both adored and scorned for his emotive announcing style. His history of calling out umpires has earned him reprimands from the Commissioner 's office, and he has been said to be the most biased announcer in baseball. However, Harrelson has said that he is proud of being "the biggest homer in baseball '', saying that he is a White Sox fan like his viewers.
Currently, White Sox local television broadcasts are split between two channels: the majority of games are broadcast on cable by the regional sports network NBC Sports Chicago (which the club has a 20 % stake in), and remaining games are produced by WGN Sports and are broadcast locally on WGN - TV. WGN games are also occasionally picked up by local stations in Illinois, Iowa, and Indiana. In the past, WGN games were broadcast nationally on the WGN America superstation, but those broadcasts ended after the 2014 season as WGN America began its transition to a standard cable station. WGN Sports - produced White Sox games not carried by WGN - TV were carried by WCIU - TV until the 2015 season, when they moved to MyNetworkTV station WPWR - TV. That arrangement ended on September 1, 2016 when WGN became an independent station.
Prior to 2016, the announcers were the same no matter where the games were broadcast: Harrelson provided play - by - play, and Steve Stone provided color analysis since 2009. Games that are broadcast on NBC Sports Chicago feature pregame and postgame shows, hosted by Chuck Garfein with analysis from Bill Melton and occasionally Frank Thomas. In 2016, the team announced an official split of the play - by - play duties, with Harrelson calling road games and the Crosstown Series and Jason Benetti calling home games. In 2017, the team announced that the 2018 season will be Harrelson 's final in the booth. He will call 20 games over the course of the season, after which Benetti will take over full - time play - by - play duties.
Pitchers
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Manager
Coaches
36 active, 0 inactive, 0 non-roster invitees
7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster, coaches, and NRIs updated December 1, 2017 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters
Note: American League Championship Series began in 1969
Most Valuable Player
Cy Young Award
Manager of the Year
Rookie of the Year
The White Sox have retired a total of 12 jersey numbers: 11 worn by former White Sox and number 42 in honor of Jackie Robinson.
Luis Aparicio 's number 11 was issued at his request for the 2010 and 2011 seasons for 11 time Gold Glove winner shortstop Omar Vizquel (because number 13 was used by manager Ozzie Guillén; Vizquel, like Aparicio and Guillen, play (ed) shortstop and all share a common Venezuelan heritage).
Also, Harold Baines had his number 3 retired in 1989; it has since been ' unretired ' 3 times in each of his subsequent returns.
Roberto Alomar Luis Aparicio Luke Appling Chief Bender Steve Carlton Eddie Collins * Charles Comiskey (Exec.) * *
George Davis Larry Doby Hugh Duffy (Mgr.) Johnny Evers Red Faber Carlton Fisk Nellie Fox
Goose Gossage Ken Griffey, Jr. Clark Griffith Harry Hooper George Kell Tony La Russa (Mgr.) Bob Lemon (Mgr.)
Al López (Mgr.) Ted Lyons Tim Raines Edd Roush Red Ruffing Ron Santo Ray Schalk *
Tom Seaver Al Simmons Frank Thomas Bill Veeck (Exec.) * * Ed Walsh * Hoyt Wilhelm Early Wynn
Jack Brickhouse
Harry Caray
Bob Elson
Milo Hamilton
Silver Chalice is a digital and media investment subsidiary of the White Sox with Brooks Boyers as CEO.
Silver Chalice was co-founded by Jerry Reinsdorf, White Sox executive Brooks Boyer, Jason Coyle and John Burris in 2009. Chalice has since partnered with IMG on Campus Insiders, a college sports digital channel. The company also invested in 120 Sports, a digital sports channel, that launched in June 2016. These efforts have since been merged with Sinclair Broadcasting Group 's American Sports Network into the new multi-platform network Stadium as of September 2017.
|
who plays the artist in dinner for schmucks | Dinner for Schmucks - wikipedia
Dinner for Schmucks is a 2010 American comedy film directed by Jay Roach. The film is the American adaptation of the 1998 French comedy Le Dîner de Cons and was written by David Guion and Michael Handelman. It stars Steve Carell and Paul Rudd, who had previously teamed up in Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy and The 40 - Year - Old Virgin. The film was released theatrically on July 30, 2010.
Zach Galifianakis won the Comedy Award for "Best Comedy Actor -- Film '' for his role as Therman Murch in the film. The elaborate mouse dioramas and "mouseterpieces '' were created by The Chiodo Brothers.
Tim Conrad, a mid-level financial analyst at a Los Angeles equity firm, comes up with a way to get wealthy Swiss businessman Martin Mueller as a client. Impressed by Tim 's ingenuity, his boss Lance Fender says Tim is a candidate for a promotion but wants to get to know him better. He invites him to a "dinner for winners '' in which he must find and bring an eccentric person with a special talent; the winner earns a trophy and the executive that brought him or her gets glory. Tim deduces that it is more of a "dinner for idiots '' rather than winners, and the partygoers will be mocked.
Tim 's girlfriend, Julie, lands a curator deal for eccentric artist Kieran Vollard and Tim unsuccessfully proposes to her. Tim agrees not to attend the dinner party after Julie is appalled by the cruel nature of the theme.
Tim accidentally hits amateur taxidermist Barry Speck with his car when Barry tries to retrieve a dead mouse from the road. Witnessing Barry 's bizarre behavior, Tim realizes he is the perfect idiot for the dinner. Barry shows up at Tim 's apartment and accidentally invites over Darla, who has been stalking Tim since their one - night stand years ago. Barry decides to guard Tim 's apartment from Darla to make up for inviting her.
When Julie arrives at his apartment, Barry mistakes her for Darla and sends her away, giving Julie the impression that Tim is cheating on her. Barry calls Vollard and finds the number saved in the phone. While talking to him, he and Tim think they hear Julie in the background and head to Vollard 's apartment. Barry tosses Tim 's keys through Vollard 's apartment window and must break in, only to find Kieran preparing to make love to two girls dressed like animals (neither of whom is Julie) and head back home.
Barry opens the door to find Darla waiting outside. Julie calls and asks Tim if he 's having an affair and Darla steals the phone and stuffs it down her pants. While Tim hides in his bedroom, Darla and Barry get into a bar - style fight, scaring Darla away. Julie left her phone at Tim 's apartment and a voice message from Vollard reveals that Julie is leaving for his ranch.
Barry offers to take Tim to his job at the IRS to find Vollard 's ranch address, where they meet up with Barry 's boss and rival, Therman Murch, who stole Barry 's wife. Tim leaves the next day for his brunch with the Muellers but Barry crashes, with Darla pretending to be Julie. Tim is pushed into asking Darla to marry him by Barry and Julie walks in during. Tim and Barry chase Julie down to Vollard 's ranch, where Tim accidentally offends Barry.
To his surprise, Tim found Barry already at Fender 's dinner party. Barry is a hit with the group, and is a shoo - in for the trophy, but unexpectedly, Therman arrives, embarrassing Barry with his mind control. Tim then tells Barry everything and, after some encouragement, gets Barry to win with "brain control '', before causing his boss and fellow executives to reveal the truth. A guest reacts badly to the news and causes chaos in the process, with Mueller losing a finger.
Tim is fired, as is Julie after Barry makes Vollard realize it would be a problem to have her continue working for him. Tim marries Julie, Barry enters into a relationship with Darla, does some artwork with Vollard, and hosts a monthly "breakfast for champions '' for all of the losers. Therman writes a book in the mental hospital and Tim gets a new museum started in Switzerland for Mueller. Fender 's company goes into a big loss and he is dubbed "Wall Street 's Biggest Loser '' by the media.
The budget for the film was split between the distributor Paramount Pictures, as well as DreamWorks Pictures and Spyglass Entertainment. The production budget was $69 million, but with tax credits the cost came in at $62.7 million. Filming of the dinner scene took place at the same location as was used for Wayne Manor in the 1960s Batman television series.
Dinner for Schmucks is the American adaptation of the French film Le Dîner de Cons (literally, "The Dinner of Idiots ''). The film retains many familiar elements of the original, with the basic plot, including the involvement of the taxation authorities and the love triangle around the main character Tim. In the remake, however, Tim is made much more sympathetic (this is the first dinner he has participated in, and he is not in fact having an affair or deliberately cheating on his taxes), and the actual dinner is shown. Director Roach describes the film as "inspired by '' the original rather than a remake.
Debate ensued about the title 's usage of the Yiddish word schmucks which is a mild cultural insult similar to "idiot '' which technically refers to ' male genitals. ' Debbie Schlussel asked whether the title should have been Dinner for Schlemiels as it would better describe the clumsy character played by Steve Carell. Responding in The New York Times, critic Michael Cieply determined that the intent was to be ambiguous as to which of the two main characters, played by Steve Carell and Paul Rudd, was the intended idiot.
In The Forward, Laura Hodes suggested that ' schmucks ' correctly referred instead to the behavior of the film 's antagonists, the bosses of Rudd 's character. ' Schmucks ' may be fitting after all because the original French play and movie, Le Dîner de cons, which was originally translated as The Dinner Game ".
Dinner for Schmucks was pushed back a week to July 30, 2010, to avoid competition with Salt and Inception.
As part of promoting the film, the website Funny or Die featured videos of Jemaine Clement in character as Kieran Vollard.
The film 's first trailer debuted with Date Night, Death at a Funeral, and A Nightmare on Elm Street. The second trailer was shown before select screenings of The A-Team, Get Him to the Greek, Grown Ups, and Inception.
Dinner for Schmucks received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 41 %, based on 188 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3 / 10. The site 's consensus is: "It does n't honor its source material -- or its immensely likable leads -- as well as it should, but Dinner for Schmucks offers fitfully nourishing comedy. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 56 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Dinner for Schmucks made $8.4 million on its first day, ranking number two at the box office, behind Inception. The film earned $23.5 million on its opening weekend, placing it second overall for the weekend of July 30 to August 1. Dinner for Schmucks ultimately grossed $73 million in North America and $13.4 million internationally, for a total of $86.4 million worldwide. The film was released in the United Kingdom on September 3, 2010, and opened on # 2, behind The Last Exorcism.
Dinner for Schmucks was released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc on January 4, 2011.
In 2010, "Dinner for Schmucks '' was nominated for the Satellite Award for Best Actor.
|
who wrote if today was your last day | If Today was Your Last Day - wikipedia
"If Today Was Your Last Day '' is the third single from Nickelback 's sixth studio album Dark Horse. It was originally planned as the first single, to hit all U.S. radio formats September 30, 2008, but was scrapped as the first single in favour of "Gotta Be Somebody ''. Instead it was released on March 31, 2009. It was produced by Robert John "Mutt '' Lange, who produced the entire album. The song was released as a digital download in the U.S. on November 11. "If Today Was Your Last Day '' was released in the UK on June 15. The song was performed live for the very first time on May 22 at the Manchester Arena in Manchester, England.
In the US, the song has sold over 1,500,000 downloads, as of February 2010. According to Roadrunner Records UK, the song is "dynamically swelling our bank accounts ''. The song has also apparently been around with Nickelback for a while, but had never been finished. The song received Gold certification in Australia.
Lead vocalist / guitarist Chad Kroeger has mentioned the song as his personal favorite from Dark Horse. He had described the middle part of the song as "very motivational, and very positive ''.
The song was used for promotional videos in the Winter Olympics in 2010, and was used as the closing song during NHL Tonight 's 2012 Stanley Cup playoffs coverage.
The music video was shot with director Nigel Dick in March 2009. Performance portions of the video were shot at the Qwest Center in Omaha, Nebraska and in New York City. The other portion was shot in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The music video premiered on 23 April. In the beginning, two trashy teenage boys dressed in black seem to be up to some sort of shady business in Philadelphia. They record their journey on a camcorder. They carry mysterious black bags with them which seem to be filled with illegal stuff. In the end, they stand on top of a bridge ready to carry out their plan. They open the bags, but only harmless colorful pieces of paper with quotes from the song such as "forgive your enemy '' and "live each moment '' fall over the people beneath them. This inspires two women to hand out coats with messages similar to those on the colored paper, a wealthy - looking man to hand money to everyone he meets, an arguing couple make up and a man arguing with presumably his boss to quit. All of the quotes refer to lines in the song "If Today Was Your Last Day. ''
On October 2008, "If Today Was Your Last Day '' debuted at number 35 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US based on downloads only. After its release as an official single, it re-entered the Hot 100 and reached a new peak at 19. It is their second top twenty hit on the Hot 100 from Dark Horse, and their ninth top twenty hit on the chart overall. In Canada, it debuted at 91 on the Canadian Hot 100 also based on just downloads, and after its physical release in Canada and receiving airplay it made a re-entry on the chart at number 67 and would go on to reach number 7.
|
when does episode 826 of one piece come out | List of one piece. episodes (season 19) - wikipedia
The nineteenth season of the One Piece anime series was produced by Toei Animation, and directed by Toshinori Fukuzawa. The season began broadcasting in Japan on Fuji Television on April 9, 2017. Like the rest of the series, it follows the adventures of Monkey D. Luffy and his Straw Hat Pirates. The story arc, called "Whole Cake Island '', adapts material from the rest of the 82nd volume onwards of the manga by Eiichiro Oda. It deals with Luffy and his small team rescuing Sanji from his arranged marriage to finalize a political alliance between his own family, the Vinsmoke 's, and Big Mom 's family.
As of October 2017, two pieces of theme music are used for this season. The opening themes are "We Can '' (ウィー キャン!, Wī Kyan!) sung by Kishidan and Hiroshi Kitadani for episodes 784 to 806, and "Hope '' performed by Namie Amuro beginning with episode 807.
|
kiamesha lake town of thompson sullivan county ny | Kiamesha Lake, New York - wikipedia
Kiamesha Lake is a hamlet in the town of Thompson in east - central Sullivan County, New York, United States. The zip code for Kiamesha Lake is 12751.
Kiamesha Lake is located on Route 42 between Monticello and Fallsburg off New York State Route 17 (Future Interstate 86) Exit 105B.
Kiamesha Lake was the home to the Concord Resort & Golf Club. It is now home to several bungalow colonies.
Kiamesha Lake is home to a year - round Hasidic community, being a satellite community of the Vizhnitzer Hasidic Community of Monsey, New York, consisting of about 80 full - time (as opposed to summer - only) families. It is also home to a Vizhnitzer Yeshiva at the site of the former Gibber Hotel.
|
who has the biggest net worth in the world 2017 | The world 's billionaires - Wikipedia
The World 's Billionaires is an annual ranking by documented net worth of the world 's wealthiest billionaires compiled and published in March annually by the American business magazine Forbes. The list was first published in March 1987. The total net worth of each individual on the list is estimated and is cited in United States dollars, based on their documented assets and accounting for debt. Royalty and dictators whose wealth comes from their positions are excluded from these lists. This ranking is an index of the wealthiest documented individuals, excluding and ranking against those with wealth that is not able to be completely ascertained.
In 2017, there was a record of 2,043 people on the list, which is the first time over 2,000 people were listed, that included 195 newcomers that included 76 from China and 25 from the U.S.; there were 56 people under 40 and it had a record of 227 women. The average net worth of the list came in at US $ 3.75 billion, down US $110 million from 2015. Added together, the total net worth for 2017 's billionaires was US $7.67 trillion, up from US $7.1 trillion in 2015. In 2017, 500 of the richest people in the world became richer by $1 trillion, according to a report by Bloomberg News. As of 2017, Microsoft founder Bill Gates has topped the list 18 of the past 23 years.
According to a 2017 Oxfam report, the top eight billionaires own as much combined wealth as "half the human race ''.
Each year, Forbes employs a team of more than 50 reporters from a variety of countries to track the activity of the world 's wealthiest individuals. Preliminary surveys are sent to those who may qualify for the list. According to Forbes, they received three types of responses -- some people try to inflate their wealth, others cooperate but leave out details, and some refuse to answer any questions. Business deals are then scrutinized and estimates of valuable assets -- land, homes, vehicles, artwork, etc. -- are made. Interviews are conducted to vet the figures and improve the estimate of an individual 's holdings. Finally, positions in a publicly traded stock are priced to market on a date roughly a month before publication. Privately held companies are priced by the prevailing price - to - sales or price - to - earnings ratios. Known debt is subtracted from assets to get a final estimate of an individual 's estimated worth in United States dollars. Since stock prices fluctuate rapidly, an individual 's true wealth and ranking at the time of publication may vary from their situation when the list was compiled.
Family fortunes dispersed over a large number of relatives are included only if those individuals ' holdings are worth more than a billion dollars. However, when a living individual has dispersed his or her wealth to immediate family members, it is included under a single listing provided that individual is still living. Royal familys and dictators that have their wealth contingent on a position are always excluded from these lists.
The rankings are published annually in March, so the net worth listed are snapshots taken at that time. These lists only show the top 10 wealthiest billionaires.
On the 30th anniversary of the Forbes ' list of the world 's billionaires, for the fourth year in a row, Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world. The number of billionaires increased 13 % to 2,043 from 1,810 in 2016; this is the biggest change in over 30 years of tracking billionaires globally. This is the first time after 12 years that Carlos Slim was not within the top five. The U.S. continues to have the most billionaires in the world, with a record of 565. China has 319 (not including Hong Kong or Macau), Germany has 114, and India has the fourth most with 101; India has reached over 100 billionaires for its first time.
For the third year in a row, Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world by Forbes 's 2016 list of the world 's billionaires. This is the 17th time that the founder of Microsoft has claimed the top spot. Amancio Ortega rose from last year 's position of number four to second. Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway came in third for the second consecutive time, while Mexican telecommunication mogul Carlos Slim slipped down from last year 's second position to fourth. Jeff Bezos of Amazon, Mark Zuckerberg of Facebook and Michael Bloomberg of Bloomberg L.P., appear for the first time on the Forbes top 10 billionaires list, coming at fifth, sixth and eighth position, respectively. Zuckerberg became the youngest top 10 billionaire this year at the age of 31. Larry Ellison, Charles Koch and David Koch also slipped down from their last year 's positions, with Ellison dropping to seventh from fifth and the Kochs falling to ninth position from sixth, respectively.
In the 29th annual Forbes list of global billionaires, a record 1,826 billionaires were named with an aggregated net worth of $7.1 trillion compared to $6.4 trillion last year. 46 of the billionaires in this list are under the age of 40. A record number of 290 people joined the list for the first time, of whom 25 percent hail from China, which produced a world - leading 71 newcomers. The United States came in second, with 57, followed by India, with 28, and Germany, with 23. The United States has the largest number of billionaires with 526. Russia went down to 88 from 111 in 2014. Russia was placed behind China, Germany and India by the number of billionaires. Self - made billionaires made up the largest number of people on the list with 1,191 positions (over 65 percent) while just 230 (under 13 percent) have wealth through inheritance. The number of billionaires who inherited a portion but are still working to increase their fortunes is 405.
Bill Gates was named the richest man in the world by Forbes 's annual list of the world 's billionaires. This was the 16th time that the founder of Microsoft claimed the top spot. Carlos Slim came in second for the second consecutive time. Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway was placed third, while Amancio Ortega of Spain, slipped down a position from last year to number four. Larry Ellison, the founder of Oracle rounded off the top five. Christy Walton was the highest - ranking female at number eight. America 's Evan Spiegel, co-founder of photo messaging app Snapchat became the youngest billionaire this year at the age of 24. At age 99, David Rockefeller maintained his position as the oldest billionaire to be included in the list. Mark Zuckerberg, the founder of Facebook, rose to number 16 with $33.4 billion. Iceland had a billionaire, Thor Bjorgolfsson, in the list after a gap of five years. Guatemala had a billionaire, Mario Lopez Estrada, for the first time in its history.
Bill Gates added $9 billion to his fortune since 2013 and topped the Forbes 2014 billionaire list. He has topped the list 15 of the previous 20 years, but his last number one ranking in 2009. Mexican telecommunication mogul Carlos Slim came in second place after being number one the previous four years. Zara founder Amancio Ortega placed third for the second consecutive year. American investor Warren Buffett was in the top five for the 20th consecutive year, placing fourth. America 's Christy Walton was the highest ranking female, placing ninth overall. Aliko Dangote of Nigeria became the first African ever to enter the top 25, with an estimated net worth of $25 billion.
A total of 1,645 people made the 2014 billionaire list, representing combined wealth of $6.4 trillion. Of those, a record 268 were newcomers, surpassing 2008 's 226 newcomers. One hundred people listed in 2013 failed to make the list. The number of women on the list rose to a record 172 in 2014. Approximately 66 percent of the list was self - made, 13 percent achieved their wealth through inheritance alone, and 21 percent through a mixture of the two.
The United States had 492 billionaires on the list, the most of any country. The country also had the most newcomers with 50, and women with 54. China had the second most billionaires with 152, while Russia was third with 111. Algeria, Lithuania, Tanzania, and Uganda were all represented on the list for the first time. Turkey saw the most people drop off the list, 19, due to a period of high inflation in the country.
Carlos Slim topped the 2013 billionaire list, marking his fourth consecutive year at the top. Bill Gates remained in second, while Amancio Ortega moved up to third. Ortega 's gain of $19.5 billion was the largest of anyone on the list. Warren Buffett failed to make the top three for the first time since 2000, placing fourth. Diesel founder Renzo Rosso was among the top newcomers, debuting with an estimate net worth of $3 billion.
A global rise in asset prices, led Forbes editor Randall Lane to declare "It (was) a very good year to be a billionaire ''. However, it was not a good year to be Eike Batista who fell from seventh to 100th, suffering the largest net loss of anyone on the list. Overall, net gainers outnumbered net losers by 4: 1.
A record total of 1,426 people made the 2013 list, representing $5.4 trillion of assets. Of those, 442 billionaires hailed from the United States. The Asian - Pacific region had 386 billionaires and Europe 366. The list also featured a record number of newcomers, 210, representing 42 different countries. Sixty people from the 2012 list fell below a billion dollar of assets in 2013 and eight others from the 2012 list died. The Asia - Pacific region had the most drop - offs, with 29, followed by the United States with 16. The 2013 list featured 138 women, of which 50 came from the United States. A majority of the list (961 individuals, 67 percent) was entirely self - made; 184 (13 percent) inherited their wealth, and 281 (20 percent) achieved their fortune through a combination of inheritance and business acumen.
Carlos Slim topped the 2012 list, marking this third consecutive year at the top. Bill Gates placed second, but narrowed the gap from 2011 as Slim 's fortune fell $5 billion while Gates ' rose $5 billion. Warren Buffett remained in third place. Bernard Arnault of France was the top - ranking European on the list, placing fourth. Ricardo Salinas Pliego was the greatest gainer in terms of dollars, adding $9.2 billion to his fortune and moving up to number 37 overall. Making her debut on the list at age 27, Spanx founder Sara Blakely became the youngest self - made female billionaire ever. Colombia 's Alejandro Santo Domingo was the highest - ranked newcomer, inheriting a $9.5 billion stake in Santo Domingo Group from his father. India 's Lakshmi Mittal was the largest loser as his fortune dropped from $31.1 billion to $20.7 billion as the price of steel maker ArcelorMittal fell sharply. As a result, he failed to make the top 10 for the first time since 2004 and lost his title of richest Asian to Hong Kong 's Li Ka - shing.
A record total of 1,226 people made the 2012 list, representing 58 different countries. Of those, 126 were newcomers to the list and 104 were women. The United States had the greatest number of billionaires with 425. Russia had 96 people on the list, while China had 95. Georgia, Morocco, and Peru were newly represented on the list. Falling stock prices in Asia contributed to 117 former billionaires falling from the list worldwide. Twelve others listed in 2011 died. Overall, net gainers (460) barely outnumbered net losers (441).
To coincide with the release of the 2012 list, Forbes announced a new "Billionaire Real - Time Ticker '' updating the wealth of the world 's top fifty billionaires in real time.
In the 25th annual Forbes list of global billionaires, Carlos Slim added $20.5 billion to his fortune, the most of anyone, and retained his number one ranking with a total fortune of $74 billion. Bill Gates remained in second place with $56 billion, while Warren Buffett was third with $50 billion. The top 10 had a combined wealth of $406 billion, up from $342 billion in 2010. According to Forbes editor Kerry Dolan, "media and technology billionaires definitely benefited from a stronger stock market and a growing enthusiasm for all things social '' since the 2010 list. However, Nigerian commodity mogul Aliko Dangote was the greatest gainer on a percentage basis as his fortune increased 557 percent to $13.5 billion. Mark Zuckerberg was one of seven Facebook - related billionaires on the list, as he $9.5 billion to his fortune to move up to 52nd. Facebook co-founder Dustin Moskovitz was the youngest person on the list. Aged 26, eight days younger than Zuckerberg, he debuted at number 420 with an estimated fortune of $2.7 billion. IKEA founder Ingvar Kamprad was the largest loser as he saw his fortune plummet from $23 billion to $6 billion, dropping him from 11th to 162nd overall.
A record 1,210 billionaires made the 2011 list, representing a combined wealth of $4.5 trillion, up from $3.6 trillion the previous year. One third of the world 's billionaires, 413, came from the United States. China had the second most billionaires with 115, while Russia was third with 101. Asia moved up to 332 billionaires, passing Europe as a region for the first time since the 1990s. The 2011 list included 214 newcomers and the average net worth of those on it increased to $3.7 billion.
Carlos Slim narrowly eclipsed Bill Gates to top the billionaire list for the first time. Slim saw his estimated worth surge $18.5 billion to $53.5 billion as shares of America Movil rose 35 percent. Gates ' estimated wealth rose $13 billion to $53 billion, placing him second. Warren Buffett was third with $47 billion. Christy Walton was the highest - ranking woman, placing 12th overall, with an inherited fortune of $22.5 billion. At age 25, Mark Zuckerberg continued to be the world 's youngest self - made billionaire. American Isaac Perlmutter was among the newcomers with an estimated fortune of $4 billion largely acquired in his sale of Marvel Entertainment to Disney.
A total of 1,011 people made the 2010 list. The United States accounted for 403 billionaires, followed by China with 89 and Russia with 62. It was the first time China, while including Hong Kong, placed second. A total of 55 countries were represented on the 2010 list, including Finland and Pakistan which claimed their first billionaires. Eighty - nine women made the list, but only 14 of them were self - made. The combined net worth of the list was $3.6 trillion, up 50 percent from 2009 's $2.4 trillion, while the average net worth was $3.5 billion.
The 2010 list featured 164 re-entries and 97 true newcomers. Asia accounted for more than 100 of the new entrants. Overall, just 12 percent of the list lost wealth since 2009, and 30 people fell off the list. Thirteen others died. Of the 89 women, 12 were newcomers in 2010. Steve Forbes said the growing number of billionaires was clear sign that the world 's economy was recovering from 2009 's global financial crisis.
In June 2010, Warren Buffett and Bill Gates announce The Giving Pledge that is a promise to give the majority of their wealth to philanthropy. As of 2017, the pledge has 158 signatories, but some of the signatories have since died. Most of the signers of the pledge are billionaires, and their pledges total to over $365 billion.
In the wake of the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008, the world 's billionaires lose $2 trillion in net worth and the list becomes 30 % smaller than the previous year 's list.
Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, four years after starting the company, joins the list at 23 to become the youngest self - made billionaire.
The founders of Google, Sergey Brin and Larry Page, become billionaires at age 30.
Oprah Winfrey becomes the first female African American billionaire.
As a result of the market crash caused by the Dot - com bubble, 83 billionaires drop off the list from the previous year.
In 2001, BET founder Robert L. Johnson became the first ever African - American billionaire.
Bill Gates became the first American to take the top spot of the World 's Billionaires in 1995 with a net worth of $12.5 billion and he remained there during the Dot - com bubble 's height in 1999 when Gates ' fortune peaked at $90 billion. After the dot - com bubble started to collapse in 2000, his wealth dropped to $60 billion although he remained at the top of the list.
The dot - com bubble created the most paper wealth for some billionaires. However, once the dotcom bubble burst the new rich saw their fortunes disappear. Billionaires ' fortunes were hit even harder by the global financial crisis; 2009 was the first time in five years that the world had a net loss in the number of billionaires. The strong performance of the financial markets and global economic recovery have erased financial assets losses. Most of the richest people in the world have seen their fortunes soar in the early 2010s.
Source: Forbes.
|
why was the development of machine tools so important to the industrial revolution in the us | Industrial Revolution - wikipedia
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system.
Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and many of the technological innovations were British. By the mid-18th century Britain controlled a global trading empire with colonies in North America and Africa, and with some political influence on the Indian subcontinent, through the activities of the East India Company. The development of trade and the rise of business were major causes of the Industrial Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.
GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per - capita economic growth in capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants.
The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, while T.S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830. Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s, with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France.
An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the original innovations of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, hot blast iron smelting and new technologies, such as the electrical telegraph, widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution. These new innovations included new steel making processes, the large - scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam - powered factories.
The earliest recorded use of the term "Industrial Revolution '' seems to have been in a letter from 6 July 1799 written by French envoy Louis - Guillaume Otto, announcing that France had entered the race to industrialise. In his 1976 book Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society, Raymond Williams states in the entry for "Industry '': "The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in Southey and Owen, between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as Blake in the early 1790s and Wordsworth at the turn of the (19th) century. '' The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change was becoming more common by the late 1830s, as in Jérôme - Adolphe Blanqui 's description in 1837 of la révolution industrielle. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of "an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society ''. However, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, whose 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the term.
Some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians.
The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies:
The share of value added by the cotton textile industry in Britain was 2.6 % in 1760, 17 % in 1801 and 22.4 % in 1831. Value added by the British woollen industry was 14.1 % in 1801. Cotton factories in Britain numbered approximately 900 in 1797. In 1760 approximately one - third of cotton cloth manufactured in Britain was exported, rising to two - thirds by 1800. In 1781 cotton spun amounted to 5.1 million pounds, which increased to 56 million pounds by 1800. In 1800 less than 0.1 % of world cotton cloth was produced on machinery invented in Britain. In 1788 there were 50,000 spindles in Britain, rising to 7 million over the next 30 years.
Wages in Lancashire, a core region for cottage industry and later factory spinning and weaving, were about one - sixth those in India in 1770, when overall productivity in Britain was about three times higher than in India.
Parts of India, China, Central America, South America and the Middle - East have a long history of hand manufacturing cotton textiles, which became a major industry sometime after 1000 AD. In tropical and subtropical regions where it was grown, most was grown by small farmers alongside their food crops and was spun and woven in households, largely for domestic consumption. In the 15th century China began to require households to pay part of their taxes in cotton cloth. By the 17th century almost all Chinese wore cotton clothing. Almost everywhere cotton cloth could be used as a medium of exchange. In India a significant amount of cotton textiles were manufactured for distant markets, often produced by professional weavers. Some merchants also owned small weaving workshops. India produced a variety of cotton cloth, some of exceptionally fine quality.
The Age of Discovery was followed by a period of colonialism beginning around the 16th century. Following the opening of a trade route to India around southern Africa by the Portuguese, the Dutch established the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (abbr. VOC) or Dutch East India Company and the British founded the East India Company, along with smaller companies of different nationalities which established trading posts and employed agents to engage in trade throughout the Indian Ocean region and between the Indian Ocean region and North Atlantic Europe. One of the largest segments of this trade was in cotton textiles, which were purchased in India and sold in Southeast Asia, including the Indonesian archipelago, where spices were purchased for sale to Southeast Asia and Europe. By the mid 1760s cloth was over three - quarters of the East India Company 's exports. Indian textiles were in demand in North Atlantic region of Europe where previously only wool and linen were available; however, the amount of cotton goods consumed in Western Europe was minor until the early 19th century.
By 1600 Flemish refugees began weaving cotton cloth in English towns where cottage spinning and weaving of wool and linen was well established; however, they were left alone by the guilds who did not consider cotton a threat. Earlier European attempts at cotton spinning and weaving were in 12th century Italy and 15th century southern Germany, but these industries eventually ended when the supply of cotton was cut off. The Moors in Spain grew, spun and wove cotton beginning around the 10th century.
British cloth could not compete with Indian cloth because India 's labor cost was approximately one - fifth that of Britain 's. In 1700 and 1721 the British government passed Calico Acts in order to protect the domestic woollen and linen industries from the increasing amounts of cotton fabric imported from India.
The demand for heavier fabric was met by a domestic industry based around Lancashire that produced fustian, a cloth with flax warp and cotton weft. Flax was used for the warp because wheel - spun cotton did not have sufficient strength, but the resulting blend was not as soft as 100 % cotton and was more difficult to sew.
On the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and weaving were done in households, for domestic consumption and as a cottage industry under the putting - out system. Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver. Under the putting - out system, home - based workers produced under contract to merchant sellers, who often supplied the raw materials. In the off season the women, typically farmers ' wives, did the spinning and the men did the weaving. Using the spinning wheel, it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one hand loom weaver. The flying shuttle patented in 1733 by John Kay, with a number of subsequent improvements including an important one in 1747, doubled the output of a weaver, worsening the imbalance between spinning and weaving. It became widely used around Lancashire after 1760 when John 's son, Robert, invented the drop box, which facilitated changing thread colors.
Lewis Paul patented the roller spinning frame and the flyer - and - bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness. The technology was developed with the help of John Wyatt of Birmingham. Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey. In 1743 a factory opened in Northampton with 50 spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt 's machines. This operated until about 1764. A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster, but this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in 1748. Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill. Lewis 's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright in his water frame and Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule.
In 1764 in the village of Stanhill, Lancashire, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, which he patented in 1770. It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles. The jenny worked in a similar manner to the spinning wheel, by first clamping down on the fibres, then by drawing them out, followed by twisting. It was a simple, wooden framed machine that only cost about £ 6 for a 40 - spindle model in 1792, and was used mainly by home spinners. The jenny produced a lightly twisted yarn only suitable for weft, not warp.
The spinning frame or water frame was developed by Richard Arkwright who, along with two partners, patented it in 1769. The design was partly based on a spinning machine built for Thomas High by clockmaker John Kay, who was hired by Arkwright. For each spindle, the water frame used a series of four pairs of rollers, each operating at a successively higher rotating speed, to draw out the fibre, which was then twisted by the spindle. The roller spacing was slightly longer than the fibre length. Too close a spacing caused the fibres to break while too distant a spacing caused uneven thread. The top rollers were leather - covered and loading on the rollers was applied by a weight. The weights kept the twist from backing up before the rollers. The bottom rollers were wood and metal, with fluting along the length. The water frame was able to produce a hard, medium count thread suitable for warp, finally allowing 100 % cotton cloth to be made in Britain. A horse powered the first factory to use the spinning frame. Arkwright and his partners used water power at a factory in Cromford, Derbyshire in 1771, giving the invention its name.
Samuel Crompton 's Spinning Mule was introduced in 1779. Mule implies "hybrid '' because it was a combination of the spinning jenny and the water frame, in which the spindles were placed on a carriage, which went through an operational sequence during which the rollers stopped while the carriage moved away from the drawing roller to finish drawing out the fibres as the spindles started rotating. Crompton 's mule was able to produce finer thread than hand spinning and at a lower cost. Mule spun thread was of suitable strength to be used as warp, and finally allowed Britain to produce highly competitive yarn in large quantities.
Realising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton and lead to a shortage of weavers, Edmund Cartwright developed a vertical power loom which he patented in 1785. In 1776 he patented a two - man operated loom which was more conventional. Cartwright built two factories; the first burned down and the second was sabotaged by his workers. Cartwright 's loom design had several flaws, the most serious being thread breakage. Samuel Horrocks patented a fairly successful loom in 1813. Horock 's loom was improved by Richard Roberts in 1822 and these were produced in large numbers by Roberts, Hill & Co.
The demand for cotton presented an opportunity to planters in the Southern United States, who thought upland cotton would be a profitable crop if a better way could be found to remove the seed. Eli Whitney responded to the challenge by inventing the inexpensive cotton gin. With a cotton gin a man could remove seed from as much upland cotton in one day as would have previously taken a woman working two months to process at one pound per day.
These advances were capitalised on by entrepreneurs, of whom the best known is Richard Arkwright. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by such people as Thomas Highs and John Kay; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes together in a factory, and he developed the use of power -- first horse power and then water power -- which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry. Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply of yarn increased greatly. Before long steam power was applied to drive textile machinery. Manchester acquired the nickname Cottonopolis during the early 19th century owing to its sprawl of textile factories.
Although mechanization dramatically decreased the cost of cotton cloth, by the mid-19th century machine woven cloth still could not equal the quality of hand woven Indian cloth, in part due to the fineness of thread made possible by the type of cotton used in India, which allowed high tread counts. However, the high productivity of British textile manufacturing allowed coarser grades of British cloth to undersell hand spun and woven fabric in low - wage India, eventually destroying the industry.
The earliest attempts at mechanized spinning were with wool; however, wool spinning proved more difficult to mechanize than cotton. Productivity improvement in wool spinning during the Industrial Revolution was significant, but was far less that that of cotton.
Arguably the first highly mechanised factory was John Lombe 's water - powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721. Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in Italy and acting as an industrial spy; however, since the silk industry there was a closely guarded secret, the state of the industry there is unknown. Although Lombe 's factory was technically successful, the supply of raw silk from Italy was cut off to eliminate competition. In order to promote manufacturing the Crown paid for models of Lombe 's machinery which were exhibited in the Tower of London.
A major change in the metal industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal. For a given amount of heat, coal required much less labour to mine than cutting wood and converting it to charcoal, and coal was more abundant than wood.
In the smelting and refining of iron, coal and to a lesser degree coke produced inferior iron than charcoal because the impurities in coal, at least until solutions to contamination were developed. Use of coal in smelting started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames playing on the ore and charcoal or coke mixture, reducing the oxide to metal. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur ash) in the coal do not migrate into the metal. This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. (The foundry cupola is a different (and later) innovation.)
This was followed by Abraham Darby, who made great strides using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale in 1709. However, the coke pig iron he made was used mostly for the production of cast iron goods, such as pots and kettles. He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and cheaper than theirs. Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce wrought iron in forges until the mid-1750s, when his son Abraham Darby II built Horsehay and Ketley furnaces (not far from Coalbrookdale). By then, coke pig iron was cheaper than charcoal pig iron. Since cast iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful, it began being a structural material following the building of the innovative Iron Bridge in 1778 by Abraham Darby III.
Wrought iron for smiths to forge into consumer goods was still made in finery forges, as it long had been. However, new processes were adopted in the ensuing years. The first is referred to today as potting and stamping, but this was superseded by Henry Cort 's puddling process. Cort developed two significant iron manufacturing processes: rolling in 1783 and puddling in 1784. Rolling replaced hammering for consolidating wrought iron and expelling some of the dross. Rolling was 15 times faster than hammering with a trip hammer. Roller mills were first used for making sheets, but later were developed for rolling structural shapes such as angles and rails.
Puddling produced a structural grade iron at a relatively low cost. Puddling was a means of decarburizing pig iron by slow oxidation as the iron was manually stirred using a long rod. The decarburized iron, having a higher melting point than cast iron, was raked into globs by the puddler. When the glob was large enough the puddler would remove it. Puddling was backbreaking and extremely hot work. Few puddlers lived to be 40. Puddling was done in a reverberatory furnace, allowing coal or coke to be used as fuel. The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when iron was being displaced by steel. Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs, it was never successfully mechanised.
Up to that time, British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of imported iron to supplement native supplies. This came principally from Sweden from the mid-17th century and later also from Russia from the end of the 1720s. However, from 1785, imports decreased because of the new iron making technology, and Britain became an exporter of bar iron as well as manufactured wrought iron consumer goods.
Hot blast, patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, was the most important development of the 19th century for saving energy in making pig iron. By using waste exhaust heat to preheat combustion air, the amount of fuel to make a unit of pig iron was reduced at first by between one - third using coal or two - thirds using coke; however, the efficiency gains continued as the technology improved. Hot blast also raised the operating temperature of furnaces, increasing their capacity. Using less coal or coke meant introducing fewer impurities into the pig iron. This meant that lower quality coal or anthracite could be used in areas where coking coal was unavailable or too expensive; however, by the end of the 19th century transportation costs fell considerably.
Two decades before the Industrial Revolution an improvement was made in the production of steel, which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for cutting edge tools and for springs. Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s. The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the cementation process.
The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided a number of industries, such as those making nails, hinges, wire and other hardware items. The development of machine tools allowed better working of iron, causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine industries.
The development of the stationary steam engine was an important element of the Industrial Revolution; however, during the early period of the Industrial Revolution, most industrial power was supplied by water and wind. In Britain by 1800 an estimated 10,000 horsepower was being supplied by steam. By 1815 steam power had grown to 210,000 hp.
The first commercially successful industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low - lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used in numerous water works and in a few mines (hence its "brand name '', The Miner 's Friend). Savery 's pump was economical in small horsepower ranges, but was prone to boiler explosions in larger sizes. Savery pumps continued to be produced until the late 18th century.
The first successful piston steam engine was introduced by Thomas Newcomen before 1712. A number of Newcomen engines were installed in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a lot of capital to build, and produced about 5 hp (3.7 kW). They were also used to power municipal water supply pumps. They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the 19th century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread (first) to Hungary in 1722, Germany, Austria, and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.
A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by Scotsman James Watt. With financial support from his business partner Englishman Matthew Boulton, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder, thereby making the low - pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. The separate condenser did away with the cooling water that had been injected directly into the cylinder, which cooled the cylinder and wasted steam. Likewise, the steam jacket kept steam from condensing in the cylinder, also improving efficiency. These improvements increased engine efficiency so that Boulton & Watts engines used only 20 -- 25 % as much coal per horsepower - hour as Newcomen 's. Boulton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry for the manufacture of such engines in 1795.
By 1783 the Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double - acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt 's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp (3.7 to 7.5 kW).
Until about 1800 the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine - house, but soon various patterns of self - contained rotative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine. Around the start of the 19th century, at which time the Boulton and Watt patent expired, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick and the American Oliver Evans began to construct higher - pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. High pressure yielded an engine and boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats.
The development of machine tools, such as the engine lathe, planing, milling and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines.
Small industrial power requirements continued to be provided by animal and human muscle until widespread electrification in the early 20th century. These included crank - powered, treadle - powered and horse - powered workshop and light industrial machinery.
Pre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmen -- millwrights built water and wind mills, carpenters made wooden framing, and smiths and turners made metal parts. Wooden components had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal parts and frames became more common. Other important uses of metal parts were in firearms and threaded fasteners, such as machine screws, bolts and nuts. There was also the need for precision in making parts. Precision would allow better working machinery, interchangeability of parts and standardization of threaded fasteners.
The demand for metal parts led to the development of several machine tools. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch - produce small mechanisms.
Before the advent of machine tools, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Consequently, the use of metal was kept to a minimum. Hand methods of production were very laborious and costly and precision was difficult to achieve.
The first large precision machine tool was the cylinder boring machine used for boring the large - diameter cylinders on early steam engines. The planing machine, the milling machine and the shaping machine were developed in the early decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th century.
Henry Maudslay, who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was a mechanic with superior ability who had been employed at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. He worked as an apprentice in the Royal Gun Foundry of Jan Verbruggen. In 1774 Jan Verbruggen had installed a horizontal boring machine in Woolwich which was the first industrial size Lathe in the UK. Maudslay was hired away by Joseph Bramah for the production of high security metal locks that required precision craftsmanship. Bramah patented a lathe that had similarities to the slide rest lathe. Maudslay perfected the slide rest lathe, which could cut machine screws of different thread pitches by using changeable gears between the spindle and the lead screw. Before its invention screws could not be cut to any precision using various earlier lathe designs, some of which copied from a template. The slide rest lathe was called one of history 's most important inventions, although not entirely Maudslay 's idea, he was the first person to build a functional lathe using a combination of known innovations of the lead screw, slide rest and change gears.
Maudslay left Bramah 's employment and set up his own shop. He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships ' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth Block Mills. These machines were all - metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as Richard Roberts, Joseph Clement and Joseph Whitworth.
James Fox of Derby had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did Matthew Murray of Leeds. Roberts was a maker of high - quality machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement.
The impact of machine tools during the Industrial Revolution was not that great because other than firearms, threaded fasteners and a few other industries there were few mass - produced metal parts. The techniques to make mass - produced metal parts made with sufficient precision to be interchangeable is largely attributed to a program of the U.S. Department of War which perfected interchangeable parts for firearms in the early 19th century.
In the half century following the invention of the fundamental machine tools the machine industry became the largest industrial sector of the U.S. economy, by value added.
The large scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution. The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck (James Watt 's first partner) in 1746. He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of lead. Instead of making a small amount each time, he was able to make around 100 pounds (50 kg) in each of the chambers, at least a tenfold increase.
The production of an alkali on a large scale became an important goal as well, and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of sodium carbonate. The Leblanc process was a reaction of sulphuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulphate and hydrochloric acid. The sodium sulphate was heated with limestone (calcium carbonate) and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide. Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide. The process produced a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air, and calcium sulphide was a useless waste product). Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash proved economical compared to that from burning specific plants (barilla) or from kelp, which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash, and also to potash (potassium carbonate) produced from hardwood ashes.
These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions, replacing many small - scale operations with more cost - effective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling (removing rust) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth.
The development of bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) by Scottish chemist Charles Tennant in about 1800, based on the discoveries of French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet, revolutionised the bleaching processes in the textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk. Tennant 's factory at St Rollox, North Glasgow, became the largest chemical plant in the world.
After 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in dyestuffs, and Germany took world leadership, building a strong chemical industry. Aspiring chemists flocked to German universities in the 1860 -- 1914 era to learn the latest techniques. British scientists by contrast, lacked research universities and did not train advanced students; instead the practice was to hire German - trained chemists.
In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer turned builder, patented a chemical process for making portland cement which was an important advance in the building trades. This process involves sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to about 1,400 ° C (2,552 ° F), then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand and gravel to produce concrete. Portland cement was used by the famous English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel several years later when constructing the Thames Tunnel. Cement was used on a large scale in the construction of the London sewerage system a generation later.
Another major industry of the later Industrial Revolution was gas lighting. Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large - scale introduction of this was the work of William Murdoch, an employee of Boulton & Watt, the Birmingham steam engine pioneers. The process consisted of the large - scale gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur, ammonia, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution. The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820. They soon became one of the major consumers of coal in the UK. Gas lighting affected social and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain open longer than with tallow candles or oil. Its introduction allowed nightlife to flourish in cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on a larger scale than before.
A new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder process, was developed in Europe during the early 19th century. In 1832 this process was used by the Chance Brothers to create sheet glass. They became the leading producers of window and plate glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings. The Crystal Palace is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass in a new and innovative structure.
A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by Nicholas Louis Robert who worked for Saint - Léger Didot family in France. The paper machine is known as a Fourdrinier after the financiers, brothers Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier, who were stationers in London. Although greatly improved and with many variations, the Fourdriner machine is the predominant means of paper production today.
The method of continuous production demonstrated by the paper machine influenced the development of continuous rolling of iron and later steel and other continuous production processes.
The British Agricultural Revolution is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution because improved agricultural productivity freed up workers to work in other sectors of the economy. However, per - capita food supply in Europe was stagnant or delining and did not improve in some parts of Europe until the late 18th century.
Industrial technologies that affected farming included the seed drill, the Dutch plough, which contained iron parts, and the threshing machine.
Jethro Tull invented an improved seed drill in 1701. It was a mechanical seeder which distributed seeds evenly across a plot of land and planted them at the correct depth. This was important because the yield of seeds harvested to seeds planted at that time was around four or five. Tull 's seed drill was very expensive and not very reliable and therefore did not have much of an impact. Good quality seed drills were not produced until the mid 18th century.
Joseph Foljambe 's Rotherham plough of 1730 was the first commercially successful iron plough. The threshing machine, invented by Andrew Meikle in 1784, displaced hand threshing with a flail, a laborious job that took about one - quarter of agricultural labour. It took several decades to diffuse and was the final straw for many farm labourers, who faced near starvation, leading to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of the Swing Riots.
Machine tools and metalworking techniques developed during the Industrial Revolution eventually resulted in precision manufacturing techniques in the late 19th century for mass - producing agricultural equipment, such as reapers, binders and combine harvesters.
Coal mining in Britain, particularly in South Wales, started early. Before the steam engine, pits were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an adit or drift mine driven into the side of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam pump by Savery in 1698 and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of John Smeaton 's improvements to the Newcomen engine followed by James Watt 's more efficient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable. The Cornish engine, developed in the 1810s, was much more efficient than the Watt steam engine.
Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of firedamp in many coal seams. Some degree of safety was provided by the safety lamp which was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphry Davy and independently by George Stephenson. However, the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light. Firedamp explosions continued, often setting off coal dust explosions, so casualties grew during the entire 19th century. Conditions of work were very poor, with a high casualty rate from rock falls.
Other developments included more efficient water wheels, based on experiments conducted by the British engineer John Smeaton the beginnings of a machine industry and the rediscovery of concrete (based on hydraulic lime mortar) by John Smeaton, which had been lost for 1300 years.
At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but canals had not yet been widely constructed. Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with sails providing the motive power on the sea. The first horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th century, with steam locomotives being introduced in the early decades of the 19th century.
The Industrial Revolution improved Britain 's transport infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before. Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly.
Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be economically transported long distances inland. This was because a horse could pull a barge with a load dozens of times larger than the load that could be drawn in a cart.
Building of canals dates to ancient times. The Grand Canal in China, "the world 's largest artificial waterway and oldest canal still in existence, '' parts of which were started between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, is 1,121 miles (1,804 km) long and links Hangzhou with Beijing.
In the UK, canals began to be built in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing centres across the country. Known for its huge commercial success, the Bridgewater Canal in North West England, which opened in 1761 and was mostly funded by The 3rd Duke of Bridgewater. From Worsley to the rapidly growing town of Manchester its construction cost £ 168,000 (£ 22,589,130 as of 2013), but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761, the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half. This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building, known as Canal Mania. New canals were hastily built in the aim of replicating the commercial success of the Bridgewater Canal, the most notable being the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the Thames and Severn Canal which opened in 1774 and 1789 respectively.
By the 1820s a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on. The last major canal to be built in the United Kingdom was the Manchester Ship Canal, which upon opening in 1894 was the largest ship canal in the world, and opened Manchester as a port. However it never achieved the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for and signalled canals as a dying mode of transport in an age dominated by railways, which were quicker and often cheaper.
Britain 's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.
Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier) turnpike trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of a turnpike trust. New engineered roads were built by John Metcalf, Thomas Telford and most notably John McAdam, with the first ' macadamised ' stretch of road being Marsh Road at Ashton Gate, Bristol in 1816. The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow, broad wheeled, carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horse. Stage coaches carried the rich, and the less wealthy could pay to ride on carriers carts.
Reducing friction was one of the major reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons. This was demonstrated on an iron plate covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon, England.
"A good horse on an ordinary turnpike road can draw two thousand pounds, or one ton. A party of gentlemen were invited to witness the experiment, that the superiority of the new road might be established by ocular demonstration. Twelve wagons were loaded with stones, till each wagon weighed three tons, and the wagons were fastened together. A horse was then attached, which drew the wagons with ease, six miles in two hours, having stopped four times, in order to show he had the power of starting, as well as drawing his great load. ''
Railways were made practical by the widespread introduction of inexpensive puddled iron after 1800, the rolling mill for making rails, and the development of the high pressure steam engine also around 1800.
Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam locomotive were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast - iron plates used). Horse - drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century when improvements to pig and wrought iron production were lowering costs. See: Metallurgy
Steam locomotives began being built after the introduction of high pressure steam engines after the expiration of the Boulton and Watt patent in 1800. High pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere, doing away with the condenser and cooling water. They were also much lighter weight and smaller in size for a given horsepower than the stationary condensing engines. A few of these early locomotives were used in mines. Steam - hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825.
The rapid introduction of railways followed the 1829 Rainhill Trials, which demonstrated Robert Stephenson 's successful locomotive design and the 1828 development of Hot blast, which dramatically reduced the fuel consumption of making iron and increased the capacity the blast furnace.
On 15 September 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened, the first inter-city railway in the world and was attended by Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington. The railway was engineered by Joseph Locke and George Stephenson, linked the rapidly expanding industrial town of Manchester with the port town of Liverpool. The opening was marred by problems, due to the primitive nature of the technology being employed, however problems were gradually ironed out and the railway became highly successful, transporting passengers and freight. The success of the inter-city railway, particularly in the transport of freight and commodities, led to Railway Mania.
Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories.
Prior to the Industrial Revolution most of the workforce was employed in agriculture, either as self - employed farmers as land owners or tenants, or as landless agricultural labourers. It was common for families in various parts of the world to spin yarn, weave cloth and make their own clothing. Households also spun and wove for market production. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution India, China and regions of Iraq and elsewhere in Asia and the Middle East produced most of the world 's cotton cloth while Europeans produced wool and linen goods.
In Britain by the 16th century the putting - out system, by which farmers and townspeople produced goods for market in their homes, often described as cottage industry, was being practiced. Typical putting out system goods included spinning and weaving. Merchant capitalist typically provided the raw materials, paid workers by the piece, and were responsible for the sale of the goods. Embezzlement of supplies by workers and poor quality were common problems. The logistical effort in procuring and distributing raw materials and picking up finished goods were also limitations of the putting out system.
Some early spinning and weaving machinery, such as a 40 spindle jenny for about six pounds in 1792, was affordable for cottagers. Later machinery such as spinning frames, spinning mules and power looms were expensive (especially if water powered), giving rise to capitalist ownership of factories.
The majority of textile factory workers during the Industrial Revolution were unmarried women and children, including many orphans. They typically worked for 12 to 14 hours per day with only Sundays off. It was common for women take factory jobs seasonally during slack periods of farm work. Lack of adequate transportation, long hours and poor pay made it difficult to recruit and maintain workers. Many workers, such as displaced farmers and agricultural workers, who had nothing but their labour to sell, became factory workers out of necessity. (See: British Agricultural Revolution, Threshing machine)
The change in the social relationship of the factory worker compared to farmers and cottagers was viewed unfavourably by Karl Marx, however, he recognized the increase in productivity made possible by technology.
Women 's historians have debated the effect of the Industrial Revolution and capitalism generally on the status of women. Taking a pessimistic side, Alice Clark argued that when capitalism arrived in 17th century England, it lowered the status of women as they lost much of their economic importance. Clark argues that in 16th century England, women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture. The home was a central unit of production and women played a vital role in running farms, and in some trades and landed estates. Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands. However, Clark argues, as capitalism expanded in the 17th century, there was more and more division of labour with the husband taking paid labour jobs outside the home, and the wife reduced to unpaid household work. Middle - and upper - class women were confined to an idle domestic existence, supervising servants; lower - class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs. Capitalism, therefore, had a negative effect on powerful women.
In a more positive interpretation, Ivy Pinchbeck argues that capitalism created the conditions for women 's emancipation. Tilly and Scott have emphasised the continuity in the status of women, finding three stages in English history. In the pre-industrial era, production was mostly for home use and women produce much of the needs of the households. The second stage was the "family wage economy '' of early industrialisation; the entire family depended on the collective wages of its members, including husband, wife and older children. The third or modern stage is the "family consumer economy, '' in which the family is the site of consumption, and women are employed in large numbers in retail and clerical jobs to support rising standards of consumption.
Some economists, such as Robert E. Lucas, Jr., say that the real impact of the Industrial Revolution was that "for the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth... Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour is mentioned by the classical economists, even as a theoretical possibility. '' Others, however, argue that while growth of the economy 's overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution, living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries, and that in many ways workers ' living standards declined under early capitalism: for instance, studies have shown that real wages in Britain only increased 15 % between the 1780s and 1850s, and that life expectancy in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s.
The effects on living conditions the industrial revolution have been very controversial, and were hotly debated by economic and social historians from the 1950s to the 1980s. A series of 1950s essays by Henry Phelps Brown and Sheila V. Hopkins later set the academic consensus that the bulk of the population, that was at the bottom of the social ladder, suffered severe reductions in their living standards. During 1813 -- 1913, there was a significant increase in worker wages.
Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the majority of the population of the world including Britain and France, until the late 19th century. Until about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years and about 40 years in Britain. The United States population of the time was adequately fed, much taller on average and had life expectancy of 45 -- 50 years although U.S. life expectancy declined a few years by the mid 18th century.
The initial technologies of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized textiles, iron and coal, did little, if anything, to lower food prices. In Britain and the Netherlands, food supply increased before the Industrial Revolution due to better agricultural practices; however, population grew too, as noted by Thomas Malthus. This condition is called the Malthusian trap, and it finally started to overcome by transportation improvements, such as canals, improved roads and steamships. Railroads and steamships were introduced near the end of the Industrial Revolution.
The very rapid growth in population in the 19th century in the cities included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centers such as Edinburgh and London. The critical factor was financing, which was handled by building societies that dealt directly with large contracting firms. Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants. People moved in so rapidly that there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone, so low income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded slums. Clean water, sanitation, and public health facilities were inadequate; the death rate was high, especially infant mortality, and tuberculosis among young adults. Cholera from polluted water and typhoid were endemic. Unlike rural areas, there were no famines such as devastated Ireland in the 1840s.
A large exposé literature grew up condemning the unhealthy conditions. By far the most famous publication was by one of the founders of the Socialist movement, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 Friedrich Engels described backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns, where people lived in crude shanties and shacks, some not completely enclosed, some with dirt floors. These shanty towns had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. There were no sanitary facilities. Population density was extremely high. Not everyone lived in such poor conditions. The Industrial Revolution also created a middle class of businessmen, clerks, foremen and engineers who lived in much better conditions.
Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century due to new public health acts regulating things such as sewage, hygiene and home construction. In the introduction of his 1892 edition, Engels notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved. For example, the Public Health Act 1875 led to the more sanitary byelaw terraced house.
Consumers benefited from falling prices for clothing and household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils, and in the following decades, stoves for cooking and space heating. Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes in Britain, potter and entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood, founder of Wedgwood fine china and porcelain, created goods such as tableware, which was starting to become a common feature on dining tables.
According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, which had remained steady at six million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740. The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1850 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million. Improved conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 1800s. Europe 's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.
The Industrial Revolution was the first period in history during which there was a simultaneous increase in both population and per capita income.
In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry. Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines. As late as the year 1900, most industrial workers in the United States still worked a 10 - hour day (12 hours in the steel industry), yet earned from 20 % to 40 % less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life; however, most workers in textiles, which was by far the leading industry in terms of employment, were women and children. Also, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruel -- child labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.
Industrialisation led to the creation of the factory. The factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of work in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed "Cottonopolis '', and the world 's first industrial city. Manchester experienced a six - times increase in its population between 1771 and 1831. Bradford grew by 50 % every ten years between 1811 and 1851 and by 1851 only 50 % of the population of Bradford was actually born there.
For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically water - powered and built to serve local needs. Later, each factory would have its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its boiler.
In other industries the transition to factory production was not so divisive. Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers. One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen, known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills, and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement.
By 1746 an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton (whose Soho Manufactory was completed in 1766) were other prominent early industrialists, who employed the factory system.
The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase but the chances of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the Industrial Revolution, although infant mortality rates were reduced markedly. There was still limited opportunity for education and children were expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was completely new, there were no experienced adult labourers. This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland in 1788, two - thirds of the workers in 143 water - powered cotton mills were described as children.
Child labour existed before the Industrial Revolution but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders, 10 -- 20 % of an adult male 's wage. Children as young as four were employed. Beatings and long hours were common, with some child coal miners and hurriers working from 4 am until 5 pm. Conditions were dangerous, with some children killed when they dozed off and fell into the path of the carts, while others died from gas explosions. Many children developed lung cancer and other diseases and died before the age of 25. Workhouses would sell orphans and abandoned children as "pauper apprentices '', working without wages for board and lodging. Those who ran away would be whipped and returned to their masters, with some masters shackling them to prevent escape. Children employed as mule scavengers by cotton mills would crawl under machinery to pick up cotton, working 14 hours a day, six days a week. Some lost hands or limbs, others were crushed under the machines, and some were decapitated. Young girls worked at match factories, where phosphorus fumes would cause many to develop phossy jaw. Children employed at glassworks were regularly burned and blinded, and those working at potteries were vulnerable to poisonous clay dust.
Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines and textile factories, and these helped to popularise the children 's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers ' welfare.
Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in Britain: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law, however, their scarcity made enforcement difficult. About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. Although laws such as these decreased the number of child labourers, child labour remained significantly present in Europe and the United States until the 20th century.
The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organisation of combinations or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffering the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining.
The main method the unions used to effect change was strike action. Many strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. In Britain, the Combination Act 1799 forbade workers to form any kind of trade union until its repeal in 1824. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted.
In 1832, the Reform Act extended the vote in Britain but did not grant universal suffrage. That year six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages in the 1830s. They refused to work for less than ten shillings a week, although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings a week and were due to be further reduced to six. In 1834 James Frampton, a local landowner, wrote to the Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, to complain about the union, invoking an obscure law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to each other, which the members of the Friendly Society had done. James Brine, James Hammett, George Loveless, George 's brother James Loveless, George 's brother in - law Thomas Standfield, and Thomas 's son John Standfield were arrested, found guilty, and transported to Australia. They became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs. In the 1830s and 1840s, the Chartist movement was the first large - scale organised working class political movement which campaigned for political equality and social justice. Its Charter of reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by Parliament without consideration.
Working people also formed friendly societies and co-operative societies as mutual support groups against times of economic hardship. Enlightened industrialists, such as Robert Owen also supported these organisations to improve the conditions of the working class.
Unions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike. In 1842, a general strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organised through the Chartist movement which stopped production across Great Britain.
Eventually, effective political organisation for working people was achieved through the trades unions who, after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, began to support socialist political parties that later merged to become the British Labour Party.
The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The movement started first with lace and hosiery workers near Nottingham and spread to other areas of the textile industry owing to early industrialisation. Many weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers and others, turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of Ned Ludd, a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government took drastic measures, using the militia or army to protect industry. Those rioters who were caught were tried and hanged, or transported for life.
Unrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised, such as with agricultural labourers in the 1830s when large parts of southern Britain were affected by the Captain Swing disturbances. Threshing machines were a particular target, and hayrick burning was a popular activity. However, the riots led to the first formation of trade unions, and further pressure for reform.
The traditional centers of hand textile production such as India, parts of the Middle East and later China could not withstand the competition from machine made textiles, which over a period of decades destroyed the hand made textile industries and left millions of people without work, many of whom starved.
Cheap cotton textiles increased the demand for raw cotton; previously, it had primarily been consumed in regions where it was grown, with little raw cotton available for export. Consequently, prices of raw cotton rose. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, cotton was grown in small plots in the Old World -- the uncrowned Americas were far better able to recruit available land with the potential for new cotton production. Some cotton had been grown in the West Indies, particularly in Haiti, but Haitian cotton production was halted by the Haitian Revolution in 1791. The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 allowed Georgia green seeded cotton to be profitable, leading to widespread growth of cotton plantations in the United States and Brazil. (A strain of cotton seed brought to Natchez in 1806, Gossypium hirsutum, would become the parent genetic material for over 90 % of world cotton production to come: it produced bolls that were three to four times faster to pick.) The Americas, particularly the U.S., had labor shortages and high priced labor, which made slavery attractive. America 's cotton plantations were highly efficient and profitable, and able to keep up with demand. The U.S. Civil war created a "cotton famine '' that lead to increased production in other areas of the world, including new colonies in Africa.
The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. The first large - scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain 's Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by the Leblanc process, used to produce soda ash. An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution. The responsibilities of the inspectorate were gradually expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted smoke, grit, dust and fumes under supervision.
The manufactured gas industry began in British cities in 1812 -- 1820. The technique used produced highly toxic effluent that was dumped into sewers and rivers. The gas companies were repeatedly sued in nuisance lawsuits. They usually lost and modified the worst practices. The City of London repeatedly indicted gas companies in the 1820s for polluting the Thames and poisoning its fish. Finally, Parliament wrote company charters to regulate toxicity. The industry reached the US around 1850 causing pollution and lawsuits.
In industrial cities local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass - roots movements to demand and achieve reforms. Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in Britain in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke. The provisions of this law were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash and gritty particles and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations.
The application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing, which reinforced rising literacy and demands for mass political participation.
During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5 % in 1730 -- 1749 to 31.8 % in 1810 -- 1829.
The growth of modern industry since the late 18th century led to massive urbanisation and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3 % of the world 's population lived in cities, compared to nearly 50 % today (the beginning of the 21st century). Manchester had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million.
The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great Britain. In many industries, this involved the application of technology developed in Britain in new places. Often the technology was purchased from Britain or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities. By 1809, part of the Ruhr Valley in Westphalia was called ' Miniature England ' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of England. The German, Russian and Belgian governments all provided state funding to the new industries. In some cases (such as iron), the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted.
Belgium was the second country, after Britain, in which the Industrial Revolution took place and the first in continental Europe: Wallonia (French speaking southern Belgium) was the first region to follow the British model successfully. Starting in the middle of the 1820s, and especially after Belgium became an independent nation in 1830, numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around Liège and Charleroi. The leader was a transplanted Englishman John Cockerill. His factories at Seraing integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825.
Wallonia exemplified the radical evolution of industrial expansion. Thanks to coal (the French word "houille '' was coined in Wallonia), the region geared up to become the 2nd industrial power in the world after Britain. But it is also pointed out by many researchers, with its Sillon industriel, ' Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège, (...) there was a huge industrial development based on coal - mining and iron - making... '. Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: "It was not propaganda but a reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the world after Britain. '' "The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth making town of Ghent. '' Michel De Coster, Professor at the Université de Liège wrote also: "The historians and the economists say that Belgium was the second industrial power of the world, in proportion to its population and its territory (...) But this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal - mines, the blast furnaces, the iron and zinc factories, the wool industry, the glass industry, the weapons industry... were concentrated. ''
Wallonia was also the birthplace of a strong Socialist party and strong trade - unions in a particular sociological landscape. At the left, the Sillon industriel, which runs from Mons in the west, to Verviers in the east (except part of North Flanders, in another period of the industrial revolution, after 1920). Even if Belgium is the second industrial country after Britain, the effect of the industrial revolution there was very different. In ' Breaking stereotypes ', Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devious say:
The industrial revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one, but with a strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium. During the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres (...) at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region (Flanders), with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 per cent, remained one of the most urbanised in the world. By comparison, this proportion reached only 17 per cent in Wallonia, barely 10 per cent in most West European countries, 16 per cent in France and 25 per cent in Britain. Nineteenth century industrialisation did not affect the traditional urban infrastructure, except in Ghent (...) Also, in Wallonia the traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialisation process, even though the proportion of city - dwellers rose from 17 to 45 per cent between 1831 and 1910. Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège, where there was a huge industrial development based on coal - mining and iron - making, urbanisation was fast. During these eighty years the number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region. Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal - mine or a factory. Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows.
The industrial revolution in France followed a particular course as it did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries. Notably, most French historians argue France did not go through a clear take - off. Instead, France 's economic growth and industrialisation process was slow and steady through the 18th and 19th centuries. However, some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy - Leboyer:
Based on its leadership in chemical research in the universities and industrial laboratories, Germany, which was unified in 1871, became dominant in the world 's chemical industry in the late 19th century. At first the production of dyes based on aniline was critical.
Germany 's political disunity -- with three dozen states -- and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines linked the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders. Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self - sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain 's. However, German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state - owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts, and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and pulled ahead of France
During the period 1790 -- 1815 Sweden experienced two parallel economic movements: an agricultural revolution with larger agricultural estates, new crops and farming tools and a commercialisation of farming, and a protoindustrialisation, with small industries being established in the countryside and with workers switching between agricultural work in summer and industrial production in winter. This led to economic growth benefiting large sections of the population and leading up to a consumption revolution starting in the 1820s.
During 1815 -- 1850 the protoindustries developed into more specialised and larger industries. This period witnessed increasing regional specialisation with mining in Bergslagen, textile mills in Sjuhäradsbygden and forestry in Norrland. Several important institutional changes took place in this period, such as free and mandatory schooling introduced 1842 (as first country in the world), the abolition of the national monopoly on trade in handicrafts in 1846, and a stock company law in 1848.
During 1850 -- 1890, Sweden experienced a veritable explosion in export, dominated by crops, wood and steel. Sweden abolished most tariffs and other barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873.
During 1890 -- 1930, Sweden experienced the second industrial revolution. New industries developed with their focus on the domestic market: mechanical engineering, power utilities, papermaking and textile.
The industrial revolution began about 1870 as Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform programme to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western - based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan).
In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the United States to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state - led industrialisation policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. The Bank of Japan, founded in 1882, used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the west.
Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas.
During the late 18th an early 19th centuries when the UK and parts of Western Europe began to industrialise, the US was primarily an agricultural and natural resource producing and processing economy. The building of roads and canals, the introduction of steamboats and the building of railroads were important for handling agricultural and natural resource products in the large and sparsely populated country of the period.
Important American technological contributions during the period of the Industrial Revolution were the cotton gin and the development of a system for making interchangeable parts, the latter aided by the development of the milling machine in the US. The development of machine tools and the system of interchangeable parts were the basis for the rise of the US as the world 's leading industrial nation in the late 19th century.
Oliver Evans invented an automated flour mill in the mid 1780s that used control mechanisms and conveyors so that no labour was needed from the time grain was loaded into the elevator buckets until flour was discharged into a wagon. This is considered to be the first modern materials handling system an important advance in the progress toward mass production.
The United States originally used horse - powered machinery for small scale applications such as grain milling, but eventually switched to water power after textile factories began being built in the 1790s. As a result, industrialisation was concentrated in New England and the Northeastern United States, which has fast - moving rivers. The newer water - powered production lines proved more economical than horse - drawn production. In the late 19th century steam - powered manufacturing overtook water - powered manufacturing, allowing the industry to spread to the Midwest.
Thomas Somers and the Cabot Brothers founded the Beverly Cotton Manufactory in 1787, the first cotton mill in America, the largest cotton mill of its era, and a significant milestone in the research and development of cotton mills in the future. This mill was designed to use horse power, but the operators quickly learned that the horse - drawn platform was economically unstable, and had economic losses for years. Despite the losses, the Manufactory served as a playground of innovation, both in turning a large amount of cotton, but also developing the water - powered milling structure used in Slater 's Mill.
In 1793, Samuel Slater (1768 -- 1835) founded the Slater Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. He had learned of the new textile technologies as a boy apprentice in Derbyshire, England, and defied laws against the emigration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in 1789, hoping to make money with his knowledge. After founding Slater 's Mill, he went on to own 13 textile mills. Daniel Day established a wool carding mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge, Massachusetts in 1809, the third woollen mill established in the US (The first was in Hartford, Connecticut, and the second at Watertown, Massachusetts.) The John H. Chafee Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor retraces the history of "America 's Hardest - Working River ', the Blackstone. The Blackstone River and its tributaries, which cover more than 45 miles (72 km) from Worcester, Massachusetts to Providence, Rhode Island, was the birthplace of America 's Industrial Revolution. At its peak over 1100 mills operated in this valley, including Slater 's mill, and with it the earliest beginnings of America 's Industrial and Technological Development.
Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell from Newburyport, Massachusetts memorised the design of textile machines on his tour of British factories in 1810. Realising that the War of 1812 had ruined his import business but that a demand for domestic finished cloth was emerging in America, on his return to the United States, he set up the Boston Manufacturing Company. Lowell and his partners built America 's second cotton - to - cloth textile mill at Waltham, Massachusetts, second to the Beverly Cotton Manufactory. After his death in 1817, his associates built America 's first planned factory town, which they named after him. This enterprise was capitalised in a public stock offering, one of the first uses of it in the United States. Lowell, Massachusetts, using 5.6 miles (9.0 km) of canals and 10,000 horsepower delivered by the Merrimack River, is considered by some as a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial Revolution. The short - lived utopia - like Waltham - Lowell system was formed, as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain. However, by 1850, especially following the Irish Potato Famine, the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour.
A major U.S. contribution to industrialization was the development of techniques to make interchangeable parts from metal. Precision metal machining techniques were developed by the U.S. Department of War to make interchangeable parts for small firearms. The development work took place at the Federal Arsenals at Springfield Armory and Harpers Ferry Armory. Techniques for precision machining using machine tools included using fixtures to hold the parts in proper position, jigs to guide the cutting tools and precision blocks and gauges to measure the accuracy. The milling machine, a fundamental machine tool, is believed to have been invented by Eli Whitney, who was a government contractor who built firearms as part of this program. Another important invention was the Blanchard lathe, invented by Thomas Blanchard. The Blanchard lathe, or pattern tracing lathe, was actually a shaper that could produce copies of wooden gun stocks. The use of machinery and the techniques for producing standardized and interchangeable parts became known as the American system of manufacturing.
Precision manufacturing techniques made it possible to build machines that mechanized the shoe industry. and the watch industry. The industrialisation of the watch industry started 1854 also in Waltham, Massachusetts, at the Waltham Watch Company, with the development of machine tools, gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision required for watches.
Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass - production, which are said to characterise a "Second Industrial Revolution '', beginning around 1850, although a method for mass manufacture of steel was not invented until the 1860s, when Sir Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace which could convert molten pig iron into steel in large quantities. However, it only became widely available in the 1870s after the process was modified to produce more uniform quality. Bessemer steel was being displaced by the open hearth furnace near the end of the 19th century.
This Second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include chemicals, mainly the chemical industries, petroleum (refining and distribution), and, in the 20th century, the automotive industry, and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany.
The increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation.
A new revolution began with electricity and electrification in the electrical industries. The introduction of hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the rapid industrialisation of coal - deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s.
By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests, as companies like U.S. Steel, General Electric, Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined the railroad and ship companies on the world 's stock markets.
The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate, with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century. The Enclosure movement and the British Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labour - intensive, forcing the farmers who could no longer be self - sufficient in agriculture into cottage industry, for example weaving, and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed factories. The colonial expansion of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of financial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors, as is the scientific revolution of the 17th century. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made people able to accumulate more human capital during their youth, thereby encouraging economic development.
Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine. However, recent research into the Marketing Era has challenged the traditional, supply - oriented interpretation of the Industrial Revolution.
Lewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the Early Middle Ages, much earlier than most estimates. He explains that the model for standardised mass production was the printing press and that "the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock ''. He also cites the monastic emphasis on order and time - keeping, as well as the fact that medieval cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine.
The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and tariffs on goods traded among them. Internal tariffs were abolished by Henry VIII of England, they survived in Russia till 1753, 1789 in France and 1839 in Spain.
Governments ' grant of limited monopolies to inventors under a developing patent system (the Statute of Monopolies in 1623) is considered an influential factor. The effects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine, the key enabling technology. In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the patent system rewarded inventors such as James Watt by allowing them to monopolise the production of the first steam engines, thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development. However, monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance, the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors. Watt 's monopoly prevented other inventors, such as Richard Trevithick, William Murdoch, or Jonathan Hornblower, whom Boulton and Watt sued, from introducing improved steam engines, thereby retarding the spread of steam power.
One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, India, and the Middle East, or at other times like in Classical Antiquity or the Middle Ages. Numerous factors have been suggested, including education, technological changes (see Scientific Revolution in Europe), "modern '' government, "modern '' work attitudes, ecology, and culture.
China was the world 's most technological advanced country for many centuries; however, China stagnated economically and technologically and was surpassed by Western Europe before the Age of Exploration, by which time China banned imports and denied entry to foreigners. China was also a totalitarian society. Modern estimates of per capita income on Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in purchasing power parity (and Britain had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. India was essentially feudal, politically fragmented and not as economically advanced as Western Europe.
Historians such as David Landes and Max Weber credit the different belief systems in Asia and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo - Christianity and Greek thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius, Mencius, Han Feizi (Legalism), Lao Tzu (Taoism), and Buddha (Buddhism), resulting in very different worldviews. Other factors include the considerable distance of China 's coal deposits, though large, from its cities as well as the then unnavigable Yellow River that connects these deposits to the sea.
Regarding India, the Marxist historian Rajani Palme Dutt said: "The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in Britain. '' In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing kingdoms after the decline of the Mughal Empire, with the major ones in its aftermath including the Marathas, Sikhs, Bengal Subah, and Kingdom of Mysore. In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors -- agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and there appears to have been little technical innovation. It is believed that the vast amounts of wealth were largely stored away in palace treasuries by totalitarian monarchs prior to the British take over.
Economic historian Joel Mokyr has argued that political fragmentation (the presence of a large number of European states) made it possible for heterodox ideas to thrive, as entrepreneurs, innovators, ideologues and heretics could easily flee to a neighboring state in the event that the one state would try to suppress their ideas and activities. This is what set Europe apart from the technologically advanced, large unitary empires such as China and India. China had both a printing press and movable type, and India had similar levels scientific and technological achievement as Europe in 1700, yet the industrial revolution would occur in Europe, not China or India. In Europe, political fragmentation was coupled with an "integrated market for ideas '' where Europe 's intellectuals used the lingua franca of Latin, had a shared intellectual basis in Europe 's classical heritage and the pan-European institution of the Republic of Letters.
Great Britain provided the legal and cultural foundations that enabled entrepreneurs to pioneer the industrial revolution. Key factors fostering this environment were: (1) The period of peace and stability which followed the unification of England and Scotland; (2) no trade barriers between England and Scotland; (3) the rule of law (enforcing property rights and respecting the sanctity of contracts); (4) a straightforward legal system that allowed the formation of joint - stock companies (corporations); (5) absence of tolls, which had largely disappeared from Britain by the 15th century, but were an extreme burden on goods elsewhere in the world, and (6) a free market (capitalism).
Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain were the fact that it had extensive coast lines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation and having the highest quality coal in Europe.
There were two main values that really drove the Industrial Revolution in Britain. These values were self - interest and an entrepreneurial spirit. Because of these interests, many industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth and a consumer revolution. These advancements also greatly benefitted the British society as a whole. Countries around the world started to recognise the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as an example to begin their own Industrial Revolutions.
The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment. However, it has been pointed out that slave trade and West Indian plantations provided only 5 % of the British national income during the years of the Industrial Revolution. Even though slavery accounted for so little, Caribbean - based demand accounted for 12 % of Britain 's industrial output.
Instead, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly China and Russia. Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and having the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets were destroyed during the war by the Royal Navy). Britain 's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain 's geographical position -- an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe.
Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. Enclosure of common land and the related agricultural revolution made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the North of England, the English Midlands, South Wales and the Scottish Lowlands. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry. Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point for the birth of the textiles industry.
The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688 following the Glorious Revolution, and British society 's greater receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. Peasant resistance to industrialisation was largely eliminated by the Enclosure movement, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism. (This point is also made in Hilaire Belloc 's The Servile State.)
The French philosopher Voltaire wrote about capitalism and religious tolerance in his book on English society, Letters on the English (1733), noting why England at that time was more prosperous in comparison to the country 's less religiously tolerant European neighbours. "Take a view of the Royal Exchange in London, a place more venerable than many courts of justice, where the representatives of all nations meet for the benefit of mankind. There the Jew, the Mahometan (Muslim), and the Christian transact together, as though they all professed the same religion, and give the name of infidel to none but bankrupts. There the Presbyterian confides in the Anabaptist, and the Churchman depends on the Quaker 's word. If one religion only were allowed in England, the Government would very possibly become arbitrary; if there were but two, the people would cut one another 's throats; but as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace. ''
Britain 's population grew 280 % 1550 -- 1820, while the rest of Western Europe grew 50 -- 80 %. Seventy percent of European urbanisation happened in Britain 1750 -- 1800. By 1800, only the Netherlands was more urbanised than Britain. This was only possible because coal, coke, imported cotton, brick and slate had replaced wood, charcoal, flax, peat and thatch. The latter compete with land grown to feed people while mined materials do not. Yet more land would be freed when chemical fertilisers replaced manure and horse 's work was mechanised. A workhorse needs 3 to 5 acres (1.21 to 2.02 ha) for fodder while even early steam engines produced four times more mechanical energy.
In 1700, 5 / 6 of coal mined worldwide was in Britain, while the Netherlands had none; so despite having Europe 's best transport, most urbanised, well paid, literate people and lowest taxes, it failed to industrialise. In the 18th century, it was the only European country whose cities and population shrank. Without coal, Britain would have run out of suitable river sites for mills by the 1830s.
Economic historian Robert Allen has argued that high wages, cheap capital and very cheap energy in Britain made it the ideal place for the industrial revolution to occur. These factors made it vastly more profitable to invest in research and development, and to put technology to use in Britain than other societies.
Knowledge of innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study - touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers eager to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.
Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies, like the Lunar Society of Birmingham, in which members met to discuss ' natural philosophy ' (i.e. science) and often its application to manufacturing. The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them, "They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution ''. Other such societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions. For example, the London - based Royal Society of Arts published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions.
There were publications describing technology. Encyclopaedias such as Harris 's Lexicon Technicum (1704) and Abraham Rees 's Cyclopaedia (1802 -- 1819) contain much of value. Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the Descriptions des Arts et Métiers and Diderot 's Encyclopédie explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates.
Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the Annales des Mines, published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.
Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work. The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic (see Max Weber) and the particular status of the Baptists and the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the Quakers and Presbyterians that had flourished with the English Civil War. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the national debt by the Bank of England, contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures.
Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England 's only two universities at the time (although dissenters were still free to study at Scotland 's four universities). When the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official Anglican Church became mandatory due to the Test Act, they thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education. The Unitarians, in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences -- areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.
Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the middle class, such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century.
During the Industrial Revolution an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation developed, associated with the Romantic movement. Romanticism revered the traditionalism of rural life and recoiled against the upheavals caused by industrialization, urbanization and the wretchedness of the working classes. Its major exponents in English included the artist and poet William Blake and poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. The movement stressed the importance of "nature '' in art and language, in contrast to "monstrous '' machines and factories; the "Dark satanic mills '' of Blake 's poem "And did those feet in ancient time ''. Mary Shelley 's novel Frankenstein reflected concerns that scientific progress might be two - edged. French Romanticism likewise was highly critical of industry.
|
who plays hilary curtis on the young and the restless | Mishael Morgan - wikipedia
Marie - Charms Mishael Morgan (born July 15, 1986) known professionally as Mishael Morgan, is a Trinidadian - Canadian actress known for the role of Hilary Curtis on CBS Daytime soap opera, The Young and the Restless.
Marie - Charms Mishael Morgan was born in San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago on July 15, 1986. Morgan is the daughter of Michael and Sharon (Lee) Morgan; she has an older sister, Maggris and a younger sister, Monique. When Morgan was 5 years old, her parents relocated the family to New York where Michael found work. However, thinking it would be safer, the family relocated to Toronto, Ontario, Canada and settled in Mississauga. She attended York University in Toronto, and later began her career on television.
From 2008 to 2009 she had a recurring role in the Canadian teen drama series The Best Years, and later was regular cast member of YTV sitcom, Family Biz. In 2012 she had a recurring role in the CBC Television comedy - drama Republic of Doyle, and also appeared in small roles in films Casino Jack (2010) and Total Recall (2012). Morgan also guest - starred on Supernatural and The Listener. In 2014, Morgan also starred in The CW summer comedy series, Backpackers.
In May 2013, Morgan was cast as Hilary Curtis in the CBS daytime soap opera, The Young and the Restless. On June 11, 2018, Morgan confirmed earlier reports that she would be leaving the soap. Morgan 's representation later confirmed that Morgan opted to leave after unsuccessful attempts to negotiate for a raise in salary.
Morgan married Navid Ali in May 2012. Morgan gave birth to their first child, a son named Niam, on August 9, 2015. On July 19, 2015, her The Young and the Restless co-star, Christel Khalil co-hosted her baby shower. In July 2018, Morgan confirmed the couple is currently expecting their second child, a girl.
|
who is credited as being the first director | Theatre director - wikipedia
A theatre director or stage director is an instructor in the theatre field who oversees and orchestrates the mounting of a theatre production (a play, an opera, a musical, or a devised piece of work) by unifying various endeavours and aspects of production. The director 's function is to ensure the quality and completeness of theatre production and to lead the members of the creative team into realizing their artistic vision for it. The director therefore collaborates with a team of creative individuals and other staff, coordinating research, stagecraft, costume design, props, lighting design, acting, set design, stage combat, and sound design for the production. If the production he or she is mounting is a new piece of writing or a (new) translation of a play, the director may also work with the playwright or translator. In contemporary theatre, after the playwright, the director is generally the primary visionary, making decisions on the artistic concept and interpretation of the play and its staging. Different directors occupy different places of authority and responsibility, depending on the structure and philosophy of individual theatre companies. Directors use a wide variety of techniques, philosophies, and levels of collaboration.
In ancient Greece, the birthplace of European drama, the writer bore principal responsibility for the staging of his plays. Actors were generally semi-professionals, and the director oversaw the mounting of plays from the writing process all the way through to their performance, often acting in them too, as Aeschylus for example did. The author - director would also train the chorus, sometimes compose the music, and supervise every aspect of production. The fact that the director was called didaskalos, the Greek word for "teacher, '' indicates that the work of these early directors combined instructing their performers with staging their work.
In medieval times, the complexity of vernacular religious drama, with its large scale mystery plays that often included crowd scenes, processions and elaborate effects, gave the role of director (or stage manager or pageant master) considerable importance. A miniature by Jean Fouquet from 1460 (pictured) bears one of the earliest depictions of a director at work. Holding a prompt book, the central figure directs, with the aid of a long stick, the proceedings of the staging of a dramatization of the Martyrdom of Saint Apollonia. According to Fouquet, the director 's tasks included overseeing the erecting of a stage and scenery (there were no permanent, purpose - built theatre structures at this time, and performances of vernacular drama mostly took place in the open air), casting and directing the actors (which included fining them for those that infringed rules), and addressing the audience at the beginning of each performance and after each intermission.
From Renaissance times up until the 19th century, the role of director was often carried by the actor - manager. This would usually be a senior actor in a troupe who took the responsibility for choosing the repertoire of work, staging it and managing the company. This was the case for instance with Commedia dell'Arte companies and English actor - managers like Colley Cibber and David Garrick.
The modern theatre director can be said to have originated in the staging of elaborate spectacles of the Meininger Company under George II, Duke of Saxe - Meiningen. The management of large numbers of extras and complex stagecraft matters necessitated an individual to take on the role of overall coordinator. This gave rise to the role of the director in modern theatre, and Germany would provide a platform for a generation of emerging visionary theatre directors, such as Erwin Piscator and Max Reinhardt. Simultaneously, Constantin Stanislavski, principally an actor - manager, would set up the Moscow Art Theatre in Russia and similarly emancipate the role of the director as artistic visionary.
The French regisseur is also sometimes used to mean a stage director, most commonly in ballet. A more common term for theatre director in French is metteur en scène.
Post World War II, the actor - manager slowly started to disappear, and directing become a fully fledged artistic activity within the theatre profession. The director originating artistic vision and concept, and realizing the staging of a production, became the norm rather than the exception. Great forces in the emancipation of theatre directing as a profession were notable 20th - century theatre directors like Vladimir Nemirovich - Danchenko, Vsevolod Meyerhold, Yevgeny Vakhtangov, Michael Chekhov, Yuri Lyubimov (Russia), Orson Welles, Peter Brook, Peter Hall (Britain), Bertolt Brecht (Germany), Giorgio Strehler and Franco Zeffirelli (Italy).
A cautionary note was introduced by the famed director Sir Tyrone Guthrie who said "the only way to learn how to direct a play, is... to get a group of actors simple enough to allow you to let you direct them, and direct ''.
A number of seminal works on directing and directors include Toby Cole and Helen Krich 's 1972 Directors on Directing: A Sourcebook of the Modern Theatre, Edward Braun 's 1982 book The Director and the Stage: From Naturalism to Growtowski and Will 's The Director in a Changing Theatre (1976).
Because of the relatively late emergence of theatre directing as a performing arts profession when compared with for instance acting or musicianship, a rise of professional vocational training programmes in directing can be seen mostly in the second half of the 20th century. Most European countries nowadays know some form of professional directing training, usually at drama schools or conservatoires, or at universities. In Britain, the tradition that theatre directors emerge from degree courses (usually in English literature) at the Oxbridge universities has meant that for a long time, professional vocational training did not take place at drama schools or performing arts colleges, although an increase in training programmes for theatre directors can be witnessed since the 1970s and 1980s. In American universities, the seminal directing program at the Yale School of Drama produced a number of pioneering directors with D.F.A. (Doctor of Fine Arts) and M.F.A. degrees in Drama (rather than English) who contributed to the expansion of professional resident theaters in the 1960s and 1970s. In the early days such programmes typically led to the staging of one major thesis production in the third (final) year. At the University of California, Irvine, Keith Fowler (a Yale D.F.A. and ex-producer of two LORT companies) led for many years a graduate programme based on the premise that directors are autodidacts who need as many opportunities to direct as possible. Under Fowler, graduate student directors would stage between five and ten productions during their three - year residencies, with each production receiving detailed critiques.
As with many other professions in the performing arts, theatre directors would often learn their skills "on the job ''; to this purpose, theatres often employ trainee assistant directors or have in - house education schemes to train young theatre directors. Examples are the Royal National Theatre in London, which frequently organizes short directing courses, or the Orange Tree Theatre and the Donmar Warehouse on London 's West End, which both employ resident assistant directors on a one - year basis for training purposes.
Directing is an artform that has grown with the development of theatre theory and theatre practice. With the emergence of new trends in theatre, so too have directors adopted new methodologies and engaged in new practices. Interpretation of the drama, by the late twentieth century, had become central to the director 's work. Relativism and psychoanalytic theory influenced the work of innovative directors such as Peter Brook, Ingmar Bergman, Peter Stein, and George Strehler.
Once a show has opened (premiered before a regular audience), theatre directors are generally considered to have fulfilled their function. From that point forward the stage manager is left in charge of all essential concerns.
|
who won season 22 america's next top model | America 's Next Top Model (cycle 22) - wikipedia
August 5 (2015 - 08 - 05) -- December 4, 2015 (2015 - 12 - 04)
The twenty - second cycle of America 's Next Top Model (subtitled as America 's Next Top Model: Guys & Girls) premiered on August 5, 2015 and is the sixteenth and final season to air on The CW. The network announced in mid-October that they were cancelling the show and the finale episode aired on December 4, 2015.
Like the two previous seasons, cycle 22 featured both male and female contestants. However, for the first time since cycle 13, the height restriction was removed and the competition was opened to contestants at any height. Tyra Banks, Kelly Cutrone and J. Alexander returned to the judging panel, with photographer Yu Tsai remaining as creative director. Unlike the last three cycles, social media was no longer included on the show. The scoring system remained in place, but only the combined challenge and judges ' scores were added into the final tally to determine who would be eliminated.
While there was no international destination for this cycle, the models traveled to Las Vegas for two episodes. This is the second cycle in the series not to feature an international destination, after Cycle 13.
The winner of the competition was 25 - year - old Nyle DiMarco from Washington, D.C. DiMarco is noted for being the very first deaf contestant in the history of America 's Next Top Model.
Returning prizes included a modeling contract with NEXT Model Management and a spread in Nylon magazine. Zappos became a new prize for the series, and the winner was chosen for a US $100,000 contract to become the face of the Zappos Couture 's 2016 re-launch.
This cycle featured guest judges including interior designers Jonathan and Drew Scott, model Chrissy Teigen, fashion editor Joe Zee and cycle 10 winner Whitney Thompson.
(ages stated are at start of contest)
Original Airdate: August 5, 2015
The all new contestants of America 's Next Top Model are thrown to castings where they introduced themselves at the judges and photographed by Erik Asla. The first cuts were made and will move on to the next part of the competition.
Original Airdate: August 12, 2015
The remaining contestants moved in their model house, they took their casting photo shoot and the judges made their decision to choose the cast.
Original Airdate: August 19, 2015
After the runway over the crane the final contestants were chosen. They did a photo shoot with Erik Asla being bonded in pairs. Delanie was the first person to be eliminated.
Original Airdate: August 26, 2015
The remaining contestants received their makeovers. They did a photo shoot with veteran amputee soldiers. After the deliberation, Stefano was eliminated.
Original Airdate: September 2, 2015
The remaining contestants did a challenge with un retouch photographs of compcards. They did a photo shoot where they will posed as gymnasts and the photographs are un retouched. After the deliberation, Dustin was eliminated.
Original Airdate: September 9, 2015
The remaining contestants did a challenge with Whitney Thompson. They participate in an exorcism photo shoot. After the deliberations, Ava was sent home.
Original Airdate: September 16, 2015
The contestants participate in an acting challenge for CW. They did a commercial for a make - believe deodorant. After the deliberation, Ashley was eliminated.
Original Airdate: September 23, 2015
The remaining contestants did a PSA vine challenge. They did a photo shoot as life sized dolls. After the deliberation, Courtney and Bello were eliminated.
Original Airdate: October 2, 2015
The remaining contestants were joined by the eliminated contestants for a go - see challenge. They did a photo shoot with different dogs. After the deliberation, Dustin re-entered the competition and the episode ended with Devin and Justin in the bottom two.
Original Airdate: October 9, 2015
Justin was eliminated. The remaining models traveled to Las Vegas. The contestants did a music video for Tyra 's new makeup line. After the deliberations Dustin was eliminated again.
Original Airdate: October 23, 2015
Original Airdate: October 30, 2015
The contestants did a runway show for a challenge. They did a photo shoot called fierce a grams. After the deliberations Hadassah was eliminated.
Original Airdate: November 6, 2015
The remaining contestants presented business ideas for a challenge. They did a photo shoot in the dark. After the deliberations, Devin was eliminated.
Original Airdate: November 13, 2015 The remaining contestants did a Nylon challenge. They posed with their mothers for their photo shoot. After the deliberation, Lacey and Mikey were in the bottom two but no one was eliminated.
Original Airdate: November 20, 2015
The remaining contestants battle it out for the spot in the finale. They did a Nylon shoot and Zappos Couture shoot.
Original Airdate: December 4, 2015
The final four presented their business presentation where in Nyle and Mame were chosen as the finalists. The final two battle it out for Rocky Gathercole. After the deliveration, Nyle was chosen as the 22nd winner of America 's Next Top Model.
|
who has the most national championships in the ncaa football | College Football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS - wikipedia
A national championship in the highest level of college football in the United States, currently the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), is a designation awarded annually by various organizations to their selection of the best college football team. Division I FBS football is the only National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) sport for which the NCAA does not sanction a yearly championship event. As such, it is sometimes unofficially referred to as a "mythical national championship ''.
Due to the lack of an official NCAA title, determining the nation 's top college football team has often engendered controversy. A championship team is independently declared by multiple individuals and organizations, often referred to as "selectors ''. These choices are not always unanimous. In 1969 even the President of the United States Richard Nixon declared a national champion by announcing, ahead of the season - ending game between # 1 Texas and # 2 Arkansas, that the winner of that game would receive a plaque from the President himself, commemorating that team as the year 's national champion. Texas went on to win that game, 15 -- 14.
While the NCAA has never officially endorsed a championship team, it has documented the choices of some selectors in its official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records publication. In addition, various analysts have independently published their own choices for each season. These opinions can often diverge with others as well as individual schools ' claims to national titles, which may or may not correlate to the selections published elsewhere. Currently, two of the most widely recognized national champion selectors are the Associated Press, which conducts a poll of sportswriters, and the Coaches Poll, a survey of active members of the American Football Coaches Association.
Since 1992, various consortia of major bowl games have aimed to invite the top two teams at the end of the regular season (as determined by internal rankings, or aggregates of the major polls and other statistics) to compete in what is intended to be the de facto national championship game. The current iteration of this practice, the College Football Playoff, selects four teams to participate in national semi-finals hosted by two of six partner bowl games, with their winners advancing to the College Football Playoff National Championship.
The concept of a national championship in college football dates to the early years of the sport in the late 19th century, and the earliest contemporaneous polls can be traced to Caspar Whitney, Charles Patterson, and The Sun in 1901. Therefore, the concept of polls and national champions predated mathematical ranking systems, but it was Frank Dickinson 's math system that was one of the first to be widely popularized. His system named 10 -- 0 Stanford the national champion of 1926, prior to their tie with Alabama in the Rose Bowl. A curious Knute Rockne, then coach of Notre Dame, had Dickinson backdate two seasons, which produced Notre Dame as the 1924 national champion and Dartmouth in 1925.
A number of other mathematical systems were born in the 1920s and 1930s and were the only organized methods selecting national champions until the Associated Press began polling sportswriters in 1936 to obtain rankings. Alan J. Gould, the creator of the AP Poll, named Minnesota, Princeton, and SMU co-champions in 1935, and polled writers the following year, which resulted in a national championship for Minnesota. The AP 's main competition, United Press, created the first Coaches Poll in 1950. For that year and the next three, the AP and UP agreed on the national champion. The first "split '' championship occurred in 1954, when the writers selected Ohio State and the coaches chose UCLA. The two polls also disagreed in 1957, 1965, 1970, 1973, 1974, 1978, 1990, 1991, 1997, and 2003. The Coaches Poll would stay with United Press (UP) when they merged with International News Service (INS) to form United Press International (UPI) but was acquired by USA Today and CNN in 1991. The poll was in the hands of USA Today and ESPN from 1997 to 2005 before moving to sole ownership by USA Today. Beginning in 2014, Amway became a joint sponsor with USA Today.
Though some of the math systems selected champions after the bowl games, both of the major polls released their rankings after the end of the regular season until the AP polled writers after the bowls in 1965, resulting in what was perceived at the time as a better championship selection (Alabama) than UPI 's (Michigan State). After 1965, the AP again voted before the bowls for two years, before permanently returning to a post-bowl vote in 1968. The coaches did not conduct a vote after the bowls until 1974, in the wake of awarding their 1973 championship to Alabama, who lost to the AP champion, undefeated Notre Dame, in the Sugar Bowl. The AP and Coaches polls remain the major rankings to this day.
The Bowl Championship Series, famous for its use of math, was the successor of the Bowl Alliance (1995 -- 1997), which was itself the successor of the Bowl Coalition (1992 -- 1994). Besides the many adjustments it underwent during its tenure, including a large overhaul following the 2004 season that included the replacement of the AP Poll with the Harris poll, the BCS remained a mixture of math and human polls since its inception in 1998, with the goal of matching the best two teams in the nation in a national championship bowl game which rotated yearly between the Sugar, Fiesta, Rose, and Orange Bowls from 1998 to 2005, and later a standalone game titled the BCS National Championship Game (2006 to 2013). The winner of the BCS Championship Game was awarded the national championship of the Coaches Poll thus winning the AFCA National Championship Trophy. The BCS winner also received the MacArthur Bowl from the National Football Foundation. Neither the AP Poll, nor other current selectors, had contractual obligations to select the BCS champion as their national champion. The BCS resulted in a number of controversies, most notably after the 2003 season, when the BCS championship game did not include eventual AP champion USC, the only time the two championships have diverged since the advent of the BCS. After many seasons of controversy, the BCS was replaced with the College Football Playoff, a Plus - One system aimed at reducing the controversy involved in which teams get to play in a championship game through use of a tournament.
The NCAA maintains an official records book of historical statistics and records for football. In the records book, with consultation from various college football historians, it has created and maintains a list of "major selectors '' of national championships throughout the history of college football along with their championship picks for each season.
A variety of selectors have named national champions throughout the years. They generally can be divided into four categories: those determined by mathematical formula, human polls, historical research, and recently, playoffs. The selectors below are listed in the official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records as having been deemed to be "major selectors '' for which the criteria is that the poll or selector be "national in scope either through distribution in newspaper, television, radio and / or computer online ''. The former selectors, deemed instrumental in the sport of college football, and selectors that were included for the calculation of the BCS standing, are listed together.
The mathematical system is the oldest systematic selector of college football national champions. Many of the math selectors were created during the "championship rush '' of the 1920s and 1930s, beginning with Frank Dickinson 's system, or during the dawn of the computer age in the 1990s. Selectors are listed below with years selected retroactively in italics.
The Billingsley Report also provides an alternate selection that uses margin - of - victory in its calculation. The NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records book notes both selections in years where they disagree.
The poll has been the dominant national champion selector since the inception of the AP Poll in 1936. It is notable that the NFF merged its poll with UPI from 1991 to 1992, with USA Today from 1993 to 1996, and with the FWAA from 2014 forward. Selectors are listed below with years selected retroactively in italics.
For many years, the national champion of various polls were selected prior to the bowl games. The national champion was selected before bowl games as follows: AP (1936 -- 1964 and 1966 -- 1967), Coaches Poll (1950 -- 1973), FWAA (1954), and NFF (1959 -- 1970). In all other latter - day polls, champions were selected after bowl games.
During the BCS era, the winner of the BCS Championship Game was automatically awarded the national championship of the Coaches Poll and the National Football Foundation.
At the request of several schools, the AFCA established a "Blue Ribbon Commission '' in 2016 to begin retroactively selecting Coaches ' Trophy winners from 1922 through 1949.
Served as the Coaches Poll during the designated years, but also conducted their own poll at different times.
The Football Writers Association of America merged its poll with that of the National Football Foundation members beginning in 2014; as a result, the Grantland Trophy was retired and the FWAA / NFF national champion now receives the MacArthur Bowl.
USA Today took over, from the UPI, the poll of the National Football Foundation 's members in 1993, and its winner was designated by the NFF as its national champion and received the MacArthur Bowl. The poll was conducted by USA Today through the 1996 season, although national championship selections in the NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records do not distinguish the NFF from the USAT / NFF poll in 1995 and 1996. Not to be confused with the USA Today / CNN Coaches Poll, which USA Today conducted separately.
UPI conducted the Coaches Poll through the 1990 season, which was subsequently taken over by CNN / USA Today. UPI then conducted a poll of National Football Foundation members in 1991 and 1992, the winner of which was designated by the NFF as its national champion and received the MacArthur Bowl.
UPI conducted its own poll from 1993 to 1995, after the National Football Foundation Poll was taken over by USA Today.
USA Today conducted its own poll of college football sportswriters in 1982, then joined with CNN to do their own joint poll until they took over the Coaches Poll starting with the 1991 season.
College football historian Parke H. Davis is the only selector considered by the NCAA to have primarily used research in his selections. Davis did all of his work in 1933, naming retroactive national champions for most of the years from 1869 to 1932 while naming Michigan and Princeton (his alma mater) co-champions at the end of the 1933 season.
The Bowl Championship Series used a mathematical system that combined polls (Coaches and AP / Harris) and multiple computer rankings (including some individual selectors listed above) to determine a season ending matchup between its top two ranked teams in the BCS Championship Game. The champion of that game was contractually awarded the Coaches Poll and National Football Foundation championships.
Unlike all selectors prior to 2014, the College Football Playoff does not use math, polls or research to select the participants. Rather, a 13 - member committee selects and seeds the teams. The playoff system marked the first time any championship selector arranged a bracket competition to determine whom it would declare to be its champion.
Below is a list of the national champions of college football from 1869 to present (with the exception of 1871, in which no games were played) deemed to be chosen by "major selectors '' as listed in the official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records. Many teams did not have coaches as late as 1899. "Consensus '' selectors in the official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records correspond to the period from 1950 to present which began with the introduction of the two poll system upon the appearance of the Coaches Poll in 1950. Selectors used to determine teams listed as "Consensus National Champions '' in the NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records include the AP Poll, Coaches Poll, Football Writers Association of America, and the National Football Foundation / College Football Hall of Fame.
The first contemporaneous poll to include teams across the country and selection of a national champions can be traced to Caspar Whitney in 1901. The last retroactive selection was made by Clyde Berryman in 1989 (Notre Dame). The tie was removed from college football in 1995 and the last consensus champion with a tie in its record was Georgia Tech in 1990. The 1947 Michigan Wolverines are often credited with a national championship on the basis of a "free poll '' conducted by an AP sportswriter after the 1948 Rose Bowl, though that poll was unofficial and it is not recognized in the official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records.
Note that the Harris Interactive Poll (2005 -- 2013) was contracted by the BCS to help formulate its standings, and although its final ranking which occurs prior to the bowl games is listed in the official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records, it does not conduct a final poll or award or name a national champion on its own.
As designated by the official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records, the table below shows:
A letter next to any season, team, record, coach or selector indicates a footnote that appears at the bottom of the table.
Parke Davis ' selection for 1901, as published in the 1935 Spalding 's Foot Ball Guide (which he himself edited until his death), was Harvard. The NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records book lists Sagarin as having selected Tennessee, while Sagarin 's official website gives Ohio State as its 1998 selection. The FWAA stripped USC of its 2004 Grantland Rice Trophy and vacated the selection of its national champion for 2004. The BCS also vacated USC 's participation in the 2005 Orange Bowl and USC 's 2004 BCS National Championship, and the AFCA Coaches Poll Trophy was returned. Record does not count wins against UCLA, or against Oklahoma in the BCS Championship game on January 4, 2005, as they were vacated by the NCAA. The NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records book lists Dunkel as having selected LSU, while Dunkel 's official website gives USC as its 2007 selection.
The national title count listed below is a culmination of all championship awarded since 1869, regardless of consensus or non-consensus status, as listed in the table above according to the selectors deemed to be major as listed in the official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records (minus the Harris Interactive poll, 2005 -- 2013, that is listed but does not conduct a final poll or award a championship).
The totals can be said to be disputed. Individual schools may claim national championships not accounted for by the NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records or may not claim national championship selections that do appear in the official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records (see National championship claims by school below). For an alternative independent view of national championship totals for each team, please see the College Football Data Warehouse recognized national champions or Poll era (1936 -- present) selections in the tables below.
The following is a table of known schools ' claims on national championships at the highest level of play in college football. Several of these schools no longer compete at the highest level, which is currently NCAA Division I FBS, but nonetheless maintain claims to titles from when they did compete at the highest level.
Because there is no one governing or official body that regulates, recognizes, or awards national championships in college football, and because many independent selectors of championships exist, many of the claims by the schools listed below are shared, contradict each other, or are controversial. In addition, because there is no one body overseeing national championships, no standardized requirements exist in order for a school to make a claim on a national championship, as any particular institution is free to make any declaration it deems to be fit. However, all known national championship claims are for seasons in which a national championship, or share of a championship, was believed to be awarded to that particular school by at least one independent third - party selector. The majority of these claims, but not all, are based on championships awarded from selectors listed as "major '' in the official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records. Not all championships awarded by third party selectors, nor those listed in the official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records, are necessarily claimed by each school. Therefore, these claims represent how each individual school sees their own history on the subject of national championships.
This table below includes only national championship claims originating from each particular school and therefore represents the point - of - view of each individual institution. Each total number of championships, and the years for which they are claimed, are documented by the particular school on its official website, in its football media guide, or in other official publications or literature (see Source). If a championship is not mentioned by a school for any particular season, regardless of whether it was awarded by a selector or listed in a third - party publication such as the official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records, it is not considered to be claimed by that institution.
USC 's January 4, 2005 win over Oklahoma in the BCS Championship Game was vacated as mandated by the NCAA, its 2004 BCS National Championship vacated by the BCS, and its AFCA Coaches ' Trophy returned. NCAA sanctions mandate that "any reference to the vacated results, including championships, shall be removed. '' USC still retains the 2004 Associated Press National Championship and has not abandoned its claim to a 2004 national championship. Iowa lists the awarding of the 1958 Grantland Rice National Championship in various publications, but describes championship selections from 3 other years as well in its annual media guide. Auburn 's 1913, 1983, and 1993 (Auburn was disqualified from post-season play in 1993 and did not play in a bowl game) championships are not recognized by the school. Georgia 's website has multiple pages which list national championships by sport and only callout two seasons for football (1942 and 1980). The Georgia football media guide contains a year - by - year results section in which five seasons (1927, 1942, 1946, 1968, 1980) have "National Champions # '' headers paired with selector callouts, but also a "Championship History '' page which pairs 1942 and 1980 into a "The Consensus National Champions '' section and groups 1927, 1946, and 1968 together without description as national champions beyond identification of those specific selectors. No major selectors chose Penn in 1907.
College Football Data Warehouse (CFBDW) is an online resource and database that has collected and researched information on college football and national championship selections. It provides a comprehensive list of national championship selectors and has itself recognized selectors that it has deemed to be the most acceptable throughout history. These include the National Championship Foundation (1869 -- 1882), the Helms Athletic Foundation (1883 -- 1935), the College Football Researchers Association (1919 -- 1935), the Associated Press Poll (1936 -- 2009), and the Coaches Poll (1950 -- 2009). From its research, it has compiled a list of Recognized National Championships for each season. Some years include recognition of multiple teams for a particular season. Please note that the CFBDW list of Recognized Champions does not confer any additional legitimacy to the titles. In this regard, some universities claim championships not recognized by CFBDW or do not claim championships that are recognized by CFBDW. Please consult the above table of National championship claims by school or individual team articles and websites for possible additional or alternative national championship claims.
Below is a list of all of the CFBDW recognized national championships from 1869 to 2009.
The polling system first gained widespread consistency with the introduction of the AP poll in 1936, followed by the Coaches Poll in 1950. National championships are often popularly considered to be "consensus '' when both of these polls are in agreement with their national championship selections, although other selectors exist and do make alternative selections. A more modern incarnation, the Bowl Championship Series (BCS), was a consortium of college football conferences that uses a combination of various computer rankings and human polls to mathematically determine a post-season matchup between the two top teams as determined by its formula. The USA Today Coaches Poll was contractually obligated to name the BCS champion as its national champion.
The AP college football poll has a long history. The news media began running their own polls of sports writers to determine who was, by popular opinion, the best football team in the country at the end of the season. One of the earliest such polls was the AP College Football Poll, first run in 1934 (compiled and organized by Charles Woodroof, former SEC Assistant Director of Media Relations, but not recognized in the official NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision Records) and then continuously from 1936. Due to the long - standing historical ties between individual college football conferences and high - paying bowl games like the Rose Bowl and Orange Bowl, the NCAA has never held a tournament or championship game to determine the champion of what is now the highest division, NCAA Division I, Football Bowl Subdivision (the Division I, Football Championship Subdivision and lower divisions do hold championship tournaments). As a result, the public and the media began to take the leading vote - getter in the final AP Poll as the national champion for that season.
While the AP Poll currently lists the Top 25 teams in the nation, from 1936 to 1961 the wire service only ranked 20 teams. And from 1962 to 1967 only 10 teams were recognized. From 1968 to 1988, the AP again resumed its Top 20 before expanding to 25 teams in 1989.
Until the 1968 college football season, the final AP Poll of the season was released following the end of the regular season, with the exception of the 1965 season. In 1964, Alabama was named the national champion in the final AP Poll following the completion of the regular season, but lost in the Orange Bowl to Texas, leaving Arkansas as the only undefeated, untied team after the Razorbacks defeated Nebraska in the Cotton Bowl Classic. In 1965, the AP 's decision to wait to crown its champion paid off, as top - ranked Michigan State lost to UCLA in the Rose Bowl, number two Arkansas lost to LSU in the Cotton Bowl Classic, and fourth - ranked Alabama defeated third - ranked Nebraska in the Orange Bowl, vaulting the Crimson Tide to the top of the AP 's final poll. Michigan State was named national champion in the final United Press International poll of coaches, which did not conduct a post-bowl poll. At the end of the 1947 season, the AP released an unofficial post-bowl poll which differed from the regular season final poll. The AP national championship had been awarded before bowl games were played.
Beginning in the 1968 season, a post bowl game poll was released and the AP championship reflected the bowl game results. The UPI did not follow suit with the Coaches Poll until the 1974 season.
The Coaches Poll began selecting the top 20 teams on a weekly basis during the 1950 -- 1951 college football season. It is conducted among selected members of the American Football Coaches Association. In 1990 the poll expanded to a top 25, and it has retained this format since. The Coaches Poll took their final poll prior to the bowl games from 1950 -- 1973, and since 1974, has taken their final poll after bowl games. The Coaches Poll does not include teams on either NCAA or conference - sanction probation, which also differentiates it from the AP poll. The poll has been released through various media outlets and with differing sponsors over its history, and thus has taken a succession of different names, including United Press (UP) from 1950 thru 1957, the United Press International (UPI) from 1958 thru 1990, USA Today / CNN from 1991 thru 1996, USA Today / ESPN from 1997 to 2004, and USA Today from 2005 to present.
During the era of the BCS, the Coaches Poll was under contractual obligation to award its national championship selection to the winner of the BCS Championship Game or its predecessors -- who was presented with the AFCA National Championship Trophy during a post-game presentation. The College Football Playoff is not tied to the Coaches Poll in this manner.
The following table contains the national championships that have been recognized by the final AP or Coaches Poll. Originally both the AP and Coaches poll champions were crowned after the regular season, but since 1968 and 1974, respectively, both polls crown their champions after the bowl games are completed. The BCS champion was automatically awarded the Coaches Poll championship. Of the current 120 + Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS, formerly Division I-A) schools, only 30 have won at least a share of a national title by the AP or Coaches poll. Of these 30 teams, only 19 teams have won multiple titles. Of the 19 teams, only 7 have won five or more national titles: Alabama, Notre Dame, Oklahoma, USC, Miami (FL), Nebraska, and Ohio State. The years listed in the table below indicate a national championship selection by the AP or Coaches Poll. The selections are noted with (AP) or (Coaches) when a national champion selection differed between the two polls for that particular season, which has occurred in twelve different seasons (including 2004, for which the coaches selection was rescinded) since the polls first came to coexist in 1950.
† USC 's 2004 -- 2005 BCS National Championship was vacated by the BCS and the AFCA Coaches ' Trophy returned. ‡ Retroactively awarded in 2016 by AFCA Blue Ribbon Panel
The Bowl Championship Series (BCS) was a selection system designed to give the top two teams in NCAA Division I-A (now known as the FBS) an opportunity to compete in a "national championship game ''. This championship was intended as a surrogate for a playoff system since the NCAA does not formally determine a champion in this category. It began during the 1998 season, but a number of controversial selections spurred changes to the format over the years. Prior to the 2006 season, eight teams competed in four BCS Bowls (the Orange, Sugar, Rose, and Fiesta). The BCS replaced the Bowl Alliance (in place from 1995 -- 1997), which itself followed the Bowl Coalition (in place from 1992 -- 1994). One of the main differences was that the Rose Bowl participated in the BCS; previously, the Big Ten and Pac - 12 champions automatically played in the Rose Bowl regardless of their poll rankings. However, after the change, those teams played in the BCS National Championship Game if they finished # 1 or # 2 in the BCS standings.
The BCS formula varied over the years, with the final version relying on a combination of the Coaches ' and Harris polls and an average of various computer rankings to determine relative team rankings, and to narrow the field to two teams to play in the BCS National Championship Game held after the other college bowl games. The winner of this game was crowned Coaches ' Poll national champion winning the AFCA National Championship Trophy and was also awarded the MacArthur Bowl by the National Football Foundation.
† USC 's victory in the 2005 Orange Bowl and subsequent 2004 -- 05 BCS National Championship was vacated by the BCS.
The College Football Playoff (CFP) was designed as a replacement for the BCS. While the NCAA still does not officially sanction the event, organizers sought to bring a playoff system similar to all other levels of NCAA football to the Football Bowl Subdivision.
The College Football Playoff relies on a 13 - member selection committee to choose the top four teams to play in a two - round single - elimination playoff bracket. The winner of the final game is awarded the College Football Playoff National Championship Trophy.
|
what day is the football hall of fame game on | Pro Football Hall of Fame game - wikipedia
The Pro Football Hall of Fame Game is an annual National Football League exhibition game that is held the weekend of the Pro Football Hall of Fame 's induction ceremonies. The game is played at Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium, which is located adjacent to the Hall of Fame building in Canton, Ohio. It is traditionally the first game in the NFL 's preseason, marking the end of the NFL 's six - month offseason.
The two teams that play in the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game are typically selected by the league in advance of the remainder of the preseason schedule. The participants are usually announced around the time that the new Hall of Fame members are announced, which coincides with Super Bowl week. Often if a particularly notable player will be entering the Hall of Fame that year a team they were strongly associated with may be selected to play in the game to help maximize attendance and publicity of the game itself. Since 1971, the opponents for each game have traditionally included one AFC team and one NFC team. In 2009, as recognition of the 50th anniversary of the American Football League, the game paired two AFC teams who were part of the "original eight '' franchises of the AFL, the Tennessee Titans (dressed as their previous incarnation, the Houston Oilers) and the Buffalo Bills, whose owner, Ralph Wilson, was inducted into the Hall that year. An all - NFC matchup was scheduled for 2011, but it was canceled due to the 2011 NFL lockout; the following year, another intra-conference matchup of two NFC teams took its place. Since 2012, both competing teams in the game has had at least one prominent alumnus being inducted into the Hall that year.
Because this game and the Hall of Fame 's induction ceremonies are scheduled on the weekend before the league 's regular four - week exhibition season begins, both teams end up playing five exhibition games instead of the normal four, and unlike the Canadian Football League, the league does not remove an exhibition game from another week.
The last four expansion teams to have been added to the league each played in the Hall of Fame Game as their first game. In 1995, expansion clubs Jacksonville and Carolina played one another, and in 2002, Houston was one of the participants. When the Cleveland Browns returned to the league with a rebooted roster in 1999, they too played in the Hall of Fame Game. (The Baltimore Ravens, while officially considered as being established in 1996, did not play in the Hall of Fame Game that year, nor have they played at any time in their existence.)
Prior to the AFL - NFL merger, the Hall of Fame Game was played in August or September, in some cases at the end of the preseason. In 1970, it was moved to the beginning of the preseason. Prior to 2002, it was not uncommon for the game to be played in July. Since 2002, when the league permanently moved the start of the season to the weekend after Labor Day, the game has always been played in early August.
The 2011 game was originally scheduled between the St. Louis Rams and the Chicago Bears, but the game was canceled due to an ongoing labor dispute that had disrupted nearly all league activity during the 2011 offseason. The two clubs had set a deadline of July 22 to ratify a resolution in enough time to prepare for the game. The league and players did not ratify the agreement until July 25, forcing cancellation of the game.
The 2016 edition, which was scheduled to be played between the Green Bay Packers and the Indianapolis Colts, was canceled due to unsafe playing conditions. Mike Silver of NFL.com reported that on the morning of game day, the logos at midfield and the end zones had been painted using paint which was not intended for use on artificial turf. When it was apparent the paint was n't drying fast enough, the field was heated to speed up the drying process, but this caused the turf 's rubber to melt. These issues led to unfavorable play conditions. The affected areas were described as being slick and "like cement, '' making it impossible to get decent footing. Stadium officials attempted to address this by applying a solvent, reportedly paint thinner, to the turf. A Packers employee noticed a label warning that this substance could result in burns when exposed to skin, and alerted others to the discovery. When officially cancelling the game, both the league and the Players Association cited safety concerns.
Both teams were told at 6: 40 p.m. -- an hour and 20 minutes before kickoff -- that the game was going to be canceled. However, fans in the stadium only learned of the pending cancellation via social media. No official announcement was made until just before the scheduled 8 p.m. kickoff.
On December 28, 2016, the NFL announced that the 2017 edition of the game would be played on Thursday, August 3, 2017. The scheduling change makes the Hall of Fame Game the first event of the Hall of Fame Weekend. On February 23, 2017, it was announced the 2017 edition will be played between the Dallas Cowboys and the Arizona Cardinals.
Unlike the majority of NFL preseason games, which air on local networks, the Hall of Fame Game airs nationwide. From 1999 to 2005, the game was held on Monday night, televised as part of ABC 's Monday Night Football package. It had previously been held typically on Saturday afternoons, except from 1963 to 1965 on Sunday afternoons, televised as part of ABC 's Wide World of Sports package (still using the MNF crew). In 1998, the game was put in the MNF package, and played on a Saturday night, which served as a test run for the move to Monday night. Starting in 2006, it was moved to Sunday night, coinciding with the new NBC Sunday Night Football television package. The 2007 game was telecast on NFL Network as NBC was intending to televise the China Bowl game in Beijing, China (a game which was postponed to 2009 and later canceled). The Hall of Fame Game has since bounced between both networks. The 2012 game aired on NFL Network due to NBC 's coverage of the Summer Olympics. After a two - year absence, the game returned to NBC in 2013 and remained on the network until 2015. The 2016 game was scheduled to air on ESPN as it was to be played two days into the 2016 Summer Olympics but the game was canceled due to field conditions, it returned to NBC in 2017 and will remain on the network until 2019.
Westwood One owns national radio rights; it is the only preseason game to air on a nationwide network. Each team 's radio network is also allowed to broadcast the games (albeit usually with fewer affiliates since exhibition games are traditionally much lower priority to non-sports and non-flagship stations).
In 2007 and 2008, the game was broadcast live in both Ireland and the United Kingdom by Sky Sports. It was not shown in 2009 because of a dispute between Sky Sports and the NFL over TV rights. ESPN America (formerly North American Sports Network) broadcasts the game in the rest of Europe.
From 1998 to 2005, the Global Television Network aired the game in Canada, simulcasting ABC; upon the move to Sunday night in 2006, the CTV Television Network aired the game until 2010. With CTV airing the 2012 Summer Olympics, TSN broadcast the Hall of Fame Game in 2012. Azteca 7 aired Spanish - language coverage of the Hall of Fame Game in Mexico from 1998 to 2005; the Game moved to Canal 5 in 2006 and aired on that station until 2010. Due to the cancellation of the 2011 Hall of Fame Game and Televisa 's Summer Olympics coverage, the Hall of Fame Game moved to Televisa Deportes in 2012 and then to Galavision in 2013.
Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium is part of the Cleveland market, and is also within 75 miles of numerous other television markets in northeast Ohio and western Pennsylvania. As such, the NBC affiliates (and before them, the ABC affiliates) are within league requirements to blackout the game in the rare event the game does not sell out. Because the stadium only holds 22,375 fans (less than half the NFL 's minimum requirements for its stadiums) and the Hall of Fame induction ceremonies bring large numbers of outside fans to Canton, the game has, to date, always sold out (several NFL teams, as well as the Super Bowl, have similarly enjoyed long sellout streaks).
Most appearances -- 6: Pittsburgh Steelers (1963, 1964, 1983, 1998, 2007, and 2015) and Dallas Cowboys (1968, 1979, 1999, 2010, 2013, and 2017)
Most wins -- 5: Washington Redskins (1965, 1975, 1989, 2004, and 2008)
Longest active drought without Hall of Fame Game appearance -- 26 seasons: Detroit Lions (last appearance -- 1991); 25 seasons: New York Jets (last appearance -- 1992); 23 seasons: Atlanta Falcons and Los Angeles Chargers (last appearance -- 1994); 22 seasons: Carolina Panthers and Jacksonville Jaguars (last appearance -- 1995)
Active teams to have never made a Hall of Fame Game appearance -- Baltimore Ravens
|
who played wallis simpson in the king's speech | Eve Best - wikipedia
Emily "Eve '' Best (born 31 July 1971) is an English stage and screen actress and director, known for her television roles as Dr. Eleanor O'Hara in the Showtime series Nurse Jackie (2009 -- 13), First Lady Dolley Madison in the American Experience television special (2011), and Monica Chatwin in the BBC miniseries The Honourable Woman (2014). She also played Wallis Simpson in the 2010 film The King 's Speech.
Best won the 2005 Olivier Award for Best Actress for playing the title role in Hedda Gabler. She made her Broadway debut in the 2007 revival of A Moon for the Misbegotten, winning the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Play, and receiving the first of two nominations for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play; the second was for the revival of The Homecoming in 2008. She returned to Broadway in the 2015 revival of Old Times.
Best grew up in Ladbroke Grove, London, daughter of a design journalist and an actress. She attended Wycombe Abbey Girls ' School before going on to Lincoln College, Oxford, where she read English. Some of her earliest public performances were with the W11 Opera children 's opera company in London at the age of nine. After graduating from Oxford where she had appeared in Oxford University Dramatic Society productions, and toured to the Edinburgh Festival, she made her professional debut as Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing at the Southwark Playhouse.
After a period working on the London fringe, Best trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) in London. After graduating in 1999 she appeared in a revival of ' Tis Pity She 's a Whore at the Young Vic for which she won both the Evening Standard and Critics ' Circle best newcomer awards; she adopted her grandmother 's name as a stage name, as an Emily Best was already registered with British Actors ' Equity Association.
Best won an Laurence Olivier Award for playing the title role in Hedda Gabler and was nominated for the same award the following year for her performance as Josie in Eugene O'Neill 's play A Moon For The Misbegotten at the Old Vic Theatre in London.
In early 2007, she starred in a Sheffield Crucible production of As You Like It which played for a short time at the RSC 's Swan Theatre in Stratford as part of their Complete Works season. In the same year she performed in the Broadway transfer of A Moon For The Misbegotten for which she was nominated for a Tony Award as Best Actress in a Play.
Best appeared in Harold Pinter 's The Homecoming at the Cort Theatre in New York, which co-starred Ian McShane, Raúl Esparza and Michael McKean. Daniel Sullivan directed the 20 - week limited engagement, which ran until 13 April 2008. She once again appeared as Beatrice in a critically acclaimed production of Much Ado About Nothing at Shakespeare 's Globe Theatre in 2011, playing opposite Charles Edwards as Benedick and starred in the Old Vic production of The Duchess of Malfi in 2012. She made her directorial debut with a production of Macbeth at Shakespeare 's Globe Theatre in 2013.
Television appearances include Prime Suspect: The Final Act (2006), Waking the Dead (2004), Shackleton (2002), and The Inspector Lynley Mysteries (2005).
She appears as Lucrece in the Naxos audiobook version of Shakespeare 's The Rape of Lucrece. She also starred in a 2000 BBC Radio 4 production of Emma.
Best co-stars as Dr. Eleanor O'Hara in the Showtime dark comedy series Nurse Jackie, that premiered in June 2009. She played the Duchess of Windsor -- Wallis Simpson -- in The King 's Speech, starring Colin Firth and Geoffrey Rush.
Best also co-stars as Sally Ride, the first American woman in space, alongside William Hurt in The Challenger, a British made for TV dramatization of the Rogers Commission set up to investigate the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.
In summer 2014 Best played Cleopatra, the leading role in the Shakespeare 's Globe version of Antony and Cleopatra. She returned to Broadway in the 2015 revival of the Pinter play Old Times, opposite Clive Owen and Kelly Reilly.
|
who has the most blocks in one nba game | List of National Basketball Association single - game blocks leaders - wikipedia
This is a complete list of National Basketball Association players who have blocked 10 or more shots in a game.
44 different players have blocked 10 or more shots in a game. It has occurred a total of 156 times (including the playoffs) in NBA history. Mark Eaton accomplished the feat more times than anyone else in league history (19), followed by Manute Bol (18). Eaton, Hakeem Olajuwon, and Andrew Bynum are the only players to block 10 or more shots in a playoff game, with Bynum being the only player to do so with a victory.
The NBA did not record blocked shots until the 1973 -- 74 season.
|
where was the movie pursuit of happyness filmed | The Pursuit of Happyness - wikipedia
Columbia Pictures
The Pursuit of Happyness is a 2006 American biographical drama film based on entrepreneur Chris Gardner 's nearly one - year struggle being homeless. Directed by Gabriele Muccino, the film features Will Smith as Gardner, a homeless salesman. Smith 's son Jaden Smith co-stars, making his film debut as Gardner 's son, Christopher Jr.
The screenplay by Steven Conrad is based on the best - selling memoir of the same name written by Gardner with Quincy Troupe. The film was released on December 15, 2006, by Columbia Pictures. For his performance, Smith was nominated for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe for Best Actor.
The unusual spelling of the film 's title comes from a mural that Gardner sees on the wall outside the daycare facility his son attends. He complains to the owner of the daycare that "happiness '' is incorrectly spelled as "happyness '' and needs to be changed.
In 1981, San Francisco salesman Chris Gardner invests his entire life savings in portable bone density scanners, which he demonstrates to doctors and pitches as a handy quantum leap over standard X-rays. The scanners play a vital role in his life. While he is able to sell most of them, the time lag between the sales and his growing financial demands enrage his already bitter and alienated wife Linda, who works as a hotel maid. The financial instability increasingly erodes their marriage, in spite of them caring for Christopher Jr., their soon - to - be five - year - old son.
While Chris is trying to sell one of the scanners, he meets Jay Twistle, a manager for Dean Witter Reynolds, and impresses him by solving a Rubik 's Cube during a taxi ride. After Jay leaves, Gardner lacks money to pay the fare and chooses to run instead, causing the driver to angrily chase him into a BART station. Gardner boards a train but loses one of his scanners in the process. His new relationship with Jay earns him the chance to become an intern stockbroker. The day before the interview, Gardner grudgingly agrees to paint his apartment so as to postpone being evicted due to his difficulty in paying the rent. While painting, Gardner is greeted by two policemen at his doorstep, who take him to the station, stating he has to pay for the numerous parking tickets he has accumulated. As part of the sanction, Gardner is ordered to spend the night in jail instead, complicating his schedule for the interview the next morning. He manages to arrive at Dean Witter 's office on time, albeit still in his shabby clothes. Despite his appearance, he impresses the interviewers and lands an unpaid internship. He would be among 20 interns competing for a paid position as a stockbroker.
Gardner 's unpaid internship does not please Linda, who eventually leaves for New York City because she might get a job at her sister 's boyfriend 's new restaurant. After Gardner bluntly says she is incapable of being a single mom, she agrees that Christopher Jr. will remain with his dad. Gardner is further set back when his bank account is garnished by the IRS for unpaid income taxes, and he and Christopher are evicted. He ends up with less than $22, resulting in them being homeless, and they are forced at one point to stay in a restroom at a BART station. Other days, he and Christopher spend nights at a homeless shelter, in BART, or, if he manages to procure sufficient cash, at a hotel. Later, Gardner finds the bone scanner that he lost in the BART station earlier and, after repairing it, sells it to a physician, thus completing all his sales of his scanners.
Disadvantaged by his limited work hours, and knowing that maximizing his client contacts and profits is the only way to earn the broker position, Gardner develops a number of ways to make phone sales calls more efficiently, including reaching out to potential high - value customers, defying protocol. One sympathetic prospect who is a top - level pension fund manager even takes Chris and Christopher to a San Francisco 49ers game. Regardless of his challenges, he never reveals his lowly circumstances to his colleagues, even going so far as to lend one of his bosses $5 for cab fare, a sum that he can not afford. Concluding his internship, Gardner is called into a meeting with his managers. One of them notes he is wearing a shirt. Gardner explains it is his last day and thought to dress for the occasion. The manager smiles and says he should wear another one tomorrow, letting him know that he has won the coveted full - time position and giving him back his $5 as he promised. Fighting back tears, Gardner shakes hands with them, then rushes to his son 's daycare to embrace Christopher. They walk down the street, joking with each other (and are passed by the real Chris Gardner, in a business suit). The epilogue reveals that Gardner went on to form his own multimillion - dollar brokerage firm.
Chris Gardner realized his story had Hollywood potential after an overwhelming national response to an interview he did with 20 / 20 in January 2002. He published his autobiography on May 23, 2006, and later became an associate producer for the film. The movie took some liberties with Gardner 's true life story. Certain details and events that actually took place over the span of several years were compressed into a relatively short time and although eight - year - old Jaden portrayed Chris as a five - year - old, Gardner 's son was just a toddler at the time. Towards the end Chris Gardner has a brief uncredited cameo appearance before the credits.
Chris Gardner initially thought Smith, an actor best known for his performances in blockbuster films, was miscast to play him. However, he claimed his daughter Jacintha said, "If (Smith) can play Muhammad Ali, he can play you! '', referring to Smith 's role in the biopic Ali (2001).
Varèse Sarabande released a soundtrack album with the score composed by Andrea Guerra on January 9, 2007.
Also in the film are brief portions of "Higher Ground '' and "Jesus Children of America '', both sung by Stevie Wonder, and "Lord, Do n't Move the Mountain '' by Mahalia Jackson and Doris Akers, sung by the Glide Ensemble.
The film debuted first at the North American box office, earning $27 million during its opening weekend and beating out heavily promoted films such as Eragon and Charlotte 's Web. It was Smith 's sixth consecutive # 1 opening and one of Smith 's consecutive $100 million blockbusters. The film grossed $162,586,036 domestically in the US and Canada. In the hope Gardner 's story would inspire the down - trodden citizens of Chattanooga, Tennessee to achieve financial independence and to take greater responsibility for the welfare of their families, the mayor of Chattanooga organized a viewing of the film for the city 's homeless. Gardner himself felt that it was imperative to share his story for the sake of its widespread social issues. "When I talk about alcoholism in the household, domestic violence, child abuse, illiteracy, and all of those issues -- those are universal issues; those are not just confined to ZIP codes, '' he said.
The film was released on DVD on March 27, 2007, and as of November 2007, US Region 1 DVD sales accounted for an additional $89,923,088 in revenue, slightly less than half of what was earned in its first week of release. About 5,570,577 units have been sold, bringing in $90,582,602 in revenue.
The film was received generally positively by critics, with Will Smith receiving widespread acclaim for his performance. Film review site Rotten Tomatoes calculated a 67 % overall approval based on 173 reviews, with an average rating of 6.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Will Smith 's heartfelt performance elevates The Pursuit of Happyness above mere melodrama. ''
In the San Francisco Chronicle, Mick LaSalle observed, "The great surprise of the picture is that it 's not corny... The beauty of the film is its honesty. In its outlines, it 's nothing like the usual success story depicted on - screen, in which, after a reasonable interval of disappointment, success arrives wrapped in a ribbon and a bow. Instead, this success story follows the pattern most common in life -- it chronicles a series of soul - sickening failures and defeats, missed opportunities, sure things that did n't quite happen, all of which are accompanied by a concomitant accretion of barely perceptible victories that gradually amount to something. In other words, it all feels real. ''
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times called the film "a fairy tale in realist drag... the kind of entertainment that goes down smoothly until it gets stuck in your craw... It 's the same old bootstraps story, an American dream artfully told, skillfully sold. To that calculated end, the film making is seamless, unadorned, transparent, the better to serve Mr. Smith 's warm expressiveness... How you respond to this man 's moving story may depend on whether you find Mr. Smith 's and his son 's performances so overwhelmingly winning that you buy the idea that poverty is a function of bad luck and bad choices, and success the result of heroic toil and dreams. ''
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film three out of a possible four stars and commented, "Smith is on the march toward Oscar... (His) role needs gravity, smarts, charm, humor and a soul that 's not synthetic. Smith brings it. He 's the real deal. ''
In Variety, Brian Lowry said the film "is more inspirational than creatively inspired -- imbued with the kind of uplifting, afterschool - special qualities that can trigger a major toothache... Smith 's heartfelt performance is easy to admire. But the movie 's painfully earnest tone should skew its appeal to the portion of the audience that, admittedly, has catapulted many cloying TV movies into hits... In the final accounting, (it) winds up being a little like the determined salesman Mr. Gardner himself: easy to root for, certainly, but not that much fun to spend time with. ''
Kevin Crust of the Los Angeles Times stated, "Dramatically it lacks the layering of a Kramer vs. Kramer, which it superficially resembles... Though the subject matter is serious, the film itself is rather slight, and it relies on the actor to give it any energy. Even in a more modest register, Smith is a very appealing leading man, and he makes Gardner 's plight compelling... The Pursuit of Happyness is an unexceptional film with exceptional performances... There are worse ways to spend the holidays, and, at the least, it will likely make you appreciate your own circumstances. ''
In the St. Petersburg Times, Steve Persall graded the film B - and added, "(It) is the obligatory feel - good drama of the holiday season and takes that responsibility a bit too seriously... the film lays so many obstacles and solutions before its resilient hero that the volume of sentimentality and coincidence makes it feel suspect... Neither Conrad 's script nor Muccino 's redundant direction shows (what) lifted the real - life Chris above better educated and more experienced candidates, but it comes through in the earnest performances of the two Smiths. Father Will seldom comes across this mature on screen; at the finale, he achieves a measure of Oscar - worthy emotion. Little Jaden is a chip off the old block, uncommonly at ease before the cameras. Their real - life bond is an inestimable asset to the on - screen characters ' relationship, although Conrad never really tests it with any conflict. ''
National Review Online has named the film # 7 in its list of ' The Best Conservative Movies '. Linda Chavez of the Center for Equal Opportunity wrote, "this film provides the perfect antidote to Wall Street and other Hollywood diatribes depicting the world of finance as filled with nothing but greed. ''
|
where is the axle located on a car | Axle - wikipedia
An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported. In the latter case, a bearing or bushing sits inside a central hole in the wheel to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter type axle is referred to as a spindle.
On cars and trucks, several senses of the word axle occur in casual usage, referring to the shaft itself, its housing, or simply any transverse pair of wheels. Strictly speaking, a shaft which rotates with the wheel, being either bolted or splined in fixed relation to it, is called an axle or axle shaft. However, in looser usage, an entire assembly including the surrounding axle housing (typically a casting) is also called an axle.
An even broader (somewhat figurative) sense of the word refers to every pair of parallel wheels on opposite sides of a vehicle, regardless of their mechanical connection to each other and to the vehicle frame or body. Thus, transverse pairs of wheels in an independent suspension may be called an axle in some contexts. This very loose definition of "axle '' is often used in assessing toll roads or vehicle taxes, and is taken as a rough proxy for the overall weight - bearing capacity of a vehicle, and its potential for causing wear or damage to roadway surfaces.
Axles are an integral component of most practical wheeled vehicles. In a live - axle suspension system, the axles serve to transmit driving torque to the wheel, as well as to maintain the position of the wheels relative to each other and to the vehicle body. The axles in this system must also bear the weight of the vehicle plus any cargo. A non-driving axle, such as the front beam axle in heavy duty trucks and some two - wheel drive light trucks and vans, will have no shaft, and serves only as a suspension and steering component. Conversely, many front - wheel drive cars have a solid rear beam axle.
In other types of suspension systems, the axles serve only to transmit driving torque to the wheels; the position and angle of the wheel hubs is an independent function of the suspension system. This is typical of the independent suspensions found on most newer cars and SUVs, and on the front of many light trucks. These systems still have differentials, but will not have attached axle housing tubes. They may be attached to the vehicle frame or body, or integral in a transaxle. The axle shafts (usually constant - velocity type) then transmit driving torque to the wheels. Like a full floating axle system, the drive shafts in a front - wheel drive independent suspension system do not support any vehicle weight.
A straight axle is a single rigid shaft connecting a wheel on the left side of the vehicle to a wheel on the right side. The axis of rotation fixed by the axle is common to both wheels. Such a design can keep the wheel positions steady under heavy stress, and can therefore support heavy loads. Straight axles are used on trains (that is, locomotives and railway wagons), for the rear axles of commercial trucks, and on heavy duty off - road vehicles. The axle can optionally be protected and further reinforced by enclosing the length of the axle in a housing.
In split - axle designs, the wheel on each side is attached to a separate shaft. Modern passenger cars have split drive axles. In some designs, this allows independent suspension of the left and right wheels, and therefore a smoother ride. Even when the suspension is not independent, split axles permit the use of a differential, allowing the left and right drive wheels to be driven at different speeds as the automobile turns, improving traction and extending tire life.
A tandem axle is a group of two or more axles situated close together. Truck designs use such a configuration to provide a greater weight capacity than a single axle. Semi trailers usually have a tandem axle at the rear.
Axles are typically made from SAE grade 41xx steel or SAE grade 10xx steel. SAE grade 41xx steel is commonly known as "chrome - molybdenum steel '' (or "chrome - moly '') while SAE grade 10xx steel is known as "carbon steel ''. The primary differences between the two are that chrome - moly steel is significantly more resistant to bending or breaking, and is very difficult to weld with tools normally found outside a professional welding shop.
An axle that is driven by the engine or prime mover is called a drive axle.
Modern front - wheel drive cars typically combine the transmission (gearbox and differential) and front axle into a single unit called a transaxle. The drive axle is a split axle with a differential and universal joints between the two half axles. Each half axle connects to the wheel by use of a constant velocity (CV) joint which allows the wheel assembly to move freely vertically as well as to pivot when making turns.
In rear - wheel drive cars and trucks, the engine turns a driveshaft (also called a propellor shaft or tailshaft) which transmits rotational force to a drive axle at the rear of the vehicle. The drive axle may be a live axle, but modern rear wheel drive automobiles generally use a split axle with a differential. In this case, one half - axle or half - shaft connects the differential with the left rear wheel, a second half - shaft does the same with the right rear wheel; thus the two half - axles and the differential constitute the rear axle.
Some simple vehicle designs, such as leisure go - karts, may have a single driven wheel where the drive axle is a split axle with only one of the two shafts driven by the engine, or else have both wheels connected to one shaft without a differential (kart racing). However, other go - karts have two rear drive wheels too.
A dead axle, also called a lazy axle, is not part of the drivetrain, but is instead free - rotating. The rear axle of a front - wheel drive car is usually a dead axle. Many trucks and trailers use dead axles for strictly load - bearing purposes. A dead axle located immediately in front of a drive axle is called a pusher axle. A tag axle is a dead axle situated behind a drive axle. Dead axles are also found on semi trailers, farm equipment, and certain heavy construction machinery serving the same function. On some vehicles (such as motorcoaches), the tag axle may be steerable. In some designs the wheels on a lazy axle only come into contact with ground when the load is significant, thus saving unnecessary tire wear.
Some dump trucks and trailers may be configured with a lift axle (also known as an airlift axle or drop axle), which may be mechanically raised or lowered. The axle is lowered to increase the weight capacity, or to distribute the weight of the cargo over more wheels, for example to cross a weight restricted bridge. When not needed, the axle is lifted off the ground to save wear on the tires and axle, and to increase traction in the remaining wheels. Lifting an axle also alleviates lateral scrubbing of the additional axle in very tight turns, allowing the vehicle to turn more readily. In some situations removal of pressure from the additional axle is necessary for the vehicle to complete a turn at all.
Several manufacturers offer computer - controlled airlift, so that the dead axles are automatically lowered when the main axle reaches its weight limit. The dead axles can still be lifted by the press of a button if needed, for better maneuverability.
Lift axles were in use in the early 1940s. Initially, the axle was lifted by a mechanical device. Soon hydraulics replaced the mechanical lift system. One of the early manufacturers was Zetterbergs, located in Östervåla, Sweden. Their brand was Zeta - lyften.
The lift able tandem drive axle was invented in 1957 by the Finnish truck manufacturer Vanaja (Vanajan Autotehdas), a company sharing history with Sisu Auto.
A full - floating axle shaft does not carry the vehicle 's weight; it serves only to transmit torque from the differential to the wheels. It "floats '' inside an assembly that carries the vehicle 's weight. Thus the only stress it must endure is torque (not lateral bending force). Full - floating axle shafts are retained by a flange bolted to the hub, while the hub and bearings are retained on the spindle by a large nut. In contrast, a semi-floating design carries the weight of the vehicle on the axle shaft itself; there is a single bearing at the end of the axle housing that carries the load from the axle and that the axle rotates through.
The full - floating design is typically used in most 3 / 4 - and 1 - ton light trucks, medium duty trucks and heavy - duty trucks, as well as most agricultural applications, such as large tractors and self - propelled agricultural machinery. There are a few exceptions, such as many Land - Rover vehicles and in American stock car racing since the early 1960s. The overall assembly can carry more weight than a semi-floating or non-floating axle assembly, because the hubs have two bearings riding on a fixed spindle. A full - floating axle can be identified by a protruding hub to which the axle shaft flange is bolted. The semi-floating design is found under most 1 / 2 - ton and lighter trucks and SUVs and rear - wheel - drive passenger cars, usually being smaller or less expensive models.
A benefit of a full - floating axle is that even if an axle shaft (used to transmit torque or power) breaks, the wheel will not come off, preventing serious accidents.
|
who is considered as prophet of indian nationalism | Indian nationalism - Wikipedia
Indian nationalism developed as a concept during the Indian independence movement fought against the colonial British Raj. Scholars note that a national consciousness has always been present in "India '', or more broadly the Indian subcontinent, even if it was not articulated in modern terms. Indian nationalism is an instance of territorial nationalism, inclusive of all its people, despite their diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. It continues to strongly influence the politics of India and reflects an opposition to the sectarian strands of Hindu nationalism and Muslim nationalism.
India has been unified under many emperors and governments in history. Ancient texts mention India under emperor Bharata and Akhand Bharat, these regions roughly form the entities of modern - day greater India. The Mauryan Empire was the first to unite all of India, and South Asia (including much of Afghanistan). In addition, much of India has also been unified under a central government by empires, such as the Gupta Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, Pala Empire, Mughal Empire, Indian Empire etc.
India 's concept of nationhood is based not merely on territorial extent of its sovereignty. Nationalistic sentiments and expression encompass that India 's ancient history, as the birthplace of the Indus Valley Civilization and Vedic Civilization, as well as four major world religions -- Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Indian nationalists see India stretching along these lines across the Indian Subcontinent.
India today celebrates many kings and queens for combating foreign invasion and domination, such as Shivaji of the Maratha Empire, Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi, Kittur Chennamma, Maharana Pratap of Rajputana, Prithviraj Chauhan and Tipu Sultan who fought the British. The kings of Ancient India, such as Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka of the Magadha Empire, are also remembered for their military genius, notable conquests and remarkable religious tolerance.
Akbar was a Mughal emperor, was known to have a good relationship with the Roman Catholic Church as well as with his subjects -- Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains. He forged familial and political bonds with Hindu Rajput kings. Although previous Sultans had been more or less tolerant, Akbar took religious intermingling to new level of exploration. He developed for the first time in Islamic India an environment of complete religious freedom. Akbar undid most forms of religious discrimination, and invited the participation of wise Hindu ministers and kings, and even religious scholars to debate in his court.
The consolidation of the British East India Company 's rule in the Indian subcontinent during the 18th century brought about socio - economic changes which led to the rise of an Indian middle class and steadily eroded pre-colonial socio - religious institutions and barriers. The emerging economic and financial power of Indian business - owners and merchants and the professional class brought them increasingly into conflict with the British Raj. A rising political consciousness among the native Indian social elite (including lawyers, doctors, university graduates, government officials and similar groups) spawned an Indian identity and fed a growing nationalist sentiment in India in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The creation in 1885 of the Indian National Congress in India by the political reformer A.O. Hume intensified the process by providing an important platform from which demands could be made for political liberalisation, increased autonomy, and social reform. The leaders of the Congress advocated dialogue and debate with the Raj administration to achieve their political goals. Distinct from these moderate voices (or loyalists) who did not preach or support violence was the nationalist movement, which grew particularly strong, radical and violent in Bengal and in Punjab. Notable but smaller movements also appeared in Maharashtra, Madras and other areas across the south.
The controversial 1905 partition of Bengal escalated the growing unrest, stimulating radical nationalist sentiments and becoming a driving force for Indian revolutionaries.
Mohandas Gandhi pioneered the art of Satyagraha, typified with a strict adherence to ahimsa (non-violence), and civil disobedience. This permitted common individuals to engage the British in revolution, without employing violence or other distasteful means. Gandhi 's equally strict adherence to democracy, religious and ethnic equality and brotherhood, as well as activist rejection of caste - based discrimination and untouchability united people across these demographic lines for the first time in India 's history. The masses participated in India 's independence struggle for the first time, and the membership of the Congress grew over tens of millions by the 1930s. In addition, Gandhi 's victories in the Champaran and Kheda Satyagraha in 1918 -- 19, gave confidence to a rising younger generation of Indian nationalists that the British Raj could be defeated. National leaders like Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru, Maulana Azad, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, Mohandas Gandhi, Rajendra Prasad and Badshah Khan brought together generations of Indians across regions and demographics, and provided a strong leadership base giving the country political direction.
Indian nationalism is as much a diverse blend of nationalistic sentiments as its people are ethnically and religiously diverse. Thus the most influential undercurrents are more than just Indian in nature. The most controversial and emotionally charged fibre in the fabric of Indian nationalism is religion. Religion forms a major, and in many cases, the central element of Indian life. Ethnic communities are diverse in terms of linguistics, social traditions and history across India.
An important influence upon Hindu consciousness arises from the time of Islamic empires in India. Entering the 20th century, Hindus formed over 75 % of the population and thus unsurprisingly the backbone and platform of the nationalist movement. Modern Hindu thinking desired to unite Hindu society across the boundaries of caste, linguistic groups and ethnicity. In 1925, K.B. Hedgewar founded the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh in Nagpur, Maharashtra, which grew into the largest civil organisation in the country, and more potent, mainstream base of Hindu nationalism.
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar coined the term Hindutva for his ideology that described India as a Hindu Rashtra, a Hindu nation. This ideology has become the cornerstone of the political and religious agendas of modern Hindu nationalist bodies like the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Vishwa Hindu Parishad. Hindutva political demands include revoking Article 370 of the Constitution that grants a special semi-autonomous status to the Muslim - majority state of Kashmir, adopting a uniform civil code, thus ending a special legal framework for Muslims. These particular demands are based upon ending laws that Hindu nationalists consider as offering special treatment to Muslims.
In 1906 -- 1907, the All India Muslim League was founded, created due to the suspicion of Muslim intellectuals and religious leaders with the Indian National Congress, which was perceived as dominated by Hindu membership and opinions. However, Mahatma Gandhi 's leadership attracted a wide array of Muslims to the independence struggle and the Congress Party. The Aligarh Muslim University and the Jamia Millia Islamia stand apart -- the former helped form the Muslim league, while the JMI was founded to promote Muslim education and consciousness upon nationalistic and Gandhian values and thought.
While prominent Muslims like Allama Iqbal, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Liaquat Ali Khan embraced the notion that Hindus and Muslims were distinct nations, other major leaders like Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Maulana Azad and most of Deobandi clerics strongly backed the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian independence struggle, opposing any notion of Muslim nationalism and separatism. The Muslim school of Indian nationalism failed to attract Muslim masses and the Islamic nationalist Muslim League enjoyed extensive popular political support. State of Pakistan was ultimately formed following Partition of India
The political identity of the Indian National Congress, India 's largest political party and one which controlled government for over 45 years, is reliant on the connection to Mohandas K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, and the Nehru - Gandhi family which has controlled the Congress since independence. The Congress Party 's fortunes up till the 1970s were single - handedly propelled by its legacy as the flagship of India 's Independence Movement, and the core platform of the party today evokes that past strongly, considering itself to be the guardian of India 's independence, democracy and unity. Muslims have remained loyal voters of the Congress Party, seen as defender of Nehruvian secularism. In contrast, the Bharatiya Janata Party employs a more aggressively nationalistic expression. The BJP seeks to preserve and spread the culture of the Hindus, the majority population. It ties nationalism with the aggressive defence of India 's borders and interests against archrivals China and Pakistan, with the defence of the majority 's right to be a majority.
Religious nationalist parties include the Shiromani Akali Dal, which is closely identified with the creation of a Sikh - majority state in Punjab and includes many Sikh religious leaders in its organisation. In Maharashtra, the Shiv Sena uses the legacy of the independent Maratha kingdom under famous figures like Shivaji to stir up support, and has adopted Hindutva as well. In Assam, the Asom Gana Parishad is a more state - focused party, arising after the frustration of the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) as a benevolent expression of Assamese nationalism. In Tamil Nadu came the first of such parties, the Dravidar Kazhagam (DK). Today the DK stands for a collection of parties, with the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), the Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK) and the Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (MDMK). Caste - based politics invite the participation of the Bahujan Samaj Party and the party of Laloo Prasad Yadav, who build upon the support of poor low - caste and dalit Hindus in the northern, and most populated states of India like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Almost every Indian state has a regional party devoted solely to the culture of the native people of that state.
Military history, both past and present, serves as a source of nationalist sentiment in India. The first reference to armies is found in the Vedas and the epics Ramayana and Mahabaratha. There were many powerful dynasties in India such as the Maha Janapadas, Shishunaga Empire, Gangaridai Empire, Nanda Empire, Maurya Empire, Shunga Empire, Kharavela Empire, Kuninda Kingdom, Chola Empire, Chera Empire, Pandyan Empire, Satavahana Empire, Western Satrap Empire, Kushan Empire, Vakataka Empire, Kalabhras Kingdom, Gupta Empire, Pallava Empire, Kadamba Empire, Western Ganga Kingdom, Vishnukundina Empire, Chalukya Empire, Harsha Empire, Shahi Kingdom, Eastern Chalukya Kingdom, Pratihara Empire, Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, Paramara Kingdom, Yadava Empire, Chaulukya kingdom, Western Chalukya Empire, Hoysala Empire, Sena Empire, Eastern Ganga Empire, Kakatiya Kingdom, Kalachuri Empire, Delhi Sultanate, Deccan Sultanates, Ahom Kingdom, Vijayanagar Empire, Mysore Kingdom, Mughal Empire, Maratha Empire, Sikh Empire etc.
The modern Army of India was raised under the British Raj in the 19th century. Today the Republic of India maintains the world 's third largest armed forces with over a million troops strong. The official defence budget stands at ₹ 1,644,151.9 million (US $26 billion) but the actual spending on the armed forces is estimated to be much higher. The army is undergoing rapid expansion and modernisation with plans to have an active military space program, missile defence shield, and nuclear triad capability.
|
who is running for ca state senate 2018 | United States Senate election in California, 2018 - Wikipedia
Dianne Feinstein Democratic
The 2018 United States Senate election in California will take place on November 6, 2018, to elect a member of the United States Senate to represent the State of California, concurrently with other elections to the United States Senate, elections to the United States House of Representatives, and various state and local elections.
Under California 's non-partisan blanket primary law, all candidates appear on the same ballot, regardless of party. In the primary, voters may vote for any candidate, regardless of their party affiliation. In the California system, the top two finishers -- regardless of party -- advance to the general election in November, even if a candidate receives a majority of the votes cast in the primary election. Washington and Louisiana have similar "jungle primary '' style processes for U.S. Senators, as does Mississippi (for special elections only).
The candidate filing deadline was March 8, 2018 and the primary election was held on June 5, 2018.
Four - term Democratic incumbent Dianne Feinstein won reelection in 2012 with 63 % of the vote, taking the record for the most popular votes in any U.S. Senate election in history with 7.86 million votes. Feinstein is the ranking member of the Senate Judiciary Committee. She turned 85 years old in 2018, leading to speculation that she would retire in January 2019, as her long - time colleague Barbara Boxer did in January 2017. However, Feinstein stood for reelection for her fifth consecutive term, winning 44.2 % of the vote in the top - two primary; she will face Democratic challenger Kevin De León in the general election, who won 12.1 % of the primary vote.
Because of California 's top - two runoff system, the seat is guaranteed to be won / held by a Democrat since the initial primary produced two Democratic candidates.
^ Highest rating given
|
when did the chinese civilization start and end | History of China - wikipedia
Written records of the history of China date from as early as 1500 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 -- 1046 BC). Ancient historical texts such as the Records of the Grand Historian (c. 100 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070 -- 1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing on a durable medium have survived. The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world 's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.
The Zhou dynasty (1046 -- 256 BC) supplanted the Shang, and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times.
In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi (Chinese: 皇帝) or "emperor '' of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer lived Han dynasty (206 BC -- 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar - officials. Young men, well - versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China 's last dynasty was the Qing (1644 -- 1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People 's Republic of China in 1949, resulting in two de facto states claiming to be the legitimate government of all China.
Chinese history has alternated between periods of politically unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood -- the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927 -- 1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China.
What is now China was inhabited by Homo erectus more than a million years ago. Recent study shows that the stone tools found at Xiaochangliang site are magnetostratigraphically dated to 1.36 million years ago. The archaeological site of Xihoudu in Shanxi Province is the earliest recorded use of fire by Homo erectus, which is dated 1.27 million years ago. The excavations at Yuanmou and later Lantian show early habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen of Homo erectus found in China is the so - called Peking Man discovered in 1923 -- 27. Fossilised teeth of Homo sapiens dating to 125,000 -- 80,000 BC have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County in Hunan.
The Neolithic age in China can be traced back to about 10,000 BC.
Early evidence for proto - Chinese millet agriculture is radiocarbon - dated to about 7000 BC. The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, is carbon - dated to 8,000 years ago. Farming gave rise to the Jiahu culture (7000 to 5800 BC). At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000 -- 5000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing ''. These pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese. Chinese proto - writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC, Damaidi around 6000 BC and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC. Some scholars have suggested that Jiahu symbols (7th millennium BC) were the earliest Chinese writing system. Excavation of a Peiligang culture site in Xinzheng county, Henan, found a community that flourished in 5,500 to 4,900 BC, with evidence of agriculture, constructed buildings, pottery, and burial of the dead. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators. In late Neolithic times, the Yellow River valley began to establish itself as a center of Yangshao culture (5000 BC to 3000 BC), and the first villages were founded; the most archaeologically significant of these was found at Banpo, Xi'an. Later, Yangshao culture was superseded by the Longshan culture, which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 BC to 2000 BC.
Bronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and 2700 BC), The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200 -- 1600 BC) site in northeast China. Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan province is believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC). The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986. Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the ancient kingdom of Shu, linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings.
Ferrous metallurgy begins to appear in the late 6th century in the Yangzi Valley. An bronze tomahawk (铁 刃 青铜 钺) with a blade of meteoric iron excavated near the city of Gaocheng (藁 城) in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei province) has been dated to the 14th century BC. For this reason, some authors have used the term "Iron Age '' by convention for the transitional period of c. 500 BC to 100 BC, roughly corresponding to the Warring States period of Chinese historiography. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings.
The Xia dynasty of China (from c. 2070 to c. 1600 BC) is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian and Bamboo Annals.
The dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou, Henan in 1959. With few clear records matching the Shang oracle bones, it remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia dynasty or of another culture from the same period. Excavations that overlap the alleged time period of the Xia indicate a type of culturally similar groupings of chiefdoms. Early markings from this period found on pottery and shells are thought to be ancestral to modern Chinese characters.
According to ancient records, the dynasty ended around 1600 BC as a consequence of the Battle of Mingtiao.
Archaeological findings providing evidence for the existence of the Shang dynasty, c. 1600 -- 1046 BC, are divided into two sets. The first set, from the earlier Shang period, comes from sources at Erligang, Zhengzhou, and Shangcheng. The second set, from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period, is at Anyang, in modern - day Henan, which has been confirmed as the last of the Shang 's nine capitals (c. 1300 -- 1046 BC). The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of Chinese past so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals -- the so - called "oracle bones '', dating from around 1500 BC.
31 kings reigned over the Shang dynasty. During their reign, according to the Records of the Grand Historian, the capital city was moved six times. The final (and most important) move was to Yin in 1350 BC which led to the dynasty 's golden age. The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty.
Chinese historians living in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the actual political situation in early China is known to have been much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can possibly refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou is known to have existed at the same time as the Shang.
Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty, Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper.
The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to approximately 256 BC) was the longest - lasting dynasty in Chinese history. By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty began to emerge in the Yellow River valley, overrunning the territory of the Shang. The Zhou appeared to have begun their rule under a semi-feudal system. The Zhou lived west of the Shang, and the Zhou leader had been appointed Western Protector by the Shang. The ruler of the Zhou, King Wu, with the assistance of his brother, the Duke of Zhou, as regent, managed to defeat the Shang at the Battle of Muye.
The king of Zhou at this time invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize his rule, a concept that would be influential for almost every succeeding dynasty. Like Shangdi, Heaven (tian) ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China. It was believed that a ruler had lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven.
The Zhou initially moved their capital west to an area near modern Xi'an, on the Wei River, a tributary of the Yellow River, but they would preside over a series of expansions into the Yangtze River valley. This would be the first of many population migrations from north to south in Chinese history.
In the 8th century BC, power became decentralized during the Spring and Autumn period, named after the influential Spring and Autumn Annals. In this period, local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie for hegemony. The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples from the northwest, such as the Qin, forcing the Zhou to move their capital east to Luoyang. This marks the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou. The Spring and Autumn period is marked by a falling apart of the central Zhou power. In each of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only. Some local leaders even started using royal titles for themselves. China now consisted of hundreds of states, some of them only as large as a village with a fort.
As the era continued, larger and more powerful states annexed or claimed suzerainty over smaller ones. By the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared from being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities dominated China. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue). Many new cities were established in this period and Chinese culture was slowly shaped.
Once all these powerful rulers had firmly established themselves within their respective dominions, the bloodshed focused more fully on interstate conflict in the Warring States period, which began when the three remaining élite families in the Jin state -- Zhao, Wei and Han -- partitioned the state. Many famous individuals such as Lao Zi, Confucius and Sun Tzu lived during this chaotic period.
The Hundred Schools of Thought of Chinese philosophy blossomed during this period, and such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism and Mohism were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The first two philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture.
After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other are known as the Warring States period. Though there remained a nominal Zhou king until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead and held little real power.
Numerous developments were made during this period in culture and mathematics, examples include an important literary achievement, the Zuo Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, which summarizes the preceding Spring and Autumn period and the bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the Tsinghua collection, which was invented during this period dated to 305 BC, are the worlds ' earliest example of a two digit decimal multiplication table, indicating that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period.
As neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning, were annexed, they were governed under the new local administrative system of commandery and prefecture (郡 縣 / 郡 县). This system had been in use since the Spring and Autumn period, and parts can still be seen in the modern system of Sheng & Xian (province and county, 省 縣 / 省 县).
The final expansion in this period began during the reign of Ying Zheng, the king of Qin. His unification of the other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions of Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi in 214 BC, enabled him to proclaim himself the First Emperor (Qin Shi Huang).
The Imperial China Period can be divided into three subperiods: Early, Middle, and Late.
Major events in the Early subperiod include the Qin unification of China and their replacement by the Han, the First Split followed by the Jin unification, and the loss of north China. The Middle subperiod was marked by the Sui unification and their supplementation by the Tang, the Second Split, and the Song unification. The Late subperiod included the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties.
Historians often refer to the period from Qin dynasty to the end of Qing dynasty as Imperial China. Though the unified reign of the First Qin Emperor lasted only 12 years, he managed to subdue great parts of what constitutes the core of the Han Chinese homeland and to unite them under a tightly centralized Legalist government seated at Xianyang (close to modern Xi'an). The doctrine of Legalism that guided the Qin emphasized strict adherence to a legal code and the absolute power of the emperor. This philosophy, while effective for expanding the empire in a military fashion, proved unworkable for governing it in peacetime. The Qin Emperor presided over the brutal silencing of political opposition, including the event known as the burning of books and burying of scholars. This would be the impetus behind the later Han synthesis incorporating the more moderate schools of political governance.
Major contributions of the Qin include the concept of a centralized government, and the unification and development of the legal code, the written language, measurement, and currency of China after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. Even something as basic as the length of axles for carts -- which need to match ruts in the roads -- had to be made uniform to ensure a viable trading system throughout the empire. Also as part of its centralization, the Qin connected the northern border walls of the states it defeated, making the first Great Wall of China.
A major Qin innovation that lasted until 1912 was reliance upon a trained intellectual elite, the Scholar - official ("Scholar - gentlemen ''). They were civil servants appointed by the Emperor to handle daily governance. Talented young men were selected through an elaborate process of imperial examination. They had to demonstrate skill at calligraphy, and had to know Confucian philosophy. Historian Wing - Tsit Chan concludes that:
After Emperor Qin Shi Huang 's unnatural death due to the consumption of mercury pills, the Qin government drastically deteriorated and eventually capitulated in 207 BC after the Qin capital was captured and sacked by rebels, which would ultimately lead to the establishment of a new dynasty of a unified China. Despite the short 15 - year duration of the Qin dynasty, it was immensely influential on China and the structure of future Chinese dynasties.
The Han dynasty was founded by Liu Bang, who emerged victorious in the Chu -- Han Contention that followed the fall of the Qin dynasty. A golden age in Chinese history, the Han dynasty 's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennia. During the Han dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of the China proper and to areas far west. Confucianism was officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape the subsequent Chinese civilization. Art, culture and science all advanced to unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name "Han '' had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now the dominant ethnic group in modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language and written characters. The Han dynasty also saw many mathematical innovations being invented such as the method of Gaussian elimination which appeared in the Chinese mathematical text Chapter Eight Rectangular Arrays of The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. Its use is illustrated in eighteen problems, with two to five equations. The first reference to the book by this title is dated to 179 AD, but parts of it were written as early as approximately 150 BC, more than 1500 years before the Europeans came up with the method in the 18th century.
After the initial Laissez - faire policies of Emperors Wen and Jing, the ambitious Emperor Wu brought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power, Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well - structured society, was given exclusive patronage to be the guiding philosophical thoughts and moral principles of the empire. Imperial Universities were established to support its study and further development, while other schools of thought were discouraged.
Major military campaigns were launched to weaken the nomadic Xiongnu Empire, limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by Zhang Qian, the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the states in the Tarim Basin, opened up the Silk Road that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire.
Emperor Wu also dispatched a series of military campaigns against the Baiyue tribes. The Han annexed Minyue in 135 BC and 111 BC, Nanyue in 111 BC, and Dian in 109 BC. Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of the south. It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade.
After Emperor Wu, the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Various consort clans exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of Wang Mang.
In AD 9, the usurper Wang Mang claimed that the Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short - lived Xin ("New '') dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of the Yellow River; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in Weiyang Palace by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23.
Emperor Guangwu reinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at Luoyang, east of the former capital Xi'an. Thus, this new era is termed the Eastern Han dynasty. With the capable administrations of Emperors Ming and Zhang, former glories of the dynasty was reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. The Xiongnu Empire was decisively defeated. The diplomat and general Ban Chao further expanded the conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea, thus reopening the Silk Road, and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with the arrival of Buddhism. With extensive connections with the west, the first of several Roman embassies to China were recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284.
The Eastern Han dynasty was one of the most prolific era of science and technology in ancient China, notably the historic invention of papermaking by Cai Lun, and the numerous scientific and mathematical contributions by the famous polymath Zhang Heng.
By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between consort clans and eunuchs. The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in AD 184, ushering in an era of warlords. In the ensuing turmoil, three states tried to gain predominance in the period of the Three Kingdoms. This time period has been greatly romanticized in works such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
After Cao Cao reunified the north in 208, his son proclaimed the Wei dynasty in 220. Soon, Wei 's rivals Shu and Wu proclaimed their independence, leading China into the Three Kingdoms period. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families.
In 266, the Jin dynasty overthrew the Wei and later unified the country in 280, but this union was short - lived.
The Jin dynasty was severely weakened by interceine fighting among imperial princes and lost control of northern China after non-Han Chinese settlers rebelled and captured Luoyang and Chang'an. In 317, a Jin prince in modern - day Nanjing became emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held southern China for another century. Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin dynasty as the Western Jin.
Northern China fragmented into a series of independent kingdoms, most of which were founded by Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di and Qiang rulers. These non-Han peoples were ancestors of the Turks, Mongols, and Tibetans. Many had, to some extent, been "sinicized '' long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the Qiang and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times. During the period of the Sixteen Kingdoms, warfare ravaged the north and prompted large - scale Han Chinese migration south to the Yangtze Basin and Delta.
In the early 5th century, China entered a period known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the country. In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to the Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang and finally Chen. Each of these Southern dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling families and used Jiankang (modern Nanjing) as the capital. They held off attacks from the north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern barbarian regimes began to sinify.
In the north, the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by the Northern Wei, a kingdom founded by the Xianbei, a nomadic people who unified northern China. The Northern Wei eventually split into the Eastern and Western Wei, which then became the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou. These regimes were dominated by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families. During this period most Xianbei people adopted Han surnames, eventually leading to complete assimilation into the Han.
Despite the division of the country, Buddhism spread throughout the land. In southern China, fierce debates about whether Buddhism should be allowed were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. By the end of the era, Buddhists and Taoists had become much more tolerant of each other.
The short - lived Sui dynasty was a pivotal period in Chinese history. Founded by Emperor Wen in 581 in succession of the Northern Zhou, the Sui went on to conquer the Southern Chen in 589 to reunify China, ending three centuries of political division. The Sui pioneered many new institutions, including the government system of Three Departments and Six Ministries, imperial examinations for selecting officials from commoners, while improved on the systems of fubing system of the army conscription and the Equal - field system of land distributions. These policies, which were adopted by later dynasties, brought enormous population growth, and amassed excessive wealth to the state. Standardized coinage were enforced throughout the unified empire. Buddhism took root as a prominent religion and were supported officially. Sui China was known for its numerous mega-construction projects. Intended for grains shipment and transporting troops, the Grand Canal was constructed, linking the capitals Daxing (Chang'an) and Luoyang to the wealthy southeast region, and in another route, to the northeast border. The Great Wall was also expanded, while series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers further pacified its borders. However, the massive invasions of the Korean Peninsula during the Goguryeo -- Sui War failed disastrously, triggering widespread revolts that led to the fall of the dynasty.
According to historian Mark Edward Lewis:
The Tang dynasty was founded by Emperor Gaozu on 18 June 618. It was a golden age of Chinese civilization and considered to be the most prosperous period of China with significant developments in culture, art, literature, particularly poetry, and technology. Buddhism became the predominant religion for the common people. Chang'an (modern Xi'an), the national capital, was the largest city in the world during its time.
The second emperor, Taizong, is widely regarded as one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history, who had laid the foundation for the dynasty to flourish for centuries beyond his reign. Combined military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers were implemented to eliminate threats from nomadic tribes, extend the border, and submit neighboring states into a tributary system. Military victories in the Tarim Basin kept the Silk Road open, connecting Chang'an to Central Asia and areas far to the west. In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes began from port cities such as Guangzhou. There was extensive trade with distant foreign countries, and many foreign merchants settled in China, encouraging a cosmopolitan culture. The Tang culture and social systems were observed and imitated by neighboring countries, most notably, Japan. Internally the Grand Canal linked the political heartland in Chang'an to the agricultural and economic centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire. Xuanzang, a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator who travelled to India on his own, and returned with, "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics. ''
Underlying the prosperity of the early Tang dynasty was a strong centralized bureaucracy with efficient policies. The government was organized as "Three Departments and Six Ministries '' to separately draft, review, and implement policies. These departments were run by royal family members as well as scholar officials who were selected by imperial examinations. These practices, which matured in the Tang dynasty, were continued by the later dynasties, with some modifications.
Under the Tang "equal - field system '' all land was owned by the Emperor and granted to people according to household size. Men granted land were conscripted for military service for a fixed period each year, a military policy known as the "Fubing system ''. These policies stimulated a rapid growth in productivity and a significant army without much burden on the state treasury. By the dynasty 's midpoint, however, standing armies had replaced conscription, and land was continuously falling into the hands of private owners.
The dynasty continued to flourish under the rule of Empress Wu Zetian, the only empress regnant in Chinese history, and reached its zenith during the long reign of Emperor Xuanzong, who oversaw an empire that stretched from the Pacific to the Aral Sea with at least 50 million people. There were vibrant artistic and cultural creations, including works of the greatest Chinese poets, Li Bai, and Du Fu.
At the zenith of prosperity of the empire, the An Lushan Rebellion from 755 to 763 was a watershed event that devastated the population and drastically weakened the central imperial government. Upon suppression of the rebellion, regional military governors, known as Jiedushi, gained increasingly autonomous status. With loss of revenue from land tax, the central imperial government relied heavily on salt monopoly. Externally, former submissive states raided the empire and the vast border territories were irreversibly lost for subsequent centuries. Nevertheless, civil society recovered and thrived amidst the weakened imperial bureaucracy.
In late Tang period, the empire was worn out by recurring revolts of regional warlords, while internally, as scholar - officials engaged in fierce factional strife, corrupted eunuchs amassed immense power. Catastrophically, the Huang Chao Rebellion, from 874 to 884, devastated the entire empire for a decade. The sack of the southern port Guangzhou in 879 was followed by the massacre of most of its inhabitants, along with the large foreign merchant enclaves. By 881, both capitals, Luoyang and Chang'an, fell successively. The reliance on ethnic Han and Turkic warlords in suppressing the rebellion increased their power and influence. Consequently, the fall of the dynasty following Zhu Wen 's usurpation led to an era of division.
The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, lasted from 907 to 960. During this half - century, China was in all respects a multi-state system. Five regimes, namely, (Later) Liang, Tang, Jin, Han and Zhou, rapidly succeeded one another in control of the traditional Imperial heartland in northern China. Among the regimes, rulers of (Later) Tang, Jin and Han were sinicized Shatuo Turks, which ruled over the ethnic majority of Han Chinese. More stable and smaller regimes of mostly ethnic Han rulers coexisted in south and western China over the period, cumulatively constituted the "Ten Kingdoms ''.
Amidst political chaos in the north, the strategic Sixteen Prefectures (region along today 's Great Wall) were ceded to the emerging Khitan Liao dynasty, which drastically weakened the defense of the China proper against northern nomadic empires. To the south, Vietnam gained lasting independence after being a Chinese prefecture for many centuries. With wars dominated in Northern China, there were mass southward migrations of population, which further enhanced the southward shift of cultural and economic centers in China. The era ended with the coup of Later Zhou general Zhao Kuangyin, and the establishment the Song dynasty in 960, which would eventually annihilated the remains of the "Ten Kingdoms '' and reunified China.
In 960, the Song dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu, with its capital established in Kaifeng (also known as Bianjing). In 979, the Song dynasty reunified most of the China proper, while large swaths of the outer territories were occupied by sinicized nomadic empires. The Khitan Liao dynasty, which lasted from 907 to 1125, ruled over Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of Northern China. Meanwhile, in what are now the north - western Chinese provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi, and Ningxia, the Tangut tribes founded the Western Xia dynasty from 1032 to 1227.
Aiming to recover the strategic Sixteen Prefectures lost in the previous dynasty, campaigns were launched against the Liao dynasty in the early Song period, which all ended in failure. Then in 1004, the Liao cavalry swept over the exposed North China Plain and reached the outskirts of Kaifeng, forcing the Song 's submission and then agreement to the Chanyuan Treaty, which imposed heavy annual tributes from the Song treasury. The treaty was a significant reversal of Chinese dominance of the traditional tributary system. Yet the annual outflow of Song 's silver to the Liao was paid back through the purchase of Chinese goods and products, which expanded the Song economy, and replenished its treasury. This dampened the incentive for the Song to further campaign against the Liao. Meanwhile, this cross-border trade and contact induced further sinicization within the Liao Empire, at the expense of its military might which was derived from its primitive nomadic lifestyle. Similar treaties and social - economical consequences occurred in Song 's relations with the Jin dynasty.
Within the Liao Empire, the Jurchen tribes revolted against their overlords to establish the Jin dynasty in 1115. In 1125, the devastating Jin cataphract annihilated the Liao dynasty, while remnants of Liao court members fled to Central Asia to found the Qara Khitai Empire (Western Liao dynasty). Jin 's invasion of the Song dynasty followed swiftly. In 1127, Kaifeng was sacked, a massive catastrophe known as the Jingkang Incident, ending the Northern Song dynasty. Later the entire north of China was conquered. The survived members of Song court regrouped in the new capital city of Hangzhou, and initiated the Southern Song dynasty, which ruled territories south of the Huai River. In the ensuing years, the territory and population of China were divided between the Song dynasty, the Jin dynasty and the Western Xia dynasty. The era ended with the Mongol conquest, as Western Xia fell in 1227, the Jin dynasty in 1234, and finally the Southern Song dynasty in 1279.
Despite its military weakness, the Song dynasty is widely considered to be the high point of classical Chinese civilization. The Song economy, facilitated by technology advancement, had reached a level of sophistication probably unseen in world history before its time. The population soared to over 100 million and the living standards of common people improved tremendously due to improvements in rice cultivation and the wide availability of coal for production. The capital cities of Kaifeng and subsequently Hangzhou were both the most populous cities in the world for their time, and encouraged vibrant civil societies unmatched by previous Chinese dynasties. Although land trading routes to the far west were blocked by nomadic empires, there were extensive maritime trade with neighbouring states, which facilitated the use of Song coinage as the de facto currency of exchange. Giant wooden vessels equipped with compasses travelled throughout the China Seas and northern Indian Ocean. The concept of insurance was practised by merchants to hedge the risks of such long - haul maritime shipments. With prosperous economic activities, the historically first use of paper currency emerged in the western city of Chengdu, as a supplement to the existing copper coins.
The Song dynasty was considered to be the golden age of great advancements in science and technology of China, thanks to innovative scholar - officials such as Su Song (1020 -- 1101) and Shen Kuo (1031 -- 1095). Inventions such as the hydro - mechanical astronomical clock, the first continuous and endless power - transmitting chain, woodblock printing and paper money were all invented during the Song dynasty.
There was court intrigue between the political reformers and conservatives, led by the chancellors Wang Anshi and Sima Guang, respectively. By the mid-to - late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi. Enormous literary works were compiled during the Song dynasty, such as the historical work, the Zizhi Tongjian ("Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government ''). The invention of movable - type printing further facilitated the spread of knowledge. Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such as Along the River During the Qingming Festival and Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, along with great Buddhist painters such as the prolific Lin Tinggui.
The Song dynasty was also a period of major innovation in the history of warfare. Gunpowder, while invented in the Tang dynasty, was first put into use in battlefields by the Song army, inspiring a succession of new firearms and siege engines designs. During the Southern Song dynasty, as its survival hinged decisively on guarding the Yangtze and Huai River against the cavalry forces from the north, the first standing navy in China was assembled in 1132, with its admiral 's headquarters established at Dinghai. Paddle - wheel warships equipped with trebuchets could launch incendiary bombs made of gunpowder and lime, as recorded in Song 's victory over the invading Jin forces at the Battle of Tangdao in the East China Sea, and the Battle of Caishi on the Yangtze River in 1161.
The advances in civilization during the Song dynasty came to an abrupt end following the devastating Mongol conquest, during which the population sharply dwindled, with a marked contraction in economy. Despite viciously halting Mongol advance for more than three decades, the Southern Song capital Hangzhou fell in 1276, followed by the final annihilation of the Song standing navy at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.
The Yuan dynasty was formally proclaimed in 1271, when the Great Khan of Mongol, Kublai Khan, one of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, assumed the additional title of the Emperor of China, and considered his inherited part of the Mongol Empire as a Chinese dynasty. In the preceding decades, the Mongols had conquered the Jin dynasty in Northern China, and the Southern Song dynasty fell in 1279 after a protracted and bloody war. The Mongol Yuan dynasty became the first conquest dynasty in Chinese history to rule the entire China proper and its population as an ethnic minority. The dynasty also directly controlled the Mongolian heartland and other regions, inheriting the largest share of territory of the divided Mongol Empire, which roughly coincided with the modern area of China and nearby regions in East Asia. Further expansion of the empire was halted after defeats in the invasions of Japan and Vietnam. Following the previous Jin dynasty, the capital of Yuan dynasty was established at Khanbaliq (also known as Dadu, modern - day Beijing). The Grand Canal was reconstructed to connect the remote capital city to economic hubs in southern part of China, setting the precedence and foundation where Beijing would largely remain as the capital of the successive regimes that unified China mainland.
After the peace treaty in 1304 that ended a series of Mongols civil wars, the emperors of the Yuan dynasty were upheld as the nominal Great Khan (Khagan) of the greater Mongol Empire over other Mongol Khanates, which nonetheless remained de facto autonomous. The era was known as Pax Mongolica, when much of the Asian continent was ruled by the Mongols. For the first and only time in history, the silk road was controlled entirely by a single state, facilitating the flow of people, trade, and cultural exchange. Network of roads and a postal system were established to connect the vast empire. Lucrative maritime trade, developed from the previous Song dynasty, continued to flourish, with Quanzhou and Hangzhou emerging as the largest ports in the world. Adventurous travelers from the far west, most notably the Venetian, Marco Polo, would have settled in China for decades. Upon his return, his detail travel record inspired generations of medieval Europeans with the splendors of the far East. The Yuan dynasty was the first ancient economy, where paper currency, known at the time as Chao, was used as the predominant medium of exchange. Its unrestricted issuance in the late Yuan dynasty inflicted hyperinflation, which eventually brought the downfall of the dynasty.
While the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty adopted substantially to Chinese culture, their sinicization was of lesser extent compared to earlier conquest dynasties in Chinese history. For preserving racial superiority as the conqueror and ruling class, traditional nomadic customs and heritage from the Mongolian steppe were held in high regard. On the other hand, the Mongol rulers also adopted flexibly to a variety of cultures from many advanced civilizations within the vast empire. Traditional social structure and culture in China underwent immense transform during the Mongol dominance. Large group of foreign migrants settled in China, who enjoyed elevated social status over the majority Han Chinese, while enriching Chinese culture with foreign elements. The class of scholar officials and intellectuals, traditional bearers of elite Chinese culture, lost substantial social status. This stimulated the development of culture of the common folks. There were prolific works in zaju variety shows and literary songs (sanqu), which were written in a distinctive poetry style known as qu. Novels of vernacular style gained unprecedented status and popularity.
Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reported approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest had been completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people. This major decline is not necessarily due only to Mongol killings. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than an actual decrease; others such as Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols created a system of enserfment among a huge portion of the Chinese populace, causing many to disappear from the census altogether; other historians including William McNeill and David Morgan consider that plague was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period. In the 14th century China suffered additional depredations from epidemics of plague, estimated to have killed 25 million people, 30 % of the population of China.
Throughout the Yuan dynasty, there was some general sentiment among the populace against the Mongol dominance. Yet rather than the nationalist cause, it was mainly strings of natural disasters, and incompetence governance that triggered widespread peasant uprisings since the 1340s. After the massive naval engagement at Lake Poyang, Zhu Yuanzhang prevailed over other rebel forces in the south. He proclaimed himself emperor and founded the Ming dynasty in 1368. The same year his northern expedition army captured the capital Khanbaliq. The Yuan remnants fled back to Mongolia and sustained the regime. Other Mongol Khanates in Central Asia continued to exist after the fall of Yuan dynasty in China.
The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, who proclaimed himself as the Hongwu Emperor. The capital was initially set at Nanjing, and was later moved to Beijing from Yongle Emperor 's reign onward.
Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small - scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil.
Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the voyages of Zheng He.
Hongwu Emperor, being the only founder of Chinese dynasties from the peasant origin, had laid the foundation of a state that relied fundamentally in agriculture. Commerce and trade, which flourished in the previous Song and Yuan dynasties, were less emphasized. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of the Yongle Emperor, independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes. Towards later era of the Ming dynasty, with declining government control, commerce, trade and private industries revived.
The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor 's role became more autocratic, although Hongwu Emperor necessarily continued to use what he called the "Grand Secretariat '' to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline.
The Yongle Emperor strenuously tried to extend China 's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four - masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops (some estimate as many as 1.9 million) was created. The Chinese armies conquered and occupied Vietnam for around 20 years, while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in eastern Moghulistan. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded and became a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing 's Forbidden City reached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished.
In 1449 Esen Tayisi led an Oirat Mongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor at Tumu. Since then, the Ming became on the defensive on the northern frontier, which led to the Ming Great Wall being built. Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watchtowers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length.
At sea, the Ming became increasingly isolationist after the death of the Yongle Emperor. The treasure voyages which sailed Indian Ocean were discontinued, and the maritime prohibition laws were set in place banning the Chinese from sailing abroad. European traders who reached China in the midst of the Age of Discovery were repeatedly rebuked in their requests for trade, with the Portuguese being repulsed by the Ming navy at Tuen Mun in 1521 and again in 1522. Domestic and foreign demands for overseas trade, deemed illegal by the state, led to widespread wokou piracy attacking the southeastern coastline during the rule of the Jiajing Emperor (1507 -- 1567), which only subsided after the opening of ports in Guangdong and Fujian and much military suppression. The Portuguese were allowed to settle in Macau in 1557 for trade, which remained in Portuguese hands until 1999. The Dutch entry into the Chinese seas was also met with fierce resistance, with the Dutch being chased off the Penghu islands in the Sino - Dutch conflicts of 1622 -- 1624 and were forced to settle in Taiwan instead. The Dutch in Taiwan fought with the Ming in the Battle of Liaoluo Bay in 1633 and lost, and eventually surrendered to the Ming loyalist Koxinga in 1662, after the fall of the Ming dynasty.
In 1556, during the rule of the Jiajing Emperor, the Shaanxi earthquake killed about 830,000 people, the deadliest earthquake of all time.
The Ming dynasty intervened deeply in the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592 - 98), which ended with the withdrawal of all invading Japanese forces in Korea, and the restoration of the Joseon dynasty, its traditional ally and tributary state. The regional hegemony of the Ming dynasty was preserved at a toll on its resources. Coincidentally, with Ming 's control in Manchuria in decline, the Manchu (Jurchen) tribes, under their chieftain Nurhaci, broke away from Ming 's rule, and emerged as a powerful, unified state, which was later proclaimed as the Qing dynasty. It went on to subdue the much weakened Korea as its tributary, conquered Mongolia, and expanded its territory to the outskirt of the Great Wall. The most elite army of the Ming dynasty was to station at the Shanhai Pass to guard the last stronghold against the Manchus, which weakened its suppression of internal peasants uprisings.
The Qing dynasty (1644 -- 1911) was the last imperial dynasty in China. Founded by the Manchus, it was the second conquest dynasty to rule the entire territory of China and its people. The Manchus were formerly known as Jurchens, residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the Great Wall. They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming dynasty after Nurhaci united all Jurchen tribes and established an independent state. However, the Ming dynasty would be overthrown by Li Zicheng 's peasants rebellion, with Beijing captured in 1644 and the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming emperor, committing suicide. The Manchus allied with the former Ming general Wu Sangui to seize Beijing, which was made the capital of the Qing dynasty, and then proceeded to subdue the Ming remnants in the south. The decades of Manchu conquest caused enormous loss of lives and the economic scale of China shrank drastically. In total, the Qing conquest of the Ming (1618 -- 1683) cost as many as 25 million lives. Nevertheless, the Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule and were considered a Chinese dynasty.
The Manchus enforced a ' queue order, ' forcing the Han Chinese to adopt the Manchu queue hairstyle. Officials were required to wear Manchu - style clothing Changshan (bannermen dress and Tangzhuang), but ordinary Han civilians were allowed to wear traditional Han clothing, or Hanfu. Most Han then voluntarily shifted to wearing Qipao anyway. The Kangxi Emperor ordered the creation of the Kangxi Dictionary, the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters that had been compiled. The Qing dynasty set up the Eight Banners system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military organization. Bannermen could not undertake trade or manual labor; they had to petition to be removed from banner status. They were considered a form of nobility and were given preferential treatment in terms of annual pensions, land, and allotments of cloth.
Over the next half - century, all areas previously under the Ming dynasty were consolidated under the Qing. Xinjiang, Tibet, and Mongolia were also formally incorporated into Chinese territory. Between 1673 and 1681, the Kangxi Emperor suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, an uprising of three generals in Southern China who had been denied hereditary rule of large fiefdoms granted by the previous emperor. In 1683, the Qing staged an amphibious assault on southern Taiwan, bringing down the rebel Kingdom of Tungning, which was founded by the Ming loyalist Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) in 1662 after the fall of the Southern Ming, and had served as a base for continued Ming resistance in Southern China. The Qing defeated the Russians at Albazin, resulting in the Treaty of Nerchinsk.
By the end of Qianlong Emperor 's long reign, the Qing Empire was at its zenith. China ruled more than one - third of the world 's population, and had the largest economy in the world. By area it was one of the largest empires ever.
In the 19th century the empire was internally stagnant and externally threatened by western powers. The defeat by the British Empire in the First Opium War (1840) led to the Treaty of Nanking (1842), under which Hong Kong was ceded to Britain and importation of opium (produced by British Empire territories) was allowed. Subsequent military defeats and unequal treaties with other western powers continued even after the fall of the Qing dynasty.
Internally the Taiping Rebellion (1851 -- 1864), a quasi-Christian religious movement led by the "Heavenly King '' Hong Xiuquan, raided roughly a third of Chinese territory for over a decade until they were finally crushed in the Third Battle of Nanking in 1864. This was one of the largest wars in the 19th century in terms of troop involvement; there was massive loss of life, with a death toll of about 20 million. A string of civil disturbances followed, including the Punti -- Hakka Clan Wars, Nian Rebellion, Dungan Revolt, and Panthay Rebellion. All rebellions were ultimately put down, but at enormous cost and with millions dead, seriously weakening the central imperial authority. The Banner system that the Manchus had relied upon for so long failed: Banner forces were unable to suppress the rebels, and the government called upon local officials in the provinces, who raised "New Armies '', which successfully crushed the challenges to Qing authority. China never rebuilt a strong central army, and many local officials became warlords who used military power to effectively rule independently in their provinces.
In response to calamities within the empire and threats from imperialism, the Self - Strengthening Movement was an institutional reform in the second half of the 1800s. The aim was to modernize the empire, with prime emphasis on strengthening the military. However, the reform was undermined by corrupt officials, cynicism, and quarrels within the imperial family. As a result, the "Beiyang Fleet '' were soundly defeated in the First Sino - Japanese War (1894 -- 1895). The Guangxu Emperor and the reformists then launched a more comprehensive reform effort, the Hundred Days ' Reform (1898), but it was soon overturned by the conservatives under Empress Dowager Cixi in a military coup.
At the turn of the 20th century, the violent Boxer Rebellion opposed foreign influence in Northern China, and attacked Chinese Christians and missionaries. When Boxers entered Beijing, the Qing government ordered all foreigners to leave. But instead the foreigners and many Chinese were besieged in the foreign legations quarter. The Eight - Nation Alliance sent the Seymour Expedition of Japanese, Russian, Italian, German, French, American, and Austrian troops to relieve the siege. The Expedition was stopped by the Boxers at the Battle of Langfang and forced to retreat. Due to the Alliance 's attack on the Dagu Forts, the Qing government in response sided with the Boxers and declared war on the Alliance. There was fierce fighting at Tientsin. The Alliance formed the second, much larger Gaselee Expedition and finally reached Beijing; the Qing government evacuated to Xi'an. The Boxer Protocol ended the war.
Frustrated by the Qing court 's resistance to reform and by China 's weakness, young officials, military officers, and students began to advocate the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the creation of a republic. They were inspired by the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat - sen. A revolutionary military uprising, the Wuchang Uprising, began on 10 October 1911, in Wuhan. The provisional government of the Republic of China was formed in Nanjing on 12 March 1912. The Xinhai Revolution ended 2,000 years of dynastic rule in China.
After the success of the overthrow of the Qing dynasty, Sun Yat - sen was declared President, but Sun was forced to turn power over to Yuan Shikai, who commanded the New Army and was Prime Minister under the Qing government, as part of the agreement to let the last Qing monarch abdicate (a decision Sun would later regret). Over the next few years, Yuan proceeded to abolish the national and provincial assemblies, and declared himself emperor in late 1915. Yuan 's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates; faced with the prospect of rebellion, he abdicated in March 1916, and died in June of that year.
Yuan 's death in 1916 left a power vacuum in China; the republican government was all but shattered. This ushered in the Warlord Era, during which much of the country was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders.
In 1919, the May Fourth Movement began as a response to the terms imposed on China by the Treaty of Versailles ending World War I, but quickly became a nationwide protest movement about the domestic situation in China. The protests were a moral success as the cabinet fell and China refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which had awarded German holdings to Japan. The New Culture Movement stimulated by the May Fourth Movement waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s. According to Ebrey:
The discrediting of liberal Western philosophy amongst leftist Chinese intellectuals led to more radical lines of thought inspired by the Russian Revolution, and supported by agents of the Comintern sent to China by Moscow. This created the seeds for the irreconcilable conflict between the left and right in China that would dominate Chinese history for the rest of the century.
In the 1920s, Sun Yat - sen established a revolutionary base in south China, and set out to unite the fragmented nation. With assistance from the Soviet Union (itself fresh from a Lenin 's takeover), he entered into an alliance with the fledgling Communist Party of China. After Sun 's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, Chiang Kai - shek, seized control of the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party or KMT) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in a military campaign known as the Northern Expedition (1926 -- 1927). Having defeated the warlords in south and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CPC and relentlessly chased the CPC armies and its leaders from their bases in southern and eastern China. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the Chinese Soviet Republic, the CPC forces embarked on the Long March across China 's most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at Yan'an in Shaanxi Province. During the Long March, the communists reorganized under a new leader, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse - tung).
The bitter struggle between the KMT and the CPC continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14 - year - long Japanese occupation of various parts of the country (1931 -- 1945). The two Chinese parties nominally formed a united front to oppose the Japanese in 1937, during the Second Sino - Japanese War (1937 -- 1945), which became a part of World War II. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population, including biological warfare (see Unit 731) and the Three Alls Policy (Sankō Sakusen), the three alls being: "Kill All, Burn All and Loot All ''.
Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the Nationalist government forces and the CPC resumed, after failed attempts at reconciliation and a negotiated settlement. By 1949, the CPC had established control over most of the country (see Chinese Civil War). Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese Nationalism. During the civil war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides. These included deaths from forced conscription and massacres. When the Nationalist government forces were defeated by CPC forces in mainland China in 1949, the Nationalist government retreated to Taiwan with its forces, along with Chiang and most of the KMT leadership and a large number of their supporters; the Nationalist government had taken effective control of Taiwan at the end of WWII as part of the overall Japanese surrender, when Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to Republic of China troops.
Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with Kuomintang (KMT) pulling out of the mainland, with the government relocating to Taipei and maintaining control only over a few islands. The Communist Party of China was left in control of mainland China. On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People 's Republic of China. "Communist China '' and "Red China '' were two common names for the PRC.
The PRC was shaped by a series of campaigns and five - year plans. The economic and social plan known as the Great Leap Forward caused an estimated 45 million deaths. Mao 's government carried out mass executions of landowners, instituted collectivisation and implemented the Laogai camp system. Execution, deaths from forced labor and other atrocities resulted in millions of deaths under Mao. In 1966 Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, which continued until Mao 's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the Soviet Union, led to a major upheaval in Chinese society.
In 1972, at the peak of the Sino - Soviet split, Mao and Zhou Enlai met US president Richard Nixon in Beijing to establish relations with the United States. In the same year, the PRC was admitted to the United Nations in place of the Republic of China, with permanent membership of the Security Council.
A power struggle followed Mao 's death in 1976. The Gang of Four were arrested and blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, marking the end of a turbulent political era in China. Deng Xiaoping outmaneuvered Mao 's anointed successor chairman Hua Guofeng, and gradually emerged as the de facto leader over the next few years.
Deng Xiaoping was the Paramount Leader of China from 1978 to 1992, although he never became the head of the party or state, and his influence within the Party led the country to significant economic reforms. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens ' personal lives and the communes were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. This turn of events marked China 's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some as "market socialism '', and officially by the Communist Party of China as "Socialism with Chinese characteristics ''. The PRC adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982.
In 1989 the death of former general secretary Hu Yaobang helped to spark the Tiananmen Square protests of that year, during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when PLA troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, with many fatalities. This event was widely reported, and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the government. A filmed incident involving the "tank man '' was seen worldwide.
CPC general secretary and PRC President Jiang Zemin and PRC Premier Zhu Rongji, both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s. Under Jiang and Zhu 's ten years of administration, the PRC 's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2 %. The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.
Although the PRC needs economic growth to spur its development, the government began to worry that rapid economic growth was degrading the country 's resources and environment. Another concern is that certain sectors of society are not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC 's economic development; one example of this is the wide gap between urban and rural areas. As a result, under former CPC general secretary and President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao, the PRC initiated policies to address issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome was not known as of 2014. More than 40 million farmers were displaced from their land, usually for economic development, contributing to 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005. For much of the PRC 's population, living standards improved very substantially and freedom increased, but political controls remained tight and rural areas poor.
|
who has more trophies man united vs arsenal | Arsenal F.C. -- Manchester United F.C. Rivalry - wikipedia
The rivalry between Arsenal and Manchester United is a notable one in English football as both clubs are recognised for having great history and traditions. Although the two clubs have frequently been in the same division as each other since 1919, the rivalry was instigated in 1990, when a brawl resulted in both clubs having points deductions in the Football League First Division.
Many of the clashes between the two teams in the late 1990s and early 2000s have been due to the teams being fierce rivals in the Premier League and FA Cup. During this period, there was enmity between the two longest serving managers in Premier League history, Arsenal 's Arsène Wenger (1996 -- present) and United 's Sir Alex Ferguson (1986 -- 2013), and their former club captains Patrick Vieira and Roy Keane. Both managers spurred each other on for greater success, and the contests often involved on - field trouble -- seven red cards were shown in matches from February 1997 to February 2005. The league fixture in September 2003 was marred by a mêlée instigated by Arsenal players, who felt striker Ruud van Nistelrooy had cheated to get Vieira sent off. A season later, Manchester United ended Arsenal 's unbeaten run in controversial circumstances, which led to more disorder, this time in the tunnel.
The rivalry under Ferguson and Wenger is considered to have come to an natural end at the 2005 FA Cup Final, given the London club then underwent a period of transitional change. By 2008 former Arsenal player Lee Dixon noted that the rivalry had diminished somewhat, while Ferguson himself stated the two teams have cooled from those previously "heated '' exchanges. Various factors have been suggested for the diminishing importance of the rivalry in the 2010s, such as the ascendancy of other clubs including local rivals of both (Chelsea and Manchester City).
Arsenal and Manchester United first played a competitive match in October 1894; as of December 2017, the two clubs have faced each other 227 times in total. United have won 95 to Arsenal 's 82, and 50 matches have ended in a draw. Wayne Rooney has scored the most goals in the fixture with 12, while Ryan Giggs has made the highest number of appearances with 50. Several players have featured for both clubs at different stages of their career, including Brian Kidd, Andy Cole, David Platt, Robin van Persie, Danny Welbeck and former manager George Graham.
A particularly memorable match between the two sides came on 1 February 1958, when they met in a league fixture at Highbury. It was the last league game that United played before the Munich air disaster five days later, which claimed the lives of eight of their players and saw two other players injured to such an extent that they never played again. United won the game 5 -- 4, with goals from Tommy Taylor (twice), Duncan Edwards, Bobby Charlton and Dennis Viollet. Five of the United players who would lose their lives as a result of the crash took to the field in the game -- captain and full - back Roger Byrne, right - half Eddie Colman, centre - half Mark Jones, left - half Edwards and centre - forward Taylor.
Another high - profile clash came more than 20 years later, in the final of the FA Cup on 12 May 1979. A capacity crowd saw Arsenal take a 2 -- 0 lead in the first half thanks to goals from Brian Talbot and Frank Stapleton, and with just five minutes left on the clock their lead was still intact. Then, in the 86th minute, Gordon McQueen pulled a goal back for United, and two minutes later they equalised with a goal from Sammy McIlroy. However, barely a minute after United equalised, Arsenal 's Alan Sunderland scored an 89th - minute goal to win the cup 3 -- 2 for Arsenal.
Although Arsenal and Manchester United had previously contested many significant matches, Sir Alex Ferguson believed the rivalry started in January 1987 when David Rocastle was sent off for retaliating against a foul on Norman Whiteside. It is, however, generally perceived to have begun in October 1990, when a brawl between both sides at Old Trafford resulted in both clubs being docked points in the 1990 -- 91 First Division. The scuffle started when Arsenal 's Anders Limpar, who scored the only goal of the game, contested for the ball with Manchester United defender Denis Irwin. Limpar 's teammate Nigel Winterburn tackled Irwin, which prompted Brian McClair and Irwin to retaliate. Winterburn was pushed onto the advertising hoardings and all the players bar goalkeeper David Seaman partook in a 20 - second mêlée. As well as a points deduction, both clubs fined several of their players, and in Arsenal 's case, their manager too. Arsenal and United next faced each other at Highbury a little over a month later in the Football League Cup fourth round. 19 - year - old winger Lee Sharpe scored a hat - trick as United won the tie 6 -- 2.
The rivalry intensified following the arrival of Arsène Wenger in October 1996. A league match between the two sides in February 1997 was marred by an incident between Arsenal 's Ian Wright and United 's Peter Schmeichel; the striker challenged for the ball with both feet and caught the goalkeeper with his studs. A confrontation ensued and police stepped in to keep the players apart after the final whistle. Wright 's behaviour was scrutinised at a hearing, where he complained he was subject to racial abuse by Schmeichel, at which point the FA intervened and met with representatives of both clubs. In April 1997, Wright and Schmeichel settled their differences, but the managers ' animosity towards each other started to become apparent. Wenger had advised against the Premier League extending the season to ease Manchester United 's fixture congestion, to which Ferguson publicly retorted: "Maybe he should concentrate on Ian Wright 's tackles rather than Manchester United. He 's at a big club, well Arsenal used to be a big club, and maybe next year he could be in the same situation. I wonder what (h) is story will be then. ''
United had won four of the first five editions of the newly - branded league, and were on course to continue their domination after opening up a sizeable lead in February 1998. Injuries and poor results however destabilised the team, and by the time Arsenal visited Old Trafford in March, a title race was looking probable. Wenger was bullish of his team 's chances: "I told you last week that the race was not over when the bookmakers stopped betting. Surprise, surprise, they have started taking money again. '' A goal from Marc Overmars set Arsenal on the way to victory, which put them six points behind with three games in hand. They eventually won the league, and secured the double by beating Newcastle United in the Cup final.
Arsenal began the 1998 -- 99 season with a 3 -- 0 win over United in the Charity Shield; Ferguson was unconcerned by the result, but losing to the champions a month later by the same scoreline was, in his words, "a lot less tolerable. '' Both clubs again vied for domestic honours; United this time pipped Arsenal by a point to regain the title. They also met in the FA Cup semi-final, which was replayed after the original game ended goalless. David Beckham and Dennis Bergkamp scored for their respective clubs either side of half time, Roy Keane was dismissed, and the holders late on were awarded a penalty. Schmeichel saved Bergkamp 's attempt and the tie went into extra time. Ryan Giggs memorably scored the winner, picking up possession on the halfway line and dribbling past the entire Arsenal back line before shooting past David Seaman. "A match that had everything finished with a pitch invasion, sporadic fighting and David Beckham carried shoulder - high from the field '' wrote Matt Dickinson in The Times. United went on to complete the treble, winning the UEFA Champions League.
The rivalry continued into the new millennium, though Manchester United 's domestic grip tightened. They finished 18 points clear of Arsenal in 1999 -- 2000 and completed a hat - trick of titles the following season. Any indication United could be caught faded once Ferguson 's team resoundingly beat Arsenal 6 -- 1 in February 2001. Dwight Yorke scored a hat - trick, on a day Wenger fielded a relatively inexperienced centre - back pairing of Gilles Grimandi and Igors Stepanovs. At the end of the campaign, Ferguson announced his decision to retire. He reportedly sanctioned a bid to sign midfielder Patrick Vieira, who was upset at Arsenal 's transfer inactivity. The transfer never came through; Wenger blamed his rivals for "... approach (ing) to Patrick without contacting us, and that does not really respect the rules. '' United made an indifferent start to the league campaign, and by February 2002, Ferguson went back on his retirement plan on the advice of his family. Arsenal hit their stride as the 2001 -- 02 season came to a close, winning the double for the second time in four years. The championship was decided at Old Trafford in the penultimate game of the season; Wenger described his team 's 1 -- 0 win as a "shift of power. ''
United again won the title back in 2002 -- 03, when it looked as though Arsenal would retain it. A late - season encounter between the teams ended in controversial circumstances after the match officials allowed Thierry Henry 's second goal to stand despite the player being offside and Sol Campbell was sent off for an elbow on Ole Gunnar Solskjær in a 2 -- 2 draw. Arsenal had beaten United on the way to FA Cup success and both teams contested the 2003 FA Community Shield at the start of the 2003 -- 04 season. In a hotly - contested match, Phil Neville was booked in the first minute for a challenge on Vieira and a minute later, Ashley Cole received a booking for fouling Solskjær. Yellow cards were also given to Quinton Fortune and Paul Scholes for United and Vieira for Arsenal. Substitute Francis Jeffers was shown a straight red for a kick on Phil Neville and, despite originally going unpunished, Campbell was later given a three - match ban by the FA for kicking out at Eric Djemba - Djemba. The game finished 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and United eventually won the Shield 4 -- 3 on penalties.
The rivalry escalated in September 2003, when Arsenal travelled to Old Trafford. In the match Vieira was shown a second yellow card for his part in an altercation with striker Ruud van Nistelrooy, and during stoppage time, defender Martin Keown brought down Diego Forlán in the Arsenal penalty area. United were awarded a penalty and Van Nistelrooy stepped up to take it, but his shot rebounded off the crossbar. This was followed by scenes of jubilation from the Arsenal players, who confronted Van Nistelrooy after his miss and the resulting scuffle led to another fracas after the final whistle. The FA immediately took action, charging six of Arsenal 's players (Jens Lehmann, Ray Parlour, Lauren, Cole, Keown and Vieira) with improper conduct. The club was fined £ 175,000, the largest ever given to a club by the FA at the time. Lauren received a four - game ban, whereas Vieira and Parlour were given one - match suspensions.
The next game between these two clubs was held at Highbury in March 2004, again ending in a draw. Ferguson 's side then knocked Arsenal out of the FA Cup semi-final at Villa Park the following weekend; United supporters at the ground led a chorus of "Where 's your Treble gone? '' to their rivals. United went on to win the FA Cup, while Arsenal regained the title without losing a league game. They faced each other in the 2004 FA Community Shield and Arsenal won the match 3 -- 1.
By the time Arsenal next played Manchester United, the club had extended its unbeaten league run to 49 games. United stood in sixth place in the table, 11 points behind Arsenal and were intent on ending their rivals ' undefeated streak. Ferguson in his press conference described Arsenal 's conduct in the equivalent fixture a year ago as "... the worst thing I 've seen in this sport. No wonder they were so delighted at the verdicts. ''
The October 2004 league match, staged at Old Trafford, was blighted by a number of fouls, overlooked by referee Mike Riley, including striker Van Nistelrooy 's studs - up challenge on Cole. Arsenal dictated much of the play, but as the game headed towards the finish, United threatened. The home side were awarded a penalty when Wayne Rooney was adjudged to have been fouled in the area by Campbell. Van Nistelrooy scored and late in the game Rooney scored to give United a 2 -- 0 win. Tempers flared in the tunnel afterwards; Wenger confronted Van Nistelrooy for his tackle on Cole, but Ferguson intervened and told him to leave his players alone. Pizza was thrown at Ferguson by an Arsenal player, which forced him to change into the club tracksuit in order to carry out his television duties. An investigation into "Pizzagate '' never came around as both clubs kept silent.
The clubs met again five weeks later in the League Cup quarter - finals at Old Trafford and despite both sides fielding weakened teams, the match was not short of drama. David Bellion gave United the lead in just 19 seconds, but tempers boiled over in the second half; a late tackle by Robin van Persie on Kieran Richardson resulted in a fracas between both sets of players, which concluded with both protagonists getting booked by referee Mark Halsey. The game finished 1 -- 0. In the reverse league fixture, club captains Keane and Vieira had to be separated in the tunnel before the match by referee Graham Poll. Keane accused the Arsenal midfielder of intimidating his teammate Gary Neville, telling the press afterwards: "I said, ' Come and have a go at me '. Simple as that. If he wants to intimidate some of my team - mates then let 's have a go at some of the other players. I think Gary Neville 's an easy target. I was n't having it. '' Vieira gave Arsenal the lead in the eighth minute of the match but United ran out 4 -- 2 winners.
In May 2005, Arsenal and United contested the 124th FA Cup Final. It was the first time in the competition 's history that the final was decided on a penalty shoot - out. Arsenal beat United 5 -- 4, following a goalless draw after extra time. Arsenal forward José Antonio Reyes became the second player in Cup Final history to be sent off, following his second yellow card near the end of extra time.
Chelsea 's emergence as title challengers put an end to Arsenal and Manchester United 's domestic duopoly. The West London club won back - to - back league titles in 2004 -- 05 and 2005 -- 06 under José Mourinho, at a time when Arsenal and United underwent a period of transition. Vieira and Keane had left their respective clubs by the end of 2005, while Ferguson came under intense scrutiny over his management. Nevertheless, he guided his team to Premier League success in 2006 -- 07, and won a further four league titles. At Arsenal, Wenger oversaw the club 's relocation to the Emirates Stadium and made the decision to prioritise it over strengthening the squad. The club sold several experienced players, replenishing them with younger talent. The 2005 Cup win was their last piece of silverware until 2014.
Though the rivalry cooled, the two clubs were still involved in engrossing battles; The Guardian 's Jamie Jackson wrote after a November 2007 fixture: "For once here was enough spectacle to meet the pre-match hype and convince the millions watching around the world that the Premier League may just have the best footballers who can play the very best stuff. '' In 2009, the teams met in the semi-finals of the 2008 -- 09 UEFA Champions League, which United won 4 -- 1 on aggregate. United defender Patrice Evra was blunt in his post-match assessment: "It was 11 men against 11 children. We never doubted ourselves. We have much more experience and that 's what made the difference. ''
In December 2010, Ferguson made a personal plea to the United fans to no longer sing a "sick '' chant at Wenger, as those kind of chants from fans were considered an embarrassment to the club. With both teams going for the Premier League title in May 2011, Arsenal won their first game against Manchester United since November 2008, to leave United just three points ahead of Chelsea and six ahead of Arsenal going into the final three games of the season. Nevertheless, United won the league, nine points ahead of Chelsea and 12 points ahead of Arsenal.
In August 2011, Arsenal suffered their heaviest league defeat in 84 years as they lost 8 -- 2 to Manchester United at Old Trafford. Arsenal had not lost a league game by such a margin since 1927 when they lost 7 -- 0 to West Ham United in the old Football League First Division. This was also the first time they had conceded eight goals in a game since 1896, when they lost 8 -- 0 to the now defunct Loughborough in the old Football League Second Division. A year later, striker Robin van Persie joined United, having stated that he would not renew his contract with Arsenal. It was speculated that he would move to a club overseas, but signed for the Manchester club, the first Arsenal player to do so since Viv Anderson in 1987. Ferguson called Wenger to push through a deal when he learnt of the contract situation. Van Persie was instrumental in United 's league win of 2012 -- 13 -- Ferguson 's last, and coincidentally received a guard of honour by his former teammates before United faced Arsenal at the Emirates in April 2013.
The appointment of Mourinho as United manager in 2016 added a new twist to the rivalry, given the previous animosity between him and Wenger. Sports writer Daniel Taylor however argued that Wenger 's stagnation hindered any confrontations between the two managers, writing: "Ferguson stopped aiming his barbs at Wenger once it became clear his old enemy was no longer capable of producing title - winning teams and it does n't feel like a coincidence that Mourinho also seems indifferent now that Arsenal have dropped even further back. '' Former midfielder Phil Neville criticised the players for hugging in the tunnel before a league fixture in May 2017, calling the pleasantries a "total nonsense ''. In December 2017 analysts calculated the league fixture between the two sides as the Premier League 's first billion pound game.
It was not until Wenger 's arrival in October 1996 that Arsenal reemerged as a serious league competitor. By the end of the 1996 -- 97 season, Manchester United amassed their fourth title in five seasons, whereas Arsenal finished the campaign in third -- their highest position since the formation of the Premier League in 1992. During the season, Wenger commented on rule changes which permitted an extension to the league calendar: "It 's wrong the programme is extended so Manchester United can rest and win everything. '' His observation irked Ferguson, who replied: "He has no experience of English football. He has come here from Japan, and now he is telling everyone how to organise our football. Unless you have been in the situation and had the experience then he should keep his mouth shut, firmly shut. ''
The relationship between both managers was evidently hostile to begin with. Ferguson noted that Wenger was the only manager he came across in the league not to share a drink with after matches -- an English football "tradition ''. In a joint interview with The Times and Daily Mail in 2009, Wenger said his discourtesy was mistaken for mistrust and managers "can not be completely friendly and open up. '' When asked if this was the reason he avoided the post-match drink, he replied: "Most of the time, yes. What can you say if you have won? And if you have lost all you want to do is get home and prepare for the next game. ''
In January 2005, Ferguson and Wenger were embroiled in a new row over what had happened in the tunnel after Pizzagate. Ferguson alleged that Wenger called his players "cheats '' and never apologised for his team 's behaviour: "It 's a disgrace, but I do n't expect Wenger to ever apologise, he 's that type of person. '' Wenger then claimed Ferguson was guilty of bringing the game into disrepute; he told reporters that he "will never answer any questions any more about this man, '' but went further to question the motive of the press: "What I do n't understand is that he does what he wants and you are all at his feet. '' Both managers came under pressure from the Metropolitan Police Service, then Sports Minister Richard Caborn and Premier League chairman Richard Scudamore to put an end to the bickering. Ferguson and Wenger agreed to tone down their words, in an attempt to defuse the rivalry. In later years, Ferguson said Arsenal 's defeat "scrambled Arsène 's brain '' and caused their relationship to breakdown for almost five years.
The two managers have "exchanged some of football 's best and bitterest verbal swipes, '' according to The Daily Telegraph. In 1997, Ferguson called Wenger a "novice '' for complaining about the fixture programme and later said of his linguistic skills: "They say he 's an intelligent man, right? Speaks five languages! I 've got a 15 - year - old boy from the Ivory Coast who speaks five languages! '' After Arsenal 's defeat to Manchester United in February 1997 -- a match marred by a bust up between Wright and Schmeichel, Wenger referred to Ferguson 's interference: "I was surprised to see Ferguson on the pitch because you can only play eleven. '' When Ferguson asserted that his team played the best football in England during the 2001 -- 02 season, Wenger quipped: "Everyone thinks they have the prettiest wife at home, '' a subtle remark that Ferguson initially suspected was a taunt at his own wife Cathy.
Such was the media 's fascination of both managers ' insults towards one another, psychologists were brought in to read and contrast their personalities. John Kramer, a sports psychologist suggested in 2004 that Ferguson and Wenger used their rivalry in order to relax before an important match. To him, Ferguson was "... the past master in terms of creating an environment of keeping his players hungry '' by using a persecution complex; Wenger on the other hand diffuses the psychology and would rather "... tell his players they are all superb and will attempt to create an environment where they are able to show off their skills without the rest of it. '' Kramer concluded that both managers ' comments "add (s) to the drama '', but was insignificant in the games between the two clubs.
Ferguson in his autobiography said a major turning point in his relationship with Wenger was after the Champions League semi-final of 2009; the Arsenal manager invited his competitor into the dressing room and congratulated him on United 's win. Wenger admitted their relationship had become genial since his team stopped competing with Manchester United for trophies. The move to the Emirates Stadium in 2006 is often cited as the reason why, given it coincided with a transitional phase for the club. Several experienced first teamers were displaced in favour of youth and the style of football became shifted more towards ball retention. Ferguson assessed the change in philosophy proved that Wenger did not "like to blend them too much with older players; '' he also felt the team lacked a much needed balance between attack and defence.
The growth of the rivalry during the 1990s attracted the attention of broadcasters and has led to fixtures being rescheduled from the 3pm blackout period to primetime viewing in the United Kingdom. League matches are often broadcast on Sky Sports -- once as early as 11: 15am, while cup games have aired on mainstream channels, BBC One and ITV. At the height of the rivalry, the games on Sky had been billed as title deciders, and play was summarised by Martin Tyler and Andy Gray. The April 2003 match at Highbury, advertised as "Face Off '', was seen by a British audience of 3.4 million, while the 2005 Cup final was watched by more than 480 million viewers worldwide.
In August 1999, the two sides participated in the world 's first interactive football match, and 11 years later featured in the world 's first 3D TV sports broadcast -- both events trialled by Sky. To commemorate the 80th anniversary of the first radio football commentary, the BBC reintroduced its "grid system '' to help listeners visualise the action between Arsenal and Manchester United in January 2007. Musician David Gray was enlisted as guest summariser, with John Murray describing the action and James Alexander Gordon calling out the grid numbers to explain where the ball was.
The rivalry was explored in an ITV4 special, Keane & Vieira: Best of Enemies, first broadcast in December 2013. The documentary saw the former captains discussing about their relationship, views on their respective managers and what they thought of each other.
Arsenal, then Manchester United
Manchester United, then Arsenal
Note: David Platt never played a senior game for United, Jim Leighton never played a senior game for Arsenal.
All figures are correct as of the match played on 3 December 2017.
General
Specific
|
most abundant non metal in the earth's crust | Abundance of elements in Earth 's crust - wikipedia
The abundance of elements in Earth 's crust is shown in tabulated form with the estimated crustal abundance for each chemical element shown as either percentage or parts per million (ppm) by mass (10,000 ppm = 1 %).
|
the cabinet of the communist party as developed in the soviet union is generally known as the | Communist party of the Soviet Union - wikipedia
The Communist Party of the Soviet Union was the founding and ruling political party of the Soviet Union. The CPSU was the sole governing party of the Soviet Union until 1990, when the Congress of People 's Deputies modified the article of the constitution which had granted the CPSU a monopoly over the political system. The party was founded in 1912 by the Bolsheviks (a faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, RSDLP), a revolutionary group led by Vladimir Lenin, which seized power in the aftermath of the October Revolution of 1917. The party was dissolved on 29 August 1991 on Soviet territory soon after a failed coup d'état and was completely outlawed on 6 November 1991 in Russian territory.
The CPSU was a communist party organized on the basis of democratic centralism, a principle conceived by Lenin that entails democratic and open discussion of policy issues within the party followed by the requirement of total unity in upholding the agreed policies. The highest body within the CPSU was the party Congress, which convened every five years. When the Congress was not in session, the Central Committee was the highest body. Because the Central Committee met twice a year, most day - to - day duties and responsibilities were vested in the Politburo, the Secretariat and the Orgburo (until 1952). The party leader was the head of government and held the office of either General Secretary, Premier or head of state, or some of the three offices concurrently -- but never all three at the same time. The party leader was the de facto chairman of the CPSU Politburo and chief executive of the Soviet Union. The tension between the party and the state (Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union) for the shifting focus of power was never formally resolved, but in reality the party dominated and a paramount leader always existed (first Lenin and thereafter the General Secretary).
After the founding of the Soviet Union in 1922, Lenin had introduced a mixed economy, commonly referred to as the New Economic Policy, which allowed for capitalist practices to resume under the Communist Party dictation in order to develop the necessary conditions for socialism to become a practical pursuit in the economically undeveloped country. In 1929, as Joseph Stalin became the leader of the party, Marxism -- Leninism, a fusion of the original ideas of Karl Marx and Lenin, became formalized as the party 's guiding ideology and would remain so throughout the rest of its existence. The party pursued state socialism, under which all industries were nationalized and a planned economy was implemented. After recovering from the Second World War, reforms were implemented which decentralized economic planning and liberalized Soviet society in general. By 1980, various factors, including the ongoing nuclear arms race with the United States and unaddressed inefficiencies in the economy, led to stagnant economic growth and growing disillusionment. After Mikhail Gorbachev assumed leadership in 1985, rapid steps were taken to transform the economic system in the direction of a market economy once again. Gorbachev and his allies envisioned the introduction of an economy similar to Lenin 's New Economic Policy through a program of perestroika, or restructuring, but their reforms along with the institution of free multiparty elections led to a decline in the party 's power, and after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the banning of the party by Boris Yeltsin.
A number of causes contributed to CPSU 's loss of control and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Some historians have written that Gorbachev 's policy of glasnost (political openness) was the root cause, noting that it weakened the party 's control over society. Gorbachev maintained that perestroika without glasnost was doomed to failure anyway. Others have blamed the economic stagnation and subsequent loss of faith by the general populace in communist ideology. In the final years of the CPSU 's existence, the Communist Parties of the federal subjects of Russia were united into the Communist Party of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. After the CPSU 's demise, the Communist Parties of the Union Republics became independent and underwent various paths of reform. In Russia, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation emerged and has been regarded as the inheritor of the CPSU 's legacy into the present day.
The origin of the CPSU was in the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Party, which, under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, left the party in January 1912 to form a new party at the Prague Party Conference, called the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (bolsheviks) -- or RSDLP (b). Prior to the February Revolution of 1917, the party worked underground as organized anti-Tsarist groups. By the time of the revolution, many of the party 's central leaders, including Lenin, were in exile.
With Tsar Nicholas II deposed in February 1917, a republic was established and administered by a provisional government, which was largely dominated by the interests of the former nobility. Alongside it, grassroots general assemblies spontaneously formed, called soviets, and a dual - power structure between the soviets and the provisional government was in place until such a time that their differences would be reconciled in a post-provisional government. Lenin was at this time in exile in Switzerland where he, with other dissidents in exile, managed to arrange safe passage back to Russia through the continent amidst the ongoing war. In April, Lenin arrived in Petrograd and condemned the provisional government, calling for the advancement of the revolution towards the transformation of the ongoing war into a war of the working class against capitalism. The revolution did in fact prove to not yet be over, as tensions between the social forces aligned with the soviets and those with the provisional government came into explosive tensions during that summer.
The Bolsheviks had rapidly increased their political presence from May onward through the popularity of their programme, notably calling for an immediate end to the war, land reform for the peasants, and restoring food allocation to the urban population. This programme was translated to the masses through simple slogans that patiently explained their solution to each crisis the revolution created. Up to July these policies were disseminated through 41 publications, Pravda being the main paper, with a readership of 320,000. This was roughly halved after the repression of the Bolsheviks following the July Days demonstrations so that even by the end of August the principal paper of the Bolsheviks had a print run of only 50,000 copies. Despite this their ideas gained them increasing popularity in elections to the soviets.
The factions within the soviets became increasingly polarized in the later summer after armed demonstrations by soldiers at the call of the Bolsheviks and an attempted military coup to eliminate socialists from the provisional government. As the general consensus within the soviets moved leftward, less militant forces began to abandon them, leaving the Bolsheviks in a stronger position. By October, the Bolsheviks were demanding the full transfer of power to the soviets and for total rejection of the provisional government 's legitimacy. The provisional government, insistent on maintaining the universally despised war effort, had become socially isolated and had no enthusiastic support on the streets. On 7 November (25 October, old style), the Bolsheviks led an armed insurrection which overthrew the provisional government and left the soviets as the sole governing force in Russia.
In the aftermath of the October Revolution, the soviets united federally and the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the world 's first constitutionally socialist state, was established. The Bolsheviks were the majority within the soviets and began to fulfill their campaign promises by signing a peace treaty to end the war and transferring estates and imperial lands to workers ' and peasants ' soviets. In this context, in 1918, RSDLP (b) became All - Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks). Outside of Russia, social - democrats who supported the soviet government began to identify as communists while those who opposed it retained the social - democratic label.
In 1921, as the Civil War was drawing to a close, Lenin proposed the New Economic Policy (NEP), a system of state capitalism that started the process of industrialization and post-war recovery. The NEP ended a brief period of intense rationing called "war communism '' and began a period of a market economy under Communist dictation. The Bolsheviks believed at this time that Russia, being among the most economically undeveloped and socially backward countries in Europe, had not yet reached the necessary conditions of development for socialism to become a practical pursuit and that this would have to wait for such conditions to arrive under capitalist development as had been achieved in more advanced countries such as England and Germany. On 30 December 1922, the Russian SFSR joined former territories of the Russian Empire to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, of which Lenin was elected leader. On 9 March 1923, Lenin suffered a stroke, which incapacitated him and effectively ended his role in government. He died on 21 January 1924, only thirteen months after the founding of the Soviet Union, of which he would become regarded as the founding father.
After Lenin 's death, a power struggle ensued between Joseph Stalin, the party 's General Secretary, and Leon Trotsky, the Minister of Defence, each with highly contrasting visions for the future direction of the country. Trotsky sought to implement a policy of permanent revolution, which was predicated on the notion that the Soviet Union would not be able to survive in a socialist character when surrounded by hostile governments and therefore concluded that it was necessary to actively support similar revolutions in the more advanced capitalist countries. Stalin, however, argued that such a foreign policy would not be feasible with the capabilities then possessed by the Soviet Union and that it would invite the country 's destruction by engaging in armed conflict. Rather, Stalin argued that the Soviet Union should in the meantime pursue peaceful coexistence and invite foreign investment in order to develop the country 's economy and build socialism in one country.
Ultimately, Stalin gained the greatest support within the party, and Trotsky, who was increasingly viewed as a collaborator with outside forces in an effort to depose Stalin, was isolated and subsequently expelled from the party and exiled from the country in 1928. Stalin 's policies henceforth would later become collectively known as Stalinism. In 1925, the name of the party was changed to the All - Union Communist Party (bolsheviks), reflecting that the republics outside of Russia proper were no longer part of an all - encompassing Russian state. The acronym was usually transliterated as VKP (b), or sometimes VCP (b). Stalin sought to formalize the party 's ideological outlook into a philosophical hybrid of the original ideas of Lenin with classical Marxism into what would be called Marxism -- Leninism. Stalin 's position as General Secretary became the top executive position within the party, giving Stalin significant authority over party and state policy.
By the end of the 1920s, diplomatic relations with western countries were deteriorating to the point that there was growing fear of another allied attack on the Soviet Union. Within the country, the conditions of the NEP had enabled growing inequalities between increasingly wealthy strata and the remaining poor. The combination of these tensions led the party leadership to conclude that it was necessary for the government 's survival to pursue a new policy that would centralize economic activity and accelerate industrialization. To do this, the first five - year plan was implemented in 1928. The plan doubled the industrial workforce, proletarianizing many of the peasants by removing them from their land and assembling them into urban centers. Peasants who remained in agricultural work were also made to have a similarly proletarian relationship to their labor through the policies of collectivization, which turned feudal - style farms into collective farms which would be in a cooperative nature under the direction of the state. These two shifts changed the base of Soviet society towards a more working class alignment. The plan was fulfilled ahead of schedule in 1932.
The success of industrialization in the Soviet Union led western countries, such as the United States, to open diplomatic relations with the Soviet government. In 1933, after years of unsuccessful workers ' revolutions (including a short - lived Bavarian Soviet Republic) and spiraling economic calamity, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, violently suppressing the revolutionary organizers and posing a direct threat to the Soviet Union that ideologically supported them. The threat of fascist sabotage and immanent attack greatly exacerbating the already existing tensions within the Soviet Union and the Communist Party. A wave of paranoia overtook Stalin and the party leadership and spread through Soviet society. Seeing potential enemies everywhere, leaders of the government security apparatuses began severe crackdowns known as the Great Purge. In total, hundreds of thousands of people, many of whom were posthumously recognized as innocent, were arrested and either sent to prison camps or executed. Also during this time, a campaign against religion was waged in which the Russian Orthodox Church, which had long been a political arm of tsarism before the revolution, was targeted for repression and organized religion was generally removed from public life and made into a completely private matter, with many churches, mosques and other shrines being repurposed or demolished.
The Soviet Union was the first to warn of impending danger of invasion from Nazi Germany to the international community. The western powers, however, remained committed to maintaining peace and avoiding another war breaking out, many considering the Soviet Union 's warnings to be an unwanted provocation. While the western governments were mostly committed to neutrality, many western capitalists, notably including the Rockefellers, secured lucrative business deals with the fascist regimes and had direct interests in maintaining them. After many unsuccessful attempts to create an anti-fascist alliance among the western countries, including trying to rally international support for the Spanish Republic in its struggle against a fascist military dictatorship supported by Germany and Italy, in 1939 the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany which would be broken in June 1941 when the German military invading the Soviet Union in the largest land invasion in history, beginning the Great Patriotic War.
The Communist International was dissolved in 1943 after it was concluded that such an organization had failed to prevent the rise of fascism and the global war necessary to defeat it. After the 1945 Allied victory of World War II, the Party held to a doctrine of establishing socialist governments in the post-war occupied territories that would be administered by Communists loyal to Stalin 's administration. The party also sought to expand its sphere of influence beyond the occupied territories, using proxy wars and espionage and providing training and funding to promote Communist elements abroad, leading to the establishment of the Cominform in 1947.
In 1949, the Communists emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil War, causing an extreme shift in the global balance of forces and greatly escalating tensions between the Communists and the western powers, fueling the Cold War. In Europe, Yugoslavia, under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, acquired the territory of Trieste, causing conflict both with the western powers and with the Stalin administration who opposed such a provocative move. Furthermore, the Yugoslav Communists actively supported the Greek Communists during their civil war, further frustrating the Soviet government. These tensions led to a Tito -- Stalin Split which marked the beginning of international sectarian division within the world communist movement.
After Stalin 's death, Khrushchev rose to the top post by overcoming political adversaries, including Lavrentiy Beria and Georgy Malenkov, in a power struggle. In 1955, Khrushchev achieved the demotion of Malenkov and secured his own position as Soviet leader. Early in his rule and with the support of several members of the Presidium, Khrushchev initiated the Thaw, which effectively ended the Stalinist mass terror of the prior decades and reduced socio - economic oppression considerably. At the 20th Congress held in 1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin 's crimes, being careful to omit any reference to complicity by any sitting Presidium members. His economic policies, while bringing about improvements, were not enough to fix the fundamental problems of the Soviet economy. The standard of living for ordinary citizens did increase; 108 million people moved into new housing between 1956 and 1965.
Khrushchev 's foreign policies led to the Sino - Soviet split, in part a consequence of his public denunciation of Stalin. Khrushchev improved relations with Josip Broz Tito 's League of Communists of Yugoslavia but failed to establish the close, party - to - party relations that he wanted. While the Thaw reduced political oppression at home, it led to unintended consequences abroad, such as the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and unrest in Poland, where the local citizenry now felt confident enough to rebel against Soviet control. Khrushchev also failed to improve Soviet relations with the West, partially because of a hawkish military stance. In the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Khrushchev 's position within the party was substantially weakened. Shortly before his eventual ousting he tried to introduce economic reforms championed by Evsei Liberman, a Soviet economist, which tried to implement market mechanisms into the planned economy.
Khrushchev was ousted on 14 October 1964 in a Central Committee plenum that officially cited his inability to listen to others, his failure in consulting with the members of the Presidium, his establishment of a cult of personality, his economic mismanagement, and his anti-party reforms as the reasons he was no longer fit to remain as head of the party. He was succeeded in office by Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Chairman of the Council of Ministers.
The Brezhnev era began with a rejection of Khrushchevism in virtually every arena except one; continued opposition to Stalinist methods of terror and political violence. Khrushchev 's policies were criticized as voluntarism and the Brezhnev period saw the rise of neo-Stalinism. While Stalin was never rehabilitated during this period, the most conservative journals in the country were allowed to highlight positive features of his rule.
At the 23rd Congress held in 1966, the names of the office of First Secretary and the body of the Presidium reverted to their original names: General Secretary and Politburo, respectively. At the start of his premiership, Kosygin experimented with economic reforms similar to those championed by Malenkov, including prioritizing light industry over heavy industry to increase the production of consumer goods. Similar reforms were introduced in Hungary under the name New Economic Mechanism; however, with the rise to power of Alexander Dubček in Czechoslovakia, who called for the establishment of "socialism with a human face '', all non-conformist reform attempts in the Soviet Union were stopped.
During his rule, Brezhnev supported détente, a passive weakening of animosity with the West with the goal of improving political and economic relations. However, by the 25th Congress held in 1976, political, economic and social problems within the Soviet Union began to mount and the Brezhnev administration found itself in an increasingly difficult position. The previous year, Brezhnev 's health began to deteriorate. He became addicted to painkillers and needed to take increasingly more potent medications to attend official meetings. Because of the "trust in cadres '' policy implemented by his administration, the CPSU leadership evolved into a gerontocracy. At the end of Brezhnev 's rule, problems continued to amount; in 1979 he consented to the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan to save the embattled communist regime there and supported the oppression of the Solidarity movement in Poland. As problems grew at home and abroad, Brezhnev was increasingly ineffective in responding to the growing criticism of the Soviet Union by Western leaders, most prominently by US Presidents Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan, and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. The CPSU, which had wishfully interpreted the financial crisis of the 1970s as the beginning of the end of capitalism, found its country falling far behind the West in its economic development. Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982, and was succeeded by Yuri Andropov on 12 November.
Andropov, a staunch anti-Stalinist, chaired the KGB during most of Brezhnev 's reign. He had appointed several reformers to leading positions in the KGB, many of whom later became leading officials under Gorbachev. Andropov supported increased openness in the press, particularly regarding the challenges facing the Soviet Union. Andropov was in office briefly, but he appointed a number of reformers, including Yegor Ligachev, Nikolay Ryzhkov and Mikhail Gorbachev, to important positions. He also supported a crackdown on absenteeism and corruption. Andropov had intended to let Gorbachev succeed him in office, but Konstantin Chernenko and his supporters suppressed the paragraph in the letter which called for Gorbachev 's elevation. Andropov died on 9 February 1984 and was succeeded by Chernenko. Throughout his short leadership, Chernenko was unable to consolidate power and effective control of the party organization remained in Gorbachev 's control. Chernenko died on 10 March 1985 and was succeeded in office by Gorbachev on 11 March 1985.
Gorbachev was elected CPSU General Secretary on 11 March 1985, one day after Chernenko 's death. When he acceded, the Soviet Union was stagnating but was stable and may have continued largely unchanged into the 21st century if not for Gorbachev 's reforms.
Gorbachev conducted a significant personnel reshuffling of the CPSU leadership, forcing old party conservatives out of office. In 1985 and early 1986, the new party leadership called for uskoreniye (Russian: acceleration). Gorbachev reinvigorated the party ideology by adding new concepts and updating older ones. A positive consequence of this was the allowance of "pluralism of thought '' and a call for the establishment of "socialist pluralism '' (literally, socialist democracy). He introduced a policy of glasnost (Russian: openness, transparency) in 1986, which led to a wave of unintended democratization. According to Russian scholar Archie Brown, the democratization of the Soviet Union brought mixed blessings to Gorbachev; it helped him to weaken his conservative opponents within the party but brought out accumulated grievances which had been oppressed during the previous decades.
In reaction to these changes, a conservative movement gained momentum in 1987 in response to Boris Yeltsin 's dismissal as First Secretary of the CPSU Moscow City Committee. On 13 March 1988, Nina Andreyeva, a university lecturer, wrote an article titled "I Cannot Forsake My Principles ''. The publication was planned to occur when both Gorbachev and his protege Alexander Yakovlev were visiting foreign countries. In their place, Yegor Ligachev led the party organization and told journalists that the article was "a benchmark for what we need in our ideology today ''. Upon Gorbachev 's return, the article was discussed at length during a Politburo meeting; it was revealed that nearly half of its members were sympathetic to the letter and opposed further reforms which could weaken the party. The meeting lasted for two days, but on 5 April, a Politburo resolution responded with a point - by - point rebuttal to Andreyeva 's article.
Gorbachev convened the 19th Party Conference in June 1988. He criticized leading party conservatives Ligachev, Andrei Gromyko and Mikhail Solomentsev. In turn, conservative delegates attacked Gorbachev and the reformers. According to Brown, there had not been as much open discussion and dissent at a party meeting since the early 1920s.
Despite the deep - seated opposition for further reform, the CPSU was still hierarchical; the conservatives acceded to Gorbachev 's demands because he was the CPSU General Secretary. The 19th Conference approved the establishment of the Congress of People 's Deputies (CPD) and allowed for contested elections between the CPSU and independent candidates. Organized parties were not allowed. The CPD was elected in 1989; one - third of the seats were appointed by the CPSU and other public organizations to sustain the Soviet one - party state. The elections were democratic but most elected CPD members were against any more radical reform. The elections marked the highest electoral turnout in Russian history; no election before or since had a higher participation rate. An organized opposition was established within the legislature under the name Inter-Regional Group of Deputies. An unintended consequence of these reforms was the increased anti-CPSU pressure; in March 1990 at a session of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the party was forced to relinquish its political monopoly of power, in effect turning the Soviet Union into a liberal democracy.
The CPSU 's demise began in March 1990, when party elements were eclipsed in power by state bodies. From then until the Soviet Union 's disestablishment, Gorbachev ruled the country through the newly created post of President of the Soviet Union. Following this, the central party apparatus played little practical role in Soviet affairs. Gorbachev had become independent from the Politburo and faced few constraints from party leaders. In the summer of 1990, the party convened the 28th Congress. A new Politburo was elected, previous incumbents except Gorbachev and Vladimir Ivashko, the CPSU Deputy General Secretary were removed. Later that year, the party began work on a new program with a working title, "Towards a Humane, Democratic Socialism ''. According to Brown, the program reflected Gorbachev 's journey from an orthodox communist to a European social democrat. The freedoms of thought and organization, which were allowed by Gorbachev, led to a rise in nationalism in the Soviet republics, indirectly weakening the central authorities. In response to this, a referendum was held in 1991, in which most of the union republics voted to preserve the union in a different form. In reaction to this, conservative elements within the CPSU launched the August 1991 coup, which overthrew Gorbachev but failed to preserve the Soviet Union. When Gorbachev returned after the coup 's collapse, he resigned from the CPSU and operations were handed over to Ivashko. The CPSU was outlawed on 29 August 1991 on Soviet territory, extended its further ban on 6 November on Russian soil by Yeltsin and Gorbachev resigned from the presidency on 25 December; the following day the Soviet Union was dissolved.
On 30 November 1992; the Russian Constitutional Court not only upheld this decree, but barred the CPSU from ever being refounded. It accepted Yeltsin 's argument that the CPSU was not a true party, but a criminal organisation that had ruled the Soviet Union as a dictatorship in violation of the Soviet Constitution.
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russian adherents to the CPSU tradition, particularly as it existed before Gorbachev, reorganised themselves as the Communist Party of the Russian Federation. Today there is a widespread flora of parties in Russia claiming to be the successors of CPSU. Several of them used the name CPSU. However, CPRF is generally seen (due to its massive size) as the inheritor of the CPSU in Russia. Additionally, the CPRF was initially founded as the Communist Party of the Russian SFSR in 1990, some time before CPSU was abolished and was seen as a "Russian - nationalist '' counterpart to CPSU.
The style of governance in the party alternated between collective leadership and a cult of personality. Collective leadership split power between the Politburo, the Central Committee, and the Council of Ministers to hinder any attempts to create a one - man dominance over the Soviet political system. By contrast, Stalin 's period as leader was characterised by an extensive cult of personality. Regardless of leadership style, all political power in the Soviet Union was concentrated in the organization of the CPSU.
Democratic centralism is an organizational principle conceived by Lenin. According to Soviet pronouncements, democratic centralism was distinguished from "bureaucratic centralism '', which referred to high - handed formulae without knowledge or discussion. In democratic centralism, decisions are taken after discussions but once the general party line has been formed, discussion on the subject must cease. No member or organizational institution may dissent on a policy after it has been agreed upon by the party 's governing body; to do so would lead to expulsion from the party (formalized at the 10th Congress). Because of this stance, Lenin initiated a ban on factions, which was approved at the 10th Congress.
Lenin believed that democratic centralism safeguarded both party unity and ideological correctness. He conceived of the system after the events of 1917, when several socialist parties "deformed '' themselves and actively began supporting nationalist sentiments. Lenin intended that the devotion to policy required by centralism would protect the parties from such revisionist ills and bourgeois defamation of socialism. Lenin supported the notion of a highly centralized vanguard party, in which ordinary party members elected the local party committee, the local party committee elected the regional committee, the regional committee elected the Central Committee and the Central Committee elected the Politburo, Orgburo and the Secretariat. Lenin believed that the party needed to be ruled from the centre and have at its disposal power to mobilize party members at will. This system was later introduced in communist parties abroad through the Communist International (Comintern).
A central tenet of Leninism was that of the vanguard party. In a capitalist society, the party was to represent the interests of the working class and all of those who were exploited by capitalism in general; however, it was not to become a part of that class. Lenin decided that the party 's sole responsibility was to articulate and plan the long - term interests of the oppressed classes. It was not responsible for the daily grievances of those classes; that was the responsibility of the trade unions. According to Lenin, the Party and the oppressed classes could never become one because the Party was responsible for leading the oppressed classes to victory. The basic idea was that a small group of organized people could wield power disproportionate to their size with superior organizational skills. Despite this, until the end of his life, Lenin warned of the danger that the party could be taken over by bureaucrats, by a small clique, or by an individual. Toward the end of his life, he criticized the bureaucratic inertia of certain officials and admitted to problems with some of the party 's control structures, which were to supervise organizational life.
The Congress, nominally the highest organ of the party, was convened every five years. Leading up to the October Revolution and until Stalin 's consolidation of power, the Congress was the party 's main decision - making body. However, after Stalin 's ascension the Congresses became largely symbolic. CPSU leaders used Congresses as a propaganda and control tool. The most noteworthy Congress since the 1930s was the 20th Congress, in which Khrushchev denounced Stalin in a speech titled "The Personality Cult and its Consequences ''.
Despite delegates to Congresses losing their powers to criticize or remove party leadership, the Congresses functioned as a form of elite - mass communication. They were occasions for the party leadership to express the party line over the next five years to ordinary CPSU members and the general public. The information provided was general, ensuring that party leadership retained the ability to make specific policy changes as they saw fit.
The Congresses also provided the party leadership with formal legitimacy by providing a mechanism for the election of new members and the retirement of old members who had lost favour. The elections at Congresses were all predetermined and the candidates who stood for seats to the Central Committee and the Central Auditing Commission were approved beforehand by the Politburo and the Secretariat. A Congress could also provide a platform for the announcement of new ideological concepts. For instance, at the 22nd Congress, Khrushchev announced that the Soviet Union would see "communism in twenty years '' -- a position later retracted.
A Conference, officially referred to as an All - Union Conference, was convened between Congresses by the Central Committee to discuss party policy and to make personnel changes within the Central Committee. 19 conferences were convened during the CPSU 's existence. The 19th Congress held in 1952 removed the clause in the party 's statute which stipulated that a party Conference could be convened. The clause was reinstated at the 23rd Congress, which was held in 1966.
The Central Committee was a collective body elected at the annual party congress. It was mandated to meet at least twice a year to act as the party 's supreme governing body. Membership of the Central Committee increased from 71 full members in 1934 to 287 in 1976. Central Committee members were elected to the seats because of the offices they held, not on their personal merit. Because of this, the Central Committee was commonly considered an indicator for Sovietologists to study the strength of the different institutions. The Politburo was elected by and reported to the Central Committee. Besides the Politburo, the Central Committee also elected the Secretariat and the General Secretary -- the de facto leader of the Soviet Union. In 1919 -- 1952, the Orgburo was also elected in the same manner as the Politburo and the Secretariat by the plenums of the Central Committee. In between Central Committee plenums, the Politburo and the Secretariat were legally empowered to make decisions on its behalf. The Central Committee or the Politburo and / or Secretariat on its behalf could issue nationwide decisions; decisions on behalf of the party were transmitted from the top to the bottom.
Under Lenin, the Central Committee functioned much like the Politburo did during the post-Stalin era, serving as the party 's governing body. However, as the membership in the Central Committee increased, its role was eclipsed by the Politburo. Between Congresses, the Central Committee functioned as the Soviet leadership 's source of legitimacy. The decline in the Central Committee 's standing began in the 1920s; it was reduced to a compliant body of the Party leadership during the Great Purge. According to party rules, the Central Committee was to convene at least twice a year to discuss political matters -- but not matters relating to military policy. The body remained largely symbolic after Stalin 's consolidation; leading party officials rarely attended meetings of the Central Committee.
The Central Auditing Commission (CAC) was elected by the party Congresses and reported only to the party Congress. It had about as many members as the Central Committee. It was responsible for supervising the expeditious and proper handling of affairs by the central bodies of the Party; it audited the accounts of the Treasury and the enterprises of the Central Committee. It was also responsible for supervising the Central Committee apparatus, making sure that its directives were implemented and that Central Committee directives complied with the party Statute.
The Statute (also referred to as the Rules, Charter and Constitution) was the party 's by - laws and controlled life within the CPSU. The 1st Statute was adopted at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party -- the forerunner of the CPSU. How the Statute was to be structured and organized led to a schism within the party, leading to the establishment of two competing factions; Bolsheviks (literally majority) and Mensheviks (literally minority). The 1st Statute was based upon Lenin 's idea of a centralized vanguard party. The 4th Congress, despite a majority of Menshevik delegates, added the concept of democratic centralism to Article 2 of the Statute. The 1st Statute lasted until 1919, when the 8th Congress adopted the 2nd Statute. It was nearly five times as long as the 1st Statute and contained 66 articles. It was amended at the 9th Congress. At the 11th Congress, the 3rd Statute was adopted with only minor amendments being made. New statutes were approved at the 17th and 18th Congresses respectively. The last party statute, which existed until the dissolution of the CPSU, was adopted at the 22nd Congress.
General Secretary of the Central Committee was the title given to the overall leader of the party. The office was synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union after Joseph Stalin 's consolidation of power in the 1920s. Stalin used the office of General Secretary to create a strong power base for himself. The office was formally titled First Secretary between 1952 and 1966.
The Political Bureau (Politburo), known as the Presidium from 1952 to 1966, was the highest party organ when the Congress and the Central Committee were not in session. Until the 19th Conference in 1988, the Politburo alongside the Secretariat controlled appointments and dismissals nationwide. In the post-Stalin period, the Politburo controlled the Central Committee apparatus through two channels; the General Department distributed the Politburo 's orders to the Central Committee departments and through the personnel overlap which existed within the Politburo and the Secretariat. This personnel overlap gave the CPSU General Secretary a way of strengthening his position within the Politburo through the Secretariat. Kirill Mazurov, Politburo member from 1965 to 1978, accused Brezhnev of turning the Politburo into a "second echelon '' of power. He accomplished this by discussing policies before Politburo meetings with Mikhail Suslov, Andrei Kirilenko, Fyodor Kulakov and Dmitriy Ustinov among others, who held seats both in the Politburo and the Secretariat. Mazurov 's claim was later verified by Nikolai Ryzhkov, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers under Gorbachev. Ryzhkov said that Politburo meetings lasted only 15 minutes because the people close to Brezhnev had already decided what was to be approved.
The Politburo was abolished and replaced by a Presidium in 1952 at the 19th Congress. In the aftermath the 19th Congress and the 1st Plenum of the 19th Central Committee, Stalin ordered the creation of the Bureau of the Presidium, which acted as the standing committee of the Presidium. On 6 March 1953, one day after Stalin 's death, a new and smaller Presidium was elected and the Bureau of the Presidium was abolished in a joint session with the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet and the Council of Ministers.
Until 1990, the CPSU General Secretary acted as the informal chairman of the Politburo. During the first decades of the CPSU 's existence, the Politburo was officially chaired by the Chairman of the Council of People 's Commissars; first by Lenin, then by Aleksey Rykov, Molotov, Stalin and Malenkov. After 1922, when Lenin was incapacitated, Lev Kamenev as Deputy Chairman of the Council of People 's Commissars chaired the Politburo 's meetings. This tradition lasted until Khrushchev 's consolidation of power. In the first post-Stalin years, when Malenkov chaired Politburo meetings, Khrushchev as First Secretary signed all Central Committee documents into force. From 1954 until 1958, Khrushchev chaired the Politburo as First Secretary but in 1958 he dismissed and succeeded Nikolai Bulganin as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. During this period, the informal position of Second Secretary -- later formalized as Deputy General Secretary -- was established. The Second Secretary became responsible for chairing the Secretariat in place of the General Secretary. When the General Secretary could not chair the meetings of the Politburo, the Second Secretary would take his place. This system survived until the dissolution of the CPSU in 1991.
To be elected to the Politburo, a member had to serve in the Central Committee. The Central Committee elected the Politburo in the aftermath of a party Congress. Members of the Central Committee were given a predetermined list of candidates for the Politburo having only one candidate for each seat; for this reason the election of the Politburo was usually passed unanimously. The greater the power held by the sitting CPSU General Secretary, the higher the chance that the Politburo membership would be approved.
The Secretariat headed the CPSU 's central apparatus and was solely responsible for the development and implementation of party policies. It was legally empowered to take over the duties and functions of the Central Committee when it was not in plenum (did not hold a meeting). Many members of the Secretariat concurrently held a seat in the Politburo. According to a Soviet textbook on party procedures, the Secretariat 's role was that of "leadership of current work, chiefly in the realm of personnel selection and in the organization of the verification of fulfilment of party - state decisions ''. "Selections of personnel '' (Russian: podbor kadrov) in this instance meant the maintenance of general standards and the criteria for selecting various personnel. "Verification of fulfillment '' (Russian: proverka ispolneniia) of party and state decisions meant that the Secretariat instructed other bodies.
The powers of the Secretariat were weakened under Mikhail Gorbachev and the Central Committee Commissions took over the functions of the Secretariat in 1988. Yegor Ligachev, a Secretariat member, said that the changes completely destroyed the Secretariat 's hold on power and made the body almost superfluous. Because of this, the Secretariat rarely met during the next two years. It was revitalized at the 28th Party Congress in 1990 and the Deputy General Secretary became the official Head of the Secretariat.
The Organizational Bureau, or Orgburo, existed from 1919 to 1952 and was one of three leading bodies of the party when the Central Committee was not in session. It was responsible for "organizational questions, the recruitment and allocation of personnel, the coordination of activities of party, government and social organizations (e.g. trade unions and youth organizations), improvement to the party 's structure, the distribution of information and reports within the party ''. The 19th Congress abolished the Orgburo and its duties and responsibilities were taken over by the Secretariat. At the beginning, the Orgburo held three meetings a week and reported to the Central Committee every second week. Lenin described the relation between the Politburo and the Orgburo as "the Orgburo allocates forces, while the Politburo decides policy ''. A decision of the Orgburo was implemented by the Secretariat. However, the Secretariat could make decisions in the Orgburo 's name without consulting its members but if one Orgburo member objected to a Secretariat resolution, the resolution would not be implemented. In the 1920s, if the Central Committee could not convene the Politburo and the Orgburo would hold a joint session in its place.
The Central Control Commission (CCC) functioned as the party 's supreme court. The CCC was established at the 9th All - Russian Conference in September 1920, but rules organizing its procedure were not enacted before the 10th Congress. The 10th Congress formally established the CCC on all party levels and stated that it could only be elected at a party congress or a party conference. The CCC and the CCs were formally independent but had to make decisions through the party committees at their level, which led them in practice to lose their administrative independence. At first, the primary responsibility of the CCs was to respond to party complaints, focusing mostly on party complaints of factionalism and bureaucratism. At the 11th Congress, the brief of the CCs was expanded; it become responsible for overseeing party discipline. In a bid to further centralize the powers of the CCC, a Presidium of the CCC, which functioned in a similar manner to the Politburo in relation to the Central Committee, was established in 1923. At the 18th Congress, party rules regarding the CCC were changed; it was now elected by the Central Committee and was subordinate to the Central Committee.
CCC members could not concurrently be members of the Central Committee. To create an organizational link between the CCC and other central - level organs, the 9th All - Russian Conference created the joint CC -- CCC plenums. The CCC was a powerful organ; the 10th Congress allowed it to expel full and candidate Central Committee members and members of their subordinate organs if two thirds of attendants at a CC -- CCC plenum voted for such. At its first such session in 1921, Lenin tried to persuade the joint plenum to expel Alexander Shliapnikov from the party; instead of expelling him, Shliapnikov was given a severe reprimand.
The leader of a department was usually given the title "head '' (Russian: zaveduiuschchii). In practice, the Secretariat had a major say in the running of the departments; for example, five of eleven secretaries headed their own departments in 1978. Normally, specific secretaries were given supervising duties over one or more departments. Each department established its own cells -- called sections -- which specialized in one or more fields. During the Gorbachev era, a variety of departments made up the Central Committee apparatus. The Party Building and Cadre Work Department assigned party personnel in the nomenklatura system. The State and Legal Department supervised the armed forces, KGB, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the trade unions, and the Procuracy. Before 1989, the Central Committee had several departments but some were abolished that year. Among these departments was the Economics Department that was responsible for the economy as a whole, one for machine building, one for the chemical industry, etc. The party abolished these departments to remove itself from the day - to - day management of the economy in favour of government bodies and a greater role for the market, as a part of the perestroika process. In their place, Gorbachev called for the creations of commissions with the same responsibilities as departments, but giving more independence from the state apparatus. This change was approved at the 19th Conference, which was held in 1988. Six commissions were established by late 1988.
Pravda (The Truth) was the leading newspaper in the Soviet Union. The Organizational Department of the Central Committee was the only organ empowered to dismiss Pravda editors. In 1905, Pravda began as a project by members of the Ukrainian Social Democratic Labour Party. Leon Trotsky was approached about the possibility of running the new paper because of his previous work on Ukrainian newspaper Kievan Thought. The first issue of Pravda was published on 3 October 1908 in Lvov, where it continued until the publication of the sixth issue in November 1909, when the operation was moved to Vienna, Austria - Hungary. During the Russian Civil War, sales of Pravda were curtailed by Izvestia, the government run newspaper. At the time, the average reading figure for Pravda was 130,000. This Vienna - based newspaper published its last issue in 1912 and was succeeded the same year by a new newspaper dominated by the Bolsheviks, also called Pravda, which was headquartered in St. Petersburg. The paper 's main goal was to promote Marxist -- Leninist philosophy and expose the lies of the bourgeoisie. In 1975, the paper reached a circulation of 10.6 million. It 's currently owned by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation.
The Higher Party School (HPS) was the organ responsible for teaching cadres in the Soviet Union. It was the successor of the Communist Academy, which was established in 1918. The HPS was established in 1939 as the Moscow Higher Party School and it offered its students a two - year training course for becoming a CPSU official. It was reorganized in 1956 to that it could offer more specialized ideological training. In 1956, the school in Moscow was opened for students from socialist countries outside the Soviet Union. The Moscow Higher Party School was the party school with the highest standing. The school itself had eleven faculties until a 1972 Central Committee resolution demanded a reorganization of the curriculum. The first regional HPS outside Moscow was established in 1946 and by the early 1950s there were 70 Higher Party Schools. During the reorganization drive of 1956, Khrushchev closed 13 of them and reclassified 29 as inter-republican and inter-oblast schools.
The lowest organ above the primary party organization (PPO) was the district level. Every two years, the local PPO would elect delegates to the district - level party conference, which was overseen by a secretary from a higher party level. The conference elected a Party Committee and First Secretary, and re-declared the district 's commitment to the CPSU 's program. In between conferences, the "raion '' party committee -- commonly referred to as "raikom '' -- was vested with ultimate authority. It convened at least six times a year to discuss party directives and to oversee the implementation of party policies in their respective districts, to oversee the implementation of party directives at the PPO - level, and to issue directives to PPOs. 75 -- 80 percent of raikom members were full members, while the remaining 20 -- 25 were non-voting, candidate members. Raikom members were commonly from the state sector, party sector, Komsomol or the trade unions.
Day - to - day responsibility of the raikom was handed over to a Politburo, which usually composed of 12 members. The district - level First Secretary chaired the meetings of the local Politburo and the raikom, and was the direct link between the district and the higher party echelons. The First Secretary was responsible for the smooth running of operations. The raikom was headed by the local apparat -- the local agitation department or industry department. A raikom usually had no more than 4 or 5 departments, each of which was responsible for overseeing the work of the state sector but would not interfere in their work.
This system remained identical at all other levels of the CPSU hierarchy. The other levels were cities, oblasts (regions) and republics. The district level elected delegates to a conference held at least held every three years to elect the party committee. The only difference between the oblast and the district level was that the oblast had its own Secretariat and had more departments at its disposal. The oblast 's party committee in turn elected delegates to the republican - level Congress, which was held every five years. The Congress then elected the Central Committee of the republic, which in turn elected a First Secretary and a Politburo. Until 1990, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was the only republic which did not have its own republican branch, being instead represented by the CPSU Central Committee.
The primary party organization (PPO) was the lowest level in the CPSU hierarchy. PPOs were organized cells consisting of three or more members. A PPO could exist anywhere; for example, in a factory or a student dormitory. They functioned as the party 's "eyes and ears '' at the lowest level and were used to mobilize support for party policies. All CPSU members had to be a member of a local PPO. The size of a PPO varied from three people to several hundreds, depending upon its setting. In a large enterprise, a PPO usually had several hundred members. In such cases, the PPO was divided into bureaus based upon production - units. Each PPO was led by an executive committee and an executive committee secretary. Each executive committee is responsible for the PPO executive committee and its secretary. In small PPOs, members met periodically to mainly discuss party policies, ideology or practical matters. In such a case, the PPO secretary was responsible for collecting party dues, reporting to higher organs and maintaining the party records. A secretary could be elected democratically through a secret ballot, but that was not often the case; in 1979, only 88 out of the over 400,000 PPOs were elected in this fashion. The remainder were chosen by a higher party organ and ratified by the general meetings of the PPO. The PPO general meeting was responsible for electing delegates to the party conference at either the district - or town - level, depending on where the PPO was located.
Membership of the party was not open. To become a party member, one had to be approved by various committees and one 's past was closely scrutinized. As generations grew up having known nothing before the Soviet Union, party membership became something one generally achieved after passing a series of stages. Children would join the Young Pioneers and at the age of 14 might graduate to the Komsomol (Young Communist League). Ultimately, as an adult, if one had shown the proper adherence to party discipline -- or had the right connections, one would become a member of the Communist Party itself. Membership of the party carried obligations as it expected Komsomol and CPSU members to pay dues and to carry out appropriate assignments and "social tasks '' (общественная работа).
In 1918, party membership was approximately 200,000. In the late 1920s under Stalin, the party engaged in an intensive recruitment campaign, the "Lenin Levy '', resulting in new members referred to as the Lenin Enrolment, from both the working class and rural areas. This represented an attempt to "proletarianize '' the party and an attempt by Stalin to strengthen his base by outnumbering the Old Bolsheviks and reducing their influence in the Party. In 1925, the party had 1,025,000 members in a Soviet population of 147 million. In 1927, membership had risen to 1,200,000. During the collectivization campaign and industrialization campaigns of the first five - year plan from 1929 to 1933, party membership grew rapidly to approximately 3.5 million members. However, party leaders suspected that the mass intake of new members had allowed "social - alien elements '' to penetrate the party 's ranks and document verifications of membership ensued in 1933 and 1935, removing supposedly unreliable members. Meanwhile, the party closed its ranks to new members from 1933 to November 1936. Even after the reopening of party recruiting, membership fell to 1.9 million by 1939. Nicholas DeWitt gives 2.307 million members in 1939, including candidate members, compared with 1.535 million in 1929 and 6.3 million in 1947. In 1986, the CPSU had over 19 million members -- approximately 10 % of the Soviet Union 's adult population. Over 44 % of party members were classified as industrial workers and 12 % as collective farmers. The CPSU had party organizations in 14 of the Soviet Union 's 15 republics. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic itself had no separate Communist Party until 1990 because the CPSU controlled affairs there directly.
The All - Union Leninist Communist Youth League, commonly referred to as Komsomol, was the party 's youth wing. The Komsomol acted under the direction of the CPSU Central Committee. It was responsible for indoctrinating youths in communist ideology and organizing social events. It was closely modeled on the CPSU; nominally the highest body was the Congress, followed by the Central Committee, Secretariat and the Politburo. The Komsomol participated in nationwide policy - making by appointing members to the collegiums of the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Higher and Specialized Secondary Education, the Ministry of Education and the State Committee for Physical Culture and Sports. The organization 's newspaper was the Komsomolskaya Pravda. The First Secretary and the Second Secretary were commonly members of the Central Committee but were never elected to the Politburo. However, at the republican level several Komsomol first secretaries were appointed to the Politburo.
Marxism -- Leninism was the cornerstone of Soviet ideology. It explained and legitimized the CPSU 's right to rule while explaining its role as a vanguard party. For instance, the ideology explained that the CPSU 's policies, even if they were unpopular, were correct because the party was enlightened. It was represented as the only truth in Soviet society; the Party rejected the notion of multiple truths. Marxism -- Leninism was used to justify CPSU rule and Soviet policy but it was not used as a means to an end. The relationship between ideology and decision - making was at best ambivalent; most policy decisions were made in the light of the continued, permanent development of Marxism -- Leninism. Marxism -- Leninism as the only truth could not -- by its very nature -- become outdated.
Despite having evolved over the years, Marxism -- Leninism had several central tenets. The main tenet was the party 's status as the sole ruling party. The 1977 Constitution referred to the party as "The leading and guiding force of Soviet society, and the nucleus of its political system, of all state and public organizations, is the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ''. State socialism was essential and from Stalin until Gorbachev, official discourse considered that private social and economic activity retarding the development of collective consciousness and the economy. Gorbachev supported privatization to a degree but based his policies on Lenin 's and Bukharin 's opinions of the New Economic Policy of the 1920s, and supported complete state ownership over the commanding heights of the economy. Unlike liberalism, Marxism -- Leninism stressed the role of the individual as a member of a collective rather than the importance of the individual. Individuals only had the right to freedom of expression if it safeguarded the interests of a collective. For instance, the 1977 Constitution stated that every person had the right to express his or her opinion, but the opinion could only be expressed if it was in accordance with the "general interests of Soviet society ''. The quantity of rights granted to an individual was decided by the state and the state could remove these rights if it saw fit. Soviet Marxism -- Leninism justified nationalism; the Soviet media portrayed every victory of the state as a victory for the communist movement as a whole. Largely, Soviet nationalism was based upon ethnic Russian nationalism. Marxism -- Leninism stressed the importance of the worldwide conflict between capitalism and socialism; the Soviet press wrote about progressive and reactionary forces while claiming that socialism was on the verge of victory and that the "correlations of forces '' were in the Soviet Union 's favour. The ideology professed state atheism; Party members were not allowed to be religious.
Marxism -- Leninism believed in the feasibility of a communist mode of production. All policies were justifiable if it contributed to the Soviet Union 's achievement of that stage.
In Marxist philosophy, Leninism is the body of political theory for the democratic organization of a revolutionary vanguard party and the achievement of a dictatorship of the proletariat as a political prelude to the establishment of the socialist mode of production developed by Lenin. Since Karl Marx barely, if ever wrote about how the socialist mode of production would function, these tasks were left for Lenin to solve. Lenin 's main contribution to Marxist thought is the concept of the vanguard party of the working class. He conceived the vanguard party as a highly knit, centralized organization which was led by intellectuals rather than by the working class itself. The CPSU was open only to a small quantity of workers because the workers in Russia still had not developed class consciousness and needed to be educated to reach such a state. Lenin believed that the vanguard party could initiate policies in the name of the working class even if the working class did not support them. The vanguard party would know what was best for the workers because the party functionaries had attained consciousness.
Lenin, in light of the Marx 's theory of the state (which views the state as an oppressive organ of the ruling class), had no qualms of forcing change upon the country. He viewed the dictatorship of the proletariat, rather than the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, to be the dictatorship of the majority. The repressive powers of the state were to be used to transform the country, and to strip of the former ruling class of their wealth. Lenin believed that the transition from the capitalist mode of production to the socialist mode of production would last for a long period. According to some authors, Leninism was by definition authoritarian. In contrast to Marx, who believed that the socialist revolution would comprise and be led by the working class alone, Lenin argued that a socialist revolution did not necessarily need to be led or to comprise the working class alone. Instead, he said that a revolution needed to be led by the oppressed classes of society, which in the case of Russia was the peasant class.
Stalinism, while not an ideology per se, refers to Stalin 's thoughts and policies. Stalin 's introduction of the concept "Socialism in One Country '' in 1924 was an important moment in Soviet ideological discourse. According to Stalin, the Soviet Union did not need a socialist world revolution to construct a socialist society. Four years later, Stalin initiated his "Second Revolution '' with the introduction of state socialism and central planning. In the early 1930s, he initiated the collectivization of Soviet agriculture by de-privatizing agriculture and creating peasant cooperatives rather than making it the responsibility of the state. With the initiation of his "Second Revolution '', Stalin launched the "Cult of Lenin '' -- a cult of personality centered upon himself. The name of the city of Petrograd was changed to Leningrad, the town of Lenin 's birth was renamed Ulyanov (Lenin 's birth - name), the Order of Lenin became the highest state award and portraits of Lenin were hung in public squares, workplaces and elsewhere. The increasing bureaucracy which followed the introduction of a state socialist economy was at complete odds with the Marxist notion of "the withering away of the state ''. Stalin explained the reasoning behind it at the 16th Congress held in 1930;
We stand for the strengthening of the dictatorship of the proletariat, which represents the mightiest and most powerful authority of all forms of State that have ever existed. The highest development of the State power for the withering away of State power -- this is the Marxian formula. Is this contradictory? Yes, it is contradictory. But this contradiction springs from life itself and reflects completely Marxist dialectic.
At the 1939 18th Congress, Stalin abandoned the idea that the state would wither away. In its place, he expressed confidence that the state would exist, even if the Soviet Union reached communism, as long as it was encircled by capitalism. Two key concepts were created in the latter half of his rule; the "two camp '' theory and the "capitalist encirclement '' theory. The threat of capitalism was used to strengthen Stalin 's personal powers and Soviet propaganda began making a direct link with Stalin and stability in society, saying that the country would crumble without the leader. Stalin deviated greatly from classical Marxism on the subject of "subjective factors ''; Stalin said that Party members of all ranks had to profess fanatic adherence to the Party 's line and ideology, if not, those policies would fail.
-- Lenin, claiming that people had only two choices between two different, but distinct class dictatorships
Lenin, supporting Marx 's theory of the state, believed democracy to be unattainable anywhere in the world before the proletariat seized power. According to Marxist theory, the state is a vehicle for oppression and is headed by a ruling class. He believed that by his time, the only viable solution was dictatorship since the war was heading into a final conflict between the "progressive forces of socialism and the degenerate forces of capitalism ''. The Russian Revolution was by 1917, already a failure according to its original aim, which was to act as an inspiration for a world revolution. The initial anti-statist posture and the active campaigning for direct democracy was replaced because of Russia 's level of development with -- according to their own assessments -- dictatorship. The reasoning was Russia 's lack of development, its status as the sole socialist state in the world, its encirclement by imperialist powers and its internal encirclement by the peasantry.
Marx and Lenin did not care if a bourgeois state was ruled in accordance with a republican, parliamentary or a constitutional monarchical system since this did not change the overall situation. These systems, even if they were ruled by a small clique or ruled through mass participation, were all dictatorships of the bourgeoisie who implemented policies in defence of capitalism. However, there was a difference; after the failures of the world revolutions, Lenin argued that this did not necessarily have to change under the dictatorship of the proletariat. The reasoning came from practical considerations; the majority of the country 's inhabitants were not communists, neither could the Party reintroduce parliamentary democracy because that was not in synchronization with its ideology and would lead to the Party losing power. He therefore concluded that the form of government has nothing do to with the nature of the dictatorship of the proletariat.
Bukharin and Trotsky agreed with Lenin; both said that the revolution had destroyed the old but had failed to create anything new. Lenin had now concluded that the dictatorship of the proletariat would not alter the relationship of power between men, but would rather "transform their productive relations so that, in the long run, the realm of necessity could be overcome and, with that, genuine social freedom realized ''. From 1920 to 1921, Soviet leaders and ideologists began differentiating between socialism and communism; hitherto the two terms had been used interchangeably and used to explain the same things. From then, the two terms had different meanings; Russia was in transition from capitalism to socialism -- referred to interchangeably under Lenin as the dictatorship of the proletariat, socialism was the intermediate stage to communism and communism was considered the last stage of social development. By now, the party leaders believed that because of Russia 's backward state, universal mass participation and true democracy could only take form in the last stage.
-- Lenin, explaining why the regime had become increasingly dictatorial
In early Bolshevik discourse, the term "dictatorship of the proletariat '' was of little significance and the few times it was mentioned it was likened to the form of government which had existed in the Paris Commune. However, with the ensuing Russian Civil War and the social and material devastation that followed, its meaning altered from commune - type democracy to rule by iron - discipline. By now, Lenin had concluded that only a proletarian regime as oppressive as its opponents could survive in this world. The powers previously bestowed upon the Soviets were now given to the Council of People 's Commissars, the central government, which was in turn to be governed by "an army of steeled revolutionary Communists (by Communists he referred to the Party) ''. In a letter to Gavril Myasnikov in late 1920, Lenin explained his new interpretation of the term "dictatorship of the proletariat '':
Dictatorship means nothing more nor less than authority untrammelled by any laws, absolutely unrestricted by any rules whatever, and based directly on force. The term ' dictatorship ' has no other meaning but this.
Lenin justified these policies by claiming that all states were class states by nature and that these states were maintained through class struggle. This meant that the dictatorship of the proletariat in the Soviet Union could only be "won and maintained by the use of violence against the bourgeoisie ''. The main problem with this analysis is that the Party came to view anyone opposing or holding alternate views of the party as bourgeois. Its worst enemy remained the moderates, which were considered to be "the real agents of the bourgeoisie in the working class movement, the labour lieutenants of the capitalist class ''. The term "bourgeoisie '' became synonymous with "opponent '' and with people who disagreed with the Party in general. These oppressive measures led to another reinterpretation of the dictatorship of the proletariat and socialism in general; it was now defined as a purely economic system. Slogans and theoretical works about democratic mass participation and collective decision - making were now replaced with texts which supported authoritarian management. Considering the situation, the Party believed it had to use the same powers as the bourgeoisie to transform Russia; there was no alternative. Lenin began arguing that the proletariat, like the bourgeoisie, did not have a single preference for a form of government and because of that, dictatorship was acceptable to both the Party and the proletariat. In a meeting with Party officials, Lenin stated -- in line with his economist view of socialism -- that "Industry is indispensable, democracy is not '', further arguing that "we (the Party) do not promise any democracy or any freedom ''.
-- Lenin, citing the main features of capitalism in the age of imperialism in Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism
The Marxist theory on imperialism was conceived by Lenin in his book, Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism (published in 1917). It was written in response to the theoretical crisis within Marxist thought, which occurred due to capitalism 's recovery in the 19th century. According to Lenin, imperialism was a specific stage of development of capitalism; a stage he referred to as state monopoly capitalism. The Marxist movement was split on how to solve capitalism 's resurgence after the great depression of the late 19th century. Eduard Bernstein from the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SDP) considered capitalism 's revitalization as proof that it was evolving into a more humane system, adding that the basic aims of socialists were not to overthrow the state but to take power through elections. Karl Kautsky, also from the SDP, held a highly dogmatic view; he said that there was no crisis within Marxist theory. Both of them denied or belittled the role of class contradictions in society after the crisis. In contrast, Lenin believed that the resurgence was the beginning of a new phase of capitalism; this stage was created because of a strengthening of class contradiction, not because of its reduction.
Lenin did not know when the imperialist stage of capitalism began; he said it would be foolish too look for a specific year, however said it began at the beginning of the 20th century (at least in Europe). Lenin believed that the economic crisis of 1900 accelerated and intensified the concentration of industry and banking, which led to the transformation of the finance capital connection to industry into the monopoly of large banks. In Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism, Lenin wrote; "the twentieth century marks the turning point from the old capitalism to the new, from the domination of capital in general to the domination of finance capital ''. Lenin defines imperialism as the monopoly stage of capitalism.
-- Nikolay Inozemtsev, a Soviet foreign policy analyst, referring to series of events (which he believed) would lead to the ultimate victory of socialism
"Peaceful coexistence '' was an ideological concept introduced under Khrushchev 's rule. While the concept has been interpreted by fellow communists as proposing an end to the conflict between the systems of capitalism and socialism, Khrushchev saw it as a continuation of the conflict in every area except in the military field. The concept said that the two systems were developed "by way of diametrically opposed laws '', which led to "opposite principles in foreign policy ''.
Peaceful coexistence was steeped in Leninist and Stalinist thought. Lenin believed that international politics were dominated by class struggle; in the 1940s Stalin stressed the growing polarization which was occurring in the capitalist and socialist systems. Khrushchev 's peaceful coexistence was based on practical changes which had occurred; he accused the old "two camp '' theory of neglecting the non-aligned movement and the national liberation movements. Khrushchev considered these "grey areas '', in which the conflict between capitalism and socialism would be fought. He still stressed that the main contradiction in international relations were those of capitalism and socialism. The Soviet Government under Khrushchev stressed the importance of peaceful coexistence, saying that it had to form the basis of Soviet foreign policy. Failure to do, they believed, would lead to nuclear conflict. Despite this, Soviet theorists still considered peaceful coexistence to be a continuation of the class struggle between the capitalist and socialist worlds, but not based on armed conflict. Khrushchev believed that the conflict, in its current phase, was mainly economical.
The emphasis on peaceful coexistence did not mean that the Soviet Union accepted a static world with clear lines. It continued to uphold the creed that socialism was inevitable and they sincerely believed that the world had reached a stage in which the "correlations of forces '' were moving towards socialism. With the establishment of socialist regimes in Eastern Europe and Asia, Soviet foreign policy planners believed that capitalism had lost its dominance as an economic system.
The concept of "Socialism in One Country '' was conceived by Stalin in his struggle against Leon Trotsky and his concept of permanent revolution. In 1924, Trotsky published his pamphlet Lessons of October, in which he stated that socialism in the Soviet Union would fail because of the backward state of economic development unless a world revolution began. Stalin responded to Trotsky 's pamphlet with his article, "October and Comrade Trotsky 's Theory of Permanent Revolution ''. In it, Stalin stated that he did not believe an inevitable conflict between the working class and the peasants would take place, and that "socialism in one country is completely possible and probable ''. Stalin held the view common among most Bolsheviks at the time; there was a possibility of real success for socialism in the Soviet Union despite the country 's backwardness and international isolation. While Grigoriy Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev and Nikolai Bukharin -- together with Stalin -- opposed Trotsky 's theory of permanent revolution, their views on the way socialism could be built diverged.
According to Bukharin, Zinoviev and Kamenev supported the resolution of the 14th Conference held in 1925, which stated that "we can not complete the building of socialism due to our technological backwardness ''. Despite this cynical attitude, Zinoviev and Kamenev believed that a defective form of socialism could be constructed. At the 14th Conference, Stalin reiterated his position that socialism in one country was feasible despite the capitalist blockade of the Soviet Union. After the conference, Stalin wrote "Concerning the Results of the XIV Conference of the RCP (b) '', in which he stated that the peasantry would not turn against the socialist system because they had a self - interest in preserving it. Stalin said the contradictions which arose within the peasantry during the socialist transition could "be overcome by our own efforts ''. He concluded that the only viable threat to socialism in the Soviet Union was a military intervention.
In late 1925, Stalin received a letter from a Party official which stated that his position of "Socialism in One Country '' was in contradiction with Friedrich Engels ' writings on the subject. Stalin countered that Engels ' writings reflected "the era of pre-monopoly capitalism, the pre-imperialist era when there were not yet the conditions of an uneven, abrupt development of the capitalist countries ''. From 1925, Bukharin began writing extensively on the subject and in 1926, Stalin wrote On Questions of Leninism, which contains his best - known writings on the subject. With the publishing of Leninism, Trotsky began countering Bukharin 's and Stalin 's arguments, writing that socialism in one country was only possible only in the short term, and said that without a world revolution it would be impossible to safeguard the Soviet Union from the "restoration of bourgeois relations ''. Zinoviev disagreed with Trotsky and Bukharin, and Stalin; he maintained Lenin 's position from 1917 to 1922 and continued to say that only a defective form of socialism could be constructed in the Soviet Union without a world revolution. Bukharin began arguing for the creation of an autarkic economic model, while Trotsky said that the Soviet Union had to participate in the international division of labour to develop. In contrast to Trotsky and Bukharin, in 1938, Stalin said that a world revolution was impossible and that Engels was wrong on the matter. At the 18th Congress, Stalin took the theory to its inevitable conclusion, saying that the communist mode of production could be conceived in one country. He rationalized this by saying that the state could exist in a communist society as long as the Soviet Union was encircled by capitalism. However, with the establishment of socialist regimes in Eastern Europe, Stalin said that socialism in one country was only possible in a large country like the Soviet Union and that to survive, the other states had to follow the Soviet line.
There were few, if any, who believed that the Soviet Union was on the verge of collapse by 1985. The economy was stagnating, but stable enough for the Soviet Union to continue into the 21st century. The political situation was calm because of twenty years of systematic repression against any threat to the country and one - party rule and the Soviet Union was in its peak of influence in world affairs. The immediate causes for the Soviet Union 's dissolution were the policies and thoughts of Mikhail Gorbachev, the CPSU General Secretary. His policies of perestroika and glasnost tried to revitalize the Soviet economy and the social and political culture of the country. Throughout his rule, he put more emphasis on democratizing the Soviet Union because he believed it had lost its moral legitimacy to rule. These policies led to the collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe and indirectly destabilized Gorbachev 's and the CPSU 's control over the Soviet Union. Archie Brown said:
The expectations of, again most notably, Lithuanians, Estonians and Latvians were enormously enhanced by what they saw happening in the ' outer empire ' (Eastern Europe) and they began to believe that they could remove themselves from the ' inner empire '. In truth, a democratised Soviet Union was incompatible with denial of the Baltic states ' independence for, to the extent that those Soviet republics became democratic, their opposition to remaining in a political entity whose centre was Moscow would become increasingly evident. Yet, it was not preordained that the entire Soviet Union would break up.
However, Brown said that the system did not need to collapse or to do so in the way it did. The democratization from above weakened the Party 's control over the country, and put it on the defensive. Brown added that a different leader than Gorbachev would probably have oppressed the opposition and continued with economic reform. Nonetheless, Gorbachev accepted that the people sought a different road and consented to the Soviet Union 's dissolution in 1991. He said that because of its peaceful collapse, the fall of Soviet communism is "one of the great success stories of 20th century politics ''. According to Lars T. Lih, the Soviet Union collapsed because people stopped believing in its ideology. He wrote:
When in 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed not with a bang but a whimper, this unexpected outcome was partly the result of the previous disenchantments of the narrative of class leadership. The Soviet Union had always been based on fervent belief in this narrative in its various permutations. When the binding power of the narrative dissolved, the Soviet Union itself dissolved.
The first research into the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc were very simple and did not take into account several factors. However, these examinations became more advanced by the 1990s and unlike most Western scholarship, which focuses on the role of Gorbachev and his reform efforts, the Communist Party of China (CPC) examined "core (political) life and death issues '' so that it could learn from them and not make the same mistakes. Following the CPSU 's demise and the Soviet Union 's collapse, the CPC 's analysis began examining systematic causes. Several leading CPC officials began hailing Khrushchev 's rule, saying that he was the first reformer, and that if he had continued after 1964, the Soviet Union would not have witnessed the Era of Stagnation began under Brezhnev and continued under Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko. The main economic failure was that the political leadership did not pursue any reforms to tackle the economic malaise that had taken hold, dismissing certain techniques as capitalist, and never disentangling the planned economy from socialism. Xu Zhixin from the CASS Institute of Eastern Europe, Russia, and Central Asia, argued that Soviet planners laid too much emphasis on heavy industry, which led to shortages of consumer goods. Unlike his counterparts, Xu argued that the shortages of consumer goods was not an error but "was a consciously planned feature of the system ''. Other CPSU failures were pursuing the policy of state socialism, the high spending on the military - industrial complex, a low tax base and the subsidizing of the economy. The CPC argued that when Gorbachev came to power and introduced his economic reforms, they were "too little, too late, and too fast ''.
-- Lu Nanqun, a Sovietologist from CASS
While most CPC researchers criticize the CPSU 's economic policies, many have criticized what they see as "Soviet totalitarianism ''. They accuse Joseph Stalin of creating a system of mass terror, intimidation, annulling the democracy component of democratic centralism and emphasizing centralism, which led to the creation of an inner - party dictatorship. Other points were Russian nationalism, a lack of separation between the Party and state bureaucracies, suppression of non-Russian ethnicities, distortion of the economy through the introduction of over-centralization and the collectivization of agriculture. According to CPC researcher Xiao Guisen, Stalin 's policies led to "stunted economic growth, tight surveillance of society, a lack of democracy in decision - making, an absence of the rule of law, the burden of bureaucracy, the CPSU 's alienation from people 's concerns, and an accumulation of ethnic tensions ''. Stalin 's effect on ideology was also criticized; several researchers accused his policies of being "leftist '', "dogmatist '' and a deviation "from true Marxism -- Leninism. '' He is criticized for initiating the "bastardization of Leninism '', of deviating from true democratic centralism by establishing one - man rule and destroying all inner - party consultation, of misinterpreting Lenin 's theory of imperialism and of supporting foreign revolutionary movements only when the Soviet Union could get something out of it. Yu Sui, a CPC theoretician, said that "the collapse of the Soviet Union and CPSU is a punishment for its past wrongs! '' Similarly, Brezhnev, Mikhail Suslov, Alexei Kosygin and Konstantin Chernenko have been criticized for being "dogmatic, ossified, inflexible, (for having a) bureaucratic ideology and thinking '', while Yuri Andropov is depicted by some of having the potential of becoming a new Khrushchev if he had not died early.
While the CPC concur with Gorbachev 's assessment that the CPSU needed internal reform, they do not agree on how it was implemented, criticizing his idea of "humanistic and democratic socialism '', of negating the leading role of the CPSU, of negating Marxism, of negating the analysis of class contradictions and class struggle, and of negating the "ultimate socialist goal of realizing communism ''. Unlike the other Soviet leaders, Gorbachev is criticized for pursuing the wrong reformist policies and for being too flexible and too rightist. The CPC Organization Department said, "What Gorbachev in fact did was not to transform the CPSU by correct principles -- indeed the Soviet Communist Party needed transformation -- but instead he, step - by - step, and ultimately, eroded the ruling party 's dominance in ideological, political and organizational aspects ''.
The CPSU was also criticized for not taking enough care in building the primary party organization and not having inner - party democracy. Others, more radically, concur with Milovan Đilas assessment, saying that a new class was established within the central party leadership of the CPSU and that a "corrupt and privileged class '' had developed because of the nomenklatura system. Other criticized the special privileges bestowed on the CPSU elite, the nomenklatura system -- which some said had decayed continuously since Stalin 's rule -- and the relationship between the Soviet military and the CPSU. Unlike in China, the Soviet military was a state institution whereas in China it is a Party (and state) institution. The CPC criticizes the CPSU of pursuing Soviet imperialism in its foreign policies.
|
who was given the name israel in the bible | Jacob - Wikipedia
Jacob (/ ˈdʒeɪkəb /; Hebrew: יַעֲקֹב , Modern Ya'aqōv (help info), Tiberian Yā'āqōḇ), later given the name Israel, is regarded as a Patriarch of the Israelites. According to the Book of Genesis, Jacob was the third Hebrew progenitor with whom God made a covenant. He is the son of Isaac and Rebecca, the grandson of Abraham, Sarah and Bethuel, the nephew of Ishmael, and the younger twin brother of Esau. Jacob had twelve sons and at least one daughter, by his two wives, Leah and Rachel, and by their handmaidens Bilhah and Zilpah.
Jacob 's twelve sons, named in Genesis, were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph, and Benjamin. His only daughter mentioned in Genesis is Dinah. The twelve sons became the progenitors of the "Tribes of Israel ''.
As a result of a severe drought in Canaan, Jacob and his sons moved to Egypt at the time when his son Joseph was viceroy. After 17 years in Egypt, Jacob died, and the length of Jacob 's life was 147 years. Joseph carried Jacob 's remains to the land of Canaan, and gave him a stately burial in the same Cave of Machpelah as were buried Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebecca, and Jacob 's first wife, Leah.
Jacob is mentioned in a number of sacred scriptures, including the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, the New Testament, the Quran, hadith, and the Book of Mormon.
According to the folk etymology found in Genesis 25: 26, the name Yaʿaqob יעקב is derived from aqeb עָקֵב "heel ''. The historical origin of the name is uncertain. Yaʿqob - ' el is notably recorded as a placename in a list by Thutmose III (15th century BC). The same name is recorded earlier still, in c. 1800 BC, in cuneiform inscriptions (spelled ya - ah - qu - ub - el, ya - qu - ub - el). The suggestion that the personal name may be shortened from this compound name, which would translate to "may El protect '', originates with Bright (1960). The Septuagint renders the name Ιακωβος, whence Latin Jacobus, English Jacob.
The name Israel given to Jacob following the episode of his wrestling with the angel (Genesis 32: 22 -- 32) is etymologized as composition of אֵל el "god '' and the root שָׂרָה śarah "to rule, contend, have power, prevail over '': שָׂרִיתָ עִם ־ אֱלֹהִים (KJV: "a prince hast thou power with God ''); alternatively, the el can be read as the subject, for a translation of "El rules / condends / struggles ''.
The biblical account of the life of Jacob is found in the Book of Genesis, chapters 25 -- 50.
Jacob and his twin brother, Esau, were born to Isaac and Rebecca after 20 years of marriage, when Isaac was 60 years of age (Genesis 25: 20, 25: 26). Rebekah was uncomfortable during her pregnancy and went to inquire of God why she was suffering. She received the prophecy that twins were fighting in her womb and would continue to fight all their lives, even after they became two separate nations. The prophecy also said that "the one people shall be stronger than the other people; and the elder shall serve the younger; '' (Genesis 25: 25 KJV)
When the time came for Rebecca to give birth, the firstborn, Esau, came out covered with red hair, as if he were wearing a hairy garment, and his heel was grasped by the hand of Jacob, the secondborn. According to Genesis 25: 25, Isaac and Rebecca named the first son Hebrew: עשו , Esau. The second son they named יעקב, Jacob (Ya ` aqob or Ya ` aqov, meaning "heel - catcher '', "supplanter '', "leg - puller '', "he who follows upon the heels of one '', from Hebrew: עקב , ` aqab or ` aqav, "seize by the heel '', "circumvent '', "restrain '', a wordplay upon Hebrew: עקבה , ` iqqebah or ` iqqbah, "heel '').
The boys displayed very different natures as they matured. "... and Esau was a cunning hunter, a man of the field; but Jacob was a simple man, dwelling in tents '' (Genesis 25: 27). Moreover, the attitudes of their parents toward them also differed: "And Isaac loved Esau, because he did eat of his venison: but Rebecca loved Jacob. '' (Genesis 25: 28)
Genesis 25: 29 -- 34 tells the account of Esau selling his birthright to Jacob. This passage tells that Esau, returning famished from the fields, begged Jacob to give him some of the stew that Jacob had just made. (Esau referred to the dish as "that same red pottage '', giving rise to his nickname, Hebrew: אדום (` Edom, meaning "Red '').) Jacob offered to give Esau a bowl of stew in exchange for his birthright, to which Esau agreed.
As Isaac aged, he became blind and was uncertain when he would die, so he decided to bestow Esau 's birthright upon him. He requested that Esau go out to the fields with his weapons (quiver and bow) to kill some venison. Isaac then requested that Esau make "savory meat '' for him out of the venison, according to the way he enjoyed it the most, so that he could eat it and bless Esau.
Rebecca overheard this conversation. It is suggested that she realized prophetically that Isaac 's blessings would go to Jacob, since she was told before the twins ' birth that the older son would serve the younger. Rebecca blessed Jacob and she quickly ordered Jacob to bring her two kid goats from their flock so that he could take Esau 's place in serving Isaac and receiving his blessing. Jacob protested that his father would recognize their deception since Esau was hairy and he himself was smooth - skinned. He feared his father would curse him as soon as he felt him, but Rebecca offered to take the curse herself, then insisted that Jacob obey her. Jacob did as his mother instructed and, when he returned with the kids, Rebekah made the savory meat that Isaac loved. Before she sent Jacob to his father, she dressed him in Esau 's garments and laid goatskins on his arms and neck to simulate hairy skin.
Disguised as Esau, Jacob entered Isaac 's room. Surprised that Esau was back so soon, Isaac asked how it could be that the hunt went so quickly. Jacob responded, "Because the LORD your God brought it to me. '' Rashi, on Genesis 27: 21 says Isaac 's suspicions were aroused even more, because Esau never used the personal name of God. Isaac demanded that Jacob come close so he could feel him, but the goatskins felt just like Esau 's hairy skin. Confused, Isaac exclaimed, "The voice is Jacob 's voice, but the hands are the hands of Esau! '' Genesis 27: 22. Still trying to get at the truth, Isaac asked him directly, "Art thou my very son Esau? '' and Jacob answered simply, "I am. '' Isaac proceeded to eat the food and to drink the wine that Jacob gave him, and then told him to come close and kiss him. As Jacob kissed his father, Isaac smelled the clothes which belonged to Esau and finally accepted that the person in front of him was Esau. Isaac then blessed Jacob with the blessing that was meant for Esau. Genesis 27: 28 -- 29 states Isaac 's blessing: "Therefore God give thee of the dew of heavens, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of corn and wine: Let people serve thee: be lord over thy brethren, and let thy mother 's sons bow down to thee: cursed be every one that curseth thee, and blessed be he that blesseth thee. ''
Jacob had scarcely left the room when Esau returned from the hunt to prepare his game and receive the blessing. The realization that he had been deceived shocked Isaac, yet he acknowledged that Jacob had received the blessings by adding, "Indeed, he will be (or remain) blessed! '' (27: 33).
Esau was heartbroken by the deception and begged for his own blessing. Having made Jacob a ruler over his brothers, Isaac could only promise, "By your sword you shall live, but your brother you shall serve; yet it shall be that when you are aggrieved, you may cast off his yoke from upon your neck '' (27: 39 -- 40).
Although Esau sold Jacob his own birthright, which was his blessing, for "red pottage '', Esau still hated Jacob for receiving his blessing that their father Isaac unknowingly had given to him. He vowed to kill Jacob as soon as Isaac died. When Rebecca heard about his murderous intentions, she ordered Jacob to travel to her brother Laban 's house in Haran, until Esau 's anger subsided. She convinced Isaac to send Jacob away by telling him that she despaired of his marrying a local girl from the idol - worshipping families of Canaan (as Esau had done). After Isaac sent Jacob away to find a wife, Esau realized his own Canaanite wives were evil in his father 's eyes and so he took a daughter of Isaac 's half - brother, Ishmael, as another wife.
Near Luz en route to Haran, Jacob experienced a vision of a ladder, or staircase, reaching into heaven with angels going up and down it, commonly referred to as "Jacob 's ladder ''. He heard the voice of God, who repeated many of the blessings upon him, coming from the top of the ladder.
According to Midrash Genesis Rabbah, the ladder signified the exiles that the Jewish people would suffer before the coming of the Jewish Messiah: the angels that represented the exiles of Babylonia, Persia, and Greece each climbed up a certain number of steps, paralleling the years of the exile, before they "fell down ''; but the angel representing the last exile, that of Edom, kept climbing higher and higher into the clouds. Jacob feared that his descendants would never be free of Esau 's domination, but God assured him that at the End of Days, Edom too would come falling down.
In the morning, Jacob awakened and continued on his way to Haran, after naming the place where he had spent the night "Bethel '', "God 's house ''.
Arriving in Haran, Jacob saw a well where shepherds were gathering their flocks to water them and met Laban 's younger daughter, Rachel, Jacob 's first cousin; she was working as a shepherdess. He loved her immediately, and after spending a month with his relatives, asked for her hand in marriage in return for working seven years for Laban the Aramean. Laban agreed to the arrangement. These seven years seemed to Jacob "but a few days, for the love he had for her '', but when they were complete and he asked for his wife, Laban deceived Jacob by switching Rachel for her older sister, Leah, as the veiled bride.
In the morning, when the truth became known, Laban justified his action, saying that in his country it was unheard of to give a younger daughter before the older. However, he agreed to give Rachel in marriage as well if Jacob would work another seven years. After the week of wedding celebrations with Leah, Jacob married Rachel, and he continued to work for Laban for another seven years.
Jacob loved Rachel more than Leah, and Leah felt hated. God opened Leah 's womb and she gave birth to four sons rapidly: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah. Rachel, however, remained barren. Following the example of Sarah, who gave her handmaid to Abraham after years of infertility, Rachel gave Jacob her handmaid, Bilhah, in marriage so that Rachel could raise children through her. Bilhah gave birth to Dan and Naphtali. Seeing that she had left off childbearing temporarily, Leah then gave her handmaid Zilpah to Jacob in marriage so that Leah could raise more children through her. Zilpah gave birth to Gad and Asher. Afterwards, Leah became fertile again and gave birth to Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah, Jacob 's first and only daughter. God remembered Rachel, who gave birth to Joseph and Benjamin. If pregnancies of different marriages overlapped, the first twelve births (all the sons except Benjamin, and the daughter Dinah) could have occurred within seven years. That is one obvious, but not universally held, interpretation of Genesis 29: 27 -- 30: 25.
After Joseph was born, Jacob decided to return home to his parents. Laban the Aramean was reluctant to release him, as God had blessed his flock on account of Jacob. Laban asked what he could pay Jacob. Jacob suggested that all the spotted, speckled, and brown goats and sheep of Laban 's flock, at any given moment, would be his wages. Jacob placed rods of poplar, hazel, and chestnut, all of which he peeled "white streaks upon them '', within the flocks ' watering holes or troughs in a performance of sympathetic magic, associating the stripes of the rods with the growth of stripes on the livestock. Despite this practicing of magic, later on Jacob says to his wives that it was God who made the livestock give birth to the convenient offspring, in order to turn the tide against the deceptive Laban. As time passed, Laban 's sons noticed that Jacob was taking the better part of their flocks, and so Laban 's friendly attitude towards Jacob began to change. The angel of the Lord, in a dream back during the breeding season, told Jacob "Now lift your eyes and see (that) all the he goats mounting the animals are ringed, speckled, and striped, for I have seen all that Laban is doing to you '', that he is the God whom Jacob met at Bethel, and that Jacob should leave and go back to the land where he was born, which he and his wives and children did without informing Laban. Before they left, Rachel stole the teraphim, considered to be household idols, from Laban 's house.
Laban pursued Jacob for seven days. The night before he caught up to him, God appeared to Laban in a dream and warned him not to say anything good or bad to Jacob. When the two met, Laban said to Jacob, "What have you done, that you have tricked me and driven away my daughters like captives of the sword? '' He also asked for his stolen teraphim back. Knowing nothing about Rachel 's theft, Jacob told Laban that whoever stole them should die and stood aside to let him search. When Laban reached Rachel 's tent, she hid the teraphim by sitting on them and stating she could not get up because she was menstruating. Jacob and Laban then parted from each other with a pact to preserve the peace between them. Laban returned to his home and Jacob continued on his way.
As Jacob neared the land of Canaan, he sent messengers ahead to his brother Esau. They returned with the news that Esau was coming to meet Jacob with an army of 400 men. With great apprehension, Jacob prepared for the worst. He engaged in earnest prayer to God, then sent on before him a tribute of flocks and herds to Esau, "a present to my lord Esau from thy servant Jacob ''.
Jacob then transported his family and flocks across the ford Jabbok by night, then recrossed back to send over his possessions, being left alone in communion with God. There, a mysterious being appeared ("man '', Genesis 32: 24, 28; or "God '', Genesis 32: 28, 30, Hosea 12: 3, 5; or "angel '', Hosea 12: 4), and the two wrestled until daybreak. When the being saw that he did not overpower Jacob, he touched Jacob on the sinew of his thigh (the gid hanasheh, גיד הנשה), and, as a result, Jacob developed a limp (Genesis 32: 31). Because of this, "to this day the people of Israel do not eat the sinew of the thigh that is on the hip socket '' (Genesis 32: 32). This incident is the source of the mitzvah of porging.
Jacob then demanded a blessing, and the being declared in Genesis 32: 28 that, from then on, Jacob would be called יִשְׂרָאֵל, Israel (Yisra ` el, meaning "one that struggled with the divine angel '' (Josephus), "one who has prevailed with God '' (Rashi), "a man seeing God '' (Whiston), "he will rule as God '' (Strong), or "a prince with God '' (Morris), from Hebrew: שרה , "prevail '', "have power as a prince ''). While he is still called Jacob in later texts, his name Israel makes some consider him the eponymous ancestor of the Israelites.
Jacob asked the being 's name, but he refused to answer. Afterwards, Jacob named the place Penuel (Penuw ` el, Peniy ` el, meaning "face of God ''), saying: "I have seen God face to face and lived. ''
Because the terminology is ambiguous ("el '' in Yisra ` el) and inconsistent, and because this being refused to reveal his name, there are varying views as to whether he was a man, an angel, or God. Josephus uses only the terms "angel '', "divine angel '', and "angel of God '', describing the struggle as no small victory. According to Rashi, the being was the guardian angel of Esau himself, sent to destroy Jacob before he could return to the land of Canaan. Trachtenberg theorized that the being refused to identify itself for fear that, if its secret name was known, it would be conjurable by incantations. Literal Christian interpreters like Henry M. Morris say that the stranger was "God Himself and, therefore, Christ in His preincarnate state '', citing Jacob 's own evaluation and the name he assumed thereafter, "one who fights victoriously with God '', and adding that God had appeared in the human form of the Angel of the Lord to eat a meal with Abraham in Genesis 18. Geller wrote that, "in the context of the wrestling bout, the name implies that Jacob won this supremacy, linked to that of God 's, by a kind of theomachy. ''
In the morning, Jacob assembled his 4 wives and 11 sons, placing the maidservants and their children in front, Leah and her children next, and Rachel and Joseph in the rear. Some commentators cite this placement as proof that Jacob continued to favor Joseph over Leah 's children, as presumably the rear position would have been safer from a frontal assault by Esau, which Jacob feared. Jacob himself took the foremost position. Esau 's spirit of revenge, however, was apparently appeased by Jacob 's bounteous gifts of camels, goats and flocks. Their reunion was an emotional one.
Esau offered to accompany them on their way back to Israel, but Jacob protested that his children were still young and tender (born 6 to 13 years prior in the narrative); Jacob suggested eventually catching up with Esau at Mount Seir. According to the Sages, this was a prophetic reference to the End of Days, when Jacob 's descendants will come to Mount Seir, the home of Edom, to deliver judgment against Esau 's descendants for persecuting them throughout the millennia (see Obadiah 1: 21). Jacob actually diverted himself to Succoth and was not recorded as rejoining Esau until, at Machpelah, the two bury their father Isaac, who lived to be 180, and was 60 years older than they were.
Jacob then arrived in Shechem, where he bought a parcel of land, now identified as Joseph 's Tomb. In Shechem, Jacob 's daughter Dinah was kidnapped and raped by the ruler 's son, who desired to marry the girl. Dinah 's brothers, Simeon and Levi, agreed in Jacob 's name to permit the marriage as long as all the men of Shechem first circumcised themselves, ostensibly to unite the children of Jacob in Abraham 's covenant of familial harmony. On the third day after the circumcisions, when all the men of Shechem were still in pain, Simeon and Levi put them all to death by the sword and rescued their sister Dinah, and their brothers plundered the property, women, and children. Jacob condemned this act, saying: "You have brought trouble on me by making me a stench to the Canaanites and Perizzites, the people living in this land. '' He later rebuked his two sons for their anger in his deathbed blessing (Genesis 49: 5 -- 7).
Jacob returned to Bethel, where he had another vision of blessing. Although the death of Rebecca, Jacob 's mother, is not explicitly recorded in the Bible, Deborah, Rebecca 's nurse, died and was buried at Bethel, at a place that Jacob calls Allon Bachuth (אלון בכות), "Oak of Weepings '' (Genesis 35: 8). According to the Midrash, the plural form of the word "weeping '' indicates the double sorrow that Rebecca also died at this time.
Jacob then made a further move while Rachel was pregnant; near Bethlehem, Rachel went into labor and died as she gave birth to her second son, Benjamin (Jacob 's twelfth son). Jacob buried her and erected a monument over her grave. Rachel 's Tomb, just outside Bethlehem, remains a popular site for pilgrimages and prayers to this day. Jacob then settled in Migdal Eder, where his firstborn, Reuben, slept with Rachel 's servant Bilhah; Jacob 's response was not given at the time, but he did condemn Reuben for it later, in his deathbed blessing. Jacob was finally reunited with his father Isaac in Mamre (outside Hebron).
When Isaac died at the age of 180, Jacob and Esau buried him in the Cave of the Patriarchs, which Abraham had purchased as a family burial plot. At this point in the biblical narrative, two genealogies of Esau 's family appear under the headings "the generations of Esau ''. A conservative interpretation is that, at Isaac 's burial, Jacob obtained the records of Esau, who had been married 80 years prior, and incorporated them into his own family records, and that Moses augmented and published them.
The house of Jacob dwelt in Hebron, in the land of Canaan. His flocks were often fed in the pastures of Shechem as well as Dothan. Of all the children in his household, he loved Rachel 's firstborn son, Joseph, the most. Thus Joseph 's half brothers were jealous of him and they ridiculed him often. Joseph even told his father about all of his half brothers ' misdeeds. When Joseph was seventeen years old, Jacob made a long coat or tunic of many colors for him. Seeing this, the half brothers began to hate Joseph. Then Joseph began to have dreams that implied that his family would bow down to him. When he told his brothers about these dreams, it drove them to conspire against him. When Jacob heard of these dreams, he rebuked his son for proposing the idea that the house of Jacob would even bow down to Joseph. Yet, he contemplated his son 's words about these dreams. (Genesis 37: 1 -- 11)
Sometime afterward, the sons of Jacob by Leah, Bilhah and Zilpah, were feeding his flocks in Shechem. Jacob wanted to know how things were doing, so he asked Joseph to go down there and return with a report. This was the last time he would ever see his son in Hebron. Later that day, the report that Jacob ended up receiving came from Joseph 's brothers who brought before him a coat laden with blood. Jacob identified the coat as the one he made for Joseph. At that moment he cried "It is my son 's tunic. A wild beast has devoured him. Without doubt Joseph is torn to pieces. '' He rent his clothes and put sackcloth around his waist mourning for days. No one from the house of Jacob could comfort him during this time of bereavement. (Genesis 37: 31 -- 35)
The truth was, Joseph 's older brothers had turned on him, apprehended him and ultimately sold into slavery on a caravan headed for Egypt. (Genesis 37: 36)
Twenty years later, throughout the Middle East a severe famine occurred like none other that lasted seven years. It crippled nations. The word was that the only kingdom prospering was Egypt. In the second year of this great famine, when Israel (Jacob) was about 130 years old, he told his ten sons of Leah, Bilhah and Zilpah, to go to Egypt and buy grain. Israel 's youngest son Benjamin, born from Rachel, stayed behind by his father 's order to keep him safe. (Genesis 42: 1 -- 5)
Nine of the sons returned to their father Israel from Egypt, stockpiled with grain on their donkeys. They relayed to their father all that had happened in Egypt. They spoke of being accused of as spies and that their brother Simeon, had been taken prisoner. When Reuben, the eldest, mentioned that they needed to bring Benjamin to Egypt to prove their word as honest men, their father became furious with them. He could n't understand how they were put in a position to tell the Egyptians all about their family. When the sons of Israel opened their sacks, they saw their money that they used to pay for the grain. It was still in their possession, and so they all became afraid. Israel then became angry with the loss of Joseph, Simeon, and now possibly Benjamin. (Genesis 42: 26 -- 38)
It turned out that Joseph, who identified his brothers in Egypt, was able to secretly return that money that they used to pay for the grain, back to them. When the house of Israel consumed all the grain that they brought from Egypt, Israel told his sons to go back and buy more. This time, Judah spoke to his father in order to persuade him about having Benjamin accompany them, so as to prevent Egyptian retribution. In hopes of retrieving Simeon and ensuring Benjamin 's return, Israel told them to bring the best fruits of their land, including: balm, honey, spices, myrrh, pistachio nuts and almonds. Israel also mentioned that the money that was returned to their money sacks was probably a mistake or an oversight on their part. So, he told them to bring that money back and use double that amount to pay for the new grain. Lastly, he let Benjamin go with them and said "may God Almighty give you mercy... If I am bereaved, I am bereaved! '' (Genesis 43: 1 -- 14)
When the sons of Israel (Jacob) returned to Hebron from their second trip, they came back with twenty additional donkeys carrying all kinds of goods and supplies as well as Egyptian transport wagons. When their father came out to meet them, his sons told him that Joseph was still alive, that he was the governor over all of Egypt and that he wanted the house of Israel to move to Egypt. Israel 's heart "stood still '' and just could n't believe what he was hearing. Looking upon the wagons he declared "Joseph my son is still alive. I will go and see him before I die. '' (Genesis 45: 16 -- 28)
Israel and his entire house of seventy, gathered up with all their livestock and began their journey to Egypt. En route, Israel stopped at Beersheba for the night to make a sacrificial offering to his God, Yahweh. Apparently he had some reservations about leaving the land of his forefathers, but God reassured him not to fear that he would rise again. God also assured that he would be with him, he would prosper, and he would also see his son Joseph who would lay him to rest. Continuing their journey to Egypt, when they approached in proximity, Israel sent his son Judah ahead to find out where the caravans were to stop. They were directed to disembark at Goshen. It was here, after twenty - two years, that Jacob saw his son Joseph once again. They embraced each other and wept together for quite a while. Israel then said, "Now let me die, since I have seen your face, because you are still alive. '' (Genesis 46: 1 -- 30)
The time had come for Joseph 's family to personally meet the Pharaoh of Egypt. After Joseph prepared his family for the meeting, the brothers came before the Pharaoh first, formally requesting to pasture in Egyptian lands. The Pharaoh honored their stay and even made the notion that if there were any competent men in their house, then they may elect a chief herdsman to oversee Egyptian livestock. Finally, Joseph 's father was brought out to meet the Pharaoh. Because the Pharaoh had such a high regard for Joseph, practically making him his equal, it was an honor to meet his father. Thus, Israel was able to bless the Pharaoh. The two chatted for a bit, the Pharaoh even inquiring of Israel 's age which happened to be 130 years old at that time. After the meeting, the families were directed to pasture in the land of Ramses where they lived in the province of Goshen. The house of Israel acquired many possessions and multiplied exceedingly during the course of seventeen years, even through the worst of the seven - year famine. (Genesis 46: 31 -- 47: 28)
Israel (Jacob) was 147 years old when he called to his favorite son Joseph and pleaded that he not be buried in Egypt. Rather, he requested to be carried to the land of Canaan to be buried with his forefathers. Joseph swore to do as his father asked of him. Not too long afterward, Israel had fallen ill, losing much of his vision. When Joseph came to visit his father, he brought with him his two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh. Israel declared that they would be heirs to the inheritance of the house of Israel, as if they were his own children, just as Reuben and Simeon were. Then Israel laid his right hand on the younger Ephraim 's head and his left hand on the eldest Manasseh 's head and blessed Joseph. However, Joseph was displeased that his father 's right hand was not on the head of his firstborn, so he switched his father 's hands. But Israel refused saying, "but truly his younger brother shall be greater than he. '' A declaration he made, just as Israel himself was to his firstborn brother Esau. Then Israel called all of his sons in and prophesied their blessings or curses to all twelve of them in order of their ages. (Genesis 47: 29 -- 49: 32)
Afterward, Israel died and the family, including the Egyptians, mourned him seventy days. Israel was embalmed and a great ceremonial journey to Canaan was prepared by Joseph. He led the servants of Pharaoh, and the elders of the houses Israel and Egypt beyond the Jordan River to Atad where they observed seven days of mourning. Their lamentation was so great that it caught the attention of surrounding Canaanites who remarked "This is a deep mourning of the Egyptians. '' This spot was then named Abel Mizraim. Then they buried him in the cave of Machpelah, the property of Abraham when he bought it from the Hittites. (Genesis 49: 33 -- 50: 14)
Jacob, through his two wives and his two concubines had twelve biological sons; Reuben (Genesis 29: 32), Simeon (Genesis 29: 33), Levi (Genesis 29: 34), Judah (Genesis 29: 35), Dan (Genesis 30: 5), Naphtali (Genesis 30: 7), Gad (Genesis 30: 10), Asher (Genesis 30: 12), Issachar (Genesis 30: 17), Zebulun (Genesis 30: 19), Joseph (Genesis 30: 23) and Benjamin (Genesis 35: 18) and at least one daughter, Dinah (if there were other daughters, they are not mentioned in the Genesis story) (Genesis 30: 21). In addition, Jacob also adopted the two sons of Joseph, Manasseh and Ephraim. (Genesis 48: 5)
The offspring of Jacob 's sons became the tribes of Israel following the Exodus, when the Israelites conquered and settled in the Land of Israel.
There are two opinions in the Midrash as to how old Rebekah was at the time of her marriage and, consequently, at the twins ' birth. According to the traditional counting cited by Rashi, Isaac was 37 years old at the time of the Binding of Isaac, and news of Rebekah 's birth reached Abraham immediately after that event. In that case, since Isaac was 60 when Jacob and Essau were born and they had been married for 20 years, then Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebekah (Gen. 25: 20), making Rebekah 3 years old at the time of her marriage, and 23 years old at the birth of Jacob and Essau. According to the second opinion, Rebekah was 14 years old at the time of their marriage, and 34 years old at the birth of Jacob and Essau. In either case, Isaac and Rebekah were married for 20 years before Jacob and Esau were born. The Midrash says that during Rebekah 's pregnancy whenever she would pass a house of Torah study, Jacob would struggle to come out; whenever she would pass a house of idolatry, Esau would agitate to come out.
Rashi explained that Isaac, when blessing Jacob instead of Esau, smelled the heavenly scent of Gan Eden (Paradise) when Jacob entered his room and, in contrast, perceived Gehenna opening beneath Esau when the latter entered the room, showing him that he had been deceived all along by Esau 's show of piety.
When Laban planned to deceive Jacob into marrying Leah instead of Rachel, the Midrash recounts that both Jacob and Rachel suspected that Laban would pull such a trick; Laban was known as the "Aramean '' (deceiver), and changed Jacob 's wages ten times during his employ (Genesis 31: 7). The couple therefore devised a series of signs by which Jacob could identify the veiled bride on his wedding night. But when Rachel saw her sister being taken out to the wedding canopy, her heart went out to her for the public shame Leah would suffer if she were exposed. Rachel therefore gave Leah the signs so that Jacob would not realize the switch.
Jacob had still another reason for grieving the loss of Joseph. God had promised to him: "If none of your sons dies during your lifetime, you may look upon it as a token that you will not be put in (Hell of) Gehenna after your death. '' Thinking Joseph to be dead, Jacob had his own destiny to lament because he considered that he was doomed to that Hell.
Jewish apocalyptic literature of the Hellenistic period includes many ancient texts with narratives about Jacob, many times with details different from Genesis. The more important are the book of Jubilees and the Book of Biblical Antiquities. Jacob is also the protagonist of the Testament of Jacob, of the Ladder of Jacob and of the Prayer of Joseph, which interpret the experience of this Patriarch in the context of merkabah mysticism.
The Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite see Jacob 's dream as a prophecy of the Incarnation of the Logos, whereby Jacob 's ladder is understood as a symbol of the Theotokos (Virgin Mary), who, according to Orthodox theology, united heaven and earth in her womb. The biblical account of this vision (Genesis 28: 10 -- 17) is one of the standard Old Testament readings at Vespers on Great Feasts of the Theotokos.
The Catholic church considers Jacob as a Saint along with other biblical patriarchs. Along with other patriarchs his feast day is celebrated in the Byzantine rite of the Catholic Church on the Second Sunday before the Advent (December 11 -- 17), under the title the Sunday of the Forefathers.
Yaqub (Arabic: يَعْقُوب , translit. Yaʿqūb; also later Isra'il, Arabic: إِسْرَآئِیل (ˈisraāˈiyl); Classical / Qur'anic Arabic: إِسْرَآءِیْل (ˈisraāãˈiyl)), also known as Jacob in the Old Testament, is recognized in Islam as a prophet who received inspiration from God. He is acknowledged as a patriarch of Islam. Muslims believe that he preached the same monotheistic faith as his forefathers ʾIbrāhīm, ʾIsḥāq and Ismā'īl. Jacob is mentioned 16 times in the Qur'an. In the majority of these references, Jacob is mentioned alongside fellow prophets and patriarchs as an ancient and pious prophet. According to the Qur'an, Jacob remained in the company of the elect throughout his life. (38: 47) The Qur'an specifically mentions that Jacob was guided (6: 84) and inspired (4: 163) and was chosen to enforce the awareness of the Hereafter. (38: 46) Jacob is described as a good - doer (21: 72) and the Qur'an further makes it clear that God inspired Jacob to contribute towards purification and hold the contact prayer. (21: 73) Jacob is further described as being resourceful and a possessor of great vision (38: 45) and is further spoken of as being granted a "tongue (voice) of truthfulness to be heard ''. (19: 50)
Of the life of Jacob, the Qur'an narrates two especially important events. The first is the role he plays in the story of his son Joseph. The Qur'an narrates the story of Joseph in detail, and Jacob, being Joseph 's father, is mentioned thrice and is referenced another 25 times. In the narrative, Jacob does not trust some of his older sons (12: 11, 18, 23) because they do not respect him. (12: 8, 16 -- 17) Jacob 's prophetic nature is evident from his foreknowledge of Joseph 's future greatness (12: 6), his foreboding and response to the supposed death of Joseph (12: 13, 18) and in his response to the sons ' plight in Egypt. (12: 83, 86 -- 87, 96) Islamic literature fleshes out the narrative of Jacob, and mentions that his wives included Rachel. Jacob is later mentioned in the Qur'an in the context of the promise bestowed to Zechariah, regarding the birth of John the Baptist. (19: 6) Jacob 's second mention is in the Qur'an's second chapter. As Jacob lay on his deathbed, he asked his twelve sons to testify their faith to him before he departed from this world to the next. (2: 132) Each son testified in front of Jacob that they would promise to remain Muslim (in submission to God) until the day of their death, that is they would surrender their wholeselves to God alone and would worship only Him.
In contrast to the Judeo - Christian view of Jacob, one main difference is that the story of Jacob 's blessing, in which he deceives Isaac, is not accepted in Islam. The Qur'an makes it clear that Jacob was blessed by God as a prophet and, therefore, Muslims believe that his father, being a prophet as well, also knew of his son 's greatness. Jacob is also cited in the Hadith as an example of one who was patient and trusting in God in the face of suffering.
The life of Jacob as depicted in the Bible also influenced and inspired many non-religious people. Critics tracing the history of the Love Story note the story of Jacob and Rachel as one of the earliest examples of this genre.
During the Second World War, the French writer André Malraux worked on his last novel, The Struggle with the Angel, the title drawn from the story of Jacob. The manuscript was destroyed by the Gestapo after Malraux 's capture in 1944. A surviving first section, titled The Walnut Trees of Altenburg, was published after the war.
According to Steven Feldman of the Center for Online Judaic Studies, most scholars would date the stories of the patriarchs to the period of the monarchy. Recent excavations in the Timna Valley dating copper mining to the 10th century BCE also discovered what may be the earliest camel bones found in Israel or even outside the Arabian peninsula, dating to around 930 BCE. This is seen as evidence that the stories of Abraham, Joseph, Jacob, and Esau were written after this time.
Nahum M. Sarna indicates that an inability to precisely date the patriarchs, according to the present state of knowledge does not necessarily invalidate the historicity of the narratives. William F. Albright maintained that the narratives contained accurate details of an earlier period.
Scholars such as Thomas L. Thompson view the patriarchical narratives, including the life of Jacob, as late (6th and 5th centuries BCE) literary compositions that have ideological and theological purposes but are unreliable for historical reconstruction of the presettlement period of Israel 's past. In Thompson 's The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives, he suggests that the patriarchal narratives arose in a response to some present situation, expressed as an imaginative picture of the past to embody present hope.
Gerhard von Rad, in his Old Testament Theology, seems to take a middle view, explaining that the patriarch "saga '' describes actual events subsequently interpreted by the community through its own experience. It is neither entirely mythical, nor strictly "historical '', according to the present understanding of the term. Goldingay cites R.J Coggins ' analogy of looking to Genesis for the history of ancient Canaan as similar to reading Hamlet in order to learn Danish history.
|
what is the 2nd most viewed video on youtube | List of most - viewed YouTube videos - wikipedia
YouTube is an American video - sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. Since its establishment in 2005, the website has featured a "most viewed '' section, which lists the most viewed videos on the site. Although the most viewed videos were initially viral videos, such as Evolution of Dance and Charlie Bit My Finger, the most viewed videos were increasingly related to music videos. In fact, since Lady Gaga 's "Bad Romance '', every video that has reached the top of the "most viewed YouTube videos '' list has been a music video. Although the most viewed videos are no longer listed on the site, reaching the top of the list is still considered a tremendous feat.
In November 2005, a Nike advertisement featuring Brazilian soccer star Ronaldinho became the first video to reach one million views. In December 2012, "Gangnam Style '' became the first video to reach one billion views. By June 2015, only "Baby '' had managed to reach this threshold, but by October 2015, a total of ten videos had done so. The number of billion - views videos reached 100 in February 2018, and in July 2018, "November Rain '' by Guns N ' Roses became the first video created before the YouTube era to reach this threshold.
In May 2014 "Gangnam Style '' became the first video to exceed two billion views. "Despacito '' became the first video to reach three billion views in August 2017, and since has surpassed four billion in October 2017, and five billion in April 2018. As of August 2018, 24 videos have exceeded two billion views; six of which exceed three billion views and one of which exceeds five billion views. "See You Again '' became the second video to reach three billion views in August 2017, followed by "Gangnam Style '' in November 2017.
As of August 2018, the fastest videos to reach the one billion view mark are "Hello '' (87 days), "Despacito '' (96 days), "Shape of You '' (97 days), "Mi Gente '' (103 days) and "Échame la Culpa '' (111 days).
The fastest videos to reach two billion views are "Despacito '' (154 days), "Shape of You '' (187 days) and "Chantaje '' (379 days), and the fastest videos to reach three billion views are "Despacito '' (203 days), "Shape of You '' (342 days) and "See You Again '' (852 days).
As of August 2018, Justin Bieber is the only artist to have five videos exceeding one billion views, while Katy Perry, Bruno Mars and Nicky Jam have four. Only seven non-music videos are featured in the top 100 most - viewed, with the channel Get Movies having two. Taylor Swift, Katy Perry, Ed Sheeran and Shakira are the only artists to have two videos exceeding two billion views.
The following table lists the top 100 most viewed videos on YouTube, with each total rounded to the nearest 10 million views, as well as the creator and date of publication to YouTube.
The following table lists the current top 5 most viewed YouTube videos uploaded in each year, with each total rounded to the nearest ten million views, as well as the uploader and date of publication to YouTube.
As of August 2018, Katy Perry and Adele have the most appearances on the list with three each. Only Linkin Park (2007), icanrockyourworld (2007) and Luis Fonsi (2017) have two videos in the top 5 of a single year, with both the English and French versions of Gummibär 's The Gummy Bear Song being in the top five videos of 2007. Only three videos on the list are not music videos.
The following table lists the last 15 videos to become YouTube 's most viewed video, from October 2005 to the present.
* The approximate number of views each video had when it became YouTube 's most viewed video.
Timeline of most viewed videos (Oct 2005 - Aug 2018)
No 1 most viewed video (Oct 2005 - Jun 2006)
No 1 most viewed video (Apr 2006 - Jan 2010)
No 1 most viewed video (Oct 2009 - Jan 2013)
No 1 most viewed video (Jan 2012 - Aug 2018)
|
number of seats in rajya sabha in up | List of Rajya Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh - wikipedia
The Rajya Sabha (meaning the "Council of States '') is the upper house of the Parliament of India. Uttar Pradesh state elects 31 members and they are indirectly elected by the state legislators of Uttar Pradesh. Members are elected for six years and 1 / 3 of members are retired after every two years. The number of seats, allocated to the party, are determined by the number of seats a party possesses during nomination and the party nominates a member to be voted on. Elections within the state legislatures are held using Single transferable vote with proportional representation.
See Current RS members from Uttar Pradesh
This is the term wise list of current and former Rajya Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh. Source: Parliament of India (Rajya Sabha)
Note -
The list is incomplete.
|
where does fast and furious 2 take place | 2 Fast 2 Furious - wikipedia
2 Fast 2 Furious (alternatively known as The Fast and the Furious 2) is a 2003 American action film directed by John Singleton, produced by Neal H. Moritz and written by Michael Brandt and Derek Haas. It is the second installment in The Fast and the Furious franchise, and a sequel to The Fast and the Furious (2001). The film stars Paul Walker, Tyrese Gibson, Chris "Ludacris '' Bridges, Eva Mendes, and Cole Hauser. The film follows former cop Brian O'Conner, who teams up with Roman Pearce and U.S. Customs Service agent Monica Fuentes to bring down drug lord Carter Verone.
2 Fast 2 Furious marks the only film in the franchise not to feature Vin Diesel, who rejected the project in order to star in xXx (2002). The film saw a majority of shooting being done on location in Miami, and was released on June 6, 2003, grossing over $236 million worldwide from an estimated $76 million budget. The film was followed by The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift in 2006.
After letting Dominic Toretto escape from the authorities, Brian O'Conner relocates from Los Angeles to Miami and makes a living by participating in illegal street races. Tej Parker organizes a local street race, involving Suki, Orange Julius, and Slap Jack, however, the race lacks a fourth driver. Tej calls Brian, who agrees to be the fourth needed for the race. Brian wins, giving a few thousand of his winnings to Tej to show his gratitude. The police then arrive, forcing all the racers to flee. Watched by undercover U.S. Customs Service agent Monica Fuentes, Brian is caught by the agents. He is taken into custody, but given a deal by his former boss, FBI agent Bilkins, and Customs agent Markham, to go undercover and bring down Argentinian drug lord, Carter Verone in exchange for the erasure of his criminal record. Brian agrees, but only if he is given permission to choose his own partner. This prompts him to travel to Barstow, California, where he enlists the help of Roman Pearce, his childhood friend who served jail time for housing stolen cars in a garage. Roman, currently on parole, blames Brian for his arrest, but reluctantly agrees to help, but only for the same deal Brian was offered. Roman and Brian are later hired by Verone, who tasks the duo to obtain a package from a confiscated car located in a lot. Markham, who mistakenly thinks that the duo are trying to run away, follows them to the lot. However, Roman relents, and shoots at Markham to help maintain his cover. He later confronts him for interference with the mission. Brian is able to gain knowledge of the plan, however, and tells Bilkins that Verone is reportedly aiming to launder his money in Miami, before escaping on his private jet.
Later, the team challenges a pair of muscle car drivers they raced when competing for Verone 's hiring, for pink slips. Despite engine and power output handicaps, Brian and Roman manage to win the race and the other two cars. Meanwhile, Roman confronts Brian about his attraction to Monica and the constant threat of Verone 's men. However, the two men patch up their differences, and focus on completing the mission.
After witnessing Verone torture Detective Whitworth of the Miami Police Department into giving them a window of opportunity to make their getaway, Brian and Roman are warned by Monica that they will be killed once the drop is made. However, Markham refuses to call off the job, claiming that is their one chance to catch Verone.
On the day of the mission, Brian and Roman begin transporting duffel bags of Verone 's money, with Verone 's right - hand men, Enrique and Roberto, riding alongside to accompany the duo. Before the window is set, Whitworth decides to call in the police to move in for an arrest of the drivers of the cars used by Brian and Roman. This results in a high - speed chase across the city. The duo leads the police to a warehouse, where a "scramble '' by dozens of street racers organized by Tej disorients the police. Following the scramble, the police manage to pull over the cars, only to find out that they were driven by Tej and Suki. As it turns out, the duo had switched cars and had escaped in the two muscle cars they had won earlier.
As Brian approaches the destination point in a Yenko Camaro, Enrique tells him to take the Tarpon Point Marina exit, instead of heading to the airfield. Meanwhile, Roman gets rid of Roberto by using an improvised ejector seat in his Dodge Challenger powered by nitrous oxide. At the airfield, Customs agents have Verone 's plane and convoy surrounded, only to discover they have been duped into a decoy maneuver while Verone is at a boatyard several miles away. Verone reveals he knew Monica was an undercover agent, and purposely gave her wrong information on the destination point. When Brian arrives at the Marina, Verone forces Monica onto his private yacht and orders Enrique to kill Brian. As Enrique prepares to kill him, Brian 's ejector seat fails, but Roman suddenly appears and helps Brian to incapacitate Enrique. Verone makes his escape, but Brian and Roman use the Camaro to drive off a ramp, crashing on top of the yacht. The duo manages to apprehend Verone and save Monica.
With their crimes pardoned, Brian and Roman ponder on what to do next in Miami, with the former suggesting starting a garage. They are revealed to have taken some of Verone 's money for themselves.
The cast also contains appearances from Devon Aoki as Suki, a friend of Tej. Thom Barry reprises his role as Bilkins, and James Remar features as Markham, with the duo overseeing the operation against Verone. Amaury Nolasco and Michael Ealy act as Orange Julius and Slap Jack respectively, street racers who engage in the first race, and help Brian and Roman evade capture. Mark Boone appears as Whitworth, a corrupt Miami Police Department detective. Mo Gallini and Roberto Sanchez also feature as Enrique and Roberto, Verone 's henchman. Producer Neal H. Moritz appeared in a cameo as a police officer.
Plans to make a sequel came about after the box office success of The Fast and the Furious, which grossed over $200 million worldwide. John Singleton had seen the first film and was awed by it, saying: "When I saw The Fast and the Furious, I was like, ' Damn, why did n't I think of that? ' Growing up in South Central L.A., we had street races all the time. '' Singleton 's rave reaction of the film as well as the culture of street racing in general influenced his decision to direct the sequel. The director also claimed that the concept of street racing could be something young audiences can relate to.
The screenplay was written by Michael Brandt and Derek Haas, along with Gary Scott Thompson (the writer from the first film). There were two film treatments submitted early on, one of which did not involve Vin Diesel 's character in case he does not intend to return for the sequel. Singleton credited Top Gun as a major influence for the film, particularly with regard to the action sequences.
Vin Diesel was offered $25 million to return in the sequel as Dominic Toretto. However, he refused after reading the screenplay as he felt that its potential was inferior compared to that of its predecessor; rather, he chose to appear in The Chronicles of Riddick. According to Variety magazine in 2015 he was less taken with what the screenwriters had in mind for the film, "They did n't take a Francis Ford Coppola approach to it. They approached it like they did sequels in the ' 80s and ' 90s, when they would drum up a new story unrelated for the most part, and slap the same name on it. '' However, Diesel reflected on his decision in a July 2014 report from Uproxx, saying: "I would 've said, ' Do n't walk away from it just because the script sucked in 2 Fast 2 Furious because there 's an obligation to the audience to fight, no matter what, to make that film as good as possible. ' (...) I might have had a little bit more patience or belief in the long - term of it. ''
Paul Walker, who had just finished Timeline at the time, reprised his role in the second picture as Brian O'Conner. Tyrese Gibson, then known mononymously as Tyrese, also became a part of the cast having previously acted in Singleton 's Baby Boy, which was the singer 's feature film acting debut; he portrayed Roman Pearce. Ja Rule, another prominent rap artist who appeared in The Fast and the Furious, was originally tapped for the role of Tej Parker. Ja Rule was offered $500,000 for the role, which was more than what he had been paid to appear in The Fast and the Furious, $15,000. According to Singleton, "Ja got too big for himself. He turned it down. He turned down a half a million dollars. (...) He was acting like he was too big to be in the sequel. He would n't return calls. '' The director then hired Chris "Ludacris '' Bridges, a relatively unknown rap artist at the time as a substitute. Bridges would later rose to prominence for appearing in the film and star in later films such as Crash and Hustle & Flow. Additional cast also included Cole Hauser as key villain Carter Verone, who appeared in Singleton 's Higher Learning; Eva Mendes as undercover agent Monica Fuentes; and Devon Aoki as Suki, the sole female driver in the film.
Principal photography began in the fall of 2002, and Matthew F. Leonetti served as the director of photography. Filming was done mostly in various parts of Florida such as Miami Beach, Seven Mile Bridge, and Homestead Air Force Base. Hauser 's character 's mansion was shot in Coral Gables, which was owned by Sylvester Stallone.
A car enthusiast himself, Walker drove his personal Nissan Skyline GT - R model R - 34 in the film 's opening scenes. Aoki did not have a driver 's license or any driving experience prior to the film 's production, and took driving lessons during filming; she drove a pink 2001 Honda S2000 AP1 in the film. Gibson drove a convertible Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution VII, while Michael Ealy drove a Toyota Supra Turbo MkIV model JZA80 that had belonged to Walker in The Fast and the Furious.
The musical score was composed by David Arnold. The soundtrack was released on May 27, 2003 on Def Jam Recordings, the same record label that Ludacris was signed to.
2 Fast 2 Furious earned $50,472,480 in its U.S. opening in 3,408 theaters, ranking first for the weekend. In its 133 days in release, the film reached a peak release of 3,418 theaters in the U.S. and earned $127,154,901 domestically. The film had the 15th largest domestic gross of 2003 and the 16th largest worldwide gross of 2003; combined with the foreign gross of $109,195,760, the film earned $236,350,661 worldwide.
On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 36 % based on 160 reviews, with an average rating of 4.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Beautiful people and beautiful cars in a movie that wo n't tax the brain cells ''. Metacritic assessed, based on 35 critics, a weighted average score of 38 out of 100, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews '' among the sampled critics.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave 3 / 4 and said, "It does n't have a brain in its head, but it 's made with skill and style and, boy, it is fast and furious. ''
The movie received two Razzie Award nominations including Worst Remake or Sequel and Worst Excuse for an Actual Movie (All Concept / No Content).
|
snow white and the huntsman movie heroine name | Snow White and the Huntsman - wikipedia
Snow White and the Huntsman is a 2012 American fantasy film based on the German fairy tale "Snow White '' compiled by the Brothers Grimm. The film is the directorial debut of Rupert Sanders. The screenplay was written by Evan Daugherty, John Lee Hancock, and Hossein Amini, from a screen story by Daugherty. In the film 's retelling of the tale, Snow White grows up imprisoned by her evil stepmother, Queen Ravenna, a powerful sorceress. After Snow White escapes into the forest, Ravenna tells Eric, the Huntsman that she will bring back his dead wife if he captures Snow White.
The cast includes Kristen Stewart as Snow White, Charlize Theron as Queen Ravenna, Chris Hemsworth as Eric, the huntsman, Sam Claflin as William, Snow White 's childhood friend, and Bob Hoskins as the dwarf seer in his final film appearances. The film received two Academy Award nominations for Best Visual Effects and Best Costume Design at the 85th Academy Awards. It was a success at the box office, earning $396.6 million worldwide against a $170 million budget. Although critics praised the production design, visual effects, Theron and Hemsworth 's performances, musical score, and action sequences; Stewart and Claflin 's performances received mixed reviews, and the screenplay was heavily criticized.
A prequel / sequel, titled The Huntsman: Winter 's War, directed by the first film 's visual effects supervisor Cedric Nicolas - Troyan, was released on April 22, 2016, with Stewart (only through the use of archive footage), Hemsworth, Theron, Claflin, and Nick Frost reprising their roles.
While admiring a rose blooming in the winter, Queen Eleanor of the kingdom of Tabor pricks her finger on one of its thorns. Three drops of blood fall onto the snow - covered ground, and she wishes for a daughter as white as the snow, with lips as red as the blood, hair as black as a raven 's wings and a heart as strong and defiant as the rose. Queen Eleanor gives birth to her daughter, Snow White, but soon after falls ill and dies. After her death, Snow White 's father, King Magnus, and his army battle an invading dark army of demonic glass soldiers. Upon rescuing their prisoner Ravenna, he becomes enchanted with her beauty and marries her.
Ravenna is in fact a powerful sorceress and the Dark Army 's master. On their wedding night, Magnus, enchanted, throws Ravenna into the bed and proceeds to make love. Ravenna confesses there was a king much like Magnus that hurt her. During foreplay, she declares she can not be a weak queen and kills Magnus before unleashing her invading army upon the kingdom. Snow White 's childhood friend William and his father Duke Hammond escape the castle but are unable to rescue her, and she is captured by Ravenna 's brother Finn and locked away in the north tower of the castle for many years.
Tabor is ruined under Queen Ravenna 's rule as she periodically drains the youth from the kingdom 's young women in order to maintain a spell cast over her as a child by her mother which allows her to keep her youthful beauty. When Snow White comes of age, Queen Ravenna learns from her Magic Mirror, in the form of a golden, reflective liquid shaped like a man, that her stepdaughter Snow White is destined to destroy her unless Queen Ravenna consumes the young girl 's heart, which will make her truly immortal. Queen Ravenna orders Finn to bring her Snow White 's heart, but Snow White escapes into the Dark Forest, where Ravenna has no power. Queen Ravenna makes a bargain with Eric the Huntsman, a widower and drunkard, to capture Snow White, promising to bring his wife back to life in exchange. The Huntsman tracks down Snow White, but when Finn reveals that Queen Ravenna does not actually have the power to do what she promised, the Huntsman fights him and his men while Snow White runs away. When the Huntsman catches up with her, she promises him gold if he will escort her to Duke Hammond 's castle. Meanwhile, Finn gathers another band of men to find her, and Duke Hammond and his son William learn that she is alive. William leaves the castle on his own to find her, joining Finn 's band as a bowman.
The Huntsman and Snow White leave the Dark Forest, where she saves his life by charming a huge troll that attacks them. They make their way to a fishing village populated by women who have disfigured themselves to save their own lives, becoming useless to Queen Ravenna, who wants to use their beauty and youth to extend and prolong hers, as she does with Gretta whilst Snow White is still imprisoned. While there, the Huntsman learns Snow White 's true identity, and initially leaves her in the care of the women. He soon returns when he sees the village being burned down by Finn 's men. Snow White and the Huntsman evade them and eventually meet a band of eight dwarves named Beith, Muir, Quert, Coll, Duir, Gort, Nion, and Gus. The blind Muir perceives that Snow White is the daughter of the former king, and the only person who can defeat Ravenna and end her reign.
As they travel through a fairy sanctuary, Snow White encounters a magical reindeer that was only in tales of legend, but as the reindeer and Snow White are about to embrace, the group is attacked by Finn and his men. The Huntsman battles Finn and eventually kills him, and William reveals himself and helps defeat Finn 's men. However, Gus is killed when he sacrifices himself to take an arrow meant for Snow White. William joins the group which continues the journey to Hammond 's castle.
Halfway to Duke Hammond 's castle, Queen Ravenna disguises herself as William and tempts Snow White into eating a poisoned apple, but is forced to flee when the Huntsman and William discover her. William kisses Snow White, whom he believes to be dead, and does not notice a tear fall from her eye. She is taken to Hammond 's castle. As she lies in repose, the Huntsman professes his regret for not saving Snow White, who reminds him of his late wife, Sara; and he kisses her, not noticing a second tear coming from her other eye falling. The spell broken by the love of two men she treasures, Snow White awakens and walks into the courtyard; rallying the Duke 's army to mount a siege against Queen Ravenna.
The dwarves infiltrate the castle through the sewers and open the gates, allowing the Duke 's army inside. Snow White confronts Queen Ravenna, but is overpowered. Queen Ravenna is about to kill Snow White and consume her heart. Eventually, Snow White uses a move the Huntsman taught her and mortally wounds Queen Ravenna, and Duke Hammond 's army is victorious. With Queen Ravenna defeated, the kingdom once again enjoys peace and harmony as Snow White is crowned queen.
Evan Daugherty initially wrote the screenplay in 2003, when he was studying at NYU. At the time reboots of fairy tales were not a popular film genre and according to Daugherty "no one really knew what to do with it '' More problems came when the release of Terry Gilliam 's The Brothers Grimm (2005) flopped at the box office which caused potential buyers to be hesitant about the script. The script was finally greenlit after the success of Tim Burton 's Alice in Wonderland (2010).
Film producers considered casting a lesser - known actress for the role of Snow White, with mention of Riley Keough, Felicity Jones, Bella Heathcote, Alicia Vikander, and Rachel Maxwell as possible picks. This idea became less likely as known actresses Dakota Fanning and Kristen Stewart were later rumored to be short - listed for the role. On March 4, 2011 a series of tweets from co-producer Palak Patel confirmed that Stewart was offered the role. Winona Ryder was initially considered to play Queen Ravenna, before the role went to Charlize Theron. Tom Hardy was supposedly first offered the role of Eric, the Huntsman, but turned down the offer. The role was then apparently offered to Michael Fassbender, and then Johnny Depp, but both claim to have declined it. Viggo Mortensen was said to have been in negotiations with Universal for the part, but supposedly turned down the role, too. It was claimed that Hugh Jackman was offered the role, but that he declined. In 2011, Thor star Chris Hemsworth was eventually cast in the role of the Huntsman. The Dwarfs were played by actors of average height who had their faces digitally superimposed onto small bodies. This caused a protest from the Little People of America.
Principal photography took place in the United Kingdom. The beach scenes were predominantly filmed in Pembrokeshire, on the Marloes Sands beach near the village of Marloes between September 26 and 29, 2011. Though the beach was not closed to the public during filming, as filming progressed, certain parts were advised to be off limits. A computer - generated castle was set on nearby Gateholm island. A field above the beach was used for production purposes, and a special wooden ramp was built for vehicles and horses to access the beach. The film used academic consultants from the University of Chichester and the University of Oxford for back - up research on fairy tales and medieval battles. The English band Florence and the Machine recorded "Breath of Life '' exclusively for the film, which was reportedly inspired by Theron 's character Queen Ravenna.
The film had its premiere on May 14, 2012, at the Empire, Leicester Square, in London.
The film was released on DVD and Blu - ray in Region 1 on September 11, 2012, with both the theatrical version (127 minutes) and an extended version (132 minutes) available on both formats. The film was released on the same formats in Region 2 on October 1, 2012.
Snow White and the Huntsman earned $155,332,381 in North America, along with $241,260,448 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $396,592,829. In North America, the film earned $1,383,000 from midnight showings. For its opening day, the film topped the box office with $20,468,525. It debuted in first place at the box office during its opening weekend with $56,217,700. It is the seventeenth highest - grossing 2012 film. Outside North America, Snow White and the Huntsman had an opening of $39.3 million, ranking second overall for the weekend behind Men in Black 3; however, it ranked number 1 in 30 countries.
Snow White and the Huntsman received mixed reviews from critics. The film has a 48 % "rotten '' score on Rotten Tomatoes based on 221 reviews, with an average rating of 5.6 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "While it offers an appropriately dark take on the fairy tale that inspired it, Snow White & the Huntsman is undone by uneven acting, problematic pacing, and a confused script. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 57 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. CinemaScore polls conducted revealed the average grade that filmgoers gave the film was a "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
David Edelstein of New York praised the film 's revisionist tone and said the film was "strongly influenced by a lot of smart, feminist thinking ''. Roger Ebert gave the film 3.5 stars out of 4. A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised Theron 's performance and also wrote, "Though it is an ambitious -- at times mesmerizing -- application of the latest cinematic technology, the movie tries to recapture some of the menace of the stories that used to be told to scare children rather than console them. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "Ravenna hates living in a world where men can feed on women 's beauty and then toss them away. She 's a fascist of feminism, and Theron 's acting has the blood of operatic anger coursing through it. '' Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times said the film is, "an absolute wonder to watch and creates a warrior princess for the ages. But what this revisionist fairy tale does not give us is a passionate love -- its kisses are as chaste as the snow is white. '' Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers called it "a visual marvel '' while noting that Stewart "morphs convincingly from a skittish girl into a determined warrior princess. '' MSN news said that Stewart "grows into her character, it seems, and eventually got this reviewer completely on her side. Colin Covert of the Minneapolis Star Tribune gave the film 4 / 4 stars. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian said that while the film is "less jokey than the recent Mirror Mirror '', "this Twilightified fairytale has the same basic problem, '' and that, "The result is tangled and overblown. '' Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle called it "(a) slow, boring film that has no charm and is highlighted only by a handful of special effects and Charlize Theron 's truly evil queen. '' Michael O'Sullivan of the Washington Post also gave the film a negative review: "Overlong, overcrowded, overstimulating and with an over-the - top performance by Charlize Theron as the evil queen Ravenna, the movie is a virtual orchard of toxic excess, starting with the unnecessarily sprawling cast of characters. '' Lisa Kennedy of the Denver Post gave the film two out of four stars and said, "Only Bob Hoskins as the blind seer Muir comes close to making us care. We can almost glean Snow White 's heroic possibilities through his clouded eyes. As much as we 'd like to, we certainly ca n't from Stewart 's efforts. '' Scott Foundas states that "Stewart 's Snow White... pouts her lips, bats her bedroom eyes, and scarcely seems to have more on her mind than who might take her to the senior prom -- let alone the destiny of an entire kingdom. '' Richard Roeper gave the movie a B+, calling it "Vastly superior to Mirror, Mirror '', and praising Theron and Stewart 's performances.
A sequel was planned, with director Rupert Sanders in talks to return. In August 2012, The Hollywood Reporter reported that the sequel was shelved in the aftermath of the scandal involving Sanders cheating on his wife with Stewart and that a spin - off film concentrating on the Huntsman was planned instead, which would not star Stewart. Universal announced a few days later that they were not shelving the sequel. A 2012 report stated that Universal has authorized a sequel and Stewart was set to reprise her role, but without Sanders to return as the director due to the scandal. The script was written and production was set to begin in 2013.
The film was originally scheduled for release in 2015. In September 2013, Chris Hemsworth stated he did not know anything about the sequel while speaking to E!. On June 4, 2014, Deadline reported that Frank Darabont, Gavin O'Connor and Andrés Muschietti were on the shortlist to direct the sequel. On June 26, 2014, Deadline reported that Darabont was in talks to direct the sequel. Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and Legendary Pictures were set to co-finance the film with Universal but dropped out and were replaced by Perfect World Pictures. On July 31, 2014, the project was described as a prequel titled The Huntsman scheduled for April 22, 2016, which would not star Stewart as Snow White. In January 2015, Darabont left the project as director, but the third leading role was set with Emily Blunt. It was later announced that Cedric Nicolas - Troyan would take over as the new director for the film. Nick Frost will return as Dwarf Nion and Jessica Chastain will star. On March 18, 2015, Rob Brydon, Alexandra Roach and Sheridan Smith were added to the cast as dwarves. TheWrap confirmed on May 7, 2015, that Sam Claflin would return as William in this sequel.
It was later revealed that the film would feature Ravenna 's sister, the Ice Queen, and would reveal the origins of the Huntsman, while also continuing the story of the first film.
|
who does brooke end up with in one tree hill | Brooke Davis - Wikipedia
Brooke Penelope Davis is a fictional character from the CW television series One Tree Hill, portrayed by Sophia Bush. Initially introduced as the best friend of the show 's original female lead, Peyton Sawyer, throughout her experiences, Brooke grows from a wild and generally carefree girl into a more mature and grounded young woman. Along with Peyton, she becomes a key player in the series ' central love triangle involving Lucas Scott. In later seasons, however, her character arc shifts its attention to her career as a fashion designer at Clothes Over Bros, as well as her romance and eventual marriage to Julian Baker, with whom she would have twin sons, Davis and Jude Baker.
Brooke Penelope Davis Baker was born at New Brunswick County Hospital in Tree Hill, North Carolina, to parents Robert Theodore "Ted '' Davis, Jr. and Victoria Anne Davis (née Montgomery) on March 4, 1989. She has been Tree Hill 's it - girl and has been described as the wealthy and popular captain of the cheerleading squad of Tree Hill High. The lack of authority in her life caused Brooke 's high school years to be full of parties, drinking, and promiscuity. She shares a close bond with first - love Lucas Scott, and has also formed many close friendships. Peyton Sawyer is her best friend since the age of eight; she is also friends with former roommates Haley James and Rachel Gatina, Haley 's husband Nathan Scott, Mouth McFadden, and former assistant Millicent Huxtable.
Karen Roe, Lucas 's mother, was Brooke 's only mother figure growing up after she temporarily moved in with her when her parents left Tree Hill. Throughout her development, Brooke grows to become more independent and mature, partly due to her relationship with Lucas. Although the two initially broke up due to a love triangle involving Peyton, Brooke later forgave both of them, remaining close with the two. Upon reaching adulthood, Brooke becomes a successful fashion designer for her own company.
Brooke 's relationships with her mother and foster daughter are shown to play a significant role in her character development. In the fifth and sixth seasons, her long - estranged mother Victoria returns, but remains cold and detached. Eventually, Brooke is motivated to become a good mother herself, which prompts her to take in a teenage foster child named Samantha. Though Sam is initially resistant, the two eventually bond as Brooke proves herself to be a dedicated parent. Sam later leaves Brooke to live with her biological mother. Later on in the series, Brooke becomes a biological mother, giving birth to twin boys Davis and Jude Baker.
In season one, Brooke Davis is introduced as the captain of the Tree Hill High School cheerleaders. She takes a liking to Lucas Scott when he joins the school 's basketball team, attempting to pursue him in her usual, sexual advances. Lucas, however, is only interested in her best friend, Peyton Sawyer, and constantly turns down Brooke 's advances. After a drug incident involving Peyton, Lucas comes to realize that Brooke is actually a very loyal and caring person, eventually developing feelings and entering into a relationship with her. When Lucas realizes he still has feelings for Peyton, he and Peyton begin a non-sexual affair behind Brooke 's back.
Lucas breaks up with Brooke, but Peyton decides to end their secret romance because she feels guilty and does n't want to harm her relationship with her best friend. When Brooke finds out what really happened, however, she ends her friendship with Peyton and refuses to speak to her or to Lucas. During this time, Brooke experiences a pregnancy scare, eventually learning that her results were actually negative; however, in the heat of an argument with Lucas, she lies to him and tells him that she is pregnant with his child. When she comes clean about the truth, Brooke explains that she wanted to punish Lucas for cheating on her with Peyton. After uniting against Nicki (Jake Jagielski 's ex-girlfriend), Brooke and Peyton agree to a truce and slowly begin to rebuild their friendship.
At the start of the second season, Brooke is forced to grow up when her father loses his job, thus forcing the Davis family to sell their belongings and temporarily become destitute. Still hurt over the way things ended with Lucas, she begins relations with her neighbor, Felix Taggaro, who becomes a "friend with benefits. '' Later, things become strained between Brooke and Mouth when he tells her that he is in love with her, despite the fact that Brooke thinks of him as a "little brother. '' Meanwhile, she begins dating Felix after he promises to not break her heart as Lucas did.
During this time, Brooke decides to run for Tree Hill 's student body president against students who are much more studious, hard - working, and experienced. Even in the face of the dirty political campaign of her rival, Erica Marsh, she does n't back down and ends up winning the student election after Mouth delivers a touching recommendation speech to a packed auditorium for her. After the election, Brooke quickly repairs her friendship with Mouth and even befriends her defeated rival, Erica.
Toward the middle of the season, Brooke learns that her father was able to secure a new job and that her family is moving to California as a result. However, she is thrilled when she finds out that Lucas has convinced Brooke 's parents to let her live with Karen until the summer, where she will be staying in Lucas ' room as he is living with Dan. Meanwhile, Brooke discovers that it was Felix who spray - painted the word "DYKE '' on Peyton 's locker and immediately breaks up with him. After ending things with Felix, sexual tension begins to arise between Brooke and Lucas; however, after finding letters Lucas wrote to Peyton, Brooke believes that Lucas is still pining over Peyton and ultimately decides to just be friends with him. In the season finale, as Brooke is preparing to leave for the summer, Lucas kisses her and finally confesses how he really feels. Stunned and shattered all at the same time, Brooke leaves and is seen sitting in the taxi in tears in the episode 's final moments.
The season three premiere opens with Brooke returning from her summer vacation in California. Afraid of having her heart broken again, Brooke only agrees to date Lucas non-exclusively; at the same time, she pretends to have spent her summer with a number of other guys, though it is later revealed that she actually spent her summer writing eighty - two letters to Lucas, one letter for everyday, which she never sent. During their "non-exclusive '' arrangement, however, Lucas refuses to date anybody else in an effort to prove his loyalty to Brooke.
At the fantasy boy draft, Brooke chooses Chris Keller instead of Lucas as a way to get back at Rachel, thus causing Lucas to become angry with her. After finding out that her designs are displayed in the store 's windows, Brooke gets drunk and sleeps with Chris, with Lucas walking in on them and leaving heartbroken. In an effort to distract herself from Lucas and to mend her aching heart, Brooke launches her own clothing line, Clothes Over Bro 's. Later, Brooke finally gives Lucas the letters she wrote to him whilst on vacation, resulting in him forgiving her; the two subsequently confess their feelings for one another and enter into an exclusive relationship.
When Karen becomes engaged to Keith, Brooke offers to design her wedding dress but, after Keith 's death in the school shooting, Brooke attempts to help Lucas and Karen pick up the pieces of their lives. In the meantime, Brooke agrees to help Haley and Nathan in organizing their second wedding, becoming Haley 's maid of honor and the designer of her wedding dress. However, when Peyton reveals to Brooke that she has feelings for Lucas, again, at Nathan and Haley 's rehearsal dinner, Brooke becomes furious at her and promptly ends her friendship with a teary - eyed Peyton. At the actual wedding, things only become worse when Lucas, thinking Brooke already aware of the situation, accidentally lets it slip that Peyton kissed him during the school shooting. Clearly upset, Brooke and Lucas argue in private, with Brooke telling him that he never "let her all the way in. ''
As their love triangle begins to reassert itself, Brooke decides that she needs time to herself and breaks things off with Lucas, though she admits that she will always love him. With her friendship with Peyton now over, Brooke is invited to move in with Rachel. In the season finale, it is revealed that someone at Nathan and Haley 's wedding is pregnant, with the evidence largely pointing toward Brooke.
With the news of Brooke 's "pregnancy '' spreading around campus, the fourth season begins with pro-life advocates, calling themselves Clean Teens, pressuring Brooke to not terminate her pregnancy. However, it is soon revealed that Brooke has really been covering for her friend Haley. In an effort to get Brooke back into the dating pool, Rachel sets her up via an online dating site with a male model, Nick, under the guise of a female model named "Peyton. '' The plan goes awry when it is revealed that Nick is also the new English teacher at Tree Hill High; however, the two continue their relationship in secret. When Rachel catches wind of the affair, she informs Brooke that Nick hit on her. As a result, Brooke confronts him, but he denies the whole thing and her friendship with Rachel becomes strained. Upon learning that Rachel was telling the truth and that Nick is cheating on her with one of her own models, Brooke dumps him and reconciles with Rachel.
Around this time, Brooke realizes that she still is in love with Lucas; asking Lucas to be her date to the annual sports banquet, Brooke later tells him that it was a mistake and he heads home, with the two of them deciding to just remain friends. After Tree Hill 's victory in the state championship, Brooke encourages Lucas to go with Peyton. When Brooke is failing her calculus course, Rachel pretends to need Haley 's tutoring so that they can steal the answers to an upcoming calculus exam, but Haley refuses. Taking matters into their own hands, Brooke and Rachel break into the high school but are caught by Principal Turner; to serve as their alibi, the two join Clean Teens.
During her time in Clean Teens, Brooke meets Chase Adams, a newcomer to Tree Hill High and to whom Brooke becomes attracted. Initially asking Brooke to be his calculus tutor, Chase asks her out on a date. After their first date together, Brooke decides that she ca n't start a relationship with lies at its foundations and thus, during a class assignment, reveals to Chase that she cheated on her calculus test and had only joined Clean Teens as a means of attaining an alibi. With Brooke stating that she thinks she is n't pretty enough or talented enough for him, Chase tells her that she is good enough, and all she needs to do is to stop lying and just be herself. The two subsequently kiss and make up, beginning a new and truthful relationship. The following week, Brooke and Chase attend a party at Nathan 's house, but things go south when a tape, titled "Nathan Scores '' and which shows Brooke and Nathan having a drunk one - night stand two years prior, is played at the party. As a result of seeing the tape, Peyton punches Brooke, as Peyton was in an on - again, off - again relationship with Nathan at the time it was filmed. Chase, in the meantime, decides to call things off with Brooke but, with prom quickly approaching, tells her that he 'll still be her date. Brooke, however, tells him that she does n't want to go to prom with someone who does n't want to be with her, and the two go their separate ways.
Peyton becomes infuriated at the fact that Brooke completely cut her out of her life for being upfront and honest about her feelings for Lucas, when Peyton feels that Brooke was never honest with her. With more underlying issues resurfacing between Brooke and Peyton, the two former best friends enter into an intense rivalry, with Peyton going so far as taking a black light marker and writing "WHORE '' on Brooke 's prom dress. After talking to Mouth, Brooke comes to feel that it means that Peyton still feels to that. Upon hearing that Peyton is not attending their senior prom, she leaves the prom and heads to Peyton 's house in hopes of a reconciliation. However, unanounced to anyone, Peyton is being held hostage in her own house by Ian (otherwise known as "Psycho Derek ''). Making her way to Peyton 's basement, Ian had knocked Brooke out and planned to slit her throat to show Peyton just how much he truly loves her. In an effort to free themselves, Peyton convinces him to let her do it, but stabs Ian instead. Untied, Peyton runs upstairs with Ian right behind her. Brooke, meanwhile, is able to untie herself and the two stand together against their attacker. With Ian unconscious, they are able to call the police and have Ian arrested.
With "Psycho Derek '' or otherwise known as Ian, ordeal behind them, Brooke and Peyton rekindle their friendship and go to prom together. This is where Brooke is elected Prom Queen. Brooke and Chase subsequently reconcile and get back together; the two have sex at their graduation party before Brooke and Lucas share a special moment together as he confides in her about his book. With the birth of Nathan and Haley 's son, James Lucas Scott, Brooke is named the newborn 's godmother. In the season 's final moments, Brooke and Peyton prepare to spend their summer in Los Angeles and join the rest of the gang at the River Court.
Two and half years later, Brooke and Chase have seemingly gone their separate ways. Brooke, now an up - and - coming fashion designer with Clothes Over Bro 's, meets up with Lucas in New York to have drinks with him; showing her his engagement ring for Peyton, Lucas informs Brooke that Peyton turned down his proposal, much to the shock of an unbelieving Brooke. When she tries on the ring, everyone around them believes that they have become engaged, receiving free drinks and even a romantic horse - drawn carriage ride. When they arrive at his hotel room, Lucas kisses her in a drunken stupor; despite possessing feelings for him, Brooke pulls away from him as he is still in love with Peyton.
Leaving Lucas with some words of wisdom, Brooke tells him to concentrate on getting his novel published and tells him that they probably wo n't see each other for a while. Returning home, Victoria confronts her about her "engagement '' to Lucas. After clearing the air, Brooke tells her mother, "And Lucas Scott was the one boy I might have lost it for. '' Brooke then agrees to her mother 's offer to expand the clothing line, wishing to get lost in work in an effort to cure her broken heart from Lucas.
Four years after high school and having become a multimillion - dollar household name, Brooke Davis now runs her own clothing line, magazine, and fashion channel. Becoming fed up with her life as a celebrity, Brooke decides to return to Tree Hill after a distraught phone call from her old best friend, Peyton Sawyer. Upon her return, she becomes a "fill - in nanny '' for her godson, Jamie Scott, and buys the abandoned Karen 's Café to refurbish into a C / B clothing store in order to run her fashion line from her hometown. Eager to settle back in Tree Hill, Brooke spontaneously buys a house (furniture and all) and invites Peyton to live with her. However, the CEO of her company, who also turns out to be her mother Victoria, is not happy about Brooke 's choice to stay in Tree Hill and makes an unexpected visit to her house to take Brooke back to New York.
Brooke and Victoria "bond '' over the store opening, but she is oblivious that Victoria is running around insulting all of her friends. The store 's opening is both a social success and a commercial failure, leading her mother to tear her down. She then reaches the breaking point after her mother attacks Peyton and rejects her daughterly love confession, beginning to rule her company her way and refusing to consider Victoria her mother any longer. Brooke considers dating Owen, a bartender, and sets Mouth up on a blind date with Milicent. She also tells Peyton to go after Lucas because they are meant to be and comforts her after she finds out he proposed to Lindsey. She uses her naked - in - the - back - of - the - car trick on Owen and successfully gets his attention but then refuses to sleep with him. Brooke then slowly becomes friends with Lindsey but after they get stuck in the library with Haley, Peyton and Mia, Peyton tells her that she 's her best friend and will always be, stopping the awkwardness. She travels to New York with Owen after she challenges him since he thinks she does nothing for her job. She shows him a space she bought to expand and they find Rachel, overdosed on drugs. Feeling guilty for firing her earlier, Brooke takes Rachel back to Tree Hill with her so she can live in Brooke 's big house with her and Peyton. She attends Lucas and Lindsey 's joint bachelor / bachelorette party with Owen, who brings along a surprise guest Chase, whom she had unknowingly set Peyton up with. She finally fires Victoria from the company after she scares Rachel off for monetary purposes. She tells Peyton and Lucas that she came back to Tree Hill to have a baby, because there was a void in her heart only having a family could fill. Due to this decision Brooke gets interviewed by a woman from an adoption agency who Brooke finds out has spoken to Victoria. Because of her young age, busy life and party past, Brooke is turned down. Owen then immediately ends his potential relationship with Brooke, after finding out she wants a baby, calling her selfish. However, she gets to have a baby, as she gains momentary custody of Angie who is there to get her heart operated on and finds it immediately challenging, but finds comfort and help in the form of Peyton and Lucas Brooke is terrified and distraught over the possibility of Angie not making it through her surgery, but Angie comes out perfectly and everything in Brooke 's world calms down. She then has to return Angie early making her distraught but strengthening her friendship with Lucas. In the season finale, Lucas calls someone asking that someone if she wants to get married at Las Vegas -- the someone could be Lindsey, Peyton or Brooke (it turns out he called Peyton).
Brooke is taunted by her mother by saying she will take over the company but Brooke has a new clothing line in sketches she is presenting to the board. Victoria demands her to give her the sketches to which Brooke says no. Brooke is assaulted and badly beaten by a masked assailant at the end of the season six premiere. Not wanting to go to the authorities to report the assault and attract bad publicity, Brooke instead turns to Deb in hopes of keeping it a secret and learning to shoot a gun. Nathan visits Brooke at her home to tell her he will be there for her if she needs him because she 's always been there for his family. Nathan realizes he and Brooke are alike in many ways so he can relate to her problems. Brooke attends Quentin Field 's funeral to support Lucas, Nathan, Haley, Skills and Jamie with their loss. As Jamie places Q 's cape over his casket, Brooke breaks down for the first time since her attack. Jamie comforts her by holding her hand. Brooke regrets the lack of family in her life but after a talk with Haley and Jamie realizes she has everything she needs. She travels to New York to confront Victoria over the attack, who firmly denies any involvement. Brooke then gives up ownership of Clothes Over Bros to Victoria. Brooke bonds with Sam and eventually becomes her foster mother. Brooke also reveals to Peyton the truth about her attack. Owen returns to Tree Hill and attempts to win Brooke back, but they are slow to reconnect romantically. When they eventually discuss the issue, Brooke states that she 's not ready for a relationship since she wants to focus on her new foster daughter, Sam, for a while. Afterwards, they part on friendly terms. Brooke receives a phone call from Patricia, the woman from the adoption agency who interviewed her last season, leaving Brooke a message that there is a newborn that Brooke can adopt. When Brooke calls Patricia back, Brooke mentions that she 's fostering Sam, and Patricia tells her that could cause complications in the adoption.
Following the dream episode written by Chad Michael Murray, Brooke is approached by Julian to design the costumes for Lucas ' movie, which she initially declines, but decides to think about it. Brooke briefly clashed with Sam over a boy named Jack spent the night. She later reveals to Sam that she was attacked. As Jack and Sam begin talking about Brooke, they talk about how Sam once said that Brooke needed to be "put in her place ''. A smitten Jack listened to Sam, and had someone attack Brooke for Sam 's pleasure. Sam realizes this and gets the stolen sketches back, and when she shows them to Brooke, Brooke begins breaking down and seeing this, Sam leaves again. Brooke begins searching for Sam and gets into a fight with Owen along the way. She goes to the cafe Sam frequents and bumps into Julian, who walks out. The waitress tells Brooke that Julian inquired about Sam, and she begins considering him as a decent guy (possibly romantically). At the conclusion of the episode, a heartbroken Sam gets into a car with Jack and his brother, and it is revealed that Jack 's brother was actually the one who attacked Brooke. It is also revealed that this is the same guy who murdered Quentin. Brooke Goes in search for Sam with Peyton by her side. After searching all over Tree Hill and finding little help from a police officer (due to Sam not being missing long enough), she realizes Sam must be at her friend Jack Daniels ' house, and gets the address from Haley. She tells Peyton she wants to confront Sam alone because they have a lot to talk about, and goes to Jack 's house by herself. She does n't find Jack or Sam there, but she does meet with Jack 's older brother, X, who has Sam bound and gagged in a closet. X denies knowing where Sam is, and he talks in a sexually suggestive manner to Brooke, who thinks he is weird but is unfazed. As Brooke walks down the sidewalk after the visit, he says "Have a nice night '' which is the same line her attacker uttered as she lay bleeding on the floor of her store after the attack. Brooke realizes that X is the one who beat her, and that he must have Sam. She bangs on the door and when he opens it, she sprays mace in his face and beats him until he 's incapacitated, then rushes through the house looking for Sam. As she finds her, Sam begs her to leave, but Brooke refuses. She starts to undo the tape binding her, but X sneaks up behind Brooke and drags her away as Sam screams. X tries to strangle Brooke, but she spits in his face and knocks him away. Brooke runs, but X chases her and knocks her to the floor. The pair struggle and X indicates that he is going to kill Brooke and enjoy it and that she is just a weak little rich girl. But Brooke finds her purse, grabs her gun and stands with it pointed at X 's head, telling him the rich little girl is going to stay awhile as Julian and Jack rush into the house and Sam breaks free of the last of the tape. Brooke cocks the gun, tells Rex she hates him and that she is n't the same girl that he attacked, and is about to shoot him, but Sam begs her not to, calling Brooke "Mom '' and saying she needs her. Brooke knocks her attacker unconscious with the gun instead and kicks him over, telling him to "Have a nice night. '' After the police arrive, they find Quentin 's wallet and Brooke realizes X is Q 's murderer and cries on Julian 's shoulder.
Peyton tells Brooke about her pregnancy, and Brooke is thrilled, even though it was Brooke who wanted a family the most. Meanwhile, after agreeing to do the costumes for Lucas ' movie, Brooke invites Julian over. Sam makes fun of Brooke by saying that it 's a date, while Brooke insists it 's simply a business meeting. Sam then says "his man junk 's got a meeting with your lady business. '' After which Brooke calls Sam Samantha in a very Mom - like fashion. After a long night of drinking and conversation about their parents, Julian and Brooke realize they are alike in many ways. At the end of the episode, the two begin making out. Peyton catches the drift that Brooke and Julian are starting a romantic relationship and warns Brooke that after she broke up with him, he slept with an A-list actress after his movie premiere at the Sundance Film Festival. Later, Peyton receives a visit from Julian 's dad, with whom Peyton seems to have a great relationship with, and he tells her that Julian not only did not have sex with a famous actress after Sundance, but did not even go to his own movie premiere because he was so depressed after their breakup. Peyton tells this to Brooke, and Brooke decides that Julian is worth the trouble, and Brooke and Julian officially start a romantic relationship. Brooke sleeps with Julian and later tells Peyton, who yet again reassures her that it 's not violating "girl code '' since they shared three guys already: ' sex tape ' (Nathan), Lucas, and now Julian. Brooke meets the girl playing her in Lucas ' movie, Missy, and Missy basically stalks Brooke trying to imitate her every move, even going so far as doing Brooke 's "signature move '' of stripping down in Brooke 's backseat. Brooke and Julian are really happy together until she finds out Missy is always implying Brooke is a slut because she was told that Brooke 's major role in high school was sex. Brooke confronts Julian and tells him "High School Brooke graduated '', then temporarily breaks up with him. He then shows her a re-created manuscript in which it now reads a long list of Brooke 's character traits that she has now, and this appears to mend their relationship.
Brooke storms out of her room and into the bathroom yelling at Julian for "something inappropriate that he did ''. It turns out he told her that he loves her, and she struggles with telling him she loves him back. Brooke repeatedly tells him that she cares very deeply for him, but she 's not in love with him yet because it 's too soon. Julian decides to call it a "deleted scene '' so they can start fresh. Brooke goes to the police station and bails out Sam after she is caught shoplifting, and yells at her, calling her "unfixable ''. Sam thinks this is because of a fight she is having with Julian since Brooke is ignoring all his phone calls. During another argument between the two, Julian calls and Sam grabs Brooke 's phone and answers it, then gives it to Brooke, and Julian tells her the movie has been shut down and he is returning to Los Angeles. He comes and says goodbye to her, and yet again tells her he loves her before leaving. She apologizes to Sam after Julian tells her the shoplifting was only to protect Jack, and to make it up to her, Brooke finds Jack and allows him to spend the night. Thinking that Julian left for L.A. the night before, she is confused when he comes to see her in her store. She soon finds out he is leaving that night, but it 's not goodbye because he has two tickets for her and Sam to come with him. She spends the episode wrestling with her decision since she has many factors to consider such as moving Sam around, her store, being Peyton 's maid of honor, knowing him for only one month, etc. In the end she does go to the airport, but to tell him she 's not coming. They share one final kiss and Julian then boards a plane back home. Victoria returns to Tree Hill and attempts to lure Brooke back to Clothes Over Bros after the company goes under. Victoria guilts her into it by telling her if she does n't return, hundreds of employees will be out of work, and this hits a soft spot in Brooke and she returns to the company with a 51 / 49 % split between her and Victoria, and Brooke says that Victoria still does n't have a daughter. She also goes to the hospital after Peyton 's accident and Lucas tells her about Peyton 's condition, and she passes the news on to Haley. Sam also yells at her for locking her heart and letting Julian go. She finds it hard to have Victoria around again, especially since she is getting very close to Sam, which makes Brooke jealous because she believes Victoria is trying to be to Sam what she never was to Brooke. She reaches her breaking point when she finds out Victoria has been hiding and shredding letters addressed to Sam from her birth mother. She shows Sam the letters, and gives her blessing for Sam to get to know her real mother, although, in actuality, it hurts Brooke to see this. A month after Sam meets her mother, she continues to speak with her and she gets to know her well. Seeing she may be losing Sam, Brooke draws up adoption papers. However, she and Sam eventually agree that it would be best for Sam to live with her birth mom, which leads to an emotional parting between the two in Victoria 's presence.
On the day of Lucas and Peyton 's wedding, Brooke puts the finishing touches on Peyton 's wedding dress and they have an emotional conversation about how Peyton wants Brooke to be there for Lucas and the baby in case she does n't make it through the dangerous delivery. Lucas surprises her by telling her that he has invited Julian to the wedding to be her date, but Julian reveals he already has a date - Missy, the girl that was to play Brooke in Lucas ' shut - down movie. In retaliation, Brooke gets Nick Lachey to be her date. Throughout the night Brooke and Julian use their respective partners to make each other jealous, but at the end of the night, Brooke and Julian are left alone and Brooke tells him she misses him and ca n't deal with seeing him again, and she leaves. He goes to the store to find her but runs into Victoria, and he tells her off about the way she belittles Brooke and then says that he loves her and is n't giving up. Brooke returns to the store after Lucas and Peyton 's wedding reception and asks Victoria if there were any messages, and she replies "no '' without telling her what Julian said. She shows up at the hospital when Peyton has her emergency surgery. Four days later, Peyton is in a coma and Brooke has not left the hospital, and she is the second one to find out when Peyton wakes up (after Lucas). She says goodbye to Julian, who has been staying with her for moral support after Peyton goes into a coma. The next day she visits Peyton and baby Sawyer, and Peyton tells Brooke that she and Lucas have made Sawyer 's middle name Brooke in honor of her best friend. Victoria later tells her to go to L.A. and tell Julian she loves him because Victoria once let a boy go and has never forgiven herself, and she also tries to give Brooke full control of the company after realizing she loved the company more than Brooke and she should n't have because Brooke is her daughter and she loves her. After an emotional bonding between the two, Brooke asks Victoria to stay on as her partner, and takes her advice by going to see Julian on his movie set in L.A. and finally telling him she loves him, and the two kiss, officially putting their future together back on track.
Brooke and Julian have been happily together in the 14 months between Seasons 6 and 7, although they have spent much of the time apart. Brooke and Julian are having a romantic date at the beach when he tells her that he is leaving to produce a movie in New Zealand and will be gone for eight months, and she encourages him to do it even though she is clearly heartbroken. A few moments earlier, she wrote "Marry Me '' in the sand but she never told Julian once she knew about his new movie. She attends Jamie 's 7th birthday party and once again writes him a check for a large sum of money. After the party, Julian and Brooke go to the beach where he tells her that he turned the movie down to be with her, and he officially moves in. Brooke hires Alex Dupre as a model for COB after seeing her acting skills and beauty in a movie. But when Millicent picks her up and brings her to the store, she is not what Brooke expected and they begin coming up with ways to get rid of her. Alex overhears them, and when she comes out of the dressing room wearing Brooke 's dress, she plays Brooke into changing her mind, unaware that the speech Alex gave to win Brooke over was actually a line from the movie Brooke watched Alex in. Alex begins taking an immediate interest in Julian. Julian begins working on a movie with Alex, until Victoria notices her crush on him and informs Brooke. After Alex tells Brooke she stripped naked for Julian Brooke fires her and tells Julian to sleep on the couch.
On a girls night with Haley, she assures Brooke that Julian loves her and he 's not going anywhere. Brooke has a pregnancy scare and wants to tell Julian but he left to see Alex as he fears she will begin using drugs again, and she does n't get the chance to. Rachel returns to Tree Hill for a vacation and tries to apologize to Brooke for stealing money from her by giving her a cheque with interest, but Brooke slaps her and tells her to stay away. When she gets home to find that Julian is still with Alex, she cries in front of her bathroom mirror and says to herself "Why ca n't you be the one who gets the baby and the boy? '' before throwing her birth control pills in the garbage. However, it is revealed that the doctor not only told Brooke she is n't pregnant, but that she can never get pregnant. She tells this to Julian who feels guilty he was n't there... She also battles with Millicent after she demands to be paid $500,000 for being the face of Clothes Over Bros (which she has become after Alex got fired), which hurts Brooke after all she 's done for Millie and how ungrateful she 's being despite of that. She tells Victoria about her problems with Millicent and how those problems are because of Alex 's influence, and Victoria says she will "take care of Alex ''. Brooke is furious when Julian confides Alex that she ca n't have kids and that he wants kids. After talking with Victoria about the situation, Victoria helps her realize that Julian might not be the one for her, and she asks Julian to take another movie because she wants time to be alone with herself before she can trust him again. Julian calls her after he finds Alex in her bathtub after slitting her wrists, and she goes to the hospital to support her now estranged boyfriend. After finding out about Millicent 's actions Brooke fires her and tells her to get help.
Brooke and Julian spend 6 weeks apart when Brooke goes on a business trip with Alexander to start her men 's line, which she has officially named Clothes 4 Bros. She returns from her trip and runs into Julian at the airport, only to see that he 's waiting for Alex. Julian comes to see her and they yet again fight about Alex, and when they fight again at Haley 's concert. Julian tells Brooke he ca n't do it anymore and breaks up with her, leaving her heartbroken since she 's still in love with him. She agrees to be the fashion designer for Julian and Alex 's film. On the movie set, which is built to look like Lucas ' house, she watches a set crew member paint Lucas ' bedroom door brown, making her think of "the girl behind the red door '' Brooke begins thinking about her relationship with Julian, and decides she wants to try to make things better, so she sweet - talks the hotel concierge into giving her Julian 's room key, but when she enters the room, she finds Alex naked in Julian 's bed, and hears a man in the shower, but when she sees Julian 's sweater hanging from the bedpost. Believing Julian and Alex slept together, she punches Alex in the face on set the next day and gets banned from the set by Julian only to find out she actually slept with Alexander... Once she realizes what a huge mistake she made, she apologizes to Julian and tells him the reason she 's been acting so crazy is that she 's still in love with him and misses him, and the two kiss and make up. They attend the funeral of Haley 's mom together, Julian moves back in later that night, and they have a romantic evening alone. She attends Quinn 's gallery opening and Julian tells her about Alex and Josh 's sextape, and Brooke tells Julian he should help Alex through it, which surprises him considering her jealous history with Alex. Julian shows Brooke his finished movie, and despite him thinking it 's bad, Brooke tells him she loved it, and encourages him to enter it in a film festival he 's been too nervous to do. Victoria tells Brooke her she is returning to New York City and Alexander is coming with her to run Brooke 's men 's line, Clothes 4 Bros. As Victoria is about to leave, the two share a very emotional goodbye and Victoria tells Brooke how much she loves and how proud of her she is. Brooke the rest of the gang on a trip to Utah for the premiere of Julian 's movie. After the premiere Julian proposes to Brooke on a walk through the snow.
The season starts with Brooke and Julian engaged and happier than ever. The two talk about the future and how Brooke ca n't have kids, so Julian proposes they spend all day in bed trying anyway. Haley comes over to tell Brooke about her pregnancy but catches Brooke and Julian in a compromising position. Shortly after Haley leaves, the police come to the door and arrest Brooke, and she is charged with a number of money - related crimes regarding Clothes Over Bros. Knowing she had nothing to do with this, a furious Brooke is released from jail and has Julian bring her to her store to meet with Victoria and Millicent, whom Julian had fly to Tree Hill from New York to deal with this, and the two of them eventually reveal that they lied about how much money the company makes to their investors to better support the launch of Clothes 4 Bros and not involving Brooke in this decision in fear of her overruling it. Brooke watches as the company immediately goes under and her store gets shut down, its inventory then completely cleaned out. After a conversation with Millie asking her how she could have allowed and helped Victoria to do this, she seeks comfort in Julian and tells him everything 's gone, but he reminds her she still has him, and always will. After meeting with the company lawyer to hear what they are being charged with and the consequences, she finds out about Quinn and Clay 's shooting from Haley and goes to the hospital for support while Julian goes to pick up Jamie from the park. She offers moral support for Nathan and Haley, and she tells them about her legal troubles. She later asks Victoria if she was ever proud of her, saying that if she was, she never would have lied to make the company sound better than it actually is, and Victoria tells her she lied because she believes in Brooke and knew she could make miracles happen no matter what would happen, and Brooke tells Julian it 's her fault that this happened because she empowered them to do this in her absence. Brooke meets with Victoria and she tells Brooke that her and the lawyers have come up with a way for Brooke to keep the company, but wo n't tell Brooke specifically what that entails. Brooke and Julian take Jamie for the day while Nathan and Haley are at the hospital with Clay and Quinn and they play baseball at the park with him, and he sleeps over as well, telling them they will make great parents someday. Brooke gets a visit from Millicent and she is told that Victoria 's plan to have Brooke keep the company is Victoria going to prison to take the blame, and after Brooke tries to stop her and tells her she does n't want her to go, Victoria says she has to do it because it is her fault. Brooke drops her off at the prison and watches as her mother goes in, sad that things had to end this way. Brooke visits her mom in prison and is surprised that Victoria 's doing her job from behind bars, but after one of her investors comes to her store and tells her that thanks to their lies he lost all the money for his daughter 's college education, she decides to sell her company to pay back all of her investors, but when she 's told this would only return 70 % of their lost money, she tells the attorney to liquidate all of her personal fortune as well, giving away everything she 's got to help make things right. After Victoria finds out Brooke has sold the company that Victoria worked so hard to build and even went to prison to protect, she 's furious with her daughter and calls her stupid, telling her she never wants to speak to her again and for her to not come visit her at the prison anymore. After Julian and Haley help her realize it is Victoria 's own fault she 's behind bars and she 's the reason Brooke was forced to sell, she goes back to the prison and tells Victoria off, saying everything she 's ever done was only done to make her proud, and regardless of whether or not Victoria 's okay with Brooke selling the company, she tells her mother she will never have the opportunity to talk to Brooke as meanly and rudely as she did the day before, and says she wo n't be back to visit. She holds a press conference later that night, and promises her investors they will have all of their money back, then tells the press she looks forward to what comes next in her life.
The morning of Halloween, a woman knocks on Brooke 's door saying "trick or treat '', and after Brooke insults her for being too old to be a trick or treater, she is shocked to find the woman is actually Julian 's mom, Sylvia Baker, who 's come a few weeks before the wedding, telling them that she will pay for their entire wedding to give them the wedding they 've always dreamed about. However, Brooke soon comes to find out that Sylvia is very opinionated and does not like Brooke 's tastes, wants, and desires for her wedding, arguing with Brooke on almost every topic, from the bridesmaids dresses to the food to the photographer, and even Brooke 's desire to design her own wedding dress. Once her company has officially been sold and she 's no longer affiliated with Clothes Over Bros, she takes out her frustrations on Sylvia by saying she does n't want her money or her input for the wedding and wants to do it her way with her budget, causing a rift between the two, though they later patch this up after Julian tells Brooke that Sylvia 's only been acting how she has been acting because she is threatened by Brooke, since Sylvia was always the closest person in Julian 's life before Brooke came along. After ruining most of the dishes she tries to cook for Thanksgiving dinner, she attends a large gathering at Nathan and Haley 's for the holiday, where she 's reunited with a fresh - out - of - prison Victoria, which Brooke is not pleased about at all, nor is she pleased that Victoria and Sylvia seem to be getting along great and bonding throughout the dinner. She later comes to find out that Sylvia was the one who found out about Victoria 's release and invited her to dinner hoping that her and Brooke could fix things, but only did so to make Brooke happy, so Brooke tells her future mother - in - law that Julian is the man that he is because of Sylvia 's influence and that 's all the happiness she needs. After having a bad daydream of her wedding going horribly wrong due to how poor she 's become and how bad it will be as a result, she realizes she has no inspiration whatsoever to continue re-planning her wedding now that she can no longer have the wedding of her dreams. While going through some old boxes looking for something to inspire her, she and Julian find the list of things Brooke always wanted to try but never did, which Millie created for her back in Season 6 and includes things such as skydiving, watching every James Bond movie, getting drunk at Octoberfest, learning to speak French, and more, so Julian helps her do almost everything on the list, and afterwards, he promises her that no matter what happens he will make sure that she will get to experience the final item left on her list, which is having a baby. As a huge storm is ripping through Tree Hill, Brooke and Julian argue over him suggesting they move to Los Angeles now that she no longer has her job in Tree Hill, which was one of her main reasons for staying. She accuses him of wanting her to lose her company so that they could move, and blows off steam by going for a drive despite the bad storm. Julian calls her and tells her to come home, and when she says she ca n't see the road well, he says he will come get her and she tells him where she is, but the call is then cut off when Brooke hits the brakes to avoid hitting someone standing in the middle of the road, which turns out to be Jamie 's friend Chuck. She runs out of the car and asks him what happened, and he says there was an accident and points to a flipped SUV on the side of the bridge. She runs over to the car and finds Jamie, Madison, and Lauren, who 's still unconscious. As Chuck and Madison wait in Brooke 's car, Brooke helps Lauren out of the wreckage and tries to free Jamie as well, who 's pinned down by his seatbelt. When Brooke realizes Chuck has a concussion and is having a hard time staying awake, she tells Lauren to use her car and take the kids to the hospital while she tries to free Jamie. Eventually Julian finds them, but right after he arrives, a speeding car dodges a downed powerline in the middle of the road and hits the back of the SUV, causing it to fall over the bridge and into the water with Brooke and Jamie still inside. Julian dives into the water and finds that now not only is Jamie trapped, but Brooke 's leg is stuck underneath the steering wheel. Julian tells them the car is not sinking as the wheels are touching the bottom of the river, and the mood calms slightly until the levy breaks and water comes rushing into the car, and Julian is forced to save Jamie first while Brooke is still stuck inside, since Brooke tells him Jamie is just a child and needs help before she does. After getting Jamie out of the car and up to the road, Julian jumps back into the water and finds Brooke struggling to stay above the water, and by the time he frees her, she has lost consciousness and it seems as though she 's drowned. He carries her up to the road and begins performing CPR on her, but she does not respond and he breaks down into tears thinking his fiancé has died. However, Brooke 's hand twitches and after a few more rounds of CPR she regains consciousness and coughs up water, and the ambulance arrives shortly after to take her to the hospital. After a bachelorette party thrown by Haley in which Brooke, Millie, Quinn, Alex, and Sylvia get extremely drunk and wake up not remembering the night before, the girls run around town with clues they find piecing together the events that took place. Brooke loses her engagement ring, and is also shocked to hear from a waitress that she kissed someone during their drunken outing, only to later find out that the guy she kissed was Julian, who came to the bar they were at to see her, and he also took her engagement ring so that she would n't lose it while drunk. After finding out that Sawyer is sick and Peyton will not be attending her wedding, she asks Haley to be her maid of honor. Brooke and Julian 's wedding occurs in the following episode, with Victoria walking Brooke down the aisle after her father does not show up to the wedding, and Julian finally becomes Brooke 's husband. Now that they are married, Brooke finds herself bored now that she no longer has a wedding to plan and Julian is off directing a commercial, so she comes up with the idea for her, Haley, and Quinn to dress up like superheroes and help people in need that Haley finds through the crisis center she works for. The three "heroes '' help a young girl who 's being bullied by three high school mean girls.
She spends all of Valentine 's Day playing sexual role - playing games with Julian, and at the end of the night, he tells her that they should start looking into adopting a child, which Brooke is ecstatic about. The couple goes to an adoption agency and are interviewed by a 19 - year - old mother - to - be named Chloe Hall, who 's giving her baby up for adoption. Brooke makes her and Julian seem like the perfect couple, and Chloe believes this until she goes to Brooke 's house to speak with her and walks into Haley 's baby shower, where she hears a little more than she bargained for, such as Victoria 's prison time and Brooke losing her company. Despite all of this, she ultimately decides to give her baby to Brooke and Julian when it 's born. Chloe informs them that the baby will be coming sooner than expected, causing Brooke to begin trying to get the baby 's room together. Chloe talks to Brooke as she 's painting the room and tells her about the baby 's father and why she chose to give the baby up for adoption, and soon after she leaves to go home, they get a call from the hospital that Chloe has gone into labor and the baby is coming tonight. Brooke and Julian rush to the hospital to be with Chloe for the delivery of their new baby, during which time Chloe says that she would probably be a great mother, she just does n't want to raise the baby alone. However, Brooke and Julian are shocked when Chloe 's boyfriend Eric, the father of her baby, shows up at the hospital and Chloe ends up deciding to keep the baby now that she can raise the little girl with her boyfriend, not alone, leaving Brooke crushed, especially because Chloe had a little baby girl, which is exactly what Brooke wanted. While dealing with the emotional aftermath of the adoption falling through, she receives a job offer from Clothes Over Bros to move to New York and return to the company to design. She discusses this with Victoria, who thinks it 's a great idea that she should not turn down, and after Julian tells her he thinks it 's a great idea as well, she decides to take the job. However, she later decides to turn down the job after she finds out shockingly enough that she 's pregnant, which she finds out after Chase asks Alex to take a drug test for him as he 's trying to enter the Air Force but smoked weed during the Kid Cudi show and could not take it, and when he gets a call from the lab saying the person who gave the sample is pregnant, he tells Alex she 's pregnant as he thought she took the test but it is revealed that Alex would n't have been able to pass the test either as she ate pot brownies that Quinn made so she went to ask Julian to take the test but Brooke took it instead, meaning the person pregnant is n't Alex but actually Brooke. Quinn gets a photoshoot offer for B. Davis magazine to shoot a model in Puerto Rico and she invites Alex, Brooke, and Lauren to go with her. During the trip, Brooke tries to hide her pregnancy from Quinn and Lauren (with Alex already knowing about it because of the drug test) as she and Julian decided they did n't want to tell anybody as it 's too early, but Quinn eventually figures it out when Brooke makes it obvious by not eating sushi and throwing all of her alcohol shots over her shoulder to avoid drinking them. When she returns to Tree Hill, she finds that Haley has decided to turn Brooke 's former store back into Karen 's Cafe now that she 's moving to New York, causing Brooke to finally tell Haley that she turned down the job and is staying in Tree Hill because she 's pregnant, and instead offers to be Haley 's partner so they can open the cafe together.
In the season finale, several flash - forwards over the course of one year show Brooke at various stages throughout her pregnancy. Brooke and Haley officially re-open Karen 's Cafe as business partners, and right around this time (approximately four months into her pregnancy), she finds out she 's actually carrying twins. Three months later, she falls down as she is trying to get a bag of flour off of a high shelf at the cafe and her babies are delivered prematurely, although another flash - forward shows that her twin boys, Davis and Jude, are perfectly fine and healthy, and Brooke and Julian finally have the family they 've always wanted.
In Season 9, Haley and Brooke have reopened Karen 's Cafe. Brooke and Julian are shown to be very tired as Davis and Jude do not sleep much. For their christening, Brooke has Haley be godmother and asks her father to be godfather. Victoria, who is now very close to Brooke and the twins, is unhappy about this and tries to convince Brooke that Ted, her father, will never be there for Brooke or the boys. She is almost proved to be true when they are waiting in the church for Ted, but he shows up at the last minute and is made godfather to Davis and Jude. Brooke, having pitched an idea to Victoria for a new clothing line (Baker Man) but after Victoria rejected it, asks her father about it, wanting to spend more time with him. Ted agrees, but it soon becomes clear that all Ted is more interested in the clothing line than spending quality time with his daughter and grandsons. Julian has opened his own sound stage, and after getting very stressed out about it he leaves baby Davis in the car and Davis is rushed to hospital. Although Davis is fine, Brooke is initially very angry with Julian, but after talking to Haley, tells him she forgives him. Julian does not forgive himself so easily, punishing himself even by getting himself beaten up, and Brooke tries to help him. A rival cafe has opened across from Karen 's Cafe, called Tree Hill Cafe, and the owner Tara plays dirty tricks to win customers, including planting cockroaches and hanging a sign that says Karen 's Cafe hires murderers (from when Dan helped out Haley when she was short - staffed). After Tara sends a note that says ' Fry your burgers, not your babies! ' referring to Julian and Davis 's accident, Brooke smashes up Tree Hill Cafe.
When Xavier, Brooke 's attacker and Quentin Fields ' killer, is released from prison despite Brooke speaking at his parole hearing, he asks Brooke for a job and eats at the cafe. When Julian warns him off, he gets a job at Tree Hill Cafe. After much taunting of Brooke, he attacks her in a car park. He nearly kills her with a knife, but Tara tasers him, saving Brooke. Brooke recovers from her horrific encounter with Xavier and moves past it. Tree Hill is hosting the annual burning boat festival and it brings up old memories for Brooke. She wishes her family could have just sat together and been a family. Brooke goes to a hotel to discuss Baker Man with her mom and finds her father is there. She leaves the room in a hurry disgusted by seeing her parents had slept together. Her parents realize they have made lots of mistake and confront her. They tell her they want to start fresh and be a family. They all watch the burning boat festival together as a family when Brooke decided to give them yet another chance to prove her wrong. Her family officially launches Baker Boys online, and then Brooke buys the Tree Hill Cafe across from Karen 's Cafe to open a store. She tells Haley that the corner will be their little corner of the world. Julian surprises Brooke with the house that she grew up in. He tells her a real family deserves to live there and she will always continue to be the girl behind the red door. Brooke, Julian and their boys end up living a happy life in Tree Hill where they frequently go to Ravens Basketball games to cheer on her godson, Jamie Scott.
The initial Clothes Over Bros line features styles from casual to dressy. It was an immediate hit with her customers, selling past their expectations on the website. She was later put in the difficult position of choosing between showcasing her designs at a New York fashion show and starting her career, or leading her Tree Hill cheerleaders to their final competition. In the end, Brooke chose the latter, once she realized that she was not yet ready to enter the fast - paced world of fashion and was more than happy to finish off her senior year with her friends. During an interview with the school 's counselor, Brooke voices her intentions of studying fashion design after high school. Clothes Over Bros continues to be recognized in season four, with Brooke 's designs appearing in local fashion shows. When Brooke is involved in a cheating scandal, she 's forced to keep from turning herself in to administration in order to maintain an offer to sell her clothing line by Victoria 's Secret. She eventually does turn herself in to the principal, but does not get into trouble.
In season five, Clothes Over Bros has become a full - blown fashion company headed by Brooke Davis herself, but with the business side carried out by her mother, Victoria. The Clothes Over Bros dynasty consists of B. Davis Magazine and a high - end couture line. The Clothes Over Bros logo (C B) is incorporated on Peyton 's drawing of a heart on fire. The label 's name itself is based on the saying between Brooke and Peyton, "hoes over bros, '' and was first tagged in a conversation between Haley and Brooke. Brooke admits that she started her company "Clothes Over Bros '' to deal with her broken heart after her breakup with Lucas. When she moves back to Tree Hill, she opens a C / B store at Karen 's Cafe. In season six, Brooke signs her company over to her mother, Victoria, after thinking Victoria had her attacked and robbed (it was later revealed to be Jack 's brother). Her store remains empty for the majority of the season. In "I Would For You '', Victoria returns telling Brooke the company is going under and if she does n't return, hundreds will lose their jobs, and she reluctantly returns to the company. Victoria later signs the company back over to Brooke realizing her daughter is more important.
She hires an actress, Alex Dupre, to be the new face of Clothes Over Bros, and after Millicent stands in for a model during a fashion show Brooke puts together at TRIC, she asks her to be a model as well. Currently, Victoria is President of the company with Millicent as Vice President. Brooke is still the owner but runs her small store in Tree Hill.
Also, she comes up with the idea to begin making clothes for men, which Brooke is thinking of calling "Clothes For Bros ''. She later hires Millicent to be the other face of the company after she wows the crowd during a fashion show at TRIC. She eventually fires both of them after Alex constantly flirts with Julian and causes strain to their relationship, and Millicent begins taking diet pills and doing cocaine, and also for stealing a dress from the store. Millicent is later hired back by Victoria after getting on a DUI charge because Victoria called the police. Brooke begins working with a man Victoria hired named Alexander to develop a brand new men 's line, "Clothes FOR Bros ''. Alexander is the president of Clothes Over Bros but reports to Victoria.
At the beginning of season eight, Brooke is arrested and charged with various monetary crimes which she had nothing to do with. She later finds out that Victoria and Millicent lied to C / B investors behind her back, reporting a higher company revenue in order to increase their chances of having the men 's line picked up and funded. As a result of these crimes, the company goes under, Brooke 's store is shut down, and there is the possibility of jailtime for whomever is responsible. Victoria and Millicent work closely with the company lawyers to ensure Brooke keeps the company, and eventually an agreement is proposed which would allow Brooke to keep the company in exchange for a fine and Victoria serving prison time. Victoria agrees despite Brooke asking her not to. After an investor confronts her personally and tells her he lost all the money for his daughter 's college education after investing it in her company, she decides to sell the company, as well as liquidate her own funds, to pay back all of her investors 100 % of the money they lost investing in the clothing line. She soon signs away all of her ownership rights to the company.
Brooke gets an offer to move back to New York and return to the company later in the season in Episode 8.19, but declines after finding out she 's pregnant and wants to stay in Tree Hill to raise her baby, later finding out she 's actually pregnant with twins, whom she names Davis Nathan Baker and Jude Andrew Baker, giving birth to them in the season finale.
|
nqf level 6 is equivalent to what in south africa | South African qualifications authority - wikipedia
The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) is a statutory body, regulated in terms of the National Qualifications Framework Act No. 67 of 2008. It is made up of 29 members appointed by the Minister of Education in consultation with the Minister of Labour. SAQA is mandated by legislation to oversee the development and implementation of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF).
The NQF is a framework, i.e. it sets the boundaries, principle and guidelines, which provide a vision, a philosophical base and an organisational structure, for the construction of a qualifications system. Detailed development and implementation is carried out within these boundaries. All education and training in South Africa fits within this framework.
It is national because it is a national resource, representing a national effort at integrating education and training into unified structure of recognised qualifications. It is framework of qualifications i.e. records of learner achievements.
The NQF is a set of principles and guidelines by which records of learner achievement are registered to enable national recognition of acquired skills and knowledge, thereby ensuring an integrated system that encourages lifelong learning.
The NQF consist of 10 levels divided into three band; Levels 1 to 4 equate to high school grades 9 to 12 or vocational training, 5 to 7 are college diplomas and technical qualifications, 7 to 10 are university degrees.
In October 1995, the South African Qualifications Authority Act (No. 58 of 1995) was promulgated to establish the authority, whose main task was to establish the National Qualifications Framework (NQF). The authority started operations in May 1996.
By 2001 the NQF was under review, and after that the 1995 SAQA law was replaced by the National Qualifications Framework Act (No. 67 of 2008). The authority remained in place and so did the updated NQF.
The functions of SAQA are essentially twofold:
In order to realise this objective, SAQA has established and maintains the following:
SAQA also has the task of evaluating foreign educational qualifications to determine their South African equivalence. People with foreign qualifications who wish to attend South African education institutions or who wish to enter the South African labour market apply to SAQA to have their qualifications evaluated.
SAQA 's contribution ensures that South Africans have access to quality education and skills development to improve their lives.
|
its my party and i'll cry if i want to 1980 | It 's My Party (Lesley Gore song) - wikipedia
"It 's My Party '' is a pop song recorded by multiple artists since the 1960s. In 1963, American singer Lesley Gore 's version hit # 1 on the pop and rhythm and blues charts in the United States. It was the first hit single for producer Quincy Jones.
The song lyrically portrays the discomfiture of a teenage girl at her birthday party when her boyfriend Johnny disappears, only to surface in the company of Judy, another girl, who is "wearing his ring, '' to indicate she 's replaced the birthday girl as his love interest.
The song 's chorus, "It 's my party, and I 'll cry if I want to... You would cry too if it happened to you! '' became a part of American pop cultural language as a phrase used to describe being utterly humiliated and miserable during an event that is supposed to be a happy occasion.
"It 's My Party '' is in the key of A major. The song 's effectiveness is enhanced by several musical touches producer Quincy Jones incorporated, including Latin - sounding rhythms, double tracked vocals and effective horn parts. Allmusic critic Jason Ankeny wrote of the song, "' It 's My Party ' remains one of the most vivid evocations of adolescent heartbreak ever waxed -- Quincy Jones produced the record, although you 'd swear it was Aaron Spelling instead. ''
"It 's My Party '' was credited to John Gluck, Wally Gold and Herb Weiner, staff writers at the Aaron Schroeder Music firm in 1962. The lyrics were actually written by Seymour Gottlieb, a freelance songwriter. He gave the lyrics to Herb Weiner, with whom he partnered in writing songs, to peddle. It was based on actual events relating to Gottlieb 's daughter Judy 's ' Sweet 16 ' party, before which she cried over the prospect of her grandparents being invited. The demo for the song was cut by Barbara Jean English, a girl group veteran (the Clickettes, the Fashions), who was then working as a receptionist at the firm. She also worked with Jimmy Radcliffe, serving as the firm 's in - house demo singer. Radcliffe produced the demo, and, according to English, "tried to persuade Musicor (the label owned by Aaron Schroeder) to release it as a record, or to take me into a master studio and redo it, but they were n't interested. ''
The first recording of the song was in 1962 by The Chiffons for their One Fine Day album. It was also recorded by Helen Shapiro for her Helen in Nashville album in February 1963 with Shapiro 's regular producer, Norrie Paramor, and also Al Kasha. Shapiro would recall: "Right from the first time we heard the song on the rough demo back in London, we thought we were going to sock them between the eyes with that one ''; however, Shapiro 's version was not one of the cuts chosen as an advance single from the album and by the time of the album 's release that October the "It 's My Party '' track was perceived as a cover of Lesley Gore 's hit.
Lesley Gore recalls that "It 's My Party '' was among some two hundred demos producer Quincy Jones brought to review with her in the den of her family home in February 1963. On hearing "It 's My Party, '' Gore told Jones: "That 's not half bad. I like it. Good melody. Let 's put it on the maybe pile. '' The song proved to be the only demo Gore and Jones found agreeable. With Jones producing and Claus Ogerman handling arranging and conducting duties, Gore recorded ' It 's My Party ' at Bell Sound Studios in Manhattan on 30 March 1963.
In March 1963 Phil Spector heard the demo of "It 's My Party '' while visiting Aaron Schroeder 's office. Wally Gold would recall: "He (Spector) said, ' Great, I love it. I 'm gon na do it with the Crystals. ' We (the song 's writers) were really excited, because that would ensure that the record was # 1! '' Schroeder apparently only learned of the Lesley Gore recording of "It 's My Party '' when Quincy Jones invited him to hear the completed track, which Schroeder found formulaic; believing that Spector would be able to cut a much stronger version of the song with the Crystals and not wanting to lose Spector 's good will, Schroeder attempted to convince Jones to suppress the track. Schroeder did n't mention Spector 's version to Jones but Jones and Spector both happened to attend a concert with Charles Aznavour at Carnegie Hall on the evening of 30 March 1963 and when they met outside it came up in conversation that Spector had recorded a version of "It 's My Party '' with the Crystals. Jones skipped the concert instead spending that night -- a Saturday -- at Bell Sound Studios making a test pressing of the track comprising one hundred copies. Over the next two days Jones mailed these out to radio programmers in key markets across the US. Gore heard her record played on the radio for the first time that Friday; the official release of "It 's My Party '' came later in the month, with the disc ascending to # 1 nationally in four weeks. Jones was abroad at the time of "It 's My Party '' 's release. On his return he expressed dismay when Aaron Schroeder advised him that the rush release of "It 's My Party '' had precluded coining a more pleasant name for the singer than "Lesley Gore, '' to which Schroeder replied: "Did n't anybody tell you?... Quince, the record 's number one. Do you really give a damn what her last name is? ''
In 1980, WCBN - FM, the University of Michigan freeform student radio station, played "It 's My Party '' for 18 hours straight the day after Ronald Reagan was elected.
In 1981, a remake by British artists Dave Stewart and Barbara Gaskin was a UK number one hit single for four weeks and was also a major hit in Austria (# 3), Germany (# 3), the Netherlands (# 20), New Zealand (# 1), South Africa (# 3) and Switzerland (# 6). The track reached # 72 in the US. This was the first version of the song to reach # 1 in the UK. The video for the Stewart / Gaskin version contained a cameo by Thomas Dolby as Johnny, Judy being played by Gaskin in a blond wig.
Because of the pop cultural obsession with the song and its tragic nature, Gore recorded a sequel titled "Judy 's Turn to Cry ''. In this song, the teenage girl narrator gets her revenge on Judy. In the lyrics the narrator explicitly finds "foolish '' how much she cried when she saw Johnny and Judy together, and seems determined to start anew. But after she kisses another boy at another party, Johnny gets jealous, punches the other boy and returns to her. Following just two months on the heels of "It 's My Party, '' the sequel reached number five on the charts.
|
what type of language is found in ephesians | Epistle to the Ephesians - wikipedia
The Epistle to the Ephesians, also called the Letter to the Ephesians and often shortened to Ephesians, is the tenth book of the New Testament. Its authorship has traditionally been attributed to Paul the Apostle but, starting in 1792, this has been challenged as Deutero - Pauline, that is, written in Paul 's name by a later author strongly influenced by Paul 's thought.
The main theme of Ephesians is "the Church, which is the Body of Christ. ''
As a prisoner for the Lord, then, I urge you to live a life worthy of the calling you have received. Be completely humble and gentle; be patient, bearing with one another in love. Make every effort to keep the unity of the Spirit through the bond of peace.
The Church is to maintain the unity in practice which Christ has brought about positionally. According to New Testament scholar Daniel Wallace, the theme may be stated pragmatically as "Christians, get along with each other! Maintain the unity practically which Christ has effected positionally by his death. ''
Another major theme in Ephesians is the keeping of Christ 's body (that is, the Church) pure and holy.
Therefore be imitators of God, as beloved children. And walk in love, as Christ loved us and gave himself up for us, a fragrant offering and sacrifice to God.
In the second part of the letter, Ephesians 4: 17 -- 6: 20, the author gives practical advice in how to live a holy, pure, and Christ - inspired lifestyle. Many devotional thoughts and sermons that are addressed to the practically minded - individual have been drawn from this section of the New Testament.
According to tradition, the Apostle Paul wrote the letter while he was in prison in Rome (around AD 62). This would be about the same time as the Epistle to the Colossians (which in many points it resembles) and the Epistle to Philemon. However, many critical scholars have questioned the authorship of the letter and suggest that it may have been written between AD 80 and 100.
The first verse in the letter identifies Paul as its author. While early lists of New Testament books, including Marcion 's canon and the Muratorian fragment, attribute the letter to Paul, more recently there have been challenges to Pauline authorship on the basis of the letter 's characteristically non-Pauline syntax, terminology, and eschatology.
Biblical scholar Harold Hoehner, surveying 279 commentaries written between 1519 and 2001, found that 54 % favoured Pauline authorship, 39 % concluded against Pauline authorship and 7 % remained uncertain.
There are four main theories in biblical scholarship that address the question of Pauline authorship.
While most English translations indicate that the letter was addressed to "the saints who are in Ephesus '' (1: 1), the words "in Ephesus '' do not appear in the best and earliest manuscripts of the letter, leading most textual critics, like Bart Ehrman, to regard the words as an interpolation. This lack of any internal references to Ephesus in the early manuscripts may have led Marcion, a second - century heresiarch who created the first New Testament canon, to believe that the letter was actually addressed to the church at Laodicea, for details see Epistle to the Laodiceans. The view is not uncommon in later traditions either, considering that the content of the letter seems to suggest a similar socio - critical context to the Laodicean church mentioned in the Revelation of John.
Furthermore, if Paul is regarded as the author, the impersonal character of the letter, which lacks personal greetings or any indication that the author has personal knowledge of his recipients, is incongruous with the account in Acts of Paul staying more than two years in Ephesus. For these reasons, most regard Ephesians to be a circular letter intended for many churches. The Jerusalem Bible notes that some critics think the words "who are... '' would have been followed by a blank to be filled in with the name of "whichever church was being sent the letter ''.
If Paul was the author of the letter, then it was probably written from Rome during Paul 's first imprisonment (3: 1; 4: 1; 6: 20), and probably soon after his arrival there in the year 62, four years after he had parted with the Ephesian elders at Miletus. However, scholars who dispute Paul 's authorship date the letter to between 70 -- 80 AD. In the latter case, the possible location of the authorship could have been within the church of Ephesus itself. Ignatius of Antioch himself seemed to be very well versed in the epistle to the Ephesians, and mirrors many of his own thoughts in his own epistle to the Ephesians.
The major theme of the letter is the unity and reconciliation of the whole of creation through the agency of the Church and, in particular, its foundation in Christ as part of the will of the Father.
In the Epistle to the Romans, Paul writes from the point of view of the demonstration of the righteousness of God -- his covenant faithfulness and saving justice -- in the gospel; the author of Ephesians writes from the perspective of union with Christ, who is the head of the true church.
Ephesians contains:
Paul 's first and hurried visit for the space of three months to Ephesus is recorded in Acts 18: 19 -- 21. The work he began on this occasion was carried forward by Apollos and Aquila and Priscilla. On his second visit early in the following year, he remained at Ephesus "three years '', for he found it was the key to the western provinces of Asia Minor. Here "a great door and effectual '' was opened to him, and the church was established and strengthened by his diligent labours there. From Ephesus the gospel spread abroad "almost throughout all Asia. '' The word "mightily grew and prevailed '' despite all the opposition and persecution he encountered.
On his last journey to Jerusalem, the apostle landed at Miletus and, summoning together the elders of the church from Ephesus, delivered to them a farewell charge, expecting to see them no more.
The following parallels between this epistle and the Milesian charge may be traced:
The purpose of the epistle, and to whom it was written, are matters of much speculation. It was regarded by C.H. Dodd as the "crown of Paulinism. '' In general, it is born out of its particular socio - historical context and the situational context of both the author and the audience. Originating in the circumstance of a multicultural church (primarily Jewish and Hellenistic), the author addressed issues appropriate to the diverse religious and cultural backgrounds present in the community.
Paul exhorts the church repeatedly to embrace a specific view of salvation, which he then explicates. It seems most likely that Paul 's Christology of sacrifice is the manner in which he intends to effect an environment of peace within the church. In short: "If Christ was sacrificed for your sake, be like him and be in submission to one another. '' Paul addresses hostility, division, and self - interest more than any other topic in the letter, leading many scholars to believe that his primary concern was not doctrinal, but behavioral.
Some theologians, such as Frank Charles Thompson, agree the main theme of Ephesians is in response to the newly converted Jews who often separated themselves from their Gentile brethren. The unity of the church, especially between Jew and Gentile believers, is the keynote of the book. This is shown by the recurrence of such words and phrases as:
Together: made alive together; raised up together, sitting together; 2: 6 built together. 2: 22
One, indicating unity: one new man, one body, one Spirit, one hope, one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all.
The Pauline theme of unity based on a sacrificial Christology may also be noted in the epistle to the Philippians.
Ephesians is notable for its domestic code treatment in 5: 22 -- 6: 9, covering husband - wife, parent - child, and master - slave relationships. In 5: 22, wives are urged to submit to their husbands, and husbands to love their wives "as Christ loved the Church. '' Christian Egalitarian theologians, such as Katharine Bushnell and Jessie Penn - Lewis, interpret these commands in the context of the preceding verse, 5: 21 for all Christians to "submit to one another. '' Thus, it is two - way, mutual submission of both husbands to wives and wives to husbands. But according to Peter O'Brien, Professor Emeritus at Moore Theological College, this would be the only instance of this meaning of submission in the whole New Testament, indeed in any extant comparable Greek texts; by O'Brien's account, the word simply does not connote mutuality. Dallas Theological Seminary professor Daniel Wallace understands it to be an extension of 5: 15 -- 21 on being filled by the Holy Spirit.
In the period leading up to the American Civil War (1861 -- 65), Ephesians 6: 5 on master - slave relationships was one of the Bible verses used by Confederate slaveholders in support of a slaveholding position.
|
first season of real housewives of new york | The Real Housewives of New York City (season 1) - wikipedia
The first season of The Real Housewives of New York City, an American reality television series, is broadcast on Bravo. It aired March 4, 2008 until May 27, 2008, and is primarily filmed in New York City, New York. Its executive producers are Andrew Hoegl, Barrie Bernstein, Lisa Shannon, Pam Healy and Andy Cohen.
The Real Housewives of New York City focuses on the lives of LuAnn de Lesseps, Bethenny Frankel, Alex McCord, Ramona Singer and Jill Zarin. It consisted of 9 episodes.
Upon the inception of the series, The Real Housewives of New York City was initially titled Manhattan Moms and production of the series began in November 2007. In January, 2008 it was revealed that Manhattan Moms has been re-titled to The Real Housewives of New York City as well as its premiere date. The following week the full cast of the first season had been announced with Frances Berwick, the Executive Vice President to Bravo saying, "This series will explore the personal and professional lives of five ambitious women who in the upper crust of New York. '' The series premiered with 0.82 total million viewers, which at the time was deemed impressive. During the course of its first season The Real Housewives of New York City averaged 1.13 total million viewers
The season premiere "Meet the Wives '' was aired on March 4, 2008, while the seventh episode "Second Chances '' served as the season finale, and was aired on April 15, 2008. It was followed by a reunion episode that aired on April 22, 2008 and a "Lost Footage '' episode on May 27, 2008, which marked the conclusion of the season. Andrew Hoegl, Barrie Bernstein, Lisa Shannon, Pam Healy and Andy Cohen are recognized as the series ' executive producers; it is produced by Ricochet and is distributed by Shed Media.
Five housewives were featured during the first season of The Real Housewives of New York City, which were describe as "elite and powerful set of New York socialites as they juggle their careers and home lives with busy calendars packed with charity fund - raising galas, the social whirl of the Hamptons, and interviews for elite private schools, '' as well as "driven and ambitious women show everyone what it takes to make it in the upper echelon of society, where money and status are an essential way of life. ''
Ramona Singer gets ready for a trip to the Hamptons, causing her daughter Avery to question her fashion choices. After a fashion show Singer catches her husband Mario flirting with a woman, also noticing he is n't wearing his wedding ring. Singer encourages her daughter 's endeavors in to acting by taking her to an agency and later takes her to an audition where Singer takes control. LuAnn de Lesseps move her and her family in to their Hamptons home for the summer and de Lesseps bonds with Zarin over their teenage daughters. De Lesseps teaches Bethenny Frankel about class and etiquette. Frankel continues to work on her career and aspires to become the next Martha Stewart. Frankel wants to settle down with her current boyfriend Jason and have a family however she 's concerned that he is n't ready to as he already has three children. Jill Zarin supports her daughter 's decision to improve her health by going to a detox clinic at Martha 's Vineyard. At the end of the summer, Zarin and Singer duke it out during a tennis match, however the sportsmanship is less than friendly. Tensions worsen between the two at a fashion show where Singer is seated front row and Zarin is n't. Alex McCord and her husband go against the grain and head to St. Barts for the summer, after deeming vacationing in the Hamptons as "too much work. '' McCord attends her son 's school evaluation alone, due to her husband heading back to Australia after finding out his stepfather has died.
|
an object in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings must | Thermal equilibrium - wikipedia
Two physical systems are in thermal equilibrium if no heat flows between them when they are connected by a path permeable to heat. Thermal equilibrium obeys the zeroth law of thermodynamics. A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium with itself if the temperature within the system is spatially and temporally uniform.
Systems in thermodynamic equilibrium are always in thermal equilibrium, but the converse is not always true. If the connection between the systems allows transfer of energy as heat but does not allow transfer of matter or transfer of energy as work, the two systems may reach thermal equilibrium without reaching thermodynamic equilibrium.
The relation of thermal equilibrium is an instance of a contact equilibrium between two bodies, which means that it refers to transfer through a selectively permeable partition, the contact path. For the relation of thermal equilibrium, the contact path is permeable only to heat; it does not permit the passage of matter or work; it is called a diathermal connection. According to Lieb and Yngvason, the essential meaning of the relation of thermal equilibrium includes that it is reflexive and symmetric. It is not included in the essential meaning whether it is or is not transitive. After discussing the semantics of the definition, they postulate a substantial physical axiom, that they call the "zeroth law of thermodynamics '', that thermal equilibrium is a transitive relation. They comment that the equivalence classes of systems so established are called isotherms.
Thermal equilibrium of a body in itself refers to the body when it is isolated. The background is that no heat enters or leaves it, and that it is allowed unlimited time to settle under its own intrinsic characteristics. When it is completely settled, so that macroscopic change is no longer detectable, it is in its own thermal equilibrium. It is not implied that it is necessarily in other kinds of internal equilibrium. For example, it is possible that a body might reach internal thermal equilibrium but not be in internal chemical equilibrium; glass is an example.
One may imagine an isolated system, initially not in its own state of internal thermal equilibrium. It could be subjected to a fictive thermodynamic operation of partition into two subsystems separated by nothing, no wall. One could then consider the possibility of transfers of energy as heat between the two subsystems. A long time after the fictive partition operation, the two subsystems will reach a practically stationary state, and so be in the relation of thermal equilibrium with each other. Such an adventure could be conducted in indefinitely many ways, with different fictive partitions. All of them will result in subsystems that could be shown to be in thermal equilibrium with each other, testing subsystems from different partitions. For this reason, an isolated system, initially not its own state of internal thermal equilibrium, but left for a long time, practically always will reach a final state which may be regarded as one of internal thermal equilibrium. Such a final state is one of spatial uniformity or homogeneity of temperature. The existence of such states is a basic postulate of classical thermodynamics. This postulate is sometimes, but not often, called the minus first law of thermodynamics.
Heat can flow into or out of a closed system by way of thermal conduction or of thermal radiation to or from a thermal reservoir, and when this process is effecting net transfer of heat, the system is not in thermal equilibrium. While the transfer of energy as heat continues, the system 's temperature can be changing.
If bodies are prepared with separately microscopically stationary states, and are then put into purely thermal connection with each other, by conductive or radiative pathways, they will be in thermal equilibrium with each other just when the connection is followed by no change in either body. But if initially they are not in a relation of thermal equilibrium, heat will flow from the hotter to the colder, by whatever pathway, conductive or radiative, is available, and this flow will continue until thermal equilibrium is reached and then they will have the same temperature.
One form of thermal equilibrium is radiative exchange equilibrium. Two bodies, each with its own uniform temperature, in solely radiative connection, no matter how far apart, or what partially obstructive, reflective, or refractive, obstacles lie in their path of radiative exchange, not moving relative to one another, will exchange thermal radiation, in net the hotter transferring energy to the cooler, and will exchange equal and opposite amounts just when they are at the same temperature. In this situation, Kirchhoff 's law of equality of radiative emissivity and absorptivity and the Helmholtz reciprocity principle are in play.
If an initially isolated physical system, without internal walls that establish adiabatically isolated subsystems, is left long enough, it will usually reach a state of thermal equilibrium in itself, in which its temperature will be uniform throughout, but not necessarily a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, if there is some structural barrier that can prevent some possible processes in the system from reaching equilibrium; glass is an example. Classical thermodynamics in general considers idealized systems that have reached internal equilibrium, and idealized transfers of matter and energy between them.
An isolated physical system may be inhomogeneous, or may be composed of several subsystems separated from each other by walls. If an initially inhomogeneous physical system, without internal walls, is isolated by a thermodynamic operation, it will in general over time change its internal state. Or if it is composed of several subsystems separated from each other by walls, it may change its state after a thermodynamic operation that changes its walls. Such changes may include change of temperature or spatial distribution of temperature, by changing the state of constituent materials. A rod of iron, initially prepared to be hot at one end and cold at the other, when isolated, will change so that its temperature becomes uniform all along its length; during the process, the rod is not in thermal equilibrium until its temperature is uniform. In a system prepared as a block of ice floating in a bath of hot water, and then isolated, the ice can melt; during the melting, the system is not in thermal equilibrium; but eventually its temperature will become uniform; the block of ice will not re-form. A system prepared as a mixture of petrol vapour and air can be ignited by a spark and produce carbon dioxide and water; if this happens in an isolated system, it will increase the temperature of the system, and during the increase, the system is not in thermal equilibrium; but eventually the system will settle to a uniform temperature.
Such changes in isolated systems are irreversible in the sense that while such a change will occur spontanteously whenever the system is prepared in the same way, the reverse change will practically never occur spontanteously within the isolated system; this is a large part of the content of the second law of thermodynamics. Truly perfectly isolated systems do not occur in nature, and always are artificially prepared.
One may consider a system contained in a very tall adiabatically isolating vessel with rigid walls initially containing a thermally heterogeneous distribution of material, left for a long time under the influence of a steady gravitational field, along its tall dimension, due to an outside body such as the earth. It will settle to a state of uniform temperature throughout, though not of uniform pressure or density, and perhaps containing several phases. It is then in internal thermal equilibrium and even in thermodynamic equilibrium. This means that all local parts of the system are in mutual radiative exchange equilibrium. This means that the temperature of the system is spatially uniform. This is so in all cases, including those of non-uniform external force fields. For an externally imposed gravitational field, this may be proved in macroscopic thermodynamic terms, by the calculus of variations, using the method of Langrangian multipliers. Considerations of kinetic theory or statistical mechanics also support this statement.
There is an important distinction between thermal and thermodynamic equilibrium. According to Münster (1970), in states of thermodynamic equilibrium, the state variables of a system do not change at a measurable rate. Moreover, "The proviso ' at a measurable rate ' implies that we can consider an equilibrium only with respect to specified processes and defined experimental conditions. '' Also, a state of thermodynamic equilibrium can be described by fewer macroscopic variables than any other state of a given body of matter. A single isolated body can start in a state which is not one of thermodynamic equilibrium, and can change till thermodynamic equilibrium is reached. Thermal equilibrium is a relation between two bodies or closed systems, in which transfers are allowed only of energy and take place through a partition permeable to heat, and in which the transfers have proceeded till the states of the bodies cease to change.
An explicit distinction between ' thermal equilibrium ' and ' thermodynamic equilibrium ' is made by C.J. Adkins. He allows that two systems might be allowed to exchange heat but be constrained from exchanging work; they will naturally exchange heat till they have equal temperatures, and reach thermal equilibrium, but in general will not be in thermodynamic equilibrium. They can reach thermodynamic equilibrium when they are allowed also to exchange work.
Another explicit distinction between ' thermal equilibrium ' and ' thermodynamic equilibrium ' is made by B.C. Eu. He considers two systems in thermal contact, one a thermometer, the other a system in which several irreversible processes are occurring. He considers the case in which, over the time scale of interest, it happens that both the thermometer reading and the irreversible processes are steady. Then there is thermal equilibrium without thermodynamic equilibrium. Eu proposes consequently that the zeroth law of thermodynamics can be considered to apply even when thermodynamic equilibrium is not present; also he proposes that if changes are occurring so fast that a steady temperature can not be defined, then "it is no longer possible to describe the process by means of a thermodynamic formalism. In other words, thermodynamics has no meaning for such a process. ''
A planet is in thermal equilibrium when the incident energy reaching it (typically the solar irradiance from its parent star) is equal to the infrared energy radiated away to space.
|
when does a pile of sand stop being a pile | Sorites paradox - wikipedia
The sorites paradox (/ soʊˈraɪtiːz /; sometimes known as the paradox of the heap) is a paradox that arises from vague predicates. A typical formulation involves a heap of sand, from which grains are individually removed. Under the assumption that removing a single grain does not turn a heap into a non-heap, the paradox is to consider what happens when the process is repeated enough times: is a single remaining grain still a heap? If not, when did it change from a heap to a non-heap?
The word "sorites '' derives from the Greek word for heap. The paradox is so named because of its original characterization, attributed to Eubulides of Miletus. The paradox goes as follows: consider a heap of sand from which grains are individually removed. One might construct the argument, using premises, as follows:
Repeated applications of Premise 2 (each time starting with one fewer grain) eventually forces one to accept the conclusion that a heap may be composed of just one grain of sand.). Read (1995) observes that "the argument is itself a heap, or sorites, of steps of modus ponens '':
Then tension between small changes and big consequences gives rise to the Sorites Paradox... There are many variations... (some of which allow) consideration of the difference between being... (a question of fact) and seeming... (a question of perception).
Another formulation is to start with a grain of sand, which is clearly not a heap, and then assume that adding a single grain of sand to something that is not a heap does not turn it into a heap. Inductively, this process can be repeated as much as one wants without ever constructing a heap. A more natural formulation of this variant is to assume a set of colored chips exists such that two adjacent chips vary in color too little for human eyesight to be able to distinguish between them. Then by induction on this premise, humans would not be able to distinguish between any colors.
The removal of one drop from the ocean, will not make it ' not an ocean ' (it is still an ocean), but since the volume of water in the ocean is finite, eventually, after enough removals, even a litre of water left is still an ocean.
This paradox can be reconstructed for a variety of predicates, for example, with "tall '', "rich '', "old '', "blue '', "bald '', and so on. Bertrand Russell argued that all of natural language, even logical connectives, is vague; moreover, representations of propositions are vague.
Other similar paradoxes are:
On the face of it, there are some ways to avoid this conclusion. One may object to the first premise by denying 7006100000000000000 ♠ 1000000 grains of sand makes a heap. But 7006100000000000000 ♠ 1000000 is just an arbitrarily large number, and the argument will go through with any such number. So the response must deny outright that there are such things as heaps. Peter Unger defends this solution. Alternatively, one may object to the second premise by stating that it is not true for all heaps of sand that removing one grain from it still makes a heap.
A common first response to the paradox is to call any set of grains that has more than a certain number of grains in it a heap. If one were to set the "fixed boundary '' at, say, 7004100000000000000 ♠ 10 000 grains then one would claim that for fewer than 7004100000000000000 ♠ 10 000, it is not a heap; for 7004100000000000000 ♠ 10 000 or more, then it is a heap.
However, such solutions are unsatisfactory as there seems little significance to the difference between 7003999900000000000 ♠ 9999 grains and 7004100000000000000 ♠ 10 000 grains. The boundary, wherever it may be set, remains as arbitrary and so its precision is misleading. It is objectionable on both philosophical and linguistic grounds: the former on account of its arbitrariness, and the latter on the ground that it is simply not how we use natural language.
A second response attempts to find a fixed boundary that reflects common usage of a term. For example, a dictionary may define a "heap '' as "a collection of things thrown together so as to form an elevation. '' This requires there to be enough grains that some grains are supported by other grains. Thus adding one grain atop a single layer produces a heap, and removing the last grain above the bottom layer destroys the heap.
Timothy Williamson and Roy Sorensen hold an approach that there are fixed boundaries but that they are necessarily unknowable.
Supervaluationism is a semantics for dealing with irreferential singular terms and vagueness. It allows one to retain the usual tautological laws even when dealing with undefined truth values. As an example for a proposition about an irreferential singular term, consider the sentence "Pegasus likes licorice ''. Since the name "Pegasus '' fails to refer, no truth value can be assigned to the sentence; there is nothing in the myth that would justify any such assignment. However, there are some statements about "Pegasus '' which have definite truth values nevertheless, such as "Pegasus likes licorice or Pegasus does n't like licorice ''. This sentence is an instance of the tautology "p ∨ ¬ p (\ displaystyle p \ vee \ neg p) ", i.e. the valid schema '' p (\ displaystyle p) or not - p (\ displaystyle p) ". According to supervaluationism, it should be true regardless of whether or not its components have a truth value.
Similarly, "7003100000000000000 ♠ 1000 grains of sand is a heap of sand '' may be considered a border case having no truth value, but "7003100000000000000 ♠ 1000 grains of sand is a heap of sand, or 7003100000000000000 ♠ 1000 grains of sand is not a heap of sand '' should be true.
Precisely, let v (\ displaystyle v) be a classical valuation defined on every atomic sentence of the language L (\ displaystyle L), and let A t (x) (\ displaystyle At (x)) be the number of distinct atomic sentences in x (\ displaystyle x). Then for every sentence x (\ displaystyle x), at most 2 A t (x) (\ displaystyle 2 ^ (At (x))) distinct classical valuations can exist. A supervaluation V (\ displaystyle V) is a function from sentences to truth values such that, a sentence x (\ displaystyle x) is super-true (i.e. V (x) = True (\ displaystyle V (x) = (\ text (True)))) if and only if v (x) = True (\ displaystyle v (x) = (\ text (True))) for every classical valuation v (\ displaystyle v); likewise for super-false. Otherwise, V (x) (\ displaystyle V (x)) is undefined -- i.e. exactly when there are two classical valuations v (\ displaystyle v) and v ′ (\ displaystyle v ') such that v (x) = True (\ displaystyle v (x) = (\ text (True))) and v ′ (x) = False (\ displaystyle v ' (x) = (\ text (False))).
For example, let L p (\ displaystyle L \; p) be the formal translation of "Pegasus likes licorice ''. Then there are exactly two classical valuations v (\ displaystyle v) and v ′ (\ displaystyle v ') on L p (\ displaystyle L \; p), viz. v (L p) = True (\ displaystyle v (L \; p) = (\ text (True))) and v ′ (L p) = False (\ displaystyle v ' (L \; p) = (\ text (False))). So L p (\ displaystyle L \; p) is neither super-true nor super-false. However, the tautology L p ∨ ¬ L p (\ displaystyle L \; p \ lor \ lnot L \; p) is evaluated to True (\ displaystyle (\ text (True))) by every classical valuation; it is hence super-true. Similarly, the formalization of the above heap proposition H 1000 (\ displaystyle H \; 1000) is neither super-true nor super-false, but H 1000 ∨ ¬ H 1000 (\ displaystyle H \; 1000 \ lor \ lnot H \; 1000) is super-true.
Another approach is to use a multi-valued logic. From this point of view, the problem is with the principle of bivalence: the sand is either a heap or is not a heap, without any shades of gray. Instead of two logical states, heap and not - heap, a three value system can be used, for example heap, indeterminate and not - heap. However, three valued systems do not truly resolve the paradox as there is still a dividing line between heap and indeterminate and also between indeterminate and not - heap. The third truth - value can be understood either as a truth - value gap or as a truth - value glut.
Alternatively, fuzzy logic offers a continuous spectrum of logical states represented in the unit interval of real numbers (0, 1) -- it is a many - valued logic with infinitely - many truth - values, and thus the sand moves smoothly from "definitely heap '' to "definitely not heap '', with shades in the intermediate region. Fuzzy hedges are used to divide the continuum into regions corresponding to classes like definitely heap, mostly heap, partly heap, slightly heap, and not heap.
Another approach, introduced by Raffman, is to use hysteresis, that is, knowledge of what the collection of sand started as. Equivalent amounts of sand may be called heaps or not based on how they got there. If a large heap (indisputably described as a heap) is slowly diminished, it preserves its "heap status '' to a point, even as the actual amount of sand is reduced to a smaller number of grains. For example, suppose 7002500000000000000 ♠ 500 grains is a pile and 7003100000000000000 ♠ 1000 grains is a heap. There will be an overlap for these states. So if one is reducing it from a heap to a pile, it is a heap going down until, say, 7002750000000000000 ♠ 750. At that point one would stop calling it a heap and start calling it a pile. But if one replaces one grain, it would not instantly turn back into a heap. When going up it would remain a pile until, say, 7002900000000000000 ♠ 900 grains. The numbers picked are arbitrary; the point is, that the same amount can be either a heap or a pile depending on what it was before the change. A common use of hysteresis would be the thermostat for air conditioning: the AC is set at 77 ° F and it then cools down to just below 77 ° F, but does not turn on again instantly at 77.001 ° F -- it waits until almost 78 ° F, to prevent instant change of state over and over again.
One can establish the meaning of the word "heap '' by appealing to consensus. This approach claims that a collection of grains is as much a "heap '' as the proportion of people in a group who believe it to be so. In other words, the probability that any collection is considered a heap is the expected value of the distribution of the group 's views.
A group may decide that:
Between the two extremes, individual members of the group may disagree with each other over whether any particular collection can be labelled a "heap ''. The collection can then not be definitively claimed to be a "heap '' or "not a heap ''. This can be considered an appeal to descriptive linguistics rather than prescriptive linguistics, as it resolves the issue of definition based on how the population uses natural language. Indeed, if a precise prescriptive definition of "heap '' is available then the group consensus will always be unanimous and the paradox does not arise.
In the above color example, the argument is tacitly based on considering the relation "for the human eye, color X is indistinguishable from Y '' as an equivalence relation, in particular as transitive. To drop the transitivity assumption is a possibility to resolve the paradox.
Similarly, the paradox is based on considering the relation "for the human eye, color X looks more or equally red than Y '' as a reflexive total ordering; again, dropping its transitivity resolves the paradox.
Instead, the relation between colors can be described as a quasitransitive relation, employing a concept introduced by microeconomist Amartya Sen in 1969. The table shows a simple example, with color differences overdone for readability. A "Q '' and a "T '' indicates that the row 's color looks more or equally red than column 's color in the quasitransitive and the transitive version of the relation, respectively. In the quasitransitive version, e.g. the colors f01000 and e02000 are modelled as indistinguishable, since a "Q '' appears in both their intersection cells. A "P '' indicates the asymmetric part of the quasitransitive version.
To resolve the original heap variation of the paradox with this approach, the relation "X grains are more a heap than Y grains '' should be considered quasitransitive rather than transitive.
|
who won the rugby between england and new zealand | History of rugby union matches between England and New Zealand - wikipedia
The national rugby union teams of England and New Zealand have been playing each other in Test match rugby since 1905, and have contested a total of 38 Test matches since. The first meeting between the two nations was on 2 December 1905, when the All Blacks were in England as part of their European and North America tour. The All Blacks won 15 -- 0 with their points coming from five tries, of which four were scored by winger Duncan McGregor. Their next meeting was on the All Blacks ' Invincibles tour of 1924 -- 25. The match was most notable for the sending off of All Black lock Cyril Brownlie, who became the first player to ever be sent off in a Test match. In 1936 England defeated the All Blacks for the first time when England winger Prince Alexander Obolensky scored two tries during a 13 -- 0 victory at Twickenham Stadium. The All Blacks have never lost more than two consecutive matches to England, and have dominated the rivalry between the teams. Of the 40 matches between them, New Zealand have won 32 and England 7, whilst one match was drawn.
In 2008 the Hillary Shield was introduced as the trophy to be contested in matches between the two teams.
Note: Date shown in brackets indicates when the record was or last set.
A century of New Zealand dominance has been punctuated by infrequent England victories. The 17 point margin in 2012 eclipsed the 13 - 0 win in 1936. Out of the blue England visited NZ in 1973 and won the test match 16 - 10, their first win in New Zealand. Ten years later they pulled off the first home win in 48 years by 15 - 9 and repeated the feat ten years later by the same score. They won back to back victories in 2002 and 2003.
One of the 1997 matches resulted in a 26 all draw.
The rest of the matches have been won by New Zealand. The highest margin was 42 points in 1998 in Dunedin when England sent a depleted touring side to New Zealand.
The teams have met three times in World Cups, with New Zealand winning all three matches.
Since 2008, the winner of New Zealand -- England Test matches have been awarded the Hillary Shield. The shield is only contested in non-World Cup matches, and is named in honour of Sir Edmund Hillary -- the first person to reach the summit of Mount Everest. It was also conceived to recognise the links between New Zealand and England. When the shield was unveiled in 2008 by New Zealand 's Prime Minister at the time, Helen Clark, and Hillary 's widow, Lady June Hillary, Clark said of Hillary "He was part of a British expedition when he conquered Mt Everest shortly after the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II ''.
|
why does my upper back hurt when i laugh | Pleurisy - wikipedia
Pleurisy, also known as pleuritis, is inflammation of the membranes (pleurae) that surround the lungs and line the chest cavity. This can result in a sharp chest pain with breathing. Occasionally the pain may be a constant dull ache. Other symptoms may include shortness of breath, cough, fever, or weight loss depending on the underlying cause.
The most common cause is a viral infection. Other causes include pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, autoimmune disorders, lung cancer, following heart surgery, pancreatitis, chest trauma, and asbestosis. Occasionally the cause remains unknown. The underlying mechanism involves the rubbing together of the pleurae instead of smooth gliding. Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms include pericarditis, heart attack, cholecystitis, and pneumothorax. Diagnosis may include a chest X-ray, electrocardiogram (ECG), and blood tests.
Treatment depends on the underlying cause. Paracetamol and ibuprofen may be used to help with the pain. Incentive spirometry may be recommended to encourage larger breaths. About one million people are affected in the United States each year. Descriptions of the condition date from at least as early as 400 BC by Hippocrates.
The defining symptom of pleurisy is a sudden sharp, stabbing, burning or dull pain in the right or left side of the chest during breathing, especially when one inhales and exhales. It feels worse with deep breathing, coughing, sneezing, or laughing. The pain may stay in one place, or it may spread to the shoulder or back. Sometimes, it becomes a fairly constant dull ache.
Depending on its cause, pleuritic chest pain may be accompanied by other symptoms:
The pleural space can be invaded by fluid, air, and particles from other parts of the body, which fairly complicates diagnosis. Viral infection (coxsackie B virus, HRSV, CMV, adenovirus, EBV, parainfluenza, influenza) is the most common cause of pleurisy. However, many other different conditions can cause pleuritic chest pain:
When the space between the pleurae starts to fill with fluid, as in pleural effusion, the chest pain can be eased but a shortness of breath can result, since the lungs need room to expand during breathing. Some cases of pleuritic chest pain are idiopathic, which means that the exact cause can not be determined.
A diagnosis of pleurisy or another pleural condition is based on a medical history, physical examinations, and diagnostic tests. The goals are to rule out other sources of the symptoms and to find the cause of the pleurisy so that the underlying disorder can be treated.
A doctor uses a stethoscope to listen to the breathing. This method detects any unusual sounds in the lungs. A person with pleurisy may have inflamed layers of the pleurae that make a rough, scratchy sound as they rub against each other during breathing. This is called pleural friction rub.
Depending on the results of the physical examination, diagnostic tests are sometimes performed.
A chest x-ray takes a picture of the heart and lungs. It may show air or fluid in the pleural space. It also may show the cause (e.g., pneumonia, a fractured rib, or a lung tumor) of the pleurisy.
Sometimes an x-ray is taken while lying on the painful side. This may show fluid, as well as changes in fluid position, that did not appear in the vertical x-ray.
Blood tests can detect bacterial or viral infections, pneumonia, rheumatic fever, a pulmonary embolism, or lupus.
Electrocardiography test can determine if a heart condition contributes to the symptoms.
Ultrasonography uses sound waves to create an image. It may show where fluid is located in the chest. It also can show some tumors. Although ultrasound may detect fluid around the lungs, also known as a pleural effusion, sound waves are scattered by air. Therefore, an actual picture of the lungs can not be obtained with ultrasonography.
A CT scan provides a computer - generated picture of the lungs that can show pockets of fluid. It also may show signs of pneumonia, a lung abscess, or a tumor.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), also called nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) scanning, uses powerful magnets to show pleural effusions and tumors.
In arterial blood - gas sampling, a small amount of blood is taken from an artery, usually in the wrist. The blood is then checked for oxygen and carbon - dioxide levels. This test shows how well the lungs are taking in oxygen.
Once the presence of an excess fluid in the pleural cavity, or pleural effusion, is suspected and location of fluid is confirmed, a sample of fluid can be removed for testing. The procedure to remove fluid in the chest is called a diagnostic thoracentesis. The doctor inserts a small needle or a thin, hollow, plastic tube in the chest wall and withdraws fluid.
Thoracentesis can be done in the doctor 's office or at the hospital. Ultrasound is used to guide the needle to the fluid that is trapped in small pockets around the lungs.
Thoracentesis usually does not cause serious complications. Generally, a chest x-ray is done after the procedure to evaluate the lungs. Possible complications of thoracentesis include the following:
The lung fluid is examined under a microscope and is evaluated for the presence of chemicals and for its color and texture. The degree of clarity is an indicator of infection, cancer, or other conditions that may be causing the buildup of fluid or blood in the pleural space.
If tuberculosis or cancer is suspected, a small piece of the pleura may be examined under a microscope to make a definitive diagnosis. This is called a biopsy.
Several approaches to taking tissue samples are available
Treatment has several goals:
If large amounts of fluid, air, or blood are not removed from the pleural space, they may cause the lung to collapse.
The surgical procedures used to drain fluid, air, or blood from the pleural space are as follows:
A couple of medications are used to relieve pleurisy symptoms:
There may be a role for the use of corticosteroids (for tuberculous pleurisy), tacrolimus (Prograf) and methotrexate (Trexall, Rheumatrex) in the treatment of pleurisy. Further studies are needed.
The following may be helpful in the management of pleurisy:
Ideally, the treatment of pleurisy is aimed at eliminating the underlying cause of the disease.
The treatment for pleurisy depends on its origin and is prescribed by a physician on a base of an individual assessment. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) and amoxicillin, or other antibiotics in case of bacterial infections, are common remedies dispensed by doctors to relieve the initial symptoms and pain in the chest, while viral infections are self - limited. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), preferably indometacin, are usually employed as pain control agents.
A number of alternative or complementary medicines are being investigated for their anti-inflammatory properties, and their use in pleurisy. At this time, clinical trials of these compounds have not been performed.
Extracts from the Brazilian folk remedy Wilbrandia ebracteata ("Taiuia '') have been shown to reduce inflammation in the pleural cavity of mice. The extract is thought to inhibit the same enzyme, cyclooxygenase - 2 (COX - 2), as the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
Pleurisy is often associated with complications that affect the pleural space.
In some cases of pleurisy, excess fluid builds up in the pleural space. This is called a pleural effusion. The buildup of fluid usually forces the two layers of the pleura apart so they do n't rub against each other when breathing. This can relieve the pain of pleurisy. A large amount of extra fluid can push the pleura against the lung until the lung, or a part of it, collapses. This can make it hard to breathe.
In some cases of pleural effusion, the extra fluid gets infected and turns into an abscess. This is called an empyema.
Pleural effusion involving fibrinous exudates in the fluid may be called fibrinous pleurisy. It sometimes occurs as a later stage of pleurisy.
A person can develop a pleural effusion in the absence of pleurisy. For example, pneumonia, heart failure, cancer, or a pulmonary embolism can lead to a pleural effusion.
Air or gas also can build up in the pleural space. This is called a pneumothorax. It can result from acute lung injury or a lung disease like emphysema. Lung procedures, like surgery, drainage of fluid with a needle, examination of the lung from the inside with a light and a camera, or mechanical ventilation, also can cause a pneumothorax.
The most common symptom is sudden pain in one side of the lung and shortness of breath. A pneumothorax also can put pressure on the lung and cause it to collapse.
If the pneumothorax is small, it may go away on its own. If large, a chest tube is placed through the skin and chest wall into the pleural space to remove the air.
Blood also can collect in the pleural space. This is called hemothorax. The most common cause is injury to the chest from blunt force or surgery on the heart or chest. Hemothorax also can occur in people with lung or pleural cancer.
Hemothorax can put pressure on the lung and force it to collapse. It also can cause shock, a state of hypoperfusion in which an insufficient amount of blood is able to reach the organs.
Pleurisy and other disorders of the pleurae can be serious, depending on what caused them. Generally, pleurisy treatment has an excellent prognosis, but if left untreated it can cause severe complications. For example, a resulting pulmonary heart disease cor pulmonale, which manifests itself with an inflammation of the arms and legs, can lead to heart failure. If the conditions that caused the pleurisy or other pleural disorders were adequately diagnosed and treated early, one can expect a full recovery. Help of a pulmonologist (respiratory physician in the U.K. and Australia) may be enlisted to address the underlying cause and chart post-illness rehabilitation.
|
which one is not qualitative measure of credit control | Credit control in India - wikipedia
Credit control is an important tool used by Reserve Bank of India, a major weapon of the monetary policy used to control the demand and supply of money (liquidity) in the economy. Central Bank administers control over the credit that the commercial banks grant. Such a method is used by RBI to bring "Economic Development with Stability ''. It means that banks will not only control inflationary trends in the economy but also boost economic growth which would ultimately lead to increase in real national income stability. In view of its functions such as issuing notes and custodian of cash reserves, credit not being controlled by RBI would lead to Social and Economic instability in the country.
Controlling credit in the economy is amongst the most important functions of the Reserve Bank of India. The basic and important needs of credit control in the economy are -
Credit control policy is just an
The broad objectives of credit control policy in India have been -
There are two methods that the RBI uses to control the money supply in the economy -
During the period of inflation Reserve Bank of India tightens its policies to restrict the money supply, whereas during deflation it allows the commercial bank to pump money in the economy.
By Quality we mean the uses to which bank credit is directed.
For example - the bank may feel that spectators or the big capitalists are getting a disproportionately large share in the total credit, causing various disturbances and inequality in the economy, while the small - scale industries, consumer goods industries and agriculture are starved of credit.
Correcting this type of discrepancy is a matter of qualitative credit control.
Qualitative method controls the manner of channelizing of cash and credit in the economy. It is a ' selective method ' of control as it restricts credit for certain section where as expands for the other known as the ' priority sector ' depending on the situation.
Tools used under this method are -
The marginal requirement of a loan is the current value of security offered for a loan or the value in totality of the loans granted. The marginal requirement is increased for those business activities, whose flow of credit is to be restricted in the economy.
ex - a person mortgages his property worth Rs. 100,000 against loan. The bank will give loan of Rs. 80,000 only. The marginal requirement here is 20 %.
In case the flow of credit has to be increased, the marginal requirement will be lowered.
The Reserve Bank of India has been using this method since 1956. If margin percent is more, then fewer loans will be given for a certain value of security. If margin percent is less, more loans will be given.
Under this method there is a maximum limit to loans and advances that can be made, which the commercial banks can not exceed. RBI fixes ceiling for specific categories. Such rationing is used for situations when credit flow is to be checked, particularly for speculative activities. This is all fake Minimum of "capital: total assets '' (ratio between capital and total asset) can also be prescribed by Reserve Bank of India
RBI uses media for the publicity of its views on the current market condition and its directions that will be required to be implemented by the commercial banks to control the unrest. Though this method is not very successful in developing nations due to high illiteracy existing making it difficult for people to understand such policies and its implications.
Under the banking regulation Act, the central bank has the authority to take strict action against any of the commercial banks that refuses to obey the directions given by Reserve Bank of India. There can be a restriction on advancing of loans imposed by Reserve Bank of India on such banks. e.g. -- RBI had put up certain restrictions on the working of the Metropolitan co-operative banks. Also the ' Bank of Karad ' had to come to an end in 1992.
This method is also known as "moral persuasion '' as the method that the Reserve Bank of India, being the apex bank uses here, is that of persuading the commercial banks to follow its directions / orders on the flow of credit. It also be part of meetings between RBI and Commercial Banks. RBI persuades the commercial bank to follow their policies. RBI puts a pressure on the commercial banks to put a ceiling on credit flow during inflation and be liberal in lending during deflation.
By quantitative credit control we mean the control of the total quantity of credit.
For Example - let us consider that the Central Bank, on the basis of its calculations, considers that Rs. 50,000 is the maximum safe limit for the expansion of credit. But the actual credit at that given point of time is Rs. 55,000 (say). Thus it then becomes necessary for the central bank to bring it down to 50,000 by tightening its policies. Similarly if the actual credit is less, say 45,000, then the apex bank regulates its policies in favor of pumping credit into the economy.
Different tools used under this method are -
Bank rate also known as the discount rate is the official minimum rate at which the central bank of the country is ready to rediscount approved bills of exchange or lend on approved securities.
Section 49 of the Reserve Bank of India Act 1934, defines Bank Rate as "the standard rate at which it (RBI) is prepared to buy or re-discount bills of exchange or other commercial paper eligible for purchase under this Act ''.
When the commercial bank for instance, has lent or invested all its available funds and has little or no cash over and above the prescribed minimum, it may ask the central bank for funds. It may either re-discount some of its bills with the central bank or it may borrow from the central bank against the collateral of its own promissory notes.
In either case, the central bank accommodates the commercial bank and increases the latter 's cash reserves. This Rate is increased during the times of inflation when the money supply in the economy has to be controlled.
At any time there are various rates of interest ruling at the market, like the deposit rate, lending rate of commercial banks, market discount rate and so on. But, since the central bank is the leader of the money market and the lender of the last resort, al other rates are closely related to the bank rate. The changes in the bank rate are, therefore, followed by changes in all other rates as the money market.
The graph on the right hand side shows variations in the bank rate since 1935 -- 2011.
Working of the bank rate
This section will answer how Bank Rate policy operates to control the level of prices and business activity in the country.
Changes in bank rate are introduced with a view to controlling the price levels and business activity, by changing the demand for loans. Its working is based upon the principle that changes in the bank rate results in changed interest rate in the market.
Suppose a country is facing inflationary pressure. The central bank, in such situations, will increase the bank rate thereby resulting to a hiked lending rate. This increase will discourage borrowing. It will also lead to a fall in the business activity due to following reasons.
The effect of Rise in bank rate by the central bank is shown in the chart (left side). Hence, we can conclude that hike in Bank Rate leads to fall in price level and a fall in the Bank Rate leads to an increase in price level i.e. they share an inverse relationship.
|
where is maldives located in the world map | Maldives - wikipedia
The Maldives (/ ˈmɒldiːvz /, / ˈmɔːldiːvz /, / ˈmɔːldaɪvz / (listen) or / ˈmældaɪvz /), officially the Republic of Maldives (Maldivian: ދިވެހިރާއްޖޭގެ ޖުމްހޫރިއްޔާ, Dhivehi Raa'jeyge Jumhooriyya), is a South Asian island country, located in the Indian Ocean, situated in the Arabian Sea. It lies southwest of India and Sri Lanka. The chain of twenty - six atolls stretches from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to the Addu City in the south. Comprising a territory spanning roughly 298 square kilometres (115 sq mi), the Maldives is one of the world 's most geographically dispersed countries, as well as the smallest Asian country by both land area and population, with around 427,756 inhabitants. Malé is the capital and most populated city, traditionally called the "King 's Island '' for its central location.
The Maldives archipelago is located atop the Chagos - Maldives - Laccadive Ridge, a vast submarine mountain range in the Indian Ocean, which also forms a terrestrial ecoregion, together with the Chagos and the Lakshadweep. With an average ground - level elevation of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) above sea level, it is the world 's lowest country, with even its highest natural point being the lowest in the world, at 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in). Due to the subsequent risks posed by rising sea - levels, the government pledged in 2009 to make the Maldives a carbon - neutral country by 2019.
The Maldivian archipelago took to Islam in the 12th century and consolidated as a sultanate, developing strong commercial and cultural ties with Asia and Africa. From the mid 16th - century, the region came under the increasing influence of European colonial powers, with the Maldives becoming a British protectorate in 1887. Independence from the United Kingdom was achieved in 1965 and a presidential republic was established in 1968 with an elected People 's Majlis. The ensuing decades have been characterised by political instability, efforts at democratic reform, and environmental challenges posed by climate change.
The Maldives is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). It is also a member of the United Nations, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Non Aligned Movement. The World Bank classifies the Maldives as having an upper middle income economy. Fishing has historically been the dominant economic activity, and remains the largest sector by far, followed by the rapidly growing tourism industry. Along with Sri Lanka, it is one of only two South Asian countries rated "high '' on the Human Development Index (HDI), with its per capita income the highest among SAARC nations.
The Maldives was a Commonwealth republic from July 1982 until its withdrawal from the Commonwealth in October 2016 in protest of international criticism of its records in relation to corruption and human rights.
The name Maldives may derive from the Malayalam words maala (garland) and dweepu (island) or the Tamil maalai (garland / evening) and theevu (island), or මාල දිවයින (Maala Divaina, "Necklace Islands '') in Sinhala. The Maldivian people are called Dhivehin. The word theevu (archaic heevu, related to Tamil தீவு, dheevu) means "island '', and Dhives (Dhivehin) means "islanders '' (i.e., Maldivians).
The ancient Sri Lankan chronicle Mahawamsa refers to an island called Mahiladiva ("Island of Women '', महिलादिभ) in Pali, which is probably a mistranslation of the same Sanskrit word meaning "garland ''.
Jan S Hogendorn, Grossman Professor of Economics, theorises that the name Maldives derives from the Sanskrit mālādvīpa (मालाद्वीप), meaning "garland of islands ''. In Tamil, "Garland of Islands '' can be translated as Malai Theevu (மாலைத்தீவு). In Malayalam, "Garland of Islands '' can be translated as Maladweepu (മാലദ്വീപ്). In Kannada, "Garland of Islands '' can be translated as Maaledweepa (ಮಾಲೆದ್ವೀಪ). None of these names is mentioned in any literature, but classical Sanskrit texts dating back to the Vedic period mention the "Hundred Thousand Islands '' (Lakshadweepa), a generic name which would include not only the Maldives, but also the Laccadives, Aminidivi Islands, Minicoy and the Chagos island groups.
Some medieval travellers such as Ibn Battuta called the islands Mahal Dibiyat (محل دبيأت) from the Arabic word mahal ("palace ''), which must be how the Berber traveller interpreted the local name, having been through Muslim North India, where Perso - Arabic words were introduced to the local vocabulary. This is the name currently inscribed on the scroll in the Maldive state emblem. The classical Persian / Arabic name for Maldives is Dibajat. The Dutch referred to the islands as the Maldivische Eilanden (pronounced (mɑlˈdivisə ˈɛi̯lɑndə (n))), while the British anglicised the local name for the islands first to the "Maldive Islands '' and later to "Maldives. ''
Garcia da Orta writes in his conversational book first published in 1563 as follows: "I must tell you that I have heard it said that the natives do not call it Maldiva but Nalediva. In the Malabar language nale means four and diva island. So that in that language the word signifies "four islands, '' while we, corrupting the name, call it Maldiva. ''
The first Maldivians did not leave any archaeological artifacts. Their buildings were probably built of wood, palm fronds and other perishable materials, which would have quickly decayed in the salt and wind of the tropical climate. Moreover, chiefs or headmen did not reside in elaborate stone palaces, nor did their religion require the construction of large temples or compounds.
Comparative studies of Maldivian oral, linguistic and cultural traditions and customs confirm that the first settlers were people from the southern shores of the neighboring Indian subcontinent, including the Giraavaru people mentioned in ancient legends and local folklore about the establishment of the capital and kingly rule in Malé.
A strong underlying layer of Dravidian population and culture survives in Maldivian society, with a clear Tamil - Malayalam substratum in the language, which also appears in place names, kinship terms, poetry, dance, and religious beliefs. Malabari and Debal seafaring culture led to Malayali (and possibly Sindhi) settling during the Indus valley civilisation.
The earliest written history of the Maldives was marked by the arrival of Sinhalese people in Sri Lanka and the Maldives (Mahiladvipika) circa 543 to 483 BC, as reported in the Mahavansa. Their settlement marks a significant change in demographics and the development of the Indo - Aryan language Dhivehi language.
Despite being just mentioned briefly in most history books, the 1,400 - year - long Buddhist period has a foundational importance in the history of the Maldives. It was during this period that the culture of the Maldives as we now know it both developed and flourished. The Maldivian language, the first Maldive scripts, the architecture, the ruling institutions, the customs and manners of the Maldivians originated at the time when the Maldives were a Buddhist kingdom.
Buddhism probably spread to the Maldives in the 3rd century BC at the time of Emperor Ashoka 's expansion, and became the dominant religion of the people of the Maldives until the 12th century AD. The ancient Maldivian Kings promoted Buddhism, and the first Maldive writings and artistic achievements, in the form of highly developed sculpture and architecture, are from that period. Nearly all archaeological remains in the Maldives are from Buddhist stupas and monasteries, and all artifacts found to date display characteristic Buddhist iconography. Buddhist (and Hindu) temples were Mandala shaped, they are oriented according to the four cardinal points, the main gate being towards the east. Local historian Hassan Ahmed Maniku counted as many as 59 islands with Buddhist archaeological sites in a provisional list he published in 1990.
The importance of the Arabs as traders in the Indian Ocean by the 12th century may partly explain why the last Buddhist king of Maldives Dhovemi converted to Islam in the year 1153 (or 1193), adopting the Muslim title of Sultan Muhammad al Adil, and initiating a series of six Islamic dynasties that lasted until 1932 when the sultanate became elective. The formal title of the Sultan up to 1965 was, Sultan of Land and Sea, Lord of the twelve - thousand islands and Sultan of the Maldives which came with the style Highness. The person traditionally deemed responsible for this conversion was a Sunni Muslim visitor named Abu al Barakat, stemming either from the Maghreb (as according to Ibn Battutah), from the Somalian port of Berbera, or from the Persian town of Tabriz. His venerated tomb now stands on the grounds of Hukuru Mosque, or miski, in the capital of Malé. Built in 1656, this is the oldest mosque in Maldives. Following the Islamic concept that before Islam there was the time of Jahiliya (ignorance), in the history books used by Maldivians the introduction of Islam at the end of the 12th century is considered the cornerstone of the country 's history.
Compared to the other areas of South Asia, the conversion of the Maldives to Islam happened relatively late. Arab Traders had converted populations in the Malabar Coast since the 7th century, and Muhammad Bin Qāsim had converted large swathes of Sindh to Islam at about the same time. The Maldives remained a Buddhist kingdom for another five hundred years after the conversion of Malabar Coast and Sindh -- perhaps as the south - westernmost Buddhist country. Arabic became the prime language of administration (instead of the Persian and Urdu), and the Maliki school of jurisprudence was introduced, both hinting at direct contacts with the core of the Arab world.
Middle Eastern seafarers had just begun to take over the Indian Ocean trade routes in the 10th century and found Maldives to be an important link in those routes as the first landfall for traders from Basra sailing to Southeast Asia. Trade involved mainly cowrie shells -- widely used as a form of currency throughout Asia and parts of the East African coast -- and coir fiber. The Bengal Sultanate, where cowrie shells were used as legal tender, was one of the principal trading partners of the Maldives. The Bengal - Maldives cowry shell trade was the largest shell currency trade network in history. The other essential product of the Maldives was coir, the fibre of the dried coconut husk, resistant to saltwater. It stitched together and rigged the dhows that plied the Indian Ocean. Maldivian coir was exported to Sindh, China, Yemen, and the Persian Gulf.
In 1558 the Portuguese established a small garrison with a Viador (Viyazoru), or overseer of a factory (trading post) in the Maldives, which they administered from their main colony in Goa. Their attempts to impose Christianity provoked a local revolt led by Muhammad Thakurufaanu Al - Azam and his two brothers, that fifteen years later drove the Portuguese out of Maldives. This event is now commemorated as National Day. In the mid-17th century, the Dutch, who had replaced the Portuguese as the dominant power in Ceylon, established hegemony over Maldivian affairs without involving themselves directly in local matters, which were governed according to centuries - old Islamic customs.
The British expelled the Dutch from Ceylon in 1796 and included Maldives as a British protected area. The status of Maldives as a British protectorate was officially recorded in an 1887 agreement in which the sultan accepted British influence over Maldivian external relations and defence while retaining home rule, which continued to be regulated by Muslim traditional institutions in exchange for an annual tribute. The status of the islands was akin to other British protectorates in the Indian Ocean region, including Zanzibar and the Trucial States.
In the British period the Sultan 's powers were taken over by the Chief Minister, much to the chagrin of the British Governor - General who continued to deal with the ineffectual Sultan. Consequently, Britain encouraged the development of a constitutional monarchy, and the first Constitution was proclaimed in 1932. However, the new arrangements favoured neither the aging Sultan nor the wily Chief Minister, but rather a young crop of British - educated reformists. As a result, angry mobs were instigated against the Constitution which was publicly torn up.
Maldives remained a British crown protectorate until 1953 when the sultanate was suspended and the First Republic was declared under the short - lived presidency of Muhammad Amin Didi. While serving as prime minister during the 1940s, Didi nationalized the fish export industry. As president he is remembered as a reformer of the education system and a promoter of women 's rights. Muslim conservatives in Malé eventually ousted his government, and during a riot over food shortages, Didi was beaten by a mob and died on a nearby island.
Beginning in the 1950s, the political history in Maldives was largely influenced by the British military presence in the islands. In 1954 the restoration of the sultanate perpetuated the rule of the past. Two years later, the United Kingdom obtained permission to reestablish its wartime RAF Gan airfield in the southernmost Addu Atoll, employing hundreds of locals. In 1957, however, the new prime minister, Ibrahim Nasir, called for a review of the agreement. Nasir was challenged in 1959 by a local secessionist movement in the three southernmost atolls that benefited economically from the British presence on Gan. This group cut ties with the Maldives government and formed an independent state, the United Suvadive Republic with Abdullah Afif as president and Hithadhoo as capital. One year later the Suvadive republic was scrapped after Nasir sent gunboats from Malé with government police, and Abdulla Afif went into exile. Meanwhile, in 1960 the Maldives had allowed the United Kingdom to continue to use both the Gan and the Hitaddu facilities for a thirty - year period, with the payment of £ 750,000 over the period of 1960 to 1965 for the purpose of Maldives ' economic development. The base was closed in 1976 as part of the larger British withdrawal of permanently stationed forces ' East of Suez '.
In line with the broader British policy of decolonisation on 26 July 1965 an agreement was signed on behalf of His Majesty the Sultan by Ibrahim Nasir Rannabandeyri Kilegefan, Prime Minister, and on behalf of Her Majesty The Queen by Sir Michael Walker, British Ambassador designate to the Maldive Islands, which ended the British responsibility for the defence and external affairs of the Maldives. The islands thus achieved full political independence, with the ceremony taking place at the British High Commissioner 's Residence in Colombo. After this, the sultanate continued for another three years under Muhammad Fareed Didi, who declared himself King rather than Sultan.
On 15 November 1967, a vote was taken in parliament to decide whether the Maldives should continue as a constitutional monarchy or become a republic. Of the 44 members of parliament, forty voted in favour of a republic. On 15 March 1968, a national referendum was held on the question, and 93.34 % of those taking part voted in favour of establishing a republic. The republic was declared on 11 November 1968, thus ending the 853 - year - old monarchy, which was replaced by a republic under the presidency of Ibrahim Nasir. As the King had held little real power, this was seen as a cosmetic change and required few alterations in the structures of government.
Tourism began to be developed on the archipelago by the beginning of the 1970s. The first resort in the Maldives was Kurumba Maldives which welcomed the first guests on 3 October 1972. The first accurate census was held in December 1977 and showed 142,832 persons residing in Maldives. Political infighting during the ' 70s between Nasir 's faction and other political figures led to the 1975 arrest and exile of elected prime minister Ahmed Zaki to a remote atoll. Economic decline followed the closure of the British airfield at Gan and the collapse of the market for dried fish, an important export. With support for his administration faltering, Nasir fled to Singapore in 1978, with millions of dollars from the treasury.
Maumoon Abdul Gayoom began his 30 - year role as President in 1978, winning six consecutive elections without opposition. His election was seen as ushering in a period of political stability and economic development in view of Gayoom 's priority to develop the poorer islands. Tourism flourished and increased foreign contact spurred development. However, Gayoom 's rule was controversial, with some critics saying Gayoom was an autocrat who quelled dissent by limiting freedoms and political favouritism.
A series of coup attempts (in 1980, 1983, and 1988) by Nasir supporters and business interests tried to topple the government without success. While the first two attempts met with little success, the 1988 coup attempt involved a roughly 80 - person mercenary force of the PLOTE Tamil militant group who seized the airport and caused Gayoom to flee from house to house until the intervention of 1600 Indian troops airlifted into Malé restored order.
A November 1988 coup was headed by Muhammadu Ibrahim Lutfee, a small - businessman. On the night of 3 November 1988, the Indian Air Force airlifted a parachute battalion group from Agra and flew them over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) to the Maldives. The Indian paratroopers landed at Hulule and secured the airfield and restored the government rule at Malé within hours. The brief, bloodless operation, labelled Operation Cactus, also involved the Indian Navy.
On 26 December 2004, following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the Maldives were devastated by a tsunami. Only nine islands were reported to have escaped any flooding, while fifty - seven islands faced serious damage to critical infrastructure, fourteen islands had to be totally evacuated, and six islands were destroyed. A further twenty - one resort islands were forced to close because of tsunami damage. The total damage was estimated at more than US $400 million, or some 62 % of the GDP. 102 Maldivians and 6 foreigners reportedly died in the tsunami. The destructive impact of the waves on the low - lying islands was mitigated by the fact there was no continental shelf or land mass upon which the waves could gain height. The tallest waves were reported to be 14 feet (4.3 m) high.
During the later part of Gayoom 's rule, independent political movements emerged in Maldives, which challenged the then - ruling Dhivehi Rayyithunge Party (Maldivian People 's Party, MPP) and demanded democratic reform. The dissident journalist and activist Mohamed Nasheed founded the Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) in 2003 and pressured Gayoom into allowing gradual political reforms. In 2008 a new constitution was approved and the first direct presidential elections occurred, which were won by Mohamed Nasheed in the second round. His administration faced many challenges, including the huge debt left by the previous government, the economic downturn following the 2004 tsunami, overspending (by means of overprinting of local currency rufiyaa), unemployment, corruption, and increasing drug use. Taxation on goods was imposed for the first time in the country, and import duties were reduced in many goods and services. Social welfare benefits were given to those aged 65 years or older, single parents, and those with special needs.
Social and political unrest grew in late 2011, following opposition campaigns in the name of protecting Islam. Nasheed controversially resigned from office after large number of police and army mutinied in February 2012. Nasheed 's vice president, Mohammed Waheed Hassan, was sworn in as President. Nasheed was later arrested, convicted of terrorism, and sentenced to 13 years. The trial was widely seen as flawed and political. The UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention called for Nasheed 's immediate release.
The elections in late 2013 were highly contested. Former president Mohammed Nasheed won the most votes in the first round, but the Supreme Court annulled it despite the positive assessment of international election observers. In the re-run vote Abdulla Yameen, half - brother of the former president Gayoom, assumed the presidency. Yameen introduced increased engagement with China, and promoted a policy of connecting Islam with anti-Western rhetoric. Yameen survived an assassination attempt in late 2015. Vice president Ahmed Adeeb was later arrested together with 17 supporters for "public order offences '' and the government instituted a broader crackdown against political dissent. A state of emergency was later declared ahead of a planned anti-government rally, and the people 's Majlis accelerated the removal of Vice president Ahmed Adeeb.
Though the popular image of the Maldives is that of a holiday paradise, its radicalised youths are enlisting in significant numbers to fight for ISIL militants in the Middle East.
The Maldives consists of 1,192 coral islands grouped in a double chain of 26 atolls, along the north - south direction, spread over roughly 90,000 square kilometres (35,000 sq mi), making this one of the world 's most dispersed countries. It lies between latitudes 1 ° S and 8 ° N, and longitudes 72 ° and 74 ° E. The atolls are composed of live coral reefs and sand bars, situated atop a submarine ridge 960 kilometres (600 mi) long that rises abruptly from the depths of the Indian Ocean and runs north to south.
Only near the southern end of this natural coral barricade do two open passages permit safe ship navigation from one side of the Indian Ocean to the other through the territorial waters of Maldives. For administrative purposes the Maldivian government organised these atolls into twenty one administrative divisions. The largest island of Maldives is Gan, which belongs to Laamu Atoll or Hahdhummathi Maldives. In Addu Atoll the westernmost islands are connected by roads over the reef (collectively called Link Road) and the total length of the road is 14 km (9 mi).
Maldives is the lowest country in the world, with maximum and average natural ground levels of only 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in) and 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) above sea level, respectively. In areas where construction exists, however, this has been increased to several metres. More than 80 per cent of the country 's land is composed of coral islands which rise less than one metre above sea level. As a result, the Maldives are at high risk of being submerged due to rising sea levels. The UN 's environmental panel has warned that, at current rates, sea level rise would be high enough to make the Maldives uninhabitable by 2100.
Protected areas of Maldives are administrated by Ministry of Environment and Energy and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of Maldives. There are 31 protected areas in Maldives.
The Maldives has a tropical monsoon climate (Am) under the Köppen climate classification, which is affected by the large landmass of South Asia to the north. The presence of this landmass causes differential heating of land and water. These factors set off a rush of moisture - rich air from the Indian Ocean over South Asia, resulting in the southwest monsoon. Two seasons dominate Maldives ' weather: the dry season associated with the winter northeastern monsoon and the rainy season which brings strong winds and storms.
The shift from the dry northeast monsoon to the moist southwest monsoon occurs during April and May. During this period, the southwest winds contribute to the formation of the southwest monsoon, which reaches Maldives in the beginning of June and lasts until the end of August. However, the weather patterns of Maldives do not always conform to the monsoon patterns of South Asia. The annual rainfall averages 254 centimetres (100 in) in the north and 381 centimetres (150 in) in the south.
The monsoonal influence is greater in the north of the Maldives than in the south, more influenced by the equatorial currents.
According to former Maldivian president Mohamed Nasheed, the Maldives are ranked the third most endangered nation due to flooding from climate change. In March and April 2012, Nasheed stated, "If carbon emissions were to stop today, the planet would not see a difference for 60 to 70 years. '' "If carbon emissions continue at the rate they are climbing today, my country will be under water in seven years. '' He called for more climate change mitigation action while on the American television shows The Daily Show and the Late Show with David Letterman.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 report predicted the upper limit of the sea level rises will be 59 centimetres (23 in) by 2100, which means that most of the republic 's 200 inhabited islands may need to be abandoned. One study appears to show that the sea level in the Maldives dropped 20 -- 30 centimetres (8 -- 12 in) throughout the 1970s and ' 80s, although later studies failed to back this up. The observed rate of sea level rise is only 1.7 -- 1.8 millimetres per year.
In November 2008, President Mohamed Nasheed announced plans to look into purchasing new land in India, Sri Lanka, and Australia because of his concerns about global warming, and the possibility of much of the islands being inundated with water from rising sea levels. The purchase of land will be made from a fund generated by tourism. The President has explained his intentions: "We do not want to leave the Maldives, but we also do not want to be climate refugees living in tents for decades ''. On 22 April 2008, then President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom pleaded for a cut in global greenhouse gas emissions, warning that rising sea levels could submerge the island nation of Maldives.
By 2020, Maldives plans to eliminate or offset all of its greenhouse gas emissions. At the 2009 International Climate Talks, President Mohamed Nasheed explained that:
For us swearing off fossil fuels is not only the right thing to do, it is in our economic self - interest... Pioneering countries will free themselves from the unpredictable price of foreign oil; they will capitalise on the new green economy of the future, and they will enhance their moral standing giving them greater political influence on the world stage.
Other environmental issues include bad waste disposal and beach theft. Although the Maldives are kept relatively pristine and little litter can be found on the islands, no good waste disposal sites exist. Most trash from Male and other resorts is simply dumped at Thilafushi.
The Maldives have a range of different habitats including deep sea, shallow coast, and reef ecosystems, fringing mangroves, wetlands and dry land. There are 187 species of coral forming the coral reefs. This area of the Indian Ocean, alone, houses 1100 species of fish, 5 species of sea turtle, 21 species of whale and dolphin, 400 species of mollusc, and 83 species of echinoderms. The area is also populated by a number of crustacean species: 120 copepod, 15 amphipod, as well as more than 145 crab and 48 shrimp species.
Among the many marine families represented are Pufferfish, Fusiliers, Jackfish, Lionfish, Oriental Sweetlips, reef sharks, Groupers, Eels, Snappers, Bannerfish, Batfish, Humphead Wrasse, Spotted Eagle Rays, Scorpionfish, Lobsters, Nudibranches, Angelfish, Butterflyfish, Squirrelfish, Soldierfish, Glassfish, Surgeonfish, Unicornfish, Triggerfish, Napoleon wrasses, and Barracudas.
These coral reefs are home to a variety of marine ecosystems that vary from planktonic organisms to whale sharks. Sponges have gained importance as five species have displayed anti-tumor and anti-cancer properties.
In 1998, sea - temperature warming of as much as 5 ° C (9.0 ° F) due to a single El Niño phenomenon event caused coral bleaching, killing two thirds of the nation 's coral reefs.
In an effort to induce the regrowth of the reefs, scientists placed electrified cones anywhere from 20 -- 60 feet (6.1 -- 18.3 m) below the surface to provide a substrate for larval coral attachment. In 2004, scientists witnessed corals regenerating. Corals began to eject pink - orange eggs and sperm. The growth of these electrified corals was five times faster than untreated corals. Scientist Azeez Hakim stated:
before 1998, we never thought that this reef would die. We had always taken for granted that these animals would be there, that this reef would be there forever. El Niño gave us a wake - up call that these things are not going to be there for ever. Not only this, they also act as a natural barrier against the tropical storms, floods and tsunamis. Seaweeds grow on the skeletons of dead coral.
Again, in 2016, the coral reefs of the Maldives experienced a severe bleaching incident. Over 95 % of coral around the islands died, and, even after six months, 100 % of young coral transplants had died. The surface water temperatures reached an all - time high in 2016, at 31 degrees Celsius in May.
Recent scientific studies suggest that the faunistic composition can vary greatly between neighbour atolls, especially in terms of benthic fauna. Differences in terms of fishing pressure (including poaching) could be the cause.
Maldives is a presidential republic, with the President as head of government and head of state. The President heads the executive branch and appoints the cabinet which is approved by the People 's Majlis (Parliament). Following the introduction of a new constitution in 2008, direct elections for the President take place every five years, with a limit of two terms in office for any individual. The current President is Abdulla Yameen. Members of the unicameral Majlis serve five - year terms, with the total number of members determined by atoll populations. At the 2009 election, 77 members were elected. The People 's Majlis, located in Male, houses members from all over the country.
The republican constitution came into force in 1968, and was amended in 1970, 1972, and 1975. On 27 November 1997 it was replaced by another Constitution assented to by the President Gayoom. This Constitution came into force on 1 January 1998. All stated that the president was the Head of State, Head of Government and the Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces and the Police of the Maldives. A third Constitution was ratified in 2008, which separated the judiciary from the head of state.
According to the Constitution of Maldives, "the judges are independent, and subject only to the Constitution and the law. When deciding matters on which the Constitution or the law is silent, judges must consider Islamic Shari'ah ''. Article 15 of the Act Number 1 / 81 (Penal Code) gives provision for hudud punishments. Article 156 of the constitution states that law includes the norms and provisions of sharia.
Islam is the official religion of the Maldives and open practice of any other religion is forbidden and liable to prosecution. Article 2 of the revised constitution says that the republic "is based on the principles of Islam ''. Article nine says that "a non-Muslim may not become a citizen ''; article ten says that "no law contrary to any principle of Islam can be applied ''. Article nineteen states that "citizens are free to participate in or carry out any activity that is not expressly prohibited by sharia (Islamic law) or by the law ''.
The requirement to adhere to a particular religion and prohibition of public worship following other religions is contrary to Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights to which Maldives has recently become party and was addressed in Maldives ' reservation in adhering to the Covenant claiming that "The application of the principles set out in Article 18 of the Covenant shall be without prejudice to the Constitution of the Republic of the Maldives. ''
Human rights in the Maldives is a contentious issue. In its 2011 Freedom in the World report, Freedom House declared the Maldives "Partly Free '', claiming a reform process which had made headway in 2009 and 2010 had stalled. The United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor claims in their 2012 report on human rights practices in the country that the most significant problems are corruption, lack of religious freedom, and abuse and unequal treatment of women. In February 2013, the court sentenced a 15 - year - old rape victim to 100 lashes and 8 months of house arrest for having had extra-marital relations. The conviction was based on the confession of the girl shortly after being raped by her stepfather Same - sex relations are illegal in the Maldives.
Since 1996, the Maldives has been the official progress monitor of the Indian Ocean Commission. In 2002, the Maldives began to express interest in the commission but as of 2008 had not applied for membership. Maldives ' interest relates to its identity as a small island state, especially economic development and environmental preservation, and its desire for closer relations with France, a main actor in the IOC region.
The Maldives is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). The republic joined the Commonwealth in 1982, some 17 years after gaining independence from the United Kingdom. In October 2016, Maldives announced its withdrawal from the Commonwealth in protest at allegations of human rights abuse and failing democracy. The Maldives enjoys close ties with Commonwealth members Seychelles and Mauritius. The Maldives and Comoros are also both members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.
The Maldives National Defence Force is the combined security organisation responsible for defending the security and sovereignty of the Maldives, having the primary task of being responsible for attending to all internal and external security needs of the Maldives, including the protection of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the maintenance of peace and security. The MNDF component branches are the Coast Guard, Marine Corps, Special Forces, Service Corps and the Corps of Engineers.
As a water - bound nation much of the security concerns lie at sea. Almost 99 % of the country is covered by sea and the remaining 1 % land is scattered over an area of 800 km (497 mi) × 120 km (75 mi), with the largest island being not more than 8 km (3 sq mi). Therefore, the duties assigned to the MNDF of maintaining surveillance over Maldives ' waters and providing protection against foreign intruders poaching in the EEZ and territorial waters, are immense tasks from both logistical and economic view points.
The Coast Guard plays a vital role in carrying out these functions. To provide timely security its patrol boats are stationed at various MNDF Regional Headquarters. The Coast Guard is also assigned to respond to the maritime distress calls and to conduct search and rescue operations in a timely manner. Maritime pollution control exercises are conducted regularly on an annual basis for familiarisation and handling of such hazardous situations.
The Maldives has twenty - six natural atolls and few island groups on isolated reefs, all of which have been divided into twenty - one administrative divisions (twenty administrative atolls and Malé city).
Each atoll is administered by an elected Atoll Council. The islands are administered by an elected Island Council.
Between 2008 and 2010 the Maldives had 7 provinces each consisting of the following administrative divisions (the capital Malé is its own administrative division):
In addition to a name, every administrative division is identified by the Maldivian code letters, such as "Haa Alif '' for Thiladhunmati Uthuruburi (Thiladhunmathi North); and by a Latin code letter. The first corresponds to the geographical Maldivian name of the atoll; the second is a code adopted for convenience. As there are certain islands in different atolls that have the same name, for administrative purposes this code is quoted before the name of the island, for example: Baa Funadhoo, Kaafu Funadhoo, Gaafu - Alifu Funadhoo. Since most Atolls have very long geographical names it is also used whenever the long name is inconvenient, for example in the atoll website names.
The introduction of code - letter names has been a source of much puzzlement and misunderstandings, especially among foreigners. Many people have come to think that the code - letter of the administrative atoll is its new name and that it has replaced its geographical name. Under such circumstances it is hard to know which is the correct name to use.
In ancient times the Maldives were renowned for cowry shells, coir rope, dried tuna fish (Maldive Fish), ambergris (Maavaharu), and coco de mer (Tavakkaashi). Local and foreign trading ships used to load these products in Sri Lanka and transport them to other harbours in the Indian Ocean.
Historically Maldives provided enormous quantities of cowry shells, an international currency of the early ages. From the 2nd century AD the islands were known as the ' Money Isles ' by the Arabs. Monetaria moneta were used for centuries as a currency in Africa, and huge amounts of Maldivian cowries were introduced into Africa by western nations during the period of slave trade. The cowry is now the symbol of the Maldives Monetary Authority.
The Maldivian government began an economic reform programme in 1989, initially by lifting import quotas and opening some exports to the private sector. Subsequently, it has liberalised regulations to allow more foreign investment. Real GDP growth averaged over 7.5 % per year for more than a decade. Today, the Maldives ' largest industry is tourism, accounting for 28 % of GDP and more than 60 % of the Maldives ' foreign exchange receipts. Fishing is the second leading sector.
The Maldivian economy is to a large degree based on tourism. In late December 2004, the major tsunami left more than 100 dead, 12,000 displaced, and property damage exceeding $400 million. As a result of the tsunami, the GDP contracted by about 3.6 % in 2005. A rebound in tourism, post-tsunami reconstruction, and development of new resorts helped the economy recover quickly and showed an 18 % increase on 2006. 2013 estimates show Maldivians enjoy the highest GDP (PPP) per capita $11,900 (2013 est) among south Asian countries.
Agriculture and manufacturing continue to play a lesser role in the economy, constrained by the limited availability of cultivable land and the shortage of domestic labour. Tourism gave a major boost to the country 's fledgling traditional cottage industries such as mat weaving, lacquer work, handicraft, and coir rope making. New industries that have since emerged include printing, production of PVC pipes, brick making, marine engine repairs, bottling of aerated water, and garment production.
The Maldives remained largely unknown to tourists until the early 1970s. Only 185 islands are home to its 300,000 inhabitants. The other islands are used entirely for economic purposes, of which tourism and agriculture are the most dominant. Tourism accounts for 28 % of the GDP and more than 60 % of the Maldives ' foreign exchange receipts. Over 90 % of government tax revenue comes from import duties and tourism - related taxes.
The development of tourism fostered the overall growth of the country 's economy. It created direct and indirect employment and income generation opportunities in other related industries. The first tourist resorts were opened in 1972 with Bandos island resort and Kurumba Village (the current name is Kurumba Maldives), which transformed the Maldives economy.
According to the Ministry of Tourism, the emergence of tourism in 1972 transformed the economy, moving rapidly from dependence on fisheries to tourism. In just three and a half decades, the industry became the main source of income. Tourism was also the country 's biggest foreign currency earner and the single largest contributor to the GDP. As of 2008, 89 resorts in the Maldives offered over 17,000 beds and hosted over 600,000 tourists annually.
The number of resorts increased from 2 to 92 between 1972 and 2007. As of 2007, over 8,380,000 tourists had visited Maldives.
Visitors to the Maldives do not need to apply for a visa pre-arrival, regardless of their country of origin, provided they have a valid passport, proof of onward travel, and the money to be self - sufficient while in the country.
Most visitors arrive at Malé International Airport, on Hulhulé Island, adjacent to the capital Malé. The airport is served by flights to and from India, Sri Lanka, Doha, Dubai, Singapore, Istanbul, and major airports in South - East Asia, as well as charters from Europe. Gan Airport, on the southern atoll of Addu, also serves an international flight to Milan several times a week. British Airways offers direct flights to the Maldives around 2 -- 3 times per week.
For many centuries the Maldivian economy was entirely dependent on fishing and other marine products. Fishing remains the main occupation of the people and the government gives priority to the fisheries sector.
The mechanisation of the traditional fishing boat called dhoni in 1974 was a major milestone in the development of the fisheries industry. A fish canning plant was installed on Felivaru in 1977, as a joint venture with a Japanese firm. In 1979, a Fisheries Advisory Board was set up with the mandate of advising the government on policy guidelines for the overall development of the fisheries sector. Manpower development programmes began in the early 1980s, and fisheries education was incorporated into the school curriculum. Fish aggregating devices and navigational aids were located at various strategic points. Moreover, the opening up of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the Maldives for fisheries has further enhanced the growth of the fisheries sector.
As of 2010, fisheries contributed over 15 % of the country 's GDP and engaged about 30 % of the country 's work force. Fisheries were also the second - largest foreign exchange earner after tourism.
The largest ethnic group are Dhivehis, native to the historic region of the Maldive Islands comprising today 's Republic of Maldives and the island of Minicoy in Union territory of Lakshadweep, India. They share the same culture and speak the Dhivehi language. They are principally an Indo - Aryan people, closely related to the Sinhalese and having traces of Middle Eastern, South Asian, Austronesian and African genes in the population.
In the past there was also a small Tamil population known as the Giraavaru people. This group have now been almost completely absorbed into the larger Maldivian society but were once native to the island of Giraavaru (Kaafu Atoll). This island was evacuated in 1968 due to heavy erosion of the island.
Some social stratification exists on the islands. It is not rigid, since rank is based on varied factors, including occupation, wealth, Islamic virtue, and family ties. Instead of a complex caste system, there was merely a distinction between noble (bēfulhu) and common people in the Maldives. Members of the social elite are concentrated in Malé.
The population doubled by 1978, and the population growth rate peaked at 3.4 % in 1985. At the 2006 census, the population had reached 298,968, although the census in 2000 showed that the population growth rate had declined to 1.9 %. Life expectancy at birth stood at 46 years in 1978, and later rose to 72. Infant mortality has declined from 12.7 % in 1977 to 1.2 % today, and adult literacy reached 99 %. Combined school enrolment reached the high 90s. The population was projected to have reached 317,280 in 2010.
As of April 2008, more than 70,000 foreign employees, along with 33,000 illegal immigrants, comprised more than one third of the Maldivian population.. There are 40,000 Bangladeshis in the Maldives, making them the largest group of foreigners working in that country. Other immigrants include Filipinos in the Maldives as well as various Western expatriates.
After the long Buddhist period of Maldivian history, Muslim traders introduced Islam. Maldivians converted to Islam by the mid-12th century. The islands have had a long history of Sufic orders, as can be seen in the history of the country such as the building of tombs. They were used until as recently as the 1980s for seeking the help of buried saints. They can be seen today next to some old mosques and are considered today as cultural heritage.
Other aspects of tassawuf, such as ritualised dhikr ceremonies called Maulūdu (Mawlid) -- the liturgy of which included recitations and certain supplications in a melodical tone -- existed until very recent times. These Maulūdu festivals were held in ornate tents specially built for the occasion. At present Islam is the official religion of the entire population, as adherence to it is required for citizenship.
According to Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta, the person responsible for this conversion was a Sunni Muslim visitor named Abu al - Barakat, sailing from Morocco. He is also referred to as Tabrizugefaanu. His venerated tomb now stands on the grounds of the Friday Mosque, or Hukuru Miskiy, in Malé. Built in 1656, this is the country 's oldest mosque.
The official and common language is Dhivehi, an Indo - Aryan language having some similarities with Elu, the ancient Sinhalese language. The first known script used to write Dhivehi is Eveyla akuru script which is found in historical recording of kings (raadhavalhi). Later a script called Dhives akuru was used for a long period. The present - day script is called Thaana and is written from right to left. Thaana is said to have been introduced by the reign of Mohamed Thakurufaanu.
English is widely spoken by the locals of Maldives.
Since the 12th century AD there were also influences from Arabia in the language and culture of the Maldives because of the conversion to Islam and its location as a crossroads in the central Indian Ocean. This was due to the long trading history between the far east and the middle east. Somali travellers discovered the island for gold in the 13th century, before the Portuguese. Their brief stay later ended in a bloody conflict known by the Somalis as "Dagaal Diig Badaaney '' in 1424.
However, unlike the Sinhalese of Sri Lanka and most of the Arabs, Africans and Europeans whose influence can be seen in borrow - words, material culture, and the diversity of Maldivian phenotype, Maldivians do not have the highly embedded patriarchal codes of honour, purity, corporate marriage, and sedentary private property that are typical of places where agriculture is the key form of subsistence and social relations have been built, historically, around tribute taking.
Reflective of this is the fact that the Maldives has had the highest national divorce rate in the world for many decades. This, it is hypothesised, is due to a combination of liberal Islamic rules about divorce and the relatively loose marital bonds that have been identified as common in non - and semi-sedentary peoples without a history of fully developed agrarian property and kinship relations.
Velana International Airport is the principal gateway to the Maldives. International travel is available on a number of major airlines. Two Maldives based airlines also operate international flights. Privately owned MEGA Maldives Airlines has Boeing 737 and 767 aircraft and operates frequent services to Beijing, Shanghai, and Hong Kong. Government owned Island Aviation Services (branded as Maldivian) operates to nearly all of Maldives domestic airports with several Dash - 8 aircraft and one A320 with international service to Chennai and Thiruvananthapuram, India, and Dhaka, Bangladesh.
In Maldives there are three main ways to move around: by domestic flight, by seaplane or by boat. For several years there were two seaplanes companies operating: TMA, Trans Maldivian Airways, and Maldivian Air Taxi, but these merged in 2013 under the name TMA. The seaplane fleet is entirely made up of DHC - 6 Twin Otters. There is also another airline, flyMe, which operates using ATRs to domestic airports, principally Maamagili and some others. The typical Maldivian boat is called dhoni. Depending on the distance of the destination island to the airport, resorts organise domestic flight plus boat transfers, seaplane flights directly to the resort island jetty, or speedboat trips for their guests. There are also locally run ferries by large dhoni boats. Speedboats and seaplanes tend to be more expensive, while travel by dhoni, although longer, is relatively cheaper and convenient.
The Maldives National University is one of the country 's three institutions of higher education. Its mission statement is as follows:
To create, discover, preserve and disseminate knowledge that are necessary to enhance the lives and livelihoods of people and essential for the cultural, social and economic development of the society so that this nation shall remain free and Islamic forever.
In 1973, the Allied Health Services Training Centre (the forerunner of the Faculty of Health Sciences) was established by the Ministry of Health. The Vocational Training Centre was established in 1974, providing training for mechanical and electrical trades. In 1984, the Institute for Teacher Education was created and the School of Hotel and Catering Services was established in 1987 to provide trained personnel for the tourist industry. In 1991, the Institute of Management and Administration was created to train staff for public and private services. In 1998, the Maldives College of Higher Education was founded. The Institute of Shar'ah and Law was founded in January 1999. In 2000 the college launched its first degree programme: Bachelor of Arts. On 17 January 2011 the Maldives National University Act was passed by the President of the Maldives; The Maldives National University was named on 15 February 2011.
1. All twenty - eight member states of the European Union are also members of the WTO in their own right:
2. Special administrative regions of the People 's Republic of China, participates as "Hong Kong, China '' and "Macao China ''. 3. Officially the Republic of China, participates as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu '', and "Chinese Taipei '' in short.
15th century
16th century
15th century
16th century
17th century
18th century
19th century
16th century
17th century
15th century
16th century Portuguese India
17th century Portuguese India
18th century Portuguese India
16th century
17th century
19th century Portuguese Macau
20th century Portuguese Macau
15th century (Atlantic islands)
16th century (Canada)
16th century
17th century
18th century
19th century
Coordinates: 3 ° 12 ′ N 73 ° 13 ′ E / 3.20 ° N 73.22 ° E / 3.20; 73.22
|
hallowed be thy name - iron maiden mp3 song free download | Hallowed Be Thy Name - wikipedia
"Hallowed Be Thy Name '' is a song written by Steve Harris for the 1982 Iron Maiden album The Number of the Beast. It has been acclaimed as one of the greatest heavy metal songs of all time.
The 1993 live single is taken from the 1993 album A Real Dead One. The song was recorded at Moscow 's Olympic Arena on 4 June 1993 during the Real Live Tour. Recordings from the same tour and its predecessor, 1992 's Fear of the Dark Tour, made up the single 's B - sides. It is the band 's last single to feature vocalist Bruce Dickinson until 2000 's "The Wicker Man ''.
"Hallowed Be Thy Name '' has remained in almost all of the band 's set - lists since the album 's recording, the only exception being the Maiden England World Tour 2012 -- 14. Allmusic describes it as "perhaps the most celebrated of the band 's extended epics; it 's the tale of a prisoner about to be hanged, featuring some of Harris ' most philosophical lyrics. '' Several band - members have since stated that it is one of their favourite tracks, with Bruce Dickinson describing it as "fantastic '' and that performing it live is like "narrating a movie to the audience. ''
It is one of the most covered songs in Iron Maiden 's catalogue, with versions released by artists such as Dream Theater, Machine Head, Cradle of Filth and Iced Earth. Iron Maiden also recorded the song as part of Channel Four 's 2007 television series, Live from Abbey Road, while a version recorded for BBC Radio 1 in 2005 was used as a B - side on "The Reincarnation of Benjamin Breeg '' single. The song 's title is a line from the Lord 's Prayer.
A section of the lyrics are lifted from Beckett 's 1973 song "Life 's Shadow ''. Iron Maiden manager Rod Smallwood was the agent for Beckett and a teenage Steve Harris saw the band play this song live. Harris and Murray settled with one of the credited songwriters, Robert Barton. The other songwriter, Brian Ingham, has sued Iron Maiden for his share of the profits from the song. Ingham was unaware of the matter until 2011 and Barton claimed to be the sole songwriter during the original settlement.
|
what happened after the workers were locked out of the mill | Homestead strike - wikipedia
The Homestead strike, also known as the Homestead Steel strike, Pinkerton rebellion, or Homestead massacre, was an industrial lockout and strike which began on June 30, 1892, culminating in a battle between strikers and private security agents on July 6, 1892. The battle was one of the most serious disputes in U.S. labor history, third behind the Ludlow Massacre and the Battle of Blair Mountain. The dispute occurred at the Homestead Steel Works in the Pittsburgh area town of Homestead, Pennsylvania, between the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (the AA) and the Carnegie Steel Company. The final result was a major defeat for the union and a setback for their efforts to unionize steelworkers.
Carnegie Steel made major technological innovations in the 1880s, especially the installation of the open - hearth system at Homestead in 1886. It now became possible to make steel suitable for structural beams and for armor plate for the United States Navy, which paid far higher prices for the premium product. In addition, the plant moved increasingly toward the continuous system of production. Carnegie installed vastly improved systems of material - handling, like overhead cranes, hoists, charging machines, and buggies. All of this greatly sped up the process of steelmaking, and allowed the production of vastly larger quantities of the product. As the mills expanded, the labor force grew rapidly, especially with less skilled workers. In response, the more - skilled union members reacted with a strike designed to protect their historic position. The bitterness grew between workers.
The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (AA) was an American labor union formed in 1876. It was a craft union representing skilled iron and steel workers.
The AA 's membership was concentrated in ironworks west of the Allegheny Mountains. The union negotiated national uniform wage scales on an annual basis; helped regulate working hours, workload levels and work speeds; and helped improve working conditions. It also acted as a hiring hall, helping employers find scarce puddlers and rollers.
The AA organized the independently - owned Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works in Homestead in 1881. The AA engaged in a bitter strike at the Homestead works on January 1, 1882 in an effort to prevent management from including a non-union clause in the workers ' contracts, known as a "yellow - dog contract ''. Violence occurred on both sides, and the plant brought in numerous strikebreakers. The strike ended on March 20 in a complete victory for the union.
The AA struck the steel plant again on July 1, 1889, when negotiations for a new three - year collective bargaining agreement failed. The strikers seized the town and once again made common cause with various immigrant groups. Backed by 2,000 townspeople, the strikers drove off a trainload of strikebreakers on July 10. When the sheriff returned with 125 newly deputized agents two days later, the strikers rallied 5,000 townspeople to their cause. Although victorious, the union agreed to significant wage cuts that left tonnage rates less than half those at the nearby Jones and Laughlin works, where technological improvements had not been made.
Carnegie officials conceded that the AA essentially ran the Homestead plant after the 1889 strike. The union contract contained 58 pages of footnotes defining work - rules at the plant and strictly limited management 's ability to maximize output.
For its part, the AA saw substantial gains after the 1889 strike. Membership doubled, and the local union treasury had a balance of $146,000. The Homestead union grew belligerent, and relationships between workers and managers grew tense.
The Homestead strike was organized and purposeful, a harbinger of the type of strike which marked the modern age of labor relations in the United States. The AA strike at the Homestead steel mill in 1892 was different from previous large - scale strikes in American history such as the Great railroad strike of 1877 or the Great Southwest Railroad Strike of 1886. Earlier strikes had been largely leaderless and disorganized mass uprisings of workers.
Andrew Carnegie placed industrialist Henry Clay Frick in charge of his company 's operations in 1881. Frick resolved to break the union at Homestead. "The mills have never been able to turn out the product they should, owing to being held back by the Amalgamated men, '' he complained in a letter to Carnegie.
Carnegie was publicly in favor of labor unions. He condemned the use of strikebreakers and told associates that no steel mill was worth a single drop of blood. But Carnegie agreed with Frick 's desire to break the union and "reorganize the whole affair, and... exact good reasons for employing every man. Far too many men required by Amalgamated rules. '' Carnegie ordered the Homestead plant to manufacture large amounts of inventory so the plant could weather a strike. He also drafted a notice (which Frick never released) withdrawing recognition of the union.
With the collective bargaining agreement due to expire on June 30, 1892, Frick and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase; the AA represented about 800 of the 3,800 workers at the plant. Frick immediately countered with a 22 % wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union 's membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit. Carnegie encouraged Frick to use the negotiations to break the union: "... the Firm has decided that the minority must give way to the majority. These works, therefore, will be necessarily non-union after the expiration of the present agreement. '' Carnegie believed that the Amalgamated was a hindrance to efficiency; furthermore it was not representative of the workers. It admitted only a small group of skilled workers. It was in its own way an elitist, discriminatory organization that was not worthy of the Republic, Carnegie felt.
Frick announced on April 30, 1892 that he would bargain for 29 more days. If no contract was reached, Carnegie Steel would cease to recognize the union. Carnegie formally approved Frick 's tactics on May 4. Then Frick offered a slightly better wage scale and advised the Superintendent to tell the workers, "We do not care whether a man belongs to a union or not, nor do we wish to interfere. He may belong to as many unions or organizations as he chooses, but we think our employees at Homestead Steel Works would fare much better working under the system in vogue at Edgar Thomson and Duquesne. ''
Frick locked workers out of the plate mill and one of the open hearth furnaces on the evening of June 28. When no collective bargaining agreement was reached on June 29, Frick locked the union out of the rest of the plant. A high fence topped with barbed wire, begun in January, was completed and the plant sealed to the workers. Sniper towers with searchlights were constructed near each mill building, and high - pressure water cannons (some capable of spraying boiling - hot liquid) were placed at each entrance. Various aspects of the plant were protected, reinforced, or shielded.
At a mass meeting on June 30, local AA leaders reviewed the final negotiating sessions and announced that the company had broken the contract by locking out workers a day before the contract expired. The Knights of Labor, which had organized the mechanics and transportation workers at Homestead, agreed to walk out alongside the skilled workers of the AA. Workers at Carnegie plants in Pittsburgh, Duquesne, Union Mills and Beaver Falls struck in sympathy the same day.
The Declaration of the Strike Committee, dated July 20, 1892 reads in part,
The employees in the mill of Messrs. Carnegie, Phipps & Co., at Homestead, Pa., have built there a town with its homes, its schools and its churches; have for many years been faithful co-workers with the company in the business of the mill; have invested thousands of dollars of their savings in said mill in the expectation of spending their lives in Homestead and of working in the mill during the period of their efficiency... "Therefore, the committee desires to express to the public as its firm belief that both the public and the employees aforesaid have equitable rights and interests in the said mill which can not be modified or diverted without due process of law; that the employees have the right to continuous employment in the said mill during efficiency and good behavior without regard to religious, political or economic opinions or associations; that it is against public policy and subversive of the fundamental principles of American liberty that a whole community of workers should be denied employment or suffer any other social detriment on account of membership in a church, a political party or a trade union; that it is our duty as American citizens to resist by every legal and ordinary means the unconstitutional, anarchic and revolutionary policy of the Carnegie Company, which seems to evince a contempt (for) public and private interests and a disdain (for) the public conscience...
The strikers were determined to keep the plant closed. They secured a steam - powered river launch and several rowboats to patrol the Monongahela River, which ran alongside the plant. Men also divided themselves into units along military lines. Picket lines were thrown up around the plant and the town, and 24 - hour shifts established. Ferries and trains were watched. Strangers were challenged to give explanations for their presence in town; if one was not forthcoming, they were escorted outside the city limits. Telegraph communications with AA locals in other cities were established to keep tabs on the company 's attempts to hire replacement workers. Reporters were issued special badges which gave them safe passage through the town, but the badges were withdrawn if it was felt misleading or false information made it into the news. Tavern owners were even asked to prevent excessive drinking.
Frick was also busy. The company placed ads for replacement workers in newspapers as far away as Boston, St. Louis and even Europe.
But unprotected strikebreakers would be driven off. On July 4, Frick formally requested that Sheriff William H. McCleary intervene to allow supervisors access to the plant. Carnegie corporation attorney Philander Knox gave the go - ahead to the sheriff on July 5, and McCleary dispatched 11 deputies to the town to post handbills ordering the strikers to stop interfering with the plant 's operation. The strikers tore down the handbills and told the deputies that they would not turn over the plant to nonunion workers. Then they herded the deputies onto a boat and sent them downriver to Pittsburgh.
Frick had ordered the construction of a solid board fence topped with barbed wire around mill property. The workers dubbed the newly fortified mill "Fort Frick. '' With the mill ringed by striking workers, agents from the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, which Frick had contracted to provide security at the plant in April 1892, planned to access the plant grounds from the river. Three hundred Pinkerton detectives assembled on the Davis Island Dam on the Ohio River about five miles (8 km) below Pittsburgh at 10: 30 p.m. on the night of July 5, 1892. They were given Winchester rifles, placed on two specially - equipped barges and towed upriver with the object of removing the workers by force. Upon their landing, a large mêlée between workers and Pinkerton detectives ensued. Several men were killed, nine workers among them, and the riot was ultimately quelled only by the intervention of 8,000 armed state militia. Among working - class Americans, Frick 's actions against the strikers were condemned as excessive, and he soon became a target of even more union organizers.
Frick 's intent was to open the works with nonunion men on July 6. Knox devised a plan to get the Pinkertons onto the mill property. With the mill ringed by striking workers, the agents would access the plant grounds from the river. Three hundred Pinkerton agents assembled on the Davis Island Dam on the Ohio River about five miles below Pittsburgh at 10: 30 p.m. on the night of July 5, 1892. They were given Winchester rifles, placed on two specially - equipped barges and towed upriver.
The strikers were prepared for them; the AA had learned of the Pinkertons as soon as they had left Boston for the embarkation point. The small flotilla of union boats went downriver to meet the barges. Strikers on the steam launch fired a few random shots at the barges, then withdrew -- blowing the launch whistle to alert the plant. The strikers blew the plant whistle at 2: 30 a.m., drawing thousands of men, women and children to the plant.
The Pinkertons attempted to land under cover of darkness about 4 a.m. A large crowd of families had kept pace with the boats as they were towed by a tug into the town. A few shots were fired at the tug and barges, but no one was injured. The crowd tore down the barbed - wire fence and strikers and their families surged onto the Homestead plant grounds. Some in the crowd threw stones at the barges, but strike leaders shouted for restraint.
The Pinkerton agents attempted to disembark, and shots were fired. Conflicting testimony exists as to which side fired the first shot. John T. McCurry, a boatman on the steamboat Little Bill (which had been hired by the Pinkerton Detective Agency to ferry its agents to the steel mill) and one of the men wounded by the strikers, said: "The armed Pinkerton men commenced to climb up the banks. Then the workmen opened fire on the detectives. The men shot first, and not until three of the Pinkerton men had fallen did they respond to the fire. I am willing to take an oath that the workmen fired first, and that the Pinkerton men did not shoot until some of their number had been wounded. '' But according to The New York Times, the Pinkertons shot first. The newspaper reported that the Pinkertons opened fire and wounded William Foy, a worker. Regardless of which side opened fire first, the first two individuals wounded were Frederick Heinde, captain of the Pinkertons, and Foy. The Pinkerton agents aboard the barges then fired into the crowd, killing two and wounding 11. The crowd responded in kind, killing two and wounding 12. The firefight continued for about 10 minutes.
The strikers then huddled behind the pig and scrap iron in the mill yard, while the Pinkertons cut holes in the side of the barges so they could fire on any who approached. The Pinkerton tug departed with the wounded agents, leaving the barges stranded. The strikers soon set to work building a rampart of steel beams further up the riverbank from which they could fire down on the barges. Hundreds of women continued to crowd on the riverbank between the strikers and the agents, calling on the strikers to ' kill the Pinkertons '.
The strikers continued to sporadically fire on the barges. Union members took potshots at the ships from their rowboats and the steam - powered launch. The burgess of Homestead, John McLuckie, issued a proclamation at 6: 00 a.m. asking for townspeople to help defend the peace; more than 5,000 people congregated on the hills overlooking the steelworks. A 20 - pounder brass cannon was set up on the shore opposite the steel mill, and an attempt was made to sink the barges. Six miles away in Pittsburgh, thousands of steelworkers gathered in the streets, listening to accounts of the attacks at Homestead; hundreds, many of them armed, began to move toward the town to assist the strikers.
The Pinkertons attempted to disembark again at 8: 00 a.m. A striker high up the riverbank fired a shot. The Pinkertons returned fire, and four more strikers were killed (one by shrapnel sent flying when cannon fire hit one of the barges). Many of the Pinkerton agents refused to participate in the firefight any longer; the agents crowded onto the barge farthest from the shore. More experienced agents were barely able to stop the new recruits from abandoning the ships and swimming away. Intermittent gunfire from both sides continued throughout the morning. When the tug attempted to retrieve the barges at 10: 50 a.m., gunfire drove it off. More than 300 riflemen positioned themselves on the high ground and kept a steady stream of fire on the barges. Just before noon, a sniper shot and killed another Pinkerton agent.
After a few more hours, the strikers attempted to burn the barges. They seized a raft, loaded it with oil - soaked timber and floated it toward the barges. The Pinkertons nearly panicked, and a Pinkerton captain had to threaten to shoot anyone who fled. But the fire burned itself out before it reached the barges. The strikers then loaded a railroad flatcar with drums of oil and set it afire. The flatcar hurtled down the rails toward the mill 's wharf where the barges were docked. But the car stopped at the water 's edge and burned itself out. Dynamite was thrown at the barges, but it only hit the mark once (causing a little damage to one barge). At 2: 00 p.m., the workers poured oil onto the river, hoping the oil slick would burn the barges; attempts to light the slick failed.
The AA worked behind the scenes to avoid further bloodshed and defuse the tense situation. At 9: 00 a.m., outgoing AA international president William Weihe rushed to the sheriff 's office and asked McCleary to convey a request to Frick to meet. McCleary did so, but Frick refused. He knew that the more chaotic the situation became, the more likely it was that Governor Robert E. Pattison would call out the state militia.
Sheriff McCleary resisted attempts to call for state intervention until 10 a.m. on July 7. In a telegram to Gov. Pattison, he described how his deputies and the Carnegie men had been driven off, and noted that the workers and their supporters actively resisting the landing numbered nearly 5,000. Pattison responded by requiring McCleary to exhaust every effort to restore the peace. McCleary asked again for help at noon, and Pattison responded by asking how many deputies the sheriff had. A third telegram, sent at 3: 00 p.m., again elicited a response from the governor exhorting McCleary to raise his own troops.
At 4: 00 p.m., events at the mill quickly began to wind down. More than 5,000 men -- most of them armed mill hands from the nearby South Side, Braddock and Duquesne works -- arrived at the Homestead plant. Weihe wanted to prevent further trouble at Homestead, so he pleaded with Frick to confer with representatives of the Amalgamated to return to Homestead and stop the riot. Weihe urged the strikers to let the Pinkertons surrender, but he was shouted down. Weihe tried to speak again, but this time his pleas were drowned out as the strikers bombarded the barges with fireworks left over from the recent Independence Day celebration. Hugh O'Donnell, a heater in the plant and head of the union 's strike committee, then spoke to the crowd. He demanded that each Pinkerton be charged with murder, forced to turn over his arms and then be removed from the town. The crowd shouted their approval.
The Pinkertons, too, wished to surrender. At 5: 00 p.m., they raised a white flag and two agents asked to speak with the strikers. O'Donnell guaranteed them safe passage out of town. Upon arrival, their arms were stripped from them. With heads uncovered, to distinguish them from the mill hands, they passed along between two rows of guards armed with Winchesters. As the Pinkertons crossed the grounds of the mill, the crowd formed a gauntlet through which the agents passed. Men and women threw sand and stones at the Pinkerton agents, spat on them and beat them. Several Pinkertons were clubbed into unconsciousness. Members of the crowd ransacked the barges, then burned them to the waterline.
As the Pinkertons were marched through town to the Opera House (which served as a temporary jail), the townspeople continued to assault the agents. Two agents were beaten as horrified town officials looked on. The press expressed shock at the treatment of the Pinkerton agents, and the torrent of abuse helped turn media sympathies away from the strikers.
The strike committee met with the town council to discuss the handover of the agents to McCleary. But the real talks were taking place between McCleary and Weihe in McCleary 's office. At 10: 15 p.m., the two sides agreed to a transfer process. A special train arrived at 12: 30 a.m. on July 7. McCleary, the international AA 's lawyer and several town officials accompanied the Pinkerton agents to Pittsburgh.
But when the Pinkerton agents arrived at their final destination in Pittsburgh, state officials declared that they would not be charged with murder (per the agreement with the strikers) but rather simply released. The announcement was made with the full concurrence of the AA attorney. A special train whisked the Pinkerton agents out of the city at 10: 00 a.m. on July 7.
On July 7, the strike committee sent a telegram to Gov. Pattison to attempt to persuade him that law and order had been restored in the town. Pattison replied that he had heard differently. Union officials traveled to Harrisburg and met with Pattison on July 9. Their discussions revolved not around law and order, but the safety of the Carnegie plant.
Pattison, however, remained unconvinced by the strikers ' arguments. Although Pattison had ordered the Pennsylvania militia to muster on July 6, he had not formally charged it with doing anything. Pattison 's refusal to act rested largely on his concern that the union controlled the entire city of Homestead and commanded the allegiance of its citizens. Pattison refused to order the town taken by force, for fear a massacre would occur. But once emotions had died down, Pattison felt the need to act. He had been elected with the backing of a Carnegie - supported political machine, and he could no longer refuse to protect Carnegie interests.
The steelworkers resolved to meet the militia with open arms, hoping to establish good relations with the troops. But the militia managed to keep its arrival in the town a secret almost to the last moment. At 9: 00 a.m. on July 12, the Pennsylvania state militia arrived at the small Munhall train station near the Homestead mill (rather than the downtown train station as expected). Their commander, Major General George R. Snowden, made it clear to local officials that he sided with the owners. When Hugh O'Donnell, the head of the union 's strike committee attempted to welcome Snowden and pledge the cooperation of the strikers, Snowden told him that the strikers had not been law abiding, and that "I want you to distinctly understand that I am the master of this situation. '' More than 4,000 soldiers surrounded the plant. Within 20 minutes they had displaced the picketers; by 10: 00 a.m., company officials were back in their offices. Another 2,000 troops camped on the high ground overlooking the city.
The company quickly brought in strikebreakers and restarted production under the protection of the militia. Despite the presence of AFL pickets in front of several recruitment offices across the nation, Frick easily found employees to work the mill. The company quickly built bunk houses, dining halls and kitchens on the mill grounds to accommodate the strikebreakers. New employees, many of them black, arrived on July 13, and the mill furnaces relit on July 15. When a few workers attempted to storm into the plant to stop the relighting of the furnaces, militiamen fought them off and wounded six with bayonets. But all was not well inside the plant. A race war between nonunion black and white workers in the Homestead plant broke out on July 22, 1892.
Desperate to find a way to continue the strike, the AA appealed to Whitelaw Reid, the Republican candidate for vice president, on July 16. The AA offered to make no demands or set any preconditions; the union merely asked that Carnegie Steel reopen the negotiations. Reid wrote to Frick, warning him that the strike was hurting the Republican ticket and pleading with him to reopen talks. Frick refused.
Frick, too, needed a way out of the strike. The company could not operate for long with strikebreakers living on the mill grounds, and permanent replacements had to be found.
On July 18, the town was placed under martial law, further disheartening many of the strikers.
National attention became riveted on Homestead when, on July 23, Alexander Berkman, a New York anarchist with no connection to steel or to organized labor, plotted with his lover Emma Goldman to assassinate Frick. He came in from New York, gained entrance to Frick 's office, then shot and stabbed the executive. Frick survived and continued his role; Berkman was sentenced to 22 years in prison.
The Berkman assassination attempt undermined public support for the union and prompted the final collapse of the strike. Hugh O'Donnell was removed as chair of the strike committee when he proposed to return to work at the lower wage scale if the unionists could get their jobs back. On August 12, the company announced that 1,700 men were working at the mill and production had resumed at full capacity. The national AFL refused to intervene, the East European workers ignored the union and it had no strategy left. The union voted to go back to work on Carnegie 's terms; the strike had failed and the union had collapsed.
The company had waged a second front in state court, and was winning. On July 18, 16 of the strike leaders were charged with conspiracy, riot and murder. Each man was jailed for one night and forced to post a $10,000 bond.
The union retaliated by charging company executives with murder as well. The company men, too, had to post a $10,000 bond, but they were not forced to spend any time in jail. One judge issued treason charges against the Advisory Committee on August 30 for making itself the law. Most of the men could not raise the bail bond, and went to jail or into hiding. A compromise was reached whereby both sides dropped their charges.
Support for the strikers evaporated. The AFL refused to call for a boycott of Carnegie products in September 1892. Wholesale crossing of the picket line occurred, first among Eastern European immigrants and then among all workers. The strike had collapsed so much that the state militia pulled out on October 13, ending the 95 - day occupation. The AA was nearly bankrupted by the job action. Weekly Union relief for a member averaged $6.25 but totalled a staggering $10,000 per week when including 1,600 strikers. With only 192 out of more than 3,800 strikers in attendance, the Homestead chapter of the AA voted, 101 to 91, to return to work on November 20, 1892.
In the end, only four workers were ever tried on the actual charges filed on July 18. Three AA members were found innocent of all charges. Hugh Dempsey, the leader of the local Knights of Labor District Assembly, was found guilty of conspiring to poison nonunion workers at the plant -- despite the state 's star witness recanting his testimony on the stand. Dempsey served a seven - year prison term. In February 1893, Knox and the union agreed to drop the charges filed against one another, and no further prosecutions emerged from the events at Homestead.
The striking AA affiliate in Beaver Falls gave in the same day as the Homestead lodge. The AA affiliate at Union Mills held out until August 14, 1893. But by then the union had only 53 members. The union had been broken; the company had been operating the plant at full capacity for almost a year, since September 1892.
The Homestead strike broke the AA as a force in the American labor movement. Many employers refused to sign contracts with their AA unions while the strike lasted. A deepening in 1889 of the Long Depression led most steel companies to seek wage decreases similar to those imposed at Homestead.
An organizing drive at the Homestead plant in 1896 was crushed by Frick. In May 1899, 300 Homestead workers actually formed an AA lodge, but Frick ordered the Homestead works shut down and the unionization effort collapsed.
De-unionization efforts throughout the Midwest began against the AA in 1897 when Jones and Laughlin Steel refused to sign a contract. By 1900, not a single steel plant in Pennsylvania remained unionized. The AA presence in Ohio and Illinois continued for a few more years, but the union continued to collapse. Many lodges disbanded, their members disillusioned. Others were easily broken in short battles. Carnegie Steel 's Mingo Junction, Ohio, plant was the last major unionized steel mill in the country. But it, too, successfully withdrew recognition without a fight in 1903.
AA membership sagged to 10,000 in 1894 from its high of over 24,000 in 1891. A year later, it was down to 8,000. A 1901 strike against Carnegie 's successor company, U.S. Steel collapsed. By 1909, membership in the AA had sunk to 6,300. A nationwide steel strike of 1919 also was unsuccessful.
The AA maintained a rump membership in the steel industry until its takeover by the Steel Workers Organizing Committee in 1936. The two organizations officially disbanded and formed the United Steelworkers May 22, 1942.
In 1999 the Bost Building in downtown Homestead, AA headquarters throughout the strike, was designated a National Historic Landmark. It is used as a museum devoted not only to the strike, but also the steel industry in the Pittsburgh area.
A railroad bridge over the Monongahela River near the site of the battle is named Pinkerton 's Landing Bridge in honor of the dead.
Two sites were each designated with a Pennsylvania state historical marker: the site where Pinkerton attempted to land, and the two adjoining cemeteries of St. Mary 's and Homestead where are buried the remains of six of the seven Carnegie Steel Company workers that were killed. The Pinkerton landing site was also named a Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmark.
The pumphouse where the gunfight occurred remains as a museum and meeting hall. There are several historical markers as well as a metal commemorative sign with the US Steel logo that reads "In Honor Of The Workers. ''
|
the cricothyroid joint is an example of a | Cricothyroid articulation - Wikipedia
The cricothyroid articulation (or joint) is a joint connecting the cricoid cartilage and the thyroid cartilage. It plays a key role in adjusting human voice pitch by changing the tension of the vocal cords. This tension is controlled mostly by the endolaryngeal vocalis and the extralaryngeal cricothyroid muscles which change vocal fold tension by narrowing the cricothyroid space created by rotation and gliding movements in horizontal and vertical direction allowed for by the cricothyroid articulation.
Three types A, B, and C have been identified.
Type A is found in 56 % of females and 66 % of males. There is a well - defined "facet ''. It has a tight capsule and ligaments with either a concavity or a small groin directed from posterior superior to anterior inferior. Horizontal translational movement is about 3.0 mm, vertical gliding about 2.5 mm with great movement horizontally than vertically. The gliding movements are smaller in males than in females. Type B is in 24 % of females and 20 % of males. In contrary to type A it lacks a definite "facet '' and the two cartilaginous parts of the articulation are joined only by soft connective tissue. Horizontal movement is 5.0 mm and vertical, 5.1 mm with no differences between them.
Type C concerns all others and has a flat surface with or without a tiny protuberance. Horizontal movement is about 5.1 mm, and vertical 3.8 mm.
Type A is less mobile than the other two.
|
who invented the frozen popsicles and in what year | Ice pop - wikipedia
An ice pop is a water - based frozen snack. It is also referred to as a popsicle (Canada, U.S., New Zealand), freezer pop (U.S.), ice lolly or ice pop (United Kingdom, India, Ireland, South Africa), ice block (New Zealand, parts of Australia), icy pole (parts of Australia), ice drop (Philippines), or chihiro (Cayman Islands) It is made by freezing flavored liquid (such as fruit juice) around a stick, generally resembling a tongue depressor. Often, the juice is coloured artificially. Once the liquid freezes solid, the stick can be used as a handle to hold the ice pop. When an ice pop does not have a stick, it is called, among other names, a freezie.
Frank Epperson of Oakland or San Francisco, California, (it is debated where) popularized ice pops after patenting the concept of "frozen ice on a stick '' in 1923. He initially called it the Epsicle. A couple of years later, Epperson sold the rights to the invention and the Popsicle brand to the Joe Lowe Company in New York City.
Epperson claimed to have first created an ice pop in 1905 at the age of 11 when he accidentally left a glass of powdered soda and water with a mixing stick in it on his porch during a cold night, a story still printed on the back of Popsicle treat boxes.
In the United States and Canada frozen ice on a stick is generically referred to as a popsicle due to the early popularity of the Popsicle brand, and the word has become a genericized trademark to mean any ice pop or freezer pop, regardless of brand or format. (The word is a portmanteau of pop and icicle; the word is genericized to such an extent that there are decades - old derived slang meanings such as "popsicle stand ''.) They are also called an ice pop or freezer pop in the United States. In the Caicos Islands it is referred to as an ice saver. In the United Kingdom and Ireland the terms ice lolly and ice pop are used, though ice pop is much more common in Ireland. Chihiro is used as a slang term in the Cayman Islands, partially derived from chill. Different parts of Australia use either ice block or icy pole, and New Zealand uses ice block.
An alternative to the store - bought ice pops is making them at home using fruit juice, drinks, or any freezable beverage. A classic method involves using ice cube trays and toothpicks, although various ice pop freezer molds are also available.
On June 22, 2005, Snapple tried to beat the existing Guinness World Records entry of a 1997 Dutch 21 - foot (6.4 m) ice pop by attempting to erect a 25 - foot (7.6 m) ice pop in New York City. The 17.5 short tons (15.9 t) of frozen juice that had been brought from Edison, New Jersey in a freezer truck melted faster than expected, dashing hopes of a new record. Spectators fled to higher ground as firefighters hosed away the melted juice.
|
earth's surface features that form at divergent boundaries | Divergent boundary - wikipedia
In plate tectonics, a divergent boundary or divergent plate boundary (also known as a constructive boundary or an extensional boundary) is a linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. Divergent boundaries within continents initially produce rifts which eventually become rift valleys. Most active divergent plate boundaries occur between oceanic plates and exist as mid-oceanic ridges. Divergent boundaries also form volcanic islands which occur when the plates move apart to produce gaps which molten lava rises to fill.
Current research indicates that complex convection within the Earth 's mantle allows material to rise to the base of the lithosphere beneath each divergent plate boundary. This supplies the area with vast amounts of heat and a reduction in pressure that melts rock from the asthenosphere (or upper mantle) beneath the rift area forming large flood basalt or lava flows. Each eruption occurs in only a part of the plate boundary at any one time, but when it does occur, it fills in the opening gap as the two opposing plates move away from each other.
Over millions of years, tectonic plates may move many hundreds of kilometers away from both sides of a divergent plate boundary. Because of this, rocks closest to a boundary are younger than rocks further away on the same plate.
At divergent boundaries, two plates move away from each other and the space that this creates is filled with new crustal material sourced from molten magma that forms below. The origin of new divergent boundaries at triple junctions is sometimes thought to be associated with the phenomenon known as hotspots. Here, exceedingly large convective cells bring very large quantities of hot asthenospheric material near the surface and the kinetic energy is thought to be sufficient to break apart the lithosphere. The hot spot which may have initiated the Mid-Atlantic Ridge system currently underlies Iceland which is widening at a rate of a few centimeters per year.
Divergent boundaries are typified in the oceanic lithosphere by the rifts of the oceanic ridge system, including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise, and in the continental lithosphere by rift valleys such as the famous East African Great Rift Valley. Divergent boundaries can create massive fault zones in the oceanic ridge system. Spreading is generally not uniform, so where spreading rates of adjacent ridge blocks are different, massive transform faults occur. These are the fracture zones, many bearing names, that are a major source of submarine earthquakes. A sea floor map will show a rather strange pattern of blocky structures that are separated by linear features perpendicular to the ridge axis. If one views the sea floor between the fracture zones as conveyor belts carrying the ridge on each side of the rift away from the spreading center the action becomes clear. Crest depths of the old ridges, parallel to the current spreading center, will be older and deeper... (from thermal contraction and subsidence).
It is at mid-ocean ridges that one of the key pieces of evidence forcing acceptance of the seafloor spreading hypothesis was found. Airborne geomagnetic surveys showed a strange pattern of symmetrical magnetic reversals on opposite sides of ridge centers. The pattern was far too regular to be coincidental as the widths of the opposing bands were too closely matched. Scientists had been studying polar reversals and the link was made by Lawrence W. Morley, Frederick John Vine and Drummond Hoyle Matthews in the Morley -- Vine -- Matthews hypothesis. The magnetic banding directly corresponds with the Earth 's polar reversals. This was confirmed by measuring the ages of the rocks within each band. The banding furnishes a map in time and space of both spreading rate and polar reversals.
|
who went out of bake off week 6 | The Great British Bake Off (series 6) - wikipedia
The sixth series of The Great British Bake Off first aired on 5 August 2015, with twelve contestants competing to be crowned the series 6 winner. Mel Giedroyc and Sue Perkins presented the show, and Mary Berry and Paul Hollywood returned as judges. The competition was held in the ground of Welford Park, Berkshire for a second year. The series was won by Nadiya Hussain, with Tamal Ray and Ian Cumming finishing as runners - up.
Colour key:
For the first challenge, the bakers were given two hours to make a Madeira Cake, which was chosen as an "easy '' challenge for the bakers. The cake should have a dome and a crack on top, though Mary stated the cake should not differ too far from the original. For the technical challenge, the bakers had one and three quarter hours to make Mary 's recipe for a Frosted Walnut Cake, which should have three layers and a meringue coating, along with caramelised walnuts. A Black Forest Gâteau was set as the final challenge. In three and a half hours, the bakers were tasked with making a cake that should be extravagant, and should "impress '' Mary and Paul.
For the signature challenge, the bakers were given two hours to bake 24 identical biscotti of any shape, flavour or size. In the technical challenge, they were required to make eight arlettes, which are high - end light delicate cinnamon - flavoured biscuits, in two and a half hours. For the show stopper, they were set the challenge of making 36 biscuits, to be presented in a biscuit box made of a different kind of biscuit mix. They were given four hours in this challenge.
In the first task, the bakers were given one and a half hour to make two quick bread to be made free - form (i.e. not in a tin). For the second task, Paul set the bakers the challenge of baking four identical crusty baguettes in two and a half hours. For the final showstopper, the bakers needed to make a 3D bread sculpture in five hours, using three types of dough, and one of them should be filled.
For the signature challenge, the bakers had 2 hours to make twelve crème brûlées. The brief specified that the custard must be set and that the bakers were n't allowed to use a blowtorch to caramelize the top. For the technical challenge, the bakers had four hours to make a Spanische Windtorte. This dessert had two types of meringue, Swiss and French, designed into a circular box and filled with cream and fruit. Three tiers of sweet cheesecakes were set as the showstopper. The structure must be self - standing, have unique flavors and be completed in four and one half hours.
This episode has a theme of using alternatives for ingredients usually used in baking. For the signature bake, the bakers were given the challenge of baking a cake, but without using sugar. They were given two and a half hour for the bake. For the technical bake, the challenge was to make twelve identical gluten - free pitta breads in two hours. In the showstopper, the bakers needed to make an ice - cream roll using dairy - free ice - cream. They were given four and a half hours for the bake.
For this week 's signature challenge, the bakers had to make a Frangipane tart in two hours, the brief being that it must be open - topped and use shortcrust pastry. In the technical, the bakers had to make 12 Flauones, a cheese filled pastry made in Cyprus. They had two hours. Vol - au - vents were set as the Showstopper - the bakers had to make two types, all using their own puff pastry - in three hours and forty five minutes.
For the first challenge, the bakers had three hours to make a Raised Game Pie. The pie must have thin pastry, and must be very ornate, as most Game Pies from the era were. For the technical challenge, a Tennis fruit Cake was set for the bakers. The bakers were given three hours to make a fruit cake, along with royal icing and sugar paste, with much gelatine being used. A Charlotte Russe was set as the Showstopper. To be done in five and a half hours, the bake usually has ladyfingers around jelly and a sponge - with flavour and decoration being key.
In the first quarter - final challenge, the bakers had to make twenty - four cream horns in three and a half hours. They were asked to make twenty four cream horns - twelve of each flavour, using either puff, ruff puff or flaky pastry. Mary 's recipe for nine Mokatines was set as the technical challenge. These were small, delicate genoise sponges, filled with a coffee buttercream meant to be attractive, as if "in a patisserie window ''. They would only have two hours. Religieuse à l'ancienne were set as the Showstopper challenge. These would be large éclairs, stood upright with no dowelling, and decorated with buttercream. They were given four hours, though the towers were left to stand for two hours afterwards, as traditional religieuse would have been left for such time. As a result, some of the towers began to collapse or lean upon being presented to Mary and Paul.
For the first challenge, the bakers had three hours to make a chocolate tart. The tart had to be ornate, intricate, and full on flavour. For the technical, the bakers faced a staggered start, and were each given one hour and fifteen minutes to make a chocolate soufflé - with Flora starting first, followed by Ian, Nadiya, then Tamal. A chocolate centrepiece was set as the showstopper. In four hours, the bakers had to create an ornate centrepiece using white chocolate in some form - the centrepiece having to be free - standing and attractive. Flora 's elimination meant that she was the first baker to have finished first in the technical challenge and be eliminated the same week.
In the final signature challenge, the bakers had to make 16 iced buns, of which there must be two kinds, in three hours. In the technical, the judges decided to use one of Paul 's recipes; the bakers had to bake raspberry - flavoured mille - feuille in two hours. The recipe involved pastry - something all of the bakers had struggled with. In the final Showstopper, the bakers were given four hours to make classic British cakes in a multi-layered presentation.
Mary and Paul show how to bake some of their favourite recipes and technical challenges.
As the show was pre-recorded, the winner of the show would have been known by those involved in the show. It was reported that there was heavy betting on Ian, resulting in the odds being slashed and betting suspended due to fear of a leak of the name of the winner. Bookmaker Ladbrokes halted betting on the show after "a run of bets '' was placed for one contestant, many at shops in the Ipswich area.
It was also claimed that dozens of employees of BBC as well as the production company, Love Productions, had opened gambling accounts to place bets on the eventual winner.
In a BBC Radio 2 broadcast, judge Mary Berry accidentally revealed the eliminated contestant prior to the airing of episode three.
Contestant Marie Campbell, who was the first Star Baker of the series, was criticised for being "semi-professional '', after it emerged that she had been trained in Ecole Escoffier at the Ritz in Paris where she specialised in patisserie. It was also alleged that she had gone on to run a school for chefs as well as a cupcake baking business. A statement from the BBC said: "There are strict criteria to take part in the show and Marie met those criteria. She gained a certificate for one week 's training in Paris in 1984, more than 10 years ago. She has not worked professionally as a baker or chef. ''
Nadiya Hussain regularly appears on The One Show on BBC1. Her own cookery show, The Chronicles of Nadiya started on 24 August 2016 on BBC One. Hussain writes a weekly column for The Times Magazine, a part of the Saturday supplement of The Times, as well as a monthly column in Essentials magazine. Her recipes have also appeared in BBC 's Good Food magazine and The Sun on Sunday 's Fabulous magazine. Hussain was signed by UK publisher Michael Joseph, part of Penguin Random House, for her debut book Nadiya 's Kitchen, which is a collection of the recipes that she cooks for friends and family. Hussain has written a children 's book of stories and recipes, Bake Me A Story, due to be published by Hodder Children 's Books, which blends updated versions of fairytales (poor "Sleepless Beauty '' just needs a nice cup of cardamom - infused hot chocolate to break her curse; resourceful Jack wins the giant over with yummy bean patties) with colourful illustrations and child - friendly recipes. She is also writing three contemporary women 's fiction novels for Harlequin.
Tamal Ray writes a monthly column for The Guardian. He presented a television show on health on Channel 4 titled Be Your Own Doctor.
Flora Shedden studied for a year at Edinburgh University, but deferred on a course on art history at St Andrews University for a year to concentrate on writing a cookbook, Gatherings, to be published on January 2017. She wrote a column on baking for The Scotsman.
According to the overnight ratings, the opening episode of the series 6 of Bake Off was watched by 9.3 million viewers, a rise of over 2 million from the previous year. The final was watched by an overnight audience of 13.4 million viewers peaking at 14.5, the highest overnight total of 2015. The list of ten most - watched television programmes of 2015 was also dominated by The Great British Bake Off, with seven of the year 's ten being episodes of The Great British Bake Off.
Official episode viewing figures are from BARB.
|
blue colour of sky due to scattering of light | Rayleigh scattering - wikipedia
Rayleigh scattering (pronounced / ˈreɪli / RAY - lee), named after the British physicist Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt), is the (dominantly) elastic scattering of light or other electromagnetic radiation by particles much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation. Rayleigh scattering does not change the state of material and is, hence, a parametric process. The particles may be individual atoms or molecules. It can occur when light travels through transparent solids and liquids, but is most prominently seen in gases. Rayleigh scattering results from the electric polarizability of the particles. The oscillating electric field of a light wave acts on the charges within a particle, causing them to move at the same frequency. The particle therefore becomes a small radiating dipole whose radiation we see as scattered light.
Rayleigh scattering of sunlight in the atmosphere causes diffuse sky radiation, which is the reason for the blue color of the sky and the yellow tone of the sun itself.
For wave frequencies well below the resonance frequency of the scattering particle (normal dispersion regime), the amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.
Rayleigh scattering of molecular nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere includes elastic scattering as well as the inelastic contribution from rotational Raman scattering in air, since the changes in wavenumber of the scattered photon are typically smaller than 50 cm. This can lead to changes in the rotational state of the molecules. Furthermore, the inelastic contribution has the same wavelengths dependency as the elastic part.
Scattering by particles similar to, or larger than, the wavelength of light is typically treated by the Mie theory, the discrete dipole approximation and other computational techniques. Rayleigh scattering applies to particles that are small with respect to wavelengths of light, and that are optically "soft '' (i.e., with a refractive index close to 1). On the other hand, anomalous diffraction theory applies to optically soft but larger particles.
The size of a scattering particle is often parameterized by the ratio
where r is its characteristic length (radius) and λ is the wavelength of the light. The amplitude of light scattered from within any transparent dielectric is proportional to the inverse square of its wavelength and to the volume of material, that is to the cube of its characteristic length. The wavelength dependence is characteristic of dipole scattering and the volume dependence will apply to any scattering mechanism. Objects with x ≫ 1 act as geometric shapes, scattering light according to their projected area. At the intermediate x ≃ 1 of Mie scattering, interference effects develop through phase variations over the object 's surface. Rayleigh scattering applies to the case when the scattering particle is very small (x ≪ 1, with a particle size < 1 / 10 wavelength) and the whole surface re-radiates with the same phase. Because the particles are randomly positioned, the scattered light arrives at a particular point with a random collection of phases; it is incoherent and the resulting intensity is just the sum of the squares of the amplitudes from each particle and therefore proportional to the inverse fourth power of the wavelength and the sixth power of its size. In detail, the intensity I of light scattered by any one of the small spheres of diameter d and refractive index n from a beam of unpolarized light of wavelength λ and intensity I is given by
where R is the distance to the particle and θ is the scattering angle. Averaging this over all angles gives the Rayleigh scattering cross-section
The fraction of light scattered by a group of scattering particles is the number of particles per unit volume N times the cross-section. For example, the major constituent of the atmosphere, nitrogen, has a Rayleigh cross section of 6969509999999999999 ♠ 5.1 × 10 m at a wavelength of 532 nm (green light). This means that at atmospheric pressure, where there are about 7025200000000000000 ♠ 2 × 10 molecules per cubic meter, about a fraction 10 of the light will be scattered for every meter of travel.
The strong wavelength dependence of the scattering (~ λ) means that shorter (blue) wavelengths are scattered more strongly than longer (red) wavelengths.
The expression above can also be written in terms of individual molecules by expressing the dependence on refractive index in terms of the molecular polarizability α, proportional to the dipole moment induced by the electric field of the light. In this case, the Rayleigh scattering intensity for a single particle is given in CGS - units by
The strong wavelength dependence of the scattering (~ λ) means that shorter (blue) wavelengths are scattered more strongly than longer (red) wavelengths. This results in the indirect blue light coming from all regions of the sky. Rayleigh scattering is a good approximation of the manner in which light scattering occurs within various media for which scattering particles have a small size (parameter).
A portion of the beam of light coming from the sun scatters off molecules of gas and other small particles in the atmosphere. Here, Rayleigh scattering primarily occurs through sunlight 's interaction with randomly located air molecules. It is this scattered light that gives the surrounding sky its brightness and its color. As previously stated, Rayleigh scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength, so that shorter wavelength violet and blue light will scatter more than the longer wavelengths (yellow and especially red light). However, the Sun, like any star, has its own spectrum and so I in the scattering formula above is not constant but falls away in the violet. In addition the oxygen in the Earth 's atmosphere absorbs wavelengths at the edge of the ultra-violet region of the spectrum. The resulting color, which appears like a pale blue, actually is a mixture of all the scattered colors, mainly blue and green. Conversely, glancing toward the sun, the colors that were not scattered away -- the longer wavelengths such as red and yellow light -- are directly visible, giving the sun itself a slightly yellowish hue. Viewed from space, however, the sky is black and the sun is white.
The reddening of the sun is intensified when it is near the horizon because the light being received directly from it must pass through more of the atmosphere. The effect is further increased because the sunlight must pass through a greater proportion of the atmosphere nearer the earth 's surface, where it is denser. This removes a significant proportion of the shorter wavelength (blue) and medium wavelength (green) light from the direct path to the observer. The remaining unscattered light is therefore mostly of longer wavelengths and appears redder.
Some of the scattering can also be from sulfate particles. For years after large Plinian eruptions, the blue cast of the sky is notably brightened by the persistent sulfate load of the stratospheric gases. Some works of the artist J.M.W. Turner may owe their vivid red colours to the eruption of Mount Tambora in his lifetime.
In locations with little light pollution, the moonlit night sky is also blue, because moonlight is reflected sunlight, with a slightly lower color temperature due to the brownish color of the moon. The moonlit sky is not perceived as blue, however, because at low light levels human vision comes mainly from rod cells that do not produce any color perception (Purkinje effect).
Rayleigh scattering is an important component of the scattering of optical signals in optical fibers. Silica fibers are glasses, disordered materials with microscopic variations of density and refractive index. These give rise to energy losses due to the scattered light, with the following coefficient:
where n is the refraction index, p is the photoelastic coefficient of the glass, k is the Boltzmann constant, and β is the isothermal compressibility. T is a fictive temperature, representing the temperature at which the density fluctuations are "frozen '' in the material.
λ Rayleigh - type scattering can also be exhibited by porous materials. An example is the strong optical scattering by nanoporous materials. The strong contrast in refractive index between pores and solid parts of sintered alumina results in very strong scattering, with light completely changing direction each 5 micrometers on average. The λ - type scattering is caused by the nanoporous structure (a narrow pore size distribution around ~ 70 nm) obtained by sintering monodispersive alumina powder.
|
who is the director of the show this is us | The Office (U.S. TV series) - wikipedia
The Office is an American television comedy series that aired on NBC from March 24, 2005, to May 16, 2013. It is an adaptation of the original BBC series of the same name. The Office was adapted for American audiences by Greg Daniels, a veteran writer for Saturday Night Live, King of the Hill, and The Simpsons. It was co-produced by Daniels 's Deedle - Dee Productions, and Reveille Productions (later Shine America), in association with Universal Television. The original executive producers were Greg Daniels, Howard Klein, Ben Silverman, Ricky Gervais, and Stephen Merchant, with numerous others being promoted in later seasons.
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. To simulate the look of an actual documentary, it is filmed in a single - camera setup, without a studio audience or a laugh track. The show debuted on NBC as a midseason replacement and ran for nine seasons and 201 episodes. The Office initially featured Steve Carell, Rainn Wilson, John Krasinski, Jenna Fischer, and B.J. Novak as the main cast; the show experienced numerous changes to its ensemble cast during its run.
Season one of The Office was met with mixed reviews, but the following four seasons received widespread acclaim from television critics. These seasons were included on several critics ' year - end top TV series lists, winning several awards such as four Primetime Emmy Awards, which include an Outstanding Comedy Series in 2006. While later seasons were criticized for a decline in quality, earlier writers oversaw the final season and ended the show 's run with a positive reception.
In December 2017 it was reported that NBC was considering a revival of the series. It would debut during the 2018 -- 19 television season and would feature a mix of original (excluding Steve Carell) and new cast members.
List of showrunners throughout the series ' run:
Greg Daniels served as the senior series showrunner for the first four seasons of the series and developed the British series for American television. He then left the position when he co-created the comedy series Parks and Recreation with fellow Office writer Michael Schur and divided his time between the two series. Paul Lieberstein and Jennifer Celotta were named the series showrunners for the fifth season. Celotta left the series after the sixth season and Lieberstein stayed on as showrunner for the following two seasons. He left the showrunner spot after the eighth season for the potential Dwight Schrute spin - off, The Farm, which was eventually passed up by NBC. Daniels returned to the showrunner position for the ninth and final season. Other executive producers include cast members B.J. Novak and Mindy Kaling. Kaling, Novak, Daniels, Lieberstein and Schur made up the original team of writers. Kaling, Novak, and Lieberstein also serve multiple roles on the series, as they play regular characters on the show, as well as write, direct, and produce episodes. Credited with twenty - four episodes, Kaling is the most prolific writer on the staff. Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant, who created the original British series, are credited as executive producer and wrote the pilot and the third - season episode, "The Convict. '' Merchant later directed the episode "Customer Survey '' while Gervais appeared in the episodes "The Seminar '' and "Search Committee. ''
Randall Einhorn is the most frequent director of the series, with 15 credited episodes. The series also had several guest directors, including Lost co-creator J.J. Abrams, Buffy the Vampire Slayer creator Joss Whedon, both of whom are fans of the series, and filmmakers Jon Favreau, Harold Ramis, Jason Reitman, and Marc Webb. Episodes have been directed by several of the actors on the show including Steve Carell, John Krasinski, Rainn Wilson, Ed Helms, and Brian Baumgartner.
Prior to the second episode airing, the writers spent time researching in offices. This process was used for Daniels 's other series King of the Hill and Parks and Recreation. The pilot is a direct adaptation of the first episode of the original British series. Daniels chose to go this route because "completely starting from scratch would be a very risky thing to do '' owing to the show being an adaptation. He had briefly considered using the idea for "The Dundies '' as the pilot episode. After the writers knew who the cast was, they were allowed to write for the actors, which allowed the show to be more original for the following episode, "Diversity Day ''. Following the mixed reaction toward the first season, the writers attempted to make the series more "optimistic '' and to make Michael Scott more likable. They also established the supporting characters of the series more, giving them actual personalities. They also made the lights in the office brighter, which allowed the series to differentiate itself from the British series.
A common problem with the scripts, according to Novak, is that they tend to run too long for the regular 22 - minute time slot, leading to several cuts. For example, the script for the episode "Search Committee '' was initially 75 pages -- 10 pages too long. A complete script is written for each episode; however, actors are given opportunities to improvise during the shooting process. Fischer said, "Our shows are 100 percent scripted. They put everything down on paper. But we get to play around a little bit, too. Steve and Rainn are brilliant improvisers. '' This leads to a large number of deleted scenes with almost every episode of The Office, all of which are considered part of the show 's canon and storyline by Daniels. Deleted scenes have sometimes been restored in repeats to make episodes longer or draw back people who have seen the episode before to see the bonus footage. In an experiment, a deleted scene from "The Return '' was made available over NBC.com and iTunes, explaining the absence of a character over the next several episodes. Daniels hoped that word of mouth among fans would spread the information, but he eventually considered the experiment a failure.
According to Jenna Fischer, the series used an unusual casting process that did not involve a script. The producers would ask the actors several questions and they would respond as the characters they were auditioning for. NBC programmer Kevin Reilly originally suggested Paul Giamatti to producer Ben Silverman for the role of Michael Scott, but the actor declined. Martin Short, Hank Azaria, and Bob Odenkirk were reported to be interested in the part. In January 2004 Variety reported that Steve Carell, of the Comedy Central program The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, was in talks to play the role. At the time, he was already committed to another NBC midseason replacement comedy, Come to Papa, but the series was quickly canceled, allowing his full commitment to The Office. Carell later stated that he had only seen about half of the original pilot episode of the British series before he auditioned. He did not continue watching for fear that he would start copying Gervais 's characterizations. Other people who were considered or auditioned for the role included Ben Falcone, Alan Tudyk, Jim Zulevic, and Paul F. Tompkins. Rainn Wilson was cast as power - hungry sycophant Dwight Schrute, and he watched every episode of the British series before he auditioned. Wilson had originally auditioned for Michael, a performance that he described as a "terrible Ricky Gervais impersonation ''; however, the casting directors liked his audition as Dwight much more and hired him. Seth Rogen, Matt Besser, Patton Oswalt, and Judah Friedlander also auditioned for the role.
John Krasinski and Jenna Fischer were cast in their respective roles as Jim and Pam, the central love interests. Krasinski had attended school with B.J. Novak, and the two were friends. Fischer prepared for her audition by looking as boring as possible, creating the original Pam hairstyle. In an interview on NPR 's Fresh Air, Fischer recalled the last stages of the audition process for Pam and Jim, with the producers partnering the different potential Pams and Jims (four of each) together to gauge their chemistry. When Fischer finished her scene with Krasinski, he told her that she was his favorite Pam, to which she reciprocated that he was her favorite Jim. Adam Scott and John Cho both auditioned for the role of Jim, and Kathryn Hahn also auditioned for the role of Pam.
The supporting cast includes actors known for their improv work: Angela Kinsey, Kate Flannery, Oscar Nunez, Leslie David Baker, Brian Baumgartner, Melora Hardin, and David Denman. Kinsey had originally auditioned for Pam. The producers thought she was "too feisty '' for the character, but they called her back for the part of Angela Martin, which she won. Flannery first auditioned for the part of Jan Levinson - Gould, before landing the role of Meredith Palmer. Baumgartner originally auditioned for Stanley, but was eventually cast as Kevin. Ken Kwapis, the director of the pilot episode, liked the way Phyllis Smith, a casting associate, read with other actors auditioning so much that he cast her as Phyllis. At the beginning of the third season, Ed Helms and Rashida Jones joined the cast as members of Dunder Mifflin Stamford. While Jones would later leave the cast for a role on Parks and Recreation, in February 2007, NBC announced that Helms was being promoted to a series regular.
Four of the show 's writers have also performed in front of the camera. B.J. Novak was cast as reluctant temp Ryan Howard after Daniels saw his stand - up act. Paul Lieberstein was cast as human resources director Toby Flenderson on Novak 's suggestion after his cold readings of scripts. Greg Daniels was originally unsure where to use Mindy Kaling on - screen in the series until the opportunity came in the script for the second episode, "Diversity Day, '' where Michael needed to be slapped by a minority. "Since (that slap), I 've been on the show '' (as Kelly Kapoor), says Kaling. Michael Schur has also made occasional appearances as Dwight 's cousin Mose, and consulting producer Larry Wilmore has played diversity trainer Mr. Brown. Plans were made for Mackenzie Crook, Martin Freeman, and Lucy Davis, from the British series, to appear in the third season, but those plans were scrapped due to scheduling conflicts.
The Office was filmed with a single - camera setup in a cinéma vérité allowing the look of an actual documentary, with no studio audience or laugh track, allowing its "deadpan '' and "absurd '' humor to fully come across. The primary vehicle for the show is that a camera crew has decided to film Dunder Mifflin and its employees, seemingly around the clock. The presence of the camera is acknowledged by the characters, especially Michael Scott, who enthusiastically participates in the filming. The characters, especially Jim and Pam, also look towards the camera when Michael creates an awkward situation. The main action of the show is supplemented with talking - head interviews or "confessionals '' in which characters speak one on one with the camera crew about the day 's events. Actor John Krasinski shot the footage of Scranton for the opening credits after he found out he was cast as Jim. He visited Scranton for research and interviewed employees at actual paper companies.
In order to get the feel of an actual documentary, the producers hired cinematographer Randall Einhorn, who is known for directing episodes of Survivor, which allowed the show to have the feel of "rough and jumpy '' like an actual documentary. According to producer Michael Schur, the producers to the series would follow the documentary format strictly. The producers would have long discussions over whether a scene could work under the documentary format. For example, in the fourth - season episode "Did I Stutter?, '' a scene featured Michael going through a long process to go to the bathroom and not pass by Stanley. The producers debated whether that was possible and Einhorn walked through the whole scene in order to see if a camera man could get to all the places in time to shoot the whole scene. Despite the strict nature in the early years of the series, later seasons seem to have loosened the rules on the format, with the camera crew often going into places that actual documentary crews would not, which also changed the writing and comedy style of the series. This inconsistency has received criticism from critics and fans.
The theme song for The Office was written by Jay Ferguson and performed by The Scrantones. It is played over the title sequence, which features scenes of Scranton, various tasks around the office and the main cast members. Some episodes of the series use a shortened version of the theme song. Starting with the fourth season, the theme song is played over the closing credits, which previously rolled in silence. The exteriors of buildings in the title sequence are actual buildings in Scranton, Pennsylvania, and were shot by cast member John Krasinski. The mockumentary format of the show contains no laugh track, and most of the music is diegetic, with songs either sung or played by the characters or heard on radios, computers, or other devices. However, songs have been played during montages or the closing credits, such as "Tiny Dancer '' by Elton John ("The Dundies '') and "Islands in the Stream '' by Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton ("E-mail Surveillance ''). Featured music tends to be well known, and often songs reflect the character, such as Michael 's attempt to seem hip by using "Mambo No. 5 '' and later "My Humps '' as his cell phone ringtone. Daniels has said that it does not count as film score as long as it already appeared in the episode.
The Office employs an ensemble cast. Many characters portrayed by The Office cast are based on the original British series. While these characters normally have the same attitude and perceptions as their British counterparts, the roles have been redesigned to better fit the American show. The show is known for its generally large cast size, with many of its actors and actresses known particularly for their improvisational work. Steve Carell stars as Michael Scott, regional manager of the Dunder Mifflin Scranton Branch. Loosely based on David Brent, Gervais 's character in the British series, Scott is a well - intentioned man whose attempts at humor, while seemingly innocent to himself, often offend and annoy his peers and employees, and in some situations lead to reprimanding from his superiors. Rainn Wilson portrays Dwight Schrute, who, based upon Gareth Keenan, is a salesman and the assistant to the regional manager, a fictional title created by Michael. John Krasinski portrays Jim Halpert, a salesman and, in later seasons, co-manager who is often known for his wittiness and his hijinks on Schrute (often accompanied by Pam Beesly). Halpert is based upon Tim Canterbury, and is known to have feelings for Pam, the receptionist. Pam, played by Jenna Fischer, is based on Dawn Tinsley. She is shy, but in many cases a cohort with Jim in his pranks on Dwight. B.J. Novak portrays Ryan Howard, who for the first two seasons is a temporary worker but is promoted to sales representative in the third season. He later ascends to the position of vice president, North East Region and director of new media until his treachery was exposed for corporate fraud and he was fired. After this, he gets a job in a bowling alley and then briefly works for the Michael Scott Paper Company. After all this, and a stint in rehab, he eventually ends up again as the temporary worker at the Scranton branch.
The accounting department features Angela Martin, an admitted uptight and hypocritical woman who wishes to keep things orderly and make sure situations remain as serious as possible; Kevin Malone, a lovable, but dim - witted man who revels in juvenile humor and frequently indulges himself with gambling and M&Ms; and Oscar Martinez, who is intelligent but often patronizing and whose homosexuality and Hispanic heritage made him a favorite target for Michael 's unintentional off - color comments. Rounding out the office are the stern salesman Stanley Hudson, who barely stood for Michael 's constant references to his Black American heritage (he also does n't like to take part in time - wasting meetings and sometimes sleeps in them or works on crossword puzzles); eccentric quality assurance representative Creed Bratton; the kind and caring saleswoman Phyllis Lapin - Vance, who marries Bob Vance from Vance Refrigeration across the hall from the office; Andy Bernard, a salesman introduced in season three after the closing of the Stamford, Connecticut, branch of Dunder Mifflin and the merging of the two; the bubbly and talkative customer service representative Kelly Kapoor; the promiscuous alcoholic supply relations representative Meredith Palmer; human resources representative Toby Flenderson, who is admittedly hated by, and often the target of abuse by Michael Scott; warehouse foreman Darryl Philbin; warehouse dock worker and Pam 's ex-fiancé Roy Anderson, who was fired in the third season; and Michael 's former love interest and former vice president for regional sales for Dunder Mifflin Jan Levinson (Jan Levinson - Gould until her divorce in season 2).
Toward the end of season five, the bubbly and naive Erin Hannon is introduced as Pam 's replacement at reception following Pam 's short stint at the Michael Scott Paper Company and her subsequent move to sales. A story arc at the end of season four has Holly Flax transferred to the office as Toby 's replacement. She acts as a love interest for Michael, as they share very similar personalities. Jo Bennett is the CEO of Sabre and Gabe Lewis, introduced in the middle of season six, is a Sabre employee who is assigned to the Dunder Mifflin Scranton branch as the regional director of sales. In season nine Clark Green and Pete Miller joined as two new customer service representatives to attempt to catch up on the ignored customer services complaints that Kelly had dismissed while she worked at Dunder Mifflin. Clark is later moved to sales.
Initially the actors who portray the other office workers were credited as guest stars before they were named series regulars during the second season. The show 's large ensemble has been mainly praised by critics and led to the series winning two Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series. Carell was reportedly paid $175,000 per episode starting with the third season. Krasinski and Fischer were paid around $20,000 for the beginning of the series. Starting with the fourth season, the two started getting paid around $100,000 per episode.
A typical episode for a half - hour time slot runs 20 - and - a-half minutes. The final episode of season two introduces the first of what would be several super-sized episodes that are approximately 28 - minute running time for a 40 - minute time slot. Season three introduces the first of occasional hour - long episodes (approximately 42 - minute running time; suitable for being shown as two separate normal episodes).
The first season consists of six episodes.
The series starts by introducing the office 's workers via a tour given by the branch manager Michael Scott for both the camera crew and a first - day temp Ryan Howard. The audience learns salesman Jim Halpert has a crush on receptionist Pam Beesly, who helps him play pranks on co-worker Dwight Schrute, even though she is engaged to Roy, who works in the building 's lower - level warehouse. News spreads throughout the office that Dunder Mifflin 's corporate headquarters is planning to downsize an entire branch, leading to general anxiety, but Michael chooses to deny or downplay the realities of the situation in order to maintain employee morale.
The second season is the series ' first 22 - episode season, and has its first 40 - minute "super-sized '' episode.
Many workers seen in the background of the first season are developed into secondary characters, and romantic relationships begin to develop between some of the characters. Michael spends the night with his boss Jan, in the wake of the latter 's divorce, but does not sleep with her. Dwight and Angela become romantically involved, but keep the relationship a secret from everyone else. Kelly develops a crush on Ryan, and they start dating. When Roy sets a date for his wedding to Pam, Jim grows depressed and considers transferring to the Stamford, Connecticut branch, but tells Pam in the season finale that he loves her, even though Pam still insists she will marry Roy. The two kiss, but Jim transfers to the Stamford branch soon after. The general threat of downsizing continues throughout the season as well.
The third season consists of 17 half - hour episodes, four 40 - minute "super-sized '' episodes, and two one - hour episodes.
The season starts with a brief flashback to the last episode of season 2, "Casino Night '', when Jim kissed Pam and confessed his feelings for her. Jim briefly transfers to Stamford branch after Pam confirms her commitment to Roy. Corporate is later forced to merge the Stamford branch and staff into the Scranton branch. Michael takes this merger very seriously. Included in the transfer to Scranton are Karen Filippelli, with whom Jim has developed a relationship, and the anger - prone Andy Bernard. The rest of the Stamford branch are irrelevant considering they all quit within the first few episodes of them being there. Pam is newly single after calling off her marriage and relationship to Roy prior to the merger, and Jim 's unresolved feelings for her and new relationship with Karen lead to shifting tensions amongst the three. Meanwhile, Michael and Jan 's relationship escalates which causes them both to behave erratically on the job. On the other hand, Dwight and Angela continue their steamy secret relationship. In the season 's finale, Jim, Karen, and Michael interview for a corporate position that turns out to be Jan 's, who is fired that day for poor performance. Jim wins and rejects the offer off - screen, opting instead to return to Scranton without Karen and ask Pam out on a date, which she joyfully accepts. In the final scene, we learn Ryan has been awarded Jan 's job due to his business school credentials.
NBC ordered a full fourth season of 30 half - hour episodes, but ended with only 19 due to a halt in production caused by the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike. The season consists of 9 half - hour episodes, and 5 hour - long episodes to make up the 19 total episodes of material created.
Karen has left the Scranton branch after her breakup with Jim and becomes regional manager at the Utica branch. A self - employed Jan moves herself and her candle business in with Michael, until the dissolution of their relationship midway through the season. After Dwight 's crude (though well - intentioned) method of euthanasia of Angela 's ailing cat without her permission, she leaves him for Andy, leading Dwight into depression. Ryan, in his new corporate life in New York City, attempts to modernize Dunder Mifflin with a new website for online sales; he also learns that his boss, David Wallace, favors Jim, and thus Ryan attempts to sabotage Jim 's career. Ryan is soon arrested and fired for committing fraud related to the website 's sales numbers. Toby, embarrassed after accidentally revealing affection for Pam and resting his hand on her leg, announces he is moving to Costa Rica, and is replaced by Holly Flax, who quickly shows fondness toward Michael. In Holly 's first full episode, she is led to believe, by Dwight, that Kevin is suffering from some sort of intellectual disability. Pam decides to follow her artistic interests and attends a three - month graphic design course at the Pratt Institute in New York City. In the season finale Andy proposes to Angela, who reluctantly agrees. Phyllis then catches Dwight and Angela having sex in the office.
The fifth season consists of 28 half - hours of material, divided into 24 half - hour episodes and two hour - long episodes, one of which aired after Super Bowl XLIII.
Jim proposes to Pam at a gas station halfway between them because he could not wait. Pam ultimately returns from New York to Scranton, where Jim has bought his parents ' house for the two of them. Having avoided jail and only been sentenced to community service, Ryan dyes his hair and starts working for a bowling alley. Michael initiates a romance with Holly until she is transferred to the Nashua, New Hampshire, branch and the relationship ends. When Andy is made aware of Dwight and Angela 's continued affair, both men leave her. Newly hired Vice President Charles Miner implements a rigid managerial style over the branch that causes Michael to resign in protest. Michael opens the Michael Scott Paper Company, enticing Pam and Ryan to join as salespeople, and though his business model is ultimately unsustainable, Dunder Mifflin 's profits are immediately threatened. The members of the Michael Scott Paper Company enjoy throwing cheese balls into each other 's mouths and they have a morning cheer to boost morale. In a buyout of the Michael Scott Paper Company, the three are rehired with Pam promoted to sales and Ryan returning as a temp. During the chaos, new receptionist Erin is hired to fill the vacancy originally left by Pam. The season ends with a scene that obviously announces Pam 's pregnancy.
The sixth season consists of 26 half - hours of material, divided into 22 half - hour episodes and two hour - long episodes.
Jim and Pam marry and have a baby named Cecelia Marie Halpert. Meanwhile, Andy and Erin develop mutual interest in one another, but find their inherent awkwardness inhibits his attempts to ask her out on a date. Rumors of bankruptcy begin to surround Dunder Mifflin, and by Christmas, Wallace announces to the branch that Dunder Mifflin has accepted a buyout from Sabre Corporation, a printer company. While Wallace and other executives are let go, the Scranton office survives due to its relative success within the company. In the season finale, Dwight buys the office park. Michael agrees to make an announcement to the press regarding a case of faulty printers. When Jo Bennet, Sabre CEO, asks how she can repay him, Michael responds that she could bring Holly back to the Scranton branch.
The seventh season consists of 26 half - hours of material, divided into 21 half - hour episodes, one "super-sized '' episode, and two hour - long episodes.
This is the final season for Steve Carell, who plays the lead character Michael Scott, as Carell wanted to move on after his contract expired during this season. Beginning with this season, Zach Woods, who portrays Gabe Lewis, was promoted to a series regular. Erin and Gabe have begun a relationship, much to Andy 's chagrin, and Andy attempts to win Erin 's affection back. Michael 's former girlfriend, Holly, returns to Scranton to fill in for Toby who is doing jury duty for the "Scranton Strangler '' trial. Michael and Holly eventually restart their relationship. After the two get engaged, Michael then reveals he will be leaving Scranton to go to Colorado with Holly in order to support her elderly parents. Angela starts dating the senator, while Pam and Jim are still adjusting to parenthood. After Michael 's replacement (Will Ferrell) is seriously injured, Jo creates a search committee to interview candidates and choose a new manager for the office.
The eighth season consists of 24 episodes.
James Spader reprises his role as Robert California, the new CEO of Dunder Mifflin / Sabre. Andy is then promoted to regional manager and works hard to make a good impression on Robert, and asks Dwight to be his number two. Pam and Jim are expecting their second child, Phillip, at the start of the season, to coincide with Fischer 's real - life pregnancy. Angela is pregnant with her first son, also named Philip, with State Senator Robert Lipton (although it is implied that Dwight Schrute is actually the child 's biological father). Darryl starts falling for new warehouse foreman, Val. Dwight is tasked with traveling to Tallahassee, Florida, to assist Sabre special projects manager Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate) in launching a chain of retail stores, along with Jim, Ryan, Stanley, Erin, and new office temp Cathy Simms. Cathy is also revealed to have ulterior motives for the trip, as she intends to seduce Jim, but fails. Robert later kills the retail store project, and Erin decides to stay in Florida as an elderly woman 's live - in helper. Andy goes to Florida and wins back Erin, but this allows Nellie to claim the manager position as her own. Robert tells Andy that he has been demoted back to a salesman, but he refuses to accept the news, which causes him to be fired. Andy becomes motivated to begin a Dunder Mifflin comeback and joins with former CFO David Wallace to buy Dunder Mifflin back from Sabre, putting Sabre completely out of business and giving Andy the manager position once again.
The final season consists of 25 episodes.
Andy, recently returning from Outward Bound manager 's training, reverts to his arrogant earlier season personality, abandoning both Erin and the office to travel around the Caribbean with his brother. In his absence, Erin strikes up a romance with new customer service rep Pete, who along with Clark, another new character, replaces Kelly, who left for Ohio with her new husband (Ryan also moves to Ohio for "unrelated reasons '').
Meanwhile, Jim receives an exciting opportunity from an old college friend who offers him a job at Athlead, a sports marketing company based in Philadelphia. Darryl also jumps on board, but the distance and dedication to Athlead hurts Jim 's relationship with Pam.
Angela also must deal with her husband 's infidelity with Oscar. She also deals with her lingering attraction to Dwight, who inherits his family 's beet farm. Dwight receives more good news when David Wallace handpicks him to be the new manager after Andy quits to pursue an acting career, which quickly ends when he embarrasses himself at an a cappella singing competition that turns into a viral web sensation. Dwight later makes Jim his assistant to the regional manager and the two officially end their grudge.
After Jim reconciles with Pam, choosing to stay in Scranton over Philadelphia, Dwight professes his love for Angela and finally marries her. In the series finale, taking place one year after the release of the documentary, the employees reunite for Dwight and Angela 's wedding, for which Michael returns (with help from Jim who was the person Dwight first asked to be his best man) to serve as the best man.
Kelly and Ryan run away together, Nellie now lives in Poland and "adopts '' Ryan 's abandoned baby, Erin meets her birth parents, Andy gets a job at Cornell, Stanley retires to Florida, Kevin and Toby are both fired with the former buying a bar and the latter moving to New York City to become an author, and Oscar runs for State Senate. Jim and Pam, at her persuasion, move to Austin to open a new branch of Athleap (previously Athlead) with Darryl (Dwight "fires '' them to give them both severance packages), and Creed is arrested for his many crimes.
The Office has had product placement deals with Staples and the Olympic balers, as well as mentioning in dialogue or displaying clear logos for products such as Sandals Resorts, HP, Apple, and Gateway computers, and Activision 's Call of Duty video game series. In "The Merger '', Kevin Malone uses a Staples - branded shredding machine to shred a Staples - branded CD - R and many other nonpaper items, including a salad. As with HP, Cisco Systems, a supplier of networking and telephone equipment, pays for product placement, which can be seen on close - up shots of the Cisco IP telephones. Some products have additional branding labels attached; this can be clearly seen with the HP photo printer on Toby 's desk in season 6, and less noticeably with the Cisco phones. In "The Secret '' Michael takes Jim to Hooters to discuss Jim 's feelings for Pam.
Many products featured are not part of product placement agreements, but rather inserted by writers as products the characters would use to create realism under the guise of a documentary. Chili 's restaurants were used for filming in "The Dundies '' and "The Client, '' as the writers believed they were realistic choices for a company party and business lunch. Though not an explicit product placement, the producers of the show had to allow Chili 's to have final approval of the script before filming, causing a scene of "The Dundies '' to be hastily rewritten when the chain objected to the original version. Apple Inc. received over four minutes of publicity for the iPod when it was used as a much - desired gift in "Christmas Party, '' though the company did not pay for the placement. The travel website TripAdvisor.com was featured during Season 4 when after a visit to Dwight 's "agritourism '' bed and breakfast, Schrute Farms, Jim and Pam post an online review about their stay. The show reportedly approached the travel review website about using their name on the show and TripAdvisor set up a review page for the fictional B&B, which itself received hundreds of reviews. The appearance of Second Life in the episode "Local Ad '' was rated eighth in the top ten most effective product placements of 2007.
Before the show aired, Ricky Gervais acknowledged that there were feelings of hesitation from certain viewers. The first season of The Office was met with a mixed response from critics with some of them comparing it to the short - lived NBC series Coupling, which was also based on a British version. The New York Daily News called it "so diluted there 's little left but muddy water, '' and USA Today called it a "passable imitation of a miles - better BBC original. '' A Guardian Unlimited review panned its lack of originality, stating, "(Steve Carell) just seems to be trying too hard... Maybe in later episodes when it deviates from Gervais and Merchant 's script, he 'll come into his own. But right now he 's a pale imitation. '' Tom Shales of the Washington Post said it was "not the mishmash that (Americanized version of Coupling) turned out to be, but again the quality of the original show causes the remake to look dim, like when the copying machine is just about to give out. ''
-- Travis Fickett of IGN in June 2007
The second season was better received. James Poniewozik of Time remarked, "Producer Greg Daniels created not a copy but an interpretation that sends up distinctly American work conventions... with a tone that 's more satiric and less mordant... The new boss is different from the old boss, and that 's fine by me. '' He named it the second best TV show of 2006 after Battlestar Galactica. Entertainment Weekly writer Mark Harris echoed these sentiments a week later, stating, "Thanks to the fearless Steve Carell, an ever - stronger supporting cast, and scripts that spew American corporate absurdist vernacular with perfect pitch, this undervalued remake does the near impossible -- it honors Ricky Gervais ' original and works on its own terms. '' The A.V. Club reviewer Nathan Rabin expressed its views on the show 's progression: "After a rocky start, The Office improved immeasurably, instantly becoming one of TV 's funniest, sharpest shows. The casting of Steve Carell in the Gervais role proved to be a masterstroke. The American Office is that rarest of anomalies: a remake of a classic show that both does right by its source and carves out its own strong identity. ''
The series has been included on several top TV series lists. The show placed # 61 on Entertainment Weekly 's "New TV Classics '' list. Time 's James Poniewozik named it the second - best TV series of 2006, and the sixth - best returning series of 2007, out of ten TV series. He also included it on his "The 100 Best TV Shows of All - TIME '' list. The show was also named the best show of 2006 by BuddyTV. while Paste named it the sixth - best sitcom of 2010. In 2013 the Writers Guild of America placed it at # 66 on their list of 101 Best Written TV Series.
The show has some superficial similarities to the comic strip Dilbert, which also features employees coping with an inept superior. John Spector, CEO of The Conference Board, says that both show the impact a leader can have, for good or bad. Dilbert creator Scott Adams also touts the similarities: "The lesson from The Office and from Dilbert is that people are often dysfunctional, and no amount of training can fix it. '' A labor - affiliated group praised the episode "Boys and Girls '' for what it considered an unusually frank depiction of union busting on American television. Metacritic, a review aggregation website, graded only the first, third, sixth, and final seasons. However, it denoted that all four of them received "generally favorable reviews '' from critics, awarding a 61, 85, 78, and 64 score -- out of 100 -- to each of them, respectively. It later named it the thirteenth most mentioned series on "Best of Decade '' top - ten lists.
-- Alan Sepinwall of HitFix in September 2011, during the show 's eighth season.
The last few seasons were criticized for a dip in quality. The sixth season received criticisms for a lack of stakes for the characters. Other critics and fans have also criticized the dragging out of the Jim and Pam romance. The Office co-creator Ricky Gervais wrote in his blog, referring to "Search Committee, '' particularly Warren Buffett 's guest appearance, "If you 're going to jump a shark, jump a big one, '' and compared the episode to the Chris Martin episode of Gervais 's other series, Extras (although he later said on his website, "I fucking did n't (diss The Office), that 's for sure ''). Some critics said the series should have ended after the departure of Steve Carell. In an IAmA interview on Reddit, Rainn Wilson felt that the eighth season possessed some mistakes "creatively, '' such as the chemistry between Spader and Helms, which he called "a bit dark '' and argued that the show should have gone for a "brighter and more energized '' relationship. Despite this, there are later - series episodes that have received critical acclaim, including "Stress Relief, '' "Niagara '', "Garage Sale '', "Goodbye, Michael '', "Dwight Christmas '', "A.A.R.M. '', and "Finale ''.
The series received 42 Primetime Emmy Awards nominations, with five wins. It won for Outstanding Comedy Series in season two, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series (Greg Daniels for "Gay Witch Hunt ''), Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series (Jeffrey Blitz for "Stress Relief ''), and Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series (David Rogers and Claire Scanlon for "Finale ''). Many cast and crew members have expressed anger that Carell did not receive an Emmy award for his performance in the series. Despite this, Carell won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Comedy or Musical in 2006. The series was also named the best TV series by the American Film Institute in 2006 and 2008, won two Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 2006 and 2007 and won a Peabody Award in 2006.
Premiering on Thursday, March 24, 2005, after an episode of The Apprentice on NBC, The Office brought in 11.2 million viewers in the U.S., winning its time slot. When NBC moved the series to its intended Tuesday night slot, it lost nearly half its audience with only 5.9 million viewers. The program averaged 5.4 million viewers, ranking it # 102 for the 2004 -- 05 U.S. television season. "Hot Girl, '' the first season 's finale, rated a 2.2 with a 10 audience measurement share. Episodes were also rerun on CNBC.
As the second season started, the success of Carell 's hit summer movie The 40 - Year - Old Virgin and online sales of episodes at iTunes helped the show. The increase in viewership led NBC to move the series to the "Must See TV '' Thursday night in January 2006, where ratings continued to grow. By the 2005 -- 06 season, it placed # 67 (tied with 20 / 20). It averaged 8 million viewers with a 4.0 / 10 rating / share among viewers ages 18 -- 49, and was up 80 % in viewers from the year before and up 60 % in viewers ages 18 -- 49. The series ranked as NBC 's highest rated scripted series during its run. The highest rated episode of the series was "Stress Relief, '' which was watched by 22.9 million viewers. This episode was aired right after Super Bowl XLIII. While later seasons dropped in the ratings, the show was still one of NBC 's highest rated shows, and in October 2011 it was reported that it cost $178,840 per 30 - second commercial, the most for any NBC scripted series.
The city of Scranton, long known mainly for its industrial past as a coal mining and rail center, has embraced, and ultimately has been redefined by the show. "We 're really hip now, '' says the mayor 's assistant. The Dunder Mifflin logo is on a lamppost banner in front of Scranton City Hall, as well as the pedestrian bridge to The Mall at Steamtown. The Pennsylvania Paper & Supply Company, whose tower is shown in the opening credits, plans to add it to the tower as well. Newspapers in other Northeastern cities have published travel guides to Scranton locations for tourists interested in visiting places mentioned in the show. Scranton has become identified with the show outside the United States as well. In a 2008 St. Patrick 's Day speech in its suburb of Dickson City, former Taoiseach (Irish prime minister) Bertie Ahern identified the city as the home of Dunder Mifflin.
The inaugural The Office convention was held downtown in October 2007. Notable landmarks, some of which have been settings for the show, that served as venues include the University of Scranton, the Radisson Lackawanna Station Hotel and the Mall at Steamtown. Cast appearances were made by B.J. Novak, Ed Helms, Oscar Nunez, Angela Kinsey, Brian Baumgartner, Leslie David Baker, Mindy Kaling, Craig Robinson, Melora Hardin, Phyllis Smith, Creed Bratton, Kate Flannery, Bobby Ray Shafer, and Andy Buckley. Writer appearances, besides Novak and Kaling, were made by Greg Daniels, Michael Schur, Jennifer Celotta, Lee Eisenberg, Gene Stupnitsky, Justin Spitzer, Anthony Ferrell, Ryan Koh, Lester Lewis, and Jason Kessler. Not present were writer - actor Paul Lieberstein (who was originally going to make an appearance), Steve Carell, John Krasinski, Rainn Wilson, and Jenna Fischer.
On an episode of The Daily Show, Republican presidential candidate John McCain, reportedly a devoted fan of the show, jokingly told Jon Stewart he might take Dwight Schrute as his running mate. Rainn Wilson later accepted on Dwight Schrute 's behalf while on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. After the airing of "Garage Sale '', where the character of Michael Scott decides to move to Colorado, Colorado governor John Hickenlooper issued a press release appointing Scott to the position of director of paper distribution in the Department of Natural Resources.
The show is often paid tribute by the band Relient K. Band member Matt Thiessen is a fan of The Office, and during concerts will often perform a self - described "love song '' about the series, titled "The Ballad of Dunder Mifflin, '' followed by him and the band playing the show 's opening theme.
Aside from NBC, The Office has gone into off - network syndication in the United States. It previously ran on local stations and TBS. After a few years absent from conventional television, it was announced in December 2017 that Comedy Central had picked up the entire series, for its second syndication cycle. Comedy Central started airing The Office on January 15, 2018. In the United Kingdom, the show was named in listings magazines (but not onscreen) as The Office: An American Workplace when it was originally aired on ITV2.
Episodes from The Office were among the first shows available for download from the iTunes Store beginning in December 2005. In 2006, ten internet - exclusive webisodes featuring some of the characters on The Office aired on NBC.com. "Producer 's Cuts '' (containing approximately ten additional minutes of material) of the episodes "Branch Closing '' and "The Return '' were also made available on NBC.com. The Office also became available for download from Amazon. com 's Unbox video downloads in 2006. Sales of new The Office episodes on iTunes ceased in 2007 due to a dispute between NBC and Apple ostensibly over pricing. As of September 9, 2008 The Office was put back on the iTunes Store, and can be bought in HD and Regular format. Netflix also offers the show for online viewing by subscribers, in addition to traditional DVD rental. The Office is also available on Microsofts Zune Marketplace. On December 13, 2017, Comedy Central announced that they had acquired all nine seasons of the show from NBCUniversal in a non-exclusive deal, and some episodes will be made available to stream on Comedy Central 's official website and mobile app after January 15, 2018.
Of the 12.4 million total viewings of "Fun Run '', the fourth season 's premiere, 2.7 million, or 22 %, were on a computer via online streaming. "The Office '', said The New York Times, "is on the leading edge of a sharp shift in entertainment viewing that was thought to be years away: watching television episodes on a computer screen is now a common activity for millions of consumers. '' It was particularly popular with online viewers, an NBC researcher said, because as an episode - driven sitcom without special effects it was easy to watch on smaller monitors such as those found on laptops and iPods. Between the online viewings and those who use digital video recorders, 25 -- 50 % of the show 's viewers watch it after its scheduled airtime.
The show 's Internet success became an issue in the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Daniels and many of the cast members who double as writers posted a video to YouTube shortly after the strike began, pointing out how little, if any, they received in residuals from online and DVD viewing. "You 're watching this on the Internet, a thing that pays us zero dollars, '' Schur said. "We 're supposed to get 11 cents for every two trillion downloads. '' The writers were particularly upset that they were n't compensated for the Daytime Emmy Award - winning summer webisodes "The Accountants '', which NBC considered promotional material despite the embedded commercials.
The show 's success has resulted in expansion outside of television. Characters have appeared in promotional materials for NBC, and a licensed video game -- The Office -- was released in 2007. In 2008 two games were introduced via Pressman Toy Corp: The Office Trivia Board Game and The Office DVD Board Game. In 2009, The Office Clue was released, and The Office Monopoly was released in 2010. Other merchandise, from T - shirts and a bobblehead doll of Dwight Schrute to more office - specific items such as Dunder Mifflin copy paper and parodies of the Successories motivational poster series featuring the cast are available. Dunder Mifflin has two websites, and the cast members maintain blogs both as themselves and in character.
Several members of the cast maintained blogs. These include Jenna Fischer, Angela Kinsey, and Brian Baumgartner, who posted regularly during the season. Rainn Wilson wrote in character on "Schrute Space '' on NBC.com, which is updated periodically. However, he stopped writing the blog himself. It is unknown whether Creed Bratton authors "Creed Thoughts, '' the blog attributed to his character.
A spin - off to the series was proposed in 2008, with a pilot episode expected to debut as the Super Bowl lead - out program in 2009. However, The Office 's creative team instead decided to develop Parks and Recreation as a separate series.
Another spin - off starring Rainn Wilson as Dwight Schrute running a bed - and - breakfast and beet farm, titled The Farm, was proposed in early 2012. In October 2012, however, NBC decided not to go forward with the series. The backdoor pilot episode instead aired as part of the ninth and final season of The Office on March 14, 2013.
|
who plays dean as a kid in supernatural | Jensen Ackles - wikipedia
Jensen Ross Ackles (born March 1, 1978) is an American actor and director. He is known for his roles in television as Dean Winchester on The CW horror fantasy series Supernatural, Eric Brady in Days of Our Lives, which earned him several Daytime Emmy Award nominations, as well as Alec / X5 - 494 in Dark Angel and Jason Teague in Smallville. He also starred as the lead in the box office success My Bloody Valentine 3D and portrayed Jason Todd in the popular animated film Batman: Under the Red Hood.
Ackles currently stars as Dean Winchester on the CW series Supernatural.
Ackles was born in Dallas, Texas, the son of Donna Joan (née Shaffer) and Alan Roger Ackles, an actor. He has a brother, Josh, and a sister, Mackenzie. Ackles had planned to study sports medicine at Texas Tech University and to become a physical therapist, but instead moved to Los Angeles to start his acting career. He has English, Irish, Scottish, and German ancestry.
After modelling on and off since the age of 4, Ackles began to concentrate on an acting career in 1996. He appeared in several guest roles on Mr. Rhodes, Sweet Valley High, and Cybill before joining the cast of the NBC soap opera Days of Our Lives as Eric Brady in 1997. He won a 1998 Soap Opera Digest Award for Best Male Newcomer and went on to be nominated three times (in 1998, 1999, and 2000) for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series for his work on Days of our Lives.
Ackles departed Days of our Lives in 2000 and went on to appear in the mini-series Blonde, about the life of Marilyn Monroe. He also auditioned for the role of the young Clark Kent on Smallville, a role offered to actor Tom Welling instead. Next he appeared in a guest role on the James Cameron television series Dark Angel on Fox in 2001 as serial killer Ben / X5 - 493, the brother of main character Max / X5 - 452 (played by Jessica Alba). His character died in the episode, but Ackles returned to the show as a series regular in the second season as Ben 's sane clone, Alec / X5 - 494. He remained with the show until its cancellation in 2002.
Ackles worked steadily throughout 2003. He joined the cast of the WB 's hit show Dawson 's Creek during its final season, playing CJ, Jen Lindley 's lover. Afterward, Ackles filmed several episodes of the unaired series Still Life for Fox before it was abruptly dropped. He also had a small role in the 2004 short film The Plight of Clownana. Ackles was the producer 's first choice to play Eliza Dushku 's love interest on the second season of Tru Calling, Ackles turned down the role, which was then offered to Eric Christian Olsen and the character 's name was changed to "Jensen '' because the producers of Tru Calling liked Ackles ' name. Ackles returned to Vancouver (where Dark Angel was filmed) in 2004 to become a regular on Smallville playing the assistant football coach Jason Teague, who was also the newest romantic interest for Lana Lang (played by Kristin Kreuk). He also had a lead role in the 2005 film Devour in which Ackles ' father, actor Alan Ackles, also had a role playing the father of Ackles ' character, Jake Gray.
In 2005, Ackles joined the cast of the WB show horror / drama series Supernatural where he stars as Dean Winchester. Dean and his brother Sam (Jared Padalecki) drive throughout the United States hunting paranormal predators, fighting demons and angels, and dealing with all manner of fantasy & sci - fi genre. The show is currently in its thirteenth season on the CW. It owns the title of the longest - running North American sci - fi series in history.
In the summer of 2007, Ackles took on the role of Priestly in the independent comedy Ten Inch Hero. The film began hitting the film festival circuit in early 2007 and Ackles received high praise for his comedic timing in the role. In February 2009, the film was released on DVD exclusively by Blockbuster Home Video. He also appeared on stage from June 5 -- 10, 2007 with Lou Diamond Phillips in A Few Good Men at Casa Mañana Theatre in Fort Worth, Texas, as Lt. Daniel Kaffee. Ackles received strong praise for his work in this role, which was also his professional theatre debut.
In the summer of 2008, Ackles was cast in the remake of the cult film My Bloody Valentine 3D, which opened nationwide on January 16, 2009.
In summer of 2010, Ackles lent his voice as the Red Hood (Jason Todd) for the animated film, Batman: Under The Red Hood, which was released to DVD and Blu - ray on July 27.
On October 22, 2010, Disney Interactive Studios announced that he would be voicing a character named Gibson in the video game, Tron: Evolution, which was released on December 7, 2010.
After three years of dating, Ackles became engaged to actress and model Danneel Harris in November 2009. The couple married on May 15, 2010 in Dallas, Texas. Their first child, a daughter, was born in May 2013. In August 2016, the couple announced that they were expecting twins, a boy and a girl, later in the year. On December 2, 2016, their twins were born.
Ackles considers himself a non-denominational Christian.
Apart from his career in acting, he has also ventured into businesses. As reported, soon Ackles along with his family members will be opening a brewery, Family Business Brewing Co., in Dripping Springs.
|
how many sixes were hit in psl 1 final | 2016 Pakistan Super League final - wikipedia
The 2016 Pakistan Super League Final was a Twenty20 cricket match played on 23 February 2016, at Dubai International Cricket Stadium, Dubai between Quetta Gladiators and Islamabad United to determine the winner of the 2016 season of the Pakistan Super League.
Islamabad defeated Quetta by six wickets to win the first title of the Pakistan Super League. Islamabad won the toss at elected to field first. Dwayne Smith of Islamabad United was the man of the match, scoring 73 runs from 51 balls. The final was sold out with a final attendance of around 25,000. The final marked a successful culmination of PSL 's first season.
Quetta Gladiators and Islamabad United finished the group stage in second and third positions respectively on the league 's points table. Quetta won six out of eight games in the group stage and finished second on the table with 12 points. Quetta batted second in seven of their matches and chased the tournament 's highest total, 201 against Lahore Qalandars in their last group match. Islamabad began the tournament with four defeats in their first six matches, but won their last two group stage matches to qualify for the playoffs in third place with eight points.
The match was played at the Dubai International Cricket Stadium -- the same venue at which the opening match of the league was also played between the two teams. Two days before the final all tickets were sold out.
The toss was won by Islamabad who chose to bowl first. Their captain Misbah - ul - Haq explained the decision by stating that dew could develop later in the second innings of the game, making it harder to field last. Both teams were unchanged from their respective previous matches.
Quetta 's innings began with opener Bismillah Khan being dismissed caught behind for 0 in the first over off Mohammad Irfan. Kevin Pietersen then joined the opener Ahmed Shehzad and was dismissed by Andre Russell after scoring a run - a-ball 18. Kumar Sangakkara and Ahmed Shehzad scored fifties to help the total to 174 / 7 in 20 overs. Andre Russell took three wickets and became the leading wicket taker of the tournament.
Islamabad started the chase with Dwayne Smith and Sharjeel Khan hitting consecutive boundaries off Anwar Ali. Sharjeel was dismissed by Nathan McCullum after scoring 12 runs from 11 balls. Brad Haddin joined the Smith and both scored fifties with Misbah ul Haq scoring the winning runs in the 19th over.
Toss: Islamabad United won the toss and elected to bowl.
Fall of wickets: 0 -- 1 (Bismillah Khan, 0.3 ov), 33 -- 2 (Pietersen, 5.1 ov), 120 -- 3 (Sangakkara, 14.3 ov), 135 -- 4 (Mohammad Nawaz, 15.4 ov), 147 -- 5 (Ahmed Shehzad, 16.3 ov), 153 -- 6 (Sarfraz Ahmed, 17.4 ov), 168 -- 7 (Anwar Ali, 19.4 ov)
Target: 175 runs from 20 overs at 8.75 RR
Fall of wickets: 54 -- 1 (Sharjeel Khan, 5.4 ov), 139 -- 2 (Smith, 15.3 ov), 147 -- 3 (Russell, 16.1 ov), 173 -- 4 (Khalid Latif, 18.2 ov)
Result: Islamabad United won by 6 wickets
|
who does andrea end up with in the devil wears prada | The Devil Wears Prada (film) - wikipedia
The Devil Wears Prada is a 2006 American comedy - drama film based on Lauren Weisberger 's 2003 novel of the same name. This screen adaptation stars Meryl Streep as Miranda Priestly, a powerful fashion magazine editor, and Anne Hathaway as Andrea ("Andy '') Sachs, a college graduate who goes to New York City and lands a job as Priestly 's co-assistant. Emily Blunt and Stanley Tucci co-star as co-assistant Emily Charlton and art director Nigel, respectively.
Adrian Grenier, Simon Baker, and Tracie Thoms play key supporting roles. Wendy Finerman produced and David Frankel directed the film, which was distributed by 20th Century Fox. Streep 's performance drew critical acclaim and earned her many award nominations, including her record - setting 14th Oscar bid, as well as the Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Comedy or Musical. Blunt also drew favorable reviews and nominations for her performance, as did many of those involved in the film 's production.
The film was well received by both film critics and the public and became a surprise summer box - office hit following its June 30 North American release. The commercial success and critical praise for Streep 's performance continued in foreign markets with the film leading the international box office for most of October. Likewise, the U.S. DVD release was the top rental during December. The film finished in 2006 's Top 20 both in the U.S. and overseas and grossed over $300 million, mostly from its international run.
Although the movie is set in the fashion world, most designers and other fashion notables avoided appearing as themselves for fear of displeasing U.S. Vogue editor Anna Wintour, who is widely believed to have been the inspiration for Priestly. Still, many allowed their clothes and accessories to be used in the film, making it one of the most expensively costumed films in history. Wintour later overcame her initial skepticism, saying she liked the film and Streep in particular.
Andy is an aspiring journalist fresh out of Northwestern University. Despite her ridicule for the shallowness of the fashion industry, she lands a job as junior personal assistant to Miranda Priestly, the editor - in - chief of Runway magazine. Andy plans to put up with Miranda 's excessive demands and humiliating treatment for one year in the hopes of getting a job as a reporter or writer somewhere else.
At first, Andy fumbles with her job and fits in poorly with her gossipy, fashion - conscious co-workers, especially Miranda 's senior assistant, Emily Charlton. However, with the help of art director Nigel, who lends her designer clothes, she gradually learns her responsibilities and begins to dress more stylishly to show her effort and commitment to the position. She also meets an attractive young writer, Christian Thompson, who offers to help her with her career. As she spends increasing amounts of time at Miranda 's beck and call, problems arise in her relationships with her college friends and her live - in boyfriend, Nate, a chef working his way up the career ladder.
Miranda is impressed by Andy and allows her to be the one to bring the treasured "Book '', a mock - up of the upcoming edition, to her home, along with her dry cleaning. She is given instructions by Emily about where to leave the items and is told not to speak with anyone in the home. Andy arrives at Miranda 's home only to discover that the instructions she received are vague. As she tries to figure out what to do, Andy begins to panic. Miranda 's twins, Caroline and Cassidy, falsely tell her she can leave the book at the top of the stairs just as Emily has done on many occasions. At the top of the stairs, Andy interrupts Miranda and her husband having an argument. Mortified, Andy leaves the book and runs out of the home.
The next day, Miranda tells Andy that she wants the new unpublished Harry Potter book for her daughters and, if Andy can not find a copy, she will be fired. Andy desperately attempts to find the book and nearly gives up, but ultimately obtains it through Christian 's contacts. She surprises Miranda by not only finding the book but having copies sent to the girls at the train station, leaving no doubt that she accomplished Miranda 's "impossible '' task, thus saving her job. Andy gradually begins to outperform Emily at her job, and slowly but surely becomes more glamorous and begins aligning herself, unwittingly at first, to the Runway philosophy.
One day, Andy saves Miranda from being embarrassed at a charity benefit, and Miranda rewards her by offering to take her to the fall fashion shows in Paris instead of Emily. Andy hesitates to take this privilege away from Emily but is forced to accept the offer after being told by Miranda that she will lose her job if she declines. Andy tries to tell Emily on her way to work. However, Emily is hit by a car and Andy has to break the bad news while visiting Emily in the hospital.
When Andy tells Nate she is going to Paris, he is angered by her refusal to admit that she 's become what she once ridiculed, and they break up. Once there, Miranda, without makeup, opens up to Andy about the effect Miranda 's impending divorce will have on her daughters. Later that night, Nigel tells Andy that he has accepted a job as Creative Director with rising fashion star James Holt at Miranda 's recommendation. Andy finally succumbs to Christian 's charms and, after spending the night with him, learns from him about a plan to replace Miranda with Jacqueline Follet as editor of Runway. Despite the suffering she has endured at her boss 's behest, she attempts to warn Miranda.
At a luncheon later that day, however, Miranda announces that it is Jacqueline instead of Nigel who will leave Runway for Holt. Nigel remarks to a stunned Andy that, though disappointed, he has to believe that his loyalty to Miranda will one day pay off. Later, when Miranda and Andy are being driven to a show, she explains to a still - stunned Andy that she was grateful for the warning but already knew of the plot to replace her and sacrificed Nigel to keep her own job. Pleased by this display of loyalty, she tells Andy that she sees a great deal of herself in her. Andy, repulsed, says she could never do that to anyone. Miranda replies that she already did, stepping over Emily when she agreed to go to Paris. When they stop, Andy gets out and throws her cell phone into the fountain of the Place de la Concorde, leaving Miranda, Runway, and fashion behind.
Some time later, Andy meets up with Nate, who is moving to Boston because he got a new job as the sous chef of a restaurant. They agree to start dating again and see what the future holds. The same day, Andy is interviewed and is accepted to work at a major New York publication company. The editor recounts how he called Runway for a reference on Andy, and got a response from Miranda herself. Miranda described Andy as "her biggest disappointment '' - and said that the editor would be "an idiot '' if he did n't hire her. Emily is offered her Paris wardrobe by Andy and the two leave on good terms. Andy passes the "Runway '' office building and sees Miranda get into a car. Andy gives a wave, but Miranda does not acknowledge her. Andy is used to this and instead walks further into the crowd. Once inside the car, however, Miranda smiles and then orders her chauffeur to drive.
Director David Frankel and producer Wendy Finerman had originally read The Devil Wears Prada in book proposal form. It would be Frankel 's second theatrical feature, and his first in over a decade. He, cinematographer Florian Ballhaus and costume designer Patricia Field, drew heavily on their experience in making Sex and the City.
Frankel recalls the whole experience as having high stakes for those involved, since for himself and the others behind the camera it was the biggest project they had yet attempted, with barely adequate resources. "We knew we were on very thin ice, '' he told Variety for a 2016 article on the film 's 10th anniversary. "It was possible this could be the end of the road for us. ''
Fox bought the rights to Weisberger 's novel before it was not only published in 2003, but even finished. Carla Hecken, then the studio 's executive vice president, had only seen the first hundred pages of manuscript and an outline for how the rest of the plot was to go. But for her that was enough. "I thought Miranda Priestly was one of the greatest villains ever, '' she recalled in 2016. "I remember we aggressively went in and scooped it up. ''
Work on a screenplay started promptly, before Weisberger had even finished her work. When it became a bestseller upon publication, elements of the plot were incorporated into the screenplay in progress. Most took their inspiration from the 2001 Ben Stiller film Zoolander and primarily satirized the fashion industry. But it was still not ready to film. Elizabeth Gabler, later head of production at Fox, noted that the finished novel did not have a strong narrative. "Since there was n't a strong third act in the book, '' she said later, "we needed to invent that. ''
In the meantime, the studio and producer Wendy Finerman sought a director. Out of many candidates with experience in comedy, David Frankel was hired despite his limited experience, having only made one feature, Miami Rhapsody, along with some episodes of Sex and the City and Entourage. He was unsure about the property, calling it "undirectable... a satire rather than a love story. '' Later, he cited Unzipped, the 1995 documentary about designer Isaac Mizrahi, as his model for the film 's attitude towards fashion: "(It) revels in some of the silliness of the fashion world, but is also very serious. ''
At a meeting with Finerman, Frankel told her that he thought the story unnecessarily punished Miranda. "My view was that we should be grateful for excellence. Why do the excellent people have to be nice? '' He prepared to move on and consider more scripts. Two days later his manager persuaded him to reconsider and look for something he liked that he could shape the film into. He took the job, giving Finerman extensive notes on the script and laying out a detailed vision for the film.
Four screenwriters worked on the property. Peter Hedges wrote the first draft, but did n't think he could do more; another writer passed. Paul Rudnick did some work on Miranda 's scenes, followed by a Don Roos rewrite. After that, Aline Brosh McKenna, who was able to relate her own youthful experiences attempting to launch a journalism career in New York to the story, produced a draft after a month 's work that struck the right balance for Finerman and Frankel, whose notes were incorporated into a final version, rearranging the plot significantly, following the book less closely and focusing the story on the conflict between Andrea and Miranda. She found the experience of writing a story with female protagonists that did not center around a relationship "very liberating... I felt I was allowed to do what the movie wanted to be, a Faust story, a Wall Street for ladies. ''
McKenna also initially toned down Miranda 's meanness at the request of Finerman and Frankel, only to restore it later for Streep. She later cited Don Rickles as her main influence for the insults in the dialogue; before even starting work on the screenplay she had come up with Miranda 's "Take a chance. Hire the smart fat girl '' line, which she felt summed up the disparity between Andy and the world she found herself in.
McKenna consulted with acquaintances who worked in fashion to make her screenplay more realistic. In a 2010 British Academy of Film and Television Arts lecture, she told of a scene that was changed after one of these reviews, where Nigel told Andy not to complain so much about her job. Originally, she had made his speech more of a supportive pep talk; however one of those acquaintances said that would not happen: "(N) o - one in that world is nice to each other... There 's no reason to be, and they do n't have time. '' she quoted him as saying.
The "cerulean speech '', where Miranda draws the connection between the designer fashion in Runway 's pages and Andy 's cerulean sweater, criticizing Andy 's snobbishness about fashion and explaining the trickle - down effect, had its origins in a scene cut from earlier drafts that Streep had asked to have restored. It slowly grew from a few lines where the editor disparaged her assistant 's fashion sense to a speech about "why she thought fashion was important... She is so aware that she is affecting billions of people, and what they pick off the floor and what they are putting on their bodies in the morning. '' Streep said in 2016 she was interested in "the responsibility lying on the shoulders of a woman who was the head of a global brand... That scene was n't about the fun of fashion, it was about marketing and business. ''
McKenna recalls that she kept expanding it to suit Streep and Frankel, but even a few days before it was scheduled to be filmed she was unsure if it would be used or even shot. She was revising it at a nearby Starbucks when she realized that Miranda would describe something not as just blue -- chosen as the color for Andy 's sweater since it would work best on screen -- but would instead use an exact shade. From a list of shades McKenna sent, Streep picked cerulean; the final speech takes up almost a page of the script, long for a mainstream film. "I was like, it 'd be cool if half of that ended up in the movie, '' the writer says. "Every word is in the movie. '' The references to past designer collections are entirely fictional, McKenna explains, since the speech was written around the sweater 's color (however, the Huffington Post later pointed out, designers often take their fashion inspiration from the streets).
The speech has become one of the film 's most memorable moments; "Miranda 's signature monologue '' to The Ringer. "' Cerulean ' (has never) sounded more sinister, '' the Huffington Post wrote in 2016, Liz Jones, former editor of British Marie Claire, said it was "a rare glimpse at the way in which even the most outlandish and extreme exponents of fashion... influence and enrich all our lives, even if we only ever shop at Marks & Spencer or Gap. ''
Once the script was finished, the filmmakers and Fox focused on getting Meryl Streep to play Miranda; Hacken recalled she was seen as so perfect for the part that no one had discussed any alternatives (although McKenna recalls writing provisional dialogue should the producers have had to settle for another actress). Weisberger, who initially could n't imagine Streep playing the part, recalled that after seeing her on set it was "crystal clear '' that she was perfect for the role.
The news that Streep would meet with Frankel was celebrated at Fox. But while Streep, for her part, knew the movie could be very successful, she felt the pay she was being offered for playing Miranda was "slightly, if not insulting, not perhaps reflective of my actual value to the project. '' The producers doubled it to around $4 million, and she signed on, allowing Fox to greenlight the film. According to Frankel, Streep saw the film as a chance to "skewer the doyennes of the fashion world. '' She has three daughters, and as an ardent feminist, felt that fashion magazines "twisted the minds of young women around the world and their priorities. This was an interesting way to get back at them. '' Also, she said, the film passed the Bechdel test.
She insisted on the scenes where she explains to Andy the connection between the blue sweater she 's wearing and the haute couture industry, and the scene where Miranda briefly opens up to Andy, without makeup, about her divorce. "I wanted, '' she explained, "to see that face without its protective glaze, to glimpse the woman in the businesswoman. ''
Casting Andy was less clear - cut. Fox wanted an A-list younger actress, and felt Rachel McAdams, then coming off successes in The Notebook and Mean Girls, would help the film 's commercial prospects. However, she declined several offers to play Andy, telling the studio she was trying to avoid mainstream projects for a while.
Hathaway, by contrast, actively sought the part, tracing "Hire me '' in the sand of the zen garden on Hacken 's desk when she talked about the project with the executive. While Frankel liked her enough to not require her to audition, she knew she was not the studio 's first choice and had to be patient (other accounts say that she was the only actress considered for the lead). Fox production chief Elizabeth Gabler says the studio did not realize how strong her audience was after the Princess Diaries movies. She took the part to work with Streep, but also due to some personal aspects. She celebrated when she learned she had gotten the part.
Over a hundred actresses had been considered for Emily before one of the casting agents taped Emily Blunt reading some of the lines elsewhere on the Fox lot as she was leaving for her flight to London following her audition for Eragon. Although she read them in her native British accent despite the character being written as American as she is in the novel, Frankel was interested; Finerman liked her for her sense of humor. After the makers of Eragon cast Sienna Guillory, Frankel called her in the bathroom of "some dive club '' in London, where she was consoling herself with her sister. He told her that while he would have cast her just from the tape, the studio wanted to see another audition with her dressed more in character. She insisted on continuing to play the character as British; Both Hathaway and Emily Blunt lost weight for their roles, with Hathaway later recounting that "(she) and I would clutch at each other and cry because we were so hungry. '' Blunt later denied rumors she did this at the filmmakers ' request.
Colleen and Suzanne Dengel, the twins who played Miranda 's daughters, were cast two weeks after auditioning for Frankel and Finerman. The director and producer laughed, which the sisters believed help them get the part. They recalled in 2017 that they were excited both by being able to work together on camera for the first time, as well as the chance to act opposite Hathaway since they were big fans of the Princess Diaries movies as well.
Tucci was one of the last actors cast; he agreed to play Nigel only three days before shooting started. The filmmakers reportedly had auditioned Barney 's creative director Simon Doonan and E! 's Robert Verdi, both openly gay men highly visible as media fashion commentators, for the part; the BBC 's Graham Norton also auditioned. Verdi would later claim there was no intention to actually hire him and the producers had just used him and Doonan to give whoever they ultimately did cast some filmed research to use in playing a gay character (he would end up with a walk - on part as a fashion journalist in Paris). Tucci claims he was unaware of this: "All I know is that someone called me and I realized this was a great part. '' He based the character on various people he was acquainted with, insisting on the glasses he ultimately wore. Daniel Sunjata had originally read for Tucci 's part, rather unenthusiastically since he had just finished playing a similar character, but then read the Holt part and asked if he could audition for it. Simon Baker auditioned by sending a video of himself, wearing the same self - designed green jacket he has on when he and Andrea meet for the first time.
Weisberger is widely believed to have based Miranda on Anna Wintour, the powerful editor of Vogue. Wintour reportedly warned major fashion designers who had been invited to make cameo appearances as themselves in the film that they would be banished from the magazine 's pages if they did so. Vogue and other major women 's and fashion magazines have avoided reviewing or even mentioning the book in their pages. Wintour 's spokespeople deny the claim, but costume designer Patricia Field says many designers told her they did not want to risk Wintour 's wrath.
Only Valentino Garavani, who had designed the black evening gown Streep wears in the museum benefit scene, chose to make an appearance. Coincidentally, he was in New York during production and Finerman dared Field, an acquaintance, to ask him personally. Much to her surprise, he accepted. Other cameos of note include Heidi Klum as herself and Weisberger as the twins ' nanny. Streep 's daughter 's film debut as a barista at Starbucks was cut. Gisele Bündchen agreed to be in the movie only if she did not play a model.
Principal photography took place over 57 days in New York and Paris between October and December 2005. The film 's budget was $41 million. It was originally lower, which caused problems with some locations -- the crew could not get permission to shoot at the Museum of Modern Art or Bryant Park.
Ballhaus, at Finerman and Frankel 's suggestion, composed as many shots as possible, whether interiors or exteriors, to at least partially take in busy New York street scenes in the background, to convey the excitement of working in a glamorous industry in New York. He also used a handheld camera during some of the busier meeting scenes in Miranda 's office, to better convey the flow of action, and slow motion for Andrea 's entrance into the office following her makeover. A few process shots were necessary, mainly to put exterior views behind windows on sets and in the Mercedes where Miranda and Andrea are having their climactic conversation.
Fox originally refused permission to let Frankel shoot some scenes from the third act in Paris, where it is set, due to the low budget. But after six "nightmarish '' weeks of shooting, he had an editor cut a "sizzle reel '' of highlights. That convinced the studio to increase the budget to allow for limited shooting overseas (Streep did not go as Fox believed it would be too expensive).
Several weeks after all the major parts had been cast, the actors gathered in New York for a table read. Hathaway was nervous and goofy, she recalls, since she still had not developed her idea of the part; she described her performance at that point as "(nothing) particularly impressive. '' Blunt, by contrast, found Streep 's laugh relaxed her enough to keep her focused on playing a nervous, distracted Emily. The highlight of the session was Streep 's first line as Miranda. Instead of the "strident, bossy, barking voice '' everyone expected, Hathaway says, Streep silenced the room by speaking in a near whisper. "It was so unexpected and brilliant. '' At the reading Streep also changed Miranda 's last line to "everybody wants to be us '' from the original "me ''.
Streep made a conscious decision not to play the part as a direct impression of Wintour, right down to not using an accent and making the character American rather than English ("I felt it was too restricting ''). "I think she wanted people not to confuse the character of Miranda Priestly with Anna Wintour at all, '' said Frankel. "And that 's why early on in the process she decided on a very different look for her and a different approach to the character. '' The "that 's all, '' "please bore someone else... '' catchphrases; her coat - tossing on Andrea 's desk and discarded steak lunch are retained from the novel. Streep prepared by reading a book by Wintour protégé Liz Tilberis and the memoirs of Vogue editor Diana Vreeland. She lost so much weight during shooting that the clothes had to be taken in.
During the movie 's press tour she also said her performance as Miranda was inspired by different men she knew, but did not say which ones. In 2016 she disclosed to Variety that she took Miranda 's soft speaking style from Clint Eastwood: "He never, ever, ever raises his voice and everyone has to lean in to listen, and he is automatically the most powerful person in the room. '' However, she said, Eastwood does not make jokes, so instead she modeled that aspect of the character on theatrical and film director Mike Nichols, whose delivery of a cutting remark, she said, made everyone laugh, including the target. "The walk, I 'm afraid, is mine, '' Streep added.
For Miranda 's actual look, Streep looked to two women. The bouffant hairstyle was inspired by model and actress Carmen Dell'Orefice, which Streep said she wanted to blend with "the unassailable elegance and authority of (French politician) Christine Lagarde. '' The costumes Field designed for that look resulted in numerous blown takes during the montage where Miranda repeatedly throws her overcoat on Andrea 's desk when she arrives in the morning. When McKenna saw Streep as Miranda for the first time on set, she recalls being so terrified she threw her arm in front of Frankel "like we were in a car wreck. ''
Hathaway prepared for the part by volunteering for a week as an assistant at an auction house where she was "put through the wringer '' according to Weisberger, who adds that Hathaway supplemented that by asking her many questions about working for Wintour. Frankel recalls that she was nervous through most of the shooting, particularly when working late, since Raffaello Follieri, her boyfriend at that time, preferred strongly that she not do so; she was also having health issues due to a cyst. The director said she was "terrified '' before starting her first scene with Streep, who had begun her working relationship with Hathaway by saying first "I think you 're perfect for the role and I 'm so happy we 're going to be working on this together '' then warning her that was the last nice thing she would say. Streep applied this philosophy to everyone else on set as well, keeping her distance from the cast and crew members unless it was necessary to discuss something with them.
That scene, where Andi delivers the Book, the mockup of the magazine in progress, to Miranda 's apartment, was, according to the Dengels, who played Miranda 's twin daughters, totally improvised. "That was just something we did with Anne and it made the cut, '' Colleen Dengel told BuzzFeed in 2017. Nevertheless, it took three more days of filming to get the shot of the girls up in the stairwell the way Frankel wanted it, a look she believes was inspired by a similar scene with twin girls in The Shining.
Streep is the one who suggested the editorial meeting scene, which does not advance the plot but shows Miranda at work without Andrea present. It was also her idea that Miranda not wear makeup in the scene where she opens up to Andrea and worries about the effect on her daughters of her divorce becoming public knowledge. Blunt, for her part, contributed the line where she tells Andy "I 'm hearing this '', while opening and closing her hand, "and I want to hear this '' keeping it closed. In 2015 she told Howard Stern that she had overheard a mother saying that to a child in a supermarket during production.
Frankel, who had worked with Patricia Field on his feature - film debut Miami Rhapsody as well as Sex and the City, knew that what the cast wore would be of utmost importance in a movie set in the fashion industry. "My approach was to hire her and then leave the room, '' he joked later. While only Valentino Garavani appeared onscreen, many other designers were helpful to Field. Her $100,000 budget for the film 's costumes was supplemented by help from friends throughout the industry. Ultimately, she believes, at least $1 million worth of clothing was used in the film, making it one of the most expensively costumed movies in cinema history. The single priciest item was a $100,000 Fred Leighton necklace on Streep.
When Hathaway enters the office after Nigel gives her access to Runway 's closet, she is dressed entirely in Chanel. Field explained in 2016 that "I felt Annie Hathaway was a Chanel girl organically, as opposed to let 's say a Versace (or Roberto Cavalli) girl. '' When she called the company to ask for assistance, they were delighted because "they wanted to see Chanel on a young girl to give it another point of view, '' showing it as a brand for "not just middle - aged women in suits, but youthful and funky. '' Calvin Klein rounds out Andrea 's wardrobe.
Dolce & Gabbana and Calvin Klein helped Field as well, with some contributions from Lebanese designer Georges Chakra. Although Field avoids making Streep look like Wintour, she dresses her in generous helpings of Prada (By Field 's own estimate, 40 % of the shoes on Streep 's feet are Prada). "I know her character was originally based on Anna Wintour, '' Field said, "but I did n't want to copy someone 's style. '' But, like Wintour and her Vogue predecessor Diana Vreeland, the two realized that Miranda needed a signature look, which was provided primarily by the white wig and forelock she wore as well as the clothes the two spent much time poring over look - books for. "(I) n choosing her wardrobe my idea was that she 's a chief fashion editor, she has her own style, '' Fields told Women 's Wear Daily in 2016. "We 're creating an original character. ''
Field said she avoided prevailing fashion trends for Miranda during production in favor of a more timeless look based on Donna Karan archives and pieces by Michaele Vollbracht for Bill Blass. She did not want people to easily recognize what Miranda was wearing.
She contrasted Andrea and Emily by giving Andrea a sense of style, without much risk - taking, that would suggest clothing a fashion magazine would have on hand for shoots, clothing a recent college graduate with little sense of style would feel comfortable wearing in a fashion - conscious workplace. Blunt, on the other hand was "so on the edge she 's almost falling off. '' For her, Field chose pieces by Vivienne Westwood and Rick Owens to suggest a taste for funkier, more "underground '' clothing. After the film 's release, some of the looks Field chose became popular, to the filmmakers ' amusement.
Tucci praised Field 's skill in putting ensembles together that were not only stylish but helped him develop his character:
She just sort of sits there with her cigarette and her hair, and she would pull stuff -- these very disparate elements -- and put them together into this ensemble, and you 'd go, "Come on, Pat, you ca n't wear that with that. '' She 'd say, "Eh, just try it on. '' So you 'd put it on, and not only did it work, but it works on so many different levels -- and it allows you to figure out who the guy is. Those outfits achieve exactly what I was trying to achieve. There 's flamboyance, there 's real risk - taking, but when I walk into the room, it 's not flashy. It 's actually very subtle. You look at it and you go, "That shirt, that tie, that jacket, that vest? What? '' But it works.
He found one Dries van Noten tie he wore during the film to his liking and kept it.
After touring some offices of real fashion magazines, Jess Gonchor gave the Runway offices a clean, white look meant to suggest a makeup compact ("the chaste beiges and whites of impervious authority, '' Denby called it). Miranda 's office bears some strong similarities to the real office of Anna Wintour, down to an octagonal mirror on the wall, photographs and a floral arrangement on the desk Gonchor later told Women 's Wear Daily that he had based the set on a photo of Wintour 's office he found online; the similarity led Wintour to have her office redecorated after the movie 's release. The magazine itself is very similar to Vogue, and one of the covers on the wall of the office, showing three models, is a direct homage to the August 2004 cover of that magazine.
She even chose separate computer wallpaper to highlight different aspects of Blunt 's and Hathaway 's character: Paris 's Arc de Triomphe on Blunt 's suggests her aspirations to accompany Miranda to the shows there, while the floral image on Andy 's suggests the natural, unassuming qualities she displays at the outset of her tenure with the magazine. For the photo of Andrea with her parents, Hathaway posed with her own mother and David Marshall Grant. The Dengel twins recalled being asked every day for three years straight if the Harry Potter advance copies were real; to their great disappointment they were not and in fact were "all gibberish ''. They eventually auctioned them for $586 on eBay, along with various clothing used in the film, to benefit Dress for Success, a charity which provides business clothing to help women transition into the workforce.
Aside from the clothing and accessories, some other well - known brands are conspicuous in the film.
The crew were in Paris for only two days, and used only exteriors. Streep did not make the trip.
Mark Livolsi realized, as McKenna had on the other end, that the film worked best when it focused on the Andrea - Miranda storyline. Accordingly, he cut a number of primarily transitional scenes, such as Andrea 's job interview and the Runway staff 's trip to Holt 's studio. He also took out a scene early on where Miranda complimented Andrea. Upon reviewing them for the DVD, Frankel admitted he had n't even seen them before, since Livolsi did n't include them in any prints he sent to the director.
Frankel praised Livolsi for making the film 's four key montages -- the opening credits, Miranda 's coat - tossing, Andrea 's makeover and the Paris introduction -- work. The third was particularly challenging as it uses passing cars and other obstructions to cover Hathaway 's changes of outfit. Some scenes were also created in the editing room, such as the reception at the museum, where Livolsi wove B - roll footage in to keep the action flowing.
Composer Theodore Shapiro relied heavily on guitar and percussion, with the backing of a full orchestra, to capture a contemporary urban sound. He ultimately wrote 35 minutes of music for the film, which were performed and recorded by the Hollywood Studio Symphony, conducted by Pete Anthony. His work was balanced with songs by U2 ("City of Blinding Lights '', Miranda and Andrea in Paris), Madonna ("Vogue '' & "Jump '', Andrea 's fashion montage & her first day on the job, respectively), KT Tunstall ("Suddenly I See '', female montage during opening credits), Alanis Morissette ("Crazy '', Central Park photo shoot), Bitter: Sweet ("Our Remains, '' Andrea picks up James Holt 's sketches for Miranda; Bittersweet Faith, Lily 's art show), Azure Ray ("Sleep, '' following the breakdown of her relationship with Nate), Jamiroquai ("Seven Days in Sunny June, '' Andrea and Christian meet at James Holt 's party) among others. Frankel had wanted to use "City of Blinding Lights '' in the film after he had used it as a soundtrack to a video montage of Paris scenes he had put together after scouting locations there. Likewise, Field had advocated just as strongly for "Vogue. ''
The soundtrack album was released on July 11 by Warner Music. It includes all the songs mentioned above (except Madonna 's "Jump '') as well as a suite of Shapiro 's themes. Among the tracks not included is "Suddenly I See, '' which disappointed many fans. It became popular as a result of the film.
Originally intended just to convince Fox to fund some shooting in Paris, Frankel 's sizzle reel led the studio to put a stronger marketing push behind the movie. It moved the release date from February to summer, scheduling it as a lighter alternative audiences could consider to Superman Returns at the end of June 2006, and began to position it as an event movie in and of itself.
Two decisions by the studio 's marketing department that were meant to be preliminary wound up being integral to promoting the film. The first was the creation of the red stiletto heel ending in a pitchfork as the film 's teaser poster. It was so successful and effective, becoming almost "iconic '' (in Finerman 's words), that it was used for the actual release poster as well. It became a brand, and was eventually used on every medium related to the film -- the tie - in reprinting of the novel and the soundtrack and DVD covers as well.
The studio also put together a trailer of scenes and images strictly from the first three minutes of the film, in which Andrea meets Miranda for the first time, to be used at previews and film festivals until they could create a more standard trailer drawing from the whole film. But, again, this proved so effective with early audiences it was retained as the main trailer, since it created anticipation for the rest of the film without giving anything away.
Gabler credits the studio 's marketing team for being "really creative ''. Fox saw the film as "counterprogramming '' on the weekend Superman Returns was released. While they knew that the material and Hathaway would help draw a younger female audience that would not be as interested in seeing that film, "(w) e did n't want it to just seem like a chick flick coming out. ''
The Devil Wears Prada received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 75 %, based on 185 reviews, with the site 's critical consensus reads, "A rare film that surpasses the quality of its source novel, this Devil is a witty expose of New York 's fashion scene, with Meryl Streep in top form and Anne Hathaway more than holding her own. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 62 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Initial reviews of the film focused primarily on Streep 's performance, praising her for making an extremely unsympathetic character far more complex than she had been in the novel. "With her silver hair and pale skin, her whispery diction as perfect as her posture, Ms. Streep 's Miranda inspires both terror and a measure of awe, '' wrote A.O. Scott in The New York Times. "No longer simply the incarnation of evil, she is now a vision of aristocratic, purposeful and surprisingly human grace. '' Kyle Smith agreed at the New York Post: "The snaky Streep wisely chooses not to imitate Vogue editrix Anna Wintour, the inspiration for the book, but creates her own surprisingly believable character. ''
David Edelstein, in New York magazine, criticized the film as "thin '', but praised Streep for her "fabulous minimalist performance. '' J. Hoberman, Edelstein 's onetime colleague at The Village Voice, called the movie an improvement on the book and said Streep was "the scariest, most nuanced, funniest movie villainess since Tilda Swinton 's nazified White Witch (in 2005 's The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe). ''
Blunt, too, earned some favorable notice. "(She) has many of the movie 's best lines and steals nearly every scene she 's in, '' wrote Clifford Pugh in the Houston Chronicle. Other reviewers and fans concurred. While all critics were in agreement about Streep and Blunt, they pointed to other weaknesses, particularly in the story. Reviewers familiar with Weisberger 's novel assented to her judgment that McKenna 's script greatly improved upon it. A rare exception was Angela Baldassare at The Microsoft Network Canada, who felt the film needed more of the nastiness others had told her was abundant in the novel.
David Denby summed up this response in his New Yorker review: "The Devil Wears Prada tells a familiar story, and it never goes much below the surface of what it has to tell. Still, what a surface! '' Reactions to Hathaway 's performance were not as unanimous as for many of her costars. Denby said "she suggests, with no more than a panicky sidelong glance, what Weisberger takes pages to describe. '' On the other hand, according to Baldassare, she "barely carrie (d) the load. ''
Some media outlets allowed their present or former fashion reporters to weigh in on how realistic the movie was. Their responses varied widely. Booth Moore at Los Angeles Times chided Field for creating a "fine fashion fantasy with little to do with reality, '' a world that reflects what outsiders think fashion is like rather than what the industry actually is. Unlike the movie, in her experience fashionistas were less likely to wear makeup and more likely to value edgier dressing styles (that would not include toe rings). "If they want a documentary, they can watch the History Channel '', retorted Field. Another newspaper fashion writer, Hadley Freeman of The Guardian, likewise complained the film was awash in the sexism and clichés that, to her, beset movies about fashion in general.
Charla Krupp, the executive editor of SHOP, Inc., says "It 's the first film I 've seen that got it right... (It) has the nuances of the politics and the tension better than any film -- and the backstabbing and sucking - up. '' Joanna Coles, the editor of the U.S. edition of Marie Claire, agreed:
The film brilliantly skewers a particular kind of young woman who lives, breathes, thinks fashion above all else... those young women who are prepared to die rather than go without the latest Muse bag from Yves Saint Laurent that costs three times their monthly salary. It 's also accurate in its understanding of the relationship between the editor - in - chief and the assistant.
Ginia Bellefante, former fashion reporter for The New York Times, called it "easily the truest portrayal of fashion culture since Unzipped '' and giving it credit for depicting the way fashion had changed in the early 21st century. Her colleague Ruth La Ferla found a different opinion from industry insiders after a special preview screening. Most found the fashion in the movie too safe and the beauty too overstated, more in tune with the 1980s than the 2000s. "My job is to present an entertainment, a world people can visit and take a little trip, '' responded Field.
Liz Jones, former editor of British Marie Claire, wrote in the Daily Mail that the movie was "a chilling reminder of the most surreal three years of my life. '' The only detail she found inaccurate was the absence of flowers in Miranda 's Paris hotel room -- during her tenure as editor, her rooms there or in Milan received so many flowers from designers that she thought she "had died prematurely. '' She personally vouched for Miranda 's personality: "It took only a few weeks in the job for me to mutate into that strangely exotic and spoilt creature: the magazine maven, whose every whim, like those of Miranda... must be pandered to. ''
On its June 30 opening weekend, right before the Independence Day holiday, the film was on 2,847 screens. Through that Sunday, July 2, it grossed $27 million, second only to the much bigger - budget Superman Returns, breaking The Patriot 's six - year - old record for the largest take by a movie released that holiday weekend that did not win the weekend; a record that stood until Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs broke it in 2009.
During its first week it added $13 million. This success led Fox to add 35 more screens the next weekend, the widest domestic distribution the film enjoyed. Although it was never any week 's top - grossing film, it remained in the top 10 through July. Its theatrical run continued through December 10, shortly before the DVD release.
"The core marketing was definitely to women, '' Gabler recalls, "but the men did n't resist going to the movie. '' She felt that male viewers responded favorably to the movie because they sought a glimpse inside fashion, and because Miranda "was enjoyable to watch. '' The release date helped generate word of mouth when people who had seen it discussed it at holiday gatherings. "They were talking about it, like a summer reading book, '' said Gabler.
It had a very successful run in theaters, making nearly $125 million in the United States and Canada and over $325 million worldwide, a career high for all three top - billed actresses at that time. Streep would surpass it two years later with Mamma Mia while Hathaway exceeded it with 2010 's Alice in Wonderland. Blunt would not be in a higher - grossing film until the 2014 movie adaptation of the Broadway musical Into the Woods (also starring Streep).
It was also Tucci 's highest - grossing film until Captain America: The First Avenger in 2011.
Anna Wintour attended the film 's New York premiere, wearing Prada. Her friend Barbara Amiel reported that she said shortly afterward that the movie would go straight to DVD. But in an interview with Barbara Walters that aired the day the DVD was released, she called the film "really entertaining '' and said she appreciated the "decisive '' nature of Streep 's portrayal. "Anything that makes fashion entertaining and glamorous and interesting is wonderful for our industry. So I was 100 percent behind it. '' Streep said Wintour was "probably more upset by the book than the film ''. Anna Wintour 's popularity skyrocketed after her portrayal in The Devil Wears Prada. She was happy with the portrayal she got from Meryl Streep that did not place her in a position of complete villainy in which she felt was an unfair representation of her. Meryl Streep said she did n't base her character in The Devil Wears Prada on Anna Wintour, instead saying she was inspired by men she had known previously: "Unfortunately you do n't have enough women in power, or at least I do n't know them, to copy. ''
Weisberger 's novel had been translated into 37 different languages, giving the movie a strong potential foreign audience. The international box office would ultimately deliver 60 % of the film 's gross. "We did our European premiere at the Venice Film Festival '', Gabler says, where the city 's gondoliers wore red T - shirts with the film 's logo. "So many people around the world were captivated by the glossy fashion world. It was sexy and international. ''
The Devil Wears Prada topped the charts on its first major European release weekend on October 9, after a strong September Oceania and Latin America opening. It would be the highest - grossing film that weekend in Britain, Spain and Russia, taking in $41.5 million overall. Continued strong weekends as it opened across the rest of Europe helped it remain atop the overseas charts for the rest of the month. By the end of the year only its Chinese opening remained; it was released there at the end of February 2007 and took in $2.4 million.
The greatest portion of the $201.8 million total international box office came from the United Kingdom, with $26.5 million. Germany was next with $23.1 million, followed by Italy at $19.3 million and France at $17.9 million. Outside Europe, Japanese box office was the highest at $14.6 million, followed by Australia at $12.6 million.
Most reviews from the international press echoed the domestic response, heaping praise on Streep and the other actors, but calling the whole film "predictable. '' The Guardian 's Peter Bradshaw, who found the film "moderately entertaining, '' took Blunt to task, calling her a "real disappointment... strained and awkward. '' In The Independent, Anthony Quinn said Streep "may just have given us a classic here '' and concluded that the film as a whole was "as snappy and juicy as fresh bubblegum. ''
In most markets the title remained unchanged; either the English was used or a translation into the local language. The only exceptions were Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico and Venezuela, where it was El diablo que viste Prada and El diablo se viste a la moda. In Poland, the title was Diabeł ubiera się u Prady which roughly means "The Devil dresses (itself) at Prada '' rather than "The Devil Wears Prada. '' In Italian the title was '' Il diavolo veste Prada '' which roughly means "The devil wears Prada ''. In Turkey, the title was "Şeytan Marka Giyer, '' roughly translated as "The Devil Wears Brand - Names. '' In Romania, the title was "Diavolul se îmbracă de la Prada, '' which roughly means "The Devil Dresses itself from Prada '', the same construction being found in the French title, "Le Diable s'habille en Prada ''. The Japanese version is titled "プラダ を 着 た 悪魔 '', which translates as "The devil wearing Prada ''.
Three months after the film 's North American release (October 2006), Frankel and Weisberger jointly accepted the first Quill Variety Blockbuster Book to Film Award. A committee of staffers at the magazine made the nominations and chose the award winner. Editor Peter Bart praised both works.
' The Devil Wears Prada ' is an energetically directed, perfect - fit of a film that has surprised some in the industry with its box - office legs. It has delighted the country, much as did Lauren Weisberger 's book, which is still going strong on several national bestseller lists.
The film was honored by the National Board of Review as one of the year 's ten best. The American Film Institute gave the film similar recognition.
The film received ample attention from the Hollywood Foreign Press Association when its Golden Globe Award nominations were announced in December. The film itself was in the running for Best Picture (Comedy / Musical) and Supporting Actress (for Blunt). Streep later won the Globe for Best Actress (Musical / Comedy).
In January 2007, Streep 's fellow members of the Screen Actors Guild nominated her for Best Actress as well. Four days later, at the National Society of Film Critics awards, Streep won Best Supporting Actress for her work both in Devil and A Prairie Home Companion. McKenna earned a nomination from the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.
When the British Academy of Film and Television Arts announced its 2006 nominations, Blunt, Field, McKenna and Streep were all among the nominees. Makeup artist and hairstylists Nicki Ledermann and Angel de Angelis also were nominated.
At the end of January, Streep received her 14th Academy Award nomination for Best Actress, lengthening her record from 13 for most nominations by any actor male or female. Field received a Costume Design nomination as well. Neither won, but Blunt and Hathaway presented the last mentioned award, amusing the audience by slipping into their characters for a few lines, nervously asking which of them had gotten Streep her cappuccino. Streep played along with a stern expression before smiling.
The success of the film led to a proposed, but unrealized, American dramedy series that was in contention to air for the 2007 -- 08 television season on Fox. It was to be produced by Fox Television Studios, with the premise adjusted for the confines of a traditional half - hour or one - hour dramedy with a single camera set - up. However, it never reached the point of even producing a pilot episode.
With the video release came renewed interest in Weisberger 's novel. It ranked eighth on USA Today s list of 2006 best sellers and was the second most borrowed book in American libraries. The audiobook version was released in October 2006 and quickly made it to third on that medium 's fiction best seller list.
In 2015, it was reported that Broadway producer Kevin McCollum had signed a deal two years earlier with Fox to develop some of the movies from its back catalog into musicals for the stage. Two he expressed particular interest in were Mrs. Doubtfire and The Devil Wears Prada. Early in 2017, McCollum announced that in partnership with Fox Stage Productions, he was developing a musical version of The Devil Wears Prada (based on both the movie and the book). Sir Elton John will be composing the score for the project with playwright Paul Rudnick, who had written some early scenes for the screenplay, mostly with Miranda, writing the book and lyrics. McCollum did not say when he expected it to premiere but hoped it would eventually play on Broadway.
The DVD was released on December 12, 2006 and has, in addition to the film, the following extras:
Closed captions in French and Spanish are also available. The DVD is available in both full screen and widescreen versions. Pictures of the cast and the tagline "Hell on Heels '' were added to the red - heel image for the cover. It was released in the UK on February 5, 2007.
A Blu - ray Disc of the film was released simultaneously with the DVD. The Blu - ray maintains the same features as the DVD; however, the featurettes were dropped and replaced with a subtitle pop - up trivia track that can be watched by itself or along with the audio commentary.
Immediately upon its December 12 release, it became the top rental in the USA. It held that spot through the end of the year, adding another $26.5 million to the film 's grosses; it dropped out of the top 50 at the end of March, with its grosses almost doubling. The following week it made its debut on the DVD sales charts in third position. By the end of 2007 it had sold nearly 5.6 million units, for a total of $94.4 million in sales.
Among the deleted scenes are some that added more background information to the story, with commentary available by the editor and director. Most were deleted by Livolsi in favor of keeping the plot focused on the conflict between Miranda and Andrea, often without consulting Frankel.
Frankel generally approved of his editor 's choices, but differed on one scene, showing more of Andrea on her errand to the Calvin Klein showroom. He felt that scene showed Andrea 's job was about more than running personal errands for Miranda.
In 2016, around the 10th anniversary of the film 's release, Vanity Fair did a rundown of some Independence Day weekend movie box results from the previous 15 years, noting how some better - remembered films had been bested by films that have not stood the test of time. It called Superman Returns ' win over The Devil Wears Prada the "most ironic '' of these victories. "(T) he degree to which (it) has penetrated pop culture needs no explanation -- as does the degree to which Superman Returns did n't. ''
The cast 's opinions on why the movie has endured differ. Hathaway told Variety that she thinks many people relate to Andy 's predicament of working for someone who seems impossible to please. "Everybody has had an experience like this. '' Tucci did not believe specific explanations were necessary. "It 's a fucking brilliant movie... The brilliant movies become influential, no matter what they are about. ''
The cast members bonded tightly on the set, and remained close afterwards. Blunt invited them to her wedding to John Krasinski in 2010. There, Tucci met her sister Felicity, whom he later married. "Ten years after The Devil Wears Prada, Stanley is in my actual family, '' she told Variety. "How frightening is that? ''
In its anniversary story, Variety argued that it had benefited all three of its lead actresses. In addition to Streep 's record - setting Oscar nomination, the magazine observed, it had proven that she could be a box - office draw by herself, opening doors up for her to be cast as a lead in later summer movies such as Julie & Julia and Mamma Mia!. For Hathaway, it was her first leading role in a film intended for an adult audience. Subsequent producers were impressed that she had held her own playing opposite Streep, which led eventually to her being cast in more serious roles like Rachel Getting Married and Les Misérables, for which she won an Oscar. "I think what people saw was promising -- it made people want to see more. ''
Hathaway believes that Blunt 's career took off because of her role. "I 've never witnessed a star being born before, '' Hathaway says. "That 's the first time I watched it happen. '' Blunt agrees that it was "a night and day change '' for her -- the day after the film was released, she told Variety, the staff at the coffee shop she had been going to for breakfast every morning in Los Angeles suddenly recognized her. Even ten years later, people still quote her lines from the film back to her at least once a week, she says.
"(The film) definitely paved the way for the filmmakers and distributors of the world to know that there was a female audience that was really strong out there '', Gabler recalls, one that was not segmented by age. She pointed to later movies, such as Mamma Mia!, 27 Dresses (written by McKenna) and Me Before You, that appeared to her to be trying to replicate The Devil Wears Prada 's success with that demographic. However, Gabler feels they did not do so as well. "Prada reminds me of movies that we do n't have a lot of now -- it harkens back to classic movies that had so much more than just one kind of plot line... You just keep wanting to find something that can touch upon the same zeitgeist as this film. ''
For Streep, the most significant thing about the film was that "(t) his was the first time, on any movie I have ever made, where men came up to me and said, ' I know what you felt like, this is kind of like my life. ' That was for me the most ground - breaking thing about Devil Wears Prada -- it engaged men on a visceral level, '' she told Indiewire.
The film has made a lasting impact on popular culture. Although a TV series based on it was not picked up, in the years after its release The Simpsons titled an episode "The Devil Wears Nada '' and parodied some scenes. The American version of The Office began an episode with Steve Carell as Michael Scott imitating Miranda after watching the film on Netflix.
In 2008, The New York Times wrote that the movie had defined the image of a personal assistant in the public mind. Seven years later, Dissent 's Francesca Mari wrote about "the assistant economy '' by which many creative professionals rely on workers so titled to do menial personal and professional tasks for them; she pointed to The Devil Wears Prada as the best - known narrative of assistantship. The next year, writing about a proposed change in U.S. federal overtime regulations that was seen as threatening to that practice, the Times called it the ' Devil Wears Prada ' economy ", a term other news outlets also used.
On the film 's 10th anniversary, Alyssa Rosenberg wrote in The Washington Post that Miranda anticipated female antiheroines of popular television series of the later 2000s and 2010s such as Scandal 's Olivia Pope and Cersei Lannister in Game of Thrones. Like them, she observes, Miranda competently assumes a position of authority often held by male characters, despite her moral failings, that she must defend against attempts to use her personal life to remove her from it, to "prov (e), as a creature of sentiment, that she never belonged there in the first place. '' In doing so, however successfully to herself and others, "she has zipped herself into a life as regimented and limited as a skintight pencil skirt. ''
"Like many instant classics, Prada benefited from perfect timing '', Variety 's 2016 article observed, attempting to explain the film 's enduring appeal. "It marked the beginning of the democratization of the fashion industry -- when the masses started to pay attention to the business of what they wore. '' It credited the movie with helping stir interest in the American adaptation of the Colombian television series Ugly Betty, which debuted months after its release.
The film also has been credited with increasing interest in R.J. Cutler 's documentary The September Issue, which followed Wintour and other Vogue editors as they prepared the issue for that month of 2007. Writing in The Ringer on the tenth anniversary, Alison Herman observed that "The Devil Wears Prada transformed Wintour 's image from that of a mere public figure into that of a cultural icon. '' Once known primarily as a fashion editor, she was now "every overlord you 'd ever bitched about three drinks deep at happy hour, only to dutifully fetch her coffee the next day. '' Ultimately, the film had effected a positive change in Wintour 's image, Herman argued, "from a tyrant in chinchilla to an idol for the post-Sandberg age. ''
In 2013, Weisberger wrote a sequel, Revenge Wears Prada. However, it does not seem likely that a film version of it, or any sequel, will be made, as two of the film 's stars are not eager to do so. Streep, who has never made a sequel to any of her films, has reportedly said that she is not interested in making this one in particular. And while Hathaway admits she 'd be interested in working with the same people, it would have to be "something totally different. '' The Devil Wears Prada, she told Variety "might have just hit the right note. It 's good to leave it as it is. ''
The following year, The Last Airbender also exceeded The Devil Wears Prada 's July 4 opening weekend take without winning the weekend, as did The Purge: Election Year in 2016, but neither film broke Ice Age 's record.
|
who fought with the angel in the bible | Jacob wrestling with the angel - wikipedia
The account of Jacob wrestling with the angel is found in Genesis 32: 22 - 32 and referenced elsewhere in Hosea 12: 4. The account includes the renaming of Jacob as "Israel '', literally "He who struggles with God. '' The account is also regularly described as Jacob wrestling with God.
Jacob spent the night alone on a riverside. There, a being described in English Bible translations as a "man '', but generally interpreted as an angel or God himself -- wrestled with Jacob, even striking him painfully in the hollow of his thigh. Jacob asks the "man '' his name, and receives no answer. He names the place where they wrestled Peniel or Penuel. The event occurs during Jacob 's journey back to Canaan.
The Masoretic text reads as follows:
The same night he arose and took his two wives, his two female servants, and his eleven children, and crossed the ford of the Jabbok. He took them and sent them across the stream, and everything else that he had. And Jacob was left alone. And a man wrestled with him until the breaking of the day. When the man saw that he did not prevail against Jacob, he touched his hip socket, and Jacob 's hip was put out of joint as he wrestled with him. Then he said, "Let me go, for the day has broken. '' But Jacob said, "I will not let you go unless you bless me. '' And he said to him, "What is your name? '' And he said, "Jacob. '' Then he said, "Your name shall no longer be called Jacob, but Israel, for you have striven with God and with men, and have prevailed. '' Then Jacob asked him, "Please tell me your name. '' But he said, "Why is it that you ask my name? '' And there he blessed him. So Jacob called the name of the place Peniel, saying, "For I have seen God face to face, and yet my life has been delivered. '' The sun rose upon him as he passed Penuel, limping because of his hip. Therefore to this day the people of Israel do not eat the sinew of the thigh that is on the hip socket, because he touched the socket of Jacob 's hip on the sinew of the thigh.
The account contains several plays on the meaning of Hebrew names -- Peniel, Israel -- as well as similarity to the root of Jacob 's name (which sounds like the Hebrew for "heel '') and its compound. The limping of Jacob (Ya'aqob), may mirror the name of the river, Jabbok (Yabbok sounds like "crooked '' river), and Nahmanides (Deut. 2: 10 of Jeshurun) gives the etymology "one who walks crookedly '' for the name Jacob.
The Septuagint preserves the Hebrew text both in 32: 24 where Jacob wrestles with "a man '', and after the man 's reply where Jacob calls the place Peniel (Hebrew for Face of God), and has "God '' in Gen 32: 30 where Jacob says "For I have seen God face to face. '' Following Hosea 12: 4 however the Targum of Onkelos offers "because I have seen the Angel of the Lord face to face '', and the Targum of Palestine gives "because I have seen the Angels of the Lord face to face ''.
Of the ancient Christian translations the Vulgate follows Hebrew "man '' in 32: 24 as "man '', and Hebrew "face of God '' in 32: 30 as "face of God ''. The Syriac Peshitta like Latin and Greek follows the Hebrew with first "man '', then "face of God '' in Genesis, but then in Hosea 12: 4 preserves the Hebrew "angel ''.
The identity of Jacob 's wrestling opponent is a matter of debate, named variously as a dream figure, a prophetic vision, an angel (such as Michael and Samael), a protective river spirit, Jesus, or God.
The oldest Jewish interpretation, malakh (angel) is found in Hosea 12: 4: "Yes, he had power over the angel, and prevailed: he wept, and made supplication to him: he found him in Bethel, and there he spoke with us; ''. Though some have questioned whether the Hebrew word malakh may be a later change here. Maimonides believed that the incident was "a vision of prophecy '', while Rashi believed Jacob wrestled with the guardian angel of Esau (identified as Samael), his elder twin brother. Zvi Kolitz referred to Jacob wrestling with God.
As a result of the hip injury Jacob suffered while wrestling, Jews are prohibited from eating the meat tendon attached to the hip socket (sciatic tendon), as mentioned in the account at Genesis 32: 32.
Both Martin Luther and John Calvin believed that Jacob had wrestled with God, although Calvin believed the event was only a vision. Joseph Barker (1854) believed the Bible clearly showed that Jacob wrestled with God. Peter L. Berger also believed Jacob wrestled God.
According to popular author Rosemary Ellen Guiley, "This dramatic scene has spurred much commentary from Judaic, Catholic, and Protestant theologians, biblical scholars, and literary critics. Does Jacob wrestle with God or with an angel?... There is no definitive answer, but the story has been rationalized, romanticized, treated as myth, and treated symbolically. ''
Among some Christian interpreters, this incident is thought to be a Christophany: J. Douglas MacMillan (1991) suggests that the angel with whom Jacob wrestles is a "pre-incarnation appearance of Christ in the form of a man. ''
According to one Christian commentary of the Bible incident described, "Jacob said, ' I saw God face to face '. Jacob 's remark does not necessarily mean that the ' man ' with whom he wrestled is God. Rather, as with other, similar statements, when one saw the ' angel of the Lord, ' it was appropriate to claim to have seen the face of God. ''
In an analysis of Marxist philosopher Ernst Bloch 's 1968 book Atheism in Christianity, Roland Boer says that Bloch sees the incident as falling into the category of "myth, or at least legend ''. Boer calls this an example of "a bloodthirsty, vengeful God... outdone by cunning human beings keen to avoid his fury ''.
The trial attorney Gary Greenberg believes the Jews originated in Africa. In his book The Moses Mystery: The Egyptian Origins of the Jewish People, in which he claims that Old Testament stories of the Jewish Patriarchs are based on Akhenaten - linked Egyptian mythology, he argues that Jacob is Osiris / Wizzer, Esau is Set, and the wrestling match is the struggle between them.
The wrestling incident on the bank of a stream has been compared to the Greek mythology stories of Achilles ' duel with the river god Scamander and with Menelaus wrestling with the sea - god Proteus.
One of the oldest visual depictions is in the illustrated manuscript the Vienna Genesis. Many artists have depicted the scene. In sculpture Jacob Wrestling with the Angel is the subject of a 1940 sculpture by Sir Jacob Epstein on display at the Tate Britain. Paintings include:
Rembrandt (1659)
Eugène Delacroix (1861)
Eugène Delacroix (1861), (detail)
Alexander Louis Leloir (1865)
Léon Bonnat (1876)
"Jacob and the Angel '' by Gustave Moreau (1878)
Paul Gauguin (1888), Vision after the Sermon showing the episode envisioned by Breton villagers.
The Latin text of Genesis 32: 30 ' Vidi dominum facie ad faciem; et salva facta est anima mea ' (I have seen the Lord face to face) was set for the third nocturn at Matins on the second Sunday of Lent and was a popular medieval telling of the story of Jacob 's encounter with the angel. It is set as the tenor (upper voice) text of Machaut 's multi-text - layered Motet No. 15 Vidi dominum (I have seen the LORD) simultaneously with two secular French texts: "Faux semblant m'a decü '' and "Amours qui ha le pouvoir. '' Machaut musically contrasts God 's blessing in the Latin text with the disappointments of secular love in the French texts. Charles Wesley 's hymn "Come, O Thou Traveller Unknown '', often known as "Wrestling Jacob '', is based on the passage which describes Jacob wrestling with an angel. It is traditionally sung to the tune of St Petersburg. U2 's Bullet the Blue Sky, the 4th. track on their 1987 album The Joshua Tree includes the lyric "Jacob wrestled the angel and the angel was overcome. ''
The motif of "wrestling with the angels '' occurs in several novels including Hermann Hesse 's Demian (1919), Dodie Smith 's I Capture the Castle (1948), Margaret Laurence 's "The Stone Angel '' (1964). In poetry the theme appears in Rainer Maria Rilke 's "The Man Watching '' (c. 1920), Herman Melville 's poem "Art, '' and Emily Dickinson 's poem "A little East of Jordan '' (Fr145B, 1860). In theatre, wrestling with the angel is mentioned in Tony Kushner 's play Angels in America (1990); the version depicted on - screen was the 1865 version by Alexander Louis Leloir. Gustave Dore 's image is reenacted in Jean - Luc Godard 's Passion by a film extra dressed as an angel and Jerzy Radziwiłowicz. Also Maud Hart Lovelace 's Betsy 's Wedding (1955), Stephen King 's novel It (1986), Sheila Heti 's novel How Should A Person Be? (2012) and David Fennario 's play Balconville (1979).
|
what movie was hit me baby one more time in | ... Baby One More Time (song) - Wikipedia
"... Baby One More Time '' is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears from her debut studio album of the same title (1999). It was written by Max Martin and produced by Martin and Rami. After recording and sending a demo tape with an unused song from Toni Braxton, Spears signed a multi-album deal with Jive. "... Baby One More Time '' is a teen pop and dance - pop song that refers to a girl 's feelings after a break - up with her boyfriend.
"... Baby One More Time '' was released on October 23, 1998 through Jive Records. It reached number one in every country it charted in, including the United Kingdom, where it earned double - platinum certification from the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) and became the country 's best - selling song of 1999. The song is one of the best - selling singles of all time, with over 7 million copies sold. An accompanying music video, directed by Nigel Dick, portrays Spears as a student from a Catholic high school, who starts to daydream that she is singing and dancing around the school, while watching her love interest from afar. The music video was later referenced in the music video of "If U Seek Amy '' (2009), where Spears 's fictional daughter is dressed with a similar schoolgirl outfit while wearing pink ribbons in her hair. In 2010, the music video for "... Baby One More Time '' was voted the third most influential video in the history of pop music, in a poll held by Jam!. In 2011, "... Baby One More Time '' was voted the best music video of the 1990s. It has been featured on all of her greatest hits and other compilation albums.
Spears has performed "... Baby One More Time '' in a number of live appearances and during all of her concert tours. It was the encore of the... Baby One More Time Tour (1999) and Dream Within a Dream Tour (2001 -- 02); Spears also performed remixed versions of the song during the Oops!... I Did It Again Tour (2000 -- 01), The Onyx Hotel Tour (2004), The M + M 's Tour (2007), The Circus Starring Britney Spears (2009), the Femme Fatale Tour (2011), and her concert residency Britney: Piece of Me (2013 -- 17). "... Baby One More Time '' was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Performance at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards (2000), and has been included in lists by Blender, Rolling Stone and VH1. It has been noted for redefining the sound of late 1990s music. Spears has named "... Baby One More Time '' as one of her favorite songs from her career. It was also the final song to be played on the BBC 's music programme Top of the Pops in the 1990s. In 2018, readers of German teen magazine Bravo (magazine) voted "... Baby One More Time '' to be the biggest hit since its first music compilation was released in 1992.
I had been in studio for about six months listening and recording material, but I had n't really heard a hit yet. When I started working with Max Martin in Sweden, he played the demo for ' Baby One More Time ' for me, and I knew from the start it (was one) of those songs you want to hear again and again. It just felt really right. I went into the studio and did my own thing with it, trying to give it a little more attitude than the demo. In 10 days, I never even saw Sweden. We were so busy.
In June 1997, Spears was in talks with manager Lou Pearlman to join female pop group Innosense. Lynne Spears asked family friend and entertainment lawyer Larry Rudolph for his opinion and submitted a tape of Spears singing over a Whitney Houston karaoke song along with some pictures. Rudolph decided he wanted to pitch her to record labels, therefore she needed a professional demo. He sent Spears an unused song from Toni Braxton; she rehearsed for a week and recorded her vocals in a studio with a sound engineer. Spears traveled to New York with the demo and met with executives from four labels, returning to Kentwood the same day. Three of the labels rejected her, arguing audiences wanted pop bands such as the Backstreet Boys and the Spice Girls, and "there was n't going to be another Madonna, another Debbie Gibson, or another Tiffany. '' Two weeks later, executives from JIVE Records returned calls to Rudolph. Senior vice president of A&R Jeff Fenster stated about Spears 's audition that "It 's very rare to hear someone that age who can deliver emotional content and commercial appeal. (...) For any artist, the motivation -- the ' eye of the tiger ' -- is extremely important. And Britney had that. '' They appointed her to work with producer Eric Foster White for a month, who reportedly shaped her voice from "lower and less poppy '' delivery to "distinctively, unmistakably Britney. '' After hearing the recorded material, president Clive Calder ordered a full album. Spears had originally envisioned "Sheryl Crow music, but younger more adult contemporary '' but felt all right with her label 's appointment of producers, since "It made more sense to go pop, because I can dance to it -- it 's more me. '' She flew to Cheiron Studios in Stockholm, Sweden, where half of the album was recorded from March to April 1998, with producers Max Martin, Denniz Pop and Rami Yacoub, among others.
Martin showed Spears and her management a track titled "Hit Me Baby One More Time '', which was originally written for American group Backstreet Boys and R&B group TLC; however, when the song was submitted to them, they rejected it. Spears later claimed that she felt excited when she heard it and knew it was going to be a hit record. "We at JIVE said, ' This is a... smash ', '' revealed the label 's A&R executive at the time Steven Lunt; however, other executives were concerned that the line "Hit Me '' would condone domestic violence, later being revised to "... Baby One More Time ''.
Spears recorded her vocals for the song on May 2 -- 3, 1998 at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. Spears revealed that she "did n't do well at all the first day in the studio (recording the song), I was just too nervous. So I went out that night and had some fun. The next day I was completely relaxed and nailed it. You got ta be relaxed singing '... Baby One More Time '. '' The song was produced by Denniz Pop, Martin and Rami, and was also mixed by Martin at Cheiron Studios. Thomas Lindberg played the guitar, while Johan Carlberg played the bass guitar. Background vocals were provided by Spears, Martin and Nana Hedin. Spears also recorded a track called "Autumn Goodbye '', written and produced by Eric Foster White, that was released as a b - side to "... Baby One More Time ''. The track was recorded in 1998 at 4MW East Studios in New Jersey.
"... Baby One More Time '' was released as Spears 's debut single on October 23, 1998, by Jive Records, when she was only sixteen years old. Spears has named "... Baby One More Time '' as one of her favorite songs from her entire career, naming "Toxic '' and "He About to Lose Me '' as the other two. Like TLC and Backstreet Boys, British boy band Five were almost considered to record the song, according to their former manager Simon Cowell, who would work with Spears in the second season of the American version of The X Factor in 2012, in his autobiography Sweet Revenge.
"... Baby One More Time '' is a teen pop and dance - pop song that lasts for three minutes and thirty seconds. The song is composed in the key of C minor and is set in the time signature of 4 / 4 common time with a moderate tempo of ninety - three beats per minute (Andante moderato). Songwriting and production is largely based on previous Cheiron productions, most notably Robyn Carlsson 's "Show Me Love '' which shows similar song scheme, drum patterns, wah guitars and piano hits. Spears 's vocal range spans over two octaves from E ♭ to the high - tone of G. The song begins with a three - note motif in the bass range of the piano, an opening that has been compared to many other songs, such as "We Will Rock You '' (1977), "Start Me Up '' (1981), "These Words '' (2004) and the theme song of the film Jaws due to the fact the track "makes its presence known in exactly one second ''. According to magazine Blender, "... Baby One More Time '' is composed by "wah - wah guitar lines and EKG - machine bass - slaps ''.
Claudia Mitchell and Jacqueline Reid - Walsh, authors of Girl Culture: Studying girl culture: a readers ' guide (2008), noted the lyrics of the song "gesture toward (Spears) longing for the return of an ex-boyfriend. '' Spears said "... Baby One More Time '' is a song "every girl can relate to. She regrets it. She wants him back. '' The lyrics, however, caused controversy in the United States, because the line "Hit me baby one more time '' supposedly has sadomasochistic connotations. As a response, the singer said the line "does n't mean physically hit me. (...) It means just give me a sign, basically. I think it 's kind of funny that people would actually think that 's what it meant. ''
Marc Oxoby, author of The 1990s (2003), noted the song "was derided as vapid by some critics, yet tapped into the same kind of audience to whom the Spice Girls music appealed, young teens and pre-teens. '' Amanda Murray of Sputnikmusic commented, "(''... Baby One More Time '' is) well - composed, tightly arranged, and even with Spears 's vocal limitations it goes straight for the proverbial pop jugular. '' She also said that the song was a highlight in the pop music genre and added, "There is little doubt that '... Baby One More Time ' will be long remembered as one of the cornerstones of pop music in general, and it is a strong front - runner as the prototype for the late 90s pop resurgence. '' Bill Lamb of About.com considered "... Baby One More Time '' as Spears 's best song, saying, "the song is full of hooks and a big mainstream pop sound. The accompanying schoolgirl video caused a sensation, and, when the single hit No. 1, Britney was assured of stardom. '' In a list compiled by Sara Anderson of AOL Radio, "... Baby One More Time '' was ranked sixth in a list of Spears 's best songs. She noted the singer "somehow made the school girl outfit and pink pom - pom hair - ties trendy again, worn by every tween in the succeeding years. ''
Beth Johnson of Entertainment Weekly called "... Baby One More Time '' a "candy - pop - with - a-funky - edge smash '', while Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said the song was "ingenious '', Brian Raftery of Blender called it "a perfectly fine, slickly conceived pop tune. (...) At the time, teen - pop was still a boys ' club, but while the guys were crooning about crushes, Spears was already planning the sleep - over party ''. Rolling Stone called it "some of the best radio pop of the past decade - plus ''. NME considered "... Baby One More Time '' "incredible '', commenting that "it 's a symphony of teenage lust as fully realised as anything Brian Wilson ever wrote -- a truly grand pop song that overwhelms any lingering undercurrent of Lolita paedo - creepiness through the sheer fanatical earnestness of its delivery. '' "... Baby One More Time '' won a Teen Choice Award for Single of the Year and an MTV Europe Music Award for Best Song.
The song was officially sent to the American radio stations on October 23, 1998. On November 21, 1998, "... Baby One More Time '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 17 and topped the chart two and a half months later for two consecutive weeks, replacing R&B - singer Brandy 's "Have You Ever? ''. Simultaneously, it climbed to number - one on the Canadian Singles Chart. The song reached the top spot of the Hot 100 Singles Sales and stayed there for four consecutive weeks. This eventually propelled the single to a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America. Though not as strong as its sales tallies, "... Baby One More Time '' also experienced considerable airplay, becoming her first top ten hit on the Hot 100 Airplay, peaking at number eight. The single also became an all - around hit on Top 40 radio, going top ten on both the Top 40 Tracks and Rhythmic Top 40, and to number one for five weeks on the Mainstream Top 40. It spent 32 weeks on the Hot 100 and ended up at number five on Billboard magazine 's year - end chart. As of June 2012, "... Baby One More Time '' has sold 1,412,000 physical singles, with 511,000 paid digital downloads in the United States. It is Spears 's best - selling physical single in the country. "... Baby One More Time '' debuted at number 20 on the Australian Singles Chart, a month later reached number one and stayed there for nine consecutive weeks. The song eventually became the second highest - selling single of the year, only behind Lou Bega 's "Mambo # 5 '', and was certified three - times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for selling over 210,000 copies. In New Zealand, the single spent four non-consecutive weeks at the top of the charts and after shipping over 15,000 units to retailers the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand certified it platinum.
The track reached the top spot in every European country in which it charted. "... Baby One More Time '' spent two consecutive weeks at number - one on the French Singles Chart and was certified platinum by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique after selling over 500,000 units in the country. Additionally, the song topped the German Singles Chart for six consecutive weeks and sold over 750,000 copies, resulting in a three - times gold certification by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry In the United Kingdom, according to JIVE Records, the single "... Baby One More Time '' sold more than 250,000 copies in a mere three days. Spears broke a first - week sales record for a female act at the time when "... Baby One More Time '' sold a total of 460,000 copies in the United Kingdom. The single went on to sell over 1.5 million units, making it the highest - selling single of the year and the 32nd best - selling of all - time in Britain. Eventually, the British Phonographic Industry certified it two - times platinum on March 26, 1999. Additionally, "... Baby One More Time '' is the fifth best - selling single by a female artist in the country, just behind Cher 's "Believe '', Whitney Houston 's "I Will Always Love You '', Adele 's "Someone like You '' and Céline Dion 's "My Heart Will Go On ''. "... Baby One More Time '' is one of the best - selling singles of all time, with over 10 million copies sold worldwide.
The music video was directed by Nigel Dick. After being chosen, Dick received criticism from his colleagues about wanting to work with Spears. He responded saying, "It 's a great song. I do n't know anything about Britney. I never watched The Mickey Mouse Club. She seems like a great kid and she 's very enthusiastic, but I just love the song. It 's just a great song ''. The video 's original setup was in high contrast to what eventually became the final product. The plan was to have the video in a cartoon - like environment, in a likely attempt to attract the audience of younger children. Spears was unhappy with this, and argued that she wanted her video to reflect the lives of her fans and wanted to set the video in a school. Spears pitched this idea to Dick, and further explained she wanted the video to have dance scenes. The original setting was scrapped and replaced with Spears 's concept. Dick 's original idea for the wardrobe was jeans and a T - shirt, but during the wardrobe fitting Spears decided to change it for a schoolgirl outfit. Dick said that "Every piece of wardrobe in the video came from Kmart, and I was told at the time not one piece of clothing in the video cost more than $17. On that level, it 's real. That probably, in retrospect, is a part of its charm. '' The knotted shirt design was Spears 's idea, she recollects saying, "The outfits looked kind of dorky, so I was like, ' Let 's tie up our shirts and be cute ' ''. About the experience of shooting her first music video, Spears said, "It was a wonderful experience. All these people there, working for you. I had my own trailer. It was an amazing experience ''. The music video was shot at Venice High School, the same school used to film the movie Grease. The video premiered on MTV and other video stations in November 1998.
The video begins with Spears appearing bored in class at a Catholic high school. Her assistant Felicia Culotta played the role of Spears 's teacher. When the bell rings, Spears runs out into the hall and begins a choreographed dance in the corridor. After this, Spears is outside, now adorned in an pink athletic outfit, and seen in a car. Along with a couple of other students, she performs a number of gymnastic moves before heading back inside. She is then sitting on the bleachers in the gymnasium watching a basketball game, and she dances in the gymnasium. Her love interest is revealed sitting close to her, played by her real - life cousin Chad. After this short segment, Spears begins her final dance routine and the video ends shortly afterwards, and the bell rings and Spears leaves the gymnasium, revealing that the whole thing had actually just been Spears 's daydream. During the very beginning, Spears is seen with her sleeves down. Some people who see the music video may not recognize this, but when the bell rings, the sleeves of exactly the same gray - and - white shirt she is wearing are rolled up, even when she gets into singing.
The schoolgirl outfit is considered to be one of Spears 's iconic looks and is on display at the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. The ensemble caused controversy among parents associations for showing the midriff of a sixteen - year - old. Spears faced the criticism saying, "Me showing my belly? I 'm from the South; you 're stupid if you do n't wear a sports bra (when you) go to dance class, you 're going to be sweating your butt off. '' In 1999, "... Baby One More Time '' earned Spears her first three MTV Video Music Award nominations, in the categories of Best Pop Video, Best Choreography, and Best Female Video. In a list compiled by VH1 in 2001, it was listed at number ninety in the best videos of all time. The video was the first of fourteen of her videos to retire on MTV 's television series TRL. On its final episode, a three - hour special aired on November 16, 2008, "... Baby One More Time '' was number one in their final countdown as the most iconic music videos of all time and was the last video to be played on the show. Wesley Yang in his essay "Inside the Box '' in n + 1, compared the music video to Britny Fox 's "Girlschool '' because it featured "a classroom full of Catholic schoolgirls gyrating to the beat in defiance of a stern teacher. (...) But that was a sexist video by a horrible hair metal band that exploited women. Britney Spears was something else -- an inflection point in the culture ''. The music video is also referenced in the music video of Spears 's 2000 single, "Stronger '' where Spears sings, "My loneliness ai n't killing me no more '' - a reference to "... Baby One More Time '' where she sings, "My loneliness is killing me. '' The music video is also referenced in the 2009 single, "If U Seek Amy ''. After she comes out of the house dressed as a housewife, her daughter is dressed with a similar schoolgirl outfit while wearing pink ribbons in her hair. The video was ranked at number four on a list of the ten most controversial music videos in pop by AOL on September 29, 2011. In April 2014, the music video for "... Baby One More Time '' reached over 100 million views on VEVO becoming Spears ' 5th music video to do so and making it the first ' 90s video by a female singer to receive a certification.
The first ever live performance of the song was at the "Singapore Jazz Festival '' in Singapore, the May 16th 1998. At this show, she also performs for the first time ever, the song "Sometimes ''. Britney performed "... Baby One More Time '' on several occasions. She performed the song on July 6, 1999, during her appearance at the Woodstock 99 festival. Neil Strauss, from The New York Times, noted that "all the backing music was on tape, and most of the vocals were recorded, with Ms. Spears just reinforcing selected words in choruses and singing an occasional snippet of a verse ''. It was also performed at the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards; after a classroom roll call ended, Spears appeared on the stage and began performing the song. Halfway through, she was joined by Justin Timberlake and the members of NSYNC for a dance routine. Afterwards, the band performed their hit "Tearin ' Up My Heart ''. The song was also performed at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards, along with "(You Drive Me) Crazy '', the 1999 Billboard Music Awards, the 1999 Smash Hits Poll Winners Party, the Christmas Day edition of Top of the Pops and the Greenwich Millennium concert on 31 December 1999, she also performed it with broadcasters David Dimbleby and Michael Buerk on 2000 Today. Spears performed the song in a medley with "From the Bottom of My Broken Heart '' at the 42nd Grammy Awards. Spears was wearing a turtleneck and a full tulle skirt at the beginning of the performance, while dancers surrounded her with enormous hand fans. After singing a shortened version of the song, she then took a few moments to shuffle into a form - fitting red rhinestone outfit (with side cutouts) and emerged onto a stage to perform "... Baby One More Time. '' Spears was also criticized of lipsynching the song during her performance. Later, in 2003, Spears performed the song in a remixed form at Britney Spears: In the Zone, a concert special that aired in ABC on November 17, 2003. "... Baby One More Time '' was also performed at the 2003 NFL Kickoff Live on September 4, 2003, at the National Mall, in a medley with "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' (2001), which included pyrotechnics. She sported shoulder - length blond hair and was dressed in black football pants, a black - and - white referee halter top and boots from Reebok. Her outfit was later auctioned off to benefit the Britney Spears Foundation.
"... Baby One More Time '' has been performed in seven of Spears 's concert tours since its release. On... Baby One More Time Tour, the encore consisted of a performance of the song, in which Spears wore a black bra under pink halter, a pink sequined plaid mini-skirt, and black thigh - high stockings. On 2000s Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour, "... Baby One More Time '' was performed after a dance interlude in which the dancers showed their individual moves while their names appeared on the screens. Spears took the stage in a conservative schoolgirl outfit to perform the song. She ripped it off halfway through the song to reveal a cheerleader ensemble. The song was also the encore of 2001 's Dream Within a Dream Tour. It began with a giant projection of a hologram of Spears onto a water screen. The projection gradually shrunk until Spears rose from the stage while wearing a plastic cowboy hat, blue hip - huggers, and a matching bra top. She began performing "... Baby One More Time '' in a ballad version until reaching the end of the runway. Pyrotechnics surrounded the stage while the song changed to a more uptempo version with elements of techno.
On The Onyx Hotel Tour, after performing "Showdown '', a video interlude followed featuring Spears and her friends outside a club. While she was leaving, she noticed a woman dressed in 1930s fashion. She followed her and the woman asked Spears to enter the "Mystic Lounge ''. Spears reappeared wearing a corset to perform "... Baby One More Time '' along with "Oops!... I Did It Again '' and "(You Drive Me) Crazy ''. All of the three were reworked for the show with elements of jazz and blues. "... Baby One More Time '' was also performed on the promotional tour made on some House of Blues locations, called The M + M 's Tour. The show started with Spears singing a short version of the song dressed in a white go - go boots, a white miniskirt and a sparkling pink bikini top. On The Circus Starring Britney Spears, the song made into the Electro Circ act. It was the final song of the act, performed after "Toxic ''. The performance consisted on Spears and her dancers performing a remix of the song. On 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour, "... Baby One More Time '' was performed in a medley with the remix of Rihanna 's "S&M '' (2010). On Spears ' current residency show Britney: Piece of Me in Las Vegas, the song was included on its setlist.
"... Baby One More Time '' has been covered on numerous occasions. One of the earliest live covers of the song was by the Scottish band Travis, recorded during one of their concerts at "The Bay Tavern '' in Robin Hood 's Bay, North Yorkshire, England. The song was later included in the release of their 1999 single, "Turn ''. Lead singer Francis Healey said, "We did it for a laugh the first time. (...) And as we played it, the irony slipped from my smile. It 's a very well - crafted song. It (has) that magic thing. '' The Guardian said this cover showed a new and more "dark '' side of the band, commenting "slowed down to a mournful crawl, it was amazing how ominous the couplet "This loneliness is killing me / Hit me, baby, one more time '' sounded ". PopWreckoning.com called it "perhaps the most well done cover of Britney 's catalyst to eternal fame ''. Spears heard their version while shopping in a mall and said, "It was so weird. I liked it though, I thought it was cool. It was a very different vibe from what I did ''. In July 2005, The Dresden Dolls performed a cover during their summer concerts while opening for Panic! at the Disco. On July 18, 2006, frontman Brendon Urie joined the band to perform the song in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. PopWreckoning.com said the cover was "a strange twist to this pop ditty. It 's obviously darker and actually tortured as opposed to Britney 's school girl despair ''. The song was featured in a scene in Madonna 's directorial debut Filth and Wisdom. On November 29, 2008, the same day Spears performed "Womanizer '' on The X Factor, contestants JLS performed a cover of the song that was deemed "lame '' by judge Simon Cowell.
On July 13, 2009, Tori Amos covered the song live during her Sinful Attraction Tour at the Paramount Theatre in Oakland, California. On October 15, 2009, Kris Allen covered the song for the first time at a concert in Seton High School in Cincinnati, Ohio. His rendition received positive reviews. The song is heard, prominently but briefly, during the climactic fight - scene in the 2005 animated film Robots. Fender, while wearing a skirt, was busy fighting to the beat of the song. An excerpt was used in the comedy film, but was not included on the soundtrack album. Swedish humorist heavy metal band Black Ingvars covered the song for their 2000 album Kids Superhits. The same year, British death metal cover band Ten Masked Men included a rendition of the song on their Return of the Ten Masked Men album. A cover by Ahmet and Dweezil Zappa was featured in the soundtrack of the 2000 film Ready to Rumble. In 2003, the song was covered by American pop punk band Bowling for Soup for the soundtrack of the remake film Freaky Friday and commented that their version was "really, really, dark and really rock, (...) not the kind of ' pop ' - py stuff that we usually do. '' In 2005, power pop band Fountains of Wayne covered the song for their compilation album Out - of - State Plates. Robert Christgau of The Village Voice highlighted their rendition saying the song is "as redolent and fetching as any of (Fountains of Wayne) 's peaks ''. Japanese pop singer Shiori Takei covered the song of her 2005 album The Note of My Nineteen Years.
In 2006, a lounge music style cover of the song by Trombo Combo was included on their covers album Trombo Combo: Swedish Sound Deluxe. A hi - NRG - eurodance cover by Jayne Montgomery was released through Almighty Records. In the 2009 compilation Punk Goes Pop 2, a cover of the song by metalcore band August Burns Red was included along with a cover of "Toxic '' by A Static Lullaby. Music duo Doll Factory included a cover of the song as a bonus track on later printings of their album Weightless. Singer - songwriter Christopher Dallman released an EP titled Sad Britney that includes a cover of the song along with covers of "Toxic '', "Gimme More '' and "Radar ''. The song has also been covered by Brainshake, Intwine, Kevorkian, P.T. Grimm and the Dead Puppies, Jenny Owen Youngs, Neil Sahgal and Annie Bethancourt, among others. In the 2010 Glee episode "Britney / Brittany '', the character of Rachel Berry, played by Lea Michele, covered the song using similar outfits to the ones of the music video. Spears also made a cameo, taking the teacher 's role, previously played by Cullota. Darren Criss also of Glee performed a mash - up of "... Baby One More Time '' with "Für Elise '' on Sing Out, Raise Hope for The Trevor Project and the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation in December 2011. In 2012, British singer Ed Sheeran performed an acoustic version of the song NOW 100.5 FM. A year later he covered it on The Elvis Duran Z100 Morning Show and added a rap verse. The song is sung by actresses Selena Gomez, Vanessa Hudgens, Ashley Benson and Rachel Korine in Harmony Korine 's film Spring Breakers. Swedish singer Tove Styrke released a cover of the song on July 24, 2015. The song was also covered and used for a Frogz singing toy in 2005. Song is covered for Just Dance 3
"... Baby One More Time '' was listed at number twenty five in the greatest pop songs since 1963, in a list compiled by Rolling Stone and MTV in 2000. Blender listed it at number nine in The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born. The song was also listed as the 2nd best song of the 1990s by VH1 and in a listing compiled in 2003, ranked at number one in 100 Best Songs of the Past 25 Years. Bill Lamb of About.com ranked "... Baby One More Time '' at number one on a compiled list with the Top 40 Pop Songs Of All Time. The music video was voted the third most influential promo in the history of pop music on a poll held by Jam!. "... Baby One More Time '' is also one of the best - selling singles of all time, with over 9 million copies sold, and also earned Spears 's first nomination for a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. In April 2005, the British TV network ITV aired a short series called Hit Me, Baby, One More Time hosted by Vernon Kay. The show pitted one - hit wonders who generally had their moments of fame in the 1980s against each other to play their own hits and a currently popular cover song. The favorites were chosen by audience voting. The American version of the show also aired on NBC later in the year, and it was also hosted by Kay. In the 2012 poll created by The Official Chart Company and ITV to discover The Nation 's Favourite Number 1 Single of all - time, "... Baby One More Time '' was listed as the seventh favorite song by the United Kingdom. In 2018, readers of the iconic German teen magazine Bravo (magazine) voted "... Baby One More Time '' to be the biggest hit since its first music compilation was released in 1992.
Spears became an international pop culture icon immediately after launching her recording career. Rolling Stone magazine wrote: "One of the most controversial and successful female vocalists of the 21st century, '' she "spearheaded the rise of post-millennial teen pop... Spears early on cultivated a mixture of innocence and experience that broke the bank ''. Barbara Ellen of The Observer has reported: "Spears is famously one of the ' oldest ' teenagers pop has ever produced, almost middle aged in terms of focus and determination. Many 19 - year - olds have n't even started working by that age, whereas Britney, a former Mouseketeer, was that most unusual and volatile of American phenomena -- a child with a full - time career. While other little girls were putting posters on their walls, Britney was wanting to be the poster on the wall. Whereas other children develop at their own pace, Britney was developing at a pace set by the ferociously competitive American entertainment industry ''.
Scott Plagenhoef of Pitchfork noted "songs like Nirvana 's "Smells Like Teen Spirit '', Dr. Dre 's "Nothing But a G Thang '', and Britney Spears 's "... Baby One More Time '' altered the landscape of pop culture so quickly in large part because they were delivered to all corners of the U.S. simultaneously by MTV. (...) MTV 's ability to place a song and musician into the pop music conversation was unparalleled at the time, and by the end of the decade that meant absurd levels of both financial and creative commitment to music videos. '' PopMatters writer Evan Sawdey commented that Spears 's concept for the music video of the song was the one responsible for her immediate success, saying that, as a result, the singer "scored a massive No. 1 single, inadvertently started the late ' 90s teen pop boom, and created a public persona for herself that was simultaneously kid - friendly and pure male fantasy. Her videos got played on both MTV and the Disney Channel at the same time, showing just how well Spears (and her armies of PR handlers) managed to walk that fine line between family - friendly pop idol and unabashed sex object. ''
Credits for "... Baby One More Time '' and "Autumn Goodbye '' are taken from the single 's liner notes.
... Baby One More Time
Autumn Goodbye
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
|
what are the three largest cities in japan | Largest cities in Japan by population by decade - wikipedia
This article lists the ten most populous cities in Japan by decade, starting after the Meiji Restoration of 1868. The first Japanese Census was not conducted until 1920, but other civilian and military population counts were carried out in the prior years between 1872 and 1918, and those form the source data for this article. When data is not available right on the turn of the decade, the closest year is used.
In 1868, the Meiji Restoration deposed the Tokugawa Shogunate and founded the Empire of Japan. Many major cities had lost population since the Tokugawa Era, as samurai left the former castle towns after the collapse of the military order.
Source data is from "Nihon Chishi Teiyo '' (日本 地誌 提要, the Japanese Topographical Outline).
Several major cities and towns actually lost population over the 1870s, as people continued to emigrate out of the former castle towns.
Source data is from the Fourth Joint Military - Government Report (第 四 回 共 武政 表), a requisitioning document listing municipal populations and available resources and provisions.
In 1888, the government enacted a sweeping overhaul of the municipal government system, part of which involved a drastic program of municipality mergers. Overall, the "Great Meiji Mergers '' cut the number of municipalities in Japan by more than three quarters, while dramatically increasing the size of many cities as they absorbed their surrounding towns and villages.
Source data is from the 1891 Imperial Japanese Registered Household Report (日本 帝国 民 籍 戸口 表).
Source data is from the 1898 Imperial Japanese Population Statistics (日本 帝国 人口 統計).
Source data is from the 1908 Imperial Japanese Population Statistics (日本 帝国 人口 統計).
Source data is from the 1920 Census (国勢 調査), the first formal census to be taken in Japan.
Source data is from the 1930 Census.
Source data is from the 1940 Census.
Japan emerged from the Second World War in defeat, under temporary American administration. Many cities had been attacked by American bomber forces, and many of the largest cities suffered further loss as residents evacuated to more rural regions of the country. Cities, though, were already recovering quickly from their wartime lows.
Source data is from the 1950 Census.
A series of municipal mergers throughout the 1950s known as the "Great Showa Mergers '' cut the number of municipalities in Japan by almost two thirds, significantly increasing the size of many cities in the process. By this time, almost all of Japan 's largest cities had recovered war losses and exceeded their prewar populations.
Source data is from the 1960 Census.
Tokyo and Osaka began to experience a trend of suburbanization, as people left the cities for the less densely peopled surrounding municipalities. Other major cities continued to grow rapidly.
Source data is from the 1970 Census.
Source data is from the 1980 Census.
By 1990, almost all the largest Japanese cities had assumed their present - day population ranking.
Source data is from the 1990 Census.
By 2000, the ongoing suburbanization drawing population from Tōkyō and Ōsaka was showing signs of abating, with people slowly moving back into the cities proper.
Source data is from the 2000 Census.
In the mid-2000s, another series of municipal mergers was enacted. The "Great Heisei Mergers '' nearly halved the number of municipalities in Japan, once again increasing the size of some cities significantly and creating new towns and cities. Despite a mounting population loss in rural areas and some smaller cities, Japan 's major cities continue to grow.
Source date is from the 2010 Census.
|
tupac & outlawz - as the world turns | Still I Rise (album) - wikipedia
Still I Rise is an album by 2Pac and the Outlawz which is released as the third posthumous studio album of 2Pac, and the first album by Outlawz as a group (not to be confused with their debut Ride wit Us or Collide wit Us). The album excludes some of the original line up of Outlawz and Hussein Fatal, who had left the group as he had refused to sign to Death Row. The album contains all previously unreleased, albeit remixed material. It was released on December 21, 1999, by Interscope Records.
The album features production from 2Pac 's close producers Tony Pizarro, Johnny "J '' and QDIII, and appearances from Big Syke and Nate Dogg.
"Baby Do n't Cry (Keep Ya ' Head Up II) '' which features female group H.E.A.T. was the only single from the album. The song "Letter to the President '' is featured in the film Training Day (2001).
The album debuted at # 7 on the Billboard 200 chart and sold 408,000 in the first week. It was certified Platinum February 2, 2000. It eventually sold 1,692,316 by 2011, according to Nielsen Soundscan.
By February 10, 2000 it had been certified for 50,000 units sold in Canada. On 14 March 2014 it was certified Gold by BPI for 100,000 units sold in the UK.
shipments figures based on certification alone
|
english lexicographer who wrote a world of words | John Florio - wikipedia
John Florio (1553 -- 1625), known in Italian as Giovanni Florio (dʒoˈvanni ˈflɔːrjo), was a linguist and lexicographer, a royal language tutor at the Court of James I, and a possible friend and influence on William Shakespeare. He was also the first translator of Montaigne into English. He was born in London, and in 1580 he married Aline, the sister of poet Samuel Daniel. The couple had three children, Joane Florio, baptised in Oxford in 1585; Edward, in 1588 and Elizabeth, in 1589. He died in Fulham, London in 1625
Born in London, John Florio was of Anglo - Italian origin. He referred to himself as "an Englishman in Italiane ''. John 's father, Michelangelo Florio, born in Tuscany, had been a Franciscan friar before converting to the Protestant faith. He got into trouble with the Inquisition in Italy, after preaching in Naples, Padua, and Venice. Seeking refuge in England during the reign of Edward VI, he was appointed pastor of the Italian Protestant congregation in London in 1550. He was also a member of the household of William Cecil. He was dismissed from both on a charge of immorality, but William Cecil later fully forgave him. Little is known of Florio 's mother; she may have been English.
Michelangelo Florio then became Italian tutor to Lady Jane Grey and in the family of William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke, father of Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke who would become the husband of Mary Sidney, sister of Philip Sidney. He dedicated a book to Henry Herbert and Jane Grey, his highest - ranking pupils: Regole de la lingua thoscana (Rules of the Tuscan language). Lady Jane Grey 's youth, faith, and death affected him deeply and later, in seclusion, in Soglio in Switzerland, he wrote a book about her life. It was only published in 1607 but written around 1561 / 1562. He describes her as a martyr and innocent "saint ''. It is possible that he had witnessed some of the events surrounding her or had told her about the persecutions in Italy.
Anthony à Wood says that the Florio family, which now included infant John Florio, left England on the accession of Queen Mary. In Strasburg, Florio met members of the aristocratic de Salis family of Bregaglia (Bergell), in the Alpine canton of the Grisons (in Italian - speaking Protestant Switzerland). Count de Salis offered Michelangelo the post of pastor at Soglio, which offered him the manse (now a restaurant) on the edge of a precipice, the post of local school teacher and a Reformed pulpit. Soglio was remote from the Inquisition and was situated near Chiavenna (north of Lake Como in Italy), a centre of Reformed preaching. John Florio grew up speaking Italian with his father (and possibly fluent English with his mother). His father would have taught him French and German. When he was seven, he was sent to live with and to be schooled in Tübingen in Germany by the Reformed Protestant theologian, Pier Paolo Vergerio, a native of Venetian Capodistria (who had also lived in Swiss Bregaglia) and later to attend university in Germany. John returned to England, possibly with his mother, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in the early 1570s, in possession of a formidable Christian Reformed and humanist education.
John Florio considered the English uncouth and barbaric and set about teaching the Protestant aristocrats European manners, linguistic skills and polished expressions. This mission was in some ways similar to that of reformer Philip Sidney who sought to educate the English to write and to read the Scriptures in their own enriched language. Florio introduced the English to Italian proverbs.
Florio was a friend of Giordano Bruno, while he worked as tutor and spy (for Elizabeth 's spymaster, Sir Francis Walsingham) in the home of the French Ambassador. Frances Yates relates the story of a lively dinner party at Whitehall Palace at which Florio translated to the assembled company, which included Sir Philip Sidney and Oxford professors, Bruno 's theories about the possibility of life on other planets. John Florio resided for a time at Oxford, and was appointed, about 1576, as tutor to the son of Richard Barnes, Bishop of Durham, then studying at Magdalen College.
In 1578 Florio published a work entitled First Fruits, which yield Familiar Speech, Merry Proverbs, Witty Sentences, and Golden Sayings (4to). This was accompanied by A Perfect Induction to the Italian and English Tongues. The work was dedicated to the Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester. Three years later, John Florio was admitted a member of Magdalen College, Oxford and became a tutor of French and Italian at the University. In 1591 his Second Fruits, to be gathered of Twelve Trees, of divers but delightsome Tastes to the Tongues of Italian and English men appeared, to which was annexed the Garden of Recreation, yielding six thousand Italian Proverbs (4to). These manuals contained an outline of the grammar, a selection of dialogues in parallel columns of Italian and English, and longer extracts from classical Italian writers in prose and verse.
Florio had many patrons. He says that he lived some years with Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton, possibly the young man in Shakespeare 's Sonnets, and there is an account of an incident involving Florio at Titchfield Abbey, the Earl 's Hampshire home. William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, also befriended him. In his will, Florio left gifts to the Earl of Pembroke, clearly on condition that he looked after his second wife, Rose. His Italian and English dictionary, entitled A World of Words, was published in folio in 1598. After the accession of James I, Florio was named French and Italian tutor to Prince Henry and afterwards became a gentleman of the privy chamber and Clerk of the Closet to the Queen Consort Anne of Denmark, whom he also instructed in languages.
A substantially expanded version of A World of Words was published in 1611 as Queen Anna 's New World of Words, or Dictionarie of the Italian and English tongues, Collected, and newly much augmented by Iohn Florio, Reader of the Italian vnto the Soueraigne Maiestie of Anna, Crowned Queene of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, &c. And one of the Gentlemen of hir Royall Priuie Chamber. Whereunto are added certaine necessarie rules and short obseruations for the Italian tongue.
His magnum opus is his admirable translation of the Essayes on Morall, Politike, and Millitarie Discourses of Lo. "Michaell de Montaigne, published in folio in 1603 in three books, each dedicated to two noble ladies. A second edition in 1613 was dedicated to the Queen. Special interest attaches to the first edition, because a copy in British Library bears the signature of Shakespeare, long accepted as genuine but now supposed to be in an 18th century hand. Another copy bears that of Ben Jonson. It was suggested by William Warburton that Florio is satirised by William Shakespeare in the character of Holofernes, the pompous pedant of Love 's Labour 's Lost, but it is likely, especially as he was one of the Earl of Southampton 's protégés, that he was among the personal friends of the dramatist, who may have gained knowledge of French and Italian literature from him.
He first married the sister of the poet Samuel Daniel, who worked in the household of the Mary Sidney Countess of Pembroke, centre of the literary Wilton Circle. Their children included Joane who was born in Oxford in 1585 and Edward who was born in 1588. A second daughter was born in 1589. John and his first wife had another daughter named Aurelia who is thought to have been born in about 1582.
Florio had friendly relations with many other poets and writers of the day. Ben Jonson sent him a copy of Volpone with the inscription, "To his loving father and worthy friend, Master John Florio, Ben Jonson seals this testimony of his friendship and love. '' He is characterised by Wood, in Athenae Oxonienses, as a very useful man in his profession, zealous for his religion, and deeply attached to his adopted country.
He died at Fulham, London in the autumn of 1625 in apparent poverty, because his royal pension had not been paid. His will however which favours his daughter, Aurelia Molins, discusses his debts but also debts to him and valuable diamond rings. His house in Shoe Lane was sold to pay his many debts but his daughter married well. Florio 's descendants became Royal Physicians, part of the fabric of the highly educated English professional classes.
Florio is one of the many individuals who have been proposed as the real author of the works of William Shakespeare by advocates of the Shakespeare authorship question. The case for an Italian, either John or his father Michelangelo Florio, as author of Shakespeare 's works was initially associated with resurgent Italian nationalism of the Fascist era. The theory is linked to the argument put forward by other anti-Stratfordians that Shakespeare 's work shows an intimate knowledge of Italian culture and geography. Florio was proposed by Santi Paladino in 1927, but Paladino mixed up John and his father Michelangelo. He claimed that Florio came from a Calvinist family in Sicily. Forced to flee to Protestant England, he created "Shakespeare '' by translating his Sicilian mother 's surname, Crollalanza, into English. John Florio was first specifically proposed by Erik Reger, in a review of Paladino 's pamphlet entitled "Der Italiener Shakespeare '' contributed during 1927 to the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung. Paladino later argued that the two Florios worked together. He continued to publish on the subject into the 1950s. In his later writings he argued that Michelangelo Florio wrote the works in Italian, and his son John rendered them into English. One or both of the Florios have since been promoted by Franz Maximilian Saalbach (1954), Martino Iuvara (2002) and Lamberto Tassinari (2008).
Tassinari in his book states that Florio 's style was highly appreciated, first by his friend playwright Ben Jonson and poet, brother in law, Samuel Daniel; then by Florio 's biographers Clara Longworth de Chambrun (1921) and Frances Yates (1934), and critics Felix Otto Matthiessen (1931) and André Koszul (1931). Frances Yates rated Florio 's translation of Montaigne 's Essays a classic of English literature, second only to the translation of King James Bible.
Scott McCrea, author of The Case for Shakespeare: The End of the Authorship Question (2005), reviewing Tassinari 's book declared that it is full of "inconsistencies and ridiculous logic ''. McCrea refers to Tassinari 's argument that Shakespeare purposely massacres the Italian language in the plays because Florio is "concealing his identity by mangling his Italian '', a claim which, according to McCrea, contradicts "his mission of improving English culture ''. McCrea compares Florio 's own poetry to Shakespeare 's, observing that "Reading Shakespeare alongside Florio makes one painfully aware of how beautiful and poetic even the two dedications to Southampton are, and how prosaic and fundamentally different is Florio 's mind ''. Saul Gerevini and Giulia Harding have argued that John Florio 's language appears poetically similar to that of Shakespeare.
Crollalanza theory of Shakespeare authorship
|
when is the next jack west book coming out | Jack West jr - wikipedia
Jonathan "Jack '' West Junior is the main character in a book series by Australian author Matthew Reilly. He appears in the books Seven Ancient Wonders, The Six Sacred Stones, The Five Greatest Warriors and The Four Legendary Kingdoms.
Jack West Junior 's father was a cold and ruthless American, Colonel Jack West Senior ("Wolf ''), and his mother Mabel Merriweather, an Australian high school History Teacher. He had an older sister but she was killed in a plane accident a few years before the events of Seven Ancient Wonders.
West Junior was encouraged to join the US Army by his father, but instead joined the Australian Armed Forces. There he proved to be an extremely efficient soldier and attained the rank of Captain, was fast tracked to the Special Air Service Regiment, set a new record on a desert survival course and became a more formidable soldier than his father.
His desire to learn archeology led to the Australian Army allowing him to attend university at Trinity College in Dublin, under the guidance of Professor Maximilian T. Epper, with whom he formed a close friendship.
He was also sent to a series of multi-national special forces exercises at Coronado in 1990, hosted by the US at their Navy SEALs base. These exercises were hosted by Jack 's future enemy, Marshall Judah. Jack was injured in a helicopter accident at Coronado and lay unconscious in a hospital for four days. (The four missing days of Jack West Junior 's life.) When he woke up, he was sent back to Australia with no serious damage done.
Jack made his name at Operation Desert Storm, being one of the first troops to land in Iraq in 1991, blowing up communication towers, completing dangerous missions behind enemy lines. and serving under his future foe, Marshall Judah, who had personally requested him. At a Scud base in Basra, he was left for dead by Judah but escaped through 300 enemy soldiers.
He then returned to Australia and handed in his resignation to his commanding officer, Lt. General Peter Cosgrove and began working with his friend Professor Epper aka Wizard, on the Dark sun project.
Lily "Eowyn '' West is Jack 's adopted daughter. She was born to the wife of the former Oracle of Siwa, who was kidnapped and taken to a chamber in the heart of a Ugandan volcano. Her captors, led by the priest Del Piero took the mother 's first - born child, Lily 's older twin brother Alexander, and left her mother for dead. Jack and Max Epper were able to perform a caesarian on the dead mother using Jack 's Leatherman knife, and rescued Lily, though Jack lost his arm triggering a release lock behind a curtain of lava during their escape.
Lily is described as being of Egyptian descent, and, like her twin brother, is an Oracle of Siwa. This grants her the ability from the age of 10 to read the Word of Thoth. She is also highly competent with other languages.
Jonathan ' Jack ' ' Wolf ' West Sr is Jack 's father and has attempted to kill Jack several times. He is an American and referred to by J.J. Wickham as "one motherfucker of a father in - law ''. He has another son with the callsign of "Rapier ''. He is killed by his own greed at the end of The Five Greatest Warriors (by a similar fate to Jack 's previous ordeal at the Second Vertex) after the Sixth Pillar was laid, trying to get its reward, power.
Mabel Merriweather is Jack 's mother (first named in The Four Legendary Kingdoms), who lives in Australia. Prior to FLK, she was only seen by Jack once every several years due to the facts of Wolf 's violent relationship with her and Wolf 's affair. She divorced Wolf and humiliated him even further by divorcing him in an Australian court.
Jack 's sister Lauren is deceased after being killed in a plane crash. She was two years older than Jack.
J.J. ' Sea Ranger ' Wickham is Jack 's brother in - law and oldest friend. He married Jack 's sister, Lauren West. An expert submariner, he stole a Russian Kilo - class submarine & is now a rogue submariner living on the island of Zanzibar. He helps Jack in his mission and has a mutual hatred of Jack West Snr, referring to him as one "arsehole of a father in law. ''
Sergeant Zoe "Bloody Mary '' "Princess '' Kissane is Jack 's good friend and, at the end of The Five Greatest Warriors, the two are married in a civil service.
Rapier is Jack 's half - brother. Determined that their father respects West over him, he constantly makes threats to kill West for the respect he desires.
Maximillian "Wizard '' Epper was a Canadian born professor who taught at Trinity College in Dublin, teaching Jack West, Jack 's future wife Zoe Kissane & two Scottish students (his personal favourites) Lachlan & Julian Adamson "The Cowboys ''. He first met Jack when he joined the class he was teaching and they went on from there. In 1996, Wizard was involved in saving Lily. Wizard and Lily have always hit it off, so naturally Lily was one of the most hurt when Wizard died tragically, killed by Jack 's father, Wolf, in Five Greatest Warriors at Genghis Khan 's arsenal and tomb.
Sergeant Zahir "Saladin '' "Pooh Bear '' al Anzar al Abbas of the United Arab Emirates is the second son of Sheik Anzar al Abbas. Pooh Bear is a slightly chubby fellow, known for his explosive experiments & wit. He is one of Lily West 's closest friends. During a fight with him and Stretch vs Scimitar and Vulture, he lost an eye.
Lieutenant Benjamin "Archer '' "Stretch '' Cohen of Israel was once with the famed Israeli sniper force, the Sayeret Matkal. He joined the ruthless Israeli Mossad in 2003 & was ordered to infiltrate Jack West 's team. Known for his expertise with snipers, he is first at odds with the Muslim Pooh Bear (himself being a Jew) but his defiance of his orders from the Mossad & his assistance in saving Lily 's life caused the two to realize they had a common goal in keeping Lily safe and work together. He was captured and turned over to the Mossad where he was rescued by Pooh Bear, West, and Zoe. During the aforementioned fight between him / Pooh Bear and Vulture / Scimitar, he was stabbed in the back by Vulture but survived.
"Sky Monster '' hails from New Zealand, after being trained in the RNZAF. According to Reilly, his full name is known only to his mother and father, both of which live in Dunedin, New Zealand, and after the events of The Five Greatest Warriors, look after Lily 's twin brother, Alexander. He is West 's pilot during the novels, taking him and his team to various locations over the course of their adventures. He has performed upgrades to the 747 given by West. His 747 plane, the Halicarnassus, was destroyed at the end of The Five Greatest Warriors, and he now owns a smaller, faster plane -- a Russian - made Tupolev Tu - 144. He christened it the "Sky Warrior ''.
Jack 's original arm was burnt off when he thrust his arm into a waterfall of lava to grab an off lever in order to escape with Max "Wizard '' Epper and Lily.
Wizard, as he promised, built Jack a new and ' better ' arm, using a superstrong titanium alloy, and adding a hidden compartment containing a wad of C2 explosive. Jack has made use of these benefits many times during the books, such as using the fist to block a slab of stone from crushing him (The Six Sacred Stones), and hanging on to a ceiling rung for several hours (Seven Ancient Wonders). It is detachable, as seen in Jack 's escape from the Ethiopian mine in Six Sacred Stones.
|
who won the rugby between wales and france | History of rugby union matches between France and Wales - wikipedia
France and Wales have played each other at rugby union since 1908. A total of 96 matches have been played, with Wales winning 49 times, France winning 44 times and 3 matches drawn.
The early years of the fixture were dominated by Wales, who won 18 of the first 19 matches up to the point when France were expelled from the Five Nations Championship after the 1931 tournament. Since the competition resumed in 1947 results have slightly favoured France who have won 44 of the 77 matches played, including 28 of the last 41 matches up to March 2018. The teams have met once in the Rugby World Cup with France winning the 2011 semi-final match.
Note: Summary below reflects test results by both teams.
Note: Date shown in brackets indicates when the record was or last set.
Below is a list of matches that France has awarded matches test match status by virtue of awarding caps, but Wales did not award caps.
|
who sings pancho and lefty with willie nelson | Pancho and Lefty - wikipedia
"Pancho and Lefty '' is a song written by country music artist Townes Van Zandt. Often considered his "most enduring and well - known song, '' Van Zandt first recorded it for his 1972 album The Late Great Townes Van Zandt.
Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as the 17th greatest Western song of all time.
The song tells the story of a Mexican bandit named Pancho and a more enigmatic character, Lefty. The song tells of Pancho 's death and implies that he was betrayed by his associate Lefty who was paid off by the Mexican federales.
Although the lyrics are not exactly reconcilable with the historic details of the life and death of the famous Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa, Van Zandt does not rule out the idea. In an interview, he recalled, "I realize that I wrote it, but it 's hard to take credit for the writing, because it came from out of the blue. It came through me and it 's a real nice song, and I think, I 've finally found out what it 's about. I 've always wondered what it 's about. I kinda always knew it was n't about Pancho Villa, and then somebody told me that Pancho Villa had a buddy whose name in Spanish meant ' Lefty. ' But in the song, my song, Pancho gets hung. ' They only let him hang around out of kindness I suppose ' and the real Pancho Villa was assassinated. ''
In the same interview, Van Zandt recalled, "We got stopped by these two policeman and... they said ' What do you do for a living? ', and I said, ' Well, I 'm a songwriter ', and they both kind of looked around like ' pitiful, pitiful ', and so on to that I added, ' I wrote that song Pancho and Lefty. You ever heard that song Pancho and Lefty? I wrote that ', and they looked back around and they looked at each other and started grinning, and it turns out that their squad car, you know their partnership, it was two guys, it was an Anglo and a Hispanic, and it turns out, they 're called Pancho and Lefty... so I think maybe that 's what it 's about, those two guys... I hope I never see them again. ''
A music video was released for the song in 1983, depicting Willie Nelson as Pancho, and Merle Haggard as Lefty. Townes Van Zandt also appears in a supporting role.
|
which of the following was a democrat who served as president | List of Presidents of the United States - wikipedia
The President of the United States is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander - in - chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is indirectly elected to a four - year term by the people through the Electoral College.
Since the office was established in 1789, 44 men have served as president. The first, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms in office, and is counted as the nation 's 22nd and 24th presidents; the incumbent, Donald Trump, is therefore the 45th president. There are currently five living former presidents. The most recent death of a former president was on December 26, 2006 with the death of Gerald Ford; the most recently serving president to die was Ronald Reagan on June 5, 2004.
William Henry Harrison 's presidency was the shortest in American history. He died 31 days after taking office in 1841. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Since the ratification of the Twenty - second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.
Of the elected presidents, four died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon). John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with his own presidency, as opposed to a caretaker president. The Twenty - fifth Amendment to the Constitution put Tyler 's precedent into law in 1967. It also established a mechanism by which a mid-term vacancy in the vice presidency could be filled. Richard Nixon was the first president to fill a vacancy under this Provision when he appointed Gerald Ford to the office. Later, Ford became the second to do so when he appointed Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him. Previously, a mid-term vacancy was left unfilled.
Throughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, there were no parties. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, factions began rallying around dominant Washington Administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Greatly concerned about the very real capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight - year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never to be affiliated with a political party. Since Washington, every president has been affiliated with a political party at the time they assumed office.
Four presidents held other high U.S. federal offices after leaving the presidency.
Several presidents campaigned unsuccessfully for other U.S. state or federal elective offices after leaving the presidency.
Additionally, one former president, John Tyler, served in the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War. Tyler served in the Provisional Confederate Congress from 1861 to 1862. He was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives in November 1861, but died before he could take his seat.
|
who does bradley cooper end up with in aloha | Aloha (film) - Wikipedia
Aloha is a 2015 American romantic comedy film written, produced and directed by Cameron Crowe. The film, starring Bradley Cooper, Emma Stone, Rachel McAdams, Bill Murray, John Krasinski, Danny McBride and Alec Baldwin, was released on May 29, 2015. The film received negative reviews from critics and has grossed only $26 million against a budget of $37 million, making the film a box office bomb.
Military contractor Brian Gilcrest (Bradley Cooper) returns to Hawaii to organize a traditional blessing for a new pedestrian gate on behalf of billionaire Carson Welch (Bill Murray), who intends to develop nearby land into a space center. Following a celebrated military career that ended in shadowy deals in Afghanistan, the now disillusioned Gilcrest is tasked with negotiating a deal with the Hawaiian natives and supporting Carson 's launch of a privately - funded satellite. Gilcrest 's mission is complicated by his former girlfriend Tracy (Rachel McAdams), now married with two children, and his idealistic Air Force liaison, Captain Allison Ng (Emma Stone), whose wide - eyed fascination with space reminds him of his own childhood sense of wonder.
Gilcrest and Ng travel to meet King Kanahele at his isolated community to negotiate a deal for his participation in the gate blessing ceremony. Along the way, Ng tries to engage Gilcrest in conversation about his life and work but is unable to break through his cynicism. When they meet the king, Ng, who is part Hawaiian, bonds with him and his companions, identifying with their spiritual view of the land and sky. After prolonged negotiations, Gilcrest brokers a deal for the king 's participation in exchange for two mountains and free cell phone service. The next night, Gilcrest and Ng have dinner at Tracy 's house, where they meet her husband Woody (John Krasinski) and their two children, Grace and Mitch. At one point, Gilcrest and Tracy find themselves alone in the kitchen, where she admits that she loved him and had plans to make a life with him before he abandoned her thirteen years ago.
The next evening, they attend Carson 's Christmas party, where General Dixon (Alec Baldwin) tells Gilcrest not to screw up their deal with the Hawaiians. One of the general 's men hands Gilcrest a thumb drive containing top secret information for the upcoming satellite launch. During the party, Gilcrest becomes attracted to Ng, who is having fun dancing with Carson. Afterwards, Ng joins Gilcrest in his room while he recounts his experiences in Kabul, where he almost died. He tells her that this was the first night he was truly happy to be living, and the two have sex. The next day, Ng discovers that Carson 's satellite will actually carry a nuclear payload. When she tries to resign, her colonel tells her it is a private operation run by Carson and that Gilcrest is aware of the details. Later she confronts Gilcrest in tears for lying to her and the Hawaiians.
Meanwhile, Woody and Tracy confront each other about recent tensions in their marriage, which he believes were caused by Gilcrest 's arrival. They agree to separate. The next morning, Tracy shows up at Gilcrest 's hotel and reveals that Grace is his daughter. Later that day, after the successful blessing of the new pedestrian gate, Gilcrest learns that the Chinese are attempting to hack the satellite 's code to prevent the impending launch. He rushes to the command center and undermines the hackers ' efforts. As he watches the satellite enter geosynchronous orbit, he realizes what he 's done and its impact on Ng, whom he has come to love. Quickly, he orders a massive sonic upload to be sent to space, and he and Ng hold hands as they watch the satellite explode. Believing Ng 's continued association with him will ruin her promising career, he tells her they should not see each other again.
Carson is not pleased with the destruction of his satellite and confronts Gilcrest, who tells him he can not "buy the sky ''. General Dixon is also incensed by Gilcrest 's actions, threatening to prosecute him.
Gilcrest returns to Tracy 's house, where she reads him a moving love letter from Woody. Gilcrest tells her she belongs with her husband and she encourages him to go after Ng. Woody comes home and sees Gilcrest in his house. Woody tells Gilcrest he knows Gilcrest is Grace 's father. He asks Gilcrest if he slept with Tracy while he was gone. Gilcrest tells Woody he slept with Ng and not with his wife. Woody goes into the living room where Tracy is cleaning up. She sees Woody and they both run into each other 's arms, then are joined by Grace and Mitch. Gilcrest leaves the house while the happy family reunion continues.
General Dixon soon learns that Gilcrest was telling the truth about the nuclear weapons payload and praises him for what he 's done, revealing that authorities will soon be taking Carson into custody. Outside the hotel, Gilcrest finds Ng, who is preparing to leave. He tells her he loves her, is staying in Hawaii and will be waiting for her to return. Later that night, Gilcrest stands outside Grace 's hula class and watches her dance. She notices him, he nods at her and she suddenly realizes he is her father. With tears of joy in her eyes, she runs outside and embraces him then returns to her class to continue her hula dancing.
Emma Stone was first to be cast in the film in 2012.
On July 31, 2013, Alec Baldwin joined the cast of the film. There was a casting call for extras on August 29 on Oahu. Cooper went to Hawaii on September 14, twelve days before filming began.
On October 7, it was announced that principal photography was still underway in Hawaii. Stone received ground training on how to fly the Piper PA44 - 180 Seminole airplane from Rob Moore, Chief Instructor Pilot of Galvin Flight Services Hawaii, who later flew the airplane near Ka'a'awa valley for the inflight shots. Moore acted as the aviation technical advisor. Cooper was filming in downtown Honolulu on December 18 and 19. On February 2, 2015, Sony Pictures stated that the film 's final title would be Aloha; the previous working titles were Deep Tiki and Volcano Romance.
The musical score for Aloha was composed by Jónsi & Alex, following Jónsi 's collaboration with Crowe on We Bought a Zoo (2011). Originally, Mark Mothersbaugh said in May 2014 that he was going to score the film. A soundtrack album was released on May 26, 2015 by Madison Gate Records and Sony Legacy.
On February 14, 2014, it was announced that the film was scheduled for release on December 25, 2014. On July 21, the release date was changed to May 29, 2015.
The film 's first trailer was released on February 11, 2015.
Aloha grossed $21.1 million in North America and $5.2 million in other territories for a total gross of $26.3 million, against a $37 million budget.
In North America, Aloha opened simultaneously with the disaster film San Andreas. It made $500,000 from Thursday night showings at 2,275 theaters and an estimated $3.5 million on its opening day from 2,815 theaters. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $9.7 million, finishing 6th at the box office. The film earned $1.65 million in its opening weekend overseas from 7 countries. Australia and New Zealand had an opening weekend combined of $1.5 million and Brazil opened with $240,000. The film went directly to video on demand in the UK and France.
The Hollywood Reporter estimated that the financial losses by the film finished to around $65 million by the time the film ended its global theatrical run.
Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 19 % based on 154 reviews, with an average rating of 4.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus read, "Meandering and insubstantial, Aloha finds writer - director Cameron Crowe at his most sentimental and least compelling. '' On Metacritic the film has a score of 40 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave Aloha an average grade of "B - '' on an A+ to F scale.
The film became controversial due to the Media Action Network for Asian Americans accusing it of whitewashing the cast, and Crowe apologized about Emma Stone being miscast as a character who is meant to be of one quarter Chinese and one quarter Hawaiian descent.
In June 2015, Crowe responded to the backlash: "I have heard your words and your disappointment, and I offer you a heart - felt apology to all who felt this was an odd or misguided casting choice. As far back as 2007, Captain Allison Ng was written to be a super-proud one quarter Hawaiian who was frustrated that, by all outward appearances, she looked nothing like one. A half - Chinese father was meant to show the surprising mix of cultures often prevalent in Hawaii. Extremely proud of her unlikely heritage, she feels personally compelled to over-explain every chance she gets. The character was based on a real - life, red - headed local who did just that. ''
However, Sony Pictures defended the film 's portrayal of Hawaiian culture stating, "While some have been quick to judge a movie they have n't seen and a script they have n't read, the film ' Aloha ' respectfully showcases the spirit and culture of the Hawaiian people. ''
Emma Stone later said she regretted letting herself be miscast, and acknowledged whitewashing as a prevalent problem in Hollywood.
|
when did tiptoe through the tulips come out | Tiptoe Through the Tulips - wikipedia
"Tiptoe Through the Tulips '', also known as "Tip Toe Through the Tulips with Me '', is a popular song published in 1929. The song was written by Al Dubin (lyrics) and Joe Burke (music) and made popular by guitarist Nick Lucas.
"Crooning Troubadour '' Nick Lucas topped the US charts with "Tiptoe Through the Tulips '' in 1929, after introducing the song in the musical "talkie '' film Gold Diggers of Broadway. Lucas 's recording held the # 1 position for 10 weeks. Other artists charted with the song in 1929, including Jean Goldkette (# 5), Johnny Marvin (# 11), and Roy Fox (# 18).
The song was used in Sinkin ' in the Bathtub, the first Looney Tunes cartoon short, in 1930. It is also heard in the opening scene of the 1945 film Confidential Agent.
The song was revived in 1967 by the California rock group The Humane Society and in 1968 by Tiny Tim, whose version charted at # 17 that year, becoming his signature song, which he would continue to perform throughout his career. It was also later covered by The Bonzo Dog Doo - Dah Band.
The song is sung by Dr. Smith and again by the Robot in the Lost in Space episode "Space Circus ''
The song is mentioned in the 1997 book Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone. Vernon Dursley hums the song while boarding up small cracks around the front and back doors of his house so he can stop letters from Hogwarts reaching Harry.
Comedian Otto Waalkes sang a version, similar to that from Tiny Tim in his program Otto
In The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, the phrase "I like to tiptoe through the tulips '' is one of Geralt 's speech options for the pass - phrase to enter the Putrid Grove in Novigrad (though not the correct one).
|
how many rounds are in a nhl draft | NHL Entry draft - wikipedia
The NHL Entry Draft (French: Repêchage d'entrée dans la LNH) is an annual meeting in which every franchise of the National Hockey League (NHL) systematically select the rights to available ice hockey players who meet draft eligibility requirements (North American players 18 -- 20 years old and European / international players 18 -- 21 years old; all others enter league as unrestricted free agents). The NHL Entry Draft is held once every year, generally within two to three months after the conclusion of the previous season. During the draft, teams take turns selecting amateur players from junior or collegiate leagues and professional players from European leagues.
The first draft was held in 1963, and has been held every year since. The NHL Entry Draft was known as the NHL Amateur Draft until 1979. The entry draft has only been a public event since 1980, and a televised event since 1984. Up to 1994, the order was solely determined by the standings at the end of the regular season. In 1995, the NHL Draft Lottery was introduced where only teams who had missed the playoffs could participate. The one lottery winner would move up the draft order a maximum of four places, meaning only the top five - placed teams could pick first in the draft, and no team in the non-playoff group could move down more than one place. The chances of winning the lottery were weighted towards the teams at the bottom of the regular season standings. Beginning in 2013, the limit of moving up a maximum of four places in the draft order was eliminated, so the lottery winner would automatically receive the first overall pick, and any teams above it in the draft order would still move down one spot.
The first NHL Entry Draft (at that time known as the "NHL Amateur Draft '') was held on June 5, 1963 at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal, Quebec. Any amateur player under the age of 20 was eligible to be drafted. In 1979, the rules were changed allowing players who had previously played professionally to be drafted. This rule change was made to facilitate the absorption of players from the defunct World Hockey Association. Consequently, the name of the draft was changed from "NHL Amateur Draft '' to "NHL Entry Draft ''. Beginning in 1980, any player who is between the ages of 18 and 20 is eligible to be drafted. In addition, any non-North American player over the age of 20 can be selected. From 1987 through 1991, 18 and 19 - year - old players could only be drafted in the first three rounds unless they met another criterion of experience which required them to have played in major junior, U.S. college and high school, or European hockey.
In 1980, the Entry Draft became a public event, and was held at the Montreal Forum. Prior to that year the Entry Draft was conducted in Montreal hotels or league offices and was closed to the general public. The first draft outside of Montreal was held at the Metro Toronto Convention Centre in Toronto, Ontario, in 1985. Live television coverage of the draft began in 1984 when the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation covered the event in both English and French for Canadian audiences. The 1987 Entry Draft, held at Joe Louis Arena in Detroit, Michigan, was the first NHL Draft to be held in the United States. SportsChannel America began covering the event in the United States in 1989.
Prior to the development of the Draft, NHL teams sponsored junior teams, and signed prospects in their teens to the junior teams. Players were signed to one of three forms: the "A '' form, which committed a player to a tryout; a "B '' form, which gave the team an option to sign a player in return for a bonus; and the "C '' form, which committed a player 's professional rights. The "C '' form could only be signed by the player at age eighteen or by the player 's parents, often in exchange for some signing bonus. The first drafts (up until the 1968 Amateur Draft) were held to assign players who had not signed with an NHL organization before the sponsorship of junior teams was discontinued after 1968.
The selection order in the NHL Entry Draft is determined by a combination of lottery, regular season standing, and playoff results. While teams are permitted to trade draft picks both during the draft and prior to it (sometimes several years prior), in all cases, the selection order of the draft picks is based on the original holder of the pick, not a team which may have acquired the pick via a trade or other means. The order of picks discussed in this section always references the original team.
The basic order of the NHL Entry Draft is determined based on the standings of the teams in the previous season. As with the other major sports leagues, the basic draft order is intended to favour the teams with the weakest performance who presumably need the most improvement in their roster to compete with the other teams. Subject to the results of the NHL Draft Lottery (discussed below), the teams pick in the same order each round, with each team getting one pick per round. The basic order of the picks is determined as follows:
The number of teams in the second and third group depends on whether the Conference finalists also won their division. The teams in each group (other than the Stanley Cup winner and runner up) are ordered within that group based on their point totals in the preceding regular season (with the lowest point total picking first). Tie - breakers are governed by the same rules used to determine ties in the regular season standings. The order of picks 1 -- 15 may change during the first round of the draft based on the results of the NHL Draft lottery. In the subsequent rounds, the basic order based on point totals is used.
When teams lose their rights to a first - round draft choice, because that player was not signed to a contract and consequently re-entered the entry draft or became an unrestricted free agent, they are awarded a compensatory draft pick. This selection will be the same numerical choice as the first round draft pick who was not signed, but in the second round. For example, if a team can not sign the seventh overall first round draft choice, it will receive the seventh pick in the second round of the next draft as compensation.
At the conclusion of the regular season, the 15 teams that did not qualify for the playoffs are entered in a weighted lottery to determine the initial draft picks in the first round. The teams are seeded in the basic draft order based on their regular season point totals. The odds of winning the lottery are weighted on a descending scale that gives the greatest chance of winning to the team with the lowest point total (18.5 %), and the worst chance to the team with the highest point total (1.0 %).
The prize for winning the draft lottery is to be upgraded to pick first in the first round of the draft, with each team that preceded the winner in the basic draft order bumped one pick lower. For example, if the team with the 5th worst point total wins the lottery, it would pick first, and the teams with the worst through 4th - worst records would pick second through fifth. The remaining teams would be unaffected. The teams would return to the basic order for the second and all subsequent rounds.
From its inception until 2015, there was one winner for the lottery, who would win the first pick in the draft. Beginning with the 2016 draft, three winners are picked in the lottery. These teams win the first three picks in the lottery, with the remaining teams dropping as many as three places from their spot in the basic order.
The NHL Draft Lottery takes place during the Stanley Cup playoffs and is hosted at Sportsnet 's studios in Toronto from 2015 onwards. From 2006 to 2014, the draft lottery took place at TSN 's studios in Toronto.
All players who will be 18 years old on or before September 15 and not older than 20 years old before December 31 of the draft year are eligible for selection for that year 's NHL Entry Draft. In addition, non-North American players over the age of 20 are eligible.
|
what is the other name of golden temple | Golden Temple - Wikipedia
Sri Harmandir Sahib ("The abode of God ''), also known as Darbar Sahib, (Punjabi pronunciation: (dəɾbɑɾ sɑhɪb)), informally referred to as the Golden Temple, is the holiest Gurdwara of Sikhism, located in the city of Amritsar, Punjab, India. Amritsar (literally, the tank of nectar of immortality) was founded in 1577 by the fourth Sikh guru, Guru Ram Das. The fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan, designed Harmandir Sahib to be built in the centre of this holy tank, and upon its construction, installed the Adi Granth, the holy scripture of Sikhism, inside Harmandir Sahib. The Harmandir Sahib complex is also home to the Akal Takht (the throne of the timeless one, constituted by the Sixth Guru, Guru Hargobind). While the Harmandir Sahib is regarded as the abode of God 's spiritual attribute, the Akal Takht is the seat of God 's temporal authority.
The construction of Harmandir Sahib was intended to build a place of worship for men and women from all walks of life and all religions to worship God equally. Accordingly, as a gesture of this non-sectarian universalness of Sikhism, Guru Arjan had specially invited the Muslim Sufi saint, Hazrat Mian Mir to lay the foundation stone of the Harmandir Sahib. The four entrances (representing the four directions) to get into the Harmandir Sahib also symbolise the openness of the Sikhs towards all people and religions. Over 100,000 people visit the holy shrine daily for worship, and also partake jointly in the free community kitchen and meal (Langar) regardless of any distinctions, a tradition that is a hallmark of all Sikh Gurdwaras.
The present - day gurdwara was renovated in 1764 by Jassa Singh Ahluwalia with the help of other Sikh Misls. In the early nineteenth century, Maharaja Ranjit Singh secured the Punjab region from outside attack and covered the upper floors of the gurdwara with 750kg of gold, which gives it its distinctive appearance and its English name. Large portions of the temple were damaged and destroyed in 1984 as part of Operation Blue Star - an Indian military operation to flush the shrine of Sikh separatists.
The Harmandir Sahib literally means the Temple of God. Guru Amar Das had ordered Guru Ram Das to create a nectarous tank as a place for worship for the Sikh religion. Guru Ram Das instructed all his Sikhs to join in the work, under Bhai Budha 's superintendence, and engaged labourers to assist them. He said that the tank of nectar should be God 's home, and whoever bathed in it shall obtain all spiritual and temporal advantages. During the progress of the work, the hut in which the Guru first sheltered himself was expanded for his residence; it is now known as the Guru 's Mahal, or palace.
In 1578 Guru Ram Das excavated a tank, which subsequently became known as Amritsar (Pool of the Nectar of Immortality), giving its name to the city that grew around it. In due course, the Harmandir Sahib, was built in the middle of this tank and became the supreme centre of Sikhism. Its sanctum came to house the Adi Granth comprising compositions of Sikh Gurus and other saints considered to have Sikh values and philosophies, e.g., Baba Farid, and Kabir. The compilation of the Adi Granth was started by the fifth guru of Sikhism, Guru Arjan.
Guru Arjan conceived the idea of creating a central place of worship for the Sikhs and designed it. Earlier the planning to excavate the holy tank (Amritsar or Amrit Sarovar) was chalked out by Guru Amar Das, the Third Sikh Guru, but it was executed by Guru Ram Das under the supervision of Baba Budha. The land for the site was acquired by the earlier Guru Sahibs on payment or free of cost from the Zamindars (landlords) of native villages. The plan to establish a town settlement was also made and the construction work on the Sarovar (the tank) and the town started simultaneously in 1570. The work on both projects was completed in 1577. In December 1588, Guru Arjan initiated the construction of the gurdwara and the foundation stone was laid by Hazrat Mian Mir on 28 December 1588.
The gurdwara was completed in 1604. Guru Arjan installed the Guru Granth Sahib in it and appointed Baba Buddha as the first Granthi (reader) of it in August 1604. In the mid-18th century it was attacked by the Afghans, by one of Ahmed Shah Abdali 's generals, Jahan Khan, and had to be substantially rebuilt in the 1760s.
Blue Star was an Indian military operation undertaken between 1 and 8 June 1984 that severely damaged or destroyed large portions of the temple complex. India 's Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, ordered the Indian Army to launch the operation. The army, led by General Kuldip Singh Brar, brought infantry, artillery and tanks into the Harmandir Sahib to destroy the Dharam Yudh Morcha led by Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale. During the Dharam Yudh Morcha thousands of Sikhs courted arrest. Fierce fighting ensued between Sikhs and the Indian Army, with heavy casualties on both sides. The Harmandir Sahib complex also suffered much damage during the attack, especially the holy Akal Takht. Within six months, on 31 October 1984, Indira Gandhi 's Sikh bodyguards killed her as revenge for the operation.
This attack is regarded by Sikhs, and the international human rights community, as a desecration of Sikhism 's holiest shrine and discrimination against a minority in India. In 1986, the repairs performed on the Akal Takht Sahib after the attack, which the Rajiv Gandhi government had undertaken without consultation, were removed. A new Akal Takht Sahib was completed in 1999 by Kar Sevaks (volunteers).
Some of the architectural features of the Harmandir Sahib were intended to be symbolic of the Sikh world view. Instead of the normal custom of building a gurdwara on high land, it was built at a lower level than the surrounding land so that devotees would have to go down steps to enter it. In addition, instead of one entrance, Sri Harmandir Sahib has four entrances.
The gurdwara is surrounded by the Sarovar, a large lake or holy tank, which consists of Amrit ("holy water '' or "immortal nectar '') and is fed by the Ravi River. There are four entrances to the gurdwara, signifying the importance of acceptance and openness. There are three holy trees (bers), each signifying a historical event or Sikh saint. Inside the gurdwara there are many memorial plaques that commemorate past Sikh historical events, saints and martyrs, including commemorative inscriptions of all the Sikh soldiers who died fighting in World War I and World War II.
Much of the present decorative gilding and marblework dates from the early 19th century. All the gold and exquisite marble work were conducted under the patronage of Hukam Singh Chimni and Emperor Ranjit Singh, Maharaja of the Sikh Empire of the Punjab. The Darshani Deorhi Arch stands at the beginning of the causeway to the Harmandir Sahib; it is 6.2 metres (20.3 ft) high and 6 metres (20 ft) in width. The gold plating on the Harmandir Sahib was begun by Ranjit Singh and was finished in 1830. Maharaja Ranjit Singh was a major donor of wealth and materials for the shrine.
The Harmandir Sahib complex also houses the Akal Takht (the throne of the timeless one), built by the sixth Sikh Guru, Guru Hargobind as an authority for administering justice and consideration of temporal issues. Within the complex, the Akal Takht constitutes a counterpoint with the holy shrine, in that the Harmandir Sahib is the abode of God 's spiritual attribute, and the Akal Takht is the seat of God 's temporal authority.
Harmandir Sahib is home to the world 's largest free kitchen. According to the Croatian Times, it can serve free food for up to 100,000 - 300,000 people every day. At the Langar (Kitchen), food is served to all visitors regardless of faith, religion, or background. Vegetarian food is served to ensure that all people, even those with dietary restrictions, can eat together as equals. The institution of the Sikh langar, or free kitchen, was started by the first Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak. It was designed to uphold the principle of equality between all people regardless of religion, caste, colour, creed, age, gender, or social status, a revolutionary concept in the caste - ordered society of 16th century India where Sikhism began. In addition to the ideals of equality, the tradition of langar expresses the ethics of sharing, community, inclusiveness, and oneness of all humankind. Every Sikh Gurdwara (place of worship) has a langar, providing free vegetarian food for all comers.
The kitchen has two dining halls, which have a combined capability of 5000 people. People come up to and sit down to eat on the carpets on the floor, are served food by the volunteers, and are ushered out respectfully to make room for the next round of diners.
In keeping with the rule observed at all Sikh gurdwaras worldwide, the Harmandir Sahib is open to all persons regardless of their religion, colour, creed, caste or gender. The only restrictions on the Harmandir Sahib 's visitors concern their behaviour when entering and while visiting:
First - time visitors are advised to begin their visit at the information office and then proceed to the Central Sikh Museum near the main entrance and clock tower.
The Harimandir Sahib runs one of the largest free kitchens in the world, serving 100,000 people on average daily. The meal consists of flat bread and lentil soup.
One of the most important festivals is Vaisakhi, which is celebrated in the second week of April (usually the 13th). Sikhs celebrate the founding of the Khalsa on this day and it is celebrated with fervour in the Harmandir Sahib. Other important Sikh religious days such as the birth of Guru Ram Das, martyrdom day of Guru Teg Bahadur, the birthday of the Sikh founder Guru Nanak, etc., are also celebrated with religious piety. Similarly Diwali is one of the festivals which sees the Harmandir Sahib beautifully illuminated with Diyas (lamps); lights and fireworks are discharged. Most Sikhs visit Amritsar and the Harmandir Sahib at least once during their lifetime, particularly and mostly during special occasions in their life such as birthdays, marriages, childbirth, etc.
The entrance from the plaza side holds a museum on history of the Sikhs on the first floor just over the entrance.
On Dec 22, 2016, a high - tech State of the Art visitors centre was opened for public. Hi - tech story - telling at the basement of the Golden Temple plaza was launched and opened for public amid 5,000 pilgrims on Wednesday. Besides the daily footfall of pilgrims at the shrine, a large number of people had gathered outside the basement for their turn to witness the 3D technology and synchronisation installed in galleries giving a tour of the Sikh history and ethos.
|
will there be a season 5 of a place to call home | A Place to Call Home (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the Seven Network television series A Place to Call Home premiered on Showcase on 8 October 2017. The series was produced by Chris Martin - Jones, and executive produced by Penny Win and Julie McGauran.
On 16 November 2016, Foxtel announced that A Place to Call Home had been renewed for a fifth season. Of the renewal, Foxtel CEO, Peter Tonagh stated "(The show) goes way beyond just being a piece of content that appears on the screen. It 's a passion for hundreds of thousands of people who watch it every week. ''
Production on the fifth season began in February 2017.
Of the show 's return, Foxtel 's Head of Drama, Penny Win stated, "A Place to Call Home has continued to build very strong audiences and passionate fans throughout its time on Foxtel. We are thrilled with the success of the series both here and around the world, and series five promises to be more of what our audience loves. The incredible cast, whose performances are exemplary, and the creative team, led by Julie McGauran and Chris Martin - Jones, have brought Foxtel a wonderful piece of dramatic television that we are all very proud of. '' Seven 's Head of Drama, Julie McGauran stated, "All of us at Seven Productions are delighted to continue the hugely successful collaboration with Foxtel on A Place To Call Home. This series is testament to how great storytelling, the talents of a truly gifted cast and a superb production can align to create extraordinary television and Seven are proud to be a part of an industry here in Australia that continues to deliver world class drama. ''
Season five will time jump to 1958, where four years have passed since we left Sarah and the Bligh family. Those four years have seen ever increasing changes in Australian society. The world of wealth and privilege is being eroded, moral values are fraying and a new young generation is rising, full of disaffection with the world of their elders. To them the War is a matter of the dead past, bringing conflict with those who suffered its pain and deprivation. Economic change and the devious actions of unseen enemies threaten Ash Park. While friends become bitter rivals and former enemies become unlikely allies. And in the midst of the turmoil, love becomes the only sure place anyone can call home.
|
when was uti bank renamed to axis bank | Axis Bank - Wikipedia
Axis Bank Ltd is the third largest of the private - sector banks in India offering a comprehensive suite of financial products. The bank has its head office in Mumbai and Registered office in Ahmedabad. It has 3304 branches, 14,003 ATMs, and nine international offices. The bank employs over 55,000 people and had a market capitalization of ₹ 1.28 trillion (US $20 billion) (as on March 31, 2017). It offers the entire spectrum of financial services large and mid-size corporates, SME, and retail businesses.
As of 30 Jun. 2016, 30.81 % shares are owned by promoters & promoter group (United India Insurance Company Limited, Oriental Insurance Company Limited, National Insurance Company Limited, New India Assurance Company Ltd, GIC, LIC & UTI). Remaining 69.19 % shares are owned by Mutual Funds Institutions, FIIs, Financial Institutions (banks), Insurance companies, corporate bodies & individual investors among others.
UTI Bank opened its registered office in Ahmedabad and corporate office in Mumbai in December 1993. The first branch was inaugurated on 2 April 1994 in Ahmedabad by Dr. Manmohan Singh, the Finance Minister of India. UTI Bank began its operations in 1993, after the Government of India allowed new private banks to be established. The Bank was promoted in 1993 jointly by the Administrator of the Unit Trust of India (UTI - I), Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC), General Insurance Corporation, National Insurance Company, The New India Assurance Company, The Oriental Insurance Corporation and United India Insurance Company.
In 2001 UTI Bank agreed to merge with and amalgamate Global Trust Bank, but the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) withheld approval and nothing came of this. In 2004 the RBI put Global Trust into moratorium and supervised its merger into Oriental Bank of Commerce.
In 2003 Axis Bank became the first Indian bank to launch the travel currency card.
In 2005, Axis Bank got listed on London Stock Exchange.
UTI Bank opened its first overseas branch in 2006 Singapore. That same year it opened a representative office in Shanghai, China. UTI Bank opened a branch in the Dubai International Financial Centre in 2007. That same year it began branch operations in Hong Kong. In 2008 it opened a representative office in Dubai.
Axis Bank opened a branch in Colombo in October 2011, as a Licensed Commercial Bank supervised by the Central Bank of Sri Lanka. Also in 2011, Axis Bank opened a representative offices in Abu Dhabi. In 2011, Axis bank inaugurated Axis House, its new corporate office in Worli, Mumbai.
In 2013, Axis Bank 's subsidiary, Axis Bank UK commenced banking operations. Axis Bank UK has a branch in London.
Deepika Padukone, a Mumbai Film Industry (a.k.a. Bollywood) actress is the brand ambassador of Axis Bank.
In 2015, Axis Bank opens its representative office in Dhaka.
The bank has over 50,000 employees (as of 31 March 2016). The bank incurred ₹ 26.7 billion (US $420 million) on employee benefits during the FY 2012 -- 13. The average age of an Axis Bank employee is 29 years. The attrition rate in Axis Bank is approx. 9 % per year.
As of 12 Aug 2016, the bank had a network of 3,120 branches and extension counters and 12,922 ATMs. Axis Bank has the largest ATM network among private banks in India and it operates an ATM at one of the world 's highest sites at Thegu, Sikkim at a height of 4,023 meters (13,200 ft) above sea level.
The Bank has nine international offices with branches at Singapore, Hong Kong, Dubai (at the DIFC), Shanghai, Colombo and representative offices at Dhaka, Dubai and Abu Dhabi, which focus on corporate lending, trade finance, syndication, investment banking and liability businesses. In addition to the above, the Bank has a presence in UK with its wholly owned subsidiary Axis Bank UK Limited.
In the retail banking category, the bank offers services such as lending to individuals / small businesses subject to the orientation, product and granularity criterion, along with liability products, card services, Internet banking, automated teller machines (ATM) services, depository, financial advisory services, and Non-resident Indian (NRI) services. Axis bank is a participant in RBI 's NEFT enabled participating banks list.
Credit: The Bank offers various loan and fee - based products and services to Large and Mid-corporate customers and Small and Medium Enterprise (SME) businesses. These products and services include cash credit facilities, demand and short - term loans, project finance, export credit, factoring, channel financing, structured products, discounting of bills, documentary credits, guarantees, foreign exchange and derivative products. Liability products including current accounts, certificates and deposits and time deposits are also offered to large and mid-corporate segments.
Transaction Banking: Formed in April 2015, TxB provides integrated products and services to customers in areas of current accounts, cash management services, capital market services, trade, foreign exchange and derivatives, cross-border trade and correspondent banking services and tax collections on behalf of the Government and various State Governments in India.
Treasury: The Treasury manages the funding position of the Bank and also manages and maintains its regulatory reserve requirements. It invests in sovereign and corporate debt instruments and engages in proprietary trading in equity and fixed income securities, foreign exchange, currency futures and options. It also invests in commercial papers, mutual funds and floating rate instruments as part of the management of short - term surplus liquidity. In addition, it also offers a wide range of treasury products and services to corporate customers.
Syndication: The Bank also provides services of placement and syndication in the form of local currency bonds, rupee and foreign term loans and external commercial borrowings.
Investment Banking and Trustee Services: The Bank provides investment banking and trusteeship services through its owned subsidiaries. Axis Capital Limited provides investment banking services relating to equity capital markets, institutional stock broking besides M&A advisory. Axis Trustee Services Limited is engaged in trusteeship activities, acting as debenture trustee and as trustee to various securitization trusts.
The Bank continues to offer corporate banking, trade finance, treasury and risk management solutions through the branches at Singapore, Hong Kong, DIFC, Shanghai and Colombo, and also retail liability products from its branches at Hong Kong and Colombo. The representative office at Dhaka was inaugurated during the current financial year. Through the Representative Office at Dhaka.
Following the 2016 Indian Banknote Demonetisation, a number of Axis Bank employees were arrested for facilitating money laundering activities. Some media outlets highlighted the disproportionate amount of cases involving the bank, and claimed that the bank 's aggressive performance targets and internal culture fostered such activities and that the blame does not lie solely in the hands of arrested employees.
An Indian online magazine conducted a sting operation which was publicised along with 2013 videos evidence showing a wide range of violations and money - laundering schemes by top officials at a number of Indian banks, including Axis Bank. Consequently, penalty of Rs 5 crore on Axis Bank, Rs 4.5 crore on HDFC Bank and Rs 1 crore on ICICI Bank was imposed by Reserve Bank of India.
The newly introduced UPI will facilitate banking transactions using only a single ' Virtual Payment Address ' (VPA). While transferring money to an account, the sender will not be forced to feed the slew of details like the account number and bank 's IFSC Code, but can transact using only the VPA.
The bank launched Ping Pay in 2015, which is a multi-social payment solution that allows customers to transfer funds using their smart phones to both Axis Bank accounts and other banks ' account holders.
Axis Bank augmented reality feature within its mobile app which lists all the dining destinations, property lists, shopping centers, bank ATMs, branches and many other things not only as a location on GPS but also in real life pictures along with distance and directions.
The innovation hub located in Bengaluru, has an in - house innovation team and an accelerator programme. The Innovation Lab work closely with the startup community that is redefining banking in the digital era. With this launch, Axis Bank becomes the first Indian bank to introduce a dedicated innovation lab in the country.
Axis Bank provide a ' 24X7 Instant Personal Loan ' on smartphones and ATM kiosks. Customers can get instant loan approval and disbursement, which gets credited directly into their account.
The bank has launched an online locker booking facility through the mobile app to allow customers to check availability from their homes and book instantly.
A new tablet - based loan origination system developed to digitize the entire lending process of MFI business. This will replace the existing paper based loan sanctioning process.
Axis Bank offer contactless multicurrency Forex cards to Indian travelers enabling faster and more convenient transactions while abroad. The same technology has also been extended to the Bank 's Debit and Credit card platforms. The bank has set up an in - house payment gateway that allows for secure e-commerce transaction processing capability and reduces the cost incurred on using external gateways.
Asha home loans, our home loan product, caters to the first time home buyers in the lower income segment, and helps them by providing affordable EMI options. The product offers loans from ₹ 100,000 (US $1,600) -- ₹ 1.5 million (US $23,000) in small towns (population less than 1 million) and up to ₹ 2.5 million (US $39,000) in larger towns (population over 1 million), to customers with family incomes of ₹ 8,000 (US $120) -- ₹ 10,000 (US $160) per month and above.
ISIC Forex card for students is the first photo travel currency card available in USD, EUR, GBP and AUD currencies. It can be used across 34 million merchant locations and at over 2 million MasterCard ATMs globally.
eKYC is an online, paperless Aadhaar card - based process for fulfilling KYC requirements to start investing in mutual funds without submission of any documents. SEBI has recently in 2017, allowed Aadhaar - based KYC to be used for MF investments, for the convenience of investors.
The first step in starting your investment in mutual fund is KYC compliance. KYC verification enables anybody to open new accounts with all SEBI - registered intermediaries such as mutual funds, stock brokers, portfolio managers, depository participants, venture capital funds and Collective Investment Schemes eliminating the need to repeat standard KYC. The normal KYC process requires submission of KYC form along with investor signature and additional documents for ID and address proof. In - person verification (IPV) and sighting the original documents needs to be completed by a competent person. eKYC completely eliminates paperwork and IPV to complete the KYC process.
Axis Bank has partnered with Visa to launch ' eKYC ' (electronic know your customer) facility, first organisation in India to introduce biometrics - based KYC, offering convenience, speed and ease to Aadhaar - registered individuals to open bank accounts.
The Bank has ten wholly owned subsidiaries:
Axis Banks 's equity shares are listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange and National Stock Exchange of India. The company 's global depository receipts (GDRs) are listed on the London Stock Exchange. The Bonds issued by the Bank under the MTN programme are listed on the Singapore Stock Exchange.
|
list of words spelled differently in british and american english | American and British English spelling differences - Wikipedia
Many of the differences between American and British English date back to a time when spelling standards had not yet developed. For instance, some spellings seen as "American '' today were once commonly used in Britain and some spellings seen as "British '' were once commonly used in the United States. A "British standard '' began to emerge following the 1755 publication of Samuel Johnson 's A Dictionary of the English Language, and an "American standard '' started following the work of Noah Webster and in particular his An American Dictionary of the English Language, first published in 1828.
Webster 's efforts at spelling reform were somewhat effective in his native country, resulting in certain well - known patterns of spelling differences between the American and British varieties of English. However, English - language spelling reform has rarely been adopted otherwise, and so modern English orthography varies somewhat between countries and is far from phonemic in any country.
In the early 18th century, English spelling was inconsistent. These differences became noticeable after the publishing of influential dictionaries. Today 's British English spellings mostly follow Johnson 's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), while many American English spellings follow Webster 's An American Dictionary of the English Language ("ADEL '', "Webster 's Dictionary '', 1828).
Webster was a proponent of English spelling reform for reasons both philological and nationalistic. In A Companion to the American Revolution (2008), John Algeo notes: "it is often assumed that characteristically American spellings were invented by Noah Webster. He was very influential in popularizing certain spellings in America, but he did not originate them. Rather (...) he chose already existing options such as center, color and check for the simplicity, analogy or etymology ''. William Shakespeare 's first folios, for example, used spellings like center and color as much as centre and colour. Webster did attempt to introduce some reformed spellings, as did the Simplified Spelling Board in the early 20th century, but most were not adopted. In Britain, the influence of those who preferred the Norman (or Anglo - French) spellings of words proved to be decisive. Later spelling adjustments in the United Kingdom had little effect on today 's American spellings and vice versa.
For the most part, the spelling systems of most Commonwealth countries and Ireland closely resemble the British system. In Canada, the spelling system can be said to follow both British and American forms, and Canadians are somewhat more tolerant of foreign spellings when compared with other English - speaking nationalities. Australian spelling has also strayed slightly from British spelling, with some American spellings incorporated as standard. New Zealand spelling is almost identical to British spelling, except in the word fiord (instead of fjord). There is also an increasing use of macrons in words that originated in Māori and an unambiguous preference for - ise endings (see below).
Most words ending in an unstressed - our in British English (e.g., colour, flavour, behaviour, harbour, honour, humour, labour, neighbour, rumour, splendour) end in - or in American English (color, flavor, behavior, harbor, honor, humor, labor, neighbor, rumor, splendor). Wherever the vowel is unreduced in pronunciation, e.g., contour, velour, paramour and troubadour the spelling is consistent everywhere.
Most words of this kind came from Latin, where the ending was spelled - or. They were first adopted into English from early Old French, and the ending was spelled - or or - ur. After the Norman conquest of England, the ending became - our to match the Old French spelling. The - our ending was not only used in new English borrowings, but was also applied to the earlier borrowings that had used - or. However, - or was still sometimes found, and the first three folios of Shakespeare 's plays used both spellings before they were standardised to - our in the Fourth Folio of 1685. After the Renaissance, new borrowings from Latin were taken up with their original - or ending and many words once ending in - our (for example, chancellour and governour) went back to - or. Many words of the - our / or group do not have a Latin counterpart; for example, armo (u) r, behavio (u) r, harbo (u) r, neighbo (u) r; also arbo (u) r, meaning "shelter '', though senses "tree '' and "tool '' are always arbor, a false cognate of the other word. Some 16th - and early 17th - century British scholars indeed insisted that - or be used for words from Latin (e.g., color) and - our for French loans; but in many cases the etymology was not clear, and therefore some scholars advocated - or only and others - our only.
Webster 's 1828 dictionary had only - or and is given much of the credit for the adoption of this form in the United States. By contrast, Johnson 's 1755 (pre-U.S. independence and establishment) dictionary used - our for all words still so spelled in Britain (like colour), but also for words where the u has since been dropped: ambassadour, emperour, governour, perturbatour, inferiour, superiour; errour, horrour, mirrour, tenour, terrour, tremour. Johnson, unlike Webster, was not an advocate of spelling reform, but chose the spelling best derived, as he saw it, from among the variations in his sources. He preferred French over Latin spellings because, as he put it, "the French generally supplied us ''. English speakers who moved to America took these preferences with them, and H.L. Mencken notes that "honor appears in the 1776 Declaration of Independence, but it seems to have got there rather by accident than by design. In Jefferson 's original draft it is spelled "honour ''. In Britain, examples of color, flavor, behavior, harbor, and neighbor rarely appear in Old Bailey court records from the 17th and 18th centuries, whereas there are thousands of examples of their - our counterparts. One notable exception is honor. Honor and honour were equally frequent in Britain until the 17th century; honor still is, in the UK, the usual spelling as a person 's name and appears in Honor Oak, a district of London.
In derivatives and inflected forms of the - our / or words, British usage depends on the nature of the suffix used. The u is kept before English suffixes that are freely attachable to English words (for example in neighbourhood, humourless, and savoury) and suffixes of Greek or Latin origin that have been adopted into English (for example in favourite, honourable, and behaviourism). However, before Latin suffixes that are not freely attachable to English words, the u:
In American usage, derivatives and inflected forms are built by simply adding the suffix in all cases (for example, favorite, savory etc.) since the u is absent to begin with.
American usage, in most cases, keeps the u in the word glamour, which comes from Scots, not Latin or French. Glamor is sometimes used in imitation of the spelling reform of other - our words to - or. Nevertheless, the adjective glamorous often drops the first "u ''. Saviour is a somewhat common variant of savior in the US. The British spelling is very common for honour (and favour) in the formal language of wedding invitations in the US. The name of the Space Shuttle Endeavour has a u in it as the spacecraft was named after Captain James Cook 's ship, HMS Endeavour. The special car on Amtrak 's Coast Starlight train is known as the Pacific Parlour car, not Pacific Parlor. Proper names such as Pearl Harbor or Sydney Harbour are usually spelled according to their native - variety spelling vocabulary.
The name of the herb savory is thus spelled everywhere, although the related adjective savo (u) ry, like savo (u) r, has a u in the UK. Honor (the name) and arbor (the tool) have - or in Britain, as mentioned above. As a general noun, rigour / ˈrɪɡər / has a u in the UK; the medical term rigor (sometimes / ˈraɪɡər /) does not, such as in rigor mortis, which is Latin. Derivations of rigour / rigor such as rigorous, however, are typically spelled without a u even in the UK. Words with the ending - irior, - erior or similar are spelled thus everywhere.
The word armour was once somewhat common in American usage but has disappeared except in some brand names such as Under Armour.
Commonwealth countries normally follow British usage. Canadian English most commonly uses the - our ending and - our - in derivatives and inflected forms. However, owing to the close historic, economic, and cultural relationship with the United States, - or endings are also sometimes used. Throughout the late 19th and early to mid-20th century, most Canadian newspapers chose to use the American usage of - or endings, originally to save time and money in the era of manual movable type. However, in the 1990s, the majority of Canadian newspapers officially updated their spelling policies to the British usage of - our. This coincided with a renewed interest in Canadian English, and the release of the updated Gage Canadian Dictionary in 1997 and the first Oxford Canadian Dictionary in 1998. Historically, most libraries and educational institutions in Canada have supported the use of the Oxford English Dictionary rather than the American Webster 's Dictionary. Today, the use of a distinctive set of Canadian English spellings is viewed by many Canadians as one of the cultural uniquenesses of Canada (especially when compared to the United States).
In Australia, - or endings enjoyed some use throughout the 19th century and in the early 20th century. Like Canada, though, most major Australian newspapers have switched from "- or '' endings to "- our '' endings. The "- our '' spelling is taught in schools nationwide as part of the Australian curriculum. The most notable countrywide use of the - or ending is for the Australian Labor Party, which was originally called "the Australian Labour Party '' (name adopted in 1908), but was frequently referred to as both "Labour '' and "Labor ''. The "Labor '' was adopted from 1912 onward due to the influence of the American labor movement and King O'Malley. Aside from that, - our is now almost universal in Australia. New Zealand English, while sharing some words and syntax with Australian English, follows British usage.
In British English, some words from French, Latin or Greek end with a consonant followed by an unstressed - re (pronounced / ə (r) /). In American English, most of these words have the ending - er. The difference is most common for words ending - bre or - tre: British spellings calibre, centre, fibre, goitre, litre, lustre, manoeuvre, meagre, metre, mitre, nitre, ochre, reconnoitre, sabre, saltpetre, sepulchre, sombre, spectre, theatre (see exceptions) and titre all have - er in American spelling.
In Britain, both - re and - er spellings were common before Johnson 's dictionary was published. In Shakespeare 's first folios, - er spellings are used the most. Most English words that today use - er were spelled - re at one time. In American English, almost all of these have become - er, but in British English only some of them have. Words that were once spelled - re include chapter, December, disaster, enter, filter, letter, member, minister, monster, November, number, October, offer, oyster, powder, proper, September, sober and tender. Words using the "- meter '' suffix (from ancient Greek - μέτρον via post-Classical Latin meter) have normally had the - er spelling from earliest use in English. Examples include thermometer and barometer.
The e preceding the r is kept in American inflected forms of nouns and verbs, for example, fibers, reconnoitered, centering, which are fibres, reconnoitred, and centring respectively in British English. Centring is an interesting example, since, according to the OED, it is a "word... of 3 syllables (in careful pronunciation) '' (i.e., / ˈsɛntərɪŋ /), yet there is no vowel in the spelling corresponding to the second syllable (/ ə /). The three - syllable version is listed as only the American pronunciation of centering on the Oxford Dictionaries Online website. The e is dropped for other derivations, for example, central, fibrous, spectral. However, the existence of related words without e before the r is not proof for the existence of an - re British spelling: for example, entry and entrance come from enter, which has not been spelled entre for centuries.
The difference relates only to root words; - er rather than - re is universal as a suffix for agentive (reader, winner, user) and comparative (louder, nicer) forms. One outcome is the British distinction of meter for a measuring instrument from metre for the unit of length. However, while "poetic metre '' is often - re, pentameter, hexameter etc. are always - er.
Many other words have - er in British English. These include Germanic words; such as anger, mother, timber and water and Romance words danger, quarter and river.
The ending - cre, as in acre, lucre, massacre, and mediocre, is used in both British and American English to show that the c is pronounced / k / rather than / s /. The spellings ogre and euchre are also the same in both British and American English.
Theater is the prevailing American spelling used to refer to both the dramatic arts and buildings where stage performances and screenings of films take place (i.e., "movie theaters ''); for example, a national newspaper such as The New York Times would use theater in its entertainment section. However, the spelling theatre appears in the names of many New York City theaters on Broadway (cf. Broadway theatre) and elsewhere in the United States. In 2003, the American National Theatre was referred to by The New York Times as the "American National Theater '', but the organization uses "re '' in the spelling of its name. The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. has the more common American spelling theater in its references to The Eisenhower Theater, part of the Kennedy Center. Some cinemas outside New York also use the theatre spelling. (Note also that the word "theater '' in American English is a place where stage performances and screenings of films take place, but in British English a "theatre '' is where stage performances take place but not film screenings -- these take place in a cinema.)
Furthermore, the spelling theatre is sometimes used in the United States when referring to the art form of theatre, while the building itself, as noted above, generally is spelled theater. For example, the University of Wisconsin - Madison has a "Department of Theatre and Drama '', which offers courses that lead to the "Bachelor of Arts in Theatre '', and whose professed aim is "to prepare our graduate students for successful 21st Century careers in the theatre both as practitioners and scholars ''.
Some placenames in the United States use Centre in their names. Examples include the Stonebriar Centre mall, the cities of Rockville Centre and Centreville, Centre County and Centre College. Sometimes, these places were named before spelling changes but more often the spelling merely serves as an affectation.
For British accoutre, the American practice varies: the Merriam - Webster Dictionary prefers the - re spelling, but The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language prefers the - er spelling.
More recent French loanwords keep the - re spelling in American English. These are not exceptions when a French - style pronunciation is used (/ rə / rather than / ə (r) /), as with double entendre, genre and oeuvre. However, the unstressed / ə (r) / pronunciation of an - er ending is used more (or less) often with some words, including cadre, macabre, maître d ', Notre Dame, piastre, and timbre.
The - re endings are mostly standard throughout the Commonwealth. The - er spellings are recognized as minor variants in Canada, partly due to American influence, and are sometimes used in proper names (such as Toronto 's controversially named Centerpoint Mall).
For advice / advise and device / devise, American English and British English both keep the noun -- verb distinction both graphically and phonetically (where the pronunciation is - / s / for the noun and - / z / for the verb). For licence / license or practice / practise, British English also keeps the noun -- verb distinction graphically (although phonetically the two words in each pair are homophones with - / s / pronunciation). On the other hand, American English uses license and practice for both nouns and verbs (with - / s / pronunciation in both cases too).
American English has kept the Anglo - French spelling for defense and offense, which are defence and offence in British English. Likewise, there are the American pretense and British pretence; but derivatives such as defensive, offensive, and pretension are always thus spelled in both systems.
Australian and Canadian usage generally follows British.
The spelling connexion is now rare in everyday British usage, its use lessening as knowledge of Latin lessens, and it is not used at all in the US: the more common connection has become the standard worldwide. According to the Oxford English Dictionary the older spelling is more etymologically conservative, since the original Latin word had - xio -. The American usage comes from Webster, who abandoned - xion and preferred - ction. Connexion was still the house style of The Times of London until the 1980s and was still used by the British Post Office for its telephone services in the 1970s, but had by then been overtaken by connection in regular usage (for example, in more popular newspapers).
Complexion (which comes from complex) is standard worldwide and complection is rare. However, the adjective complected (as in "dark - complected ''), although sometimes objected to, is standard in the US as an alternative to complexioned, but is not used in this way in the UK, although there is a rare usage to mean complicated.
In some cases, words with "old - fashioned '' spellings are retained widely in the US for historical reasons (cf. connexionalism).
Many words, especially medical words, that are written with ae / æ or oe / œ in British English are written with just an e in American English. The sounds in question are / iː / or / ɛ / (or, unstressed, / i /, / ɪ / or / ə /). Examples (with non-American letter in bold): aeon, anaemia, anaesthesia, caecum, caesium, coeliac, diarrhoea, encyclopaedia, faeces, foetal, gynaecology, haemoglobin, haemophilia, leukaemia, oesophagus, oestrogen, orthopaedic (Although in the U.S., the majority of college, university, and residency programs, and even the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, still use the spelling with the digraph ae, though hospitals usually use the shortened form.), palaeontology, paediatric, paedophile. Oenology is acceptable in American English but is deemed a minor variant of enology, whereas although archeology and ameba exist in American English, the British versions archaeology and amoeba are more common. The chemical haem (named as a shortening of haemoglobin) is spelled heme in American English, to avoid confusion with hem.
Words that can be spelled either way in American English include aesthetics and archaeology (which usually prevail over esthetics and archeology), as well as palaestra, for which the simplified form palestra is described by Merriam - Webster as "chiefly Brit (ish). ''
Words that can be spelled either way in British English include encyclopaedia, homoeopathy, chamaeleon, mediaeval (a minor variant in both AmE and BrE), foetid and foetus. The spellings foetus and foetal are Britishisms based on a mistaken etymology. The etymologically correct original spelling fetus reflects the Latin original and is the standard spelling in medical journals worldwide, the Oxford English Dictionary notes that "In Latin manuscripts both fētus and foetus are used ''.
The Ancient Greek diphthongs < αι > and < οι > were transliterated into Latin as < ae > and < oe >. The ligatures æ and œ were introduced when the sounds became monophthongs, and later applied to words not of Greek origin, in both Latin (for example, cœli) and French (for example, œuvre). In English, which has adopted words from all three languages, it is now usual to replace Æ / æ with Ae / ae and Œ / œ with Oe / oe. In many words, the digraph has been reduced to a lone e in all varieties of English: for example, oeconomics, praemium, and aenigma. In others, it is kept in all varieties: for example, phoenix, and usually subpoena, but Phenix in Virginia. This is especially true of names: Caesar, Oedipus, Phoebe, etc. There is no reduction of Latin - ae plurals (e.g., larvae); nor where the digraph < ae > / < oe > does not result from the Greek - style ligature: for example, maelstrom, toe. The British form aeroplane is an instance (compare other aero - words such as aerosol). The now chiefly North American airplane is not a respelling but a recoining, modelled after airship and aircraft. The word airplane dates from 1907, at which time the prefix aero - was trisyllabic, often written aëro -.
The - ize spelling is often incorrectly seen as an Americanism in Britain, although it has been in use since the 15th century, predating - ise by over a century. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) recommends - ize and notes that the - ise spelling is from French: "The suffix... whatever the element to which it is added, is in its origin the Greek - ιζειν, Latin - izāre; and, as the pronunciation is also with z, there is no reason why in English the special French spelling should be followed, in opposition to that which is at once etymological and phonetic. '' The OED lists the - ise form as an alternative.
Publications by Oxford University Press (OUP) -- such as Henry Watson Fowler 's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, Hart 's Rules, and The Oxford Guide to English Usage -- also recommend - ize. However, Robert Allan 's Pocket Fowler 's Modern English Usage considers either spelling to be acceptable anywhere but the US. Also, Oxford University itself does not agree with the OUP, but advocates - ise instead of - ize in its staff style guide.
American spelling avoids - ise endings in words like organize, realize and recognize.
British spelling mostly uses - ise, while - ize is also used (organise / organize, realise / realize, recognise / recognize): the ratio between - ise and - ize stood at 3: 2 in the British National Corpus up to 2002. The spelling - ise is more commonly used in UK mass media and newspapers, including The Times (which switched conventions in 1992), The Daily Telegraph and The Economist. Meanwhile, - ize is used in some British - based academic publications, such as Nature, the Biochemical Journal and The Times Literary Supplement. The minority British English usage of - ize is known as Oxford spelling and is used in publications of the Oxford University Press, most notably the Oxford English Dictionary, and of other academic publishers. It can be identified using the IETF language tag en - GB - oxendict (or, historically, by en - GB - oed).
In Canada, the - ize ending is more common, whereas in Ireland, India, Australia and New Zealand - ise spellings strongly prevail: the - ise form is preferred in Australian English at a ratio of about 3: 1 according to the Macquarie Dictionary.
The same applies to derivatives and inflections such as colonisation / colonization, or modernisation / modernization
Worldwide, - ize endings prevail in scientific writing and are commonly used by many international organizations, such as the United Nations Organizations (such as the World Health Organization and the International Civil Aviation Organization) and the International Organization for Standardization (but not by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). The European Union 's style guides require the usage of - ise. Proofreaders at the EU 's Publications Office ensure consistent spelling in official publications such as the Official Journal (where legislation and other official documents are published), but the - ize spelling may be found in other documents.
Some verbs ending in - ize or - ise do not come from Greek - ιζειν, and their endings are therefore not interchangeable:
Some words spelled with - ize in American English are not used in British English, etc., e.g., the verb burglarize, regularly formed on the noun burglar, where the equivalent in British, and other versions of, English is the back - formation burgle and not burglarise.
The ending - yse is British and - yze is American. Thus, in British English analyse, catalyse, hydrolyse and paralyse, but in American English analyze, catalyze, hydrolyze and paralyze.
Analyse seems to have been the more common spelling in 17th - and 18th - century English, but many of the great dictionaries of that time -- John Kersey 's of 1702, Nathan Bailey 's of 1721 and Samuel Johnson 's of 1755 -- prefer analyze. In Canada, - yze prevails, just as in the US. In South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, - yse stands alone.
English verbs ending in - lyse or - lyze are not similar to the Greek verb, which is λύω lúō ("I release ''). Instead they come from the noun form λύσις lysis with the - ise or - ize suffix. For example, analyse comes from French analyser, formed by haplology from the French analysiser, which would be spelled analysise or analysize in English.
Hart 's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford states: "In verbs such as analyse, catalyse, paralyse, - lys - is part of the Greek stem (corresponding to the element - lusis) and not a suffix like - ize. The spelling - yze is therefore etymologically incorrect, and must not be used, unless American printing style is being followed. ''
British and other Commonwealth English uses the ending - logue while American English commonly uses the ending - log for words like analog (ue), catalog (ue), dialog (ue), monolog (ue), homolog (ue), etc. The - gue spelling, as in catalogue, is used in the US, but catalog is more common. Additionally, in American English, dialogue is an extremely common spelling compared to dialog, although both are treated as acceptable ways to spell the word. (thus the inflected forms, cataloged and cataloging vs. catalogued and cataloguing). Words like demagogue, pedagogue, and synagogue are seldom used without - ue even in American English.
In Australia, analog is standard for the adjective, but both analogue and analog are current for the noun; in all other cases the - gue endings strongly prevail, for example monologue, except for such expressions as dialog box in computing, which are also used in the UK. In Australia, analog is used in its technical and electronic sense, as in analog electronics. In Canada and New Zealand, analogue is used, but analog has some currency as a technical term (e.g., in electronics, as in "analog electronics '' as opposed to "digital electronics '' and some video - game consoles might have an analog stick). The - ue is absent worldwide in related words like analogy, analogous, and analogist.
Both British and American English use the spelling - gue with a silent - ue for certain words that are not part of the - ogue set, such as tongue (cf. tong), plague, vague, and league. In addition, when the - ue is not silent, as in the words argue, ague and segue, all varieties of English use - gue.
In Canada, e is usually preferred over oe and often over ae, but oe and ae are sometimes found in the academic and scientific writing as well as government publications (for example the fee schedule of the Ontario Health Insurance Plan). In Australia, encyclopedia and medieval are spelled with e rather than ae, as with American usage, and the Macquarie Dictionary also notes a growing tendency towards replacing ae and oe with e worldwide. Elsewhere, the British usage prevails, but the spellings with just e are increasingly used. Manoeuvre is the only spelling in Australia, and the most common one in Canada, where maneuver and manoeuver are also sometimes found.
The final consonant of an English word is sometimes doubled in both American and British spelling when adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, for example strip / stripped, which prevents confusion with stripe / striped and shows the difference in pronunciation (see digraph). Generally, this happens only when the word 's final syllable is stressed and when it also ends with a lone vowel followed by a lone consonant. In British English, however, a final - l is often doubled even when the final syllable is unstressed. This exception is no longer usual in American English, seemingly because of Noah Webster. The - ll - spellings are nevertheless still deemed acceptable variants by both Merriam - Webster Collegiate and American Heritage dictionaries.
Among consonants other than l, practice varies for some words, such as where the final syllable has secondary stress or an unreduced vowel. In the United States, the spellings kidnaped and worshiped, which were introduced by the Chicago Tribune in the 1920s, are common, but kidnapped and worshipped prevail. Kidnapped and worshipped are the only standard British spellings. However, focused is the predominant spelling in both British and American English, focussed being just a minor variant in British English.
Miscellaneous:
Conversely, there are words where British writers prefer a single l and Americans a double l. In American usage, the spelling of words is usually not changed when they form the main part (not prefix or suffix) of other words, especially in newly formed words and in words whose main part is in common use. Words with this spelling difference include wil (l) ful, skil (l) ful, thral (l) dom, appal (l), fulfil (l), fulfil (l) ment, enrol (l) ment, instal (l) ment. These words have monosyllabic cognates always written with - ll: will, skill, thrall, pall, fill, roll, stall. Cases where a single l nevertheless occurs in both American and British English include null → annul, annulment; till → until (although some prefer til to reflect the single l in until, sometimes using an apostrophe (' til); this should be considered a hypercorrection as till predates the use of until); and others where the connection is not clear or the monosyllabic cognate is not in common use in American English (e.g., null is used mainly as a technical term in law, mathematics, and computer science).
In the UK, a single l is generally preferred in distil (l), instil (l), enrol (l), and enthral (l) ment, and enthral (l), although ll was formerly used; these are always spelled with ll in American usage. The former British spellings instal, fulness, and dulness are now quite rare. The Scottish tolbooth is cognate with tollbooth, but it has a distinct meaning.
In both American and British usages, words normally spelled - ll usually drop the second l when used as prefixes or suffixes, for example full → useful, handful; all → almighty, altogether; well → welfare, welcome; chill → chilblain.
Both the British fulfil and the American fulfill never use - ll - in the middle (i.e., * fullfill and * fullfil are incorrect).
Johnson wavered on this issue. His dictionary of 1755 lemmatizes distil and instill, downhil and uphill.
British English sometimes keeps silent "e '' when adding suffixes where American English does not. Generally speaking, British English drops it in only some cases in which it is needed to show pronunciation whereas American English only uses it where needed.
Both forms of English keep the silent "e '' in the words dyeing, singeing, and swingeing (in the sense of dye, singe, and swinge), to distinguish from dying, singing, swinging (in the sense of die, sing, and swing). In contrast, the verb bathe and the British verb bath both form bathing. Both forms of English vary for tinge and twinge; both prefer cringing, hinging, lunging, syringing.
A "c '' is generally soft when followed by an "e '', "i '', or "y ''. One word with a pronunciation that is an exception in British English, "sceptic '', is spelled "skeptic '' in American English. See Miscellaneous spelling differences below.
In the UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, it is more common to end some past tense verbs with a "t '' as in learnt or dreamt rather than learned or dreamed. However, such spellings are also found in American English.
Several verbs have different past tenses or past participles in American and British English:
See also meter / metre, for which there is a British English distinction between these etymologically related forms with different meanings ("meter '' being a measuring instrument, for example an ammeter or a water meter) but the standard American spelling is "meter ''. The spelling used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is "metre ''. This spelling is also the usual one for the unit of length in most English - speaking countries, but only the spelling "meter '' is used in American English, and this is officially endorsed by the United States.
In a few cases, essentially the same word has a different spelling that reflects a different pronunciation.
As well as the miscellaneous cases listed in the following table, the past tenses of some irregular verbs differ in both spelling and pronunciation, as with smelt (UK) versus smelled (US) (see American and British English differences: Verb morphology).
In the table below, the main spellings are above the accepted alternative spellings.
American English uses draft in all these cases. Canada uses both systems; in Australia, draft is used for technical drawings, is accepted for the "current of air '' meaning, and is preferred by professionals in the nautical sense. The pronunciation is always the same for all meanings within a dialect (RP / drɑːft /, General American / dræft /).
The spelling draught reflects the older pronunciation, / drɑːxt /. Draft emerged in the 16th century to reflect the change in pronunciation.
In the COBOL programming language, THRU is accepted as an abbreviation of the keyword THROUGH. Since programmers like to keep their code brief, THRU is generally the preferred form of this keyword.
British English often prefers hyphenated compounds, such as anti-smoking, whereas American English discourages the use of hyphens in compounds where there is no compelling reason, so antismoking is much more common. Many dictionaries do not point out such differences. Canadian and Australian usage is mixed, although Commonwealth writers generally hyphenate compounds of the form noun plus phrase (such as editor - in - chief). Commander - in - chief prevails in all forms of English.
Compound verbs in British English are hyphenated more often than in American English.
Acronyms pronounced as words are often written in title case by Commonwealth writers, but usually as upper case by Americans: for example, Nasa / NASA or Unicef / UNICEF. This does not apply to abbreviations that are pronounced as individual letters (referred to by some as "initialisms ''), such as US, IBM, or PRC (the People 's Republic of China), which are virtually always written as upper case. However, sometimes title case is still used in the UK, such as Pc (Police Constable).
Contractions where the final letter is present are often written in British English without full stops / periods (Mr, Mrs, Dr, St, Ave). Abbreviations where the final letter is not present generally do take full stops / periods (such as vol., etc., i.e., ed.); British English shares this convention with the French: Mlle, Mme, Dr, Ste, but M. for Monsieur. In American and Canadian English, abbreviations like St., Ave., Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., and Jr., usually require full stops / periods. Some initials are usually upper case in the US but lower case in the UK: liter / litre and its compounds (2 L or 25 mL vs 2 l or 25 ml); and ante meridiem and post meridiem (10 P.M. or 10 PM vs 10 p.m. or 10 pm). Both AM / PM and a.m. / p.m. are acceptable in American English, but U.S. style guides overwhelmingly prefer a.m. / p.m.
The use of quotation marks, also called inverted commas or speech marks, is complicated by the fact that there are two kinds: single quotation marks (') and double quotation marks ("). British usage, at one stage in the recent past, preferred single quotation marks for ordinary use, but double quotation marks are again now increasingly common; American usage has always preferred double quotation marks, as have Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand English. It is the practice to alternate the type of quotation marks used where there is a quotation within a quotation.
The convention used to be, and in American English still is, to put full stops (periods) and commas inside the quotation marks, irrespective of the sense. British English has moved away from this style while American English has kept it. British style now prefers to punctuate according to the sense, in which punctuation marks only appear inside quotation marks if they were there in the original. Formal British English practice requires a full stop to be put inside the quotation marks if the quoted item is a full sentence that ends where the main sentence ends, but it is common to see the stop outside the ending quotation marks.
|
what does m stand for in m&m's candy | M&M 's - wikipedia
M&M 's are "colorful button - shaped chocolates '', each of which has the letter "m '' printed in lower case on one side, surrounding a filling which varies depending upon the variety of M&M 's. The original candy had a milk chocolate filling which, upon introducing other variations, was branded as the "plain '' variety. "Peanut '' M&M 's, which feature a peanut coated in milk chocolate, and finally a candy shell, were the first variation to be introduced, and they remain a regular variety. Numerous other variations have been introduced, some of which are regular widespread varieties (such as "peanut butter '', "almond '', "pretzel '', "crispy '', "dark chocolate '', and "caramel '') while others are limited in duration or geographic availability.
M&M 's is the flagship product of the Mars Wrigley Confectionery division of Mars, Incorporated. The candy originated in the United States in 1941, and are sold in over 100 countries, since 2003. More than 400 million individual M&M 's are produced every day in the United States. They are produced in different colors, some of which have changed over the years. The candy - coated chocolate concept was inspired by a method used to allow soldiers to carry chocolate in warm climates without having it melt. The company 's longest - lasting slogan reflects this: "Melts in your mouth, not in your hand. '' A traditional milk chocolate M&M weighs about 0.91 grams / 0.032 ounces and has about 4.7 kilocalories (kcal) of food energy (1.7 kcal from fat).
Forrest Mars, Sr., son of the Mars Company founder, Frank C. Mars, copied the idea for the candy in the 1930s during the Spanish Civil War when he saw soldiers eating British - made Smarties, chocolate pellets with a colored shell of what confectioners call hard panning (essentially hardened sugar syrup) surrounding the outside, preventing the candies from melting. Mars received a patent for his own process on March 3, 1941. Production began in 1941 in a factory located at 285 Badger Avenue in Clinton Hill, Newark, New Jersey. When the company was founded it was M&M Limited. The two "Ms '' represent the names of Forrest E. Mars Sr., the founder of Newark Company, and Bruce Murrie, son of Hershey Chocolate 's president William F.R. Murrie, who had a 20 percent share in the product. The arrangement allowed the candies to be made with Hershey chocolate, as Hershey had control of the rationed chocolate at the time.
The company 's first big customer was the U.S. army, which saw the invention as a way to allow soldiers to carry chocolate in tropical climates without it melting. During World War II, the candies were exclusively sold to the military. The resulting demand for the candies caused an increase in production and the company moved its factory to bigger quarters at 200 North 12th Street in Newark, New Jersey, where it remained until 1958 when it moved to a bigger factory at Hackettstown.
In 1949, the brand released the tagline "Melts in your mouth, not in your hand. ''
In 1950, a black "M '' was imprinted on the candies giving them a unique trademark. It was changed to white in 1954.
In the early 1950s, the Midwest Research Institute (now MRIGlobal) in Kansas City, Missouri, worked on behalf of M&M 's to perfect a process whereby 3,300 pounds (1,500 kg) of chocolate centers could be coated every hour.
Peanut M&M 's were introduced in 1954 but first appeared only in the color tan. In 1960, M&M 's added the yellow, red, and green colors.
In 1976, the color orange was added to the mix to replace red, which was discontinued in response to the "red dye scare '' over Red Dyes # 2 and # 4 having been evaluated to be carcinogenic in nature. Although M&M 's were made with the less controversial Red Dye # 40, the public was wary of any food being dyed red. Red M&M 's were re-introduced in 1987.
In the 1980s, M&M 's were introduced internationally to Australia, Canada, Europe, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, and the United Kingdom.
Although they were marketed and then withdrawn in the 1960s, almond - centered M&M 's were available again in 1988 in limited release, with appearances only during Christmas and Easter times; they became a standard part of the product line in 1992.
Also in 1986, M&M 's launched Holidays Chocolate Candies for Easter and Christmas, with the Easter candies having bunny, chick, and egg symbols on pastel - colored shells, and the Christmas candies having pine tree, bell, and candle symbols on red and green shells; with the latter also having a special mint flavor. By 1993, the holiday symbols were replaced with the standard trademark "M ''.
In 1991, Peanut Butter M&M 's were released. These candies have peanut butter inside the chocolate center and the same color scheme as the other varieties. As of at least 2013, the size of the peanut butter M&M has become slightly smaller.
In 1995, tan M&Ms were discontinued to be replaced by blue.
In 1996, Mars introduced "M&M 's Minis '', smaller candies usually sold in plastic tubes instead of bags.
In 1999, Crispy M&M 's were released. They were slightly larger than the milk chocolate variety and also featured a crispy wafer center. They were discontinued in the United States in 2005 and remained available in Europe, and Southeast Asia. In January 2015, they returned to production in the United States.
In July 2001, Dulce de Leche M&M 's were introduced in five markets with large Hispanic populations: Los Angeles, California; San Diego, California; Miami, Florida; Mcallen - Brownsville, Texas; and San Antonio, Texas. The flavor never became popular with the Hispanic community, who preferred existing M&M 's flavors, and it was discontinued in most areas by early 2003.
In 2010, Pretzel M&M 's were released. They contain a crunchy, salty pretzel center inside of the chocolate coating and are about the same size as the Peanut M&M 's, but their shape tends to be more spherical.
In 2013, the M&M 's chocolate bar was re-released. It was originally released in 2004 and named M - Azing.
In 2014, Mega M&M 's were re-introduced. Before then, the ' Mega M&M 's ' had been released in 2007 promoting the Shrek Movies, being dubbed "Ogre - Sized M&M 's ''.
In 2015, Crispy M&M 's were re-introduced in the United States. They had remained available continuously in Europe and Australia.
In 2016, the M&M cookie was re-introduced in the United States.
Also in 2016, the M&M 's flavor vote was created in which the fans could vote for either honey, coffee, or chili nut M&M 's to go with peanut M&M 's. Coffee Nuts was announced as the winner by VEEP 's Tony Hale.
In April 2017, M&M 's chocolate blocks went on sale in Australia. Six varieties (milk chocolate, strawberry, crispy, hazelnut, crispy mint and almond) are available.
Also in 2017, Caramel M&M 's were released in the United States.
In May 2018, Variety Pack M&M 's were released. They consist of a combination of M&M 's, Peanut M&M 's, Caramel M&M 's, Pretzel M&M 's, and Peanut Butter M&M 's.
M&M 's varieties have included the following sizes and fillings. Note that some have only been made available for a limited time, such as white cheesecake for Easter, pumpkin spice or white candy corn for Halloween, and White Strawberry Shortcake for Valentine 's Day.
Over the years, marketing has helped build and expand the M&M 's brand. Computer - animated graphics, personification of the candies as characters with cartoon - like storytelling, and various merchandising techniques including the introduction of new flavors, colors and customizable merchandise have helped to increase the brand 's recognition as a candy icon.
In 1982, the Mars candy bar company rejected the inclusion of M&M 's in the new Steven Spielberg movie E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial. Competitor Hershey, on the other hand, took a chance with their Reese 's Pieces, which is similar to M&M 's but contains a peanut butter filling, and with the blockbuster success, its candy sales dramatically increased, perhaps by as much as 300 %.
In the early 1980s, its slogan was "All the World Loves M&M 's, '' accompanied by a TV jingle of the same name. Actor Joel Higgins, then co-starring in the NBC - TV sitcom Silver Spoons, co-wrote the song.
In 1990, M&M 's exhibited at New York 's Erie County Fair a life - size fiberglass cow covered with 66,000 M&M candies -- each adhered by hand with the "m '' logo on each candy facing outward. According to a website run by the cow 's designer, Michael Adams, the stunt earned M&M Mars $1 million in free publicity because it was reported on by Newsweek magazine, as well as the New York Post, UPI and WABC - TV, and Live with Regis.
In 1995, the company ran the M&M 's Color Campaign, a contest in which participants were given the choice of selecting purple, blue, or pink as the color of a new variety of M&M 's. The announcement of the winning color (blue) was carried on most of the television networks ' news programs as well as the talk shows of David Letterman and Jay Leno. As part of the contest results, the company had the Empire State Building lighted in blue. Although the financial details of these deals were not disclosed and neither was the campaign 's effect on sales, one marketing book estimated that the company "collected millions '' in free publicity and that the campaign "certainly '' resulted in an increasing of the brand 's awareness.
In 1998, M&M 's were styled as "The Official Candy of the New Millennium, '' as MM is the Roman numeral for 2000. This date was also the release of the rainbow M&M 's, which are multi-colored and filled with a variety of different fillings.
In 2000, "Plain '' M&M 's (a name created in 1954 when "Peanut '' M&M 's were introduced) were renamed "Milk Chocolate '' M&M 's, and pictures of the candy pieces were added to the traditional brown and white packaging.
In 2004, M&M 's adopted the 1967 Petula Clark song Colour My World for its TV ads, albeit using newly recorded versions with other singers.
In 1990, Mars Snackfood US signed up to be a sponsor for NASCAR in the Sprint Cup Series. Drivers for the M&M 's - sponsored car through the years have included Ernie Irvan (1999), Ken Schrader (2000 -- 02), Eliott Sadler (2003 -- 06), Ricky Rudd (2007), David Gilliland (2006 -- 07), Kyle Busch (2008 - current, won 2015 Sprint Cup Series Championship), and Michael McDowell.
The introduction of the blue M&M to Australia was promoted by the Australian Football League 's Carlton Football Club, which wore sky - blue colored guernseys in one of its matches in 1997 instead of its traditional navy blue -- a color which the successful and fiercely traditional club had worn since the 1870s. In 2010, Mars Snackfood Australia described it as the most successful promotional campaign it had ever engaged in.
In April 2005, M&M 's ran the "mPire '' promotion to tie in with the Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith movie release. M&M 's were offered in dark chocolate varieties (Regular and Peanut) for the first time after a string of Addams Family M&M 's commercials.
In May 2004, M&M 's ran a Shrek 2 promotion to tie in with the movie 's release. M&M 's were offered "ogre - sized '' (65 % larger) in swamp / ogre colors. They were sold at many stores displayed in huge cardboard - cutout ogre displays.
In the summer of 2005, Mars added "Mega M&M 's '' to the lineup. These candies, at 55 % larger than the traditional M&M 's, were a little smaller than the ogre - sized version. They were available in milk chocolate and peanut varieties. The colors for Mega M&M 's were changed to less - bright colors, ostensibly to appeal to older consumers: teal (replacing green), beige (replacing orange), maroon (replacing red), gold (replacing yellow), blue - gray (replacing blue), and brown.
In July 2006, Dark Chocolate M&M 's reappeared in a purple package, followed in 2007 by Dark Chocolate Peanut M&M 's. Also in 2006, the company piloted White Chocolate M&M 's as a tie - in with their "Pirates of the Caribbean '' promotion. The company also offered eight new flavors of M&M 's via online sales, as well as at M&M 's World locations: "All That Razz ''; "Eat, Drink, & Be Cherry ''; "A Day at the Peach ''; "Orange - U-Glad ''; "Mint Condition ''; "AlmonDeeLicious ''; "Nut What You Think ''; and "Cookie Monster ''. Mars also released a "Crispy Mint '' variety in Australia that year.
Also in 2006, M&M 's became the official chocolate of NASCAR.
In 2007, M&M 's introduced a limited - edition raspberry flavor called "M&M 's Razzberry Chocolate Candies ''.
Also in 2007, M&M 's produced a 50 - foot, smiling Lady Liberty M&M statue to kick off a campaign encouraging Americans to create their own M&M characters at mms.com. The website allows for people to log in and create their own character from scratch. They can choose features such as the color, shape, hair, and accessories.
In 2008, two limited - edition varieties of the candy were introduced -- "Wildly Cherry '' M&M 's, and, as a marketing tie - in with the film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, "Mint Crisp '' M&M 's.
M&M 's also introduced another new product called "M&M 's Premiums '' in 2008. They come in five flavors -- chocolate almond, mint chocolate, mocha, raspberry almond, and triple chocolate (milk, dark, and white chocolate), which are sold in small upright cartons with a plastic bag inside. M&M 's Premiums do not have a candy shell but are coated with carnauba wax and color. Dark Chocolate was added in 2009, replacing Mocha.
During the summer of 2008, My M&M 's launched ' Faces, ' which allows consumers to print the faces of loved ones on M&M 's chocolate candies at mymms.com.
In February 2009, M&M 's launched the "M&M 's Colour Break - Up '' promotion in Australia where M&M 's were sold in separate packs (one for each color): the packs included a code to win prizes.
In Summer 2009, M&M 's launched a limited - edition "Strawberried Peanut Butter '' variant to tie in with the release of Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. In addition, M&M 's launched a limited edition "Coconut M&M 's, '' which became a permanent item in 2010.
In early 2010, M&M 's Bare All were released as part of a competition in Australia and New Zealand. M&M 's Bare All winning packs were ordinary M&M 's, but without colored shells. An official website was launched, along with television advertisements. In April 2010, M&M 's launched a new pretzel variety.
In November 2011, Mars released M&M 's Cinnamon Milk Chocolate for Christmas.
About the time pretzel M&M 's came out, the M&M 's wrapper designs in the U.S. were redone, from the old design, used from 2004 - early 2010.
In 2012, M&M 's released two new Dark Chocolate flavors: Raspberry and Mint. Also that year, M&M 's released a White Chocolate flavor for the Easter season. From May 30, 2012, onwards, M&M 's will be launched in Macau. Its Macanese launch language is Portuguese. In 2012, Peanut M&M 's were produced in the UK in a limited edition "Red, White and Blues only '' pack, in connection with the country 's Diamond Jubilee and 2012 Summer Olympics. The ' M ' remains white on the white candies. The commercial advertising this promotional package had Yellow donning various outfits of British stereotypes to try to get into the limited edition pack. Similarly, to promote the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Peanut M&M 's were produced in a pack that contained only green, yellow, and blue candies, dubbed "Brazilian M&M 's '' in reference to the colors of the flag of Brazil. "Brazilian M&M 's '' were re-released in 2016 to promote the 2016 Summer Olympics, but are now available in both Chocolate and Peanut.
In 2013, M&M 's launched the "Better with M '' campaign, which included cause - related marketing. The campaign worked with Habitat for Humanity and encouraged fans to use a Facebook app to volunteer at the various sites where the homes were being built. The advertising campaign was one of the largest that Mars had ever executed. The 2013 "America Better With M '' initiative sough to provide money directly to Habitat for Humanity through offering limited versions of M&Ms in red, white and blue.
Related candy brands from Mars include Minstrels, Revels, Skittles, and Treets.
M&M 's World specialty shops have been established in some locations, including Las Vegas, Orlando, New York, London, and Shanghai.
Several M&Ms - themed video games have been created. The first was M&M 's: The Lost Formulas, released on September 28, 2000.
Early black - and - white adverts for the candy in 1954 featured two talking, anthropomorphic M&M characters -- one plain and one peanut -- diving into a swimming pool full of chocolate.
The first incarnation of the characters in CGI was a 1994 celebrity campaign which had the characters interacting with celebrities on which M&Ms candy color is their favorite. This campaign was created by Blue Sky Studios. Concurrent with 1995 's blue M&M campaign, M&M 's introduced second computer - animated "spokescandies '' in their television commercials. The depiction and campaign of the M&M 's were made by Will Vinton in 1995. Vinton previously created the clay - animation California Raisins in 1986. Around the time he worked on CGI projects, he made the depiction of the M&M 's as more mature than most food mascots. These include the team of the cynical and sardonic Red (originally voiced by Jon Lovitz, thereafter Billy West) who is the mascot for milk chocolate, peanut butter, and crispy M&M 's, and the happy and gullible Yellow (originally voiced by John Goodman, thereafter J.K. Simmons), who is the mascot for peanut M&M 's (he was originally known as "Peanut '' when first introduced). Other mascots include the "cool one '', Blue (voiced by Phil Hartman until his death in 1998, thereafter Robb Pruitt) who is the mascot for almond M&M 's; the seductive Green (voiced by Cree Summer), who is the mascot for both dark chocolate mint and peanut butter M&M 's, and the slightly neurotic Orange (voiced by Eric Kirchberger), who was introduced when Crispy M&M 's were first released and returned when Pretzel M&M 's debuted in 2010. Orange, upon his return, was joined by the second non-M&M mascot, Pretzel Guy (voiced by Maurice LaMarche), who "supports '' him and offers helpful advice as he hates the idea of having a pretzel put inside his body.
Other mascots that were introduced, but no longer used, are Almond, the original green guy; Orange, a female peanut character, Chocolate Bar; the first non-M&M character that always gets foiled or outdone by Red and Yellow by being melted when M&M 's ca n't, and the Swarmees for M&M 's Minis candies, which are portrayed as destructive yet crafty troublemakers who Red and Yellow are always trying unsuccessfully to contain.
Female M&M 's mascots were introduced in 1995. Green was the milk chocolate mascot and Tan was the peanut. Marketing discontinued Tan when they introduced the then - new Blue mascot. Green was the only female M&M 's mascot from her introduction in 1995 until 2012 when M&M 's unveiled a new additional spokescandy, the businesslike Ms. Brown (voiced by Miss America 1984 Vanessa Williams), the "Chief Chocolate Officer. '' She made her debut in a Super Bowl XLVI advertisement, where several people at a party assume she is naked because her shell is the same color as her insides, which causes Red to remove his outer shell thinking "it 's that kind of party '', and start dancing to the LMFAO song "Sexy And I Know It. ''
During a Super Bowl LII advertisement, Red was transformed into a human after finding a lucky penny and wishing he was inedible. As a human, he is portrayed by Danny DeVito.
The original colors of M&M 's candies were red, yellow, violet, green and brown.
In 1976, the Food and Drug Administration released a study that linked red dye 2 in food coloring to cancer. Though Mars did not use this dye, they decided to pull the red M&M 's from the market to avoid possible misunderstandings. The red candy were reintroduced to the market ten years later.
In early 1995, Mars ran a promotion in which consumers were invited to vote on which of blue, pink, or purple would replace the tan M&M 's. Blue was the winner with 54 % of the votes. It replaced tan in late 1995. Consumers could vote by calling 1 - 800 - FUN - COLOR. Ads for the new blue colors featured a plain and an almond blue M&M character as Red and Yellow take notice of trying to do takes in the commercial by painting themselves blue where they appear on stage with B.B. King singing the blues, but the filmmakers had to cut the scene as they were not the real blue M&M 's; another featured Red and Yellow holding their breath to look like the new blue M&M 's, where Steven Weber sees the three M&M 's, Red, Yellow, and Blue; and one more featuring Weber talking to the blue M&M if he had dived into the chocolate pool, but did not.
In 2002, Mars solicited votes in their first ever "M&M 's Global Color Vote '' to add a new color from three choices: aqua (turquoise), pink, and purple. Purple won and was featured for a limited time. To help the colors get votes, Ken Schrader and his MB2 Motorsports team, who was sponsored by M&M 's at the time, ran four paint schemes during the 2002 NASCAR Winston Cup Series season representing the promotion (one for aqua, one for pink, one for purple, and another one with all three colors on the car.) Specially marked packages of M&M 's were released in Japan. Finding a bag of all purple M&M 's entitled the customer to a prize of 100 million yen (equivalent to approximately USD $852,000).
On January 1, 2004, at the stroke of midnight, Mars removed all of the colors of M&M 's and made them black - and - white on both their candies and the packaging. It coincided with a commercial parodying The Wizard of Oz where Dorothy is home in bed and looks out of the window and sees what the colors of the four M&M 's were. The goal was to help the M&M 's find their colors in black - and - white packages of M&M 's, in this order: brown, orange, red, green, yellow, and blue. After all of the colors have been found, the colored packaging returned, and began carrying the theme "Chocolate is better in color ''.
Since 2004, M&M 's have been available online in 17 colors, with personalized phrases on each candy on the opposite side from the "m ''. Released around Christmas, these custom - printed M&M 's were originally intended for holiday greetings, but are now available all year round.
For the 2008 Valentine 's Day season, Mars introduced all - green bags of M&M 's. This was due to common urban folklore that says green M&M 's are an aphrodisiac. They were brought back for 2009 alongside the "Ms. Green Heats Up Valentine 's Day '' contest.
In October 2011, Mars released M&M 's White Chocolate Candy Corn exclusively in the United States for Halloween. These candies come in three candy corn inspired colors: white, bright yellow, and bright orange.
The following is a summary of the changes to the colors of the flagship (milk chocolate) flavor of M&M 's, the only filling manufactured continuously since the beginning of the brand. From 1941 until 1969, each package contained M&M 's in five different colors; when red M&M 's were reintroduced in 1987, they were added as a sixth color instead of replacing any of the existing colors.
Red candies were eliminated in 1976 because of health concerns over the dye amaranth (FD&C Red # 2), which was a suspected carcinogen, and were replaced with orange - colored candies. This was done despite the fact that M&M 's did not contain the dye; the action was purely to satisfy worried consumers. Red candies were reintroduced ten years later, but they also kept the orange colored M&M 's. Paul Hethmon, then a student at University of Tennessee, started the campaign to bring back red M&M 's as a joke that would eventually become a worldwide phenomenon.
In Europe, red M&M 's contain the red dye carmine (E120). Carmine, also known as cochineal, has had some campaigns launched against its use in food, because it is made from crushed insects. Notably, Starbucks in the UK had a campaign launched against it for using carmine.
|
who sang i'll still be loving you | I 'll Still Be Loving You - Wikipedia
"I 'll Still Be Loving You '' is a song recorded by American country music group Restless Heart. It was released in January 1987 as the second single from the album, Wheels. The song was written by Todd Cerney, Pam Rose, Mary Ann Kennedy, & Pat Bunch and was Restless Heart 's second number one country single. It went to number 1 on Hot Country Songs for one week and spent 25 weeks on the chart.
The single also was a smash hit on the Adult Contemporary chart and gave the band their first exposure on the pop charts, where it became their first top 40 single. It was the last country song to cross over to the Billboard Hot 100 until Billy Ray Cyrus ' "Achy Breaky Heart '' five years later.
|
how many times did steve martin host the oscars | List of Academy Awards ceremonies - wikipedia
This is a list of Academy Awards ceremonies.
This list is current as of the 90th Academy Awards ceremony held on March 4, 2018.
Beginning with the 7th Academy Awards, held in February 1935, each year 's awards are presented for films that were first shown during the full preceding calendar year from January 1 to December 31 in Los Angeles County, California. For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned twelve months from August 1 to July 31. For the 6th ceremony, held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1, 1932 to December 31, 1933.
When citing each ceremony, Academy conventions may either list the year (s) of its eligibility period, or the year in which the ceremony was actually held.
Partial broadcast of the 11th Academy Awards ceremony was shut down after about ten minutes because KHJ did not have permission to broadcast live. (The radio host was whispering the names of the winners as they were announced, out of sight in the balcony.) Later in the evening, at the conclusion of the ceremony, KHJ broadcast a full announcement of winners, live from the ceremony venue, as per its original agreement with the Academy.
The 17th Academy Awards marked the first coast - to - coast broadcast of the ceremony, and first broadcast of the complete event. All subsequent ceremonies have been broadcast nationally in the USA. This was also the first ceremony in which film clips were used to introduce awards nominees.
The 40th Academy Awards ceremony marked the final year that the ceremony was simulcast live on the radio.
The following individuals have hosted (or co-hosted) the Academy Awards ceremony on two or more occasions.
The following individuals have hosted (or co-hosted) the Academy Awards ceremony on the same year in which the individual was also a nominee.
|
is a computer the same as a laptop | Personal computer - wikipedia
A personal computer (PC) is a multi-purpose computer whose size, capabilities, and price make it feasible for individual use. PCs are intended to be operated directly by an end user, rather than by a computer expert or technician. Computer time - sharing models that were typically used with larger, more expensive minicomputer and mainframe systems, to enable them be used by many people at the same time, are not used with PCs.
Early computer owners in the 1960s, invariably institutional or corporate, had to write their own programs to do any useful work with the machines. In the 2010s, personal computer users have access to a wide range of commercial software, free - of - charge software ("freeware '') and free and open - source software, which are provided in ready - to - run form. Software for personal computers is typically developed and distributed independently from the hardware or OS manufacturers. Many personal computer users no longer need to write their own programs to make any use of a personal computer, although end - user programming is still feasible. This contrasts with mobile systems, where software is often only available through a manufacturer - supported channel, and end - user program development may be discouraged by lack of support by the manufacturer.
Since the early 1990s, Microsoft operating systems and Intel hardware have dominated much of the personal computer market, first with MS - DOS and then with Windows. Alternatives to Microsoft 's Windows operating systems occupy a minority share of the industry. These include Apple 's macOS and free and open - source Unix - like operating systems such as Linux. Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) provides the main alternative to Intel 's processors.
"PC '' is an initialism for "personal computer ''. The IBM Personal Computer incorporated the designation in its model name, but IBM has not used this brand for many years. It is sometimes useful, especially in a marketing context, to distinguish personal computers of the "IBM Personal Computer '' family from personal computers made by other manufacturers. For example, "PC '' is used in contrast with "Mac '', an Apple Macintosh computer. This sense of the word is used in the "Get a Mac '' advertisement campaign that ran between 2006 and 2009, as well as its rival, I 'm a PC campaign, that appeared in 2008. Since none of these Apple products were mainframes or time - sharing systems, they were all "personal computers '' and not "PC '' (brand) computers
The "brain '' (computer) may one day come down to our level (of the common people) and help with our income - tax and book - keeping calculations. But this is speculation and there is no sign of it so far.
In the history of computing there were many examples of computers designed to be used by one person, as opposed to terminals connected to mainframe computers. It took a while for computers to be developed that meet the modern definition of a "personal computers '', one that is designed for one person, is easy to use, and is cheap enough for an individual to buy.
Using the narrow definition of "operated by one person '', the first personal computer was the ENIAC which became operational in 1946. It did not meet further definitions of affordable or easy to use. The Bendix G15 of 1956 was intended for use without an operating staff, and several hundred were made; it was too costly to be personally owned, however.
An example of an early single - user computer was the LGP - 30, created in 1956 by Stan Frankel and used for science and engineering as well as basic data processing. It came with a retail price of $46,000 -- equivalent to about $423,000 today.
Introduced at the 1965 New York Worlds Fair, the Programma 101 was a printing programmable calculator described in advertisements as a "desktop computer ''. It was manufactured by the Italian company Olivetti, and invented by the Italian engineer Pier Giorgio Perotto, inventor of the magnetic card system for program storage.
The Soviet MIR series of computers was developed from 1965 to 1969 in a group headed by Victor Glushkov. It was designed as a relatively small - scale computer for use in engineering and scientific applications, and contained a hardware implementation of a high - level programming language. Another innovative feature for that time was the user interface combining a keyboard with a monitor and light pen for correcting texts and drawing on screen. In what was later to be called the Mother of All Demos, SRI researcher Douglas Engelbart in 1968 gave a preview of what would become the staples of daily working life in the 21st century: e-mail, hypertext, word processing, video conferencing, and the mouse. The demonstration required technical support staff and a mainframe time - sharing computer that were far too costly for individual business use at the time.
By the early 1970s, people in academic or research institutions had the opportunity for single - person use of a computer system in interactive mode for extended durations, although these systems would still have been too expensive to be owned by a single person. Early personal computers -- generally called microcomputers -- were often sold in a kit form and in limited volumes, and were of interest mostly to hobbyists and technicians. Minimal programming was done with toggle switches to enter instructions, and output was provided by front panel lamps. Practical use required adding peripherals such as keyboards, computer displays, disk drives, and printers. Micral N was the earliest commercial, non-kit microcomputer based on a microprocessor, the Intel 8008. It was built starting in 1972, and few hundred units were sold. This had been preceded by the Datapoint 2200 in 1970, for which the Intel 8008 had been commissioned, though not accepted for use. The CPU design implemented in the Datapoint 2200 became the basis for x86 architecture used in the original IBM PC and its descendants.
In 1973, the IBM Los Gatos Scientific Center developed a portable computer prototype called SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable) based on the IBM PALM processor with a Philips compact cassette drive, small CRT, and full function keyboard. SCAMP emulated an IBM 1130 minicomputer in order to run APL / 1130. In 1973, APL was generally available only on mainframe computers, and most desktop sized microcomputers such as the Wang 2200 or HP 9800 offered only BASIC. Because SCAMP was the first to emulate APL / 1130 performance on a portable, single user computer, PC Magazine in 1983 designated SCAMP a "revolutionary concept '' and "the world 's first personal computer ''. This seminal, single user portable computer now resides in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.. Successful demonstrations of the 1973 SCAMP prototype led to the IBM 5100 portable microcomputer launched in 1975 with the ability to be programmed in both APL and BASIC for engineers, analysts, statisticians, and other business problem - solvers. In the late 1960s such a machine would have been nearly as large as two desks and would have weighed about half a ton.
Another desktop portable APL machine, the MCM / 70, was demonstrated in 1973 and shipped in 1974. It used the Intel 8008 processor.
A seminal step in personal computing was the 1973 Xerox Alto, developed at Xerox 's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). It had a graphical user interface (GUI) which later served as inspiration for Apple 's Macintosh, and Microsoft 's Windows operating system. The Alto was a demonstration project, not commercialized, as the parts were too expensive to be affordable.
Also in 1973 Hewlett Packard introduced fully BASIC programmable microcomputers that fit entirely on top of a desk, including a keyboard, a small one - line display, and printer. The Wang 2200 microcomputer of 1973 had a full - size cathode ray tube (CRT) and cassette tape storage. These were generally expensive specialized computers sold for business or scientific uses. The introduction of the microprocessor, a single chip with all the circuitry that formerly occupied large cabinets, led to the proliferation of personal computers after 1975.
1974 saw the introduction of what is considered by many to be the first true "personal computer '', the Altair 8800 created by Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS). Based on the 8 - bit Intel 8080 Microprocessor, the Altair is widely recognized as the spark that ignited the microcomputer revolution as the first commercially successful personal computer. The computer bus designed for the Altair was to become a de facto standard in the form of the S - 100 bus, and the first programming language for the machine was Microsoft 's founding product, Altair BASIC.
In 1976, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak sold the Apple I computer circuit board, which was fully prepared and contained about 30 chips. The Apple I computer differed from the other kit - style hobby computers of era. At the request of Paul Terrell, owner of the Byte Shop, Jobs and Wozniak were given their first purchase order, for 50 Apple I computers, only if the computers were assembled and tested and not a kit computer. Terrell wanted to have computers to sell to a wide range of users, not just experienced electronics hobbyists who had the soldering skills to assemble a computer kit. The Apple I as delivered was still technically a kit computer, as it did not have a power supply, case, or keyboard when it was delivered to the Byte Shop.
The first successfully mass marketed personal computer was the Commodore PET introduced in January 1977. However, it was back - ordered and not available until later in the year. Five months later (June), the Apple II (usually referred to as the "Apple '') was introduced, and the TRS - 80 from Tandy Corporation / Tandy Radio Shack in summer 1977, delivered in September in a small number. Mass - market ready - assembled computers allowed a wider range of people to use computers, focusing more on software applications and less on development of the processor hardware.
During the early 1980s, home computers were further developed for household use, with software for personal productivity, programming and games. They typically could be used with a television already in the home as the computer display, with low - detail blocky graphics and a limited color range, and text about 40 characters wide by 25 characters tall. Sinclair Research, a UK company, produced the ZX Series -- the ZX80 (1980), ZX81 (1981), and the ZX Spectrum; the latter was introduced in 1982, and totaled 8 million unit sold. Following came the Commodore 64, totaled 17 million units sold.
In the same year, the NEC PC - 98 was introduced, which was a very popular personal computer that sold in more than 18 million units. Another famous personal computer, the revolutionary Amiga 1000, was unveiled by Commodore on July 23, 1985. The Amiga 1000 featured a multitasking, windowing operating system, color graphics with a 4096 - color palette, stereo sound, Motorola 68000 CPU, 256 KB RAM, and 880 KB 3.5 - inch disk drive, for US $1,295.
Somewhat larger and more expensive systems (for example, running CP / M), or sometimes a home computer with additional interfaces and devices, although still low - cost compared with minicomputers and mainframes, were aimed at office and small business use, typically using "high resolution '' monitors capable of at least 80 column text display, and often no graphical or color drawing capability. Workstations were characterized by high - performance processors and graphics displays, with large - capacity local disk storage, networking capability, and running under a multitasking operating system. Eventually, due to the influence of the IBM PC on the personal computer market, personal computers and home computers lost any technical distinction. Business computers acquired color graphics capability and sound, and home computers and game systems users used the same processors and operating systems as office workers. Mass - market computers had graphics capabilities and memory comparable to dedicated workstations of a few years before. Even local area networking, originally a way to allow business computers to share expensive mass storage and peripherals, became a standard feature of personal computers used at home.
In 1982 "The Computer '' was named Machine of the Year by Time magazine. In the 2010s, several companies such as Hewlett - Packard and Sony sold off their PC and laptop divisions. As a result, the personal computer was declared dead several times during this period.
A workstation is a high - end personal computer designed for technical, mathematical, or scientific applications. Intended primarily to be used by one person at a time, they are commonly connected to a local area network and run multi-user operating systems. Workstations are used for tasks such as computer - aided design, drafting and modeling, computation - intensive scientific and engineering calculations, image processing, architectural modeling, and computer graphics for animation and motion picture visual effects.
Prior to the widespread usage of PCs, a computer that could fit on a desk was remarkably small, leading to the "desktop '' nomenclature. More recently, the phrase usually indicates a particular style of computer case. Desktop computers come in a variety of styles ranging from large vertical tower cases to small models which can be tucked behind an LCD monitor.
The term "desktop '' typically refers to a computer with a vertically aligned computer case that holds the systems hardware components such as the motherboard, processor chip, other internal operating parts. Desktop computers have an external monitor with a display screen and an external keyboard, which are plugged into USB ports on the back of the computer case. Desktop computers are popular for home and business computing applications as they allow the user to have multiple monitors, allowing them to perform work on each one simultaneously.
A gaming computer is a standard desktop computer that typically has high - performance hardware, such as a more powerful video card, processor and memory, in order to handle the requirements of demanding video games, which are often simply called "PC games ''. A number of companies, such as Alienware, manufacture prebuilt gaming computers, and companies such as Razer and Logitech market mice, keyboards and headsets geared toward gamers.
All - in - one PCs (also known as single - unit PCs) are a subtype of desktop computer that combines the monitor and processor within a single unit. A separate keyboard and mouse are standard input devices, with some monitors including touchscreen capability. The processor and other working components are typically reduced in size relative to standard desktops, located behind the monitor, and configured similarly to laptops.
A subtype of desktops, called nettops, was introduced by Intel in February 2008, characterized by low cost and lean functionality. A similar subtype of laptops (or notebooks) is the netbook, described below. The product line features the new Intel Atom processor, which specifically enables nettops to consume less power and fit into small enclosures.
A home theater PC (HTPC) is a convergence device that combines the functions of a personal computer and a digital video recorder. It is connected to a TV set or an appropriately sized computer display, and is often used as a digital photo viewer, music and video player, TV receiver, and digital video recorder. HTPCs are also referred to as media center systems or media servers. The general goal in a HTPC is usually to combine many or all components of a home theater setup into one box. More recently, HTPCs gained the ability to connect to services providing on - demand movies and TV shows. HTPCs can be purchased pre-configured with the required hardware and software needed to add television programming to the PC, or can be cobbled together out of discrete components, what is commonly done with software support from MythTV, Windows Media Center, GB - PVR, SageTV, Famulent or LinuxMCE.
A laptop computer (also called a notebook) is similar to a desktop, but is designed for portability. Usually, all of the hardware and interfaces needed to operate a laptop, such as the graphics card, audio devices or USB ports (previously parallel and serial ports), are built into a single unit. Laptops usually have "clamshell '' design, in which the keyboard and computer components are on one panel and a flat display screen on a second panel, which is hinged to the first panel. The laptop is opened for use and closed for transport. Closing the laptop also protects the screen and keyboard during transportation. Laptops have both a power cable that can be plugged in and high - capacity batteries that can power the device, enhancing its portability. Once the battery charge is depleted, it will have to be recharged through a power outlet. In the interests of saving power, weight and space, laptop graphics cards are in many cases integrated into the CPU or chipset and use system RAM, resulting in reduced graphics performance when compared to an equivalent desktop machine. For this reason, desktop computers are usually preferred over laptops for gaming purposes.
One of the drawbacks of laptops is that, due to the size and configuration of components, usually relatively little can be done to upgrade the overall computer from its original design or add components. Internal upgrades are either not manufacturer - recommended, can damage the laptop if done with poor care or knowledge, or in some cases impossible, making the desktop PC more modular and upgradable. Desktop PCs typically have a case that has extra empty space inside, where users can install new components. Some internal upgrades to laptops, such as memory and hard disk drive upgrades are often easily performed, while a display or keyboard upgrade is usually difficult or impossible. Just like desktops, laptops also have the same input and output ports for connecting to a wide variety of devices, including external displays, mice, cameras, storage devices and keyboards, which may be attached externally through USB ports and other less common ports such as external video. Laptops are also a little more expensive compared to desktops, as the miniaturized components for laptops themselves are expensive.
A subtype of notebooks, called subnotebook, has most of the features of a standard laptop computer, but with smaller physical dimensions. Subnotebooks are larger than hand - held computers, and usually run full versions of desktop or laptop operating systems. Ultra-mobile PCs (UMPC) are usually considered subnotebooks, or more specifically, subnotebook tablet PCs, which are described below. Netbooks are sometimes considered to belong to this category, though they are sometimes separated into a category of their own (see below).
A desktop replacement computer (DTR) is a personal computer that provides the full capabilities of a desktop computer while remaining mobile. Such computers are often actually larger, bulkier laptops. Because of their increased size, this class of computers usually includes more powerful components and a larger display than generally found in smaller portable computers, and can have a relatively limited battery capacity or none at all in some cases. Some use a limited range of desktop components to provide better performance at the expense of battery life. Desktop replacement computers are sometimes called desknotes, as a portmanteau of words "desktop '' and "notebook '', though the term is also applied to desktop replacement computers in general.
Netbooks, also called mini notebooks or subnotebooks, are a subgroup of laptops acting as a category of small, lightweight and inexpensive laptop computers suited for general computing tasks and accessing web - based applications. They are often marketed as "companion devices '', with an intention to augment other ways in which a user can access computer resources. Walt Mossberg called them a "relatively new category of small, light, minimalist and cheap laptops. '' By August 2009, CNET called netbooks "nothing more than smaller, cheaper notebooks. '' Initially, the primary defining characteristic of netbooks was the lack of an optical disc drive, requiring it to be a separate external device. This has become less important as flash memory devices have gradually increased in capacity, replacing the writable optical disc (e.g. CD - RW, DVD - RW) as a transportable storage medium.
At their inception in late 2007 -- as smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost -- netbooks omitted key features (e.g., the optical drive), featured smaller screens and keyboards, and offered reduced specifications and computing power. Over the course of their evolution, netbooks have ranged in their screen sizes from below five inches to over 13 inches, with weights around ~ 1 kg (2 -- 3 pounds). Often significantly less expensive than other laptops, by mid-2009 netbooks had been offered to users "free of charge '', with an extended service contract purchase of a cellular data plan. In the short period since their appearance, netbooks have grown in size and features, converging with new smaller and lighter notebooks. By mid-2009, CNET noted that "the specs are so similar that the average shopper would likely be confused as to why one is better than the other, '' noting "the only conclusion is that there really is no distinction between the devices. ''
A tablet is a type of portable PC that de-emphasizes the use of traditional input devices (such as a mouse or keyboard) by using a touchscreen display, which can be controlled using either a stylus pen or finger. Some tablets may use a "hybrid '' or "convertible '' design, offering a keyboard that can either be removed as an attachment, or a screen that can be rotated and folded directly over top the keyboard. Some tablets may run a traditional PC operating system such as Windows or Linux; Microsoft attempted to enter the tablet market in 2002 with its Microsoft Tablet PC specifications, for tablets and convertible laptops running Windows XP. However, Microsoft 's early attempts were overshadowed by the release of Apple 's iPad; following in its footsteps, most tablets now run mobile operating systems such as Android and iOS. In response, Microsoft built its Windows 8 operating system to better accommodate these new touch - oriented devices. Many tablet computers have USB ports, to which a keyboard or mouse can be connected.
Smartphones are practically the same devices as tablet computers, the only differences between them being that smartphones are generally smaller than tablets, always have cellular integration, and (while modern smartphones almost always do) may not always have a slate form factor.
The ultra-mobile PC (UMP) is a specification for small - configuration tablet PCs. It was developed as a joint development exercise by Microsoft, Intel and Samsung, among others. Current UMPCs typically feature the Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, or Linux operating system, and low - voltage Intel Atom or VIA C7 - M processors.
A pocket PC is a hardware specification for a handheld - sized computer (personal digital assistant, PDA) that runs the Microsoft Windows Mobile operating system. It may have the capability to run an alternative operating system like NetBSD or Linux. Pocket PCs have many of the capabilities of desktop PCs. Numerous applications are available for handhelds adhering to the Microsoft Pocket PC specification, many of which are freeware. Some of these devices also include mobile phone features, actually representing a smartphone. Microsoft - compliant Pocket PCs can also be used with many other add - ons like GPS receivers, barcode readers, RFID readers and cameras. In 2007, with the release of Windows Mobile 6, Microsoft dropped the name Pocket PC in favor of a new naming scheme: devices without an integrated phone are called Windows Mobile Classic instead of Pocket PC, while devices with an integrated phone and a touch screen are called Windows Mobile Professional.
Computer hardware is a comprehensive term for all physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from the data it contains or operates on, and the software that provides instructions for the hardware to accomplish tasks. The boundary between hardware and software has become blurred, with the existence of firmware that is software "built into '' the hardware. For example, a 2010 - era LCD display screen contains a small computer inside. Mass - market consumer computers use highly standardized components and so are simple for an end user to assemble into a working system. Most 2010s - era computers only require users to plug in the power supply, monitor, and other cables. A typical desktop computer consists of a computer case (or "tower ''), a metal chassis that holds the power supply, motherboard, hard disk drive, and often an optical disc drive. Most towers have empty space where users can add additional components. External devices such as a computer monitor or visual display unit, keyboard, and a pointing device (mouse) are usually found in a personal computer.
The motherboard connects all processor, memory and peripheral devices together. The RAM, graphics card and processor are in most cases mounted directly onto the motherboard. The central processing unit (microprocessor chip) plugs into a CPU socket, while the memory modules plug into corresponding memory sockets. Some motherboards have the video display adapter, sound and other peripherals integrated onto the motherboard, while others use expansion slots for graphics cards, network cards, or other I / O devices. The graphics card or sound card may employ a break out box to keep the analog parts away from the electromagnetic radiation inside the computer case. Disk drives, which provide mass storage, are connected to the motherboard with one cable, and to the power supply through another cable. Usually, disk drives are mounted in the same case as the motherboard; expansion chassis are also made for additional disk storage.
For large amounts of data, a tape drive can be used or extra hard disks can be put together in an external case. The keyboard and the mouse are external devices plugged into the computer through connectors on an I / O panel on the back of the computer case. The monitor is also connected to the input / output (I / O) panel, either through an onboard port on the motherboard, or a port on the graphics card. Capabilities of the personal computers hardware can sometimes be extended by the addition of expansion cards connected via an expansion bus. Standard peripheral buses often used for adding expansion cards in personal computers include PCI, PCI Express (PCIe), and AGP (a high - speed PCI bus dedicated to graphics adapters, found in older computers). Most modern personal computers have multiple physical PCI Express expansion slots, with some of the having PCI slots as well.
A computer case is an enclosure that contains the main components of a computer. They are usually constructed from steel or aluminum combined with plastic, although other materials such as wood and tempered glass have been used for specialized units. Cases are available in different sizes and shapes; the size and shape of a computer case are usually determined by the configuration of the motherboard that it is designed to accommodate since this is the largest and most central component of most computers. The most popular style for desktop computers is ATX, although microATX and similar layouts became very popular for a variety of uses. Companies like Shuttle Inc. and AOpen have popularized small cases, for which FlexATX is the most common motherboard size. In the 1990s, desktop computer cases were larger and taller than 2010 - era computer cases.
The power supply unit (PSU) converts general - purpose mains AC electricity to direct current (DC) for the other components of the computer. The rated output capacity of a PSU should usually be about 40 % greater than the calculated system power consumption needs to be obtained by adding up all the system components. This protects against overloading the supply, and guards against performance degradation. Power supply capacities range from 250 to 2000 watts for desktop computers.
The central processing unit (CPU) is a part of a computer that executes instructions of a software program. In newer PCs, the CPU contains over a million transistors in one integrated circuit chip called the microprocessor. In most cases, the processor plugs directly into the motherboard. The processor chip may have a heat sink and a fan attached for cooling. A large number of computers today are suited to run an x86 - compatible microprocessor manufactured by Intel, AMD, or VIA Technologies.
The motherboard, also referred to as system board or main board, is the primary circuit board within a personal computer, and other major system components plug directly into it or via a cable. A motherboard contains a microprocessor, the CPU supporting circuitry (mostly integrated circuits) that provide the interface between memory and input / output peripheral circuits, main memory, and facilities for initial setup of the computer immediately after power - on (often called boot firmware or, in IBM PC compatible computers, a BIOS or UEFI). In many portable and embedded personal computers, the motherboard houses nearly all of the PC 's core components. Often a motherboard will also contain one or more peripheral buses and physical connectors for expansion purposes. Sometimes a secondary daughter board is connected to the motherboard to provide further expandability or to satisfy space constraints.
A PC 's main memory is a fast primary storage device that is directly accessible by the CPU, and is used to store the currently executing program and immediately needed data. PCs use semiconductor random - access memory (RAM) of various kinds such as DRAM, SDRAM or SRAM as their primary storage. Which exact kind is used depends on cost / performance issues at any particular time. Main memory is much faster than mass storage devices like hard disk drives or optical discs, but is usually volatile, meaning that it does not retain its contents (instructions or data) in the absence of power, and is much more expensive for a given capacity than is most mass storage. As a result, main memory is generally not suitable for long - term or archival data storage.
Mass storage devices store programs and data even when the power is off; they do require power to perform read and write functions during usage. Although flash memory has dropped in cost, the prevailing form of mass storage in personal computers is still the hard disk drive. If the mass storage controller provides additional ports for expandability, a PC may also be upgraded by the addition of extra hard disk or optical disc drives. For example, BD - ROMs, DVD - RWs, and various optical disc recorders may all be added by the user to certain PCs. Standard internal storage device connection interfaces are PATA, SATA and SCSI. Solid state drives (SSDs) are a much faster replacement for traditional mechanical hard disk drives but are also more expensive in terms of cost per gigabyte. Solid state drives connect using several connectors, including SATA, M. 2, and U. 2. Some models use the NVMe protocol, which have vastly improved performance over standard hard disk drives and older SSDs that use the older AHCI protocol.
A visual display unit, computer monitor or just display, is a piece of electrical equipment, usually separate from the computer case, which displays visual images without producing a permanent computer record. A display device was usually either a CRT in the 1980s, but by the 2000s, flat panel displays such as a TFT LCD had largely replaced the bulkier, heavier CRT screens. Multi-monitor setups are quite common in the 2010s, as they enable a user to display multiple programs at the same time (e.g., an email inbox and a word processing program). The display unit houses an electronic circuitry that generates its picture from signals received from the computer. Within the computer, either integral to the motherboard or plugged into it as an expansion card, there is pre-processing circuitry to convert the microprocessor 's output data to a format compatible with the display unit 's circuitry. The images from computer monitors originally contained only text, but as graphical user interfaces emerged and became common, they began to display more images and multimedia content. The term "monitor '' is also used, particularly by technicians in broadcasting television, where a picture of the broadcast data is displayed to a highly standardized reference monitor for confidence checking purposes.
The video card -- otherwise called a graphics card, graphics adapter or video adapter -- processes the graphics output from the motherboard and transmits it to the display. It is an essential part of modern multimedia - enriched computing. Graphics circuitry may be integrated with the motherboard, or may be on cards istalled in PCI, AGP, or PCI Express slots. When the IBM PC was introduced, most existing business - oriented personal computers used text - only display adapters and had no graphics capability. Home computers at that time had graphics compatible with television signals, but with low resolution owing to the limited memory available to the eight - bit processors available at the time.
A keyboard is an arrangement of buttons that each correspond to a function, letter, or number. They are the primary devices used for inputting text. In most cases, they contain an array of keys specifically organized with the corresponding letters, numbers, and functions printed or engraved on the button. They are generally designed around an operators language, and many different versions for different languages exist. In English, the most common layout is the QWERTY layout, which was originally used in typewriters. They have evolved over time, and have been modified for use in computers with the addition of function keys, number keys, arrow keys, and keys specific to an operating system. Often, specific functions can be achieved by pressing multiple keys at once or in succession, such as inputting characters with accents or opening a task manager. Programs use keyboard shortcuts very differently and all use different keyboard shortcuts for different program specific operations, such as refreshing a web page in a web browser or selecting all text in a word processor. In addition to the alphabetic keys found on a typewriter, computer keyboards typically have a numeric keyboard and a row of function keys and special keys, such as CTRL, ALT, DEL and Esc
Many keyboards include LED lights under the keys that increase the visibility of the letters or symbols in dark environments.
A computer mouse is a small handheld device that users hold and slide across a flat surface, pointing at various elements of a graphical user interface with an on - screen cursor, and selecting and moving objects using the mouse buttons. Mice may be plugged into a dedicated mouse socket, or a USB port, or, may be connected wirelessly. Mice include one or more buttons to allow a user to signal the computer to carry out some operation, such as selecting an item from a menu of choices on the screen. A mouse may have a scroll wheel, to allow users to move the displayed image. The scroll wheel can also be pressed down, and used as a third button. Some mouse wheels may be tilted from side to side to allow sideways scrolling. Different programs make use of these functions differently, and may scroll horizontally by default with the scroll wheel, open different menus with different buttons, etc. These functions may be also user - defined through software utilities. Mechanical mice used a ball, which drove pulse generators to detect movement along "north - south '' or "east - west '' axies. Optical mice use a special mouse pad with a printed grid to allow detection of motion, or else use an imaging chip that allows detection of motion on almost any opaque surface.
All computers require either fixed or removable storage for their operating system, programs and user - generated material. Early home computers used compact audio cassettes for file storage; these were at the time a very low cost storage solution, but were displaced by floppy disk drives when manufacturing costs dropped, by the mid-1980s. Initially, the 5.25 - inch and 3.5 - inch floppy drives were the principal forms of removable storage for backup of user files and distribution of software. As memory sizes increased, the capacity of the floppy did not keep pace; the Zip drive and other higher - capacity removable media were introduced but never became as prevalent as the floppy drive. By the late 1990s, the optical drive, in CD and later DVD and Blu - ray Disc forms, became the main method for software distribution, and writeable media provided means for data backup and file interchange. As a result, floppy drives became uncommon in desktop personal computers since about 2000, and were dropped from many laptop systems even earlier.
A second generation of tape recorders was provided when videocassette recorders were pressed into service as backup media for larger disk drives. All these systems were less reliable and slower than purpose - built magnetic tape drives. Such tape drives were uncommon in consumer - type personal computers but were a necessity in business or industrial use. Interchange of data such as photographs from digital cameras is greatly expedited by installation of a card reader, which is often compatible with several forms of flash memory devices. It is usually faster and more convenient to move large amounts of data by removing the card from the mobile device, instead of communicating with the mobile device through a USB interface.
A USB flash drive performs much of the data transfer and backup functions formerly done with floppy drives, Zip disks and other devices. Mainstream operating systems for personal computers provide built - in support for USB flash drives, allowing interchange even between computers with different processors and operating systems. The compact size and lack of moving parts or dirt - sensitive media, combined with low cost and high capacity, have made USB flash drives a popular and useful accessory for any personal computer user.
The operating system can be located on any storage, but is typically installed on a hard disk or solid - state drive. A Live CD represents the concept of running an operating system directly from a CD. While this is slow compared to storing the operating system on a hard disk drive, it is typically used for installation of operating systems, demonstrations, system recovery, or other special purposes. Large flash memory is currently more expensive than hard disk drives of similar size (as of mid-2014) but are starting to appear in laptop computers because of their low weight, small size and low power requirements. Computer communications involve internal modem cards, modems, network adapter cards, and routers. Common peripherals and adapter cards include headsets, joysticks, microphones, printers, scanners, sound adapter cards (as a separate card rather than located on the motherboard), speakers and webcams.
Computer software is any kind of computer program, procedure, or documentation that performs some task on a computer system. The term includes application software such as word processors that perform productive tasks for users, system software such as operating systems that interface with computer hardware to provide the necessary services for application software, and middleware that controls and co-ordinates distributed systems.
Software applications are common for word processing, Internet browsing, Internet faxing, e-mail and other digital messaging, multimedia playback, playing of computer game, and computer programming. The user may have significant knowledge of the operating environment and application programs, but is not necessarily interested in programming nor even able to write programs for the computer. Therefore, most software written primarily for personal computers tends to be designed with simplicity of use, or "user - friendliness '' in mind. However, the software industry continuously provide a wide range of new products for use in personal computers, targeted at both the expert and the non-expert user.
An operating system (OS) manages computer resources and provides programmers with an interface used to access those resources. An operating system processes system data and user input, and responds by allocating and managing tasks and internal system resources as a service to users and programs of the system. An operating system performs basic tasks such as controlling and allocating memory, prioritizing system requests, controlling input and output devices, facilitating computer networking, and managing files.
Common contemporary desktop operating systems are Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux, Solaris and FreeBSD. Windows, macOS, and Linux all have server and personal variants. With the exception of Microsoft Windows, the designs of each of them were inspired by or directly inherited from the Unix operating system, which was developed at Bell Labs beginning in the late 1960s and spawned the development of numerous free and proprietary operating systems.
Microsoft Windows is the collective brand name of several operating systems made by Microsoft which, as of 2015, are installed on PCs built by HP, Dell and Lenovo, the three remaining high volume manufacturers. Microsoft first introduced an operating environment named Windows in November 1985, as an add - on to MS - DOS and in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs) generated by Apple 's 1984 introduction of the Macintosh. As of January 2017, the most recent client and server versions of Windows are Windows 10 and Windows Server 2016.
macOS (formerly OS X) is a line of operating systems developed, marketed and sold by Apple Inc. macOS is the successor to the original Mac OS, which had been Apple 's primary operating system since 1984. macOS is a Unix - based graphical operating system, and Snow Leopard, Leopard, Lion, Mountain Lion, Mavericks, Yosemite, El Capitan and Sierra are its version codenames. The most recent version of macOS is codenamed macOS High Sierra.
Linux is a family of Unix - like computer operating systems. Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free software and open source development: typically all underlying source code can be freely modified, used, and redistributed by anyone. The name "Linux '' refers to the Linux kernel, started in 1991 by Linus Torvalds. The system 's utilities and libraries usually come from the GNU operating system, announced in 1983 by Richard Stallman. The GNU contribution is the basis for the alternative name GNU / Linux.
Known for its use in servers, with the LAMP application stack as one of prominent examples, Linux is supported by corporations such as Dell, Hewlett - Packard, IBM, Novell, Oracle Corporation, Red Hat, Canonical Ltd. and Sun Microsystems. It is used as an operating system for a wide variety of computer hardware, including desktop computers, netbooks, supercomputers, video game systems such as the Steam Machine or PlayStation 3 (until this option was removed remotely by Sony in 2010), several arcade games, and embedded devices such as mobile phones, portable media players, routers, and stage lighting systems.
Generally, a computer user uses application software to carry out a specific task. System software supports applications and provides common services such as memory management, network connectivity and device drivers, all of which may be used by applications but are not directly of interest to the end user. A simplified analogy in the world of hardware would be the relationship of an electric light bulb (an application) to an electric power generation plant (a system): the power plant merely generates electricity, not itself of any real use until harnessed to an application like the electric light that performs a service that benefits the user.
Typical examples of software applications are word processors, spreadsheets, and media players. Multiple applications bundled together as a package are sometimes referred to as an application suite. Microsoft Office and LibreOffice, which bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, and several other discrete applications, are typical examples. The separate applications in a suite usually have a user interface that has some commonality making it easier for the user to learn and use each application. Often, they may have some capability to interact with each other in ways beneficial to the user; for example, a spreadsheet might be able to be embedded in a word processor document even though it had been created in the separate spreadsheet application.
End - user development tailors systems to meet the user 's specific needs. User - written software include spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts; even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is.
PC gaming is popular among the high - end PC market. According to an April 2014 market analysis, Gaming platforms like Steam (software), Uplay, Origin, and GOG.com (as well as competitive e Sports titles like League of Legends) are largely responsible for PC systems overtaking console revenue in 2013.
In 2001, 125 million personal computers were shipped in comparison to 48,000 in 1977. More than 500 million personal computers were in use in 2002 and one billion personal computers had been sold worldwide from the mid-1970s up to this time. Of the latter figure, 75 % were professional or work related, while the rest were sold for personal or home use. About 81.5 % of personal computers shipped had been desktop computers, 16.4 % laptops and 2.1 % servers. The United States had received 38.8 % (394 million) of the computers shipped, Europe 25 % and 11.7 % had gone to the Asia - Pacific region, the fastest - growing market as of 2002. The second billion was expected to be sold by 2008. Almost half of all households in Western Europe had a personal computer and a computer could be found in 40 % of homes in United Kingdom, compared with only 13 % in 1985.
The global personal computer shipments were 350.9 million units in 2010, 308.3 million units in 2009 and 302.2 million units in 2008. The shipments were 264 million units in the year 2007, according to iSuppli, up 11.2 % from 239 million in 2006. In 2004, the global shipments were 183 million units, an 11.6 % increase over 2003. In 2003, 152.6 million computers were shipped, at an estimated value of $175 billion. In 2002, 136.7 million PCs were shipped, at an estimated value of $175 billion. In 2000, 140.2 million personal computers were shipped, at an estimated value of $226 billion. Worldwide shipments of personal computers surpassed the 100 - million mark in 1999, growing to 113.5 million units from 93.3 million units in 1998. In 1999, Asia had 14.1 million units shipped.
As of June 2008, the number of personal computers in use worldwide hit one billion, while another billion is expected to be reached by 2014. Mature markets like the United States, Western Europe and Japan accounted for 58 % of the worldwide installed PCs. The emerging markets were expected to double their installed PCs by 2012 and to take 70 % of the second billion PCs. About 180 million computers (16 % of the existing installed base) were expected to be replaced and 35 million to be dumped into landfill in 2008. The whole installed base grew 12 % annually.
Based on International Data Corporation (IDC) data for Q2 2011, for the first time China surpassed US in PC shipments by 18.5 million and 17.7 million respectively. This trend reflects the rising of emerging markets as well as the relative stagnation of mature regions.
In the developed world, there has been a vendor tradition to keep adding functions to maintain high prices of personal computers. However, since the introduction of the One Laptop per Child foundation and its low - cost XO - 1 laptop, the computing industry started to pursue the price too. Although introduced only one year earlier, there were 14 million netbooks sold in 2008. Besides the regular computer manufacturers, companies making especially rugged versions of computers have sprung up, offering alternatives for people operating their machines in extreme weather or environments.
In 2011, Deloitte consulting firm predicted that, smartphones and tablet computers as computing devices would surpass the PCs sales (as has happened since 2012). As of 2013, worldwide sales of PCs had begun to fall as many consumers moved to tablets and smartphones for gifts and personal use. Sales of 90.3 million units in the 4th quarter of 2012 represented a 4.9 % decline from sales in the 4th quarter of 2011. Global PC sales fell sharply in the first quarter of 2013, according to IDC data. The 14 % year - over-year decline was the largest on record since the firm began tracking in 1994, and double what analysts had been expecting. The decline of Q2 2013 PC shipments marked the fifth straight quarter of falling sales. "This is horrific news for PCs, '' remarked an analyst. "It 's all about mobile computing now. We have definitely reached the tipping point. '' Data from Gartner showed a similar decline for the same time period. China 's Lenovo Group bucked the general trend as strong sales to first time buyers in the developing world allowed the company 's sales to stay flat overall. Windows 8, which was designed to look similar to tablet / smartphone software, was cited as a contributing factor in the decline of new PC sales. "Unfortunately, it seems clear that the Windows 8 launch not only did n't provide a positive boost to the PC market, but appears to have slowed the market, '' said IDC Vice President Bob O'Donnell.
In August 2013, Credit Suisse published research findings that attributed around 75 % of the operating profit share of the PC industry to Microsoft (operating system) and Intel (semiconductors). According to IDC, in 2013 PC shipments dropped by 9.8 % as the greatest drop - ever in line with consumers trends to use mobile devices.
In the second quarter of 2018, PC sales grew for the first time since the first quarter of 2012. According to research firm Gartner, the growth mainly came from the business market while the consumer market experienced decline.
Selling prices of personal computers steadily declined due to lower costs of production and manufacture, while the capabilities of computers increased. In 1975, an Altair kit sold for only around US $400, but required customers to solder components into circuit boards; peripherals required to interact with the system in alphanumeric form instead of blinking lights would add another $2,000, and the resultant system was only of use to hobbyists.
At their introduction in 1981, the US $1,795 price of the Osborne 1 and its competitor Kaypro was considered an attractive price point; these systems had text - only displays and only floppy disks for storage. By 1982, Michael Dell observed that a personal computer system selling at retail for about $3,000 US was made of components that cost the dealer about $600; typical gross margin on a computer unit was around $1,000. The total value of personal computer purchases in the US in 1983 was about $4 billion, comparable to total sales of pet food. By late 1998, the average selling price of personal computer systems in the United States had dropped below $1,000.
For Microsoft Windows systems, the average selling price (ASP) showed a decline in 2008 / 2009, possibly due to low - cost netbooks, drawing $569 for desktop computers and $689 for laptops at U.S. retail in August 2008. In 2009, ASP had further fallen to $533 for desktops and to $602 for notebooks by January and to $540 and $560 in February. According to research firm NPD, the average selling price of all Windows portable PCs has fallen from $659 in October 2008 to $519 in October 2009.
External costs of environmental impact are not fully included in the selling price of personal computers. This impact differs between desktop computers and laptops.
Personal computers have become a large contributor to the 50 million tons of discarded electronic waste that is being generated annually, according to the United Nations Environment Programme. To address the electronic waste issue affecting developing countries and the environment, extended producer responsibility (EPR) acts have been implemented in various countries and states. Organizations, such as the Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition, Basel Action Network, Toxics Link India, SCOPE, and Greenpeace have contributed to these efforts. In the absence of comprehensive national legislation or regulation on the export and import of electronic waste, the Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition and BAN (Basel Action Network) teamed up with 32 electronic recyclers in the US and Canada to create an e-steward program for the orderly disposal of manufacturers ' and customers ' electronic waste. The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition founded the Electronics TakeBack Coalition, a coalition that advocates for the production of environmentally friendly products. The TakeBack Coalition works with policy makers, recyclers, and smart businesses to get manufacturers to take full responsibility of their products. There are organizations opposing EPR regulation, such as the Reason Foundation. They see flaws in two principal tenets of EPR: First EPR relies on the idea that if the manufacturers have to pay for environmental harm, they will adapt their practices. Second EPR assumes the current design practices are environmentally inefficient. The Reason Foundation claims that manufacturers naturally move toward reduced material and energy use.
|
where in the plant cell does the calvin cycle take place | Light - independent reactions - wikipedia
The light - independent reactions, or dark reactions, of photosynthesis are chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. These reactions occur in the stroma, the fluid - filled area of a chloroplast outside the thylakoid membranes. These reactions take the products (ATP and NADPH) of light - dependent reactions and perform further chemical processes on them. There are three phases to the light - independent reactions, collectively called the Calvin cycle: carbon fixation, reduction reactions, and ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration.
This process occurs only when light is available. Plants do not carry out the Calvin cycle during nighttime. They instead release sucrose into the phloem from their starch reserves. This process happens when light is available independent of the kind of photosynthesis (C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation, and Crassulacean acid metabolism); CAM plants store malic acid in their vacuoles every night and release it by day to make this process work. They are also known as dark reactions.
These reactions are closely coupled to the thylakoid electron transport chain as reducing power provided by NADPH produced in the photosystem I is actively needed. The process of photorespiration, also known as C2 cycle, is also coupled to the dark reactions, as it results from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme, and its final byproduct is also another glyceraldehyde - 3 - P.
The Calvin cycle, Calvin -- Benson -- Bassham (CBB) cycle, reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms.
The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley by using the radioactive isotope carbon - 14.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light - dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy - storage and transport molecules ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle uses the energy from short - lived electronically excited carriers to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds that can be used by the organism (and by animals that feed on it). This set of reactions is also called carbon fixation. The key enzyme of the cycle is called RuBisCO. In the following biochemical equations, the chemical species (phosphates and carboxylic acids) exist in equilibria among their various ionized states as governed by the pH.
The enzymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally equivalent to most enzymes used in other metabolic pathways such as gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytosol, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name "dark reaction '' is misleading), and also by products of the light - dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity.
The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following:
Hexose (six - carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as C O, this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six - carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three - carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates '', namely, glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate (G3P).
In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a CO molecule is incorporated into one of two three - carbon molecules (glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH, which had been produced in the light - dependent stage. The three steps involved are:
The next stage in the Calvin cycle is to regenerate RuBP. Five G3P molecules produce three RuBP molecules, using up three molecules of ATP. Since each CO molecule produces two G3P molecules, three CO molecules produce six G3P molecules, of which five are used to regenerate RuBP, leaving a net gain of one G3P molecule per three CO molecules (as would be expected from the number of carbon atoms involved).
The regeneration stage can be broken down into steps.
Thus, of six G3P produced, five are used to make three RuBP (5C) molecules (totaling 15 carbons), with only one G3P available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This requires nine ATP molecules and six NADPH molecules per three CO molecules. The equation of the overall Calvin cycle is shown diagrammatically below.
RuBisCO also reacts competitively with O instead of CO in photorespiration. The rate of photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3 - PGA and 2 - phosphoglycolate, a 2 - carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to glycine. Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are converted into serine + CO. Serine can be converted back to 3 - phosphoglycerate. Thus, only 3 of 4 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3 - PGA. It can be seen that photorespiration has very negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing CO, this process leads to loss of CO. C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates -- corn, for example.
The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP. (ADP and NADP are not really "products. '' They are regenerated and later used again in the Light - dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. For the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs.
These reactions do not occur in the dark or at night. There is a light - dependent regulation of the cycle enzymes, as the third step requires reduced NADP.
There are two regulation systems at work when the cycle must be turned on or off: the thioredoxin / ferredoxin activation system, which activates some of the cycle enzymes; and the RuBisCo enzyme activation, active in the Calvin cycle, which involves its own activase.
The thioredoxin / ferredoxin system activates the enzymes glyceraldehyde - 3 - P dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde - 3 - P phosphatase, fructose - 1, 6 - bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose - 1, 7 - bisphosphatase, and ribulose - 5 - phosphatase kinase, which are key points of the process. This happens when light is available, as the ferredoxin protein is reduced in the photosystem I complex of the thylakoid electron chain when electrons are circulating through it. Ferredoxin then binds to and reduces the thioredoxin protein, which activates the cycle enzymes by severing a cystine bond found in all these enzymes. This is a dynamic process as the same bond is formed again by other proteins that deactivate the enzymes. The implications of this process are that the enzymes remain mostly activated by day and are deactivated in the dark when there is no more reduced ferredoxin available.
The enzyme RuBisCo has its own, more complex activation process. It requires that a specific lysine amino acid be carbamylated to activate the enzyme. This lysine binds to RuBP and leads to a non-functional state if left uncarbamylated. A specific activase enzyme, called RuBisCo activase, helps this carbamylation process by removing one proton from the lysine and making the binding of the carbon dioxide molecule possible. Even then the RuBisCo enzyme is not yet functional, as it needs a magnesium ion bound to the lysine to function. This magnesium ion is released from the thylakoid lumen when the inner pH drops due to the active pumping of protons from the electron flow. RuBisCo activase itself is activated by increased concentrations of ATP in the stroma caused by its phosphorylation.
|
what happened to barry allen in justice league | Flash (Barry Allen) - wikipedia
The Flash (Barry Allen) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Barry Allen is the second character to be known as the Flash. The character first appeared in Showcase # 4 (October 1956), created by writer Robert Kanigher and penciler Carmine Infantino. His name combines talk show hosts Barry Gray and Steve Allen. Barry Allen is a reinvention of a previous character called the Flash that had appeared in 1940s comic books as the character Jay Garrick.
His power consists mainly of superhuman speed. Various other effects such as intangibility are also attributed to his ability to control the speed of molecular vibrations. The Flash wears a distinct red and gold costume treated to resist friction and wind resistance, traditionally storing the costume compressed inside a ring.
Barry Allen 's classic stories introduced the concept of the Multiverse to DC Comics, and this concept played a large part in DC 's various continuity reboots over the years. The Flash has traditionally always had a significant role in DC 's major company - wide reboot stories, and in 1985 's crossover Crisis on Infinite Earths, Barry Allen died saving the Multiverse, removing the character from the regular DC lineup for 23 years. His return to regular comics occurred subsequently in 2008 within the pages of Grant Morrison 's Final Crisis crossover story and Geoff Johns ' accompanying The Flash: Rebirth limited series. He has since played a pivotal role in the crossover stories Blackest Night (2009), Flashpoint (2011), Convergence (2015), and DC Rebirth (2016).
The character has appeared in various adaptations in other media. John Wesley Shipp played Barry Allen in the 1990 CBS television series and Grant Gustin currently plays him in the 2014 The CW television series. The character is played by Ezra Miller in the DC Extended Universe, beginning with Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and Suicide Squad in 2016, followed by Justice League in 2017.
Barry Allen is a police scientist (his job title was changed to a forensic scientist in The Flash: Iron Heights one - shot) with a reputation for being very slow, and frequently late, which frustrates his fiancee, Iris West, as the result of being absent - minded and his devotion to crime - solving. One night, as he is working late, a lightning bolt shatters a case full of chemicals and spills all over Barry. As a result, Allen finds that he can run extremely fast and has matching reflexes and senses. He dons a set of red tights sporting a lightning bolt (reminiscent of the original Fawcett Comics Captain Marvel), dubs himself the Flash (after his childhood comic book hero, Jay Garrick), and becomes Central City 's resident costumed crimefighter. Central City University professor Ira West (Iris ' adoptive father) designed Allen 's costume and the ring which stores it while Allen is in his civilian identity. The ring can eject the compressed clothing when Allen needs it and suck it back in with the aid of a special gas that shrinks the suit. In addition, Allen invented the cosmic treadmill, a device that allowed for precise time travel and was used in many stories. Allen was so well liked that nearly all speedsters that come after him are often compared to him. Batman once said "Barry is the kind of man that I would 've hoped to become if my parents had not been murdered. ''
As presented in Justice League of America # 9, when the Earth is infiltrated by alien warriors sent to conquer the planet, some of the world 's greatest heroes join forces, Allen among them. While the superheroes individually defeat most of the invaders, they fall prey to a single alien and only by working together are they able to defeat the warrior. Afterwards, the heroes decide to find the Justice League.
During the years, he is depicted as feeling slightly attracted to Black Canary and Zatanna, but he never pursues a relationship because he feels his real love is Iris West, whom he ultimately marries. Allen also becomes a good friend with Green Lantern (Hal Jordan), which would later be the subject of the limited series Flash and Green Lantern: The Brave and the Bold.
In The Flash # 123 -- "Flash of Two Worlds '' -- Allen is transported to Earth - Two where he meets Jay Garrick, the original Flash in DC Continuity; it is revealed that Jay Garrick 's adventures were captured in comic book form on Earth - One. This storyline initiated DC 's multiverse and was continued in issues of Flash and in team - ups between the Justice League of America of Earth - One and the Justice Society of America of Earth - Two. In the classic story from Flash # 179 -- "The Flash -- Fact or Fiction? '' -- Allen is thrown into the universe eventually called Earth Prime, a representation of "our '' universe, where he seeks the aid of the Flash comic book 's editor Julius Schwartz to build a cosmic treadmill so that he can return home. He also gains a sidekick and protégé in Iris ' nephew, Wally West, who gains super-speed in an accident similar to that which gave Allen his powers.
In time, he married his girlfriend Iris, who learned of his double identity because Allen talked in his sleep. She kept this secret, and he eventually revealed his identity to her of his own free will. Iris was eventually revealed to have been sent as a child from the 30th century and adopted.
In the 1980s, Flash 's life begins to collapse. Iris is murdered by Professor Zoom (a supervillain from the 25th century who had long loved her and been jealous of Allen), and when Allen prepares to marry another woman, Zoom tries the same trick again. Allen stops him, killing Zoom in the process by breaking his neck. Unfortunately, when Barry is unable to make an appearance at his own wedding, his fiancée eventually descends into madness.
Placed on trial for murder in connection with Zoom 's death, Allen is found guilty by the jury. When he is told by a juror, who is being possessed by a mind from the future, that Reverse Flash (whom Allen knows to be dead) brainwashed the jury into this verdict, Flash flees his trial. The Flash is then attacked by Reverse Flash, and realizes that the answers to this mystery, and restoring his good name, lie in the future, so the juror uses a time device to send them forward. They discover that Abra Kadabra was disguised as Reverse Flash to ruin the Flash 's good name. Defeating Kadabra, he retreats to the future to be reunited with Iris, having learned that Iris ' spirit was in fact drawn to the 30th century, and given a new body (and was in fact the mind inhabiting the juror). The final issue of The Flash ends with Flash and Iris kissing passionately and the caption "And they lived happily ever after... for a while ''. There are a few references in the final issue (The Flash # 350) to the upcoming events, and Flash 's impending death.
In the controversial storyline Identity Crisis (sets within the post-Zero Hour continuity), it is revealed that Barry voted to allow Zatanna to edit Doctor Light 's mind with four of the members of the Justice League six months after Iris 's death, essentially lobotomizing him. When Batman discovers what the League was doing, they have his memories edited as well despite the opposition from Green Arrow. Both Doctor Light and Batman would eventually recover from their respective mindwipe, leading Doctor Light to swear vengeance to all heroes and Batman 's distrust towards his allies.
Following the trial, Allen retires and joins Iris in the 30th century. However, after only a few weeks of happiness, the Crisis on Infinite Earths intervenes, and Allen is captured by the Anti-Monitor and brought to 1985; according to the Anti-Monitor, the Flash was the only being capable of traveling to other universes at will, so the Anti-Monitor could not allow him to stay free. Allen escapes and foils the Anti-Monitor's plan to destroy the Earth with an anti-matter cannon, creating a speed vortex to draw the power in, but dies in the process as the power becomes too much for his body. It has been said that Allen travels back through time and becomes the very same lightning bolt that gives him his powers, but later it is also strongly implied that the soul of Barry resides in the Speed Force, the mystical source and Valhalla open to all dead speedsters, and from which the living ones draw their amazing powers. After Allen 's death, Kid Flash Wally West, his nephew and sidekick, takes up the mantle of the Flash.
Marv Wolfman, scribe for the Crisis on Infinite Earths, has repeatedly stated (first hinted at in his introduction to the original Crisis collected edition hardcover), then fully explained on his website that he left a loophole in the script wherein the Barry Allen Flash could be reintroduced, without a retcon, into DC Universe continuity. This loophole would allow a writer to pull Barry out of his desperate run to annihilate the anti-matter cannon. However, Barry would know he must someday finish his death run, and would become more determined to use his speed to help others.
It should also be noted that the way Barry Allen seemed to have "died '' in Crisis on Infinite Earths, was that he ran so fast that he was able to stop the Anti-Monitor's anti-matter cannon from firing by catching the tachyon beam at the heart of the weapon. After this act, according to Secret Origins Annual # 2 (1988), Barry Allen turns into a lightning bolt, goes back in time, becoming the lightning bolt that hit his lab, splashing his past - self with chemicals and transforming him into the Flash.
In Deadman: Dead Again, Barry is one of the heroes whose spirit Deadman helps to enter Heaven, and the Green Arrow storyline "Quiver '' depicts Barry Allen in Heaven. His spirit, however, seems to still be alive within the Speed Force, along with Max Mercury and other speedsters. Then he re appeares in DC Rebirth after escaping the speed force.
Iris is pregnant, and she has two children who have super-speed powers, the Tornado Twins, who later meet the Legion of Super-Heroes. In the multiversal variant known as Earth - 247, each of her children themselves have children with speed - based abilities. One, Jenni Ognats, grows up to become the Legionnaire XS, while the other, Bart Allen, is born with an accelerated metabolism that rapidly ages him, and is sent back to the 20th century where he is cured by Wally West. He remains there as the superhero Impulse under the tutelage of Max Mercury, and later becomes the second Kid Flash as a member of the Teen Titans. One year after the events of Infinite Crisis, Bart becomes the fourth Flash until he is abruptly killed by his clone Inertia and the Rogues. Wally then retook the identity of the Flash. Bart would later be resurrected as Kid Flash by the Legion of Super-Heroes in the 31st century to combat Superboy - Prime.
Barry Allen appears in issue 3 as the Flash in the JLA when the two realities start changing, along with Hal Jordan. When the two teams see their real futures, Barry witnesses his death during Crisis on Infinite Earths as the Grandmaster shows the heroes how reality should be, but nevertheless resolves to help restore the timeline as it is not his place to play God. He talks with Hal Jordan over the similarity of their situation, stating that dying could not be so bad so long as they have left a legacy for others (Wally West and Kyle Rayner, in their cases) to fight for what they believe. He helps the team get into Krona 's base by using his running on a treadmill to pass the ship through the dimensional barrier. With the Wasp, he is ordered by Captain America to find ways through Krona 's defences, and alerts the group to a probably lethal force field. During the final battle, Barry saves Hawkeye from being killed when the Absorbing Man breaks the ground beneath him, but both of them are blasted and apparently killed by Dreamslayer. At the end, it is revealed that Barry got the two of them out alive and at Captain America 's suggestion they laid low and because of this, Hawkeye is able to destroy Krona 's machine with a TNT arrow while Barry distracts him, then Barry takes the 12 items of power. As a result, reality is restored, Barry disappears and Wally returns.
Wally West, wracked by grief for the loss of his unborn twins at the hands of Zoom, regrets the public knowledge of his identity. Barry appears from somewhere in time -- stating that he is from a period shortly before his death -- counseling his nephew, and talking the Spectre into granting his wish, erasing all public knowledge of Wally and Barry 's identities as the Flash (Although Wally himself also loses his memory of his identity for a time). Barry then disappears, telling his nephew that he will come to his aid three times, on the three most difficult days of his life of which this is the first. In fact, when Zoom enlists the aid of the original Professor Zoom to make Wally relive the loss of his beloved twins, Barry is already there, trying to stop his own Reverse Flash; Zoom apparently retrieved Eobard Thawne from the day that he attempted to kill Fiona Webb, with Barry following his nemesis. For the second time, he helps Wally to undo the damage dealt by Zoom, also allowing Wally to save his twins, and then he returns to his proper time, dragging his Zoom with him and breaking his enemy 's neck in his timeline.
In the fourth issue of Infinite Crisis, Barry Allen comes out from the Speed Force, along with Johnny Quick and Max Mercury, to help his grandson Bart deal with Superboy - Prime, taking the villainous teen with him in the Speed Force. Bart Allen appears wearing Barry Allen 's costume in Tokyo near the end of Infinite Crisis # 5 to tell the heroes that Superboy - Prime has escaped the Speed Force. Bart again reappears in Infinite Crisis # 7 in Barry Allen 's costume to combat Superboy - Prime once more.
In Flash: The Fastest Man Alive # 6 (2006) (with a portion taking place shortly before Infinite Crisis # 5) it is told how Barry spent four years in an alternate Keystone City along with Max Mercury, Johnny Quick, and an alternate Jay Garrick, until he met Bart and Wally West, joining him after the battle against Superboy - Prime. After Superboy escapes, Barry suggests that someone has to absorb the whole Speed Force and cross the dimensional bridge back to Post-Crisis Earth. As Bart volunteers, Barry gives him his suit as a last gift, to keep the Force contained, and stays behind. Wally West did not go because of his wife and kids. Bart says he knows Barry would go if he could, but why Barry Allen could not make the journey himself is not stated.
Twenty three years after his death in Crisis on Infinite Earths, Barry Allen 's essence made a return to the present DC Universe proper in DC Universe # 0, preceding his full - time return in the pages of writer Grant Morrison 's Final Crisis.
DC Universe # 0 features an unnamed narrator who initially associates himself with "everything ''. As the story progresses, he begins to recall his past and association with Justice League members, particularly Hal Jordan and Superman. The lettering in which he speaks to the reader is yellow on backgrounds that are initially black. As the story moves forward, the background slowly begins turning red. In the final pages, the narration boxes feature a yellow lightning bolt. Over time, as he recalls friendships and connections with other people, his mind begins to narrow, remarking "I... know him. I am no longer everything. I am a shaft of light split through a prism ''. Yet he is still the only one able to see "the shadow falling over everything '', in the form of Darkseid. On the final page, the moon appears in front of a red sky, as a yellow lightning bolt strikes diagonally in front of it creating the logo of the Flash, as he remarks "and now I remember ''. The title of the story is revealed to be "Let There Be Lightning ''.
A Daily News story released on the same day proclaimed that Barry Allen has returned to life, with issue co-writer Geoff Johns stating, "When the greatest evil comes back to the DC Universe, the greatest hero needed to return. ''
Barry makes his corporeal return in Final Crisis # 2. On the second to last page, Jay Garrick and Wally West feel vibrations to which Jay remarks, "but, do n't you recognize those vibrations? It ca n't be... Not after all these years... Not after all this time. '' On the final page, Barry Allen is seen in hot pursuit of the bullet which kills Orion, outrunning the Black Racer and shouting to Jay and Wally to "Run! ''
During Final Crisis # 3, Jay Garrick speaks to Barry 's wife, Iris, and tells her that her husband is truly alive. Meanwhile, Wally and Barry run a few weeks into the future. When they come to rest, Wally asks Barry if it is really him. Lamenting on Orion 's death, which he was unable to stop, Barry wonders why he is now alive after being dead for so long. It is then that Barry and Wally are confronted by Wonder Woman, Batwoman, Catwoman, and Giganta, who have all been transformed into the new Female Furies following the release of the Anti-Life Equation.
Despite the fact that this new version of the Female Furies is equipped with the ability to track down speedsters, perceived by Libra and Darkseid as the only obstacle left between them and world domination, Barry 's expertise allows him to overcome their foes and run through the ruined Earth.
Barry stops to see his wife Iris and save her from the slavery of the Anti-Life Equation. Seeing his wife again for the first time in years, Barry is overcome with emotion and gives his brainwashed wife a deep kiss. While kissing her, the Speed Force sparkles out of his body, enveloping Iris and freeing her from the Equation. The Allens and Wally West are left to fend in a conquered world. In the seventh and final issue of Final Crisis, Barry and Wally lead the Black Racer to Darkseid, dealing the cosmic tyrant a blow that, coupled with Batman shooting him in the shoulder with the god - bullet, would facilitate his ultimate defeat.
In 2009, writer Geoff Johns and artist Ethan Van Sciver created The Flash: Rebirth, a 6 - issue miniseries bringing Barry Allen back to a leading role in the DC Universe as the Flash, much in the same vein as Green Lantern: Rebirth. When asked what Flashes would appear in the series, Johns and Van Sciver said, "All of them. ''
The series begins with the cities of Central and Keystone celebrating the return of, "Central City 's Flash '', Wonder Woman having used her government contacts to create the story that Barry was in witness protection to account for his resurrection. Avoiding the parades, parties, and other celebrations of his return, Barry instead contemplates why he is alive again. A visit to the Flash Museum and from his friend Hal Jordan is not enough to put his mind at ease as he runs off as the Flash. "I ca n't be late, '' he says. When asked by Hal late for what, Flash replies, "For whatever the rest of the world needs me for. ''
It is then revealed that Flash 's mother was murdered when he was a child, and his father was arrested for the crime (this is pointedly contrary to previous Flash stories, in which both his parents appear alive). Flash describes this as "the only one open case I left behind. '' Before he can contemplate this any further, the speedster villain Savitar escapes the Speed Force through Flash. When Flash manages to put his hand on Savitar 's shoulder, the villain screams in agony and crumbles into dust, not before telling Flash, "... You were the beginning, Allen... and you 're the end. '' At that moment, Wally West, West 's children Iris and Jai, Liberty Belle, Jay Garrick, and Kid Flash all experience painful convulsions and are engulfed in lightning.
Barry 's conflict with the speed cult culminates in the death of their new leader who was attempting to avenge Savitar 's death. It causes pain once again to all the speedsters, though Wally West manages to catch a glimpse of Allen directly afterwards, and sees him as the new Black Flash. When he realizes that his presence could damage or kill other innocents, Barry flees back into the Speed Force, where he encounters old friends Johnny Quick and Max Mercury. Max attempts to tell Allen that his becoming the Black Flash is not his fault. When Max and Barry are pulled into another pocket of the Speed Force, the real culprit reveals himself: Professor Zoom.
Zoom reveals his plan: after Barry briefly aided Kid Flash against Superboy - Prime during the Infinite Crisis, Thawne was able to send a subliminal pulse into the Speed Force to draw back what was left of Barry 's self - awareness. This led to the hero 's reappearance during the Final Crisis. Afterward, Zoom transformed himself into "a new kind of speedster and created his negative Speed Force to contaminate Barry and the other heroic speedsters. Before Barry can fight any further, Zoom fades away. Wally enters the Speed Force to retrieve his uncle, and after venturing deeper into the Speed Force, Max reveals to Barry that it was Allen himself who created the Speed Force. Meanwhile, Wally manages to reach Barry and Max, and the three begin their escape. As the heroic speedsters are recharged with energy, Barry, Wally, Jay, Max, and Bart charge towards Zoom.
The seven speedsters (the 5 men plus Jesse Chambers and Iris West - Park) battle against Zoom, and despite being outnumbered, Zoom pulls Barry away. He reveals that everything horrible that happened to Barry, including the murder of Barry 's mother, was caused by Zoom. Zoom then decides to destroy everything by killing Barry 's wife, Iris, before they met.
Barry chases after Zoom, and is joined by Wally, who tells Barry to push as hard as he can to break the time barrier. They reach Thawne, becoming the lightning bolt that turns Barry into the Flash as they are able to stop Zoom from killing Iris. As the two Flashes push Zoom back through time to the present, they see that the Justice League, the Justice Society, and the Outsiders have built a device specifically for Thawne. Barry tosses him in and activates the device, severing his connection to the negative Speed Force. The Flashes tie Zoom up to stop him from running. With the threat ended, everyone celebrates by welcoming Barry back and the speedsters in general. Later, Barry closes the case on his mother 's death and opts to take all the other cold cases they had after his death. Barry spends some time with Iris before racing to Washington to celebrate his return with the Justice League, apologizing for being late.
Barry Allen is one of the main characters in Blackest Night alongside Hal Jordan. Allen appears alongside Jordan in the Free Comic Book Day issue Blackest Night # 0 that acts as a prologue to the July company crossover.
At the grave of Bruce Wayne in Gotham City, Hal and Barry reflect on Batman 's death and how the hero community is avoiding linking Wayne and Batman.
This reflection turns to the pair looking at their own deaths, comparing the sadness that Barry 's death engendered in others while Hal 's death produced anger. Hal sums it up by telling Barry, "I died a sinner. You died a saint. '' (though he admits he 's not and reflecting of his past sins.) The conversation moves on to the world becoming "more dangerous '' after Barry 's death and observing that the deaths of Arthur Curry and Martian Manhunter cost the Justice League its "heart and soul ''. As they leave the cemetery, Barry expresses hope that their dead comrades will be returned to them. He specifically cites Batman noting, "If there 's an escape, you can bet Batman 's already planning it. ''
Barry also appears alongside Hal in the July issues of Green Lantern tying into the event. Recently, in a fight with Black Lantern J'onn J'onzz, he found a mysterious black residue at Bruce Wayne 's grave -- a black form coagulating much like blood that started corrupting him by partly decaying his skin and muscle during the fight against his former friend, who is intent on killing both Hal and Barry, seeing how they both died, and in the eyes of the Black Lanterns, must return to that state to keep the universe in balance.
After fighting off the undead Martian and the subsequent Black Lanterns with Hal and the arriving Atom, Mera, Firestorm, and two of the Indigo Tribe members, Barry, along with Wally and Bart, races across the globe to warn every superhero community across the planet. His message also inadvertently warns the Rogues. They all realize that their deceased members would come after them and decide to strike first at Iron Heights Penitentiary, unaware that the undead Rogues are ready for them. While doing so, Barry meets a Black Lantern version of Professor Zoom for a brief battle. Barry decides to go to Gorilla City to seek aid from its ruler Solovar, unaware the gorilla leader had been killed years before. Finding the city attacked, Barry assumed Grodd had struck only to be horrified to learn Solovar was now a Black Lantern. Their fight was shortened by Barry racing to Coast City.
He stops at the city 's memorial, where he witnesses the arrival of the Black Lanterns ' demonic lord, Nekron, and his disciples Scar and Black Hand. The Justice League, the Titans, Wally, and Bart arrive to aid Barry to take a stand against Nekron. Nekron reveals however that all the resurrected heroes are tied to him, because he allowed them to rise again. As such they belong to him. Nekron then used a series of black rings to turn Superman, Wonder Woman, Troia, Green Arrow, Bart, and several other resurrected heroes into Black Lanterns. Barry and Hal find themselves being targeted by black rings and are forced to flee or risk joining the others as Black Lanterns. Barry manages to save himself and Hal through time travel two seconds forward, leaving the rings with no present targets. As Barry and Hal rejoin the heroes against Nekron and his army, Ganthet, one of the Guardians of the Universe and a leader of the Blue Lantern Corps, summons a blue power ring and Barry is chosen as a Blue Lantern so he would be more effective during the battle.
After being chosen as a Blue Lantern, Barry joins forces with the veteran Blue Corps member Saint Walker to continue battling the Black Lanterns alongside the understanding of the potentials and limitations of his new power ring. During the battle, Barry is forced to fight his own grandson, who his ring detects is still alive but would eventually die if not free from the black ring soon. Barry is shown to be skilled with his ring in creating energy constructs based on his imagination and an ability of flight (possibly because of the understanding with Hal 's ring), as he is able to create images of Bart as Impulse and Kid Flash against him in order to make him feel again. Barry 's plan almost works as Bart reacts to the images of his past and the constructs begin to attempt to take the black ring from him, but later is interrupted by the Black Lantern Professor Zoom and Solovar. Wally and Walker later join Barry to fight against them. Barry and Bart temporarily joined the White Lantern Corps during the final events of Blackest Night.
The new Flash series begins after the completion of Blackest Night and the beginning of Brightest Day. After the events of The Flash: Rebirth, Barry Allen is reintegrating himself into life in Central City. Under the cover of having been in witness protection, Allen returns to the Central City Police Department 's crime lab and returns to the streets as the Flash. While readjusting to life as the Flash, a man appears out of thin air in the costume of Flash rogue the Mirror Master, and promptly dies on the street.
When Barry arrives on the scene to investigate, he sees the man is neither original Mirror Master Sam Scudder, or the current Rogue, Evan McCulloch. Hearing of another portal appearing, Barry transforms into the Flash and runs to investigate. When he arrives, a group of people in costumes similar to the Rogues, called The Renegades appear and tell Barry that they are from the 25th century, and that he is under arrest for murdering the "Mirror Monarch ''. Barry tells the crew that he has not killed anyone, to which their leader, "Commander Cold '', tells him, "Not yet. But you will. ''
After a brief struggle, where Weather Warlock 's time disc was damaged, the Renegades were forced back to the 25th century, which also caused the destruction of an apartment building due to their uncontrolled jump back. Barry saves everyone in the building, even rebuilding the building in minutes, and goes on to search for the true killer of Mirror Monarch. He is attacked again by the Renegades, but only before Captain Boomerang shows up, now wielding explosive energy boomerangs. Boomerang fights both the Flash and the Renegades, and a confused Top (one of the Renegades from the 25th century) questions his teammates on whether or not Barry Allen is the man they are looking for, pointing out that in their timeline, Boomerang never showed up.
The Renegades finally corner Captain Boomerang when the Rogues arrive with a giant mirror left by the previous Mirror Master that says "In Case The Flash Returns Break Glass ''. An all out brawl ensues as the Rogues battle the Renegades. Meanwhile, Flash is confronted by Top who warns him that the reason he will eventually kill Mirror Monarch is because of Iris 's death, which he claims will be caused when the giant mirror breaks, releasing the Mirror Lords. Top tells Barry that one of the Mirror Lords will possess Iris and take her away from him. Barry races to stop the mirror from breaking, with Top at his side. However, when the White Lantern entity reaches out to Captain Boomerang, telling him to "Throw the Boomerang '', Boomerang responds by throwing dozens of boomerangs in every direction. One of them hits the glass and it begins to break. Top tells Flash to stop the Mirror Lords, while he goes and protects Iris. Flash questions does not make sense, but Top throws him into the mirror and flees.
In the mirror, Flash is exposed to strange visions of his mother. Outside, the Rogue Mirror Master tells the others that the mirror is actually a slow acting poison and they flee. Barry escapes the mirror confused and asks, "Where are the Mirror Lords? '' He is then arrested by the Renegades, who realize that this was all a setup by Top to frame the Flash for his own personal gains. Barry is transported to a 25th - century court, while Top confronts Iris.
The story concludes with Barry escaping the 25th century court and going after Top. Top reveals that the reason for all of his crimes is because Barry reopened a previously closed case. Barry felt that the person convicted was actually innocent. The person who is actually guilty of the crime is one of Top 's ancestors. Top reveals that they do not allow anyone in the Renegades who has any ancestors with a criminal record. The Flash is able to beat Top, and convict the right man for murder, letting go the innocent man who was sent to prison. Afterward, the 25th century court and the Renegades go over the facts, realizing that the Flash was right and that their entire record of history is wrong. This alludes to the upcoming Flash event, Flashpoint. Meanwhile, a man on a Speed Force - powered motorcycle (later revealed to be a Speed Force police officer under the name of Hot Pursuit) moves through the desert and says that if Barry does not find the flashpoint, it will destroy the world. As he continues through the desert, Speed Force lightning strikes in the distance.
In a Green Lantern storyline, Barry becomes the latest host for the embodiment of fear, Parallax, after he joins Hal Jordan 's quest of locating all of the entities who each represent aspects of the power of the emotional spectrum. Barry was susceptible to the entity 's attacks due to his fear for Jordan 's safety. Barry is eventually freed after the embodiment of compassion, Proselyte, helps him remember his capability for benevolence over his fear.
DC has also announced via the Flashpoint Friday Blog that Flash # 12 will be the last in the series despite a thirteenth issue originally having been announced for sale on May 25, 2011, but which has since been withdrawn.
As the story begins, Barry Allen wakes up in his office and discovers that his mother is alive, with no trace of Superman, Wonder Woman and Aquaman leading their respective nations in a war, his wife Iris West is unmarried and himself currently powerless. Barry seeks the aid of Batman, driving to Gotham City and entering a run - down Wayne Manor. He explores what turns out to be a small Batcave until he is attacked by Batman. Barry tries to explain who he is by saying he knows Batman is Bruce Wayne, only to find that in this reality, Batman is Thomas Wayne. While Barry is being beat up by Batman, he explains about his secret identity as the Flash and his relation to Bruce Wayne. Barry 's memories spontaneously change and he realizes that the world of Flashpoint is not an alternate dimension, but his own. Barry uses his ring, which he uses to contain his Flash outfit, but the ring instead ejects Professor Zoom 's costume. Barry tells Batman that Zoom is taunting him with it. Barry explains that both he and Zoom have the ability to alter time, leading Batman to ask him about how Bruce was to have lived in his place and if he can really change the world. Barry states that he needs his speed first. Later, Barry and Batman create an electric chair - like device to try and recreate the accident that gave him his speed; however, the first attempt meets with failure, leaving Barry severely burned.
Barry awakes on an operating table in the Batcave and is covered in bandages and third degree burns. Despite Thomas ' advice, Barry sits back down in the electric chair device. When lightning strikes a second time, Barry 's super-speed returns, and he then saves the Batman from being impaled on a fence. Barry 's injuries are healing rapidly due to his speed - enhanced regeneration. He also makes a new copy of his Flash costume. The Flash researches the incarnations of heroes of the DC timeline, believing that Zoom deliberately changed their lives to prevent the Flash from creating a Justice League, and learns of a rocket that crashed into Metropolis which carried the infant Superman, who instead of being raised in Kansas was taken in by the government. They then contact Cyborg for his help in sneaking into the government bunker of "Project: Superman '' that is ' raising ' Superman after his rocket destroyed Metropolis upon its arrival, only to be disappointed at Superman 's frail appearance. They head towards Project: Superman 's underground base via the sewer. The group comes across a giant vault door bearing the Superman logo. After they open the door, the three see a pale, weakened Kal - El. Despite his appearance, Barry says that no matter what, Superman will always be a good person. When the arrival of guards forces them to escape, Superman 's powers begin to manifest and he flies off leaving them at the hands of the guards.
While they fend off the guards, they are rescued by Element Woman. Barry 's memories begin to change much more drastically, altering his past. He states that he is running out of time and soon he will not be able to restore the timeline to normal. After Barry is recovering, he asks the heroes to stop the Atlantean / Amazon war from creating more casualties, although the heroes are not willing to unless Batman wants to join them. Cyborg explains to him that they believe Batman was invincible. However, Barry convinces him that no one is invincible; the Marvel Family and Batman agree to join him. The heroes arrive at New Themyscira to stop the Atlantean / Amazon war, and appear to be winning until Enchantress reveals herself as the Amazon spy and uses her magic to separate the Marvel Family and restore them to their mortal forms. Penthesilea kills Billy Batson just as Professor Zoom reveals himself to Barry. Professor Zoom reveals to him that the "Flashpoint '' timeline was actually created by Barry himself, after he traveled back in time to stop Zoom from killing his mother, but the timeline diverted into the near - apocalyptic world they find themselves in. He continues to taunt Barry with this knowledge, but is suddenly stabbed in the back by Batman wielding an Amazonian sword. Before Barry returns the timeline to normal, Batman thanks him for all he 's done and gives him a letter addressed to his son. After this, Barry bids a farewell to his mother, knowing he must travel back in time to stop his younger self from altering time. Through the fusions of the time stream, Barry seemingly hears a voice explaining that the three timelines and worlds, need to become one again and would need his help to do this. After the ordeals, he visits the real Bruce Wayne and gives him the letter from his alternate father. Bruce is grateful to Barry of informing him of the events of the "Flashpoint '' before the timeline was apparently returned to normal.
DC Comics relaunched The Flash with issue # 1 in September 2011, with writing and art chores handled by Francis Manapul and Brian Buccellato as part of DC 's company - wide title relaunch, The New 52. As with all of the books associated with the DC relaunch, Barry Allen appears to be about five years younger than the previous incarnation of the character. He gains his powers after getting frustrated and throwing a small machine at the window of his lab. The machine broke through the window, leaving a hole big enough for a bolt of lightning to charge through the hole and strike him.
In the second issue of the new Justice League title (the first released comic series of the New 52 initiative and "opening shot '' of the new DC Universe), Flash is called to assist Green Lantern and Batman in wrangling an out - of - control Superman, and later assists with the pursuit of an alien, revealed to be an agent of Darkseid. In this new continuity, Barry 's marriage to Iris West never took place, and he is instead in a relationship with longtime co-worker Patty Spivot. In this new series, the Flash draws deeper into the Speed Force, enhancing his mental abilities while still trying to get a full grasp on his powers, which he does not yet exert total control over.
As revealed in issue # 0 of the current series, Barry Allen 's father was placed in prison for the murder of his mother. The murder occurred shortly after Barry returned victorious from a school spelling bee, and Barry placed the trophy he won on his mother 's grave in her memory. While the evidence seems to indicate his father 's guilt, Barry makes proving his father 's innocence a priority.
Barry is also part of the main cast of the relaunched Justice League series, making his debut in the series ' second issue. Following Convergence, Barry has a new suit in issue # 41, which has a darker shade and features more streaks.
During DC Rebirth, Barry is no longer the only Flash. It is revealed that Wally West has been lost in the Speed Force for ten years, realizing during this time that Barry is not responsible of changing the timeline after the Flashpoint crisis, the unknown entity used Barry 's time travelling as an opportunity to fundamentally alter reality. The fallout of the recent Darkseid War allowed Wally to try and reach out to his former friends in the hopes of either returning or warning them of the truth, but each attempt caused him to fall further into the Speed Force. After realizing not even Linda (his traditional "lightning rod '') could remember him, Wally sank into desolation and chose to appear before Barry one last time to thank him for the life he had given him. Just before Wally disappeared, Barry remembered him and dragged him free of the Speed Force. Following a tearful reunion, Wally gave Barry his warning of the true source of the universal change and the dangers to come. Because of Wally, Barry is now aware that the timeline is not reset correctly after Flashpoint and thus another alternate timeline. However, he still can not remember his pre-Flashpoint life, such as people like Jay Garrick and the details of his feuds with the Reverse - Flash / Eobard Thawne (who now remembers their pre-Flashpoint history), and remembers Wally from their new DC Rebirth timeline history. Despite being informed by Wally that another party is responsible, Barry remains in guilt over his mistakes, and seeks to find and stop them in hopes of making amends. Although the two decide to keep Wally 's return secret from Iris based on Wally 's own experience with Linda, Barry encourages him to return to the Teen Titans, but also recommends that he don a new costume to reflect that he is the Flash rather than ' Kid Flash '. While Wally considers his options, Barry visits Batman to discuss the new evidence of some outside force attacking them, musing on how personal this assault appears, but despite the potential danger, Batman and Barry agree to keep their investigation to themselves until they know what they are up against. Later, when Eobard Thawne attacks Iris and Wally II, Iris had glimpses of her pre-Flashpoint life with Barry and learns his secrets as the Flash in the process. Knowing from Thawne that her entire life has been drastically altered and that Barry is indirectly responsible for it as the result of his time - traveling actions, Iris now distrusts Barry. To make matters worse for Barry, while he 's entering the Negative Speed Force, he becomes the Negative - Flash which is so lethal than the original, and mostly dangerous to control.
Barry Allen has the ability to run at super-human velocities. He was at times during the Silver Age described as faster than the speed of thought. He is also the fastest man to ever live, even defeating Wally West with no strain even though West was at his fastest. Flash # 150, "straining every muscle '', he ran at ten times the speed of light. In Flash Rebirth # 6 is shown that after his ressurecrion Barry has become faster the Wally West. However, when he pushed himself further (during the Crisis on Infinite Earths) he appeared to waste away as he was converted into pure energy, traveled back in time, and was revealed in Secret Origins Annual # 2 to be the very bolt of lightning that gave him his powers. This was later retconned in The Flash: Rebirth # 1, where Barry stated that he "ran into the Speed Force '', and that, "When he stopped the Anti-Monitor, when (he) ran into the ' Speed Force ' and joined it, it was like shedding (his) identity. '' Allen possesses abilities that original Flash Jay Garrick has not always been able to duplicate, and most notably the ability to "vibrate '' in such a way as to pass through solid matter. Allen regularly engaged in time travel by using his Cosmic Treadmill device; however, on several occasions he has been able to time travel without using the Cosmic Treadmill. His speed also allows him, in certain circumstances, to "vibrate '' between dimensions. Barry is unique among Flashes and most characters in the DC Universe in that he has complete control over every molecule in his body. In Grant Morrison 's Final Crisis, using the Speed Force, Allen was able to undo the effects of the Anti-Life Equation upon an individual: an ability he used on his wife Iris to free her from the bondage of Darkseid 's mind control. Barry has also shown the ability to fly by creating mini vortexes.
Barry 's speed has numerous secondary applications. He can use it to generate cyclones by spinning his arms quickly, and in some depictions he can even channel the electric energy generated by the Speed Force into arcs of lightning. Barry is also immune to telepathic attacks and control as he can shift his thoughts at a speed faster than normal thought. Through "speed - reading '', he can absorb large amounts of information into his short - term memory, which remain in his mind just long enough for him to make use of it. Using this technique, Barry was able to learn enough about building work to rebuild a destroyed apartment building. Other aspects of Barry 's powers include an enhanced metabolism and faster - than - normal healing from injuries. In the New 52 Barry learned that his body is using the speed force to its full extent but his brain is not. With the help of Dr. Elias he was able to learn how to use the Speed Force to process more information, and make even quicker decisions, to the point where he feels like he can see everything before it happens. In terms of DC 's internal lexicon, Barry is classified as a metahuman: a human being who possesses extranormal abilities either through birth or (as in Barry 's case) as the result of some external event.. In The New 52 and DC Rebirth, Barry Allen is the fastest Flash.
The Flash has acquired a colorful rogues gallery of villains. Their number includes (but is not limited to) several who formed a loose association and refer to themselves as the Rogues, disdaining the use of the term "supervillain '' or "super-criminal ''. These criminals typically have unusually modest goals for their power level (robbery or other petty crimes), and each have adopted a specific theme in his or her equipment and methods.
Ezra Miller portrays Barry Allen / The Flash in the DC Extended Universe.
"Ballad of Barry Allen '' -- A song by the band Jim 's Big Ego on their album, They 're Everywhere. The song portrays Barry as a tragic character, whose perception of the world is so accelerated that all of reality appears to proceed at a snail 's pace, causing him to gradually slip into depression. The band 's frontman, Jim Infantino, is the nephew of Flash (Barry Allen) co-creator Carmine Infantino, who provided the cover art for the same album.
IGN ranked this version of the Flash as the 49th greatest hero of all time stating that even in his 20 - year absence, Barry 's legacy as the greatest Flash of them all lived on.
In 2013, Barry Allen placed 8th on IGN 's Top 25 Heroes of DC Comics.
|
list of nfl teams who took a knee | U.S. national anthem protests (2016 -- present) - wikipedia
Since August 2016, some U.S. athletes have silently protested against systematic oppression, equality and social injustice, racism and injustice in the criminal system, oppression of people of color in the United States, and to not "show pride in a flag for a country that oppresses black people and people of color '' during the playing of the U.S. national anthem. Many players since 2017 have started to protest against the attacks of President Donald Trump to those involved in the protest. The demonstrations have generated mixed reactions. Some have described them as politically urgent or patriotic, some other have criticized the fact their attention is attracted to such social problems during sports, while others have called the protests unpatriotic and disrespectful of the U.S. flag, the national anthem, the police, and the military.
The protests began in the National Football League (NFL) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback Colin Kaepernick sat and later knelt during the anthem, before his team 's preseason games of 2016. Throughout the following seasons, members of various NFL and other sports teams have engaged in similar silent protests. On September 24, 2017, the NFL protests became more widespread when over 200 players sat or knelt in response to President Donald Trump 's calling for owners to "fire '' the protesting players.
It is a tradition in the United States to play "The Star - Spangled Banner '', the national anthem, before sporting events. According to the United States Code, those present should stand at attention with right hand over heart. It 's noteworthy, this tradition only acquired widespread practice after the year 2001, while National Football League (NFL) players were not mandated to be on the field for the playing of the national anthem until 2009. In 2016 the NFL stated that "players are encouraged but not required to stand during the playing of the National Anthem ''; its game operations manual reads that players "should stand '' for the anthem.
The people of the United States is divided on the intended meaning of the anthem. Some believe it salutes military and police officers who have died on duty; for others, it honors the United States generally. Between 2012 and 2015, the Department of Defense gave $6.8 million to teams across all major sports in exchange for holding various military and patriotic events at their games, including the performance of the national anthem.
Kaepernick and his 49ers teammate Eric Reid say they choose to kneel during the anthem to call attention to the issues of racial inequality and police brutality. "After hours of careful consideration, and even a visit from Nate Boyer, a retired Green Beret and former NFL player, we came to the conclusion that we should kneel, rather than sit,... during the anthem as a peaceful protest, '' said Reid. "We chose to kneel because it 's a respectful gesture. I remember thinking our posture was like a flag flown at half - mast to mark a tragedy. '' Some regard kneeling as disrespectful to those who have died or been wounded in service of the United States, such as police officers or military veterans. Torrey Smith, a wide receiver for the Philadelphia Eagles, said in an interview: "I understand why people are offended by people protesting the National Anthem. My father served 25 years. When he dies, he 's going to be wrapped in an American flag. But my dad is also out of the Army, and he drives trucks all over the country, and he 's a black man everywhere he goes, and sometimes he has racial incidents still today. That does n't protect him, just because he served our country. And I think that 's important. ''
Criminal justice reform is one of the top issues that NFL players have been supporting in their protests. Kaepernick was initially moved to protest by the deaths of African Americans at the hands of police or while in police custody. These deaths gained prominence through the media and the Black Lives Matter movement in the years immediately preceding the protest. During a post-game interview on August 26, 2016, he stated, "I am not going to stand up to show pride in a flag for a country that oppresses black people and people of color. To me, this is bigger than football and it would be selfish on my part to look the other way. There are bodies in the street and people getting paid leave and getting away with murder '', adding that he would continue to protest during the anthem until he feels like "(the United States flag) represents what it 's supposed to represent. ''
After that interview, Kaepernick pledged to donate the first $1 million of his $11.9 million salary from the 2016 -- 2017 season to different organizations that help communities in need. He pledged to donate $100,000 per month for 10 months to various organizations. Days later, the San Francisco 49ers matched Kaepernick by pledging $1 million to two organizations addressing racial and social inequality. Kaepernick has been following through on his commitment and has donated $900,000 as of September 2017 to groups including Meals on Wheels, United We Dream, Black Veterans for Social Justice and many others. Kaepernick has also held "Know Your Rights '' camps for young people of color. The camps include legal education from attorneys that give advice on how to interact with police when being detained and lectures from prominent academics on the history of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States. The National Football League Players Association (NFLPA) named Kaepernick the Week One MVP in September 2017 for his charity work related to the protest.
In September 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump, speaking at a rally in Huntsville, Alabama, said NFL owners should fire players who kneel during the national anthem, and encouraged fans to walk out. Trump tried to use his position at the administration to advise NFL owners to say "Get that son of a bitch off the field right now, out, he 's fired. He 's fired! '' Trump called the players ' protest "a total disrespect of our heritage ''. He went on to say that new NFL safety rules meant to protect players from concussions are ruining the game for the public. His statement came after new research indicates NFL players are at high risk for chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) due to the likelihood of multiple head injuries.
Trump denied his criticism of the protesters was related to race. "This has to do with respect for our country and respect for our flag, '' he said. In the games immediately following Trump 's statements, the protest gained broader participation when over 200 players sat or knelt during the anthem, others linked arms with their teammates or raised fists, and three teams chose to stay in the locker room for the anthem. However, the response was more a reaction to Trump than Kaepernick 's original protests of racial injustice. Reasons cited by players, owners, and coaches included supporting freedom of speech and opposing what they considered intimidation by Trump. Others said they took offense to Trump demeaning the integrity of their primarily African American colleagues, when a month earlier he had called the white nationalists who protested in Charlottesville, Virginia, "Very fine people ''. The reaction to Trump 's remarks overshadowed other ongoing issues his administration was facing, including failed attempts at healthcare reform, the primary election loss of Trump - backed candidate Luther Strange for the Alabama seat in the U.S. Senate, recovery efforts for Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico and Hurricane Harvey in Houston, and relations with North Korea over their nuclear and missile testing.
Many players beyond the 2017 season have knelt or raised fists in protest against the policies of President Donald Trump.
In May 2018 on an in interview President Donald Trump went as far to say "You have to stand proudly for the national anthem, or you should n't be playing, you should n't be there. Maybe you should n't be in the country ''. He went from his previous opinion that these NFL players should be fired to that they should "maybe '' be deported. Trump applauded the new policy that NFL players must either stand for the anthem or stay back in the locker room, but felt that this policy was not strict enough.
Kaepernick began sitting during the national anthem at the start of the 2016 NFL preseason. His actions went unnoticed for two weeks before he was questioned by the media. In the 49ers ' final 2016 preseason game on September 1, 2016, after talking to Boyer, Kaepernick opted to kneel during the U.S. national anthem rather than sit as he did in their previous games. He explained his decision to switch was an attempt to show more respect to former and current U.S. military members while still protesting during the anthem. Eric Reid joined Kaepernick in kneeling during the national anthem during the final preseason game. Seattle Seahawks player Jeremy Lane also did not stand for the anthem during his final preseason game the same day, stating, "It 's something I plan to keep on doing until justice is being served. ''
In Week 1, eleven NFL players joined Kaepernick 's protests. Denver Broncos player Brandon Marshall knelt during the national anthem prior to the start of the Kickoff game, which was broadcast on NBC. The act of kneeling as protest has been referred to as "taking a knee ''. Kaepernick and Marshall were teammates at the University of Nevada. On September 11, Kansas City Chiefs player Marcus Peters raised his fist while the rest of the team interlocked their arms showing solidarity. Two members of the New England Patriots, Devin McCourty and Martellus Bennett, raised their fists on Sunday Night Football. The entire Seattle Seahawks team stood and interlocked arms. Jelani Jenkins, Arian Foster, Kenny Stills, and Michael Thomas of the Miami Dolphins all knelt during the National Anthem. At the same time, a group of Jacksonville Jaguars players, led by cornerback Prince Amukamara, initially planned to join the protest but chose not to do so after photographs of Kaepernick wearing socks with a crude anti-police message during training camp were made public.
On November 13, 2016, 5 days after Donald Trump was elected President, Tampa Bay Buccaneers wide - receiver Mike Evans decided to sit during the national anthem. According to Sports Illustrated, Evans said, "If this happens, then America 's not right right now. I said this a long time ago. When he ran, I thought it was a joke, and the joke continues. I 'm not a political person that much, but I got common sense. And I know when something 's not right. '' However, his protest began the day following Veterans Day, so he received criticism. He quickly changed his method of protesting and joined his teammates during the following game against the Kansas City Chiefs. He apologized to veterans and other members of the military for his actions -- citing that the timing of his protest was poor. "On the field, I 'm going to continue to do what I do -- play hard. I 'm playing hard because I 've got this right -- freedom, because of the vets. I 'm going to reach out to organizations, organizations that I feel are doing the best job to help the minority... women, LGBT, African Americans, Latinos, people that are in fear of Donald Trump and his presidency. ''
Cleveland Browns tight end Seth DeValve became the first white football player to kneel or sit during the anthem on the team 's August 21, 2017 preseason game against the New York Giants.
In Week 3 of the season the majority of games were played two days after Trump made his statements. The protest gained broader participation when over 200 players sat or knelt during the anthem. Many players, coaches and NFL teams protested and / or issued statements expressing dismay with Trump 's comments:
On October 16, 2017 Colin Kaepernick filed a grievance for collusion against NFL owners. Instead of using the NFLPA, Kaepernick hired Mark Geragos to be his attorney. As of August 31, 2018, an arbitrator ruled that there is sufficient evidence that the case can continue.
In Week 8 at Seattle, the majority of the Texans players knelt during the anthem after Houston owner Bob McNair had commented about having the "inmates running the prison '' during a league owner meeting regarding the ongoing protest. McNair had apologized, stating that he was not referring to the players, but rather to the "relationship between the league office and team owners ''. It was the first time a Texans player had knelt during the anthem.
On May 23, 2018, NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell and all NFL team owners except for two owners that abstained from voting in a show of hand voting process, approved a new policy requiring all players to stand during the national anthem or be given the option to stay in the locker room during the national anthem. The vote took place without consulting the NFLPA. Any players from all NFL teams who protest the anthem while on the field will become subject to discipline from the league. In addition, the teams as a whole will be subject to punishment and other forms of discipline from the NFL as a result.
In disagreement with the policy, several players on the Super Bowl champion Philadelphia Eagles indicated they would decline an invitation from Trump to visit the White House on June 5, leading the President to rescind the offer the day before the event. The Eagles were the second sports franchise that Trump had uninvited, joining the 2017 National Basketball Association (NBA) champion Golden State Warriors, whose visit was cancelled after several players publicly declined to attend.
On July 19, the NFL and the players association issued a joint statement that "no rules relating to the anthem will be issued for the next several weeks. '' This came after the Associated Press had reported earlier in the day that Miami team rules stated that improper anthem conduct could result in a player suspension of up to four games, more than some players receive for violating the league 's domestic violence policy. The following day, Trump tweeted that players should be suspended for one game the first time kneeling, and for the entire season without pay after a second offense.
Seattle Reign FC and U.S. women 's national soccer team player Megan Rapinoe knelt during the national anthem in a game on September 5, 2016, explaining that her decision was a "nod to Kaepernick and everything that he 's standing for right now ''. In a subsequent match at the Washington Spirit, Spirit owner Bill Lynch -- anticipating Rapinoe 's protest -- moved the national anthem 's performance without warning or notice to occur before the players ' appearances on the pitch. Jeff Plush, the league 's commissioner, was present at the game and told reporters that he was unaware of Lynch 's plans and disagreed with the act of moving the anthem 's performance. The Spirit 's players issued a joint statement also disagreeing with Lynch 's decision to move the anthem without first consulting the team 's players or coaches.
As a member of the U.S. women 's national soccer team, Rapinoe also knelt before an international friendly match against Thailand on September 16, despite public statements of disagreement with her protest methods issued before the match by the U.S. Soccer Federation and her coach Jill Ellis. U.S. Soccer proceeded to pass a policy that now requires all of its players to stand "respectfully '' during the national anthem making it the first American sports league or governing body to do so.
Major League Soccer (MLS) have released a statement in September 2017 regarding any potential protests "The march of players, officials and children into our stadiums and singing of the anthem has been a pre-match tradition since our first game in 1996. The National Anthem provides our clubs and fans an important and time - honored opportunity to salute our country and stand up for its principles -- whether in the United States or in Canada. '' MLS to date, has yet to encounter national anthem protests.
The protest had supporters outside the U.S. as well: In an October 2017 match against Schalke 04, players and staff of German football club Hertha BSC took the knee in solidarity. Herta BSC has a few American players on their roster.
On September 7, 2016, three volleyball players from West Virginia Tech knelt during the national anthem.
On October 1, at East Carolina University, about 19 members of the band knelt, while about another two held the American flag during the national anthem at the beginning of the football game against the University of Central Florida. There have been almost no such incidents involving college football players, for the simple reason that college players and coaches are typically in the locker room when the anthem is played. There has been at least one exception to the rule, however. During a September 2016 away game at Northwestern, where players are traditionally on the field during the anthem, three Nebraska players knelt on the sideline. The NCAA football rulebook does not address the issue of pregame ceremonies (patriotic or otherwise) at all, except to say that team captains must be present for a coin toss three minutes before the first - half kickoff.
College of the Ozarks president Jerry Davis announced in September 2017 that his college 's teams would refuse to play any team whose players knelt during the anthem. In response, the NAIA chose to move its Division II men 's basketball champion game away from College of the Ozarks ' Keeter Gymnasium (where the championship game had been held since 2000) to Sanford Pentagon, South Dakota.
On September 2, 2016, a football player at Brunswick High School in Ohio knelt during the national anthem after he heard his teammates saying "nigger ''. After his protest, the player received racial threats. On September 9, high school players across the country knelt during the national anthem. On September 23, four players from Withrow High School, three black and one white, in Cincinnati knelt during the national anthem before their football game.
In September 2017, Principal Waylon Bates of Parkway High School in Louisiana referred to the national anthem protests as a "disruption '' and threatened to kick any player out of the football team if he knelt during the national anthem. Two black students on the Victory & Praise Christian Academy football team protested during the anthem. Immediately after the anthem concluded, their coach removed them from the team, having them take off their uniforms on the sidelines.
On September 23, 2017, Bruce Maxwell of the Oakland Athletics knelt during the national anthem, becoming the first MLB player to join the protest. His team backed him up by saying, "The Oakland A 's pride ourselves on being inclusive. We respect and support all of our players ' constitutional rights and freedom of expression. '' Maxwell received a standing ovation from A 's fans before his first at - bat following his protest.
The MLB has no policy regarding the national anthem other than it has to be played before games.
On September 24, 2017, prior to Game 1 of the 2017 WNBA Finals, players from the Los Angeles Sparks chose to stay in the locker room during the national anthem, while members of the Minnesota Lynx locked arms on the court.
The NBA has a policy that requires players to stand up during the national anthem in their CBA, however many prominent players have expressed support for the NFL protests on social media or in interviews.
On October 7, 2017, J.T. Brown of the Tampa Bay Lightning raised his fist while standing on the bench during the national anthem. He had also done the same in a preseason game, in an attempt to "bring awareness to police brutality against minorities and racial inequality ''. He stated that he had "received death threats '' after the protest.
In September 2016, President Barack Obama stated that Kaepernick was "exercising his constitutional right '' to protest. He went on: "I do n't doubt his sincerity. I think he cares about some real, legitimate issues that have to be talked about. If nothing else, he 's generated more conversation about issues that have to be talked about. ''
Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg criticized the protest as "dumb and disrespectful '', stating that athletes have the right to protest "if they want to be stupid ''. The Supreme Court later issued a statement from Ginsburg stating that her comments were "inappropriately dismissive and harsh. I should have declined to respond. ''
On September 25, 2017, U.S. Representative Sheila Jackson Lee knelt on the floor of the House of Representatives. Fellow congressman Mark Pocan knelt on the floor of the House the next day.
On September 26, 2017, Louisiana Lt. Gov. Billy Nungesser told The Times - Picayune that he would not be attending the New Orleans Saints game against the Miami Dolphins, which was going to be taking place in London. Although he was going to be in London during the time of the game, he told the newspaper that he would not attend because he was "disappointed in the NFL. '' He added that "it is disgraceful that anybody would use that as a time to protest. ''
On October 8, 2017, Vice President Mike Pence left a game between the NFL 's Indianapolis Colts and the San Francisco 49ers, members of which had knelt during the anthem, "because President Trump and I will not dignify any event that disrespects our soldiers, our Flag, or our National Anthem. ''
Oklahoma senator James Lankford said Russian internet trolls, seeking to polarize Americans, helped fuel a debate.
We watched, even this weekend, the Russians and their troll farms, their internet folks, start hashtagging out # TakeAKnee and also hashtagging out # BoycottNFL, '' he said during a hearing on threats faced by the United States. "They were taking both sides of the argument this weekend... to try to raise the noise level of America and make a big issue seem like an even bigger issue as they are trying to push divisiveness in this country. ''
Major sports sponsors Nike, Under Armour, and Ford all issued statements in support of athletes ' freedom of expression after Trump 's comments regarding the NFL. Nike 's statement read, "Nike supports athletes and their right to freedom of expression on issues that are of great importance to our society. '' In September 2016, after Brandon Marshall knelt during the national anthem, Century Link and Air Academy Federal Credit Union dropped him as a paid sponsor. Radio station WFAY dropped a broadcast of an East Carolina University football game on the station after the marching band took part in the protest, calling it an insult to the U.S. Armed Forces. John Schnatter of sponsor Papa John 's Pizza blamed the protests for a drop in sales and a 24 % fall in stock during 2017, saying that the "controversy is polarizing the customer, polarizing the country ''. Later that day, the company announced that the NFL shield or "official sponsor '' designation on Papa John 's commercials and advertising would be removed. In December 2017 Sanderson Farms CEO questioned whether the NFL protests were to blame for falling chicken wing prices.
After his first kneel in 2016, Nike was well on its way to sever its four year long partnership with NFL quarterback Colin Kaepernick. Nigel Powell, chief communications executive of Nike, convinced the company to maintain their partnership with Kaepernick which eventually led to the launch of the politically and socially controversial advertisement released in 2018, "Nike - Dream Crazy '', with Kaepernick as their face of the campaign. Despite the prevalent backlash on social media of people who criticized Kaepernick 's actions burning and cutting up their Nike brand clothing, Nike sales increased by 31 % within five days after the advertisement was released. This campaign did result in a temporary drop of 2.2 % in stock price though.
Throughout the remainder of the 2016 season, Kaepernick received public backlash for his protest, with an anonymous NFL executive calling Kaepernick "a traitor ''. He also stated that he received death threats.
Sportscaster Bob Costas offered support for Kaepernick stating, "Patriotism comes in many forms and what has happened is it 's been conflated with a bumper - style kind of flag - waving and with the military only so that people can not see that in his own way Colin Kaepernick, however imperfectly, is doing a patriotic thing. ''
Trent Dilfer criticized Kaepernick. "The big thing that hit me through all this was this is a backup quarterback whose job is to be quiet, and sit in the shadows and get the starter ready to play Week 1, '' Dilfer said on Sunday NFL Countdown. "Yet he chose a time where all of a sudden he became the center of attention. And it has disrupted that organization. It has caused friction. And it 's torn at the fabric of the team. ''
Stemming from the Kaepernick controversy, before the beginning of the 2016 World Cup of Hockey tournament in Toronto, Canada, Team USA coach John Tortorella told in an interview that if any one of his players were to sit out during the anthem, they would sit on the bench for the entire duration of the game.
The September 2016 police shootings of Terence Crutcher and Keith Lamont Scott bolstered support for his protest. Kaepernick said of the Terence Crutcher shooting, "this is a perfect example of what this is about. '' Boxer Floyd Mayweather, criticized Kaepernick, stating, "You know, a lot of times, we get stuck, and we are followers. When you hear one person say ' black lives matter ' or ' blue lives matter, ' all lives matter. '' Adding moments later, "With me being a fighter, and my hands being registered, if I hit a guy for breaking in my house, or breaking in my car, it 's gon na cost me more money, so I got ta work smarter, not harder. I 'm gon na call the cops. ''
Discussion continued throughout August 2017. Baseball Hall of Famer Hank Aaron said, "I think he 's getting a raw deal '' from the NFL. That same month, Pro Football Hall of Famer and longtime civil rights activist Jim Brown, who a year earlier supported Kaepernick "100 percent '', now criticized him, suggesting Kaepernick ought to decide whether to be an athlete or an activist. "I 'm an American, '' said Brown. "I do n't desecrate my flag and my national anthem.... This is my country, and I 'll work out the problems, but I 'll do it in an intelligent manner. ''
Jim Harbaugh, Kaepernick 's former coach, penned a strong statement of support for him as part of Time 's "100 Most Influential People '' series. Harbaugh wrote, "His willingness to take a position at personal cost is now part of our American story. How lucky for us all and for our country to have among our citizens someone as remarkable as Colin Kaepernick. ''
NASCAR team owners Richard Petty and Richard Childress have supported Trump and said that they would fire drivers and employees who would not stand for the national anthem. Petty said, "Anybody that do n't stand up for the anthem ought to be out of the country. Period. '' Childress said, "It 'll get you a ride on a Greyhound bus '' if anyone on his team protested the anthem. Driver Dale Earnhardt Jr., however, expressed support for the peaceful protests, quoting President John F. Kennedy, "Those who make peaceful revolution impossible will make violent revolution inevitable. '' NASCAR released a statement on September 25 in response to the protests that said, "Sports are a unifying influence in our society, bringing people of differing backgrounds and beliefs together. Our respect for the national anthem has always been a hallmark of our pre-race events. Thanks to the sacrifices of many, we live in a country of unparalleled freedoms and countless liberties, including the right to peacefully express one 's opinion. ''
Jemele Hill, an ESPN anchor who called Trump a "white supremacist '' in a series of tweets earlier in the month, tweeted, "Just so we 're clear: the president 's comments will only incite more player protests, not quell them. '' following Trump 's initial response to the protests. Hill was later put on a two - week suspension for "a second violation of our social media guidelines '', after Hill suggested people direct their disagreements towards advertisers of Dallas Cowboys owner, Jerry Jones, after Jones stated he would bench any player who protested the national anthem on October 9, 2017.
On September 25, 2017, Bill Russell posted a photo to Twitter while kneeling and wearing his Presidential Medal of Freedom. On September 26, 2017, Joey Odoms, the national anthem singer for the home games of the Ravens, resigned citing the "tone / actions of a large number of NFL fans in the midst of our country 's cultural crisis ''.
Former Chicago Bears coach Mike Ditka commented, "If you do n't respect our country, then you should n't be in this country playing football... So I would say, adios. '' He added that he was "not condemning anybody or criticizing anybody '' in his remarks. According to Ditka, "there has been no oppression in the last 100 years that I know of. ''
Stevie Wonder knelt during the 2017 Global Citizen Festival on September 23, saying "Tonight, I 'm taking a knee for America ''.
Eddie Vedder, Pharrell Williams, Dave Matthews, John Legend and Roger Waters knelt to support the protests during concerts on September 24. The same day Sonequa Martin - Green posted in her Instagram account a picture of several members from Star Trek: Discovery 's cast alongside producer Akiva Goldsman and herself kneeling. Shonda Rhimes posted a photo kneeling with the cast of Grey 's Anatomy.
The X-Files actors Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny posted a photo on Twitter of themselves kneeling with arms locked on September 26.
Colin Kaepernick has recently been awarded the W.E.B Du Bois Medal, and accepted the award on October 11, 2018 at Harvard University during the Hutchins Center Honors sponsored by the Hutchins Center for African & African American Research. The award is going to be given for his "significant contributions and African - American history and culture '', and for his support "for intercultural understanding and human rights in an increasingly global and interconnected world ''. Some might think that the award is significant because it shows what he has sacrificed for starting and upholding the national anthem protest, and gives credibility to him as an activist based on the criteria for the award and past honorees such as Muhammad Ali.
|
in the midst of death we are in life | Media vita in Morte Sumus - wikipedia
Media vita in morte sumus is the title and first line of a Latin antiphon, which translates as In the midst of life we are in death. It was erroneously attributed to Notker the Stammerer late in the Middle Ages, but was more probably written around 750 in France.
Media vita in morte sumus quem quaerimus adjutorem nisi te, Domine, qui pro peccatis nostris juste irasceris? Sancte Deus, sancte fortis, sancte et misericors Salvator: amarae morti ne tradas nos.
In the midst of life we are in death of whom may we seek for succour, but of thee, O Lord, who for our sins art justly displeased? Yet, O Lord God most holy, O Lord most mighty, O holy and most merciful Saviour, deliver us not into the bitter pains of eternal death.
In the York Breviary Media vita was sung as an antiphon at Compline on the Fourth Sunday of Lent. In the Sarum Breviary it was the antiphon from the Third to the Fifth Sundays of Lent.
In addition to its uses in the ordinary liturgy, Media vita was sung as a hymn to ask God for aid in times of public need, and sometimes even as a sort of curse. In 1455 a group of nuns in Wennigsen, resisting the attempt of the Augustinian canon Johannes Busch and Duke William of Brunswick to reform their house, "lay down on their bellies in the choir with the arms and legs stretched out in the form of a cross, and bawled all through, at the top of their voices, the anthem In the midst of life we are in death... Wherefore the Duke was afraid, and feared lest his whole land should go to ruin. '' Busch assured the Duke that no harm could come from the chant, so he responded to the nuns: "How were ye not afraid to sing the anthem Media Vita over me? I stretch my fingers to God 's holy gospels, and swear that ye must reform yourselves, or I will not suffer you in my land. ''
Popular in the Baroque period, the Latin phrase was translated into the vernacular early and has continued to circulate especially widely in German and English, in literature and in song.
Media vita appears in Hartmann von Aue 's Middle High German narrative poem Der arme Heinrich (V. 93f.).
In 1524, Martin Luther translated it as Mytten wir ym leben synd and consequently it is now in the Evangelischen Gesangbuch hymnbook as number 518, or 654 in the Gotteslob hymnbook.
Later, the Bavarian ' Guglmänner ' secret society used the phrase as its motto.
It is echoed in Rainer Maria Rilke 's poem "Schlußstück '': "Der Tod ist groß (...) Wenn wir uns mitten im Leben meinen / wagt er zu weinen / mitten in uns, '' as well as in the poem titled "Media in Vita '' by Hermann Hesse.
The Latin phrase was translated by Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer, whose English - language version became part of the burial service in the Book of Common Prayer. Cranmer 's contemporary and fellow Anglican bishop Miles Coverdale wrote a poetic rendering of Luther 's Mytten wir ym leben synd, beginning "In the myddest of our lyvynge. '' Catherine Winkworth made another English version of Mytten wir ym leben synd in her Lyra Germanica: Hymns for the Sundays and Chief Festivals of the Christian Year, beginning "In the midst of life, behold. ''
The Book of Common Prayer text of ' In the Midst of Life we are in Death ' has been set to music in the Booke of Common praier noted by John Merbecke and in Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary by Henry Purcell
The Latin text was popularised anew by the Irish choir Anúna in a four - part harmony version, with the line of text "Juste irasceris '' left out because, according to Michael McGlynn, "The particular piece of parchment I was working from was missing those lines ''.
"In the midst of life we are in debt etc. '' The Smiths -- "Sweet and Tender Hooligan ''.
In Morte Sumus (2005) by Ignacio Segura is loosely based on the text of the antiphon, published in the album Signals & Noises by the group Delta Zero.
|
when does the antarctic circle have 24 hours of daylight | Antarctic Circle - wikipedia
The Antarctic Circle is the most southerly of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the Earth. The region south of this circle is known as the Antarctic, and the zone immediately to the north is called the Southern Temperate Zone. South of the Antarctic Circle, the sun is above the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and therefore visible at midnight) and (at least partially) below the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and therefore not fully visible at noon); this is also true within the equivalent polar circle in the Northern Hemisphere, the Arctic Circle.
The position of the Antarctic Circle is not fixed; as of 17 September 2017, it runs 66 ° 33 ′ 46.8 '' south of the Equator. Its latitude depends on the Earth 's axial tilt, which fluctuates within a margin of 2 ° over a 40,000 - year period, due to tidal forces resulting from the orbit of the Moon. Consequently, the Antarctic Circle is currently drifting southwards at a speed of about 15 m (49 ft) per year.
The Antarctic Circle is the northernmost latitude in the Southern Hemisphere at which the sun can remain continuously above or partially below the horizon for twenty - four hours; as a result, at least once each year at any location within the Antarctic Circle the sun is visible at local midnight, and at least once it is partially obscured at local noon.
Directly on the Antarctic Circle these events occur, in principle, exactly once per year: at the December and June solstices, respectively. However, because of atmospheric refraction and mirages, and because the sun appears as a disk and not a point, part of the midnight sun may be seen on the night of the southern summer solstice up to about 50 minutes (′) (90 km (56 mi)) north of the Antarctic Circle; similarly, on the day of the southern winter solstice, part of the sun may be seen up to about 50 ′ south of the Antarctic Circle. That is true at sea level; those limits increase with elevation above sea level, although in mountainous regions there is often no direct view of the true horizon. Mirages on the Antarctic continent tend to be even more spectacular than in Arctic regions, creating, for example, a series of apparent sunsets and sunrises while in reality the sun remains under the horizon.
There is no permanent human population south of the Antarctic Circle, but there are several research stations in Antarctica operated by various nations that are inhabited by teams of scientists who rotate on a seasonal basis. In previous centuries some semi-permanent whaling stations were established on the continent, and some whalers would live there for a year or more. At least three children have been born in Antarctica, albeit in stations north of the Antarctic Circle.
The Antarctic Circle is roughly 17,662 kilometres (10,975 mi) long. The area south of the Circle is about 20,000,000 km (7,700,000 sq mi) and covers roughly 4 % of Earth 's surface. The continent of Antarctica covers much of the area within the Antarctic Circle.
Starting at the prime meridian and heading eastwards, the Antarctic Circle passes through:
|
what taste buds are on the right side of your tongue | Tongue map - wikipedia
The tongue map or taste map is a common misconception that different sections of the tongue are exclusively responsible for different basic tastes. It is illustrated with a schematic map of the tongue, with certain parts of the tongue labeled for each taste. Although widely taught in schools, this was scientifically disproven by later research; all taste sensations come from all regions of the tongue, although different parts are more sensitive to certain tastes.
The theory behind this map originated from a paper written by Harvard psychologist D.P Hanig, which was a translation of a German paper, Zur Psychophysik des Geschmackssinnes, which was written in 1901. The unclear representation of data in the former paper suggested that each part of the tongue tastes exactly one basic taste.
The paper showed minute differences in threshold detection levels across the tongue, but these differences were later taken out of context and the minute difference in threshold sensitivity was misconstrued in textbooks as a difference in sensation.
While some parts of the tongue may be able to detect a taste before the others do, all parts are equally capable of conveying the qualia of all tastes. Threshold sensitivity may differ across the tongue, but intensity of sensation does not.
The same paper included a taste bud distribution diagram that showed a "taste belt ''.
In 1974, Virginia Collings investigated the topic again, and confirmed that all the tastes exist on all parts of the tongue.
The misinterpreted 1901 diagram in the article that sparked this myth shows human taste buds distributed in a "taste belt '' along the outside of the tongue.
Prior to this, A. Hoffmann had concluded, in 1875, that the dorsal center of the human tongue has practically no fungiform papillae and taste buds, and it was this finding that the diagram describes.
|
is and then there were none a classic | And Then There Were None - wikipedia
And Then There Were None is a mystery novel by English writer Agatha Christie, widely considered her masterpiece and described by her as the most difficult of her books to write. It was first published in the United Kingdom by the Collins Crime Club on 6 November 1939, as Ten Little Niggers, after the British blackface song, which serves as a major plot point. The US edition was not released until December 1939; its American reprints and adaptations were all retitled And Then There Were None, after the last five words in the nursery rhyme "Ten Little Indians ''.
It is Christie 's best - selling novel; with more than 100 million copies sold, it is also the world 's best - selling mystery and one of the best - selling books of all time. Publications International lists the novel as the seventh best - selling title.
In the novel, a group of people are lured into coming to an island under different pretexts, e.g., offers of employment, to enjoy a late summer holiday, or to meet old friends. All have been complicit in the deaths of other human beings, but either escaped justice or committed an act that was not subject to legal sanction. The guests and two servants who are present are "charged '' with their respective "crimes '' by a gramophone recording after dinner the first night, and informed that they have been brought to the island to pay for their actions. They are the only people on the island, and can not escape due to the distance from the mainland and the inclement weather, and gradually all ten are killed in turn, each in a manner that seems to parallel the deaths in the nursery rhyme. Nobody else seems to be left alive on the island by the time of the apparent last death. A confession, in the form of a postscript to the novel, unveils how the killings took place and who was responsible.
On a hot, early August day sometime in the late 1930s, eight people arrive on a small, isolated island off the Devon coast of England. Each appears to have an invitation tailored to his or her personal circumstances, such as an offer of employment or an unexpected late summer holiday. They are met by Thomas and Ethel Rogers, the butler and cook / housekeeper, who state that their hosts, Mr Ulick Norman Owen and his wife Mrs Una Nancy Owen, whom they have not yet met in person, have not arrived, but left instructions, which strikes all the guests as odd.
A framed copy of a nursery rhyme, "Ten Little Niggers '' (called "Ten Little Indians '' or "Ten Little Soldiers '' in later editions), hangs in every guest 's room, and ten figurines sit on the dining room table. After supper, a gramophone (or "phonograph '') record is played; it contains a recording that describes each visitor in turn, accuses each of having committed murder but escaping justice, and then asks if any of "the accused '' wishes to offer a defence. All but Anthony Marston and Philip Lombard deny the charges, and Miss Brent refuses to discuss the matter.
They discover that none of them actually knows the Owens and conclude that the name "U.N. Owen '' is shorthand for "Unknown ''. In the aftermath of the recording, Marston finishes his drink and immediately dies from cyanide poisoning. The remaining guests notice that one of the ten figurines is now broken, and the nursery rhyme appears to reflect the manner of death ("One choked his little self and then there were nine '').
The next morning, Mrs Rogers ' corpse is found in her bed; she had died in her sleep from an overdose of chloral hydrate. By lunchtime, General MacArthur is found dead, from a heavy blow to his head. Two more figurines are found to be broken, and again the deaths parallel the rhyme. Miss Brent, who had refused to speak with the men present, relates the account of the gramophone charge against her to Vera Claythorne, who later tells the others.
A search for "Mr Owen '' shows that nobody else is on the island except the remaining seven. The island is a "bare rock '' with no hiding places, and no one could have arrived or left; thus, they uncomfortably conclude that any one of the seven remaining persons is the killer. Justice Wargrave leads the group in determining that as of yet, none of them can definitively be ruled out as the murderer. The next morning, Rogers is found dead while chopping wood, and after breakfast, Miss Brent is found dead in the kitchen, where she had been left alone after complaining of feeling unwell; she had been injected with potassium cyanide via a hypodermic needle.
Wargrave then suggests searching all the rooms, and any potentially dangerous items they can think of are locked up. Lombard 's gun is missing from his room. When Vera goes upstairs to take a bath, she is shocked by the touch and smell of seaweed left hanging from the ceiling of her room and screams; the remaining guests rush upstairs to her room. Wargrave, however, is still downstairs. The others find him seated, immobile and crudely dressed up in the attire of a judge. Wargrave is examined briefly by Dr Armstrong and pronounced dead from a gunshot to the forehead.
That night, Lombard appears surprised when he finds his gun returned to his room. Blore catches a glimpse of someone leaving the house but loses the trail. He then discovers Armstrong is absent from his room, and the remaining three guests conclude that Armstrong must be the killer. Vera, Blore, and Lombard decide to stay together at all times. In the morning, they unsuccessfully attempt to signal SOS to the mainland from outside by using a mirror and sunlight. Blore then decides to return to the house for food by himself -- the others are not hungry -- and is killed by a heavy bear - shaped clock statue that is pushed from Vera 's window sill, crushing his skull.
Vera and Lombard are now confident that Armstrong is the killer. However, shortly afterwards, the duo come upon Armstrong 's body washed up on the beach, which they do not immediately recognize due to decomposition. They realize that Armstrong could not have killed Blore. Panicked, each concludes the other must be the killer, overlooking that neither had the opportunity as they were together on the beach and when they found Blore 's body. Quickly regaining her composure, Vera suggests moving the doctor 's body past the shore, but this is a pretext. She manages to lift Lombard 's gun. When Lombard lunges at her to get it back, she shoots him dead.
She returns to the house in a shaken dreamlike state, relieved to be alive. She finds a noose and chair arranged in her room, and a strong smell of the sea. With visions of her former lover, Hugo, urging her on, in a post-traumatic state, she adjusts the noose and kicks the chair out from under her.
Two Scotland Yard officials are puzzled by the identity of U.N. Owen. Although they can ostensibly reconstruct the deaths from Marston to Wargrave with the help of the victims ' diaries and a coroner 's careful report, they are forced to conclude that "U.N. Owen '' was one of the victims, but are unable to determine which one. They note that the chair on which Vera stood to hang herself had been set back upright, indicating that someone -- presumably the killer -- was still alive on the island after her suicide.
In a postscript, a fishing ship picks up a bottle inside its trawling nets; the bottle contains a written confession of the killings, which is then sent to Scotland Yard. It is not clear how long after the killings the bottle was discovered.
In the confession, Justice Wargrave writes that he has long wished to set an unsolvable puzzle of murder, but is morally limited to victims who are themselves guilty and deserving of such an end. He explains how he tricked the gullible Dr. Armstrong into helping him fake his own death under the pretext that it would supposedly give him the freedom to help the group identify the killer, and also explains that after Vera died, he replaced the chair in her room neatly against the wall. Finally, he reveals how he used the gun and some elastic to ensure his own death matched the account in the guests ' diaries. Although he wished to create an unsolvable mystery, he acknowledges in the missive a "pitiful human '' need for recognition, hence the confession.
He also describes how his first chronological victim was actually Isaac Morris, the sleazy lawyer and drugs trafficker who anonymously purchased the island and arranged the invitations on his behalf. Morris was poisoned before Wargrave departed for the island. Wargrave 's intention is that when the police arrive they will find ten bodies, with evidence that someone had been alive after each death, but nobody else on the island, and no way to trace the killer through his invitations or preparations. He states that, although there are three clues that could guide the police to the correct killer, he is confident they will be unable to do so and that the mystery will remain unsolved until the confession is retrieved.
Ten little Soldier Boys went out to dine; One choked his little self and then there were nine. Nine little Soldier Boys sat up very late; One overslept himself and then there were eight. Eight little Soldier Boys travelling in Devon; One said he 'd stay there and then there were seven. Seven little Soldier Boys chopping up sticks; One chopped himself in halves and then there were six. Six little Soldier Boys playing with a hive; A bumblebee stung one and then there were five. Five little Soldier Boys going in for law; One got in Chancery and then there were four. Four little Soldier Boys going out to sea; A red herring swallowed one and then there were three. Three little Soldier Boys walking in the zoo; A big bear hugged one and then there were two. Two little Soldier Boys sitting in the sun; One got frizzled up and then there was one. One little Soldier Boy left all alone; He went out and hanged himself and then there were none.
The following details of the characters are based on the original novel. Backstories, backgrounds, and names vary with differing international adaptations, based on censorship, cultural norms, etc.
The novel was originally published in 1939 and early 1940 almost simultaneously, in the United Kingdom and the United States. In the UK it appeared under the title Ten Little Niggers, in book and newspaper serialised formats. The serialisation was in 23 parts in the Daily Express from Tuesday 6 June to Saturday 1 July 1939. All of the instalments carried an illustration by "Prescott '' with the first having an illustration of Burgh Island in Devon which inspired the setting of the story. The serialised version did not contain any chapter divisions. The book retailed for seven shillings and six pence.
In the United States it was published under the title And Then There Were None, again in both book and serial formats. Both of the original US publications changed the title from that originally used in the UK, due to the offensiveness of the word in American culture, where it was more widely perceived as a racially loaded ethnic slur or insult compared to contemporary UK culture, and because of the pejorative connotations of the original blackface rhyme. The serialised version appeared in the Saturday Evening Post in seven parts from 20 May (Volume 211, Number 47) to 1 July 1939 (Volume 212, Number 1) with illustrations by Henry Raleigh, and the book was published in January 1940 by Dodd, Mead and Company for $2.
In the original UK novel all references to "Indians '' or "Soldiers '' were originally "Nigger '', including the island 's name, the pivotal rhyme found by the visitors, and the ten figurines. (In Chapter 7, Vera Claythorne becomes semi-hysterical at the mention by Miss Brent of "our black brothers '', which is understandable only in the context of the original name.) The word "Nigger '' was already racially offensive in the United States by the start of the 20th century, and therefore the book 's first US edition and first serialization changed the title to And Then There Were None and removed all references to the word from the book, as did the 1945 motion picture.
The book and its adaptations have since been released under various new names since the original publication, including Ten Little Indians (1946 play, Broadway performance and 1964 paperback book), Ten Little Soldiers and -- the most widely used today -- And Then There Were None. UK editions continued to use the work 's original title until the 1980s; the first UK edition to use the alternative title And Then There Were None appeared in 1985 with a reprint of the 1963 Fontana Paperback.
The original title (Ten Little Niggers) still survives in a few foreign - language versions of the novel, such as the Bulgarian title Десет малки негърчета, and was used in other languages for a time, for example in the Dutch publication until the 18th edition of 1994. The title Ten Little Negroes continues to be commonly used in foreign - language versions, for example in Spanish, Greek, Serbian, Romanian, French and Hungarian, as well as a 1987 Russian film adaptation Десять негритят (Desyat Negrityat). In 1999, the Slovak National Theatre staged the play under its original title but changed to A napokon nezostal už nik (And Then There Were None) mid-run.
And Then There Were None is one of Agatha Christie 's best - known mysteries, widely considered her masterpiece and described by her as the most difficult of her books to have written. Writing for The Times Literary Supplement of 11 November 1939, Maurice Percy Ashley stated, "If her latest story has scarcely any detection in it there is no scarcity of murders... There is a certain feeling of monotony inescapable in the regularity of the deaths which is better suited to a serialized newspaper story than a full - length novel. Yet there is an ingenious problem to solve in naming the murderer '', he continued. "It will be an extremely astute reader who guesses correctly. ''
Many other reviews were also complimentary; in The New York Times Book Review (25 February 1940), Isaac Anderson detailed the set - up of the plot up to the point where "the voice '' accuses the ten "guests '' of their past crimes or sins, which have all resulted in the deaths of other human beings, and then said, "When you read what happens after that you will not believe it, but you will keep on reading, and as one incredible event is followed by another even more incredible you will still keep on reading. The whole thing is utterly impossible and utterly fascinating. It is the most baffling mystery that Agatha Christie has ever written, and if any other writer has ever surpassed it for sheer puzzlement the name escapes our memory. We are referring, of course, to mysteries that have logical explanations, as this one has. It is a tall story, to be sure, but it could have happened. ''
Such was the quality of Christie 's work on this book that many compared it to her novel The Murder of Roger Ackroyd (1926). For instance, an unnamed reviewer in the Toronto Daily Star of 16 March 1940 said, "Others have written better mysteries than Agatha Christie, but no one can touch her for ingenious plot and surprise ending. With And Then There Were None... she is at her most ingenious and most surprising... is, indeed, considerably above the standard of her last few works and close to the Roger Ackroyd level. ''
Other critics laud the use of plot twists and surprise endings. Maurice Richardson wrote a rhapsodic review in The Observer 's issue of 5 November 1939 which began, "No wonder Agatha Christie 's latest has sent her publishers into a vatic trance. We will refrain, however, from any invidious comparisons with Roger Ackroyd and be content with saying that Ten Little Niggers is one of the very best, most genuinely bewildering Christies yet written. We will also have to refrain from reviewing it thoroughly, as it is so full of shocks that even the mildest revelation would spoil some surprise from somebody, and I am sure that you would rather have your entertainment kept fresh than criticism pure. '' After stating the set - up of the plot, Richardson concluded, "Story telling and characterisation are right at the top of Mrs Christie 's baleful form. Her plot may be highly artificial, but it is neat, brilliantly cunning, soundly constructed, and free from any of those red - herring false trails which sometimes disfigure her work. ''
Robert Barnard, a recent critic, concurred with the reviews, describing the book as "Suspenseful and menacing detective - story - cum - thriller. The closed setting with the succession of deaths is here taken to its logical conclusion, and the dangers of ludicrousness and sheer reader - disbelief are skillfully avoided. Probably the best - known Christie, and justifiably among the most popular. ''
The original title of the mystery (Ten Little Niggers) has long been abandoned as offensive in English - speaking countries and a number of others. Some critics have opined that Christie 's original title and the setting on "Nigger Island '' (later changed to "Indian Island '' and "Soldier Island '', variously) may be integral to the work. These aspects of the novel, argues Alison Light, "could be relied upon automatically to conjure up a thrilling ' otherness ', a place where revelations about the ' dark side ' of the English would be appropriate. '' Unlike novels such as Heart of Darkness, "Christie 's location is both more domesticated and privatised, taking for granted the construction of racial fears woven into psychic life as early as the nursery. If her story suggests how easy it is to play upon such fears, it is also a reminder of how intimately tied they are to sources of pleasure and enjoyment. ''
In the "Binge! '' article of Entertainment Weekly Issue # 1343 - 44 (26 December 2014 -- 3 January 2015), the writers picked And Then There Were None as an "EW favorite '' on the list of the "Nine Great Christie Novels ''.
And Then There Were None has had more adaptations than any other single work by Agatha Christie. Many adaptations incorporate changes to the story, such as using Christie 's alternative ending from her 1943 stage play or changing the setting to locations other than an island.
There have been numerous film adaptations of the novel, some comedic. Examples include:
Several variations of the original novel were adapted for television. There have been three different British adaptations: two by the BBC (in 1949 and 2015), and an ITV adaptation in 1959.
And Then There Were None (miniseries) (airdates 26 -- 28 December 2015), is a BBC One adaptation based on the original novel. This was the first English language film adaptation to feature an ending similar to that of the original novel.
On 25 and 26 March, 2017 TV Asahi in Japan aired そして 誰 もい なくなっ た (Soshite daremo inakunatta), a Japanese language adaptation by Nagasaka Shukei (長坂 秀佳) of the original story set in modern times.
The novel has been the inspiration for several video games. For the Apple II, Online Systems released the game Mystery House in 1980. On the PC, The Adventure Company released the video game Agatha Christie: And Then There Were None in 2005, the first in a series of PC games based on Christie novels. In February 2008, it was ported to the Wii console. The identity of the murderer is not that of the killer in the original book. The game player assumes the role of Patrick Naracott (brother of Fred Naracott, who is involved in a newly created subplot), who is stranded with the others when his boat is scuttled. This allows for alternate, more successful endings in which Naracott survives and is able to prevent the murders of the innocent Lombard and Claythorne. All endings depart markedly from the novel and previous adaptations in that the killer and motives are different.
And Then There Were None was released by HarperCollins as a graphic novel adaptation on 30 April 2009, adapted by François Rivière and illustrated by Frank Leclercq.
Peká Editorial released a board game based on the book, created by Judit Hurtado and Fernando Chavarría, and illustrated by Esperanza Peinado.
In 1930, The Ninth Guest by Owen Davis, premiered on Broadway. Its plot (and that of the 1934 film based on the play) strongly matches that of Christie 's novel, including a recorded voice announcing to the invitees that their sins will be visited upon them by death. Davis 's play was based on the novel The Invisible Host, by Gwen Bristow and Bruce Manning (also 1930), both of which predated Christie 's novel by nine years.
The 1933 K.B.S. Productions Sherlock Holmes film, A Study in Scarlet, predates the publication of Ten Little Indians and follows a strikingly similar plot; it includes a scene where Holmes is shown a card with the hint: "Six little Indians... bee stung one and then there were five ''; the film predates the novel by six years. Though it is a Sherlock Holmes movie, the movie bears no resemblance to Arthur Conan Doyle 's original story of the same name. In this case, the rhyme refers to "Ten Little Fat Boys ''. The author of the movie 's screenplay, Robert Florey, "doubted that (Christie) had seen A Study in Scarlet, but he regarded it as a compliment if it had helped inspire her ''.
Several parodies have been made. As early as autumn 1942, "World 's Finest Comics '' (# 7, Fall Issue) had a Superman story by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster called "The Eight Doomed Men '' which used Christie 's basic structure and even borrowed a number of her victim 's backgrounds, although Superman intervened to rescue half of the intended victims and the killer 's motivation was changed to specific revenge. Siegel and Shuster anticipated the 1966 film by moving the locale to a mountain cabin and tossed in a Zeppelin - like dirigible -- one location not yet used in adaptations of the story.
Another parody, the 1976 Broadway musical Something 's Afoot, stars Tessie O'Shea as a female sleuth resembling Miss Marple. Something 's Afoot takes place in a remote English estate, where six guests have been invited for the weekend. The guests, as well as three servants and a young man who claims to have wandered innocently onto the estate, are then murdered one by one, several in full view of the audience, with the murderer 's surprise identity revealed at the end. For an encore, the murdered cast members perform a song, "I Owe It All to Agatha Christie ''.
In the 1967 The Avengers episode "The Superlative Seven '' John Steed is invited to a costume party aboard a chartered aeroplane. The aeroplane is being flown by remote control. Steed and the six other fancy - dressed guests, who are specialists in various combat styles, eventually land on a deserted island where they are informed that one of them is a trained assassin trying to kill them all. When the first murder is committed, Steed observes "Looks as though his back was broken ''. To which an off - screen protagonist responds, over a speaker, "Quite right, Mr Steed. And then there were six ''. CSI: Crime Scene Investigation based an episode of the show 's second season under the same name focusing on a gang of armed robbers stealing from casinos outside the Las Vegas metropolitan area with each criminal killing a member of the gang to keep more of the proceeds. The animated US sitcom Family Guy loosely parodied the novel in the 2010 episode And Then There Were Fewer in which a number of previously regular characters were killed off.
The 1998 anime film Case Closed: The Fourteenth Target is a combination of this story, with intended victims invited to a secluded island and the murderer hiding amongst them, and Christie 's Hercule Poirot novel The A.B.C. Murders.
The sixth game of the Touhou Project series Embodiment of Scarlet Devil contains references to the Christie novel in the Extra boss, such as the title of the music being played called "U.N Owen Was Her? '', an attack named "And Then There Were None '' and also dialogues quoting the book.
The season 2 finale of the Australian TV show Miss Fisher 's Murder Mysteries ("Murder under the Mistletoe '', 2013) mirrors the plot of Christie 's novel. Guests stranded in a secluded mansion are murdered one by one according to the circumstances described in the "12 Days of Christmas. '' Like in the Christie novel, the guests soon realize that the murderer must be among them, but the culprit escapes detection by means of a bluff involving one of the corpses. The episode follows the 1965 film Ten Little Indians in re-imagining the island as a snowed - in inaccessible chalet.
In Anthony Horowitz 's detective series, The Diamond Brothers, the case I Know What You Did Last Wednesday pays homage to And Then There Were None; protagonist Nick Diamond accompanies his brother Tim to a school reunion on a lonely island where the various guests start dying in a manner that reflects back to a subject that they came first in at school (the person who came first in chemistry is poisoned, the one who came first in geography is crushed by a globe, etc.), with the killer revealed at the conclusion to be a former schoolfriend who came second in everything.
Sierra 's Laura Bow adventure game has a similar plot, inspired by the novel, where some (although innocent) people are murdered by a serial killer who is also found dead before their true identity is revealed.
|
who won the world cup last world cup | List of FIFA World Cup finals - wikipedia
The FIFA World Cup is an international association football competition established in 1930. It is contested by the men 's national teams of the members of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport 's global governing body. The tournament has taken place every four years, except in 1942 and 1946, when the competition was cancelled due to World War II. The most recent World Cup, hosted by Russia in 2018, was won by France, who beat Croatia 4 -- 2 in regulation time.
The World Cup final match is the last of the competition, and the result determines which country is declared world champions. If after 90 minutes of regular play the score is a draw, an additional 30 - minute period of play, called extra time, is added. If such a game is still tied after extra time, it is then decided by a penalty shoot - out. The team winning the penalty shoot - out are then declared champions. The tournament has been decided by a one - off match on every occasion except 1950, when the tournament winner was decided by a final round - robin group contested by four teams (Uruguay, Brazil, Sweden, and Spain). Uruguay 's 2 -- 1 victory over Brazil was the decisive match (and one of the last two matches of the tournament) which put them ahead on points and ensured that they finished top of the group as world champions. Therefore, this match is regarded by FIFA as the de facto final of the 1950 World Cup.
In the 21 tournaments held, 79 nations have appeared at least once. Of these, 13 have made it to the final match, and eight have won. With five titles, Brazil is the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have participated in every World Cup finals tournament. Italy and Germany have four titles. Current champion France, along with past champions Uruguay and Argentina, have two titles each, while England and Spain have one each. The team that wins the finals receive the FIFA World Cup Trophy, and their name is engraved on the bottom side of the trophy.
The 1970 and 1994, along with the 1986, 1990 and 2014 games are to date the only matches competed by the same teams (Brazil -- Italy and Argentina -- Germany respectively). As of 2018, the 1934 final remains the latest final to have been between two teams playing their first final. The final match of the most recent tournament in Russia took place at the country 's biggest sports complex, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow. The 1930 and the 1966 games are the only ones that did not take place on a Sunday. The former did on a Wednesday and the latter on a Saturday. As of 2018, only nations from Europe and South America have competed in a World Cup final. Six nations have won the final as host: Uruguay, Italy, England, Germany, Argentina and France. Two nations have lost the final as host: Brazil and Sweden.
General
Specific
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.